224 55 99MB
English Pages 544 [552] Year 2003
GRAD
HN
801 .Z9 S6 T47
2002
History of
thequality I in South Africa
1652 - 2002
Sampie Terreblanche
.
ARIES IBRARY
MICHE
INTER
6
LIB
THE
UN
VIVERSIA
A
of inequality South Africa ,
history in
1652 – 2002
Sampie Terreblanche
UNIVERSITY OF NATAL PRESS PIETERMARITZBURG
KMM
REVIEW PUBLISHING
HN
801 : 79
Jointly published by University of Natal Press Scottsville 3209
T47 2002
South Africa E
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42346022 1
/ 19 / 03
In
memory
of the late Professor
Bax Nomvete
INSTITUTE FOR POLICY ANALYSIS AND ECONOMIC INTEGRATION (AIPA )
their problems
and
of
wide
spectrum
economic efficiency and growth with equity
offer thoroughly examined and developed solutions
will
increasingly
play
a
AIPA
regional
address the pressing issues surrounding South Africa
.
economic growth and the economic democratisation
of
imperative
term to
the immediate
long
is
,
role
the medium
to
While
in
.
to
African countries
,
in
the promotion
to
issues relating
to
-
inter disciplinary economic policy analysis and research
,
undertake high level non partisan
of
objective
-
.
entity
research
,
1992
economic
-
July
in
to
established
independent , non - profit-making
an
is
is
Its
AIPA
on a
AFRICA
Contents
*.
Figures and tables Abbreviations About the author Acknowledgements
exploitation
systemic
From
,
perspective
1 1
A new
. 1. 3 1 .4
The special relationship
The
.
1 5
The nature
, land , and
between power
shifts
labour
co
structural unemployment
to
successive systemic periods the power
w w w
exclusion
difficult challenge
slavery through exploitation six
From
of
1 2
and a
to systemic
South African history
öĒ
:
in
1
in
Chapter
.
-
POWER , LAND , AND LABOUR
PART 1 :
South African history
Endnotes
and attempts
,
of
exploitation
to
)
–
(
build
-
social structures and abject poverty building non racial South Africa
-
disrupted
a
The dynamics
apartheid
of
of
.1
Legislation aimed
2
The legacy
2
systemic
racial society
non
.3 2.2
a
:
2
The legacy
at
:
'
2002
1990
Chapter
'
THE TRANSITION AND THE NEW SOUTH AFRICA
2
PART
and the three accumulation the
century
The economic views and ideologies Endnotes
sector
,
,
the 20th
of
.
of
strategies 3 3
white supremacy
corporate
democratic movement
51
on the
The corporate sector
.
The economic attitudes and ideologies
of
to
:
economic issues
.1
the informal negotiations
3
Prelude
3 2
Chapter
3
Endnotes
Chapter
of the African political establishment
: The hegemony
4
.
The informal negotiations
4 1
the
since 1993 between the corporate sector and
black elite
and
the
of
ANC
a
)
for –6
(
a
accumulation
new
accumulation
(
1997
2002
of
)
new
and privatisation
–
for
search
a
)
6
(
led
-
the
of
uncover
the Truth and Reconciliation
its
truth about systemic exploitation
,
to
a
rise
of
The
Commission
unwillingness the
inability
AAC
globalisation
or
:
The
.
4 6
increased
search 1993
,
.5
4
The sixth phase strategy
1994
–
AAC
led
phase
fifth
interlude
-
a
temporary
strategy and the GEAR strategy
.
for
-
of
pre election elite compromise
the
.
4 4
The
Alliance
4 7
accumulation
new
Reconstruction and Development Programme as
.3
4
The
AAC led search
-
the
,
strategy and
of
.2
4
The fourth phase
the
ANC
tendency towards elitism
and
-
self enrichment Endnotes
,
)
+
–
power constellation
1800
and land deprivation
153
of
the
,
158
)
1834
Khoikhoi
,
the
(
the
and Khoisan
Trekboere during the 18th century the frontier
163
and the changing nature 168
serf relationship
of
ideological orientation
the Trekboere
in
-
the 18th century
vi
the Cape
advent
a
and
new
179
1890
)
1800
+
(+
British colonialism of
period
of
173
the
:
The systemic
British colonialism at
.1
6
Chapter
6
Endnotes
170
power constellation 179
of
.
nature
,
the
by
with
The power constellation the master
1652
–
the
-
.
5 4
.5
5
enserfment
Cape economy and
at
slavery
in
role
Trekboer partnerships
5 6
parallel labour patterns 156
master slave relationship
The
knechts
1717
of
.
5 3
The
until
and imported
as
,
.
5 2
Imported slaves
153
at
,
1652
(
–
East India Company
The Dutch the Cape
Dutch colonialism the
:
5
The systemic period
of
:
(
.
5 1
Chapter
151
)
,
COLONIALISM SEGREGATION AND APARTHEID 1652 1994
3
PART
the
to
in
the
1808
to
slave trade
)
the
of
in
of
183
1828
abolition
the
,
and
Sixth Frontier
40
191
Masters and servants laws proletarianisation
and the growth
of
)
1820
,
of
) the British settlers
-
its
aftermath
,
.
status
1809
188
The expansionism
War and
Khoisan
1838
(
.4
6
slavery
6 5
their subservient
the suspension
From
of
(
abolition
the
legal enserfment
of
.3
6
From the
(
.
6 2
194
,
at in
the
of
the
204
the 19th century
Natal during
in
African peasantry
an
of
The rise
the Cape Colony during
201
second half
of
.8
6
second half
the Cape
racial domination
African peasantry
an
rise
The
of of
system
movement and the justification
the humanitarian
of
failure
a
The
of
.6 .7
6
6
racial capitalism
207
Endnotes
210
the 19th century
of
the
of
in
224
of
century
19th
in
among Afrikaners
222
deepening
class
the Tansorangia 228
1910
)
–
(
the
African tenantry and
differentiation 1850
Africans
,
rise
until the end an
of
.
7 4
The
Transorangia
of
raiding and the indenturing Slave Tan Slave
and
Transorangia
the
power constellations
semi independent
-
Afrikaners
the
of
its
by
The establishment
219
causes
in
(
.2 7.1 7
.
219
1900
The Great Trek and
vulnerable 7 3
the two Boer republics
)
:
1850
–
The systemic period
7
Chapter
232 British imperialism
the late
the
‘
241
1910
)
24
:
(
and the rise
–
-
Cape liberalism
1910
entrenchment 247
of
of
1948
alliance between
South Africa and state building
)
–
(#
.
The decline
and
the
'(
of
The Union
1890
conquest
,
wars
white power and racial segregation
8 4
in
)
(
–
a
of
power constellation
239
of
.
239
)
imperialism
gold and maize
1880
the English
early 20th century
–
British
and the
1948
new
of
and
,
.2
8
19th
8 3
1890
The institutionalisation
+
.1
8
establishment
+
political and economic hegemony
of
The systemic period
of
:
Chapter
8
Endnotes
racist ideologies 251
Vi
of
Afrikaners
,
and
and 264
)
'
'
it
33 )
in
, 275
until
in
the first half
1948
weakness
,
its
the 20th century
:
of
.
8 9
ineffectiveness
1933
281
and ideological orientation
,
protest
Black
behalf 272
The English establishment regains political hegemony and maintains
on
labour policy
civilised
1924
political
1924
–
+
(
1870
Pact government and
of
its
of
260
the
The
10
in
three northern provinces
(
the
.
.7
8
Africans
1913 and the proletarianisation
The proletarianisation
.8
of
of
The Land Act
8
Africans 256
poor white Afrikaners
.
growing numbers
1913
economic ramifications
8
Cape and Natal , and
the Eastern
in
)
(
–
the
proletarianisation
1890
8 6
of
The assault on the peasantry
–
.
8 5
285
Endnotes
Afrikaner Christian
)
:
94
–
African history
South
Nationalism
298 a
.3
297
racist ideology new
power 302
,
a
to
the
,
and discriminatory
legislation
,
and influx control
,
labour repression
)
312
,
– of 90
)
333
second half
343
of
black protest
the
‘
radicalisation
with special
apartheid
'
manufacturing
in
growing
1948
(
the black labour market
corporations and
of
to
system
the
.
9 8
The
settlement
)
apartheid system –
(
.
9 6
9 7
State
transition
306
The apartheid
.
and
the survival crisis
negotiated
94
–
(
.5
9
The
reference
Endnotes
353
historical perspective
371
,
371
372
.3
Poverty and deprivation
382
Racial inequalities and systemic injustices
391
.2
10
Unemployment and underemployment
.4
in
the pre 1994 period
-
segregation and apartheid
,
colonialism
10 10
The legacy
of
:
The legacy
of
346
10
the 20th century
Chapter
.1
of
white supremacy
struggle
liberation
86
of
.4
9
The intensification
1948
10
the
constellation
1974
297
and the hardening
The NP government and the institutionalisation
9
the
,
rise
shifts
of
of
.2
9
The
of
.1
9
Three major paradigm
1948
in
Afrikaner establishment
of
the political hegemony (
:
of
The systemic period
9
Chapter
viii
10
. 5 Violence
and criminality
400
Endnotes
PART
4:
407
AN
INCOMPLETE TRANSFORMATION : WHAT ' S
TO
BE DONE
?
Chapter 11 : Working towards democratic 11
.1
social democratic version
a
of
capitalism
419
'
The apparent dysfunctionality of South Africa s version
of
neo - liberal democratic capitalism
a
the
and
424
of
socio
,
is
necessary
democratic
necessary
this time towards
capitalism
455
460
economic transformation
470
Endnotes
APPENDIX
)
Endnotes
in
and
,
)
world
CE countries
(
European
BA
-
British American
(
democratic capitalism
in
475
of
The history
439
social
-
agenda
system
for
.5
An
democratic
shift towards social democracy
a
.3
another power shift
paradigm
is
11
Why
4
Why
11
which
governing
neo liberal policy approach are based
11 .
's
elite
on
419 corporate
-
11. 2
Questioning the premises
the liberal capitalist
social democratic
continental 477 491
REFERENCES
495
INDEX
515
Figures and tables
Table
2 1
.
2 2
Labour supply ,
employment
unemployment
in
of the
The share
formal sector, and
the
in
, 1995 , and
1970
2001
31
poorest 40 per cent of households and
the three other quintiles of total income
as
African wages
1975
from
class society
,
stratified
percentage
,
1975
1991 ,
2001
2001
white wages
,
the
highly
Africa
changes
of
South
's
.
2 1
.1
Table
8
Figure
2001 , and
a
, and
1996
in
to
.
Table
262
373
1995
of
in
the
and
various population
total population
381 population
group
,
Monthly household expenditure
by
.3
10
groups Table
of
The share
1970
( % )
.2
Table
10
unemployment
,
Labour supply formal sector employment and
,
.1
Table
10
-
1911 1990
383
of
GDP
in
(
a
as
in
)
by
race group
393 a
countries
as
and
CE
SA
-
,
Government spending
1917
in
whites
392
group
95
population
of
to
)
)
(
by
.
that
.8
relative
percentage
on
-
–
(
390
1985
10 7
of
the enire population
per capita personal incomes
income
389
various South African
10
the
on
whites 1949
Estimated
.1
Table
States
non whites
Share
A
Table
United
whites
of
The skills composition
388
of
on
spending
population groups versus that
Table
1996
93
constant
(
-6
1996
and social spending
of
)
.
10 6
percentage
income
prices
Estimated real per capita social spending 1990 rands
Table
and the main household
of
.5
10
Table
income class
,
and 1991
per income class
per household
in
changes
in
1975
91
Percentage –
.
Table
10 4
1996
484
Abbreviations
AAC
All African
AAC
Anglo American Corporation
AB
Afrikaner Broederbond
АНІ
Afrikaanse Handelsinstituut (Afrikaans commercial institute )
AMWU
African
ANC
ANCYL
African National Congress African National Congress
ARMSCOR
Armaments Corporation
Convention
Mine Workers Union Youth
League
ASSOCOM
Association of Chambers of Commerce
BA
British -American
BAAB
Bantu
Affairs Administration Board
Bantu Affairs Department black consciousness movement
BCP BEECom
Black Community Programme Black Empowerment Commission
BEIC
British East India Company
BER
Bureau for Economic Research
BIG
basic income grant
BLA
black local authority
BPC
Black People
BSA
Business South Africa
CBM
Consultative Business Movement
CDE
Centre
CE
continental Europe
CM
Chamber
CNETU
Council
CODESA
Convention for
COSATU
Congress
CPSA DEP
Communist Party department
DP
Democratic Party
DRC
Dutch Reformed Church
EDP
economic development programme
for
BAD BCM
's Convention
Development and Enterprise
of of
Mines
a
Democratic South Africa South
Africa
economic policy
of
of
South African Trade Unions
of
of
Non European Trade Unions
the ANC
ESCOM
FCI
Electricity Supply Commission Federated Chamber
of Industries
FDI FMF
Free
FOSATU
Federation
GATT GDFI
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
GDI
gross domestic investment
GDP GDS GEAR G /NP
gross domestic product
foreign direct investment
Market Foundation of South African Trade Unions
gross domestic
gross domestic
fixed investment
savings
Growth , Employment ,
and Redistribution
Strategy
Gesuiwerde (Purified ) National Party
of national
GNU
government
ICU
Industrial and Commercial Workers ' Union
IDC
Industrial Development Corporation
IFP
Inkatha
ILC
Industrial Legislation Commission
IM
Independent Movement
IMF
International Monetary Fund
ISCOR
Iron and Steel Corporation
ISP
Industrial Strategy Project
ISS
Institute
JRC
Justice and Reconciliation Committee
Freedom
unity
Party
of Security Studies
way
LP
Labour Party
MDM
Mass Democratic Movement
MERG
Macro -Economic
MK
Research Group
Umkhonto we Sizwe (armed wing
of the ANC )
MLL
minimum
NAD
Native Affairs Department
NEC NEF
national executive committee
NEM
Normative Economic Model
NEPAD
New
NGO
non - governmental organisation
NIEP NP
National Institute for Economic
NRC
Native Representative
NUM
National Union of Mineworkers
NUSAS
National Union of South African Students
xii
living level
National Economic Partnership
Forum
for Africa
's Development Policy
National Party
Council
OAU
Organisation of African Unity
OECD
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
OFS
Orange Free State
OPEC
Organisation
PAC
Pan - Africanist Congress
PFP
Progressive Federal Party
RDP
Reconstruction and Development Programme
SAAU
South African
SABC
South African Broadcasting Corporation
SABRA
South African
SACOB
South African Chamber
SACP
South African Communist Party
SACTU
South African Congress
SADC
Southern African Development Community
SADF
South African Defence Force
SAF
South Africa Foundation
SANAC SAP
South African Native Affairs Commission
SASO
South African Students Organisation
SNCC
Student
SOE
state -owned
SSA
Statistics South Africa
SSC
state security
TEC
transitional executive council
South
of Petroleum Exporting Countries
Agricultural Union of Racial Affairs
Bureau
of Business of Trade Unions
African Party
Non - Violent Coordinating Committee enterprise
council
TRC
Truth
TRIPS
Trade Related Intellectual Property
TUCSA
and Reconciliation Commission
Trade Union Council
Rights
of South Africa
UCM
University Christian Movement
UDF
United Democratic Front
UF
Urban Foundation
ULPP
Urban Labour Preference
UN
United Nations
UNDP
United Nations Development Programme
UP
United Party
VOC
Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie (Dutch
WHO
World Health
WTO
World Trade Organisation Zuid -Afrikaansche Republiek (later known as
ZAR
Policy
East India Company )
Organisation
the
Transvaal )
xiii
About the author
-
.
of
as
a
).
. at
. several
United States
,
the
on
and lectured
economic policy issues
.
He
,
economic history the history
of
.
eight books mainly
,
has also
.
in
political situation
married and has five children
,
He
.
South and southern Africa
is
,
mainly
the
,
numerous scholarly journals and books and written extensively on
to
from
Stellenbosch
official visits on
published
for local and international newspapers
xiv
the South African
and the Soviet Union
economic thought and South African contributed
the
politics
the University
,
He has
He
.
Belgium
,
,
Britain
to
of
the
as
of
party
2001 received honourary colours
has also been
the
South Africa
and economic adviser
has attended numerous international conferences
foreign universities
member
Britain with Thabo Mbeki and
He
'
council
1976
and state president
to
and
African
1973
From
of
.
a
Arts
representative
the South
Stals award for economics from in
and
longer active
emeritus professor
served
democracy
founding member
of
Academy for Science
transition
the former
was among Afrikaner academics in
meetings
at
inquiry into matters concerning
in
of
received
and
vice chair
he
1985
prime minister
,
In
he
,
Democratic Party but
is
was
a
discuss
the no
to
he
90
1989
-
In
other ANC leaders
of Stellenbosch
, of
.
1979
held numerous clandestine
the students
board
1980s Professor Terreblanche
the late
1992
1968
of
,
In
economic advisory board
From
, and
in
the last five years
the Theron commission
the coloured community
who
on
of
a
member
most
(
he served
1987
to
Broadcasting Corporation was
of economics
professor
to
1972
the University
at
's
Africa
South
spent most of his academic career
he has
the
From
of
one
is
to
distinguished scholars . Educated
Harvard University , university , becoming economics in 1996 .
he
Terreblanche
to
I
(Sampie )
Solomon
in
Drof
inequality
have attempted
work
South Africa
from
1652
to
of
eight years
, –I
of
product
in
systematic account
-
of
this book
the
In la
Acknowledgements
provide
until the present
.
day
,
,
it
it
of
the
period Despite
forms
.
inequality have been
. for
Cape Town
,
in
AIPA
.
2000
truly democratic and more
a
for
Africa
therefore dedicate this book
to
-
.
period
I
I
enthusiasm
the post apartheid
July
in
executive director until his death
in
many years
established the African
)
he
1992
Policy Analysis and Economic Integration
equitable society
Professor Bax
the late
for
from
(
In
.
other African organisations
his
its
came
the United Nations Economic Commission
was greatly inspired
–
's
to
am
I
Lula
Prof Philip
persist with
read earlier versions
of
this book
the
my ideological and economic
)
TRC was compromised
(
Commission
because
of
's
I
and Reconciliation
conviction that the work
the
of
.
.
His advice was invaluable
share Professor Mahmood Mamdani
Truth
and
both
.
to
,
executive director
,
publisher
manuscript and encouraged me approach
very grateful
their financial support and encouragement
-
,
Moeletsi Mbeki the
AIPA
of
,
research director
for
who succeeded Bax
as
.
AIPA research project
co
,
Black
its
Gebreyesus
–
This book
an
memory is
his
.
(
,
the post apartheid
South African economist who
by
)
Institute
(
and
for
leading role
UNECA
and was
originally
highly respected in
,
a
played
blacks
-
, of
an
inclusive democracy
for this book
idea
Nomvete
for
and some entrenched more deeply than ever before
a
The
period
unequal socio economic outcomes
and
characteristics
long
power was entirely
when
,
perpetuated
1994
devastating consequences
with
,
transition
to
our
defining
;
's
1910
Unfortunately unequal power relations have remained
,
,
This trend continued during ),
).
to
.
central role during South Africa
of
whites
shaped and reshaped
-
monopolised
deals mainly
2002
1910
from
-
(
and apartheid
by
segregation
1652
so
,
1652
and
and ideological power that
our society and has
Unequal power structures played from
however
to
so
deeply embedded
such unfortunate ways from
colonial period
long
a
in
has become
income opportunities
political economic
to
unequal distribution
in
with
of
the
that has marked South Africa
old
property
for
It
of
deals with the highly unequal distribution
the XV
which it was constituted
,
,
.
book could not Ina Kruger
,
and
this
of
the University
Inge Kotze
.
final word
his willingness
.
the ideological spectrum
thanks
publish
to
appreciate the
Villiers to
and Riaan
greatly de
,
Schaik
,
van
proper English
Natal Press
the Free State
A
,
of
and
My daughter
.
bred
in
and
for
,
into
Dr
an of
the left
of
of
the University
xvi
born
Edwin Hees Louis
Afrikaans English
from
a
and retyped the manuscript
.I
who patiently
Afrikaner
thanks
to
of
special word
owe
efforts
economics
at
the department
patience
her
this project
supplying me with facilities without which
typed
the
the research material she tirelessly
have been written
As
on
,
gratitude
for
Ina
worked
for
I
many years
very grateful for
I
.
Stellenbosch
I am
debt which
.
Christelle also deserves
my
am
understanding during sentme
a
defects and shortcomings
my wife
to
thanks
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word
the
A
sincere
I owe
Colin and Margaret
my responsibility
entirely
of
final product
are
pleased to acknowledge . Needless to
which the human
in
me by
to
the Legums
and
the
been
in
Moeletsi , Mahmood ,
the
To
in
for almost 350 years .
say
.
a
appreciate the advice and support given
also
Legum
in
country
I
to
of blacks had been grossly violated
rights
I
34 years – especially not
only
deals made
the TRC 's investigation should not have
believe
of
restricted
We both
of the political
the course
to
1990s .
early
in
of
in
all
way
turn
my
Glenn Cowley
yet another book
Part
1
Power, land, and labour
Chapter
1
burden knowledge
the Past
the safest emancipation
we are convinced that knowledge
)
in
)
49
:
(
94 )
!
:
(
.
its
of
to
a
's
in
,
,
and
even
tempestuous history Like Lord our burdensome
past
can
were finally
of
a
irrespective
hopefully with
of
–
English their
as
take stock
system
both
(
whites
-
liberty
all
a
Consequently
'
white political
, '
maintain
have been
proper democratic
some white South Africans
to
)
.
defeated
to
-
-
,
and Afrikaans speaking
political orientation
history
1994 but has
sectional
outdated
and the introduction by
1994
the misguided attempts
and thoroughly
one wishes
sense
1652
from
, .
election
at
With
will
that burden
from
of
the
emancipate
that
.
this country
way
black South Africans
,
from
of
interpretations us
,
Africans
South
stretching
's
liberated white
a
,
also
system
extended colonialism
,
the chains
one must have
has not only liberated
1994
past
are convinced that
,
from
Acton
of
transition
Africa
if
Like Colin Bundy we
contemporary South Africa
political
adulatory
a
,
.
future
1996
difficult challenge
help remember South
to
an
attempt
of
understand The
perspective and
of
its
inform
is
A
.1
1
This book
how
to
than
Jacques Depelchin
new
1993
Africa will depend more plotted how the future is
on
is
remembered
on
,
that history
South
in
A
'
the past
the
South
reflect
to
history
Colin Bundy
radical transformation
by
arena shaped
conjuncture
on
constraints and the possibilities created
its
by of
sense
not
in
but
),
an
in
act
a
;
have
to
essential
is
it
understand the present a
.
Africa
celebrated phrase
their own choice they
,
Accordingly
to
of
circumstance
past
runs
June 1895
,
(
‘
People make their own history
Cambridge
,
inaugural lecture
(
Lord Acton
a
of
obstacle and
a
been
,
an
the
Past
!
is
'If
has
From systemic exploitation to systemic exclusion
open
,
so
.
of
a
at
in
-
in
to
a
,
of
,
the
to
the
of
in
, ‘
on
re
be
to
,
of
, ]
whites
practices that
will
today
devastation
they
whom
inherited
a
inherited
the most developed
.
-
.'
;
,
sharp
and high
and particularly
Africans
-
these
the population
opportunities
problems much more pressing
mainly black South Africans
their receiving end
and
,
,
income property
of ,
50
of
-
.
is
per cent
a
in
1994
of On
it
the one hand
,
.
On
did not
political
as
an
to
it
blood
inclusive democracy
government that assumed power
the distribution
it
to
)
,
of
,
an
to
of
exploitative
(
few
foreshortened
has been widely regarded
,
loss
of
;
in
it
,
at
of
.
,
of as
-
many
the millions who engineered
or
of ,
almost
democratically
.
apartheid
from
the abject poverty
of
fact that at
the future rests
moral culpability for the
crime and violence What makes
are
is
awareness
these
Africa with modern physical and institutional infrastructure inherited major socio economic problems including high levels
unemployment inequalities
victims
Hein Marais has noted
the complex
lived reality
legacy
,
in it
,
the other
vision
should
segregation
a
.
The democratic
rather contradictory
economy
that they
the
)
transition
occur without friction miracle
alia
colonialism
from
show
This applies centrally
savoured
or
the
inter
prepared
the
7
:
Although
who
,
'
.
and
2001
'(
achieved
the
,
of
the past
their authorship
to
admit
South Africans
every aspect
penetrated
also
unfortunately
of
administrated
levels
But
economy
South Africans have been
Africans should
.
perspectives
, of
(
)
white
,
respects
epoch without
least
the problems they have bequeathed
government
elected
old
.
a
,
.
's
they should
implies
This
most black
of
,
.
insoluble nature
one
ugly shadow
fully compensate
,
Africa
past
at
exploitation
South
or
(
as
's
.
systemic
and that
systems White
cast
the new
position
acknowledge explicitly that they have benefited and apartheid
will
the end
an
to
,
a
the
the South African
in
of
to
probably not
,
of ,
examine South
from
whites
totally new
the old
global economy whites black victims
especially
history
We cannot build
given the vulnerability are
,
Although
oppression
.
a
clear understanding
come
least
companions
challenge We are
one
new
them
trustworthy
the country this
Of course
and apartheid and the
South Africans
but
to
of
,
over the new for
long time
them
long and
their past they cannot expect
-
at up
.
look
most
segregation
evaluate
1994
and many have taken
epoch and the beginning
and enthusiasm
legitimise those forms
accept
Since
future
have had the opportunity perspective
,
of
colonialism
common
a
building
not critically to
if
of
the
victims
colonialism
arguments used
do
whites
,
However
the
of
acknowledge the evils fallaciousness
conviction
such
for white South Africans
easy
travelled for
they
which
–
false trails
the phantoms they pursued with
has not been
on
- of
as possible
of
mind
re
a
POWER , LAND , AND LABOUR
1:
the
PART
of
,
be
nation
honest about
of
character
.
socio
our
dual political economic systems
and racial capitalism
have played
in
central role
systemic
groups
of
a
very long
creating these
to
,
white political domination
of
the
a
It
South Africa that whites should
acknowledge
also honestly
not
in
be
in
precondition
western countries against indigenous population
problems and
economic
indeed
-
They should
and
-
and
them
the
by
period
bravado
racism
power related transgressions committed over by
of
building and reconciliation the multitude
should
.
sense
exploited and victimised
have been
will
social responsibility towards those who is
history
the
people who have
them
largely the unresolved
White indignation
disguised
or
unwarranted arrogance
. or
rejected
domination and apartheid
white
the
of as
remnants
problems ,
these
social injustices inherent
complain when they are characterised
to
inclined
the
to acknowledge
prepared
of
is
no
be
and
character of
the systemic
as
Anyone who truly understands
SYSTEMIC EXCLUSION
TO
,
SYSTEMIC EXPLOITATION
FROM
say that they
do
segregation
and apartheid
part
an
to
'
of
are
to
)
and
greed
and
realise
,
,
to to
willingness of
a
as
and symbolically
or
(d
.
white South Africans ought
these
power
that they
make substantial
open commitment
to
'
short sightedness
their
indirectly
much
with
obsession
-
from
irectly
as
whites
from
'(b
'
by
is
consequences
–
materially
social justice
.
of
restoration
racial
,
of
different ethnic
5
and plunder Each
intergroup
,
,
,
,
conflict violence warfare
unsavoury tale the
over the past 350 years
of
history
an
's
South Africa
labour is
and
,
,
The special relationship between power land
.
.2
,
individualism
ugly
effectively addressed without
–
be
reductionist
1
only
privileges but also
entrenched
sacrifices
not
its
of
-
problems have resulted
cannot
and
colonialism
systemic
these benefits with
claim
In
whites
means
as
in
accumulated
and
them
benefits
that these
greedy self righteousness but decline any responsibility
for the evil
of
-
of to
realise
their parents and
belong
colonialism
for
roadly
the
, .
of
rather hypocritical
those
to
It
.
they were largely
because
is
',
'
extended period
But what these whites
contaminated
exploitation
their hands and fail
are
usually adamant that the large scale benefits
the
their
Those who are not prepared
of
alone
.
them
not understand the
and accept responsibility
white domination
that accumulated
grandparents during
the effects
,
,
,
.
of
colonialism
in
)
defined
residues
,
's
apartheid
blamed
However they clearly
collective responsibility for what has happened acknowledge the evils
be
)
and can therefore not
white domination and apartheid
,
of
,
themselves did nothing wrong
systemic character
are inclined
and
especially younger people
(
Many whites
for
.
problems and causing such widespread social injustice
POWER , LAND , AND LABOUR
reducing slaves
the
. in a
;
surface water
,
-à -
vis
vis
of
land
indigenous people
and
them
the indigenous population groups
and cattle
different forms
to
,
,
and thirdly
,
so
mainly three ways firstly
,
by
depriving indigenous people
by
,
secondly
in
indigenous people
cost
creating political and economic power structures that put
privileged and entrenched position
A
)
conquerors and therefore
a
is
–
.
colonial Europe
erstwhile
in
,
the post colonial period
of ;
mostly
the
of
,
)
at
mostly
The colonial powers and white colonists did
by
that
the settlers from
1974
the victors
groups mostly the losers
. :
enrich themselves
the first
European
,
position
least
were mostly
of
until
were again to
is
(
the descendants
(
local whites
closely linked
the
second pattern
–
,
conflicts
and the indigenous population
at
group
the seeming muddle
during the long period
the colonial masters
one
If
-
and imperialism
colonialism
in
patterns
certain
that
to
of
clearest patterns
the
wars
and
.
South Africa during in
one can distinguish
,
past 350 years
group conflicts
in
considers the multitude of One
itself by plundering the others
groups tried to enrich
in
and /or language
of
1:
,
PART
. to
of
do
. .
of
of
the
of the
a
In
.
the
in
understanding
and
of
,
economic
is
to
an
(
,
political
.
.
particularly
modern history has been shaped
and
,
,
serfdom
there was
a
land
than
,
valuable
–
.
land and labour Because labour was
other
indicated above the colonial authorities and
,
As
labour
is
a
becomes This
, 's
,
production factor
force black labourers into slavery
.
of
it
the more valuable
and therefore potentially more
continuing tendency
to
–
a
by
by
are also central
economics that the scarcer
other factors
forms
of
,
's
-
While this study emphasises the history
special relationship between power
repressed
that
unfree
history
broader discussions
from
power domination
important for the argument that South Africa
scarcer
recognition
of
axiomatic to
divorced
the social
history
unfree black labour over the past 350 years
,
is
It
relation
land deprivation
Africa has been
this
).
1994
'(
and
3
.. .
cannot
polity
in
)
and
unfolding drama
history mainly from
modern
convinced that much
also guided
be
Africa
unfree labour the histories
ideological
,
:
;
to
of
we
,
of
,
culture
them
South are
'.
South
ideology
modern
:
–
,
labour
in
]
[
of
Like
labour
black
Africa
like Worden and Crais
and economic history
of
we are
land
neglected
unequal power relations and unfree labour patterns
,
of
the perspective
explore South
the perspective
unfree black labour But irrespective
,
is
;
This study sets out endeavour
of
of
the other two should not
,
the perspective
better than
firstly the perspective
secondly
deprivation and thirdly chosen
the late 20th century no
-
following three perspectives
white political and economic domination which one
until
17th
be
to
one
the mid
from
South African history can
examine
of
so
do
Any attempt from
history
modern the re -
's
South Africa
, .
unfree and exploitable labour These three threads have run ominously through
of
or
,
an
an
of
acquire
their
of
more
in
a
several examples
their land
the
.
to
many
In
a
,
discrete
,
or
-
single
unfree
the
deliberate attempt
and impoverishment thereby increasing the
,
,
,
ie
(
,
)
in
an
to
‘
'
to
is
–
,
, of
for
,
or
).
32
of –
18
-
At
.
.
from
the
.
This happened
the occupation
the
in
million
–
from
45
-
The sharp decline
to
century onwards land gradually
75
,
west
,
Europe
ie
western
into tenant farmers
the 11th
and
their manorial estates
(
in
serfs
the population
from
:
(
of of
in
they had enough military power
-
-
feudalism
.
scarce factor
.
the
century
the
, of say , all
increase
transformed
but
which people
available agricultural land While labour was the scarce factor became
)
or
by
the
as
a
-
of
as
, .
the
of
word
led
gradually
eighth until the tenth
then
Although the feudal lords were not
force the peasants into serfdom
,
)
a
sharp
available
1970
terms
political framework
century onwards peasants cum
the Elbe were
because
to
in
the strict sense
in
of
12th
exist
can
the enslavement
the eighth century onwards
become serfs within
feudal privileges
into
wage labourers
unfree labour
Domar refers
,
landowners the
forms
to
,
other
Europe was sparsely populated
that stage
enough land
tenant farmers
to
to
were forced
serfs
hypothesis
from
agricultural
these elements
example
on
peasantry
either
the
European
as
the
,
. If, )
-
illustrate
some form
working landowner class
non
any two
three
enslaved
the landowning class are politically entrenched
,
,
to
his
be To
slaves
and
Domar
peasants cannot remain free reduced
be
ie
, (
but never
property rights
of
the
according
then
simultaneously
free peasants
would
privileged elite would
relevant
three elements
or
. , If
free land
-
,
account
those not belonging
we take
custom
property
land was freely available and that
free wage labourers but would
unfree labour
economy
of
,
,
as
employed
(
the
of
population
long
power
in
.
the hypothesis that
privileged group
the
rights are maintained
wage labourers
as
be
rest
no
,
A
of
people
members
all to
to an
the
willingly work
From
people
British economist Evsay Domar has formulated
owners whose property
will
into
unfree black labour
agricultural economy
and
of
perhaps the best
promote their proletarianisation
not
to
depriving indigenous
property class depriving indigenous
supply
blacks
landowning class
the white
is
of
.
1913
acquire
economic
more and more land was captured
of
a
required unfree black labour The Land Act
subjugate
of
was only possible
as
continuous one
,
cases
it
but
by for
.
The choice
decision
land
strong inclination
use unfree black labour was not
to
labour class
their land than
.
,
there was
for the white landowning class
–
rationale
landowning
of
and relatively easily conquered
for hegemony
effectively Given that land was abundant a
to
control
it
it
the
necessary labour and
struggle
the white master
view
deprive indigenous people
to
was easier
,
class
point
EXCLUSION
of
over land and labour. From
SYSTEMIC
the relentless
in
of
the
white colonists were mostly the victors
TO
to
EXPLOITATION
FROM SYSTEMIC
of -
to
-
re
an
as
its
,
.
vis
-à -
part
the reason for
of is
of
in
:
's
in
.
the serfs
the Elbe
that
the
of
of
as
.
his
it .
to
.?
in
of
events
vis
explains why the
And the weakness east
full
military power The
the 14th century
Death
hypothesis
determinism
governments
state
state governments
hypothesis remains applicable
of
to
,
end
did not apply after the Black
the feudal lords and
was not reimposed
turning peasants into
economic
political
on
in
the Elbe
and
to
the vis
-à -
vis
why
introduce too much political
,
west
hypothesis
hypothesis
the decades after the Black Death
strong
the final instance the
peasantry
apparently
the landed aristocracy
of
of
realisation depends weakness
to
,
.
at
However despite
enslaved
universality for Domar
relatively high level
,
.
serfs
refute
present
widely available landowners succeed
is
when land
a
can claim
the
in
peasants being
the political bargaining power
that time demonstrates
at
One
labour According
fact the fact that serfdom
independent tenant farmers
the relatively
wants
not want
does
his formula
into
Europe
western
and
In
,
intervention
he
by
is
economic necessity
this because
century again
14th
or
of
this should have resulted
puzzled
mid
acute scarcity
and the fact that this did not happen seems
Domar
in
free land and
its
,
hypothesis
Black Death
in
's
Domar serfs
oversupply
an
created
during
an
's population
Europe
the
POWER , LAND , AND LABOUR
1:
,
PART
Europe
.
another 500 years
We cannot properly interpret the special relationship between power
South
of
, not
if
of
not
It
subservient labour
the white master class has
Africa
's
the nature and course
of
,
,
.
on
the Khoisan and the Africans into
the
would
.
of
become landowners
force The political economic and military power determined
the
,
land
they did
for
turn
white colonists
power
indigenous people
a
to
have the power
the powerlessness to
have been possible
for
-à -
colonial masters
vis
vis
in
and labour
South African history without focusing
history
almost
350
the newly
European colonists became empowered
landowning class Land was relatively easily occupied owing military
of
.
colonial
intruders an
slaves
In
importing
,
colonies including South Africa
.
by
the European
this demand was originally met
the
almost insatiable
,
all
unfree labour
and
.
the
the
the
poor
indigenous peoples With free land available
colonial landowners developed In
,
the new
.
for
in
abundance
of
capacity
epidemiological condition
demand
,
privileged
superior
a
century onwards
the New
as
countries white
16th
the colonisation
.
from
hypothesis the
countries
or
colonised
European
,
World
by
's
Robert Shell has applied Domar
to
unemployment
structural
to
through exploitation
all of
slavery
In
.3
1
From
to
.
years
South
Africa the
–
(
-
,
A
.
of
,
the
in
in a
of
free
).
1838
free black
a
by
,
or
available
of
in
their
English
and
accordance
in
-
,
turning indigenous
–
succeeded
designing with the support
of in
methods
new
,
–
's
authority
abundantly
Afrikaans
both
)
with Domar
)
the a
, of
class
white
and
depriving indigenous people
speaking and later the British mining companies hypothesis
this class
1
of
:
ch
not
1828
replaced
land was still
the landowning
their
century when
the
Consequently
landowners
19th
slavery
and
unfree labour were stage free
that
the
century
of
.
serfdom
accessed relatively easily
,
could
land
be
-
wage earning class
class
(
forms
these
(
abolished
. At
,
respectively
at
-
British
the
resisted
the 17th century but
18th
the end
by
When
merged into
see Shell 1994a
of
no
longer available
not
pastoral farmer
Trekboer
colonialism
available
emerged only
re
an
-
class
Dutch
land became
almost completely
wage earning
was
years
met
especially
free white wage earning class
it
of
.
abundance
disappeared
land
Although the Khoisan
the firepower
50
the
first
emerged during
century onwards was
18th
was too powerful Interestingly
commandos
when
).
, (
enslavement ferociously
EXCLUSION
TO SYSTEMIC
reducing many indigenous people
lyfeienskap
serfdom
to
–
Khoisan
the early
from
this manner but also
in
only
labour
unfree
as
demand
by
for
FROM SYSTEMIC EXPLOITATION
British colonial
people into unfree wage
.
labourers
,
into new
to
,
patterns
ex
new
of
Xhosa
people
(
to
coloured
of
,
to
force not
only
of
is
time diamonds
African
labour necessitated
existing methods but also the design
great
The mines
'
.
these new methods
firmly institutionalised
were
forcing blacks
not
only
additional methods
the
of
docile
the
perhaps the most
of
.
1886
,
of
for
refinement
and
wars coincided
but also the adoption
labour history By
,
,
in
in
's
South Africa
into unfree labour had already been
cheap
British
difficult
quite
These
enserfment and slavery
Khoisan
1867 and gold
.
,
of in
momentous event
demand
1853
be
black labour into unfree labour shortly
.
the abolition
discovered
1834
serfs but also the newly conquered
unfree labour This transformation after
This proved
slavery and serfdom
white landowning class
-
slaves and
from
became necessary
)
ex
by
methods
the
with the abolition
it
.
in
of
requiring three bloody frontier wars
settler
mainly British settlers and
“
control over additional black labour defeat the Xhosa the Eastern Cape gain
system
for
occupation
of
To
.
land
new
into the emerging by
capitalism
integrated
to
completely
already been
had
of
,
defeated and almost open
Khoisan
the
the
were abolished
serfdom
up
and
for
When slavery
By
.
the late 19th and early 20th centuries
that time almost
class took place
the in
in
an
and the white property
all
labour
important structural change
,
,
relationship between land
view
,
economic point
of
From
an
.
control and repression
agricultural land
: POWER , LAND ,
the
all
,
it
,
(
in
compete
the white population drastically changed
for
,
)
choice but
mainly
white
This proletarianisation
.
-e
of
bywoners
arning proletariat
against the black wage part
with
1880
the South African
jobs
large
a
armblankes
from
of
proletariat
great numbers
(
became squatters
either
no
)
,
Afrikaner
and
class
agricultural units that were economically
These small landowners went bankrupt
1940
the white landowning
a
were farming
mining revolution
the
or
a
sizeable percentage
(
.
until
initiated
to
)
(
mainly Afrikaners
unviable
.
economic modernisation
became apparent that
during the
become landowners On the contrary
on
of
the white elite
by
of
members period
consequently , it was no longer possible for
of
;
had been occupied
AND LABOUR
)
1
to
PART
labour
-
the
of of
of
white
.
multitude
labour
,
1909
a
Westminster
at
keeping blacks subjugated
aimed
as a
the
-
1960s
economic
and
of
,
until
1910
the Act
parliament enacted
the white controlled South African from
political
white wage earning class was part by
.
Because
between the free white and
same jobs dominated
elite whose political rights were entrenched
laws
the first three
-
unfree black proletariat developments
the intense competition
formally free
unfree black wage earning
major political ramifications During
the 20th century
of
quarters
had
the
This situation
the for
.
class
parallel with
an
-
in
white wage earning class existed
18th century
a
beginning
the
For the first time since
of
the
.
market
west
power between the
These shifts brought about profound
income
inclusive democracy
in
an
the introduction
of
,
of
part and parcel
the South African labour situation and the distribution
and opportunities culminating
-
, .
white regime
of
.
as
-
the
.
the
balance
crisis that
of
,
it,
,
in
in
struggle
the liberation
the white regime was
and accumulation
mid 1970s onwards
from
in
in
intensification changes
to
black occurred
struggle intensified
early 1990s Although
until 1994 important shifts
of
and
white
capitulation
the
place
its
led
remained
in
ultimately
the
,
serious survival legitimation
a
into
state
discriminatory measures
and
support
,
thrown
countries began
African
was strong enough
the liberation
1976
to
and numerous foreign
of
the
,
Soweto uprising
–
-
former colonial powers
counteract black protests against these repressive But when after
South
to
the white controlled the
supported
years
in
by
the
than
,
For more
60
.
subservient labour force
10
South
Africa
has
liberating
since
1970
experienced
from
in
1974
centuries
socio
of
,
by
black labour
from
of
the process
was reluctantly dismantled
economic
-
,
subjugation
supremacy
and discrimination
the political systems
'
.
onwards Parallel
white
–
and
to
colonialism
repression
institutionalised and maintained
“
-
the labour market
proletarianism
,
elaborate system
of
The
of
.
1994
FROM SYSTEMIC EXPLOITATION
processes that have plunged
the majority
EXCLUSION
SYSTEMIC
TO
of Africans
into
different kind of
a
economic bondage marked by structural unemployment and abject poverty
of the
brief summary follows
.
South Africa since 1652
patriarchal households
initially owned by the Dutch – became part
to 20
, with
of
.
.3 ).
of
,
did
as
law
.
by
to
a
for
as the
.2 ). )
1841 1974
request
of
)
1841
of
It
.
6
of
(
and Africans –
a
of
'
the
masters and servants laws pass coloureds and Africans
by
,
in
and slaves
in
system
of .
.3 ).
)
– 28
or
(
7
as
.4 , 6 .2 , 5
,
:
at
designed
system
the
anti squatter and anti vagrancy laws and the The social and family structures
,
-
these included
of
settlements
-
them
;
their economic independence
land deprivation
coloured
see section
agricultural sector
proletarianising
.
abolition
of
,
frontier wars
means
the request
was also
of
,
aimed
depriving
deliberately
25
formerly Khoisan
by
was enacted
laws and measures
1828
1809
the
,
settlers
It
British
6
of
the
or
all
black labour repression
Cape colonial authority introduced this
.
The
50
.
by
It
by of
was abolished
cheap and docile contract workers
inboeke
compulsory
inboekelingskap was applied
Proclamation
coloureds
minor
This was
at
a
(
employment
1809
'
labour
missionaries
and
Caledon Proclamation
the
forced
version
Khoisan
(
direct
of
A
almost
inboekelinge
prescribed
labour
not exist
patriarchal heads
The
these
sections
indentured
of
in
the Cape
first
age
see
compulsory serfdom
humanitarian
. .
of
system
to
's
Caledon
of
system
1 3 4
at
direct forced labour
treated
the
of
a
. .
1 3 3
Khoisan
lyfeienskap
serfdom
until they were emancipated
system
and
the two Boer
market for inboekelinge
households also
lingskap applicable
This
the house
of
or
Voortrekker
Lord
children
Voortrekkers
(
Trekboer
system
Khoisan
).
and
,
an
adapted form
of
This was
also
system
the 19th century
The inboekelinge were not slaves
children
of
)
(
the households
in
children
republics
This was
the Cape Colony during the 18th century
in
of
Trekboere
in
. .
1 3 2
African
and
inboekelingskap
The indentureship holds
.
(
see
male head
subservient position
1838
in
sections
direct forced labour
5 3
Slavery was abolished
.
permanent minor children
in
power and the slaves
a
position
unassailable
of
in
an
households . These households were organised patriarchally
of white of
India Company . But in time small groups – up
East
the
them
a
of
most
in
, and
Slaves were imported
in
mainly
in
(
Slavery
the
..
1 3 1
eight unfree labour patterns manifested in
at
A
.
coloureds
POWER , LAND , AND LABOUR
1:
and Africans
killing episode ,
by pestilences , the Xhosa cattle
severely disrupted
were also
and tribal wars . The Native
Land Act
Africans could not practise sharecropping or or public land . After 1948 members captured
areas were
of an African proletariat
laws were abolished
was an indirect coercive
in
)
',
of
. in
on
,
in
the
in
-
,
8
of
)
the 19th century
workers
against
,
and therefore cheaper black
,
(
Afrikaner
black
between
and
Discriminatory
labour promotion
,
categories
them
of
certain
increase
.
.
,
the latter tended
respect
repression
labour
blacks While the former decreased the to
white employers
measures were imposed
of
to
.
of
of
,
than they did
. ).
the end
from
and mainly
to
–
distinguish
in
of
1972
1979
discriminatory measures applicable costs
per cent less
mines
the gold
)
to
white
of
necessary
1870
until the
socio economic conditions
the already proletarianised
from
to
workers
(+
competition
protect
agricultural
9 4
in
. , 8 .6 ,
and
indirect
the principle that migrant workers
Discriminatory measures institutionalised
onwards
is
In
'.
‘
section
8 4
see 20
(
. .
1 3 6
1911
system
real terms migrant workers
1960 and
recruit
at
,
.
,
the
drastic deterioration
per cent less
on a
of in
1970s despite
,
their areas
Mines
countries
This principle was maintained
origin
subsistence base
reserves
comprehensive
wage because they had
subsistence
a
be
paid less than
much
collaborating tribal chiefs neighbouring
from
Act
migrant labour and
the
also allowed the chamber
foreign migrant workers
contract labour and was based
access
years the Chamber
maintaining
and
exceptionally low wage rates This was
overpopulated
60
and
The Glen Grey
to
.
For
ampong systems and corrupting
large numbers
the native reserves
share croppers
Successive white supremacist governments
enforced
land
1913 deprived Africans
institutionalising )
(k
in
a
compound
1972
.
them
the land they had traditioinally occupied
key role
to turn
migrant
docile
an
of
and Native Land Act
1894
earned
1986
proletarianise and impoverish Africans
independence
therefore their economic
designed
and
of
depriving
could
. , sections 6 . 5 7 . 4 ,
'
much larger scale
1894
cheap
in
on
measures
system
played
. The
system
influx control in
a system
-
was based
by
mining industry
–
the native reserves
in
gold
the
for
labour
a
still living
:
into
second version of black labour repression
Africans
This
white rural
. . 1 ).
(
A
white farms
9 4
of
..
1 3 5
in
as
and
1974 , and
of contract labour ( see
system
to
8 .5 ,
the
This
on
on
that
the white agricultural sector by means of stricter pass
in
masters and servants
of
squatter farming
and influx control measures , and an efficient labour bureau
law
It
of 1913 stipulated
of
PART
SYSTEMIC EXPLOITATION
(mainly Afrikaner ) workers . After
additional discriminatory measures were introduced
.
for
the
. ) .
' or '
in
,
,
to
of
a
,
in
, an
.
in
)
(
formal
the
as
be
,
1974 onwards
the informal sector
job
the
ineligible 1960
In
for
.
The
.
the
,
foreign direct
the formal sector
have made them
,
African entrants
struggle
of
in
in
from
in
a
caused
underemployment
of
reduction
,
all
,
and
Africans
to
per cent
in
eighth unfree labour
tertiary sector which has grown significantly since
of
the
mainly
many Africans
education
as
'
of
. ).
a
(
This was
9 4
in
of
Africans
especially
of
of )
(
of
,
economy and growing levels
in
the Bantustans provided
labour unrest during the liberation
capital outflows
unemployment
50
the principle that
subsistence base
regarded
the economy
growing levels
2001 about
blacks
due
,
capital intensity and even
low
areas
see section
of
,
,
worsening poverty
employment
system
blacks
investment FDI
levels
even cheaper
was also based
of
pattern applicable
to
.
the informal sector This
the increasing
supply cheap and docile
the economy since 1960 and their growing underemployment can
of
. .
1 3 8
unemployment
to
of
labour
those
system
single
and
labour was also introduced
labour repression
indirect enforced contract labour
Stagflation
a
:
‘
in
via
make this kind
labourers and their families with
sector
control measures
without compromising efforts
entrepreneurs
conditions
was
system
,
of
.
the appalling
The growing
9 5
the
this
industrial decentralisation and commuter
migrant
stricter influx
,
.
keep South Africa white
despite
the
in
The purpose
Afrikaner
course This version
migrant labour for the
system
the
to
emerging
of
.
sex living quarters
1952
apartheid period
labour bureaux bantu administration boards
To
(
),
pass laws dompas
Verwoerd
areas
urban
in
manufacturing industries
Bantustans
the manufacturing industries
comprehensive
a
introduced
designed
native reserves
(
of
of
'
1952 Verwoerd
Dr Hendrik
laws
the native
and
system
was institutionalised during
system
' .
by
urban areas This
In
black labour repression
Africans still living
social
and
and apartheid regimes Labour
sections
see
and docile migrant labourers
cheap
labour
1979
in
employment
of
A
. .
1 3 7
version
more comprehensive political
the segregationist
discrimination was abolished
enhance and entrench
to
.7 , 8 .8 ,
discrimination introduced
of
multitude of
a
of direct labour coercion of blacks,
a system
(
by
and should be judged as part
1948
8
their privileged position . This was
impoverished and
on
unemployed white
third
of
position
the socio -economic
improve
to
,
scholastic
1948 discriminatory measures were
–
imposed
-service training . Before
in
wage negotiations , and
an
skilled , and
, unionisation ,
)
opportunities , remuneration
EXCLUSION
SYSTEMIC
TO
86
FROM
market could not find jobs 13
POWER , LAND , AND LABOUR
.4
situation
they
the population
privileges
beyond
it is
longer systemically still systematically
system
the new
structural
of
, because
character
the poverty
democratic
).
4
ch
six
(
see
The
1
most
from
capitalism
of
,
excluded
Although
per cent
50
exploited the poorer
compulsory
a
.
unemployed the
of
the
the
unemployment and poverty has control
population . This
black
the
major reason for
of
of
cent
a
systemic periods
successive
in
per
60
of
of
of employment is
no
formal sector. This lack
are
in the
are
1:
of
PART
African
South
,
on
of
's
of
).
9
of
a
–
5
ch
the ways
of
different forms
unfree
which power
mobilised maintained
,
has been
forces deprived
in
to
them
economic
and
,
–
to
white
on
,
is
.
in
different periods
the following
periods
systemic
South
in
it
-
,
between
political
concentrate
white controlled power
distinguish
can
apartheid
with the structuring
concerned
six
, of
.
necessary
legitimised and institutionalised
We
The country
labour requires
how these structuring
their land and reduced
labour Consequently and especially
and
,
,
indigenous people
modern
and
unfree black
.
imperialism
but more specifically with
domination
segregation
the
power and authority have manifested themselves
how
colonialism
power
, .
the part
the history
explore
,
forces
-
of
of
,
colonialisation
successive systemic periods This book
of
in
thorough exploration
black servants and employees
is
Any endeavour
discussed
testifies
white masters
social and economic history
(
will
of of
periods
the
in
1994
)
–
(
1652
during
another 100
the class
unequal distribution
has been one
of
Africa
that
and
indeed argue that
to
South
one hand
power between
3
can
We
.
other
history
on
and employers
the
highly unequal distribution
the
be
to
,
for 250 years and labour repression and discrimination
slavery and serfdom
,
The fact that the South African economy was sustained
of
for by
history
semi independent regarded
by
British
,
feudal and traditional patterns
'
of by
'
long 19th century
and economic patterns introduced
British destroyed the mercantilistic
as
feudal
this
).
during
,
,
be
.
But
institutionalised the
imperialism
century
-
by
a
18th
5
ch
,
of
racial capitalism
The legal political
,
1910
).
–
and British
see
(
of iv
The systems
colonialism
(
ii
Trekboere created
the
own power and labour relations
the Dutch colonial system
1795
most
Dutch colonialism
was not fully independent and must therefore
subsystem
and
its
,
with
and
17th
During this period
1795
feudal subsystem part
the
of
half
institutionalised
the
second
).
1652
–
(
during
of
The mercantilistic and feudal system the
i
:
African history
the the
East India Company , the Afrikaners , the Khoisan , and the Africans
,
.
to
,
,
to
of
).
.
8
–
in
.
a
,
in
to
,
in in
the
(+
NP )
(
During the last
it
a
),
.
it
of ,
of
.
94
_
its
the
racial
political
crisis developed
of
the rise
of
prelude
to
a
as
In
.
used
1990s Afrikaner
early
the
Unfortunately
a
new
system
democratic political
has been
parallel
successfully
socio economic
-
elite
-
African
years
-
politico economic to a
the
).
from
a
an
).
system
9
Over the past
4
practise
white political supremacy
and racial capitalism
.
ch by
see
institutionalised
(
-
controlled
transition
12
of
white political domination
democratic capitalism
system
see
have experienced
of
system
we
African political hegemony
still
won the general election
1974
rather dramatically ch
collapsed
the Cape
version
new
capitalism
a
of
racial
(
political hegemony
they were
).
institutionalise
Afrikaner political hegemony
and the profitability
The power
Cape
but
establishment
surrounding the legitimacy and sustainability
Since 1990
which they adapted
economic
(
to
the English a
by
did not drastically transform
and ideological power
of
illegal
creating relatively
intensify unfree labour patterns
to
its
political power
institutionalised
These two
1948
7
see
capitalism
the
to
the Orange River
-
Although the
NP
, it
of
succeeded
Afrikaner oriented National Party used
and
colonial authority ch
of
of
(
the
separate feudal system
1948
1890
the two republics were precarious the
20
chapters
then regarded
independent enough
between the
colonial and mineral political and economic
and the
as
of
republics north
constellations
v
imperialism
discussed
labour patterns that were
years
systemic period
6
will
with close ties with
distinguish
local English establishment
the
first half
ideological power was
and
necessary
19th century the Voortrekkers
independent
When
at
,
during British
systemic periods
During the
and
by
hegemony
economic
in
of
racial capitalism
1890
)
(
1795
and
be
colonialism
was not only
agricultural racial capitalism during British
colonial +
In
.
systemic period
power constellation
).
analysis
our systemic
gold
the 19th century including
end
local English establishment it
of
the hands
of
in
when political the
of
Britain
and economic system
the profitable exploitation
The new
1902
To
British had
more thoroughly institutionalised during
also
century
the 20th
mainly
–
(
-
Boer War 1899
the
a
British fought several wars
maintained but
iii
conducive
system
–
the
institutionalise Anglo
political
power constellation and
new
a
create
resources,
's mineral
.
capitalism
racial
and
more
and
of
imperialism
successfully exploit South Africa
aggressive
an
the
of
version
into
of
comprehensive
transformed
),
1886
,
was
colonialism
the
British
of diamonds ( in 1867 ) and gold ( in
in
the
that order . After the discovery
is
Dutch
vi
EXCLUSION
SYSTEMIC
TO
To
FROM SYSTEMIC EXPLOITATION
: POWER , LAND , AND LABOUR
transformation has not yet
place (see ch
taken
of the
part
for this is that the democratic
developed and powerful capitalist part was nevertheless
capitalism
most other countries , this
and post apartheid
of
interdependence 16
,
of
,
.
to
a
-
the
of
the
of
'
,
-
of
–
it
of
–
'
‘
South
Africa
's
.
a
of
is
It
,
,
logics
they exert
with which
' It
large
.
at
.
’
'
must
rectify
also
the
.
relationship between
them
democratic capitalism
democracy and capitalism
and capitalism
,
democracy
Democracy
The strength
.
logics
of
by
complementary
the task
the conflicting
capitalism
‘
the conflicting
the system
lose
only
depends
on
and sustainability
the
thus goes against
bring about reconciliations that
.
not denying
of the
emphasising
of
are
society
inequalities produced
,
we
While
the welfare
of
unacceptable
given
through merciless
capitalism
democratic
'
system
of
promote
based
but also the power try
,
reconcile not
to
dual
cunning
democratically elected government must
will
capitalism
which the strong skilful and property
less
of
in
of
democracy and capitalism the
property rights and
profit
and
‘
and the weaker and
democratically elected government
themselves
equality before the
.
free market system
in
a
maximise efficiency
to
,
to
attempts
in
Capitalism
that protects
democracy
'
‘
of
logic
of
'
logic
is
The
unequal freedoms and unequal rights upon which the
in
,
.
on
the principle
“
in
the capitalist system
self seeking inequality
The legal system
the distribution
.
in
is
inequalities
but maintains
based
“
.
based
democracy
joint interests
emphasises
is
,
,
and capitalism
first half
logic
The
on
loyalties capitalism
that reached
system
-
is
, :
is
western countries
and conflicting individual and group interests
opportunities
debate
post colonial
.
in
,
developed
contradictory while democracy
and common
both democracy
them
system
Hopefully
least prompt a
understanding
the
serious socio
colonial exploitation
dual politico economic
a
-
and capitalism
understand the true with
organisational development
,
20th century notably
owners win
to many
South Africa
maturity after centuries
competition
unclear
in
such
capitalism
Democratic
the grain
very late
at
years
350
an
contribute
and
country
of
on
to
will
interact
,
should
in
they
them
the desired power relations and interaction between
law
to
a
capitalist components
and
economic problems after almost
equality
.
to
Compared
Africa occurrred at
still unfamiliar
is
is important
it
democratic
and especially how
this book
is
The transition
giant leap forward
of
both the
system
'
of
meaning
.
equation
or
Africans. However ,
South
capitalism
under difficult socio -economic circumstances .
politico -economic
new
'
This
, and
a
important reason
compared to the highly
of the
South
in
. An
'
stage
transition
11 )
of democratic
and underdeveloped , when
still rather weak democratic
,
2
system
for
1
a
PART
the
cannot survive
SYSTEMIC EXPLOITATION
the material and /or monetary assistance
to
its in
is
of
law
to
of
the
-
( of es )
.
-
it
). development that took
-
periods
systemic
oriented
-
first five racist
on
of
to
notions
of
each
joint interests and
mainly capitalist component
of
'(
and
the
)
economic
state
.
,
,
to
the fact that
political component
each
of
(
: 1 -4
,
an
it
, off
off
-
of
-
and
and
plagues
unequal uneven and unjust This unfortunate
'
the
between
1975
creates
equality
unequal freedoms and the unequal distribution
the powerful
and therefore cannot
weak
part
-
to
remains
'
democratic
'
-
in
recently
politico
new
and
and deeply institutionalised
)
compared
more
which the
(
developed to
of
democratic capitalism
have
a
.
,
,
'
generates
efficiency necessarily
-
of
the
to
,
has
underdeveloped part
This
inconsistency and
and opportunities
system
that
and
well being
succeeds
trade
and
system
of
in
economic
against this background that we cannot afford
capitalist
of
'
]
social
that the socio economic
was insensitive
system
-
,
property
a
.
) is
be
attributed
a
.
be
,
.. .[
[ es ]
To
.. .
.
of
.. .[
us in
)
can
split level
profess
and
economic trade
social policy
show
thrived recklessly
is
our biggest socio
was extremely
shared justice while
part
democratic
material
the distribution
political
disparities
has
capitalism
the extent that the system
Africa during
politico economic
It
to
, an
]
Democratic
egalitarian
dimensions
South
economic
use
the
surveyed When only
of
This
dozens
in –
of (
capitalistic
and
levels need
both
generate
This book attempts
'
on
is
-
he /
democratic
And hence society faces
efficiency
1994
everyone
standards
equality and inequality sometimes smacks
inequalities
the
the unequal distribution
the prescriptions
the double
efficient economy But that pursuit
power
based
she pleases within
focus
of
is
[ es ] [
both
insincerity
system
too powerful
rights and privileges maintained and
inspected issues concerning
out
simultaneously
affairs
the two parts
prevent
: both
structure
are
welfare
1652
order
guaranteed freedom
).
as
that
capitalist level
place
of of
by
on as
property
is
A
on
is
and
his / (
the state
Arthur Okun describes
institutional
even
the democratic
follows
society
mixture
the equality
and
and assets
appendix
pursu
and capitalism
the other
power while capitalism
state
her assets
capitalism
based
and
of
property
see
that
,
by
Democracy supplied
'
'
the other
,
capitalism
.
is
relation
EXCLUSION
sense that the power each exerts needs
important that none
therefore
It
.
misuse
counteracted
or
curtailed
to
to
be
They also need one another in
of
.
SYSTEMIC
legal and bureaucratic support of
the
the
cannot survive without
of
“
without state
TO
in
FROM
address the huge inequalities and 17
: POWER , LAND , AND LABOUR
PART
1
periods . Although South Africa has belatedly
unable
of
,
.
many
of
legacy
dismal
on
the legacy
inappropriate
years
of
South
the post apartheid
-
the
of
majority
apartheid and earlier
colonial
policies
social and economic
of
,
on
the
. new
life
during the first eight
deteriorated
.
government These were agreed upon during informal negotiations )
would
the
determine free
a
It
.
Africa would have
South
-
of
'
'
liberal
and that post apartheid
new
was also decided that
capitalism
)
at
the
the ideology
the power
components
post apartheid period
of -
( or
,
economic policy
in
system
-
-
neo liberalism
capitalist
democratic and
'
economic
negotations determined
those
'
the
relations between
business leaders before the
).
see
The compromises reached
and
4
in
1994
ch
(
National Congress ANC (
key African
political transformation
politico
that
the
of
that the quality
show
of
we
exploitation and partly between
address
the post
injustices accumulated during the first five
and
period We blame this partly
the
capitalism
democratic
of
Africans has
during the first eight years
unfree labour
2
chapter
Consequently
system
.
,
,
,
and
inbalances
periods
systemic
version
dysfunctional
inequalities
In
–
apartheid period
of
,
capitalism
is ,
has maintained
to
Africa
' part
of
a system
of liberal
the
empowers the “ capitalist
which excessively
politico
a
is unfortunately
it
legitimised by the ideology
-
democratic
respects
,
capitalism
,
capitalism
introduced
of
of democratic
system
of
economic
a
systemic
South
during the five previous racially based
in
injustices that have accumulated
not surprising
that
the
of
in
form
the
the economy
the poorest half
situation
of
is
.
of
government and the modern sector
therefore
new
neglect
and systemic
exclusion
half
of
It
elected
systemic
the
democratically respectively
,
state
a
:
oppression
of
,
population has over the last eight years become entrapped
of
poorest
by
were such that
settlement
a
this
the
The terms
of .
market economy
establish what was
negotiating
stake
on
3
we focus as
to
chapter
at
.
system
the population became
well
partners were before
the
the
of
50
per cent
-
of
to
the systemic exclusion
show how
politico economic
what the ideological orientations
will
the ANC and business leaders
In
,
in
poorer
4
order
these informal negotiations
as
the prelude
our new
in
institutionalised
the
neglect
systemic
chapter of
and
detail
in
discussed
in
be
The elite compromises agreed upon
to
by
.
the population has deteriorated during the past eight years
18
greater detail
-
we summarise the apartheid regime dismal socio economic
.
discussed
In
blacks during five successive in
of
be
)
9
–
5
ch
(
3
the systemic exploitation
white political domination will
's
chapter
of
part
periods
10
In
.
negotiations began
legacy
a
for
by
at
,
as
,
,
of
to
the
a
the
on
.
a
'
of
: of
]
of
[
of
to
or
on the
,
nature the
of
,
,
,
labour land and of
factors
–
in
three
ideological
socio economic
-
and
is
power shift
The sixth
ideological
to
and ideological arguments used
emerging power constellation deep level
secondly
and thirdly the nature
,
of
military power
/
and
production methods and
).
in
or
to
.
in
of
changes
the value orientation
because
the first five power shifts
political
production
how
-
,
incomplete
Each
;
of
for example
);
be
new
transfer
power that
the very nature
,
-
legitimise
power shifts
more comprehensive transformation
acquired and used
changes
a
(
,
ie
power
can
those periods
each
political power and authority
legal and moral definitions capital
a
,
to
economic power
socio
social
concentrate
of
is
,
the second
(
,
:
another but
nature
in
or
it the
at
or
-
:
primarily with
.
is
firstly
levels
of
the
from
necessary
two kinds
our study involved not only the transfer one regime
ideology
and
South African history
beginning
deep level change
1990
'(
.. . in
Our concern
integrated
).
'a
transforms power
balanced
56
and
',
)
(p
power
change the present
).
of
six
Toffler distinguishes between
olitical
effective
systems were institutionalised
new
periods
systemic
power shifts that took place before Alvin
based
the power shifts
power constellations
the
during each
act
5
(
of
.
1 5
The nature how new
into
,
democratic capitalism
see section
explain
the
11 .
democracy
To
of
-
system
humane
capitalism
democratic
order
in
-
liberal version
neo
social
the overpowering corporate sector We also propose
economic transformation
socio
of
an
agenda
bureaucracy
on
'
to
forces
for
'
countervailing
plead
economic power shift aimed
another
government and
new
we
4
)
.
the
allowing
In part
(
government We also plead
new
EXCLUSION
SYSTEMIC
TO
the liberal capitalist approach adopted
replace
to
democratic approach
.
government
democratic
new
for
'
South Africa s
to
EXPLOITATION
SYSTEMIC
its
FROM
still
trans
.
early survival crisis
not serve
an
or
new
elite
and new
the interests new
system
the
has
of
system
the
the
new
politico economic
-
new
of
power constellation
of
do
and
,
,
to
of
the
a
. If
pyramid
,
this case
three sides
system
can
be
a
another does not only
stability and sustainability the
be
new
-
-
-
of
each
economic
socio
agreement between the
dysfunctional
the
to
the
a
society
,
in
the
thrown into
prove
.
threatened an
will
subgroups
be
all
power constellation
level
reasonable
the three sides
In
each
with
of
on
,
been established
political
one system
only completed when
of
pyramid but
is
Weberian
,
and
groups
power shift from
undermine the legitimacy
question
with
social fabric
of
.
A
and ideological side
three dimensional
three sided pyramid
:a
equivalent tetrahedron
system
a
regarded
a
Max Weber
as
.
formations have not yet taken place
POWER , LAND, AND LABOUR
The three power shifts brought about by Dutch the 17th century ) , British colonialism
.
power
All
described
were introduced
three
the
late 19th and early
three deep level changes
-
can indeed
( during the first half of the
(during
imperialism
by
)
century
be
century) , and British
19th
as
half of
second
(during the
colonialism
foreign powers
20th
of
1:
the nature
in
PART
representing power
the time All three introduced not only
,
British colonialism
and British imperialism
,
the
in
the the
).
(
,
it it
,
it
. of
,
and
the
in
did
legitimised
in
of
Although
power
the nature
the existing labour pattern
, ie
–
would
in
,
and the
,
;
however
the
,
circles while the doubtful governing
new
-
The socio economic transformation and has
the previous racially
the past eight years have largely seen
a
from
,
seated one
-
deep
,
.
that
institutionalised
predecessors
by
in
white
a
of
from
has been accepted
large black constituency
.
its
system its
The
political
addressed the social problems inherited
extended colonialism
.
the long preceding period
of
-
socio economic development that characterised
,
the unequal power relations unfree labour patterns and uneven
,
of
continuation
power
Africans has certainly changed
systemic periods Consequently
that this
1994
'
and
the past eight years has therefore not been
inadequately
the nature
last quarter
whites ideological orientation
are still prevalent
free market capitalism
by
but not
racism
South
of
level change
in
deep
This has not happened
orientation
of of
ideological
that began
still under way There were expectations
.
.
transformed
blacks
–
whites
to
–
from
.
is
shift
over the past eight years differs fundamentally
of
Similarly
the preceding period
-
of be
Orange Free State OFS
deep level change
white political and economic power
20
effectively control
ideologies
shift would bring about
based
new
,
the
the exploitative nature
the 20th century
ideology
really
-
not bring about
The sixth power
remnants
because
such
power
.
new
bringing about
the power constellations that
of
did
,
intensify
labour patterns
and
not
foreign intervention
largely perpetuated the social stratifications modes
a
'.
NP
production
therefore
Transvaal and
government
a
of
-
post 1948
could
in
'
African tribes
The Voortrekkers the
à -
constellations were not that powerful vis defeated
is
power This vis
the nature
not succeed
.
-
in
deep level changes
of
the three that were initiated internally
elite
by
.
contrast with the three power shifts introduced
were
differed
the preceding ones
from
did
In
fundamentally
,
Dutch colonialism
with
new modes
ideological orientations
new
,
new
of
social stratifications
new
legal and property systems and
therefore not surprising that the labour patterns introduced and maintained
is
by
It
,
production
new
.
power constellations but also
,
place
.
in
advanced than the ones
at
constellations that were considerably more powerful and technologically more
SYSTEMIC EXCLUSION
TO
take as our point of departure the dismal socio
1994 by the five racially based systemic
in
periods described earlier , the question arises the change towards
deep and how comprehensive
how
power constellation
a new
ought
be before the major
to
problems confronting the new South Africa can be effectively
will remain
ideological paradigm shift takes place towards
the capitalist part Only then
will
a
to
more
in
-
and power
shift
politico economic of
shift can
democratic
system
the whole South African
).
(
see
able
the
11
that
population
paradigm
serve the needs and aspirations
ch
capitalism
creating
will
play
the socio economic upliftment
-
,
in
effected we may succeed
such
a
.
If
the impoverished majority
,
of
constructive and interventionist role
,
,
of
bureaucracy
its
democratically elected government and active
part
democratic
' '
-à -
-
system
vis
politico economic
vis
but also until another structural shift empowers new
not only until
social democratic approach
a
the
an
. We
addressed
ineffective
'
1994
.
of
be
believe the political power shift
the
the new government
to
legacy
be
bequeathed
- economic
of
If we
EXPLOITATION
SYSTEMIC
a
FROM
Africans
South
other than white
,
to
is
denote
to
,
.
,
.
to
to
or
(
at
,
,
complete when the
more rigid
state
form
the
landed
support
serfdom
place until the second half
in
measure
of
Consequently
–
from
)
.
– 7
of .
in
the Elbe however the
of
far
even
of
in an
-
.
63
coloureds and Africans
laws
,
pass
a
,
laws
in
of
:
and
the
deliberate
. If
.
their military power
South
to
,
servile labour force
in
in
' is
that the colonial masters
imported slaves and more use
of
of
Africa made less use indigenous people into
resist attempts
labour systems we compare South African Europes new north and south America and
perhaps the most obvious difference
a
Australasia
with
remained
'
colonial history with that
unfree the
force blacks into
of
to
proletarianisation and impoverishment attempt
.
to
in
it it
,
where
into
Terreblanche 1980 comprised masters and servants
see
(
measures
Russia
turning
was
population
,
3
These
to
,
but also
This spread eastwards century
tenant
the Elbe not only succeeded
reimposing serfdom
the 19th
farming
sharp decline in
east
towards
a
caused
was
Consequently
France and Germany during the
their power East
of
Death
aristocracy
The peasant revolts
are testimony
serfdom
from
peasant farmers
that time
a
of
.
serfs
15th centuries
transition
Black
as
their status
their
serfdom
Elbe when the Black Death occurred
the
peasantry already had enough bargaining power and
and
from
)
the peasantry
of
)
emancipation
almost completed west
, -
)
(
transformation
14th
term
turn the clock back and but were not strong and united enough and did not receive the support from the then still poorly developed nation states The
development into economically independent tenant farmers
restore
the
serfdom
necessary
the
and
.
try
did
the Elbe the landed aristocracy
, of
’
the area west
reinstate
used
denote blacks other than coloureds and Indians
( or
In
2
‘
African
'
black
'
The term
to
1
Endnotes
turn
.)
ch 6
22
greater
,
labour force would
But
.
probably have failed
military
and more centralised
Xhosas were defeated and deprived
the Xhosas
large parts
and economic state
system
their land
,
far
.
organised
unfree
of
better
with
of
meant that
Trekboere
British colonialism
and the support the
,
capacity
shoulders
to an
They would its
on
the introduction
them
,
have rested
the
of their land , and reducing
them
of
depriving
of defeating
see
(
had not become a British colony , the task
Africa
a
South
of
If
POWER , LAND , AND LABOUR
the
4
1:
of
PART
PART
2
The transition and the 'new South Africa ' (1990 – 2002 )
Chapter
2
The legacy of systemic exploitation , and attempts to build a non -racial society
.
The legacy of apartheid
50
.
–
,
,
,
,
.
in
(
,
)
, ). in
key roles
,
.
is
,
towards
nonetheless
local white establishments
the late 20th
centuries used their
,
to
to
or
be
-
world
economic and ideological power not only
,
and turn them into exploited workers
,
plunder indigenous people disrupt their social see part
(
to
,
but also
played
minimised
and
the mid 17th
monopoly over political military
wider sense
entrepreneurship
and the western
that the white colonial powers from
Africa also
South
initiative
dismissed
advance themselves
it
;
in
be
(
Africans
white South
ruled South Africa
,
isolation
and developed country However although
modern
developing this country should not beyond dispute
colonialism
from
a
the
are
,
and western
discrimination
strong educational and health
and capital accumulation
a
,
of
turning South Africa into the contribution
white
Africans
criminality and violence
-
judged
largely
repression
under colonialism
system
,
,
argued
perseverance
,
ingenuity
structures
victims
is
Africans and
economic problems inherited
the socio
sound legal is
and
Furthermore
that
main
domination should not
a
,
services
now
income property and
;
to
the detriment
strong economy modern infrastructure
it
a
gained
,
in
the distribution
it
say
,
violence and who
and white
and especially
;
the inequalities
who were criminalised during the long periods
Whites often
of
;
is
mostly blacks
.
at
crime and violence What makes
people are Africans more Africans than any others live
opportunities are mainly
and
income
their receiving end
in
abject poverty
;
in
unemployed
and high levels the fact that
distribution
it of is
are
who
pressing
inequalities
sharp
of
Africans
-
these problems
so
;
property and opportunities
Most
on
-
of
population
;
the
per cent
The most serious
the other
unemployment abject poverty among more than
these are high rates
of
of
,
one hand and major socio economic problems
it
economy in Africa on
).
a
: the most developed
power ,
to
.
contradictory legacy
government came
elected
the
democratically
a
3
inherited
,
1994
the
in
of
,
all
When
of of
2 1
25
PART
AND THE 'NEW
THE TRANSITION
2:
if we
Even
SOUTH AFRICA '
of
take the impressive benefits
Africa 's external
South
and
internal colonial history into account , we cannot avoid the conclusion that inequality , violence , and criminality
are not only
, but
also that they
serious problems that mainly affect black South Africans
realise
and acknowledge
will
that
exculpatory attitudes
26
many whites
help
's , be
.
in
,
.
to
'.
made
to
of
is
society
the past
A
will contribute towards
legacy
a
,
3
50
of to
of
be the
African
an
of
South
attempt
socio
Africa
South
new
blame
proper
blacks during the long period soften the often arrogant
of
to
the
.
a
-
of
will hopefully
to
colonialism
way that
the socio economic
the injustices meted out
of
extended
all
reconstruction
of
better understanding
in
.
colonial history
reconstruct and interpret
part
In
not be neglected
should
.
,
the repressive and exploitative nature
these
deplorable
‘
the word
when
justifiable
for many
economic and developmental problems confronting 1994
of
of
will
per
and apartheid
know
denial
of
come
it
to
This kind
–
sense
of
–
in
People should realise that for decades the extended
,
,
Some even demand stop
the poorer
segregation
,
on
colonialism
.
unfounded allegations are going colonialism
the majority
-
predicament
-
.
many whites become indignant
to
is
of
blamed
the negative
is
the
on
'
underestimated
population
apartheid
and
socio economic conditions
Whenever the present socio economic the
the
.
blacks should not
segregation
1994
population cannot
of
, of
on
colonialism
systems
be
these
“
of
blamed exclusively
the poorer half
labour
summarises the dismal
10
–
Chapter
-
Although the misery and poverty
before
to
the
in
of
colonialism
socio economic conditions under which many South Africans lived
Therefore
in
or
is
long period
and various unfree and exploitative
5
ch
(
patterns institutionalised
see
,
was extremely unequally distributed
effects
or
to
them
In
.
and apartheid
9
of
periods
solve
humiliating effects
this part we distinguish between five systemic white colonial control during which political and economic power
,
segregation
and
South Africa
true nature and root causes
for any attempt
historical overview
a
3
Part
provides
precondition
temporary
.
ameliorate their negative
proper diagnosis
the
is
these problems
a
.
A
extended colonial history
incidental
and deeply rooted
of
,
are closely interlinked
them
of
of
All
.
nature
socio economic problems
these
-
of
.
None
cent
.
will
probably take generations
it
problems and that
these
,
to
easy
whites
apartheid were based
and
so
do
to
, segregation , to
be
resolve
not
for
it is important
of these problems
very long period by the power structures
a
which the systems of colonialism
Given this,
of
' over
-
'
have been shaped and created on
. All
indisputable structural or systemic character
an
).
have
it
, poverty ,
–
unemployment
and
THE LEGACY OF SYSTEMIC
Eight years have
.
democracy
passed since the transition from
EXPLOITATION
apartheid
This transition has been hailed worldwide as
inclusive
to an
political miracle .
a
It
the
in a
, its
of
in
the of
,
it
in
is
,
it
,
Ugly
taken place
.
yet
.
is
a
the
the extended period
from
that the precarious
socio
Africans and coloureds find
themselves has not improved during the post apartheid period
-
,
but has
in
really disturbing
which large numbers
in
economic situation
and discrimination
of
is
What
remain
rights
and human
place over the past eight years Unfortunately
exploitation
.
of
colonialism
composition
political
-
of
systemic
the hands
. of
,
taken
proud
corresponding socio economic transformation has not remnants
was before
political power was
firmly
now
view
Africans
All South Africans can transformations that have
,
,
population mainly controlled
1994
given
and
,
government
elected
be by
democratically
point
rights
2002 than
until
white hands
in
almost exclusively
concentrated
While
1990
in
began
.
political transformation
a
a
.
incomparably better country
an
is
South Africa
protected
of
political and human
are
constitutional democracy
South Africans
in
which the humanity and dignity From
racial dispensation
non
-
towards
a
the peaceful transition
of
must be credited
all
for
is largely former president Nelson Mandela and his reconciliatory attitude that
fact
health
education
's
Africa
,
elite
of be be
the blame must
be
.
must
of
This question
whose
and unemployed majority
.
white regimes
South
the
living
marginally
governing
new
-
their
is
it
surely
,
for
of
blame
the
be
little doubt that
even
living
the
devastated
the past should
socio economic
-
the
largely drawn from the impoverished
the
?
of
affairs
doubt that some
of
is
,
on
.
is
the shoulders
there can also
most
no
this deplorable state
in
tangible improvement
,
for
.
to
is
blame
squarely
,
bear
,
improve
of
a
to
expected
have
answered carefully However there
That said
It
.
has not been possible
dramatically
to
–
it
we accept that
conditions Unfortunately their situation has not improved
constituency
with
which the newly attained
of
not unreasonable
placed
living
the
rage
the impoverished majority within the first eight years
conditions
Who
up
of
-
to
Even
if
depends
destructive
on to
to
and even
specific economic constraints
given
dramatic improvement
undermining the social stability
system
democratic
and
growing frustration
.
of
social justice
should
expectations
blacks The fact that these expectations have not been realised
may well lead potential
concern
democracy unleashed pent
.
conditions
grave
in
restoration
matter
a
of
that the transition
of
a
remembered
and
a
very unfortunate
is
This
,
.
become more burdensome
an
1990
to
has increased
/1
)
housing
in
,
,
,
on
and
non interest government spending
-
per cent
welfare
of
,
8
from
50
Social spending
(
.
landscape
27
PART
THE TRANSITION
2:
of the social
Some
‘redirected
SOUTH AFRICA
non - interest spending
of 60 per cent of
average
AND THE NEW
previously allocated
spending
million more people have gained access more households
to
about
1, 3 million houses
than
supplied with telephone connections. More
to 2002 / 3 .
has also been
since 1994 , some
water , and
to clean
. More
electricity
whites
to
claims that ,
towards blacks . The government
/6
the period 1995
in
9
1 , 5 million
have
been
one million houses have been
than
5
.
on
in
so
'
,
in
a
is
,
.
the
or
of of
labour reforms and in
employment
in
the
The improvement
.
quantity and
these negative results are
by
November 1994 that on
of
of
.
of
as
as
a
led
into dysfunction
dramatic drop
.
houses
water affairs admitted
decline
spend more
RDP projects
,
The HIV AIDS pandemic has wreaked havoc
;
1
3
Lodge 1999
32 –
on
negative effect
:
190
–
:
Marais 2001
immeasurably
;
an
, see
(
of
to
to
of
to
to
a
to
led
's
of
of
off
section
a
violence and criminality are
such that the quality
, of
growing unemployment poor health
situation
conditions life
of
a
despite this redistributive
structural dynamics
in
But
.'
blacks
considerable
of
and increasing
poor represents
,
,
disrupted social structures
28
whites
the to
from
the national budget
the
income
,
effect
via
redistribution
social spending
of
Increased
on
. .4 ).
10 2
the
their lives
there
/
'
their spending
well
announcement
only
particularly among the poor and has had quality
them
only 800 000
areas Many
the government
departments could
reprioritising
‘
urban
Many
projects had fallen
million
.
government
pay
'
,
health services
the consequence
Unfortunately
and telephone connections are cut
sector have
rural areas has
of
in
health services
from
from
that have been accomplished since
farmers subsidies
the agricultural
1 4
this sector
in
in
.
The removal
blacks quality
In
water provision
droughts
view
for
water
society
this hyperbolic claim
1999 the department
in
disrepair
its
of
.
poor quality
of
of
that many
,
,
,
be
-
the
bright things
the electricity
redefine the nature
to
of
,
economic point
the
such progress
society has certainly not been
African
,
of
.
time
every month because users cannot afford
built are
Mbeki
find examples elsewhere
some merit
South
,
1994
Many
view
socio
of
side
many
to
dark
a
*
from
and
power took place where
period
).
redefined
difficult
of of
a
be
it
‘
short
legislative point
a
would
Although there might
4
:
(
in
was achieved
roads
accomplished then deputy president Thabo
negotiated transfer so
in
1998 that
world where 1998
there has also been infrastructural development
1994
been
age
that have reached about
introduced
been
in
.
Given what has claimed
mothers as well as children under
supplying rural communities with water
at
aimed
Since
children
a
million
to expectant
Food programmes have
seven
.
of
services are now given
the
built for people who had no formal shelter previously , and free medical
the
OF SYSTEMIC EXPLOITATION
was realised
of
We should
1994
to
,
. . ). for
,
.
of of for
1994 was
restoring
political
Rome was not decade
,
healed
a
a
systemic
,
true that
centuries cannot
far as
,
an
not only social and
social oppression
Although
of
.
As
,
-
as see
,
2 2 2
is
obvious class
be
a
,
have expected some visible progress towards
the poor during the first eight years
of
for
the greatest
opportunity
is
,
2 2
the
for
not unreasonable
social justice
greater
injustices to
,
day
a
in
,
is
it
certainly
and that the
stake
window
for blacks after centuries exploitation
economic
socio
after generations
of
justice
first time ever
gained
sharp
and extreme
the political transition
social justice
also
domination and economic
built
ultimately
.
opened
social
but
the
African population group
inequalities have now
Themomentous importance
,
that
it
exploitation
What
the past
of
stability
,
political
within
concerned
. ).
see table
(
character
is
the total population
one hand
distinctly racial character
of
experienced
is
in
now
is
inequality
Africa had
South
While
the other
the
destitution
and
South Africa the
poverty
luxury
section
on
and
on
contrast between extravagant wealth inequalities
(
renowned
.
are
government does not have
new
at
the world
this effectively as
to
do
.
countries
in
an the
bureaucratic capacity Few
,
difficult one Unfortunately the
enormously
serve the
sector and redirecting
blacks and especially the poor
, of
public spending towards serving the needs
it
The task
in
whites
.
of
interests
of
pauperising
also note that the South African public sector was shaped mainly
restructuring the public
legacy
.
than
and
the post
in
much
the
,
stronger
,
inherent
apartheid was much worse
in
segregation
momentum
of hindsight we now know that
the wisdom
it
colonialism
. With
and
period
,
apartheid
in
the
cent of the population has deteriorated considerably
50 per
in
poorer
is
THE LEGACY
democratic
, , it
of
,
the
's
of
economic
the poorer half
since
1994
has been
the population
Although
the
new
economic hegemony
).
(
the corporate sector
, .
political activity
system
of
an
,
excludes and
comprehensive
several elite compromises negotiated
has enjoyed political hegemony
the hands
of of
the
to
-
the possibility
excluded
the corporate sector
economic
of
still
in
is
government
new
4
mainstream
and
economic and social
powerful corporate sector forced
result
institutionalised that systemically from
systemic exploitation
government
new
see
and
poverty and unemployment
ch
As
.
between the ANC
a
Africa that
redistributive measures
remnants
of
South
nature
the poor
neo liberal and globally oriented economic policy
'
'
new
on
the
government into accepting for the
is
will argue that
the
a
We
the inadequacy
of
,
on
.
policies
to
2
firstly
concentrate
more correctly the nature
secondly
identify the reasons for this deterioration the
to
or , is
necessary
attempt
determine why the conditions
of
.
have not improved
part
an
focus
In
The main
of
.
rule
29
is
–
the
of
If
to
.
It
, .
on
the it
by
,
of
.
of
it
of
.
movement which
, the
on
To
the
policy
negotiation
the informal
'
orientations brought
chapter
,
.
focus
appreciate
3
will
social policies in
and
,
on
economic
the late 1980s
from
sector and the democratic
.
of
. to
of
apartheid have the potential
This potential has indeed been realised
larger extent than anticipated
much
Over the past eight years the distortions
reproduce poverty and perpetuate continue inequality The poverty traps set apartheid remain important explanation to
apartheid
further
an
:
'(
in
2000
-
have
since 1994
,
in
which
,
,
the socio economic
pauperisation despite
increased social
;
power property
,
distribution
,
institutionalised inequalities
sluggish economy
of
unemployment
a
rising levels
:
government They are
the
deeply
their
in
and
for
the population
in
ii i
high
the
by
responsible
spending
30
the
poorest two thirds
of
situation
May
South Africa
least four poverty traps inherent
of .
of
We can identify
poverty
).
emphasis
at
's
;
263 author
been
) of
persistence and the worsening (
for
the
.
by
dynamics
case that many
a
-
become self perpetuating
’.
the distortions and dynamics introduced
convincing
and
provide
and inequality
poverty
to
these studies
causes by
May most
research undertaken during the last
a
the
of
to
According
,
of
the previous century
body
“
considerable
of
of
disrupted social structures and abject
on
a
to
.2
2
Julian May refers
of
that guarantees
both parties
The dynamics poverty
decade
poor
.
by
’
table
has not
South Africans
these compromises
proposals and ideological
introduced
life
legal framework
to
of
significance
to
.
of on
4
In to
elite compromises
creating
the informal negotiations
onwards between the corporate led
also
.
successful
we focus
enough
Although
living conditions and quality
the human rights and dignity
chapter
cure the illness
their social structures during
racial South Africa
non
we
has been remarkably
not
understand
the legislation
brief overview
a
build
improving
in
succeeded
to
government
the new
from
heal the psychological and physical
blacks and
a
we provide the
.
2 3
section
we want
But this
a
be
millions
racist exploitation
centuries
in
it
would take
of
wounds inflicted
In
what
establish
to
necessary
this situation
inherited
the
establish whether the elite
white and black
both
correctly diagnosed
on
,
it
must
alia
is
society
African
try
will inter
to
,
that section
structural dynamics inherent poverty
and violent criminality
,
South
unemployment
-
In
groups
structural dynamics underpinning
-
apartheid
on
SOUTH AFRICA '
of
.
,
inequality
in
,
poverty
we focus
2 2
all in
.
section
In
the
THE TRANSITION AND THE ' NEW
2:
we
PART
of
;
of
;
on
ill -
the
,
health
.
the other
unemployment
sluggish
a
and rising levels
:
.2 ./
The first poverty trap high
and
in
pauperisation
chronic
population and
criminality
violence
on
the one hand and the process
2
of
mutually reinforcing dynamics
per cent
of
poorest
the syndrome
and
,
poverty among
50
the
social structures
of
and fragmented
community the
poorest half
population
disrupted
iv
black elite and
and
of
iii
the
and opportunities between the white
EXPLOITATION
the
THE LEGACY OF SYSTEMIC
to
,
8 6
)
,
to
in a
,
6 8
of
give
the four
to
1995 has increased
about
per cent
in
is
.1 ),
per
little doubt that African 55
10
in
as
(
there
1
to
from
is
it
.
in in
of
table
per cent
million 36
has increased for
groups
in
.
to
.
1995
in
, 8
4
million
/
population
8
,
of
to
breakdown
has
2001 This implies that
in
to
, 9
from
million
conservative
definition
2001 Although not possible the employment unemployment situation each
unemployment
of
.
According
the extended
unemployed
the
2001
at
,
4
, six
the
1995
labour force very year Table
and 2001
14
to
of
has increased
percentage
years from
.
,
,
1995
ccording
(a
in
4
the 45
added
1995
per cent
46
,
1995
in
,
unemployment
in
structural
and that
in
million
from
cent
are
-
13
,
supply
the labour
increased
2001
1970
the
to
.
1995
-
.1
2
work seekers
compares employment
estimates
the economy The Bureau
,
formal non agricultural sector since new
whom
least 500 000 jobs have been lost In
,
at
)
(
agricultural sector since 1994
least 250 000
million
BER has estimated that besides the 600 000 jobs lost
Economic Research the
the formal sector
13
's
were employed
million
total labour supply was of
Africa
South
in
In
1995
of
economy
*
,
Change
+ 7
58
( % – ) +
-5
260
+
,
41 3
2001
1975
8
, 12 , 3
(% – )
2001
,
8
.
estimates
the
indications that employment
in
are
,
there
+
2000
at
by
Although formal sector employment has declined 1995
+
500
)
-
(
-
)
+ 1
(
14
500
1995
45
,
36 1
6
13
840
4
8085
840
Change
2001 000
1995
.
Table
8585
903
, 2
(% )
figures
10 .1 are
:
Source
see
*
The 2001
543
20
Unemployment
9
Employment
Unemployment
925
445
425
Change
*
000
7
supply
,
in
000
)
000
(
2001
)
1995
(
1970
|
Labour
,
in
Labour supply employment the formal sector and unemployment 1970 1995 and 2001 ,
:
.1
Table
2
.
2001
least 500 000 since
informal sector has increased
31
in
,
is
, 2
on
in
a
)
arrest the downward spiral
during the
experienced
the high
of
to
20
,
the
years from
and still
growing
-
of ‘
the
in
a
due
per cent
improvement
year
the
2001 the average
-
the
mainly
',
capital intensity
.
economy
inclusive
economy into the
South Africa
's
facilitate the reintegration
an
that the transition towards
of
1994
5
of
optimism
would
situation
7
.
(
.
jobless growth
democracy
per cent
The economic growth
1990s was largely
high
1994
meaningful
it
unemployment and poverty
The
the
or
rate
only
many cases
week
employment
From
was not nearly high enough
,
to
1994
represented
this
,
average annual growth
1994
1 6
real terms and although
of
growth
since
and
gross domestic product GDP was only
of
of
annual rate
rate attained
uncertain
two days
important reason for the deterioration
moderate growth
of or
‘
-
An
jobs for one
. Unfortunately ,
created
.
employment opportunities
these
involves only part time jobs
1974
jobs may have been
million
, but
not available
are
to
1
is
of
content
than
a
more
to
considerably
'
SOUTH AFRICA
during the same period . Hard statistics
quite substantially the
AND THE 'NEW
THE TRANSITION
2:
–
PART
,
but
a
,
R5
sustain
year since 1994
annual GDP growth rate
per cent
,
3 8
an
to
of
,
).
(
but
of
,
,
is
1994
.
1974
to
from
–
of
-
the
of
-
per cent
is
of
80
)
the gap between the
of
per cent
disturbing that the further
time
.
blacks has declined
a
blacks has occurred
at
is
It
.2 ).
2
the lower
60
,
per cent
and
of
see table
per cent
the poorer two
the poorer
.
households
25
60
per cent
income
increased quite
coloureds has declined further rate
,
poorer
and
richer income groups
per cent Consequently
of
the
of
top
the poorer 60
the
of
in
the income
income
of
income
the
when
unsatisfactory
people
per capita
(
20
top
the
(
the
per cent
of
the top
20
than that
households has become much greater increase
increase
per cent SARB 2002
years
black
population growth
of
to
of
income
the
of
much higher
fact that
of
25
per cent
of
.
While the income
mainly Africans
the population
partly due
20
income
dramatically over the past eight years thirds
786
the different population and income groups did not benefit
especially the richer
and
income
the
a
per capita
this increase
from
capita
R13
from
meaningful improvement over the annual decline
the
,
equally
per
1994
This represents
annual increase
in
7
,
per cent
Unfortunately
of
nonetheless represents
in
small annual increase
The
since
0 6
an
years
or
per cent over the
).
constant 1995 prices
(
six in
2001
,
in
R14 321
only slightly
of
GDP per capita has increased
0
an
least four times more
to
inflow
billion
.
5
of
needs
FDI
South Africa has received
at
an
.
realised
of
,
global economy and would greatly accelerate FDI was unfortunately not
The
whites has also declined over the past eight
32
the population
is
poorest half
of
the
income
of
the
The deterioration
of
.
years
THE LEGACY OF SYSTEMIC EXPLOITATION
,
16 6
(#
highly stratified class society
,
,
.
rigid
a
from
income
see table
and
40
.1 ).
.
2 2
,
to
political
profound
distribution
high
,
,
Changes
(% ) 1996
1975
2001
2001
–
1991
40 %
1975
-
2001
1996
– 6
1991
1975
91
total income
–
Share
( % )
Households
of
,
to
in
of
:
.
of
of
per cent The share the poorest households and the quintiles three other total income 1975 1991 1996 and 2001 and the changes from 1975 2001
2 2
Table
37 %
-
-3
%
11 %
-
-
27 %
, ,
3 3 %
,
3 4 %
,
3 8 %
,
-4
%
,
-0
1 %
,
3 %
-0
0 %
7 3 %
7 4 %
,
7 6 %
,
the 7 6 %
population
)
(
of
%
16 41 % 6, % -
60
)
5 2 %
%
the 150 population
,
of
Poorest (
per
growth
transformed
been
per
2
figure
a
racially divided society into
in
20
radical shifts have taken place
During this period South African society has
1975
of
,
transformation
and
total
per cent in 2001 ,
poor economic
unemployment
structural
,
3 3
per cent
9
)
years
than
of
population )
households
the
,
from
,
.
growing
inflation
has increased
After more
per cent
in
2001
population
top
25
the
cent
of
cent
in
while the share of total income of
1975 to only
in
70
the
per cent
5 2
of
,
from
The share of the
2
of the
poorest 40 per cent of households ( + 50 per cent income has declined
. .
10 4 )
10 3 and
72
.
( see also tables
(
.
2 2
of
table
in
a
demonstrated
+ 6 %
,
2 %
+ 2 %
+ 0 6 %
%
,
11
;
.
5 1
:
50
+
,
6
of
16
of
,
10 6
:
three subclasses
+
of
the population
middle lower class consisting
the
per cent
and
receiving
per cent
of
into
per cent
25
divided
receiving of
),
67
#
white
receiving only
be
),
is
per cent
of
15
a
;
, 6
per cent
per cent
petit bourgeois class consisting
, of
;
a
16
,
of
of
,
.
total income
to
is
white
total income However the lower class has per cent
white and
lower class consisting
per cent
upper lower class consisting
#
which
is
a
50
of
(
a
;
2
of
which
and
bourgeois elite consisting
total income
total income and
total population
+
( of
of
of 72 , 2
which
the population
(
16 6
2
17
per cent
per cent
of
per cent
, ),
, of
of
:
per cent
receiving
Whiteford
.
per cent black
table
income has solidified over the past eight
years into five clearly identifiable classes the population
+
,
1994
appendix
of
,
table
3 .1
1999
the distribution
in
The inequality
an
-0
+ 8 % + 0 2 %
,
,
8 %
0 %
,
71
Estimated and projected from McGrath and Whiteford
:
:
9 %
,
70
(
the
Van Seventer
,
0 , 1 %
17 , 2 % 72 2 %
100
Source
7 3
-
17 , 4 %
17 , 6 %
16 , 3 %
71
16 , % 6 %
81
the
of %
population
)
( 16 % 6, % 80 of %
61
33
,
lower lower class per cent
of
and
,
receiving only
1 3
;
total income
a
and
of
2
cent
the population
'
AFRICA
SOUTH
,
per cent
of
of
consisting
25
and receiving
population
per
AND THE 'NEW
THE TRANSITION
2:
+
the
PART
.
total income
radical changes
in
in
in
of
a
to
,
in
is
,
30
+
of
15
of
to
.
a
in
real
to
in
1975
.
42
it
was
the
and
the
,
in
inequalities
in
South
African
and slavery was abolished short period
the time both the Khoisan
–
albeit for
a
,
in
1808
At
.
In
).
(
)
5
,
22
( the
(
see
)
in
,
the
and the
and economically dependent and their
servitude Consequently they were
.
of
, ,
in
psychological position
to
as
or
economic
what
,
:
of
impoverished
-
a
in
socio
and Whiteford
,
the
of of
whites
spirits broken after their long period simply not
households
per cent lower than
was not the first
1994
the Khoisan and the slaves enjoyed
slaves were extremely
month Members
McGrath
institutionalised
history After the slave trade was suspended same legal rights and freedoms
MLL
power property and opportunities
racist prejudices blacks
living level
per capita income
was
1996
per cent
deeply
trap
MLL
of
than
belong
per person
indicate that
socio economic
The political liberation
, .
one
million
the population belong
–
poverty
second
persistence
in
million
the two
people
internationally recognised
the
R353
population
2001 slightly more
distribution
1838
+
the minimum
the
per cent we
50 25
line
per cent
.4
of 10 .3
is
section
In
in
in
is
( or
, of
1
).
20 –
:
The
. .2
less than
the poorest half
1975 and
2 2
(+
of
whose income terms
well below
poverty
income level
the lower lower class
1994
the
the poorest two subclasses
million people lived below
18
about
minimum
per cent
whites
people
households whose income 1996
million people
Africans are poor compared
of of )
Most
the
legacy
.
of
per cent
white Sixty per cent
.
are
lower class
in
the
bourgeois classes are white while only
2
third
income which
of
, .
One
of
erstwhile rigid racial distribution
and apartheid
colonialism
the income distribution South African highly society the stratified class has not been
of
cleared
years
40
of
its
society over the past
,
these
25
Despite
benefit
from
their
34
Pallo Jordan pointed out
,
,
,
as
,
in
of
rights and
and restored
recent article
human the
franchise
movement a
It
.
freedom
them
1994
,
the
.
law
has given
political transition
in
,
.
dignity However
alleviation and economic
of
,
legalistic emancipation
equality before the
Kat River
notmaterialise
,
largely
theory
poverty
people have also experienced
as
a
Many black
the required
Andries Stockenström
's
.
development programmes
did
section
.2 ),
see
(
scheme
and moral support Except 6
,
economic
for
to
.
, of
newly attained freedom and rights With the wisdom hindsight we now legalistic given know that the freedom them was too and lacked social
legal
THE LEGACY OF SYSTEMIC EXPLOITATION
of an
emancipation
oppressed people
ability to profit from
extract
from
a
opportunities are
not
is
;
enough
improvements
. He quoted
also necessary
in the
the following
speech made by the United States president Lyndon Johnson in
the 1960s :
since
, –
a
to
.
of
the
,
in
.1 ).
.2
in
in 22
+
on
,
few
a
in
.
the past
they
such
(
assets
their
cannot
take
younger people have
,
organisations
in
important reason
.
of
-
the population
should
be
years During
.
the past
30
sector have become less sensitive
events
of
this time employers
in
understood against the background the private
their
to
the
the poorer half
of
The economic powerlessness
they
non existent
of
communities are either poorly organised
An
.
that civil society or
the poor
finding formal jobs
is
powerlessness
of
)
(
and are still receiving much better schooling than their parents
have reasonable prospects
as
at
reserve funds
opportunities Although
Most own
.
in
than
,
of
own
isolated
government Their basic human
complementary
.
do
scarcity
assets they
except
They have
of .
absence a
the and
2
,
7 5
and
,
the
of
the
for do
not
of
advantage
services
)
.
infrastructural received
of
,
not even household goods
Because
million blacks the upper lower
and figure
no
exert pressure
few
no
disposal
million
two
information about their rights
needs remain largely unmet perhaps even more property
the
–
,
unorganised on
to
unable
are
the
They
.
–
instances
of
,
,
unskilled without formal jobs and deprived and opportunities
million blacks
the population are still relatively uneducated
so
poorest half
table
the distribution
of
Members
the
of
classmay have benefited only marginally
The
(
.
the middle lower and lower lower classes
see
,
has had hardly any effect
10
,
. -
and
While political
for attaining these
sufficient condition
economic power have mainly benefited the
bourgeois classes
has not
1994
in
remotely
theory
condition for social upliftment and
goals Eight years after the political transition changes socio
for
,
is
it
blacks
-
not
not
August 2001
26
,
of
a
a
is
it
(
as
a
,
empowerment
necessary
has been
poverty
Times
right and
into socio economic empowerment
translated
transformation eradicating
legal
and
result Sunday
of
up
not just equality
5
automatically
fact and
a
political
The
as
but equality
the ability
but opportunity
freedom
-
just legal equity but human ability
must have
).
not just
seek
.. .
our citizens
not enough just
2
We
to
.
All
opportunity
walk through the gates
the others and still
completely fair Thus
.
of
to
open the gates
compete with
years has
the starting line
all
free
justly believe that you have been
him
to
,
the race and then say you
bring
,
chains and liberate
who,
take a person
as a
by
been hobbled
not
do
him
is not enough . You
freedom
are
But
the
35
PART
AND THE 'NEW
THE TRANSITION
2:
Figure
SOUTH AFRICA '
'
.:
South Africa s highly stratified class society
2 1
, 2001 Population
of income
Distribution
in
millions 7 .5
72 %
of income
( 16 .6 %)
7 .5
The petit
bourgeoisie :
.
.
/
7 3%
The upper lower
class
12
(16 .6 % )
.
11 5
11 .
)
( 45
of
's
a
the African economic
has
live
It is
the population
.
and pauperised to
of ,
powerless
socio
-
.
From
a
the mainly white employer
economic bargaining power despite the
. ).
see section
4 4
-
1994
(
transition
sector
for cheap and docile
large part
after 1994
which half
their ineffective socio
of
dramatic
political
in
,
of
This trend continued
cruel irony that the poverty
largely caused
36
the
by
a
is
view
9 4
point
poor becamemore marginalised
(
class see section
accumulation
the modern
,
redundant
million
of
demand
onwards
1970
effect declared
the
of
insatiable
by ,
the erstwhile from
corporate sector
the capital intensity
. ).
in
,
the growth
African labour petered out labour force was
,
a
result firstly in
of
,
the economy When
.
of
,
crisis and secondly
as
the poor
,
, of
interests
25 %
The lower lower class
1 .3 %
)
5
(
The
;
(
lower
poor breadwinners mostly unemployed lumpen proletariat
.
75
class
The middle lower class
%
The very
( 16 .6 % )
17 2 %
)
:
25 %
The bourgeois elite
THE LEGACY OF SYSTEMIC EXPLOITATION
of
of
In
).
, :
the course
the
sidelined
commercialised
to
-
the public sector many non governmental
redesign
have either been
)
(
NGOs
May 2000 203 or
organisations
attempt
to
's
government
the
's
'(
quoted
in
still extremely weak
is
poverty
'
is
for
According to Lisa Bornstein , an important reason powerlessness the poor the fact that the new government institutional basis for addressing
the
of to
a
or
,
of the
's '
are
,
“
era
of
the
farming areas
nor what power has
.
poor
institutions
the poor were also enmeshed
in
December 2000
the rural the
that
of
as
as
. bad
.
into
:
2001 indications were that the
,
of
an
'(
1998
integrated sustained
the Group Areas Act Whether the government
local authorities
still
total on
, of ]
the
in
.
poor
opaque and disempowering
not
elections
responsible for delivering services
its
is
,
.
as
of
in
-
, -
to
found
of
poor
is
At
in
the urban
by
,
up
of
.. .[
to
-
are is
be
society both
tape
to
of
-
.
)
for
,
in
of ex
the
.
,
civil
and white dominated
the end red
in
.. .
).
and disinclined
Consequently
Bantustans
before the municipal
limitations imposed
the apartheid
most May concludes that
2001 president Thabo Mbeki announced
The situation
the
part
government and
deliver
not know where power
strategy had become enmeshed
transform
them
and when
traditional
facilitated the
This
institutions and processes
rural development programme
However
traditional African
the 1950s
-
do
, ”
.. .
120
,
in
the entrapping
especially
much
because institutional structures
Early
in
is a to
of
'
in
–
by
of
prevails
in
to
'
who needed
those
not entirely
engineering
bureaucracies
elite that was
with poverty
delivering welfare
inclined towards self enrichment and corruption
disempowered
The poor
paid
into
task
apartheid
authorities was implemented
structures and capacity
onslaught
this purpose the
poverty
concerned
was entrusted
were caught
African bureaucratic
institutional mayhem
offer
the 20th century
transformed
deliver services
terms
institutions
conversely
government
that the new
rural areas
especially
(
an
of
authorities were bureaucracy
them
Bantu
'
system
acknowledged
the rural population
to
to
of
the
.
authorities Many
creation
,
,
the
to
.
best part
and other services
and that
factor contributing towards the persistence
create effective new
own fault For
that getting institutions
development strategy
any
reform institutions
relief and
a
by
-
increasingly recognised
however
should
the funds
years has not been spent
the relevant departments
,
100
).
:
(
failure
It
institutional failure 1998
“ it
to
May
key element
a
is
According
major portion
is
has been spent belatedly right
few
poverty alleviation over the past
be
for
.
,
For example
of
disempowerment and pauperisation
the poor and towards their further
of
to
the neglect
,
for
of
disturbing contribution budgeted
,
of
in
.
of
detriment the poor The weakening the capacity the public sector especially that departments directly responsible the poor has made
the can
institutions that will deliver services 37
THE TRANSITION
2:
efficiently and respond
of
certain amount
a
areas
will
AND THE NEW
of the poor is still
to the needs
free electricity
. The
uncertain
supply of
and free water to every household
that, eight years after the political transition
, most
for
institutions ' partly responsible
urban
in
of millions of people . The
certainly improve the circumstances
‘ entrapping
AFRICA
SOUTH
fact is
local authorities are still
deteriorating conditions
in
PART
many
30
. , If ie
–
. of
–
of
of
of
,
to
the of
an
of
40
.
of job
of
.
,
,
and
to
). government
the new
the
to
20
to
the to
of
security
229
of :
new
poorest half
has
and opportunities the
population
.
property
government
annual economic growth rate
per
,
that
,
or
the
the
a
, in
–
)
has
of
is
.
)
the negative
5
that even
unaware
the population over the past eight
The fact
the
beginning
of
The tragic fact
opportunities
At
of
ncluding employment
per cent
the mainly wealthy whites
sufficient power
an
to
allocate
is
(i
failed dismally
chapter
4
addressed
two thirds
if
will
in
)
and mainly black
from
will
inequality was not
income
inability
aggressive
greater inequality
even
1990s
be
growth rate
been exposed
worsen
and Padayachee 1997
funds and other resources
be
years
of
to
the
the distribution
Michie
(
very poor
remains
income but
and lower
caused
claim
of
on
one can
The reasons for the unwillingness divert more
absence
recently
globalisation
the beginning
;
4
(
see
at
,
,
ch
of
however
globalisation
employment
the
-
of
sufficiently acknowledged
effects
40
20
(
)
it
the tendency
the 21st century
the
households
higher economic
the top
global capitalism
to
,
Unfortunately
per cent
unequal distribution
Africa has
South
of
.?
discipline
of
an top
the
that
The fact
elite
will not
further between
even
no
households
reduce
–
of
for
it
if
in
(
probably increase
elite
the unequal distribution
per cent and poorer
several years
policy
redistribution
black
new
global capitalism
alarming increase
white and black
the new
lasts
black households
socio economic and ideological power concentrated
Given the extraordinary the hands
less wealthy whites
in
-
,
income between
relentless
per cent
the framework
in
neo liberalism
intact we can expect
even
50
and the poorest
cement that unites the old white and
of
ideology
the detriment
the
ideological
elite
black
but especially
forged between
been
'
'
a
)
(
mainly Afrikaners
distributional coalition has
new
the old white and new
years
–
different income and population groups over the past over the past eight
the
of
political and economic power relations between
'
reshuffling
“
In
the
.
urban areas
cent
,
had been maintained over the past eight years the poor would still have
38
, the
of the
if
as
,
two different worlds the rich
rather
,
the
,
of
different country
modern sector in or
in
they are living
living
bargaining power property
have little influence over
:
if ,
they
a
.
and the poor
are as
is
.
economy
It
and opportunities
Since they are deprived
in
very little
benefited
rich
the Rich North and
In
.
-
of the
.
,
one rich
,
-
and
power relations
other
and the
,
'
‘
the
,
the old white and new black elites
new
the one
of
of
of
two nations
of
on
.
redistributive
longer white and the other black Given the unequal distribution
.
no
is
pauperisation
these growth
the poorest half
behalf
their
reshuffling
the
to
,
.
country
coalition forged between
distributive
fiction Without aggressive
of
indeed
is
South Africa
them
market driven economic
situation
a
remain
in
trapped
poor However owing nation
is
the government
a
will
population
'
intervention
the poor
EXPLOITATION
bridges between
few
notion that the benefits to
the
down
'
will trickle
by
circumstances
with
,
Poor South
a
the
poor
in
the
THE LEGACY OF SYSTEMIC
'
entrapping mechanisms
owing million
people who have reached bourgeois status and the
15
to
the
,
7 5
in
.
of
in
,
, of of :
a
).
.. .
'
It s
of
of
Mbeki
-
and there are
,
a
serious structural
acknowledging that
from
impoverished
influential white business people
resistance higher
of
The stubborn
,
and blacks undeservedly
taxes
whites
–
undoubtedly
to
.
and apartheid
of ,
it
,
,
true
are
,
enriched
informs their reading
).
7
-
1
poor
–
especially
black people
white prejudice against blacks and
then
.
by
segregation
President
,
against blacks who
and
impediment White prejudice also prevents whites they have been undeservedly
be
.
is to
.. .
by
,
May 2001
white racism
,
many indications that they are
are –
these allegations about continued
especially
class and
June 2001
is
Guardian
,
]
Mail
'(
is
If
happening
colonial
people who are lazy basically dishonest thieves
carry this perception &
(
Many whites
.. .
corrupt
a
. of ..
very negative stereotype
social
workers domestic
farm
particular stereotype
everybody
facets
blacks regardless
of
,
'(
‘
have
has many
millions
Independent
Sunday
claims that many whites
5
,
.
.
,
,
of
slavery endured
the power
their bondage
about the continuation
and apartheid power relations the exclusion
workers and miners
still playing
escape from
Racism
20
racism
psychological cultural and economic the virtual conditions
promoted
one common experience
is
of
there
is
poor
,
that
is
nation
opportunities
if
Duma Goubule claims that
million
lower class
racism
It .
'
the s
that deprive the poor
structures the
role that
the
million people
The remaining
either
can
impoverished
it
A
controversial issue
is
to
degraded
population
is
Africa
South
or
bourgeoisie
, of
members
solidifying
economic power between the
socio
and marginalised
impoverished
remain
to
doomed
what
1994
-
the unequal distribution
politico
white political is
in
institutionalised
in
domination and racial capitalism
of
the successor
to
capitalism
democratic
these two
the new
22 ,
.
to
Income distribution
to
system
come
–
of
economic
a
,
in
nations for
long time
perpetuate
–
,
powerful
place that will barring significant interventions
,
lower class
black
‘
exclusively
the almost are
-
,
,
power property and opportunities between the non racial bourgeois elite and
and
that could have
39
.
4 2
(
disrupted
and
the
an
a
the pauperisation
the syndrome
social structures and
of
poverty trap
third
see sections
:
.2 .3
The
the black population
important part
.4 ).
'
of
large part
perpetuating
alleviation
4
responsible
entrapping mechanisms
'
attitudes are still for
implies that racist patterns
and poverty
of
the government to spend more on restitution
enabled
2
AFRICA
SOUTH
of
AND THE ' NEW
THE TRANSITION
2:
and
PART
chronic community poverty
of
demand
the
94 )
of
were far
dynamics
capitalist entrepreneurs
of
aggressive
–
(
1948
racial
cheap
and
of
insatiable
of
and
. the
more destructive During these two periods capitalism
and penetration
,
and apartheid the
1910
48 )
during segregation
exploitation
and British colonialism
Dutch
tribal organisations the range
and
–
family
damaged
(
severly
social structures
for
indigenous people Although the 258 years
on
very negative impact
.
of
South African history have had
a
-
The centuries long violent conflict and unequal power struggles that mark
proletarianisation repres
,
–
a
subculture
of
among poorer Africans and
was institutionalised
this way
this way
or
.
In
.
were undermined
by
poverty in
.
family and
distinct poverty mentality marked
,
of
–
coloureds And
soon
were disrupted the disciplinary and civilising effect
those traditional structures
syndrome
As
,
other social structures
damage
as
more psychological
even
a
but probably
indigenous people physically
,
discrimination not only impoverished
and
did
,
sion
The elaborate mechanisms
,
especially Africans
of ,
cultural and social life
.
docile labour showed little respect for the family
deviant
,
of
behaviour patterns was inculcated into those who became captives
this
per cent
poverty
coloured
a
by
1976
had become
people
A
among the poorer
concluded that
community
chronic
Coloured
the
.
commission
–
of
–
)
(
Theron
Concerning
of
institutionalised
1976
syndrome
Matters
into
the
subculture
Inquiry
–
Group –
Population
or
The Commission
40
of
.
syndrome
similar
40
a
an
.
It
by
in
as
-
will
policy has not yet emerged
.
such
the coloured population also applies
deviant
population
.
of
the African
to
syndrome
of
the poverty
The deviant
their lives
is
isolated aspect
it
not
;
self worth
of
social
is
coloureds and Africans who are indigent and powerless and have
-
sense
poverty has been broken
the Theron commission
the lower strata
or
no
behaviour
among
of of
behaviour
by
.
among the lower strata
of
given
of
the
a
educational rehabilitation Unfortunately The description
perpetuating
social upliftment and cultural and a
and
vicious circle
policy
comprehensive
important trap
anti social and deviant behaviour
an
effective
act
as
to
continue
trap until
, of
accompanied
,
poverty mentality
by
eight years this syndrome has acted
an
.
syndrome had also existed for generations among poorer Africans Over the past
THE LEGACY OF SYSTEMIC
of
.
, .
, to
the
for the
.
.
in
do
to
,
.
to
are
to
ward
a
off
of
the
.
.
Any attempt
to
the
for
determination
and their inability
its
and the power
socialisation within type
of
the
of
these
conditions created
see Theron
(
demands
1977
20th
of
South Africa
Terreblanche
and
of
of
,
to
exist
up
continues
processes the
it
.
a
,
measure
such
perpetuation and the mutually reinforcing
in
on
clear understanding
poverty
the unfavourable economic
to
to
unable
Africans
the economic system
).
paras
:
1976
22 .
that existed and
the other
and
Chronic community
the one hand
. 44 ;
because they
23 – 22
and
,
,
groups
are on
,
interaction between
During these
developed
situation
of
in
' of
‘
be
without
and moral
their disruptive social environment
poverty among coloureds
explained
Apart
future
complexes
,
,
-
the to
cannot
to
,
;
is
,
an
early age anxiety
the broader South African
relations associated with
are various
there
coloured and African people during
overcome this must take account
rest
more favourable conditions
even under
century and earlier has had important implications
the extent
of
If
,
.
From
political events involving
term
poor families are exposed
from
physical and psychological stresses
explain
the long
particularly significant
negative self image take root while defensive traits
place
of
a
gained
,
,
of
-
to
regain lost ground
their relative
the limiting factors
their spiritual psychological
negative influences that they are unable
,
be
will continue
and
children
critical formative years children
mutually
improving household income and
neglect during their pre school years
The
maze
poverty has existed for generations
the physical neglect
on
becomes
only one
little would
factors that entrench this condition
later
.
poverty
Life
in
,
Chronic community
tension
adjustment
society
advanced
.
by
,
be
for instance
of
to
removed
rise
defensive
a
an
in
syndrome
the environment left unchanged
from
and gives
the
,
.
poverty
reinforcing impediments and restrictions were
this lack
deviant behaviour largely stems
Therefore
of
in
individual caught
of
,
poverty
,
of
a
of
,
and strains
society
social usefulness aggravates
,
of
stresses
sense
environment and often represents
restrictive
the
the
a
from
fatalism
constitues
and progressive society
advanced
the subculture
and
alienation
,
frustration
,
,
, of
of
depressing effects
an
the fact that
When set against the other materially successful half
financial means power and
also
,
in
material terms but
,
modern
Each
embracing
it
cultural poverty defined
,
in
backward subsociety
by
.
or
spiritual
occurs
in
,
the fact that
,
poor health
in
emotionally confused
so
is
intensified
a
a
represents
aspirations and
disabilities This lifestyle exists not only
of
network
few
have poor housing, have
the lower
People living under
broken homes , are
come from
it
,
these conditions are uneducated
these disabilities
.
of chronic community poverty
a state
are
constitutes
by
strata
of members of
a
their whole lives. Thus the total lifestyle
frequently
EXPLOITATION
capitalism
commission
health
dynamics between
the one hand and pauperisation
on
and
mutually reinforcing
'
,
,
,
criminality
violence
trap :
poverty
The fourth
SOUTH AFRICA
on
. .
2 2 4
AND THE 'NEW the
THE TRANSITION
2:
ill
PART
.
of
.
in
to a
is
for
'
to
)
freedom
[
a
[
by
the
Africa crime political violence
,
for
great divide
]'
the
so
of
of
to
of 14 ).
of
:
(
softness
The
South
'
a
community
1995
' '
the
of
, “
to
.
threat declined
global economy and
the
be
of
extension
not
.
,
The dynamics
discrimination
,
of
repression
the
’
South Africa
are
. new
‘
violence
oppression
poverty the
crime
and
levels
in
rooted
and chronic community
of
,
are therefore
in
crime and violence The high
understood
of
but also
crime and
and deviant behaviour patterns that have become inculcated
among the poor and destitute during generations
political struggle
should
an
struggle mentality
The dynamics
as
.
black
community
”
'
as
the
of
virgin soil
,
extension
poverty mentality
the
large section
of
in an
as
into
South Africa
target
to
syndicates
violence
Africa
South
Shaw
weakening
the black
unbanning
long border created lucrative opportunities for international crime
a
's
Africa
the common perception the
integration
of as
,
structures
areas
According
politics prompted
the ANC and the liberalisation
confined
been
,
,
white
under apartheid
of
over
had
movement were
freedom
the
on
.
spilled
into
townships
,
violent crime that
rage and frustration
and apartheid were suddenly released
political liberalisation When restrictions
abolished
bottled
up
All the
-
South Africa
?
‘
new
’
be
the
in
surprised that crime and violence have escalated
among those oppressed under colonialism
of
of In
”
spectacularly
only
sides
the opponents
South
of
(
both
extreme levels
).
:
(
We should not
by
the use
recent
7
1997
]
and
.. .[
been
personal aims has become endemic
on
closely linked
not
work
society prone
in
crimes while those engage
justified using violence against the state
and politics have and
.5 ,
,
were classified
,
as
of
era
apartheid offences
race domination
but
poor and black
that
claim
political conflict have produced
.. .
struggle
)
.
of
apartheid
not
of
of
crime During the
option
no
by
most South Africans and especially
and decades
the stringent
not meet crime
As many
1952
“
(
.4 ).
Violent
9
see section
Antoinette Louw and Mark Shaw correctly
inequality
a
is
,
,
,
they often had
.
people
legal employment areas
The apartheid
many African people
Verwoerd
,
for
in
phenomenon
in
the Bantustans could
for
potential migrant workers
urban
subculture
the violent methods used during
institutionalised
illegally
10
in
section
was themigrant labour system requirements
still experiencing high
indigenous people
dominate
to
and
ciminalise and indeed brutalise
to
practice that did most
indicate
resistance
from
and apartheid
colonialism
,
will
we
criminality has developed
violent history
to
violence
.
levels
exceptionally
As
of
South Africa
an
has
the other
also the
of serious deficiencies
.
.
.
protect the apartheid regime Police stations are also very unequally
,
created space for crime
the police
the
of
of , a
.
its
of
crime statistics in
forms forms
but that almost
crime While most
property
crime has declined
'
wealthy who are victims
personal crime
, ,
risk from
,
mainly black people
ie
–
mainly
the
',
at
-
,
are more
is
it
is
that
the
women
, of .
property
’.
and
The report distinguishes between
,
levels
',
', '
children
both violent crime
crime
May defines
crime
than
the concept
of
poverty
of
all
three categories
4 3
conceptualisation
to
far
more vulnerable
,
.
In
Poor people
his
are
.
and social fabric
of
is
June 2001
some
,
high
crime while poor people
wealthy people
2000
all
1994
,
from
to
reveal that
in
.10
a
moratorium
,
,
they
social fabric crime
important
in
profitable career
Although those issued
the first two categories have increased
and the elderly
to
.
5 )
all
violent crime are
that crime has become
' ."
violent crime in
citizens Levels
create
criminals are convicted
unreliable
unacceptably
allocate
rebuilding the criminal justice
and
have decreased and other increased
at
crime are
'
have
.
of
violent crime
and
entire pipeline
the
on
the
a
perception
inadequate
are
will
safety and
most fundamental goals namely
improve their quality and veracity
are still regarded
of
The government
government announced as
to
In
2000
a
small percentage
to
since only
,
owing
property
a
in
,
51
of
to
one
still rising
But what
public works
and
reforming its
:
attain
the skewed and
the departments
between
,
wants
to
it
if
more resources
and maintain stability and order for
crimes
.
in
interaction
1997
Shaw
the
4
ch
:
1995
main victims
by and
considerably
order
after liberation
multiple blockages causing delays along
Louw
(
Shaw
justice correctional services
characterised
system
will remain
poor
and
-
,
security
see
,
operation
co
The
(
system
see
.
inefficient
does
it
manner Until
addressing the
one capable
into
Eight years
reforming the criminal justice system satisfactory and efficient violent criminality
of
government has not succeeded
new
restore
such
,
long time
the
).
take
to
will
it
extent that
a
,
of
black townships but also undermined the legitimacy
spread to
only
to
.
not
orientation
of
their distorted
police services and
This skewed allocation
areas
urban
than
of
black
in
per cent
almost
1996
white areas and less
in
national police stations were based
In
.
,
of
per cent
to
distributed
.
wealthy and poor neighbourhoods
among white and black
efforts
75
engaged
the other nine were
15
;
the police was engaged
an
and investigation
crime detection
members
in
only one
of
apartheid
to
heyday
the
internal security During the
laws and maintaining
apartheid
implementing
but also with
in
of
multitude
combating crime
with
of
of
tasked
,
only
ten
not
in
also have their roots
EXPLOITATION
criminal justice system These deficiencies the apartheid period During apartheid the police were in
in
result
the
THE LEGACY OF SYSTEMIC
of
).
crime
which
,
ie
–
.
seen
crime
.
,
,
seldom
poor and for that
are
cushion
of
,
have fewer resources with
black
of
as
however
the predominant victims
the
,
,
of
who
,
Shaw
)
to
are almost exclusively
two writers most victims
these
also
victims are poor
poorer communities
the rich and powerful
they
:
effect only become clear when
of
by
least
According reasons
Louw and
to
According
the population
The seriousness
3
1998
into account that most criminals and their
poorest two thirds ( at
change
huge pauperisation
its
and
face
are
or poorer in
the crime problem
we take
not only about being poor, it is also about the risk
is
to
poor
'
AFRICA
SOUTH
'(
vulnerability thus: ‘ Poverty
ofbecoming
THE 'NEW
AND
of
THE TRANSITION
2:
the
PART
the cost
trapped anew
in
is
of
are
exploited
and
Every
.
cruel to
.
neglected
generation
from
often the victims
only their dignity but their ability
vicious circle
perpetuated
is
and crime which
abused
committed within
are
new
chronic community poverty often through
generation
,
is
generation
Children
crimes
Women
not
,
.
earn
that undermine
in
money
are
,
and are seldom
and violent crimes
these
reported
a
households
Most
.
even
violent crimes
thus disrupting their already tenuous
inflicted
of ,
further
fabric
the case
to
social
exposed
,
harm
is
during which bodily
the poor
of
of
The real vulnerability
of
.12
crime
to
.
by
or
poverty
higher
much
is
is
in
the
estimated that
a
It
great
South Africa
,
,
it
,
considered
ordinated
-
co
comprehensive
,
.
as
As long
the
exploitation and when
that urgent comprehensive redistributive measures aimed are essential
be
to
.
AIDS pandemic
a
be
.
,
) -
of by
its
systemic
There
affected
and
When poverty
infected
at
the
consequences
the population
the historical framework the poor
of
,
already
likely
of .'3
–
per cent
virus
the HIV
is
the vulnerability
poor
are
(
in
contextualised
the
of
percentage
citizens about
to
46 million
the poor are more
11
be
,
and
the result
further impoverished
of
pandemic
may
case
is
the
,
Whatever
be ,
about whether AIDS
into
new and appalling vicious
sexual promiscuity sexual violence AIDS and poverty
controversy
drawn
With the advent
of
into
health
of
.
being drawn
to
are
and poverty
a
,
more likely
is
a
is
,
health
,
of
/
they
areas
millions
HIV AIDS pandemic
circle
rural
violence
,
vicious circle
are
especially
this mutually
third element entering
the poor have only limited access
Because
in
,
services
dynamic
.
reinforcing
poor people
ill -
health
of
The
of
ill
.
gang activities
comes clear
alleviating poverty
and effective
poor health
vicious circle we cannot afford
to
the
This
is
the population
.
–
-
poorer half
poverty trap leading
.
,
already happening and
44
especially
and ominous
of
further pauperisation
important
the
remain
a
will
is of
and AIDS
an
,
for alleviating poverty and preventing AIDS are not implemented
policies
THE LEGACY OF SYSTEMIC
Legislation aimed at building
.3
2
EXPLOITATION
non -racial South Africa
a
'
In sharp contrast to the ANC government s inability to eradicate the legacy for
be
-
,
's
it a
do
is
, .
)
to
-
to
.
a
for
.
in
is
of
to
the is
, it
).
-
a
the
in
seeks
our
on
in
a
of
of
numerous mechanisms
or
but
to
easy
,
be
such
forgotten
be
not
society while ensuring Rights
the Rights
Commission
of
Promotion and Protection
Human
of
These include
a
transformation
.
of
of of
.
.
The
of
be
is
It
of
the
a
to
of
It
.
'
of
(
should
will not
a
,
interim
society
achievement
Cultural Religious and Linguistic Communities and Gender Equality
was
equal dignity and respect
accorded
individual rights
Commission
the heart
the establishment
also provides
for
a
,
order
the Constitution
and enforce the ongoing
Commission
the
Constitution
At
our deeply inegalitarian past
The Constitution
the protection
society
lies recognition that the purpose
of
the goal
of
monitor
racial
non
interim
that
than
for
.
overlooked
create
particular groups
membership
is
that that
will
beings
the context
in
society
by
be
of
.
human
regardless
simply
foreign affairs 2001
the constitutional court
seeks more
and democratic
of
which
the
to
(
,
to
as
of
groups
constitutional
not sufficient
not the
discrimination against people who are members
unfair discrimination
all
new
department
unfair discrimination
of
prohibition
equal application
of
of
disadvantaged
South Africa
requires instead the complete and
government
the new
avoid
to
only
society
the following comment
The prohibition not
the system
reform
of
in
constitution
same
,
of
or
-
re
the
confirmed
corrected
pathological individuals
education
intention
huge task
Development Community
Since racial inequality
follows
transformation
:
The
and exhort others
the Southern African
isolated aberrations that can
progressive
still has
the whites
beyond
2001 the government acknowledged the need for socio
upliftment
with
Although the
whites
: ‘
/
a
)
summit
,
or of
a
law
tamper
closely connected
racial society
non
and especially
racial prejudices
communiqué
economic set
of
rid In
to
(
herself
him
rectify skewed
and
is
to
reduce unemployment and alleviate poverty
dispute that every South African
non racial South
acknowledge that the government
to
.
important
poverty
alleviate
government has laid the legal foundations
SADC
create
a
be
,
so
.
a
-
gap
as
possible
which racial attitudes survive among privileged
in
the way
several laws aimed at
between black and white remains intact
the government fails
economic structures inability
will not
the vast wealth
is
long
doing
It
as
and
long as
as
commended
it has introduced
non racial society While the government should
it
for
laying the foundations
Africa
,
segregation and apartheid
to
,
colonialism
of
for
.
in
a
a
,
a
to
,
.
qualified For care
,
housing health
,
to
is
).
of
access
within
to
they are unable
have
support themselves
).
(
everyone
these
to
the right
each
of
,
of
realisation
)
,
,
to
for
at
expense
state
expressly
appropriate social assistance ibid
,
46
of
;
of
as
accommodation
of
social security including
also entrenches
if
to
,
access
.. .[
But the Constitution
and their dependants
or
:
to
of
of
medical
state
achieve the progressive
rights
and
shelter basic health care
The state must take reasonable legislative and other measures available resources
for
on
on
as
is
of
to
and water
14
-
care
its
expressly
,
,
rights
health
emergency
adequate
rights
these
from
:
the sections dealing with
food water and social security
of the
some
10
:
ibid
.. .(
to
in
their liberty
relation
access
;
;
educational rights
of
,
, 's
example
;
;
,
basic nutrition
access
people
sufficient food
refusal
result
,
the
right
reading material and medical treatment
duty
property
the right
of
;
),
;
against
children
services and social services
The state
is
practices
homes
to
the
right
of
treatment the right
persons deprived
health
development
sustainable
the arbitrary eviction
(
;
;
of ). in
or
on
a
prohibition of
or
secure
including reproductive health care
nutrition
sovereign
property that was dispossessed after 1913
the demolition
social security
not harmful
;
for
of or
adequate housing and
services
united
include
land tenure and restitution
past racially discriminatory laws
their homes
and build
the constitution
the
equitable redress
security
of
land
;
to
equitable access
improve the quality
rightful place
environment that
other measures that
and
law
the will
3
:
(
1996
based
each person
its
to
take
the foundations
have the environment protected through reasonable
to
;
-
legislative
an
;
Labour rights the right and
able
rights recognised
and social
well being
potential
nations RSA
to
The economic
of
in
the family
by
in
is
and democratic South Africa state
government
which
equally protected the
all
of
citizens and free
states
democratic
a
lay
;
,
a
of
life
represents
The preamble
society based
values social justice and fundamental human rights
the people and every citizen
1996
:
the past and establish
democratic and open society
of
(
in
108
South Africa
a
Heal the divisions
as
adopted
so
is
that the constitution
rights
human
Act
1996
to
the history
in
milestone
final constitution
of
of
The adoption
'
SOUTH AFRICA
THE NEW
)
'
: THE TRANSITION AND
of
2
the
PART
of . for
at
an
is
)
(
of
to
-
a
, or
,
,
in
of
,
,
serve
,
be
comprehensive
Unfortunately
.6 ).
4
,
such
hewers
wood
to
designed
system
education
and drawers
Current educational programmes include implementing measures
the
in
a
,
of
of
(
,
such
an
building
of
task
system
Africa
it
educational
Although
educational
capable
should
system
be
.
and dedication
,
creating
an
of
study
-
the
acknowledged thatmost
.
line with
Unfortunately
truly non racial and prosperous South
of
a
of
for
culture
substantial progress has been made underpinning
curriculum
culture
the departments different black population groups and
.
and lacking
a
,
and resourced
new
majority building
during apartheid were highly inferior poorly organised
in
Africans
)
for
especially
the
,
needs and training teachers
a
introducing
education that were institutionalised
lies ahead
favour
,
's
country
learning
and
,
teaching
in
'.
educational resources
redistribute
-
to
plight cannot
,
.
-
see section
promote
to
be the
-
.
.
55 up
4
of
.
of
of
of
programmes
apartheid was that would
who
relatively small
interests
requires well financed
alleviation
African population
careful not
of
an
A
of
also
been implemented
central component
water
of
This
the
affected the growth
‘
-
poverty
programmes have not create
alone
these laws have
these laws have also
the population
an
well focused
and
should
as
.
legislation
the poorest half
yet
to
by
rectified
1998
and racism
labour and negatively
discrimination and repression
the detriment
clear plans
aspirant African petit bourgeois
The government
of
after centuries
apartheid
trade unions Unfortunately
employing
the economy
of
of
potential
of
the costs
increased
that
of
only
,
have jobs and are members
practice
Its
workplace they have benefited
level Although
basic
the legacy
address
to
undoubtedly helped
Act
.
jobs above
from
draw
(
people
achieving
the apartheid colour bar which excluded
the
.
for addressing the legacy
instrument
aimed
policy
any law
Employment Equity Act
The
which requires every
2000
also required
disadvantaged
and Prevention
implement measures
are
.
Ministers
Equality
of
inequality
a
.
government
eradicating inequality
groups
Act
2000
These measures include the repeal
perpetuates
black
the Promotion
to
of
minister and level equality
Act
for the historically
(
Unfair Discrimination
of is
this programme
to
Central
apartheid through
),
affirmative action and special protection
wide ranging
of
addressing the legacy
of
at
legislative programme aimed
government has pursued
new
of
past eight years
,
Over
the
the
THE LEGACY OF SYSTEMIC EXPLOITATION
still
PART
THE TRANSITION
2:
AND THE 'NEW
AFRICA
SOUTH
per
of
of
income
least R3 421 per white person
capita was
R895 per
fiscal incidence
.
at
net loss
net gain from
to a
,
due
of
a
African person and
whites
secondary
'
.
that
of
,
,
whites After the budget Africans
per cent
the
of
of of
per cent that 15 6
,
is
,
Berg and Bharoot have concluded that before the redistributive effect 1993 budget taken into account the per capita income Africans was only
10 , 3
Van
1
der
Endnotes
The redistributive
, it
who
.
).
,
18
black
to
white
little tax
–
the structural
from
or
those who pay
no
no
longer
to
(
taxpayers both white and black
is
the budget
,
effect
)
redistribution
of
of
:
(
of
Unfortunately effect the budget has increased considerably since 1993 1999 the redistribution income does not necessarily benefit those who need most The
but
from
are mainly
as
,
A
of
).
of
in its 15
not
savings
strategy
the GEAR
for
.) shifts
to
Gini
1995
this shows clearly
to
57
,
0
of
The in
, 0
, 0
74 67 .
to
73
55
,
0
,
If
,
and
these
Africans
from
in
for
of
).
87 – 8
1998 2002 –
in
:
(
0
,
from
2001
the pay
coloureds
from
increased
SSA
and
for the pay whites
1998 have continued
the rich have become much richer
coefficient
of
the pay
the
1995
:
a
.. .
to 14
per cent and
of
Gini
1998
in
81
,
from
to
in
83
,
coefficients
FDI are
fixed investment It is
)
(
on
of
the
.
so
(
.
for
,
to 0
70 in
,
and
respectively
2000
the
,
in
(
-
-
-
,
Alusaf
with what eventually materialised
1995
,
0
from
0
80
,
economy
and gross domestic
the initial projections
coefficient for total pay and total earnings 0
Columbus
annual average GDS and GDFI were
4 4
compared
2001
SARB
the rule after
a
In
be (
.
in
65
,
section
the same period
and
such
South African
savings GDS
Statistics South Africa the
to
According increased
2000
of
will
2000
–
1996
and 1980s
GDP respectively Bureau Economic Research database higher economic growth rate with such low levels achieve
investment
and
dependency
gross domestic 1995
From
to
(
).
GDFI
per cent possible
high
to
levels
low
,
,
of
The reasons
the
of
Iscor Coega and for
;
3
retooling
the 1970s
multi billion rand projects
given
on
these included
product
considerably smaller change
and labour saving investment continued
-
1994
African
be ] (
of -
22 ).
Capital intensive
0
the real gross domestic
than
-
in
formal sector employment growth
the South
the historical relationship between changes
economic growth has become associated with
rate
4
a
in
the 1990s left mark formal sector employment and growth
changes
in
Bank
in
the Reserve
on
According economy
to
2
.
black
Gini that
poor considerably poorer over the past
)
unfortunate with Hugo
or
enormously
rural African
difficult
The fact that
Party
complicates
.
is
a
).
ANC
rich and powerful
the Inkatha Freedom
the rural elite that obtained
its
long
Interview
'(
is
by
(
.
matters considerably
As
this rural elite mostly supports
which
vested interest the
considerable
in
traditional authorities
elite has attained
have
African
June 2001
as
these
1 – 7
reform
the South the
we have
in
that
[
statement
. '
's
in
Guardian
&
Mail
,
To
6
Young
Mbeki
deeply entrenched racial disparities We poverty that this country defined colour very
in
situation
therefore merit
,
]
society
a
There
is
5
.
eight years
power from
the
48
the
–
and poverty
.
powerlessness
of
is
–
in
for
remain trapped
by
regime remains powerful and even further empowered the new government politically expedient reasons the majority rural poor will
apartheid
THE LEGACY OF SYSTEMIC EXPLOITATION
and the general acceptance
( as
is
of
and
wealth
the
of
of
.
in
as a
.
is
'
are
.
).
).
2001
)
800 murders
1994
increased
)
(
of
)
February
in
or 24 26
,
(
result
the shortage
in
,
of the
affairs
including attempted rape
.
Common assaults
and assaults with intent
inflict grievous
per
251
2000
.
to
1994
from
220
from
Robbery with
100 000 from
1994
to
to
in
2000
,
per 100 000
624
circumstances increased
cases that
000
is
a –
of ,
9
(
000
that the suspect had
number reported
roughly
.
in
–
'
a 10
almost half were classified
The Economist
100
for the civil war
leaving 524
120 per 100 000
569 per 100 000
544
from
per
–
of
-
a
,
harm
aggravating
state
to
502
from
1994
to
bodily
1998
per cent
2000 Recorded rape
100 000
from
70
personnel
-
increased
000
1000
110 per
from
declined in
rate has
only
for this dismal
reason
to
49
per
to
203 000
professional and well equipped Themurder
or
.
The main
.
convictions
109
the police
being
criminality
sophisticated
replacement
million more were withdrawn
Of these
to
Half
reached court
(
.
disappeared
life
little
Given that
lost generation
new
implying that the evidence was insufficient
,
‘
',
undetected
1998
:
'(
2 2
,
million crimes reported
a
Of as
the
’ of
,
Marais
quoted
into
crime has become
urban
with
anti social behaviour
in
to
suggests that
that never happened
become derailed by
Mike Nicol
destined
“
is
created that
people
and poor employment prospects
black matriculants cannot find jobs
of
thousands
the 1980s
of
agitated political consciousness
an
,
'
of
.
lost generation
the
inclined towards violence and other forms
to
the
of
in
is
a
a
.
,
in
Many members
education
10
.
of
70
'
their entrenched position
liberation struggle culture lawlessness grew the ranks organisations making they pursued strategy liberation when the country ungovernable Unfortunately that culture being expressed new South Africa violent crime and some townships have become permanently ungovernable result
11
of
income became much more per cent the population happening what Mbeki
of
30
,
-
the
a
the
During
based
, but due to
moot point
is
,
arrogance
on
is
whether
privileges 9
racism
rate in the 1990s
groups
distribution per cent and the lower that informs whites reading
top
is
),
claims
or it
8
Whether
’ among elite
coalition
neo liberalism
it
the
ideology
unequal between
growth
economic
of
'distributional
the strong
a high
the
The United States experienced
of
7
in
of
,
its
by
to
a
–
.'
on
,
6 6
( or
518 000
expected
by
2000
to
/
and exert huge pressure
million
people suffering to
200
is
158
of
The number in
.
to
from
2015
have
their already meagre
. . ).
10 2 4
poor
increase
by
,
15 1
to
per cent
The HIV AIDS pandemic
see also section
;
violence the
). 2015
.
by
projected the
is
on
06
, 1
BER 2001
(
resources
million
effects
their plight Louw and
that interpersonal
particular occurs most frequently among people structurally entrenched economic and racial
increase
,
),
-
2001 and devastating
to
of
)
a
by
means
about 2008 onwards
from
full blown AIDS
to
projected
levelling off
people
effects
63
, 18 ,
12
:
'(
1997
prevalence
is
to
inequalities
from
as
.. .[
colonial societies
the dual pressure
withstand
the
vulnerability may force process survival beginning
the desperate nature
-
over
subject
in
world
13
criminal activity
also quote well documented observations
Shaw
them
crimemakes
many cases heightened
the poor are criminalised
whereby
HIV
to
resort
to
victims
In
afterwards
recover
to
and
being victimised
The shock
eroding the means available
of
:
by
poor more vulnerable
of
follows
‘
put the point
They
as
12
.
2000
49
Chapter
.
3 v
Prelude to the informal negotiations on economic issues
The economic attitudes and ideologies of the corporate sector
of
. :
a
to
-4
,
system
the
colonial
and
is
it
racist
links with
received
-
of
the
.
its
it
close
socialist oriented extent
of
–
,
in
of
, a
the
),
,
Africa
and the support
of
It
,
the
.
,
,
,
favoured to
the
from
economic
advocating
the
.
between
informal
negotiations between
democratic movement began
the late
the
1980s the
two parties could hardly have been greater Given
.
sector and
and
,
discussions
in
tentative
ideological
SACP
hostile
the economy The
the gold mining and other industries
gap
corporate
liberated South
the
When
communist bloc
the
nationalisation
and because
of
for
a
in
countries
nor
was however extremely
other hand was highly critical
South African dispensation
neither
South African dispensation
and state intervention
the South African Communist Party
system
hypocritically
,
of
,
blacks
(
the
of
,
democratic movement
the
socialism on
,
towards communism
character
of
,
of
the racist character
the human rights
sector was
–
.
violation
the corporate
of
overtly critical
,
domestic
Africans
Within this framework the
fact that
capitalist
recognised neither the democratic freedoms nor property
racial capitalism
this
40
protective framework
that period the
of
the
oriented western world despite
rights
,
,
economic systems
corporate sector operated within
great
African corporate sector and the
the South
respect
years there was
In
in
democratic movement
Whether this
of
between
that during those
.
distance
the Cold War
but not directly relevant
question
the
ideological
relevant
1990
of
.'
our argument What
interesting
until
1948
the
not
is
was coincidental
apartheid from
and
an
1989
is
until
1947
91 ,
Cold War and apartheid ran almost concurrently
-
from
the
Remarkably ,
or
. 1.
is
3
hardly surprising that both parties were initially mutually
mistrustful
,
reached
between
the two sides
we need
to
compromises eventually
,
elite
,
.
and suspicious However before discussing the informal negotiations and the
51
2:
their
examine
‘baggage ';
and ideological
records
track
AFRICA '
SOUTH
will we be
only then
..
3 1 1
corporate
middle class values and
sector
,
The
to
its
understand what was at stake during the negotiations .
-
able
AND THE ' NEW
THE TRANSITION
's
PART
unsympathetic
attitude
towards the poor
of
.
, In
. to
,
of
a
is
of
to
.
on
In
In
a
,
to
in
.
of
in
no
or
.
.
or
is
by be
the
religious for
children
been
occupy the lower
.
to
providence
the
personal
as
and early
of
19th
doctrine
superior
in
in
Spencer
's
colonies were regarded
Social
line with as
in
in
the
of
the late
inferior
The religious explanation -
, if
it
'
as
far
so
was mainly based
on
.
in
was unfair
they
God with blacks destined
,
ordained
claim
poverty Afrikaners
in
-
century
by
.
–
,
and that
religious undertone
as
a
trapped
by
's
in
be
of
lack
of
moral shortcomings
and
. the
of
poverty
the mid 20th century
society to
of
The ascription
prosperous
poor because they have not
the mid 20th
but also had
lower ranks
to
to
if
so
,
God
hierarchical social order
the
occupy
the
regarded
each
kind
chosen people
many Afrikaners
black poverty
racist considerations
the
poor individual
ascribed
often
peaking people
rather awkwardly
in
of
for
,
not unbecoming
that
typical
poverty and even extinction
Afrikaners that they were one explanation
the structural
intellectual history
the
Herbert
-s
,
implicit
while indigenous people
implicit
thus
adverse economic and social
prevalent
poverty
which regarded English
–
was also
to
also said
,
's
also
and therefore doomed
52
,
, are
is
;
or
social stratification
will
There
factors
control However
punishment visited
because they have been ordained
20th centuries was
God
moral
presented
The religious explanation
Darwinism
structural
biogenetic
to
,
-
a
of
poverty
poverty
world
religious
,
, of
levels
of
elected
the character
their racial status
The view
ethic
a
Anglo Saxon
their fathers people
sins
her
strong success
a
bourgeoisie with
explanation
–
/
,
and
poverty
/
blame
the
elite
as
must shoulder
South African his
white and even black
Protestant
the poor
poverty has not enjoyed much support among members
for
of
conditions over which they have little
shortcomings
a
,
individuals
recognising that individuals become enmeshed explanation
or
,
of
an
perspective that links poverty
alternative
given
flaws and shortcomings
and personality
impoverished
not
the white elite largely subscribed to
perspective which ascribes poverty
the rich and
were important because
,
members
or
of
given
assistance
large
is
,
,
.
The attitudes
black
to
's
,
case
black majority
whether white
the degree
South Africa
mainly white minority and
and
or
-
mainly
and
powerful towards the poor they determined
powerful
rich
of
,
powerless
,
,
poor
small
,
's
relatively
a
into
population was always divided
the
long colonial history
its
During South Africa
integrity
and place
high value
a
,
middle
from
the white elite often emphasise
the
of
any
,
deviant
and
behaviour that deviates
the importance
greater part
lazy and untrustworthy and
punishment
of
their poverty
–
the
For
, of
regarded poor blacks
deserved
of
these values
mainly blacks
for
most whites
felt that they actually
adhere
people
.
to
them
disapprove
the –
.
strongly
as
20th century
away the poverty
as
,
not appear
,
justify the privileged
to
and achievement
they often to
a
do
ie
middle class work ethic
Consequently
is used
and explain
Africa members
South
individual initiative who
,
people –
-
of
.
class norms virtue
classes
' of lower -class In
behaviour
the middle
of
of
position
ISSUES
popular in prosperous middle - class
–
world . This approach
the western
in
still is
– and
on
of the poor was
and tenacity
circles
THE INFORMAL NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC
TO
to
PRELUDE
their lack
a
or
– an 20 ) in
a
1934
of
)
1932 and
a
less
a
of
–
simply not possible
them
the
of
losers
in
biogenetic origin made
of
and that hereditary factors and other
'
,
certain
with
endowed
‘
a
resolve
to
It
.
natural social order
moral
of
and
physical shortcomings
that members
explain the indifference
of
intellectual capacity
implicitly
were poor because they were
group
ethnic
explicitly
the is
racial
or
-
explanation assumed
or
.
to
or
poverty was often South Africa racial explanation closely linked the moral explanation Those favouring the biogenetic In
biogenetic
the
Afrikaners was only launched
Report had been published
Carnegie
However
.
119
:
1986
,
'
al
et
(
(
Beinart
impoverished
National Party formed
Purified Gesuiwerde
-
ideological issue
the upliftment
1930s after
It
.
by
Boer War that the
.3
strong drive
was only when large
the poor whites became
see Bundy the
for
among Afrikaners
the Afrikaners
regarded unsympathetically
the Anglo
in
social dislocation
of
of
,
to
-
and
Afrikaners were impoverished
, of in of
poverty
the
large section
English and Afrikaner middle class circles
numbers
in
poverty
of
both
Colin Bundy
the 19th century was either ignored
of
at
the
in
end
According
the
.
moral integrity and resolve
The
to
–
in
for
it
of
blacks
white
not
to
(
and
does
it
as
-
in
of
socio
adverse
20th century
fact that most
were deprived
,
political rights did not own property
terms
received very little support
did
1977
).
Terreblanche
,
poverty
middle class circles during the
)
see
(
this day
still exists
view
enjoy
of
political conditions
probably also black
what extent this
-
or
/
and
them
today
The approach that explains black economic
easy
which most blacks had
in
or
implicitly
is
The really important question
poverty
to
feel morally repentant about
whether explicitly
many whites made
the
the
,
racial prejudices
.
.
live
differently
-
not
it
put to
to
.
Or ,
many whites towards poverty black people during the 20th century without taking their strong and often hidden racial prejudices into account
educational and other
53
AND THE 'NEW
,
is
institutional conditions
and
and
not effectively
did
usually
control their
ignored
of
structural
self development
-
opportunities
'
AFRICA
SOUTH
.
THE TRANSITION
2:
for
PART
,
is
as
.
-
to
of
in
the size
and
,
by
is Its
.
used
.
on
of
mineral
for capital
bargaining power
the
both
was
labour
of
labour
,
.
the repressive
public corporations that grew into huge concerns during
ESKOM
ISCOR
,
such
,
largest corporations
(
's
today
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started
as
)
unfree African
and the expansion
conglomerates Some and SASOL
both
large
of
accumulation
from
of
and
growth
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),
and
have supported the
.
,
resources
1980s
stimulated
the
the
so
),
BSA
.
followed until
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.
SACOB
by
,
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Business
Business South Africa
Their growth was also the
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AHI
governments stimulated
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and
on
, .
to
'
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of
,
directorates and Chamber
political power
even
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emergence
and
mega corporations with
white supremacist governments
century
of
a
efficiency
and
unique characteristics
ideological and
the South African
Afrikaanse Handelsinstituut
54
,
a
of
interlocking
),
as
is
enhanced
(
,
by
in
power
practices
the structural
black poverty
structure power
small number
organisational
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the
myth making
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explain
to
/
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than
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biogenetic factors
The South African corporate sector has certain
For more
it
of
–
,
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in
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deficiencies and racial and
for
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organisations
generations
indifference
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them
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concentrated
the
the corporate sector began negotiating with the democratic
personality
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trapped
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explanation
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as
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,
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When leaders
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syndrome and further moral
structural poverty
as
vicious circle
half
hand outs
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poor
.
of
the poorest
on
poverty
leads
explanation
structural
dependency
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of
.
degeneration
are among those
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for
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charity
to
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terms
in
,
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terms
that they
and compassion
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to
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empathy
unlikely
of
or
/
and
explain black poverty
black poverty
necessary
South Africa
whites remain unprepared
-
to
Business people inclined
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,
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will regard
structures
the economic policies pursued during
, of
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or its
disrupted
to
extent
.
,
of
Africans
colonialism
about
even less
by
labour and
the
as
to
whites apparently know little about the extent exploited which Africans were impoverished and systematically unfree A
very large percentage
THE INFORMAL NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC
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productive
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reality
big corporations towards myth making
.
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more attractive image
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The American economist Kenneth Galbraith contends that the power
managerial elites
and
-
colonial construct
propaganda has been
(
's
justify the
and conviction are
and
(
have played
Another
aggressive phase
‘
project
sector
great sophistication
a
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and
of
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been
a
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this sector
tendency towards myth making was therefore part to
and that
more comprehensive
is
;
for this could
which conflict between different ethnic
emerged during
sector its
imperialism
,
domestic
trademark
but has always been
opportunities have always been unequally distributed corporate
to
in
,
-
.
groups has
strong
legitimise
be
in
countries
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in
in
country
order
South Africa
to
is
capitalist oriented
sector
promoting the interests
,
,
language
and
not limited
this country
in
strong
in
sectors
functionality
,
course all
This
privileged position colour
alleged
a
.
of
extremely
corporate
-
South Africans
,
and
,
power privileges
corporate
Africa
myth making and propagandising
, of
propensity
about South
's
most interesting for
is
What
it
global corporatism
through the networks
.
of
‘
internationalised and have attained considerable additional bargaining
all its
.
Since the 1990s many
–
political
broader
the
not only
of a
also
enormous bargaining
-
,
sector intact
-
but
the
to
its
overemphasised
generate propaganda
new
not
should
-
capacity
.
power and
sector
transition towards
The corporate sector
of
to
white privilege
arena
corporate
keep the mainly white controlled corporate
and perpetuate
economic
describe
African desert
, of
-
's
the
.
an
as
excuse
course
this argumentmay
Whatever the merits
African
greatest assets and that great care
of
harm
and efficiency
Africa
South in
of
as
not
taken
Africa
South
one
it
should
regarded
to
be be
should
in
first world oasis
argued that the productive capacity
often
used
sector
a
South African corporate
as
.
–
very considerable and very impressive
into
is the
corporate sector
African
South
are –
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,
fully or partially
be
private corporations .
,
converted
It
NP and were recently
a
of the
the governance
ISSUES
a
TO
an
PRELUDE
more
modern
55
Week by week , month
The modern
corporation
free market
system
,
.
on
, as
it
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the a
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.
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intervention
and rights in
the
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per cent
per cent
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'
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.
system
sector
in
's
government
economic
56
and
a
economic wealth
the poor
most elementary freedoms political power were concentrated
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the the
when
when
the labour force was subjected
systems that deprived blacks
that
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deeply
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per cent
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assiduously
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capitalism
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market
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The second
Afrikaner controlled
that South Africa has
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. .
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ostensibly the only engine
total population
which
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liberal
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than
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important role
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Africa
in
century largely financed
prosperity We
a
South Africa during the last quarter
by
19th
corporations have played
and
the reality
.
.
.
emerged
,
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Capitalist oriented corporations
how
there
exercises
1977 257
:
truth
(
fiction and
it
corporate myth
in
And
each other
to
relation
propagated
is
assiduously
government There
is a
, politicians ,
,
carefully
on
the
universities
year by year ,
our livelihood and the way we live
.
greater influence
,
by month
of
.
corporation
SOUTH AFRICA '
is
AND THE ' NEW
THE TRANSITION
2:
).
PART
PRELUDE TO THE INFORMAL NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC
The economic
system
place
century
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colonial
and racial capitalism
of
liberal (or
free
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in in
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since the end of the 19th
Africa ' –
South
fact one of
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ISSUES
as a system
one that advances the interests of
as
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in
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not have been
the
South Africa
was not
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.
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during that party
the time
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.
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the
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liberal
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at
a
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statism
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in
-
claimed
.
in
a
,
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promotes
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liberal capitalist
important
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,
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,
,
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,
‘
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is
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described
system
as
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't
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proper
this would also have been weren
South
.
.
in
of
free marketeers
first half
sector
not
they believed this interfered with
because
the power
all
corporate
still
can
become
place
and the number rules and protagonists capitalism The liberal were
state intervention
place
free market capitalism
demand
of
the
21980
The
the
.
in
system
currently
liberal capitalism
was
system
the large scale intervention
to
1948
mechanism
or
of
an
economic
regulations that were
from
nor
protagonists
was the degree
highly critical
the
the distribution
100 years have
system
power property
the
or
of
dogmatic
whether
the
South Africans
The unequal distribution
system
economic
of
of all
,
Africa
eight years after the political transition
test
of
,
on
)
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the
(
the
on
which they thrived for almost
free market capitalist system
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which colonial and racial capitalism
institutionalised that
not concern
was concentrated
conglomerates
including the inequalities
property and opportunities
the interests
break
.
-c
ten
orporations
deeply
liberal
chance
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power and property
mega
inequalities
were based and
majority
the
reasonable
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unfree black
of
,
,
of
,
is
that much
racially based power
and
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as
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of
hands
blacks
basis
the marginalisation
and social support systems and
vicious circle
further
a
proletariat without property proper employment
impoverished
opportunities
sector ) on
of
exploitation
the systemic
out
of
and the white -controlled corporate
blacks
(by
of power 'between successive white supremacist political authorities
a
' compact
was deliberately moulded
system
or
The
57
sector during long periods
creating and maintaining the immoral political
white business establishment should and maintain
colonial and racial
the
and equally
.
immoral economic
and for accumulating huge wealth and power
,
in
,
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.
,
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to
interests
,
the
in
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liberal free market
pursue their self interest with circumspection with due regard
of
-
and educated
for
,
are
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by
extremely
Smith
,
organised
)
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ordinated
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or
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invisible hand
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Smith
market prices would
,
.
of
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towards their true
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in
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and corporations
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Smith
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1994
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SOUTH AFRICA '
full
only
AND THE 'NEW
THE TRANSITION
2:
of
PART
58
of
,
to
,
;
of
and still
a
society was
or
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circumspection
with
)
South African
or
to
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remotely present
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NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC
THE INFORMAL
TO
the
PRELUDE
59
while
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45
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need for corrective
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162
of
:
’(
1997
the most astonishing events
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market ),
mentions that there may be
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al
media reaches hysterical
et
mainstream
.
As Heribert
unfettered market
to
,
is
,
happening and
taken root
even
play
not happening
unfortunately
in
an
important role
fact the opposite
in
;
Africa
This
is
and impoverished
.
state has
million
into
the foreseeable future on
to
will
all
system
including human and intellectual property and comprehensively fundamentally have and
.
,
this occurs the
an
-
of
economic
This will probably not happen
restructured
60
free
the government
be
relations
system
that the
claim
(
labour
,
power property
Even
neo liberal
truly liberal
one that will serve the interests
present
1976
a
-
create
change the South African
to
order
oriented
who
a
'
to
anti statist attitude
“
it
takes much more than
and
.
In
system
enriched
free market capitalist
created
introduce neo liberal
It
.
economic and
convinced
policies
would have been
system
a
could have been
preposterous
liberal
a
in
that such
and undeservedly
is
,
,
system
Africa was
South
to
or
system
a
.
economic
circumstances
these
In
empowered
marginalised and exploited
,
and systemically
)
small black elite were constantly the whites were constantly
a
.
groups other than whites
the 20th
xcept
(e
in
the population
Africa during
South
or
century was such that
system
place
first world country
-
Africa
and
among
the perception
or
all
The institutional framework
by
neglect and
market economic
free
the third
they were during segregation
the white and black elite that South
developed
Although those
is
'
exploited
'
.
today
exploited by the modern
or
exploited
still
century
the 20th
in
a
members with
they
of
,
apartheid
are
world sector cannot
it was recklessly as
greatest part
be
for
sector
because
by
the
extremely underdeveloped
AFRICA '
SOUTH
in
AND THE 'NEW
THE TRANSITION
2:
of
PART
the
fundamental restructuring
the
"
.
,
,
of
of
-
as
of
the anti state propaganda
apartheid
is
as
credibly
can
,
statism
this was
obsessed with rolling back
give the the mega corporations more
-
certainly hypocritical
misplaced and even
,
propaganda
to
It
far in
to
In
.
far
so
order
the
about the institutional
place before we
the FMF
to
role
realise that the
,
,
space and power
its
redefining
state and
its
the
But
in
.
certainly commendable
for the abolition
is
a
the FMF was responsible
system
in
of
free market capitalist
be
was never really concerned
and behavioural conditions that ought talk
important
is
;
.
and that
but these have been
with the supposedly negative role
do
more
had
to
to the
FMF
and
the economic sphere most blacks
so
state
and impoverished
it
apartheid
, of
propaganda
heights
place since 1990
taken
the political arena
remain marginalised
commanding
it
South African society
Important power shifts have mainly restricted
the
of
abolition
the
of
campaigned
credibility if
only attain
The FMF could
ISSUES
',
of the commanding heights ’. for
hands
THE INFORMAL NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC
TO
in
PRELUDE
,
the
.
.
,
as
by
,
'
‘
all
South
for
of
interests
compensate
to
can
the
creating and maintaining
the in
concerned
,
are
well
as
property
as
,
.
spread
and
of
the nature
as
in
,
as
making the adaptations necessary economic order such but also changing and dynamic world Inter alia the state has responsibilities far
as a
in
racial capitalism
the
(
to
restructuring
.1 ).
see section
play
and
11
crucial role
as
its
)
-
is
It
an
.
,
in
the state must intervene
the system
human
beyond dispute that
enormous
from
a
–
it
in
a
in
is
-
degree
rules
social construct
or
is
,
of
to
a
inherited
are
Capitalism
supported and defined
has
Some
classical schools
neo
human
and
during
experiencing
natural construct and
civil society
in
not only has
and
making
especially
currently
continuously adapted
a
,
meantime
dysfunctionality inherent state
therefore
reasonable
a
,
the
In
.
Africans
be is
it
;
automatically
The
and
the economic system to
the
as
–
a
play before
to
the
embodiment
project
dangerous misconception
a
.
This
over almost five centuries
project that needs
operate
as
capitalism
nature
institutions and attitudes
role
the classical
a
laws
state
of
akin
such
play
to
a
regard modern
of
inclined to
(e
specially those
economists
developed
always
that which South Africa
is
such
crucial role
to
transformation
as
the state always has
capitalism
is
any capitalist country
,
In
.
destructive
the power
are
included
over
and
such
South
Africa
those groups that are
marginalised
reasonable
period
from –
',
underdeveloped
all
for ensuring that
consumermarkets as
,
country
a
economic activity
a
In
.
,
undeveloped
developing
–
mainstream
responsible
the economy not only
“
in
,
unemployed
factor markets
undeniably “
the state
is
but especially
of
concerning the competitiveness
in
.
formations closely connected with property The state also has responsibilities
into
61
'
‘
in
of
).
;
,
,
far
on
a
or
South Africa
democratised
,
to
play
possible because the
the trustworthy
invisible hand
'
to
negotiations
the informal
organisation
'
'
as
-
rolled back
best left
free market
obsessed with the idea that the state should not
also
'
is
the economy
liberal
of
,
be
it
should
and erroneous
the free market
.
-
a
in
effect
'
trickle down
'
spontaneous
a
.1 .4
3
The myth
of
of
and that
system
was
important socio economic role
an
have
It
.
economic matters
system
this notion
and took
unrealistic
'
system
economic
to
economic
African
in
idea that the South
simplistic
the
their
Hertz 2001 Klein 2000
see
(
Thus the corporate sector adopted
marketeers
free
-
political power
economic but also
the
which the mega corporations usurp
in
'
'
society
the strata
these responsibilities
.
,
,
not only
not acknowledged
relatively stateless
a
quest for
All
economic activity
by
unfortunately
state are
the benefits
is
in
the
is also responsible for ensuring that
a
society share
'
in
. The state
stream
AFRICA
SOUTH
as
the main
AND THE NEW
all
THE TRANSITION
2:
of
PART
rapidly
growing
62
-
,
-
a
of
the
is
than
per cent
all
to
.
total income
all
of
20
70
,
,
almost
power
This
property and
while
Africans
were
,
,
.4 .1 ).
10
trade union and other basic human rights
underdeveloped as
(
culturally
of
,
relatively uneducated
,
economic
,
political
hands
unfree labour patterns see section
or
-
is
it
1974 was quite
whites constituted
1974
per cent
racial
70
of
to
and
of
Until
capital
well
as
.
1890
almost in
if
to
,
,
, ie ,
from
and
white
highly
opportunities
colonial
the fact that almost
concentrated
of
it
,
to
.10
or
'
,
).
system
Africans constituted
(
victims
of
the
whether
attributed
propertyless disenfranchised and also deprived
contrast
not
Another important determining
,
were
, )
ideological
human
)
(
and
and
but consistently received more
but received less than
huge discrepancy must physical
redistributive effect
the institutional character
so
,
,
the total population
By
total income
.
per cent
the total population
less
the creation
poor
Whether economic
power property
record
distributive record
the
future
ethnic groups
growth
will achieve
be
per cent
of
its
but
of
20
,
satisfactory only
concerned
is
capitalism
ways
the South African
its
-
.
labour intensive
lead
economic growth
as
the nature
far
factor would
As
be
(
among different classes and
of
and the distribution
/ of or
system
,
;
controversial this would depend inter alia economic
be
trickle down
on
results
it
of
the
,
foreseeable
in
least
-
growth automatically
the
then
beneficial
especially
the necessary power
given
spontaneously
other
, a'
,
immediately
will
sector
global capitalism
in
trickle down
should
framework
which
rate
'
and
that
the corporate
in
'
‘
,
economic growth
,
jobs
space
and
'
high
has been
–
since the 1970s freedom
of
ideological arguments
the main
at
One
in
of
economy
being
PRELUDE TO THE INFORMAL NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC
in
the 1930s
in
of
annual growth rate
.
foreign investment
20
stagflation
of
.
1974 until 1994 South Africa experienced
During
,
,
docile and cheap
the
of
-
off
a
,
unfree
,
years from
large inflow
revolution
an
by
,
,
4 5
However African labour remained
until 1974
1934
per cent was maintained marked
industrial take
of
from
in
that ushered
years
a
.
and 1940s During the
mining
remarkable
20th
and docile African
cheap
an
century 40
the
of
,
early part
an
.
not coincide Given
availability
mining corporations achieved
labour the
growth and redistributive records during the
the did
century
the
Africa 's economic
South
ISSUES
outflow
,
the redistributive record
during this period was unimpressive
the
The per capita
reason
for this was that large scale structural unemployment had not yet
gradually until 1974
.
four main ethnic groups increased
in
trickle down
effect
a
of
market driven
-
rather than any
during this
occurred
'
(
statism
ever before
1974 than
shifts
-
interventions
and the distribution
political power shifts and political
'
,
but both were brought about )
(
. 8 ).
table
century
Two important distributional
by
10
income between whites and blacks was more unequal
at
whites increased
black population groups
of
those
the per capita income
,
rate than
of
.
higher
of
However
,
manifested itself
see
The only
-
all
income
of
.
economy
South African
growth record
of
contrast with
its
In
sharp
.
,
foreign capital and creeping poverty
Again
to
a
.
. NP its
,
of
,
-
income
colonial
,
1974
white
.
than
times higher
than that
negative effects
political power shifts
were
–
.8 ).
,
of it
in
,
capita
1934
11 5
see table
with both positive
.
per
10
1975
and
English speakers
to
, ) )
40
whites was
and
second distributive shift
place between 1974 and 1994
years from
of
the
of
.
that
(
to
times higher
the
1948 the per capita
marginalise most people other
capita income
or
as
,
It
.
in
of
,
.
continued
per
per cent
Yet during the
were
embourgeoisement
While
(
it
was
century
the then much higher
-
A
,
Africans
the
,
1946
1974
6,
of
,
While
in
and racial capitalism
14
in
per cent
was however
and perhaps too rapid
the third quarter
1930s
and farmers that were mainly
(
for
70
speakers
-
English
the spectacular
soldiers
spending policies
and
entrepreneurs
Afrikaners was less that
to
increased
-
's
Afrikaners
of
the
responsible
enlisted
the industrial sector
employment
pro Afrikaner
towards Afrikaner
favouritism
income
,
lucrative terms
government
50
on
employed
the early
from
jobs and good educational opportunities
many Afrikaners
2
during World War
in
,
Also
in
benefited Afrikaner workers
onwards because they had protected
the
their favour had not occurred
of
rate
This was
would not have been enriched
important political power shifts
growth
Afrikaners
.
,
but Afrikaners
favour
in
to
1974
,
The higher
1934
in
same extent
growth
of
high
,
period
if
of
The first took place from
of
.
economic growth
took
largely
63
all
in
(
of
a
of
the
cent
to 80
top
10 4
. ). the
to
20
The
considerably
of
(
per
the top
table
black
,
relatively uneducated
informal bargaining power
.
and were therefore
,
of
the
of
of
access
the
less
likely
to
,
propertyless
60
per cent and poorest
,
.
.
.
the
corporate
sector and
market will automatically case nothing but ideological
,
free
The deeply
institutionalised
power property and opportunities between and
the
high
level
of
blacks
,
the distribution
the
myth
's
propagated
in
Africa
, ,
carefully
majority
South
, is
the poor
of
a
that growth generated
of
in
and
the
'
trickle down
to
free marketeers
claim
by
these two distributive shifts proves that
of
political power shifts and political interventions the
by
decisive role played
and
. ).
(
of
,
per cent see
1974
economic growth
from
inequalities
by
a
,
to
.
per cent and the income
by
the income
per cent
Many more Africans became unemployed
deception
income
From
more than
without
and
10 4
of
per cent
, of
20
,
and increased
Africans
This last group remained
mostly disenfranchised
in
.
in
-
to
elites
to
20
the
gap between the top
mounting
ameliorate
the negative and positive distributive shifts was
population
the
the NP government
of
African households
black elite
regime These measures shifted
40
coloured households
20
by
of
per cent
Asians increased by
per cent
of
1994 the income
whites
to
,
of
the
by
and coloureds and the top
of
most Asians
power towards black
30
-
extra parliamentary
white
from
the liberation
.
.
measures implemented
The reform
the late 1970s and 1980s were desperate attempts
The
not
The unofficial strikes
bargaining power
legitimacy crisis surrounding the apartheid
64
1994
1970s and the intensification
onwards enhanced
1976
see table
parliamentary power
extra
the early 1970s
the early
groups considerably
benefit
from
positive distributive
by
in
shift
the
from
Afrikaners
and creeping poverty
stagflation
elites from
African workers
widen
albeit
) 60
2
.1 ).
10
whose income declined
per cent because the NP government could
,
towards black
net effect
almost
poorest and relatively unorganised
and the
, ) ,
35
+
by
of
-
situation
a
its
In
whose income declined
towards and financial support
favouritism
struggle
buffer themselves
given the declining economy and the changing political atmosphere
effect was brought about
in
Africans
( )
much higher level
-
1994
and
whites mainly Afrikaners
per cent
maintain
cent
enough
unemployment These groups were
(
1974
poverty
;
per cent from
per
60
the
poorest
of
40
mainly
creeping
organised
population
by
of
that were not powerful
to
)
groups
against the effects
from
and growing
rate
those vulnerable subgroups
or
all
(
unemployment impoverished
growth
The low
the
.
declined
per cent and unemployment increased
per cent see table
36
to
per cent
annual
per cent the per capita income
,
total population
15
economic
by
growth rate was less than
During this period the average
,
effects
(
both sets
.
of
responsible
AFRICA '
SOUTH
20
AND THE 'NEW
THE TRANSITION
2:
for
PART
structural
unemployment economic
THE INFORMAL NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC
TO
among Africans
particular ,
in
conditions under which
economic growth
institutional and socio not possible for a higher
create
simply
is
it
ISSUES
rate to have a spontaneously
beneficial distributive effect
.
favour of those socio -economic classes that have been marginalised
of 33 per cent
of 67 per cent have been
situation
a
50
beneficial
,
to
and
and South
,
propaganda onslaught with
and promote
interests
vested
at
South African society
large
, in
as
and poverty
to
for
a
,
the
power
the other side the
repression
secured
for
deprivation
–
and
,
coin
whites
inevitably caused
,
the same systemic
mostly
the two establishments
protect and promote their mutual interest
,
,
privileges and wealth
for
the
and mutually
operative
racist political and economic structures that
-
maintenance
of
hand
in
,
supportive relationships were often strained
white political and
,
these
come into being
of
had
-
Although
co
.
establishments
glove
and
in
beneficial partnerships
the white business establishment and successive
bureaucratic worked
serious legitimacy crisis
most serious accumulation crisis During the preceding
years several mutually
between
the 1980s and early
.
its
sector
white
century
,
when the apartheid regime experienced
the corporate
sector and successive
their closest a
They were perhaps
at
.
.
+
to
#
1990
close symbiotic
Those relationships were maintained
,
1990s
1890
governments
century
the 19th
,
at
the end
of
.2
3
,
The corporate sector white supremacy and the three accumulation strategies of the 20th century
supremacist
of
growth
these negotiations leaders
relationships were forged between the corporate
100
per cent
.
At
.
the general interests
After the mineral revolution
from
The upper
high economic
corporate myth
of
to
:
in
entrench
of
irrespective
mind
and the
result from
between
sector subjected ANC leaders
one purpose
only
.
sustainable
system
a
The distance
African reality could hardly have been greater the corporate
beneficial
the informal negotiations
to
the
political transformation
vigorously
Africa '.
liberal dogma about the
sector took the neo
liberal capitalist economic
the
of
33 a
2
top in
figure
corporate
.
propagated
after
it
rate
any
per cent and poorer
employment and redistributive effects that would growth
have
its
alleged merits
South
-
this
'
a
'
trickle down
,
Despite
effect
see
per cent between the
anything but certain
of
is
this
all
but
experience
in
(
might
- will
intervention
'new
growth rate alone – ie ,
favour of the poorer half of the population
-
lower class (
17
the
redistributive effect
a
the
high economic
-
without
government
in
lower
.1 ) .
aggressive
unlikely that
and a
,
, it is highly
the
class
Consequently
perpetuated
The
, )
deeply institutionalised inequalities between an elite
in
of
PRELUDE
majority
.
blacks
65
the corporate
the
collaboration with
the to
)
of
satisfy
It
–
the
in
.
and
factually
repressive
redesigned
in
,
–
chapters
and periodically
corporate sector
and remains
–
in
As
we indicate
-
.2 ).
designed
were
–
-
its
new
system
labour The denial
relationship forged
9
in
.
in
and
labour measures introduced
the light
4
see
(
labour patterns
section
was especially
perpetuating
cheap and docile African
early 1990s with the democratic movement but was indefensible
on
long symbiotic
century
8
demand
was perhaps understandable
constructing
repressive
cost
evidence before the
gave
it
when
the
as
as
almost insatiable
well
almost
their
and
cost
to
or
's
denial about
–
1997
, of
its
racial capitalism
role for
its
in
of
partnership
the
unwillingness
relationships with successive white supremacist governments denial about
1994
).
on
.6
TRC
the
inability
in
a
state
(
,
.
1960
from
labour patterns while ignoring
of
's
was clearly one
mindset
simply not
The corporate
and concentrated only
exploitation
'
sector
is
century
the 20th
–
claim
to
,
"
).
8
of
7
This
or
of ,
,
2
on
1994
to
;
of
ch
and
had
beneficiary
,
of
about systemic
truth
'
section
see
The corporate –
,
:
the
decreasing effect uncover the
1974
from
they argued that business
more important repressive labour patterns (
completely
from
TRC
apartheid because
what had happened
discriminatory
of
in
some cases only
increasing effect
TRC
4
'
‘
(
arguments mainly
Commission
collaborator with
paras
least not for the first three quarters
sector based and
vol
partner
4
at
–
true
a
doing business
not
and
see TRC 1998
system
its
the
victim
a
really been
sector who testified
the Truth and Reconciliation
claimed that their corporations had not benefited apartheid had raised the cost
'
AFRICA
SOUTH
of
the
hearings
the business
representatives
of
at
almost
1997
In
AND THE 'NEW
THE TRANSITION
all
2:
PART
close
successive white supremacist
and
the
mining industry
Mail
,
of
&
.
The
implementing
into
of
the supply
in
(
record
governments
mining industry
of
track
at
)
cheap migrant labour for the
government and the South
colonial
increasing
the 20th century
more specifically the Chamber
and
and United Party UP
segregationist measures aimed described the
the
that pressurised
SAP
(
African Party
–
)
CM
(
Mines
–
the 19th century and during the first half
was mainly the gold mining companies
of
it
the end
)
of
At
.
governments
and control over
Guardian recently
the following damning
from
the country
labour practices
March 2001
the
successive white
).
15
–
Africa almost
and been
,
,
hoard mineral rights
(9
conduct iniquitous
South
at
milked untold riches
to
)
governments
given free reign
66
It
.
supremacy
has
the impoverished majority been allowed
to
of
law
a
as
expense
unto itself
operated
[ by
mining industry
,
For many many years
in
the
:
terms
NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC
.
to
the CM
's
to
'.
,
its
).
4
,
to
of
of
in
[
,
to
:
4
not
as
'
flawed
and
'
to
African migrant
sidestep the African CM
's
vol
did 33 –
by
'(
low
of
).
the Chamber
the
AAC
and
are
of
themselves which
is
more acceptable
in
of
image
than the ugly
the
at
of
.
of
,
,
see
section
The
the
of
at
formula
from
liberation struggle
the
by
1978 until 1993
,
in
three phases from
for resolving the serious
the early 1970s onwards
.
find
and implemented
intensified
and attempts
This
of
as
creating the
in
attempts
a
NP
government
accumulation crisis that had developed crisis deepened
and
. ).
(
corporations see section
to
almost desperate
the
sector and
owned mining
.1 ).
or
attract foreign capital
third accumulation strategy was formulated
corporate
or
by
solving their labour problems
,
)
(
white mainly Afrikaner The
the century was
foreign
74 )
–
(
or
of
1952
colonial
the
segregationist
place during the heyday accumulation strategy was originally implemented and was the insistence
Verwoerdian
apartheid
during the first half
(
was aimed
political stability necessary second
.
of
insistence
The first
the day
3 2
at
; it
corporations
place
of
the
in
strategy
implemented
,
accumulation
can
the beginning
from
government
the corporate sector
at
,
least part
at
of
insistence
implemented
each
to
century
the 20th
the
distinguish among three broad accumulation strategies
implement
profitability We
3
's
accumulation strategies that would enhance the former
to
convince the latter
to
supremacist governments
white
symbiotic relationship
-
,
sector used
of
On several occasions the corporate
its
.
systemic exploitation
reality
in
nature
which
submission
submissions
The
of
“
to
'
,
vol
4
:
the AAC
most glaring failure was
gold
grapple with
1998
wages paid
the AAC
the
prominent private sector institutions twist the truth
how
an
create
to
order
and TRC
the submission
34
.
TRC 1998
of
a
‘
'( ',
and noted that
prime examples
squarely
regrettable and not constructive
The TRC described
According
origins and
its
until 1972
wage issue
with
,
-
record
]
its
[
is
apartheid
the
conditions brutal
that the failure
conclusion
single word about the extraordinarily
misleading
compound
understanding the
the damning
The TRC was equally critical
workers
political economy
,
is
of
]
central
address
to
in
the its
in
of
,
“
It
'.
came
moral implications say
and referred
striking workers racist practices and meagre wages to
the
‘
to
of
Mines
)
(
is
on
of
sub human
1998
and
was justifiably rather critical
TRC
report
the shameful history
mining industry apartheid
constructing racial capitalism
apartheid
significant formative impact
suppression
This deliberate
deplorable
these organisations
TRC
exploited and degraded
acknowledge their role
exploiting African workers both
even
.
to
disinclination
nor
acknowledge that
AAC
had been
TRC neither the
was prepared
The
African mine workers
ISSUES
CM
In their submissions to and testimonies before
Anglo American Corporation
,
THE INFORMAL
TO
the
PRELUDE
the
67
THE TRANSITION
AND THE NEW
SOUTH AFRICA
. We can
apartheid regime to suppress it became more relentless
among three further phases
interests
with
day
AAC
the
in
.
-4
.
, .5)
4 2
Foundation
),
and the South
Africa
.
six
–
implemented
instalments
the AAC accumulation strategy
by
.
–
Market
the Free
playing particularly prominent prescriptive roles We can
therefore call the third accumulation strategy 1978
business
associated
in
(
SAF
the
adopt policies that
,
the Urban Foundation
and
(
Foundation
from
the
of
the government
strategy
accumulation
third
a
search for
see section
the Centre for Development and Enterprise CDE
)
),
(
such
high growth path
( UF )
organisations
its
best serve
FMF
of
sector persuaded
as
would
economy
,
corporate
phases
six
In
all
's
placing South Africa
a
sector
on
did
upon by
corporate
strategy
third accumulation
a
the democratic movement , the ANC government, and the from 1993 until 2002 . These attempts also not succeed the
agreed
for
in the search
also distinguish
(
2:
to
PART
in
to
is
it
give
short overview
mining
corporations
An important
.
-
be more war the mining
gold
After the
of
of
General
and coercing
of
unifying the four
Act was
into becoming
. alliance a
firstly the exploitation
of
the
‘
by
formulated
three pillars
of a
the Land
maize farms
,
mines
strategy
them
gold
a
for –
in
–
1913
Smuts the
Jan
accumulation needs
and
population
was based
alliance
destroying the economic independence
accumulation
'
gold and maize
be
‘
.
,
1907
:
The segregationist
afterwards
,
the African
An
elite
the
'
deliberate
Shortly
of
.
1910
compliant and cheap labour force between
Afrikaner
This alliance provided the basis
on
large part
of
enacted with
the
British colonies
in
.
mining corporations
companies and the
strike
clearly understood
on
that
aim
demonstrated
mine workers he
during
elite
gold
the
the
,
when
Afrikaner
the
Transvaal
of
was forged between the mining
'
and maize
Afrikaner elite
and
the
the British
coerced into
remarkable rapprochement took place in
between
1907 onwards
from
a
,
Consequently
operation
-
earning proletariat with
co
the
wage
-
a
corporations informed the government that Africans could only
.
in
production
.
the profitable
create
the Transvaal that would
of
to
conducive
for
reason
Boer War was that the British colonial government wanted
Anglo
infrastructural and labour conditions
68
not recruit
could
to
CM
,
gold
the mines
in
work
to
enough cheap African labourers
)
–
the the
(
of
discovery
accumulation crisis because
chronic
a
the
years after
25
first
1907
strategy
48
.
all
In
the
.2 ./
The segregationist accumulation
experienced the
necessary
three
3
of
,
strategies since the early 20th century
a
To
demonstrate the strategic role played the corporate sector formulating and implementing the three successive main accumulation
THE INFORMAL NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC
state was finally consolidated
its
;
.
, in
first
the
of
a
(
see
and
,
1932
a
of
by
created
of
,
white
Africans
in
in
-
an
by
.
by
the detriment
gold was increased
Hertzog and Smuts
formed between
the same year
in
,
When the price
strikes
1933 the legitimacy
the
,
471
and the Pact victory
whites but
During
the Smuts government
in
coalition
:
'
1996
).
Meara
behalf 13
on
consensual order
1924
,
Act
Industrial Conciliation
all
.
The enactment
1910
speaking
two serious armed
violently contested
and several
of
(
workers
1922
English
greater degree
even
was
active participation
from
the new state was challenged
),
and
between
to
of
.
-
12
years the legitimacy
and black
O
to
policy making Blacks were excluded
1914
Africa
South
in It
,
compromise
excluded poorer whites
Afrikaner elite that
rebellions
stability
primary products
.
a
on
it
was based
;
an
and
political
the export
of
large part
a
establish such stability The political order created
to
,
was rather fragile
socio
-
easy
of
‘
in
however not
,
the creation
,
and thirdly
secondly
ISSUES
its
native reserves
the
with
of
subsistence
workforce
in
controllable African
';
cheap and easily
an
TO
of
PRELUDE
,
and very lucrative conditions for accumulation
see to
areas
urban
in
-
jobs
(
semi skilled
sections
be
a
of an
in
as
the
threatened the stability
.
industrial sector
1948
of
growing militancy the
the
be
of
resistance
easily
NP
exploiting the economic uncertainties specially and the fears white voters (e
,
Afrikaner workers and farmers
all
controlled
a
,
vulnerable
general election
but
.
to
A
cycle
of
of
and unofficial strikes
still
in
too to
new
not
black trade union organisation
the
urban areas
make farming profitable
the urban areas could
.
in
,
profitability won
squatter settlements low
not only because
predicament
economic
traditionally
,
.
The maize farmers
–
as
the government was incapable
mining compounds
the ANC
solved
serious
A
'.
and maize
with
by
unexpectedly
growth
a
the
of a,
towns
in
migrant workers
in
maize was
African arrivals
The new
the ranks
migrated
of
also because the price
had
were
not
could
In
the
UP
of
gold
an
many African workers
–
important UP constituency
state and
alliance
favourable investment climate
a
restoring
the
crisis was threatening
,
accumulation
was confronted
and economic problems that
in
within
government
'
of ,
,
of
the parameters
2
after World War
social political
complex
as
in
of
Africans
employ
. ).
Immediately
in
thus enabling manufacturing industries
8 6
.3
8
increasing numbers
of
created
-
an
,
discriminatory measures
shanty
When World War
the Smuts government into relaxing influx control and other
sector pressurised
and
other
into
industrial take off the English oriented corporate
-
,
conditions conducive
industy
especially
diversify
2
.
economy
the
for
of
sectors
they began
result
that gold
realised to
As
reserves might become depleted
ore
mining corporations
, .
1930s the gold
,
early
a
In
the
.
created for themining industry
69
: THE TRANSITION AND THE
2
'NEW
AFRICA'
SOUTH
poorer Afrikaners ) that they might be swamped
)
– 86
by
for
of
(
a
to
,
.
far
a
of
a
in
(
)
to
of
of
of
to
its
NP
.
in
to
At
a
.
in
,
of
to
, to
all
.
,
'
,
of
,
.
manufacturing
.
not only
for
This was the
The other was
a
the
for
to
,
in
.' almost
5
of
–
view
remarkably
per
cent was
The relationship between
the
.
of
rate
century
point
of
“
began
government
's
new
,
and
overtly statist
favouritism
towards
benefit handsomely
towards the apartheid
and supportive
attitude
.
it
as
.
,
hostility
operative
-
co
increasingly
its
its
favour
public corporations But
accumulation strategy an
replaced
migrant labour
native reserves
additional discriminatory measures
and
by
new
in
in
-
, ;
the
Afrikaners
very
sector and the NP government was initially
corporate
the former was not
growth
of
–
maintained
the third quarter
policies
also
work
import substitution
the
of
in
An annual economic
.
successful
that
forcing millions
the principle
the white corporate
from
urban areas
accumulation strategy
the Verwoerdian
that
system
The new control mechanisms forced
subsistence
industrialisation based
English controlled
institutionalised
industries
reinvented
the mining industry but
This strategy was
70
to
,
this way Verwoerd
one cornerstone
strained
areas
These
introduced his stricter influx
subservient but also prepared
and
resistance
black
were appalling
reserves
urban
of
In
employment
of
.
work
coupled with the notion
policy
native
‘
the
not only docile
wages
doing
.
look
.
low
1952 Verwoerd
on
to
them
and
in
,
Africans
be
conditions
to
,
stage
African
the increasingly militant ANC
African migrant workers
cheap
for in
supplied
laws
urbanisation
in
control and
and
In
,
aims were accomplished when
creating
control over
gain
suppress
in
of
native reserves
shanty towns trade unions
urban
and especially
policy was
the apartheid
so
the
more
white entrepreneurial
harsh and uncompromising
perpetuate black
',
outside
From
their
century
‘
Africans
of a
for
The immediate purpose
the AHI
segregationist
black resistance and
he
–
breaking the cycle
another quarter
crisis
segregation with the
apartheid
perhaps owing
power relations that enabled whites exploitation
the
the
successful
–
resolved
replacing the policy
apartheid was in
,
of
view
character
The
and oppressive policy
comprehensive
point
by
strategy
accumulation
the English
conditions favourable
create
to
.
advancement
towards the
sensitive
government was put under pressure
The new
.
economic
accumulation
new
lesser extent the interests
farming community
the Afrikaner
formulate
remarkably
was
it
,
,
industry and
oriented industrial sector and
NP
the
expectations
themining
1952
government was
to a
Against
of
.
interests
all
the first tasks
strategy
strategy
Verwoerdian accumulation
of
One
9 2
of
The
..
3 2 2
African
by
. ).
( see section
urbanisation
( oorstroom )
its
PART
from
regime was
THE INFORMAL NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC
lucrative investment opport
so
of to
be
it
rands
on
),
South Africa
.
'
of
territory
's
on
'
in
white
making
of
as
a
all
,
so
do
to
to
Africans
South Africa
this policy
the Verwoerdian
to
. It .
,
stagflation
prolonged stagflation was the
government
's
determined
efforts
government
find
a
the
to
NP
inability
of
the
, ,
political crisis
credible
to
the
of
a
worldwide economic recession
economy into almost three decades
's
was
this day
of
leading
important reason
The
1970s
the Petroleum Exporting Countries
for
price
of
mid
the
the white
-
in
,
view
the
to
The economic crisis therefore became inextricably linked ie
it .
point
crisis has remained largely unresolved
An
.2 .1 , ).
10
(
of
.
increased
the
this strategy collapsed
liberation struggle and the apartheid
solution
at
was
risk
sinking
into
-
low
,
further
which
.
large part
destitution
and
the
one
and the
the black population a
into
per cent
of
60
,
rising unemployment
in
deteriorated
additional crisis also inextricably linked
of
an
of
least the poorest
social crisis gradually population
crisis
of
a
social
at
pauperisation
of
:
others
level
regime stagflation
'
and rising unemployment created
'
the accumulation and legitimacy crises deepened during
between the liberation movements and the apartheid
the
the
As
.
black disenfranchisement
war to
Verwoerd
express their political rights
to
of
this policy
Achilles heel
success from
1973 when the Organisation
see section
to
the
.
)
,
,
in
of
sector
plunging South Africa
suppress
credible
population should
black
per cent
the
oil ,
in
due course
remarkable
the
)
(
–
'(
NP
years
ensuing accumulation
and
could not supply
attempt
government spent billions
controlled corporate
OPEC
the middle 1970s
strategy
20
After
world
was this vulnerability
from
civil rights and welfare privileges
any
became
accumulation
triggered
a
.
,
per
70
‘
it
,
viable
how
desperate
comprising
of
the
(
in
while forfeiting
long
the population were
cent
native reserves
Although the
growth
accumulation strategy was
his Bantustan policy According
1959
in
,
comprising
In
politically
accommodated announced
high economic
and
.
,
national question
of
to
the
(
incomplete and therefore vulnerable answer
successfully
the Verwoerdian as
economic success
its
Despite
investment
disinvestment strategy
)
its
liberation movement exploited
onwards via
,
.
,
the
that
external shocks Ironically
to
economy and vulnerable
foreign
economy dependent
African
South
13
,
made
also
substantially
contributed the
but
rate
.
entrepreneurship
to
for
foreign
corporations The large inflow
foreign
of
especially the availability
– and
cheap and docile African labour – also created
unities
ISSUES
the
The post -war accumulation strategy
the
TO
it
PRELUDE
This
black
abject and
poverty
crises that began
to
and social
)
legitimacy
,
The accumulation
( or
, .
dehumanising poverty
71
, ;
2
(
)
a
for
the
of
of
on
a
six
The on
,
.
W
P
of
of
by
.
AAC
the Wiehahn
labour laws and influx control respectively
,
,
and the Carlton and Good
Hope
.
and business leaders
by
of
,
to
1989 coincided with the second period
marked
),
phase
the policy
positive
'
of
implementation
the abolition
of
'
‘
or
larger
the
.
and
phases
the investigations
the Heunis reform the
influx control
behalf
are
to
,
(
government
FW
coincided with
Klerk
's
1993
de
,
1989
from
,
third phase
to
urbanisation
–
(
,
,
,
in
of
six
.
,
's
's
of
,
an
for
by
i
1985
into
1985
from
leading role
briefly described below coincided with the first period
some government reforms
The second phase
The
globalisation
from
involving government
conferences
and SAF played
CDE
strategy
1978
from
accumulation
new
these the AAC and associated business
FMF
benefit
Riekert commissions
Botha
the search
government and was marked
followed
ii
the
accumulation
The first phase
and
iii
each
to
of
corporations planning
Botha
phases
1978
corporate sector but mainly
the entire
led search
.
onwards
1978
organisations such
2001
)
among
UF
strategy from
behalf
strategy
In
distinguish
can
as
We
AAC led accumulation
-
3 . .32
The
Marais
1
:
ch
Saul and Gelb 1981
see
political ch
and social dimensions were addressed simultaneously
economic
:
resolved
interlinked that they
,
were if
they could only
the so
20th century
be
the
last quarter
–
became organic
,
unravel during
SOUTH AFRICA '
AND THE NEW
of
the
THE TRANSITION
2:
ie
PART
a
by
on
political negotiations and was and
especially
to
first
the
to
economic matters that
led
corporate sector and representatives
1996
the democratic movement
elite compromise
of
of
or
unofficial negotiations between representatives
the on
transitional constitution
the
).
,
NEM
the corporate
of
on
the
the informal
agreement
Model
(
on
the Normative Economic
The fourth phase coincided with the formal
marked
government
of
,
and the agreement among the
and the IMF
by
iv
sector
,
, -
think tanks
NP
government and included the agreement transitional democratic publication private sector constitution the several economic scenarios
November
of
the
of
Growth
,
the
global
of
the introduction
of
the
exchange controls
,
by
).
strategy
privatisation policy the further relaxation
,
by
compromise
2002 was marked
,
,
's
72
1997
to
,
vi
government
from
GEAR
representatives
and
elite
formal negotiations
(
,
second
Employment and Redistribution The sixth phase
and was marked
(
that
the
capitalism
with the two years
coincided
the corporate sector
led
,
among the GNU
)
(
national unity GNU
to
government
1994
]
,
from
,
fifth phase
of
The
.
1993
THE INFORMAL NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC
the
NP
.
the
,
(
a
,
50
;
six to
)
growth
.
address
implication
The
of
or
of
that the best way
and
it
the
crisis
not
and also
this
the accumulation crisis remained unresolved
the
,
well but could
deteriorate
,
as
only remain unresolved
for
a
a
,
,
. – 85
)
(
's
In
.
mobilise the full This was the When
.
was established
'
counteract the total onslaught
power forged between
for
initiatives and –
reform
This
in
.
and the corporate sector
Botha
as
regarded
,
.
profitability
close partnership
to
Vorster was
in
to
.
-
of
1978
July 1997 this
the business sector
's
for
term
'
intended
people
the
'
of
’
'
compact
a
,
the
–
the
place
total strategy
to
its
securocrats
was jointly responsible
putting
them
enforce the changes
short
Botha became prime minister
between the government and
In
business
extraordinary politicisation
'
,
P
an
beginning W
for restoring corporations
.
on
' '
business power
necessary
partnership
address
it
J
to
call
“
called
Vorster was unable
of
it
the
of
what
Mail
Financial
but
legitimacy crises started
and
interact with the corporate sector
to
,
not even prepared
finds itself
PW Botha government
the accumulation
of , B
the government
,
unfold
threefold
crisis has been resolved
to
:
. . .
3 2 3 1
in
the early 1970s
1994
from
the social crisis has become far more serious
The first phase the first period
prompted
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of
and that
When
implemented
– it
,
legitimacy
to
not
resolving the
,
accumulation
the predicament that the legitimacy
other two have
strategy
1990s South Africa was confronted with
early
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,
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in
, in
,
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.
years
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,
political crisis which was successfully
onwards While organic crisis
on
.
,
third phase agreement was reached
,
the
or
legitimacy
the ten
phases
far more serious one
During
1978
of it
a
not
force
not necessary
was
economic
as
(
social crisis would a
as
long
consensus was that
direct
tacit consensus was reached between the
direct resolution
sustained
new
the poorest
the way that best suited the corporate sector was
indirectly through
into
.
an an
the effect that
during any
ie ,
to
search
it
resolving
explicit
for
negotiation partners
ANC
with the
Remarkably
the continuing pauperisation
to
of
them
links
close
important role
the population was not proposed
during each
advisable
with
the
of
social crisis
and
other see sections
,
-
cent
the
,
per
of
resolution
on the
,
corporations
increasingly
close
new accumulation strategy continued
,
emerging black controlled government played
for
search
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As the
GNU
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from
,
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.5 ).
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4
. , 4 .4 ,
government 4 2
the
between
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sector while the last three resulted
of
interaction
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of
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ISSUES
Kingdom
United
close interaction
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,
these phases resulted
The first three
–
move their listings offshore mostly
of to
corporations
– under severe pressure
given
the
and the permission
the
TO
of
PRELUDE
Botha government and 73
corporate on
by
propagated
the
UF
NP
the
-
-
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broad based agreement reached
the
colonial
and racial capitalism
in
the institutional and social conditions
section
see
74
an in
in
on
.
's
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be
.
is
is
that
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for
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well
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groups
, As
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sector
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's
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including South Africa
light than those
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sector and
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many countries
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government
jam
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own interests
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Fourthly
in
functioning democratic
The growing
of
in
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democratisation
there are always four dangers
the other interest
sector cannot the
-
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term
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policy
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political
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implementing economic policy
and
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favour
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-
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with
The first
political
ending the log
involvement
degree
sector becomes
advance
of of
in
will
advice that sector
corporate
mind
Africa
South
Anglo Americanisation
formulating economic
kept
be
need
to
involved
and
fact that
to
Whenever
insti
formulating
active role
commended
unhealthy
formulating
the unfortunate
in
described
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as
sector
with
-
the corporate
to
became institutionalised
despite
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end
reconciled
sector should
of
at
the
Although the business
‘
as
be its
-
cannot
“
usurpation
birthright
the
,
corporate sector has regarded
decision making
reform
economic
1979
Ever since this politicisation
an
'
the
'
free market
took place
sector
state
policies
-
within
of
implementing
.
,
tutionalised role
the reorganised
a
At
those conferences the corporate sector was given
–
.
and 1981
Botha government and the
the Carlton and Good Hope conferences
sector was sealed
as
corporate
relationship between
at
The new working
the
.1 . 3 ).
3
(
’
century
a
Africa after
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inapplicability
to
FMF
despite
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controlled
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.
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on
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'
sector
the one hand and the English
on
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controlled
'
SOUTH AFRICA
sector , the ideological differences between
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AND THE 'NEW
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15
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. .3
see sections
(
'
outsiders
9 5
urbanised Africans while supporting
'
the movement
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for illegal migrants and
approach
outsiders
line
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The cornerstone
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9 5 4
greater restrictions
on
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and
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for
'
plead
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quality
with
freedom
living and working conditions
those
that the South African
insiders
unrestricted
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and
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insiders and
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their
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line with
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,
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that Africans
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urban
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approach was that the
“
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white urban area
“
's
commission
Riekert
,
with the ideological
trade unions
sight was also made under strong
areas should
rights
that
recommendation
sector
urban
'
property
1977
join registered
of
in
any
in
move and work of
residential rights
to
played
be
the corporate
The recommendations
in
.
of
be
given the right
political accommodation was
no
that
should
pressure from
UF
The
the Wiehahn and Riekert commissions
-
in
Africans
means
labour and
abolished accorded not only with the corporate sector long campaign against these measures but also with the code
employment practices published
rights
market capitalism
the Wiehahn commission that
the labour market
fact
free
towards the ideological approach
and contributed strategically
recommendations
government
.
the appointment
mainly
new
of
in
,
to
of
the alleged merits
the
from
of
important role
improve
claimed
also
when judged
reform
UF NP
them
.
of
to
convince
the AAC
corporate
The was established 1977 living conditions urban Africans and
reformed the
the initiative
that the
of
policies needed
decided be
urbanisation
decades
at
, is
of
power
an
',
of
compact
white
partners
the 1970s the new
but
unwarranted
large
-
end
however
society
'
of
the interests
to
.
At
This attitude
of
the
perspective
question
its
incorrect
be
politically
sector not only became increasingly self ighteous morally exalted
in
to
became increasingly
it
,
virtues of
the alleged
had succeeded
and
policy formulation Under these circumstances
in
involvement
policy formulation
in
ISSUES
UF
of
people
Consequently
partner
a
to
as
the
institutionalised convincing
THE INFORMAL NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC
TO
its
PRELUDE
75
the AAC - led search
the accumulation crisis
on
accumulation strategy
new
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isolation , without even
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was
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After the the political
.
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,
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and
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of
‘
' of
‘
outsiders
tricameral parliament the issue
became much more pressing
insiders
legitimacy
the Bantustans
'
of
African
neglect
of
1984
in
introduction
to
AAC proposals urbanised Africans were supposed
exercising their political rights
continue
rights
line with
serious shortcoming
a
to
.
In
social crises
the
acknowledging that this crisis was inextricably linked
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the
African
formulate
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it focused
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of
failed because
SOUTH AFRICA
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of
The first phase
AND THE 'NEW
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THE TRANSITION
2:
to
PART
.16
accumulation strategy
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In
.
).
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into
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.
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apartheid
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of
's
NP
government
prevent class
white controlled governments
,
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.
for
It
.
'.
-
(
Africans
inclusion and exclusion When
,
non racist
,
automotive
and the
was implemented market forces were accepted -
alleged
differentiating between 76
as
.
'
of
positive urbanisation
, ’
as
the
on
as
differentiation among Africans For generations policy
of
in
of
policy also ended the
the basis
constitutional
and the Stallardist urbanisation
1952
using the legal ceiling
had used racist legislation
the
in
to
,
for
respect
to
'
'
class compression
The new
by
1923
proposals
the most decisive turning points
final nail was hammered strategy
social
-
accumulation
.
of
strategy
the
1986
and
non deological -i
,
control was abolished Verwoerdian
in
economic policies
peripheries
positive urbanisation
of
government
market
the unemployed
minister
Gelb 1991
proposals
influx control represent one
's
NP
the
abolition
the
Morris
left
and other forms
his capacity
of
of
The acceptance
UF
of
(
development and planning
than
outsiders
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and
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squatter settlements
in
,
Chris Heunis
Rather
middle class suburbs should
new
legislation
new
control those living
were accepted
the
squatter settlements
UF recommended
,
-
to
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“
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those who could
see
engineering
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in
so
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accommodated
The
.
cities
while
in
should
by
be
allowed
to
:
be
those who could afford
influx
abolish
positive urbanisation
proposed that class differentiation among Africans should forces
1980s the
into the urban areas would
for
a
-
Africans
differentiate between
to
using legal measures
directed campaign
unionised African workers
from
accumulation strategy
new
the mid
'
its
well
as
the pressure
described
larger influx
a
,
control hoping that
launched
of
:
it
again took the initiative
decrease
by
)
even more serious accumulation crisis
an
Faced with
PW Botha government
9
(
1986
–
. . .
3 2 3 2
:
of
the second period
The second phase
classes that could buy their way
into
basis
for
privilege
PRELUDE
NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC
THE INFORMAL
TO
ISSUES
and those that were not productive and industrious enough - or not employed
–
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at
their
.
NP
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then public
Until
policies
economic
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countervailing power against the powerful
'
essential
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integral part
privatisation
convincing
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an
as
were
sector also succeeded
accept the policy
corporations had formed regarded
squatter settlements
:8 ).
the 1980s the corporate
government
those who
services while those who could not
's
the
end
privatised
1993
to
(
At
NP
the
of
Morris
see
should
public services
only have downgraded
disposal
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could pay would have access
services
:
medical
example
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When the policy
the Bantustans
was decided that welfare services for
,
, '
–
Africans
was accepted
that welfare
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positive urbanisation
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migrant workers were provided
services
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.
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degree
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NP
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‘
sell some public assets
a
government published
-
interest
the Republic
's
the long term
of
preparedness
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convinced that this will be
1987 the to
declared
In
.
its
in
which
it
.
white paper is
public sector investment
in
the decline
two thirds
the 1980s was partly
in
The economic stagnation
investment
was the
it
,
driving force behind the economy and was responsible
of
,
and ARMSCOR for
SASOL
,
ISCOR
,
,
ESKOM
in
especially
investment
,
-
,
mainly English controlled private corporations During the 1970s public sector
'.
inhabitants
on
its -
's in
“
' to
,
of
,
,
,
of
not
new
NP
,
,
in
,
.
revitalising the economy
18
of
succeed
Baskin
public corporations
accumulation
struggle also failed
.
not
including ESKOM
of
's
and
government
see Rix and Jardine
partial privatisation for
,
the security
the liberation movement
.
forces
The new strategy
,
ignored both the legitimacy and social crises but also
considerably
the process
from
rural
urban areas
Although the abolition
,
the social crisis spatially
to
of
it
Fine
of
it
augmenting
parastatals
township unrest escalated and
in
displaced
's
W
of
number
regime the
of
of
the 1980s
only because
it
not
because
the search
control the internal wing
'
to
In
the apartheid
late 1980s and early 1990s did
efficiency
enhance
that provided the primary motive for
including TELKOM
government
speech
government creditworthiness
in
,
NP
).
4
ch
:
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P
commercialising
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raise loans
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sector were according
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the time because
ability
Botha
that privatisation
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accumulation
in
stimulate
applicable
's
,
The arguments
at
.
1985
it
August
controlled corporate sector
debt crisis after
serious external
volte face
against the background
-
with the English
government
NP
the
understood
in
relationship
be
corporations must
Fine
Ben
to
According
influx 77
an
inclusion
of
.
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order
,
a
,
'
white
20
by
in
the
coloureds and
,
in
,
and
market forces
free
influx control was abolished
1986
forces
the cruel system
,
.
inclination
'
to
the relentless tyranny
Indians were included politically and economically somewhat awkward way When
heap
Those black people who had been
and vulnerable proletariat
impoverished
of
the basis
1984 the tricameral parliament was introduced
in
,
,
,
:
(
see Morris 1993
apartheid were now exposed
When
on the
of '
to
reduced
supplying basic
powerful socio economic
that have been restructuring
ever since an
exclusion
–
crime among poor blacks
were unleashed
’ without
structural unemployment poverty and
on
,
ie
of
–
violent
towards
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to
'free marketeerism ' was superimposed
welfare services. When apartheid
expose newly urbanised
to
-
squatter settlements
in
huge mistake
a
).
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,
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SOUTH AFRICA '
ash
AND THE 'NEW
THE TRANSITION
2:
8
PART
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16
of
the AAC and
the insistence
A
.
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of
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16
place still full powerful abolished the socio economic the 1980s
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at
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.
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game
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in
play the
the
of
resources
influx control those living
squatter settlements
corporate sector the rest years after influx control has
78
long
be
would not as
that
strategy
it
94 )
,
sector realised
accumulation
on
.1 ).
the black
2
20
(
workable
1989
as
formulate
NEM
–
Model
the 1980s the corporate a
of
end
possible
to
the
the Normative Economic
At
per cent
and the agreement
Klerk presidency
,
. . .
3 2 3 3
FW
(
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:
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de
status
a
to
population
the same forces have promoted
of
while
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,
services
of
of
in
per cent systemic exclusion the black population necessary employment necessary without the and the minimum welfare 60
trapped the poorest
free market
the urban squatter settlements While almost
years have elapsed since the abolition
The new
'
their lives deteriorated
is
-
in
socio economic conditions
erstwhile Bantustans and
play the
market
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a
to
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,
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not
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administration
the Bantu
These victims
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,
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They were also
Consequently
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for decades
black people were now swept into squatter settlements
psychologically
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market
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per cent Africans were economically included and many the rest formally acknowledged South Africans but were still very much excluded by the
the
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the
1992
,
September
power sharing for five years
entrenched
1992 threatened
in
a
of
in
constituency that
in
26
Until
government
of
it
,
it
if
accepted
which agreement was reached
period
-
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,
DP
the
of
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The preparedness
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).
national unity
and
on
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vote system
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NP
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sunset
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After several insurrections
process
this path
was adamant about
see Marais 2001
assured his white
-
)
called
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the
(
read white
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to
-
constitution
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embarked
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NP was still unclear about the terms
economic transformation
'.
would not
strategy
fundamental
become
had
wield political power
De Klerk regularly
political
71 ).
be
.
's
1992
socio
ability
of
September
of
'
the ANC
the
committed
that
politically incorporated
of
a
under which blacks should
radical agenda
system
,
While
the liberation
the economic
1990
it
ideological
,
of
convinced
new accumulation strategy
strategic master plan
constraining
in
).
)
).
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,
of a
'
,
free marketeerism
and
and
reaffirming
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,
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for
political
the
formulating
minority
and
the NP became
restructuring
without
while
his speech
embodying
constitution
did
Although
Nelson Mandela
under
and the
Thatcher
,
of
to
deregulation
,
of
privatisation
non
negotiating
election
De Klerk accepted
the unbanning
announced
black people
accommodation
the proposals
in
which
in
of
many
organisations and the release government
the election
19
its
.
of
–
sector
1990
oriented
reform
one person one vote proposals
the British prime minister Margaret
he
February
AAC
DP
-
(
it
,
corporate
the
from
questionable
rather
the strongest possible terms After the election
local
(
'
-
), of
:
'
O
majoritarian democracy
campaign
Party
.
a
decided
that election the NP conducted
relentless pressure
1988
announced
The Democratic
mainly Afrikaner
a
for
its
first executive meeting
August
oriented Independent
Afrikaans
(
,
and other
Nel
Christo
replaced Colin Eglin
financial support
considerable
IM
the
,
7
,
–
to
the PFP
with
Also
and immediately
1988
against the DP and condemned
campaign in
1989
August
387
the AAC
Federal Party PFP
The Star
1989
During
in
,
(a
of
September
1996
seek unity with the mainly
April
in
.
At
consisted
Meara
their
best use this not inconsequential
can
former executive director
IM
,
or
Movement
groups
quoted
the Progressive
determination launched
as
of
Beer
of
leader
CBM
real nature
the
towards non racial democracy
society
(
de
chairman Zach
the
,
advance
to
power
identify how they
to
own power and
purpose
express
the
define
to
challenging South African business people
Consultative
of
was launched with
to
(
CBM
)
Business Movement
1988
ISSUES
of
crisis remained unresolved . In August
legitimacy
the
NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC
THE INFORMAL
TO
on
PRELUDE
enter into
79
SOUTH AFRICA
historical perspective. By 1990 the business
attempt
on
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.
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.
of
distance itself result
the
apartheid
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SACOB
African economic
racial capitalism
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.
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).
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conveniently concealed
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1993
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(
Kentridge
but the
,
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the free enterprise system
failure
flourish
tried
that the economic crisis was
and claimed
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apartheid
they
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remedy for poverty and ensured economic growth from
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-
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free market
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fully democratised South Africa Economic options for South Africa
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in
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the alleged benefits
defended
dogmatically
.
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in
of
and privilege
power
formulating
business friendly and would perpetuate
September 1990 SACOB published which
sector anxiously
the corporate
1994
various scenario building exercises aimed
economic strategy that would position
's
1990
were pampered
,
from
capitalism
the search for
to
During the five years participated
to
the virtues
them
Africans
socialist oriented option was
strategy
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urbanised
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accumulation
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extension
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liberation movement
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accumulation
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in
AND THE 'NEW
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PART
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system
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repressive labour patterns and unequal power relations until the
mid
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several business and research groups published
to
forge
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.
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for
South Africa
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movement
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scenario exercises reflected the desire
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]
capital
result
,
,
Patrick Bond summarises these exercises
Increasingly
80
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.
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government big business the ANC labour and organised community 21
the
NP
purpose
of
scenarios dealing with economic
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,
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.
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quoted
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stated
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.
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as
government expenditure
whole
alleviation
IMF
package
of ,
5
redistribution
in
,
.
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warn the democratic movement
or
its
or
any increase
71 )
to
'
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:
per cent would have
the International Monetary Fund
neither individual proposals nor Bond 1999
and
effect was not even considered way
the
opportunities made
of
,
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annual growth rate
comprehensive
1992
additional taxation
property
the
.
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programme
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financial and mining firms
political
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neo
feet and
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restoring economic
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factions demanded
different adjustments
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of
the need
;
free market economy
1990s
policy issues The
the
,
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1993
the early
; all
did
that
in
sustainable growth
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-
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into
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-
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impoverished constituency
alleviating poverty and redistributing
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growth
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need
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,
economic benefits
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the
the scenarios mentioned
spell out
democratically elected
new
social spending and the rapid alleviation
increasing
and
.
pressurised
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to
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macroeconomic populism
stagflation
,
after almost two decades
of
the grave dangers
of
South African economy
emphasise the vulnerability
a
these scenarios was
by
core element
to
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of
A
.)
57
-
ridden scenarios became increasingly
ISSUES
:
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THE INFORMAL NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC
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NP
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white supremacy
R237
government
the De Klerk government was guilty
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1994
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ANC
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)
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indiscreetly
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increase
socialist oriented
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macroeconomic populism
sharp
alleged
–
responsible
that
128
corporate sector that
inclined
corporations
).
Marais 2001
:
(
see
the larger
government but also ANC leaders the
it
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alliance would by
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democratically
82
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entered into
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.
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argument against
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macroeconomic populism government
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irresponsible fiscal policies were
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;
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dramatic political transition towards
's
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The fact that public
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.
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industry
growth strategy and
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-
fiscal discipline The World Bank
export
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neo liberal approach
documents
South Africa should
democratised
a
in
economic policies a
propagated
the poor
.
,
stating what
of
structural interpretation
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the
for
of
corporate
programmes
the early 1990s both the World Bank and the IMF published the
In
least the poorest half
Both
sensitivity towards
that poverty was caused
expedient
it
made
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poverty
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that it never demonstrated
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the need for poverty alleviation
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THE INFORMAL NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC
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'.
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decisive importance
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1993
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to
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,
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,
finally
Mike Morris
accumulation
the NEM
resolve the accumulation
a
tariffs
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higher growth
finance
50
new
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fail
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with the enthusiastic support
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Morris
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trade
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the time
redistribution through growth
wage restraint higher productivity
taxation
unions
be
)
fiscal constraint
ideological
the
argument that the
IMF
NEM the South African economy should
through
path
replaced
(
growth
1993
democratic South Africa
the
‘
According
accepted
popular
approach
movement should
democratic
,
(
through redistribution
growth
cuts
associates
It
the AAC and
IMF
March
neo liberal dogma and
.
of
approach
the
published
framework
's
by
official economic
was heavily influenced
its
its
as
government
NEM
for
Model
The Normative Economic
by “
-
.
free market and neo liberal dogma
unrestrained
83
, marked
poor
benefits
while
,
'
down
high levels
could provide
government
of
to
'
an
between
full swing
in
the
to
the poor was postponed
informal negotiations
and the democratic movement were
sector
economic growth
,
the
,
,
in
.
1993
symbolically
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high levels
,
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to
When
).
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According
population would
the
,
the
classical
of
'
-
3
,
50
of
of
trickle down effect
'
per cent
NEM
1993
franchise rights
through
'
through the alleged
poorest
the
March
as
, .
,
Business Day
human face
politically
accommodated
Derek Keys described the
finance
this strategy the interests
the
adjustment process
'(
-
side with
a
supply
the
of
'
-
“
The then minister
of
victims
an
economic
some support through welfare measures and public works projects short term
a
be
'
trickle
to
growth would
and , thirdly , avoiding
of
policy because
aggressive redistribution
approach
economic
'
state intervention and
;
the
neo -liberal and export -oriented
by minimum the
free market capitalist system
AFRICA
SOUTH
of
AND THE 'NEW
THE TRANSITION
2:
the
PART
corporate
astonishing
8
:
8
;
1993
of
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The economic views and ideologies
3
organic crisis
).
Morris
South Africa
's
'
to
per cent solution
57 –
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Gelb 1991
:
in
(
,
see Morris
of
on
the advisability
50
agreement was forged between the white political and corporate establishments
the democratic
the Freedom Charter
of
the country
set out
in
the economy
is
on
first statement
's
The ANC
in
movement :
1955
,
all
of
well
being
-
assist
of
. the
to
a
as
,
of ,
be
controlled
whole
.
-
full blown socialism
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,
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.
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close relations with the Soviet
the
for this neglect
.
given
a
in
be
can
liberation organisation
whose main
soon
as
the state
as
instrumentalist conception
.
and take over the South African state
:
maintained
an
overthrow white domination
reasons
of
Two possible
a
be .
to
controversial interpretations Because
and
ANC was first and foremost
to
the
of
's
,
,
Africa should
thrust was
to
.
of
the
•
industry
ANC and other liberation organisations paid very little what the economic system and economic policy democratised
1990
attention
It
interpreted
the introduction
Until
Firstly
the people
and trade shall
alliance with the SACP
they were
even
South
the ownership
these clauses lent themselves
of
Union and
.
the banks and monopoly
people
the ANC
84
to
be
transferred
All other industries
Some
shall
the people
The mineral wealth beneath the soil shall
South Africans
.
to
be
restored
the heritage
,
our country
The national wealth
wealth
's
of
•
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political
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–
'
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a
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.
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1970s have
the
,
in
Africa
productive capacity had been liberation movement and
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of
historical neglect
's
the ANC
of
the realities
foreign
the world
'
the
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its
of ,
by
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–
and
.
by
multitude
business and mainstream
about schooling ANC leaders
both
,
, By
'
to
-
Marais
the counsel
to
prone
1990
in
experts that
it
.
set
economic policy left
Africa may
level war between
regime According
the apartheid
South
cannot
which
“
low
.
economy
“
by
the
economy
its
. a
it
was still
developing
was
the black
country with the largest production capacity
been the most developed
seriously harmed
and externally
,
both internally
even naïve
in
As regards
Africa
state led
highly constrained –
the ruling elite
but
,
,
,
pressure groups
follow
economic resources and activities
modern country
–
.
State
through
rectified after liberation
Kwame
will
else
ANC believed that South
that the ANC was mistaken
said
power
in
it
counts
must
and
ISSUES
socio economic
The slogan
and that the economic deprivation
and the redirection
a
redistribution Yet
be
could easily
be
of
population
political kingdom
.
exceptionally rich country
solve
and inequality
the
the
first
ANC circles Secondly
in
resonated
ye
Seek
–
Nkrumah
,
unemployment poverty
to
would use the state
,
hands
' of
problems
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the
THE INFORMAL NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC
TO
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organisations
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.
:
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of
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(
apartheid
these groups rejected being labelled
the liberation
itself for
liberation
92 )
Christian
1990 created
as
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In
.
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was impossible because
capitalism
national liberation was one
1993
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it
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during the 1980s these ideas were generally
.
of
and liberal human rights negotiations
from
United Democratic
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',
the
ing revolutionary
national political
,
the ANC
their ideology
were mixed
socialist
inconceivable without the overthrow
consciousness organisations Although socialist
and
was inseparable
Laurence Harris
1976
argued that the only road open
comprehensive left
of
reform
,
by to
a
inseparable
capitalism
liberation
accepted
struggle
article written
such in
:
(
regarded
Slovo believed
According
was
liberation the
be
armed
African
regarded
South Africa
,
South
middle road
Charter
During this period
intellectuals
as
,
the time
in
an
,
ie
that should
no
"
–
South Africa
the oppressed –
both the SACP and the ANC
as
a
leader
in
, 's
Joe Slovo
one
344
economic thinking was strongly influenced
the ANC
entitled
Freedom
economic
).
1988 constitutional guidelines see Nattrass 1994b
6
commitment
the
reaffirm
statement
new
–
to
issues except
no
the ANC published
1990
to
policy
1955
its
From
to
).
:
(
2001 123
state
and the 85
In
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of
1992
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.
the economy was still emphasised
in
,
in
United States
the
would
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it
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create
).
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DEP published
Marais
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restructuring
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which the need for
'
economic policy
According
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)
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P
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;
,
and
,
policy
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4
:
department
In
22
.
.
be
both cases
ANC policy
the ANC
1992
too high
Kentridge 1993
of
see
investment
Pittsburgh
to
document
new
the
regard
this
important shift
sector
in
's
ANC
(
of
the private
nationalisation would
on
discussion
the
1990
in
a
to
policy programmes
its
of
,
speaking
nationalisation
unbearable inefficiencies
the
and external pressure
-
December 1991
emphasised the role from
policy
nationalisation hanging over their heads
became visible when Mandela
that the cost
a
,
be
attract foreign
an
In
1993
able
that
financial markets Early
under severe internal
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Mandela declared
This statement caused
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'.
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statement
South Africa created
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inequalities
fundamentally
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the
of
ANC
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,
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nationalisation and
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realisation
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Three days after his release
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-
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we need
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only
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terminating
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democracy
his release Nelson Mandela made
.
a
genuine democratic
and his statement also reflected
86
full
about
strongly
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ended and
The emphasis was still
felt
,
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statement
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the day
,
1990
political and economic systems
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national
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.2 ). February
political power must
could
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4
11
On
following
create
for
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reform
counter revolutionary forces
negotiations adopted
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undoubtedly
Slovo
).
100
:
1993
expressed
route
economy had
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97 –
negotiation
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necessary
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Slovo
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which represented
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an
for
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'
SOUTH AFRICA
NEW
:
: THE TRANSITION AND THE
the
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inequality
swift progressive
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and principled
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colonialism
it
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economists
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as
seen
for
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the economy
from
reworked economic policy
this document
,
The
that would
and runaway
it
.23
overseeing the direction
commission
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spree
and the envisaged role
infrastructure and welfare transfers
itself
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state
considerably
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policy approach was still
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the ANC document Critics warned
ANC policy conference adopted
entitled Ready
should
expected mainstream
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macroeconomic populism
at
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document
and
should
business sector but
be
As
a
.
1992
that
growth
that essential reforms
1990s the ANC
cause
all
May
an
economy and result In
in
would
Interestingly
both economic
collaboration with
business sector sharply criticised
this approach
growth
conventional wisdom
future democratic government
to
that
the proposal
claimed
economic
constrain
declared
early
'
the
of
:
1996
1990
through
growth was not necessarily true and that
could
socialist thinking
in
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permeated
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preferably
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intervention
).
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(
human development
that the
to
income inequality
in
increase
was conducive
Although
growth
the ANC
damper
a
an
unequal distribution
and
stated that the market
Marais 2001
ridiculous
1996
through
growth
and that state
in
,
the United Nations claimed
spur
order
13
enough
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put
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the document acknowledged the role
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planning industrial strategy and overcoming racial inequalities According
for
active role
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The document envisaged
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formulate
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which had until then
COSATU
an
Unions
Trade
the Congress
),
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Economic Trends Group
ISSUES
of
largely based on work done by
124
the
THE INFORMAL NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC
TO
to
PRELUDE
87
discussion document in an ongoing process
.24
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the report died
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Marais well out
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MERG presented
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to
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document entitled Economic policy
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1994a
economy and formulate
88
democracy
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product
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136
carefully cast and situated
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Marais 2001
model Nattrass May 1991
1993
see Kentridge
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MERG
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1992b
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ANC
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Policy
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the white minority and promote
support COSATU
team
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Economic Research Group
the Macro
Institute for Economic
the
to
.. .
by up
minority within
macroeconomic model intervention
development
conglomerates
monopolies continued domination
for
,
black economists
curb
the private sector
1991 the ANC set
the hands
economic
in
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of In
greater efficiency
intention
govern declared
However
such
anti trust and merger policies the economy
shifts
13
.
balanced
as
large firms
was still reflected
business
economic power to
of
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see section
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the
suspicion
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ANC and the corporate sector were moving closer
introduce anti trust legislation Ready The concentration
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took place over the next year and
of
to
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first shift
in
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grass roots activists
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changed approach
Ramaphosa
of economic policy was instrumental
Walter Sisulu at the discussion
each
, including Mandela , Cyril
ofmany top ANC leaders
presence
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AFRICA '
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PRELUDE
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which emphasised the need
needs . To achieve these objectives, COSATU
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through
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argued that redistribution
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act democratically and
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research was only published on
after important policy decisions
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1992
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NEF
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Trends Group
from
26
National Economic
key economic issues and
negotiating body
consultative structure The COSATU
action
industrialisation
inward
influential role Although the NEF was launched
was given
certain
.
the creation
of
was not
of
for
which could take decisions could play
govern
to
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on
ANC
also pleaded
COSATU
also pleaded
by strong
goods that could satisfy the basic needs
's
to
critical
produce the
strategy
of
the mass organisations. COSATU
for
and the state s actions should always be complemented
but on
dictatorial way ,
in a
the
state should
It
on
of
large responsibility
a
in
preconditions : the
placed
be
, COSATU
restructuring
it
could not be
of income only , but also required a transfer of power, opportunities . To attain the goals of redistribution and
resources , and
1994
issues had already been taken
27
economic
.
the ANC
favoured
to a transfer
in
restricted
address unemployment and meet housing ,
to
to
,
health
ISSUES
existed
maintain the
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circles
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in
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Those who attained wordly success
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the elect while the losers were the other side the same religious coin regarded sinners who deserved their poverty was only when the aggressive version Afrikaner Christian Nationalism emerged
-
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the relative wealthy English establishment was concerned
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Afrikaner became important for the Purified a
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major western
This approach
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arguments that this would not have been possible without the economic
support
are
possible
been
not
to
would have
the Cold War had
.
if
years
it
question arises whether
system
46
The interesting apartheid
for
1
Endnotes
lack
if
to
,
Africans
8 9
the education
of
,
as
them
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and
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poverty
an
.
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on
4
of
moral fibre
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.
Michael Harrington
1962
the poor living conditions
of
ignorant
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published
that white Americans were completely
claimed
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SOUTH AFRICA
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AND THE 'NEW
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quoting the Chinese proverb
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eat
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person
man
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are often inclined
following Chinese proverb to
by
are
poor
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–
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quoting
day but teach
a
eat
ll
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poor
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,
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6
towards
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Business people
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structural
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17
can
make South Africa
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the world
The
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The propagandistic
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growth without
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see
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the commanding heights
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sections
also suspected
155
free market economy and the
(
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attained
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Sunter
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generate immense new
be
,
spokesperson
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's
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of ,
for
to
,
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,
generation
1991
editor
former associate
brown and white
growth would
but reality
well
compensate
see appendix
regarded
the system
the general social interest
overcome the misery
black
growth
glaring poverty
system
important
systems
democratic
not only
al
et
Caldwell
Don
way
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10
little regard
that goes some
system
and active civil societies which
ideological veil disguising
an
being
remove
market oriented
their capitalist
the dysfunction
that institutional and
claim
well developed
argue that the free market system
unlikely
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9
Cole
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least approximate
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the world can
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12
:
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minerals made
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of
import the capital equipment needed protective The local industrialisation policy was based development parastatal corporations tariffs exchange and import controls
to
discriminatory measures
in
)40 .
durable 37
Gelb 1991
, of :
see Morris
sector was always critical
corporate
of -
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and
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on
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the white population
While the English controlled increasing effect
SASOL
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15
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14
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policy
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per cent and
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1960 were
could
But the active support the
Africa more than compensates
southern
segregationist governments government
industry
the discriminatory measures The fact that the real
in
migrant workers
Smuts and Hertzog mining
South African Party SAP the and recruit super exploitable migrant labour
of
increasing effect
production costs
.
1970s
enacted
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received
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mining companies
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.
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had supported
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hardships and suffering caused by apartheid 12 It is true that discriminatory measures
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ISSUES
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A
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11
NEGOTIATIONS
THE INFORMAL
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finance the apartheid regime
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government bonds were being offered programme represented
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1984
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deepened
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In
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Fine continues
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17
under pressure
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Consequently
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through labour improve state intervention the structure and implemented the MERG model key proposals
in
state
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5
of
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emphasis
Should
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supporters
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in
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Marais 2001
article
ANC economic thinking
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a
of of
predicted Its
operation
.
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growth and redistribution
market and through increased
a
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will play
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quoted
Alec Erwin wrote
The MERG document pleaded
COSATU
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policy positions have wrought change ANC thinking growing pragmatism policy circles and willingness engage
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its
.
not
invest unless
trickle down effect
'
alleged beneficial
disapproval
the transformation
democratic movement was accepting the argument
year
the
that were drawn
options
strategic
Striking was
determined
.. .
the
conference
with redistribution with
indicative
Marais
central theme and the
figures
and union
he
will not
is
.. .
economists
achieve many
foreign investor will find attractive
with
social
).
:
in
the struggle
We are
investment
content than
that the private sector must and
that occasion
assure you that the ANC
Kentridge
one was
1993
130
aware that the investor
Before
second
.. .
)
(
'(
2001
and decisive role
Let me
of
.. .
.
of
Mandela said
their
in
,
-
)
of
spending
Late
Successful
significantly assisted the march
daubed heterodox
The scenario
macroeconomic populism on
state
less because
including ANC
progressive
into the exercise
colours
for
According
scenarios
social democratic Mont Fleur scenario
of [
range
Mont Fleur
its
-
's
democratic
1993
1993
.
late
think tank published
Prospects
1990 and completed
for Investment published
Platform
economic orthodoxy
24
an
of
).
/
in
,
launched
SANLAM
ostensibly
25
process that would include junior partners within
elite
The first scenario exercise was Nedcor Old Mutual Transformation
23
to
economic
4
:
'(
1998
black
as
of
a
to
accumulation
sustained
cultivate and incorporate
-
21
for
serve
a
would
new cycle
a
democratisation
the white run economy
26
the executive and economic adopt majoritarian democracy
African capitalists hoped 1990 that political grounding adjustments structural that could
South
as
to
Marais
inaugurate
22
up
,
to
According
member
the decision
strategy
, .
an
as
this book was
the DP and was involved
election
efforts
them
,
;
,
the time the author
adviser
as
around
see section
(during
the mining and energy sectors and much the heavy chemicals and mineral processing such
a
14
:
At
19
(
1995
had played a major role
enterprises
a
scale industry
-
large
)
twentieth
building
in
century
SOUTH AFRICA ' the
of large - scale capital . State
interests
20
AND THE 'NEW
THE TRANSITION
2:
9 of .6 ).
PART
corporate
emphasise the and housing needs
PRELUDE
THE INFORMAL NEGOTIATIONS ON
TO
ECONOMIC
ISSUES
to
. ).
4 3 it
large countries and Marais
2001
:
;
12
:
1993
would not
enter external
).
– 8
Kentridge
in
difficult 10 –
would
protectionist barriers see
section
acknowledged that be
it
,
of
the growth
that
it
although
foresaw
heightened competition
Bond 1999
into the RDP of 1994 (
path
(
.
It
an
of
because
:
;
– 3
matured
export growth
accomplish this
of
markets
because 131
favoured to
easy
This plea eventually
65
.
IPS
The
be
27
elected
see
and makes a plea for a reconstruction accord before a democratic government was
93
Chapter
:
4
The hegemony of the African political establishment since 1993
4
.1
informal negotiations between the corporate
The
banking2 Despite
the secret
.
.
of
.
in
,
. the
of
a
of
all
stagflation
,
of of
attempts
new accumulation strategy the latter
the democratic movement what
system
a
economic
the stakes
hugely important
joint
prolonged
in
and
convince the core leaders
ideology
-
,
in
of
's
years
a
to
find
the
Africa
system
democratic South Africa
be .
economic
economic
future
country
years
20
.
.
unsuccessful After almost
was desperate
for
new
accumulation
described strategy
the fourth phase
After the
1994
of
can
as
1993
sector and the ANC agreed during the the
AAC
election
the
,
led search
a
informal negotiations
the corporate
.
which
be
on
The strategy
in
to
NP government
sector and the
to
had been
most developed
For almost
oriented
democratically elected
and the negotiations were strategically
the corporate sector
corporate
Africa
South
20
,
high
economic policy
the
capitalist
democratic movement
-
,
were extremely
informal negotiations were the
.
the early 1990s
nature
Given that South Africa was
the extraordinary nature
to
Owing
them
business sector and the
mutual suspicion between
the
not only the
At
stake was
the
between
In
morning
'
,
and
was
and dined from
wined
,
is
dispel
the
order
indispensable
the making
government but also
for
It
.'
,
,
of
industry
corporate sector and the socialist oriented
the
the
on
.
as
the formal negotiations were
clear understanding
day
to
in
the power shift essential
the
of
government
a
modern states
ought
former talks took
these informal negotiations there was nothing obscure about
in
all
nature
mining
the captains
sector and core ANC leaders
behind closed doors and could
ANC leaders were
of
till night
Kempton Park during
economic issues While
publicly scrutinised
the time that
by
alleged
the corporate
latter took place mainly the
not
at
therefore
be
in
,
public
of
,
informally
also negotiated place
representatives
1990s
the
the early
constitutional issues
on
negotiations
Parallel with
at
the
sector and the ANC
95
PART
AND THE 'NEW
THE TRANSITION
2:
corporate sector and the
SOUTH AFRICA '
government continued
new
negotiate over
to
improved accumulation strategy . We can also distinguish between sixth phase of the search for
an
fifth and
a
accumulation strategy (see sections 4 . 4 and
a new
. .
4 5)
The main
of every
characteristic
phase
of the AAC -led search for
a new
accumulation strategy was that the supreme goal of economic policy should be
socially
traditional priority
namely
accept the AAC
forced
ANC
uplift the impoverished
should be
's
to
to
the
-
effect persuaded
other objectives
–
ANC leaders
,
its
,
approach
move away
black majority
economically
and
of
.
from
sector
all
and that
a
-
,
.2
4
The fourth phase the AAC led search for new strategy pre accumulation and the election elite -
the
corporate
By convincing
,
to
to this .
subordinated
growth rate
or
high economic
a
in
attain
to
.
’
strategy
on
on
,
contains
TEC
and
following
a
of and
the government
the country
.. .[
and that
]
's
of
, of
high
fiscal
.. .[
structure
rather than rising taxes
It
in
]
all
a a
problems
economic management
tax
of
can share
package
financial restraints
competitive
be
's the
and
that increases future
which
.. .
]
in
, ]
(
the economic
maintaining
respect
policy will emphasise expenditure containment
96
SA
of
's
of
]
stability
the country
understanding
deficit would jeopardise given
investment
confidence
widespread
the importance
growth
of
(
is
.. .
There
international
]
unemployment and weak promote
policies must
economic
structural policies that address
,
and
SA
political
a
macroeconomic
will
resurgence
confidence and
economic
in
.
This
durable
require
adjustment during
strict monetary policy would have risked
social backlogs
redress
the objective
equitably
the burden
international
of
by
To
.. .
driven
the
easing
further undermining inflation
of [
An
.. .
the 1990s
of
:
passage
Monetary policy has carried much
a
,
the
IMF
policy
economic
The statement
economic
the
export oriented
the one the
to
.3
a
'
neo liberal
-
on
,
‘
Before the TEC
secret protocol
economic policies agreed with
through growth
redistribution
council
help tide the country
November 1993
the other signed
-
to
a
‘
Statement
committed itself
IMF
the corporate sector and NP government
on
the
In
.*
policy
from
in
payments difficulties
and ANC leaders
hand
loan
the
850 million
signed the loan agreement
hugely important
before the transitional executive
,
over balance
secret
a
accepted
of
)
(
TEC
This happened
‘
.
elite compromise
a
1993 the corporate sector and core ANC leaders reached
$
In
compromise
to
a
in
of
the
of
of
,
'.
to
to is
if , .
in
to
by
been
,
.
the sharp
its
the
of
white
through systemic
'.
An
the accumulation
.
additional sacrifices
from
The joint TEC IMF statement shows clearly
adapt from
fiscal policy that
white taxpayers
that core ANC leaders
."
the ANC
redistributive approach
The to
corporations were lobbying
a
convince
capacity
wealth
or
to
at of
in
-
no for
to a
,
have
However
of
for
AAC and other
social problems and sought
,
would
competitive tax structure
corporate sector therefore categorically rejected
-
-
,
'
,
pleaded
tax
of
emphasising
a
the
any
–
.
.
the
to
in
of
-
taxation
taxation would have gone against the grain
would not demand
Although
income and property were not acknowledged
a
'
‘
–
the Statement
for which
policy
.
a
of
.
at
in
'
Instead
and
which had largely accumulated
–
the population
to
strategy
in
increase
order
macroeconomic and fiscal
populism
macroeconomic
the distribution
‘
the
in
exploitation
poorest half
government spending
Statement
population
1994
the
both
attain
increase taxes
fiscal balance and comprehensive redistribution
all
to
favoured
not
it
have
socio economic
and attract FDI the ANC
populism
,
one could
The
impoverished majority
comprehensive redistribution
the
the predicament
inequalities
to
,
excluded
addressing
increasing both
to
'
‘
clearly
of
-
before the election
structurally
was preposterous
lower the government deficit
macroeconomic
was
growth
durable
contain expenditure
of
to
in
itself
propertyless
inequalities
bourgeois elite and
and
population
the
durable growth
entrenched
Statement
balance
from
of
power and property between
possible
benefit
.. .
the
we take into account the deeply
fiscal
is
economically powerless
can share equitably
the
half
in
all
‘
and
writ large throughout the
'
promise
prevent the danger
growth would
The notion that What
,
and therefore unlikely
By agreeing
is
-
'
unemployed
,
socially
that
a
It
.
a
-
a
as
self evident
for South Africa
marginalised
which
euphemistically described
's
be
is
to
will
good
curtain raiser
social crisis
The
myth that economic
statement despite the fact that the poorer
that
like
also reads
,
the
’.
accepted
poor
good for the AAC
policy
.. .
be
a
corporate sector desperate
half years later
was trapped
the
population
The corporate sector
'
'
trickle down
of
'
-
-
social backlogs
committed
Business Day
structural unemployment and violent criminality
per cent
maintain
the restructuring
,
,
( 20
its
50
,
“
crisis
GEAR strategy announced two and
abject poverty
least
Trade and
sustain
economic policies reprinted
year long accumulation
of
for
responsible
1994
'
the
resolve
1993
).
24
March
difficult
important part
Statement reads like the wish list
The
as
Statement
TEC
an
will
industrial liberalisation economy
be
olitical stability would
socio
-p
manner
addressed
in
recognised that unless social needs
it
( also )
on
is
POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE
OF THE AFRICAN
are
THE HEGEMONY
must have 97
2
changed their strategic and ideological thinking
of making concessions
economic growth
.
its
,
to
its the
of
the
In
on
,
traditional commitment
'
-
for
By accepting the other problems
social problem
solve
to
its
the ANC relinquished
trickle down effect
sector
the panacea
indirectly
,
as
of
high rate
ANC leadership
addressed
growth rate and
the corporate
of
'
“
-
by
promised
super salesmen
the
accept
all
,
)
promised
inter alia
and abject poverty
only
would remain unresolved and would
the long run via the high economic
in
doing
sector
so
.
-
-
majority and
But
corporate
effect agreed that the severe social crisis
in
core
ANC leaders were
be
,
the severe pressure from
The
economic issues
.
in
a
to
constitutional settlement
neo liberal and export oriented approach
ever since
the shortest possible time by the
yield
to
prepared
make concessions
political settlement
a
reach
to
eagerness
their ascendancy
and have maintained
.
,
of
ensure
order to keep the
in
on track were winning the battle within
the new approach was
to
order
to
in
main thrust
mid
from
(
formal constitutional negotiations democratic alliance
important ways
in
the
1992 onwards . Those in favour
'
AFRICA
SOUTH
the
'NEW
: THE TRANSITION AND THE
PART
of
.
at
a
in
The
the
of
, the
In
.
to
address the
to
move down the
for
to
nine years
it
a
,
and globalisation
,
the poorer half
outward
competitive
became more and more difficult of
Bank
the ANC was committed
',
free marketeerism
,
it
to
of
the IMF and World
elite compromise
it
,
an
of
.
to
,
. ,
to
they were trapped
the statement
has become evident that once the ANC began
systemic inclusion
resolving the
not only for the ANC but also for the country
oriented economy macroeconomic balance
prescribed road
economic
crisis
‘
to
road
of
the
the economic
the population from
half
,
,
proceeding down
this
agreed
that was really aimed
by
represented
-r
.
at
After agreeing
By
economic issues
corporate sector and the international
the domestic
establishment
since then
In
.
')
's
the ANC
implications were far eaching large
effect
long standing accumulation leaders agreed
the most decisive
cornerstone
it
's
in in
per cent solution
the formidable web financial
the first
South Africa
-
it
as
As
's
corporate sector soon
place
one
approach
the ANC
-
‘
'(
ie
, a ‘
solution
regarded
that would exclude the poorest
system
50
policy and
post apartheid
of
a
edifice
put
the ANC
-
of
to
agreeing
,
ideological turning points
be
elite compromise should
This
as
.
directly
population through meaningful
98
would
the balance
side
a
that
of
of
system
democratic
'
'
rather than the
1994
which
in
democratic capitalism
capitalist
'
the
would
on
power
be
-c
liberal apitalist version
election
,
institutionalised after the democratic
of
would
be
-
with the powerful corporate sector that the politico economic
agreed be
they effectively
see
(
the statement
'
leaders agreed
,
's
When the ANC
to
.
poverty alleviation programmes
THE HEGEMONY
appendix ). The implications
of this
SINCE
would be more momentous than
decision
of the parties to the agreement could have anticipated ( see section 11 . 1 ) . During the formal and informal negotiations in the early 1990s , the ANC several other agreements
'
adopting
it
's
would
had misused parliamentary
democracy
'
which white governments
curtail
approach
redistributive
of
a
)
,
and
ANC
core
's
the
1992 the ANC accepted
shift
towards macroeconomic
of
the time
events
May
November
socialist
from
balance
'
November 1993
in
75
by
.
of at
of
a
of
in
it
the chain
the ideological orientation
policy document that revealed the first signs
entrenched
a “
leaders from
to
May 1992
would
per cent majority
the elite compromise
.
highlight the major shifts
in
situate
to
is
,
necessary
Other
not be faulted
These decisions can certainly
the momentous importance
Given
it
revoked
In
.
national assembly
only
be
the extent that they could
1993
and that property rights would
,
an
remain
be
(
important agreements were that the South African Reserve Bank SARB independent institution
new
was deemed necessary given the way
in
sovereignty
,
government
this
a
the
constitutional
system
to
democracy . Although
democracy, but
parliamentary
a
the
to
a
Africa would not become
South
that
relevant
,
. One important agreement was
country s future economic policies and system
the
NP , and corporate sector reached
to
1993
'.
any
POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT
OF THE AFRICAN
and
capitalist
and
,
constitutional negotiations collapsed and were formally
was
restricted
objective
to
for
of lt ]
.. .[
but
.. .[
-
.. .[
the
legal national
South Africa
mobilise large scale mass action
many organisational weaknesses
resource
does not command
it ]
of
of
the majority
]
to
,
The ANC has established itself
commands the support
enjoys the capacity
growing potential
a
and
a
)
,
and
powerful economic
a
violence
the
on
(
process
certain
as
support
.. .
regime it
]
NEC
and other military
state the of
vast
as
enjoy
-
.. .
-
strategic
made
the negotiation
counter revolutionary instability acts
organisation
and
'
at
‘
-
,
'
of
continues
The counter revolutionary
apartheid
[
that stage
the
]
.. .[
and
term
clauses
national executive committee
regime still commands to
]
[
resources
long
strength
sunset
parties had
noted that
apartheid
forces
undermine the
:
'.
It
weaknesses
own
forces
the
both
's
that
concluded
The
balance
its
stock
after
November 1992 the ANC
'
of
took
national
the
.
In
concessions
agreed
unity
there
only weeks after the Bisho massacre
1992 ANC
forces could
by
of
NP
government and
government
the
September
September
of
-r
that counter
June
From
evolutionary
on
26
.
transition
On
a
was
real danger
June
in
suspended after the Boipatong massacre
.
1992
It
May
the
In
.
pragmatism
suffers
significant
PART
AND THE 'NEW
THE TRANSITION
2:
military and financial resources ;
is unable
it
AFRICA '
SOUTH
militarily defeat the counter
to
revolutionary movement or adequately defend the people .
best be changed through
order
-
forces
secure
to
qualitatively change
thorough
going democratic
-
forces
the transition
to
of
the balance
combat counter revolutionary
a
the same time uses phases
to
need
in
account
,
,
and
at
which takes
the
negotiation process combined with mass action and international pressure
in
a
' could
of forces
that the balance
added
into
It
',
'
on
to
,
be
to
to in
at
of
,
to
that the balance
'
of
the relative strength the early 1990s
–
in
to
claim
,
the Soviet Union
the wrong reasons
,
for
,
sector of
.
arises whether
of
the
the
The question
,
but
and the
strongly
,
the party responsible for apartheid
and was prepared
a
on
its
attention to
the first prize
most
),
as
it
by
.
(
ANC was focusing
while the ANC enjoyed of
legitimacy both internally and externally
moral high ground The political settlement regarded
as
written into the new constitution
,
the
most controversial issues was
),
be
,
the time the NP
of
on
One
should
veto
replacing white political supremacy
as
.
)
At
(
NP
.
the
by
white
the
100
often
(
had lost
–
globalism
favoured
take core ANC
ideological climate
Wall the implosion
Park the focus was
minority
its
requested
the
political issues and
corporate sector
a
a
the Berlin
representative democracy
whether
by
,
in
on
,
more correct
also because
galloping
At Kempton with
the
.
favoured
the differences
because the corporate
,
of
of the
emergence
mid
The former strongly
the ANC was too weak
'
of
fall
to
to
).
.
issues
terms
powers favoured the corporate sector not only because after the
the national
from
This enabled the corporate sector
would perhaps
the two parties
it
.
at
(
'
be
interpreted
economic
It
too strong
.
was
on
on
.
this happened because
adopted
economic issues among ANC leaders
economic policy and ideology
on
in
latter not
tow
1992a
the
part and
or
the
,
leaders
see ANC
the formal negotiations
informal negotiations ANC but
these measures may have
,
on
of
power
the
November 1992
1993 should at
the
of
to
balance
end
came
minimise the potential threat
of
of
settlement
The ideological shift 1992
order
be
a
negotiated
working committee
the fear
democratic government would need
However some
.
]
of
parcel
measures
democracy
future
[
range
18
a
wide
that time Consequently
the new in
of
the ANC leadership
important conclusion that adopt
forces was not static
balance
implode and become fragmented weighed heavily
that South Africa could the minds
that the
'
Although the NEC stressed
of
.
transformation
make
OF THE AFRICAN
.
,
that
to
in
order
segregationist
,
,
by
improve
sectors
and regularly
instituted
the colonial
of
benefited
the
These measures were part
profitability
and
see sections
capitalism
to
,
.
,
By the
,
or to
all
,
so
be
do
it
It
.
neo
liberal
order
to
-
, a
,
implemented
a
,
be
left intact and
in
; ')
should
normally granted
and third
be
could
also the power and
)
scored
an
issues
it
these
said
When the corporate sector
,
convincing the ANC
.
into global capitalism on
Africa
it
,
(
-
-
in
succeeded
South
of
of
;
ex
,
free marketeerism
genuinely liberal capitalist system
macroeconomic and export oriented policy should integrate
colonialism
Africa
South
sector and with
‘
the
and
accumulation
African economy should
all
the
,
:
,
a
in
the freedom
corporate sector
met first
were
South
racial
machina that would solve
and unemployment
the corporate
ie
relations
all
granted
second
democracy
involvement with
the deus
inequality
(
property
;
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the abject poverty
explicitly denying such involvement the
and even
preconditions
three
,
provided
own
itself
poverty
,
social problems
of
sector presented
of
corporate
ignoble
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and apartheid
its
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segregation
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the victims
majoritarian
political conditions conducive
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remaining
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a
,
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to
-
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creation
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wealth
white conglomerates
and white political domination
of
capitalism
transformation
white beneficiaries through systemic in
in
the huge economic power concentrated
;
accumulated exploitation
hands
and
economic
undeservedly
destitution
it
-
informal negotiations
the
were not about racial
through racial capitalism
clean
,
's
that
the
process
leaders
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propagandising and myth making enabled the
convince ANC
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;
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9 4
.
8 6
apartheid governments
sector
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racial capitalism
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.
could
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of
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protect poor Afrikaners against black
repressive labour and other segregationist measures and
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discriminatory measures introduced than
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English controlled section
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had always strongly opposed apartheid because
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it
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undeservedly
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informal negotiations
the
attain this goal .
to
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of
's
During
at
position
movement
order
in
1993
corporate sector and the international community also
political settlement considerably
a
wanted
economic and social issues
on
the
The fact that both
ESTABLISHMENT SINCE
it
concessions
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POLITICAL
as
THE HEGEMONY
immensely 101
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Klerk regime
negotiations
main opponents
,
institutions Western
102
set its
liberal ideas
, -
neo
a
simply did not have
the economic policy
to
resources available
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capacity
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beginning
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:
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factor that tilted the balance
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South Africa
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.
-
-
first prize
political control
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.
to
the necessary degree
even greater extent than
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that
pressurised
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NP
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Park into agreeing
is
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ANC
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sector got
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's
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agreement delayed also possible that the constitutional Kempton Park until the corporate sector was satisfied that had
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agreements reached
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agreements reached
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AAC had according
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to
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especially
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1990s the corporate
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corner Despite several attempts
crisis was still
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,
of
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poorer half
sophistication and power that the ANC
but
leaders apparently had little choice
on
arguments were based
much conviction
so
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.
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reaching negative implications
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'
SOUTH AFRICA
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PART
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ideas and policy
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.
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world that were responsible hand and the rise
the communist bloc and western
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)
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including ideological shifts
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taking into account the
on
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,
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)
.
10
alliance
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power shifts
steady
1990s was the difference
SACP were over economic issues
and the
stop the ANC
1994
).
early
called
so
culture among the
relative weakness the
in
economic matters
–
:
the
(
for
Another reason
the sharpest
228
1997
-
liberalism
transition process
(February
and RDP
1993
9
in
(December 1993 )
's
recommendations
neo
POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE
OF THE AFRICAN
the
THE HEGEMONY
During the 1970s and early 1980s the ANC and the other South African
,
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for
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,
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of
whether this was justifiable
living standards
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intact keenly
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.
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so
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)
it
.
reduced
the economy were in
the
a
especially 12
negotiaitons
ANC
in
the ANC
And without military –
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, be for
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to
.
at
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Soviet Union may
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,
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more intact than the white political sector and
to
far
economic matters
the end
between presidents
Reykjavik
apartheid regime militarily
bargaining power
business sector was therefore
1980s
–
's on
,
the ANC
informal talks
the
communist bloc
defeat
to
organisations victory
at the
from
the end
But
may have resulted partly from exemplified the Chernobyl
financial support
in
The decline
disarray
support
financial and ideological
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from
Mikhail Gorbachev
.
of
partly
the reasons why Umkhonto we Sizwe
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was
.
and
especially
This
and October 1987 respectively
1986
world conflicts
one
the
),
1986
Ronald Reagan and October
Soviet Union
the
,
of
'
April
rather sharply
,
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meltdown
,
."
of
1980s this support decreased the
many countries
the Soviet Union was the most important
(
support
as
of
in
liberation organisations received support from Among these countries the communist bloc
103
an
of
the
,
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of
mixed capitalist
for
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,
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the Rich North
sector corporations
sector But with the rise
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and the corporate
industrialised countries
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labour was also strong enough
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1945
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bargaining power
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power relations within
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the Bretton Woods period
During this period organised the
in
by
major shifts
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elected governments
of
the emergence
galloping globalisation
industrialised countries was distributed
of
global flow
.
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.
countries
capitalism
financial markets
the world
This was accompanied between
economic
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,
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the Soviet Union
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implosion
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together with the remarkable
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the
last quarter
in
in
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These developments
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into
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integrated
1980s
the opening
information technology
during
capitalism
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system
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industrialised
goods and capital
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belief
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With
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).
(
socio democratic approach
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and
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The almost unanimous support
those
War
.
command economy
average
see appendix
system
power
,
per cent During the Cold
of
welfare state capitalism
the 20th century
achieving
age
in
In
a
golden
ideological consensus
remarkable
,
third quarter
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a
by
strong aversion
'
SOUTH AFRICA
the
a
merits
of
accompanied
rate
5
growth
annual economic Union
experienced
countries
to
industrialised
economic terms
.
ideological
the
THE TRANSITION AND THE 'NEW
of
2:
and
PART
the
corporations which control not only
104
economic
financial
than
40
in
more
000
per cent are based and
ideological
in
95
which more than
,
countries
this power concentrated
,
industrialised
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),
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.
propaganda power With most
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,
huge economic and financial resources but also formidable ideological and
power
of
of
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the
while that
has increased
of
.14
70
per cent
continental
the in
of
to
of
than
world income
the world population
populations
the poorer
, of
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the
in
,
share
)
15
that
the British American world
same time
per cent
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the
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.
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stronger
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This tendency
per cent
30
the
industrialised countries has increased relative
housing
-à -
Poor South top
The income
.
distributional effects
Europe
that
.
in
countries
1993
power shifts within and between countries have had important
of
These
of
the governments
the
concentrated in the Rich North has also increased dramatically
vis
POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE
OF THE AFRICAN
vis
THE HEGEMONY
the
to
necessary
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,
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the implications
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To
of
.'
Poor South has declined sharply
(
of
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or
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of ,
'
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In
).
a
capitalist game
,
the World Bank
and its
(
in
the
the Rich North
to
-
,
General
the
and other international organisations
),
the
corporate
sector
the
its
power
own
is
to
(
By
IMF
,
on
.
entrenching
16
of
.
power
of
in
functions
describes
this
the death
elite
the
managerial
continuously increasing
the Rich
of
Hertz
as
as
well
at
, :
to
her
those
global capitalism and its
.
multinational corporations
is
2001
According
powers
Noreena
her book The silent takeover
).
in
elected
(
democracy
governments
but especially
the
tending towards usurping
democratically
–
countries
the
all
in
,
–
the
Tariffs and Trade GATT
power the corporate sectors
of
of
]
sector
capitalist game within countries and By consolidating their own the Rich North and Poor South
also between
phenomenon
power
the Rich North supported
change the rules
assistance
continuously rewriting the rules
are
the hope
implementing neo liberal policies and freeing
of
the
)
United States
instruments
North
salesmen
of
the
governments
.
in
the
own advantage with
and
act
now
role
).
global capitalism
Agreement
diminishing
and keeping themselves
financial markets This enabled the corporate especially
19 – 38
et
state
both developed
corporations
of
86
;
by
of
the rise
-
mid 1970s onwards
From
Governments
national
for their
achieve
see also Strange 1996
the
(
:
Hertz 2001
game
their own
core prosperity
a
providing
of
to
,
rules
promoting the fortune
governments are playing
'
determining
insidiously
actors
state and
structural power until later
2000
[
the
countries
Lawton
actor
such
group
the
since the other actors accept the new
true basis
.
and developing
of of ,
(
;
,
Mytelka
1994
the
see Strange
not realise in
norms and
the
do
as
rules
actors
(
the
that actor
objectives without direct confrontation
actors such
rules that other actors
:
,
)
shape
thus enabling
follow
ability
al
civil society
is
,
)
the corporate sector
)
(
such
however
,
as
).
state
Structural power
group
or
wields directly against another actor
or
corporate
sector
power that one actor the
Relational power
is
the
.
distinguish between what Susan Strange calls relational and structural power
the expense
105
AND THE 'NEW
those
of
the
the expense
of
Rich North but
the
the
greater extent
even
to
.
at
.
the
's
in
if
on
.
,
or
an
ANC leaders
unrestructured 18
.
South Africa and
and Frankfurt What we also
succumb
in
,
Washington
not know
whether the
is
do
international partners
global to
but
to
in
both
in
-
-
and
opt
co
or
,
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)
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sector and
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propaganda
post apartheid South Africa
the time
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in as
it
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its
to
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it
on
',
on
future economic
(
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of
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coerce
.
,
,
London
which
more correctly
leaders apparently had little choice
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York
to
–
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's
the ANC
power
used
free marketeerism
its
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capitalism
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an
-
to
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only
Africa
South
convince
most appropriate
system
economic
was
the
South
what extent the corporate sector
AAC has
power
policy
economic
would wield
of
such
and even greater financial embrace
not
corporatisation
the
conglomerates
know
at
especially
't
,
don
as
we
Unfortunately
economic policies
South Africa was firmly institutionalised
'-
-
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Anglo Americanisation
corporate sector and
tabula rasa
'–
of
that point the
a
be .
At
,
would
1994
the game
–
election
The same
economic matters
sector
in
the
before
–
inscribe
sector took the
global capitalism
the corporate
policies but also what the rules
New
the
framework
informal negotiations offered
power
of
balance
of
,
in
.
Africa and elsewhere
of
the the
Africa Given
new South
the Statement
the structural power
sector consolidated
1994
accumulation strategy
new
on
1993 they agreed
,
,
.
the corporate
in
the ANC When
system
the corporate
during the informal negotiations between
happened
could
rest
period 1978
it
search for
a
its
in
government
AAC and
the
. . ,
section
tow 3 2 in 3
in
indicated
sector
of
of
the local corporate
African government already began
South
NP
power
in
The increase
As
.
17
Poor South where those corporations have subsidiaries
all
elected nation states . This happens in in
of
the countries
SOUTH AFRICA '
an
of democratically
of the sovereignty
to
THE TRANSITION
2:
,
PART
the IMF World Bank
.
on
,
,
,
the ANC the corporate partners made use
an its
'
to
cleanse
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to
,
.
of to
free market
onslaught
global
and convince
orientation
,
liberal
,
-
a
to
'
and upliftment
redistribution
exercise their joint power
neo
ANC
interventionism
local corporate sector and
the joint ideological
,
on
alternative In
no
was
that
it
-
necessary
ensure
of of
it
,
To
.
the
the game
dirigisme
erstwhile socialist and redistributive
approach
corporatism 106
its
of
'
oriented
,
on
accomplish this
there
socialism
to
it
or
programmes
,
populism
partners probably thought
important
large scale
macroeconomic
that
–
,
-
was very
government would not embark
the ANC
on
accept the neo liberal and globalised rules
so
the ANC
,
Forum
For the corporate sector
the World
put additional pressure
Economic to
investment banks and
GATT
,
,
,
ie
global capitalism
–
agents
of
corporate sector and the NP government deliberately mobilised the powerful
and globally
local and global
two rather doubtful
of
,
of
-
in
and
their rules
the
,
– if
orchestrated
, of
-
and
.'
capitalist game were not accepted
-
be
expected
uncertain terms
capital entrepreneurs
in
,
,
the large outflow
of
professional skills that could
ANC
no
the
the
On
subtle ways
–
of
sorts
and beneficial
fiscal restraint and neo liberal
from
other they warned
employment
of
,
effect that would ensue
.
-
“
high rates
'
trickle down
rate
extremely optimistic scenario
an
the
they presented
high economic growth
globalisation all
one hand
1993
of
British
liberal
free
or
the ideology
the
and Reaganomics
Thatcherism
see
(
choose
up
of
continental European
of
grounded
the
give
to
?
of
to
an
Why
had
probably that the South African corporate
sector and the American based global institutions are only familiar with
this
economic and
institutional
or
-
,
South
,
-
,
,
conditions
seduced
the
the
,
colonialism
ANC
right wing version despite segregation and apartheid socio
accepting
in
,
fact that after centuries
and either pressurised
into
with hyperbolic promises
of –
-
capitalism
the
-
of
right wing version
it
these questions
to
The answer
is
?
)
?
market capitalism
capitalism
the right
social democracy rather than on
American version appendix
the ideology
it
countries based
not opt for the social capitalism
of
on
,
it
did
why
socialism
the left
from
concerning economic systems
spectrum
did
ideological
ideological leap
it
.
,
of
the ANC make
the leadership
of
Why
November 1993 certain questions remain unanswered core
did
since the elite compromise
almost nine years have passed
If
Although
'
the
strategies . On
POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE
THE AFRICAN
or
OF
THE HEGEMONY
Africa were anything
but
-
as
of the
of
,
on
the
of
in
no
the
as
curve
'
‘
Americanisation the hands
? a
economic power
of
‘
-
the Anglo
of
' the
,
wisdom
steep forgetting
in
of
own socio economic powerlessness -
its
its
.
the AAC and neoclassical economists that unbridled
become richer and the powerful more
We
be
poorer and the powerless more powerless
?
to
in
of
But with
forget about the strong tendency
for the rich
poor
to
be
to it
Did get
the
,
powerful while
,
it the
” ?
'
free market capitalism
after agreeing
forget about
propaganda
power does not matter
concerned about
concentration
it
Did
20
it
conglomerates accepted
forget
economic issues
the “
'.
is
South Africa
Did
about
, :
1999
also reason
).
,
see
(
of
Bond
followed under their influence
had
hands
steep learning curve which key
about
involved boasted
was
1993
longer concerned
economic power
concentration
During the informal negotiations
16
ANC leaders
hindsight there
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compromise
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about the
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would have expected key ANC leaders more knowledgeable about the the distribution deeply institutionalised and racially based inequalities
107
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leading and enabling role
and warned that policies concentrating purely
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80
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.24
structural crisis
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gramme was aimed
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published shortly before the election the legacy
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's
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as
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.22
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AFRICA '
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AND THE 'NEW
THE TRANSITION
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2:
of
PART
reconstruction
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108
of
comprehensively described part
South
African
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RDP document was that
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development
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27
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was one
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to
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government
the
not
’. 26
death
economy was reduced
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envisaged
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.25
incompetence and excessive corruption
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Blumenfeld
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60
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Blumenfeld 1997
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quoted
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on which
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the 1994 election
the electorate
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domination . After the Mandela
POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE
OF THE AFRICAN
the
THE HEGEMONY
only
those departments with procedures and priorities that conformed with
back
28
them
).
1997
14
Office
from
:
the RDP
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of
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away
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109
110
.
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'
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other than whites and would maintain
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This version
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30
colonial and racial capitalism
towards systemic exploitation
tendency
was also
the economy was again
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'
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capitalism
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relations
1994
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election manifesto
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reference was made
early
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the ANC that
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but
fundamentally
As indicated to
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,
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,
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's
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the RDP
purposes
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the
as
fiscal
,
29
its
to
led
the failure
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roles
commitment
ANC
Although administrative
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set
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when
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AND THE
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PART
implies that market mechanisms cannot automatically
.1 ) .
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all
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33
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of is
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of
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1995
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restructuring
Ben Fine has agreed
capital
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Eight years after
logic
and economic
economic policy has been driven
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large scale South African
policy framework
1999
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What Lodge
economic matters the ANC by
.
years
evident acceptance
,
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,
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past
corporate sector
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1998
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And
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169
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1997
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racial
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unrestructured
power holders and the old business elite
,
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(
capacity
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sector Adam
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Instead
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power the economy remains largely capitalism
that
. .)32
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complicated and painful
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the ANC
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mitigation
In
sector
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to
left
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lobbied
1993
which the AAC and the
aggressively
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‘
free marketeerism
sector had
see section
sector
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corporate
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ANC had accepted
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After the symbiotic relationship
[
of
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the
forged between ANC leaders and after
essential
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How
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1993
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from to
deliberate intervention
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structural crisis the
POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE
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60
of
The fifth phase the AAC led search for new accumulation strategy and the GEAR strategy 1993
four months
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112
the
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to
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promises
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‘
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.
34
.
the struggle
the living conditions
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liberation
.
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The RDP was born
.4
a
to
RDP
philosophy and
Africa
South
policy
The RDP Office lingered
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that the RDP
today only
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the
,
carry
1996
election manifesto
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programme
4
March
fiscal space needed
policy programme but only
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historical perspective
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The points
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In
ANC
AFRICA '
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for
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,
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the non interest government budget
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‘
).
57
only
the
criticised
strongly and emotionally
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should
and
absorb unemployed people into lower paid jobs
government spending
labour
violence
two tier labour market without prescribed minimum
The SAF document also pleaded
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aggressively
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macroeconomic and employment policy
the South African economy
In
unemployment
to
levels
led
of
In
early 1996 the continued poor performance
and high
new
of
.
economic policy
extraordinarily
113
all
' it
that the corporate
implementing
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market document after
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free
‘
had already committed
–
extremely liberal and
globalisation
of
the
systemic
why the SAF deemed
be
We have reason
sector was uncomfortable with the RDP and with the influence
an
the disrupted
Anglo Americanism
‘
is
such
in
embodied
to
publish
and
ask
,
form
’,
marketeerism
to
even
.36
to
blatant
It
most
.
its
rooted
generations
from
vintage
end the SAF document
the core ANC leadership
which
resulting
but does not
–
under racial capitalism
beginning
necessary
violence may
and
and abject poverty
structures
exploitation
in
possibility that crime
class be
the
consider
From
'
in
representing the white property
organisation
social
AFRICA
SOUTH
about violence and criminality – as one might have expected from
concerned an
'NEW
AND THE
THE TRANSITION
to
:
an
2
to
PART
the corporate
sector was
successive governments
of
,
In
in
)
'
it
-
or
(
.38
.
investors
the
globalisation
,
of
-
,
. that
million
,
This would only materialise
it
.41
that
FDI
optimistic assessment
until 2000
Its
strategy
of
of
.
a
to
attract
by
).
a
at
(
–
–
foreign
strategy
1 3
the
growth
economic
accumulation
all
to
39
-
up
be
'
.
,
'.
an
‘
114
created
framework
The GEAR
the trimmings
almost desperate attempt
additional jobs would
Devised
the neo liberal orthodoxies
Decorated with
The GEAR document contained
new
especially
40
aim
of
,
committed
Washington consensus
GEAR
providing the country
sustained
economy
the search for
macroeconomic
new
macroeconomic
oriented
reassure potential
the government was GEAR represents
integrated
that higher levels
outward
phase
was
well
-
competitive
represents the fifth
immediate
37
15
of
,
departure
to
requires
of
a
's
GEAR
point
finance announced
the strategy was aimed
and
completely
Anglo Americanism
Employment and Redistribution
economists
comprehensive
a
a
,
strategy entitled Growth
with
of
of
the ministry
institutional
and apartheid
colonialism
is
In
1996
free marketeerism
'
to
superimpose
the remnants
group
skewed
human development that make
of
and uneven levels
inappropriate
June
since the late 1970s The document also
ignores the unequal power relations
,
framework
been selling
had
, ‘
conspicuously
that
.
to
instalments
onto
approach
it
neo liberal and growthmanship
-
's
sector
,
,
.
50
largest corporations not enough the this document the SAF revealed more visibly than ever before the core elements the corporate apparently
of
to
's
.
a
in
public sector GEAR
approach
market forces
for
,
demand
both Growth
the
structural
nature
read against
of
appreciation
the
with
the Keynesian
as
aggregate
of
.
August
sharp
tariff reductions
,
led
few
the 43
all Growth for all
Growth
;
and
for
’,
in
,
imperatives and deservedly
By retreating
into the and
-
and deep seated inequalities
in
Growth
all
of
for
)
42 .
its
:
its
,
.
. are
differences between
which market forces reign
compilers
of
in
of
,
more
/
to
Thatcher lurch
the right
of
If
the
,
the role
of
of
the
the private
?
poorest half
and neglected
,
impoverished
,
the
that
it
will
to
who
does not remain marginalised
If
pressure groups
will
who
power
needed developmental state see
rolled back
reduced the
in
counter
?
will
-
urgently
.
.
to
is
be
it ?
'
will devise
Who
drastically
other well organised
the
'
and
’,
state has
population
of
-
Who
heights
to
?
'
commanding
restructure
‘
's
‘
fundamentally
the economy
in
role
state
sector
Reagan
thread through the GEAR document This begs several questions
be
a
runs like
the
.
The strong anti state orientation the
the
,
imperfect reality
from
Africa
South
the
1996
(
the
of
do
,
not see Nattrass
economic textbooks
GEAR lost contact with
its
. system
supreme rewarding those countries that obey fantasy world
Apart
Both GEAR and
and tone
worldwide capitalist economic
punishing those that
-
.
,
/
on
)
-
in
content
25 –
envisage
the Statement
Thatcherite
were the
concerns
economic policies
.44
openly
formulations there
‘
,
the NEM
fiscal
Ideologically GEAR falls
1993
side neo classical paradigm
(
and
main
GEAR were already present
November
’
supply
and less aggressive
a
is
it
GEAR
,
, ,
squarely within
growth
FDI
and
the key elements
policies
economic the
on
‘
Statement
all
of
Strictly speaking
careful
and poverty relief
payments inflation
balance
market
the need
stressed
and investor confidence While the document paid
redistribution
to
service
-
lip
and monetary discipline
for
,
, .
employment implications GEAR
beyond
the fact that those cuts had serious
of
in
,
despite
the
1994
the clothing textile and automobile component sectors that went under GATT
an
counteract the
to
measures
trade and industry had already announced
those demanded
as
.
in
means
rate adjustments
exchange
far
, of
department
stimulate exports
sharp
This was regarded
In
impact
early 1996
of
inflationary
rate
must
growth
by
to
in
the real exchange
opportunity
led
's
export
-
emphasis
GEAR decline
on
.
42
unemployment
additional jobs would
that employment levels are largely
their obsession little
the labour
reform
,
In
showed
and not
1993
be
all
GEAR
all
third
of
of
real wages
it .
by
(
Growth
approach would have
and
for
infrastructural expansion
line with that
determined
almost
the
via
created
in
be
,
market and moderate wages and
the
operate with initiatives
labour unions would
is
if
by )
the
said,
co if -
OF THE AFRICAN POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE
THE HEGEMONY
115
AND THE 'NEW
hosted by the BER
short interlude which ended when GEAR
,
'
space
needed
cent
pool available
poor areas see
).
1997 budget speech
his
promises
Manuel described
cabinet ministers
'.
'
as
deep transformation but
it
transformation
,
indeed amounts
to
“
it
and
et
Adam
cut back public spending
al ,
,
deficit
reduce the state
,
,
privatise state corporations make wages more flexible
According
to
:
188
by
In to
2001
2001
socio economic
spending and for adequate infrastructural development
Marais
drive down the
for
less than
per
1994
and spending
the redistributive
to
-
.
per cent
9
(
from
ceiling strictly limited the funding
the
government revenue
Overall GEAR limited tax based Along GDP with the successful efforts
the RDP
to
budget deficit
, the ‘
do
per cent
'
strategy s
the GEAR
fiscal
not allow
in
25
to
of
also
implications
in
of 1993 ,
Statement
the
of
policies
themselves
ANC leaders had
November 1993 , reaffirmed . As was
.
case with
which
to
tax
a
was announced and the neo - liberal approach already committed
RDP
accelerated
the
was
foundation
a
new
a
(
will
, the RDP
In reality
to underpin
2
delivery .'
provide
the key
),
cycle ), GEAR
claimed
.. . [By launching
economic requirements for achieving ( the RDP ] goals growth
, Manuel
1996
and unambiguously
set out clearly
to
revealing
is a
-
that GEAR ‘ simply seeks
October
in
1996
tax
. At a conference
exercise
of
1994 with the GEAR strategy
for
of
Comparing the RDP
SOUTH AFRICA '
in
THE TRANSITION
2:
in
PART
means free market
206
struggle
1997
).
:
'(
anti apartheid
-
the
transformation rather than the redistributive transformation popularised during
the
-
–
a
in
'
,
45
.
. an
as
effect the
-
trickle down
Consequently
Redistribution
.
and
,
.46 '
income
but also Employment
,
the higher rates were sustained over
trickle down
the
if
even
to
fact
,
that “
in
',
jobless growth
document
higher economic growth rates were attained this
or if
,
even
spending
investment would not only
,
deliver Growth
such
Moreover
poor
,
not only
‘
be
spending
state
that the of
,
and
optimal
'
.
'
to
'
that increased private
higher growth but also create jobs
time they would not 116
that would create
crowd out private investment
rather dogmatically
The possibilities that
would
economic intervention
from
presented
investment GEAR
from system
an
in
refrain
result
unbridled capitalist
economic growth with the dubious argument that
inclined
would
high economic
sector had promised an
–
salvation
would bring about the necessary redistribution plan
oriented development
people
the
GEAR was
to
's
lead
to
claimed
be
impediment
economic
the corporate
the necessary adjustments
private to
climate would
task
concentrate for
to
and
conduct
private capital accumulation via
increase
The government
on
in
sharp
to
's
South Africa
growth rate that would
as
,
policy the latter
state
‘
saw
while the former expected the
a
,
But the most important difference between the RDP and GEAR was that
were
not
even
which the plan was based
,
in
in
of
the
.2 ).
2
in
in
(
,
,
,
ie
its
-
–
convince the
need
a
for
of in
is
-
to
the
middle income
other
obvious
the
segregation
more
set
it
,
it
–
in
of
;
;
of
.
–
of
,
).
less
,
7 6
than
1
or
the
state
projected
(
of
review
7
department
of
,
year instead
of 21 ,
).
a
Real
GDP
;
finance budget
GDP
a
R8 4
or
of
(
15
per cent
year
by
a
,
In
per cent
per cent
projected
lone reversal investment billion
even
; 2. 1
4 2
of
per cent instead
the
1
7
,
of
(
3
not
per cent and real
of
,
see table
6
1 2
decline
continued
.
the
'
,
a
per
the
,
2 7
by
per cent
S
its
of
3
of
6
of
of
.
13 ( ,
,
department
Manufactured
year instead
of
(
;
per cent SARB 2000
cent
than
some R30 billion
Gross private savings averaged trade and industry
from
per cent instead
less
meet
targets has been attributed
by ,
GEAR strategy
-
the
its
of
).
economics database to
In
.)
amounted
imports
other targets were reached
of
)
instead
grew
by
per cent
2000
SOEs
to
FDI
,
or
a
per cent
5°
-
owned enterprises
The failure
only
massive discrepancy
and imports tariffs
real terms again exceeding GEAR
per cent instead
,
sector investment grew
rate
the value
growing 1 8
at
grew
of
7
11 ,
only
by
government investment
of by
.
Employment shrank instead
GDP
year
GDP the inflation
per cent
,
.
The economy grew
per cent
per cent
per cent but this largely resulted
the real exchange rate None
remotely
targets
for itself has the period until 2000
in
,
7 6
per cent
the targets
less than
per cent a
, 2
18
,
of
projection
less than
8
grew
annual average
an
by
to to
exports
10
were reduced
private
terms
less than
to
budget deficit was reduced
was reduced
in
judged
in
strategy
The government reached three
failed the
GEAR
is
.49 If
the
of
.
48
comprehensive redistribution policy
colonialism
government
result
than
bargaining power
extraordinary new
the country
see table
–
) tax
of
à -
vis
tax
to
compared
South
comparable
also higher
income are
despite
rates
South Africa
history
'
structural power increase
be s
.
position
used
.
The corporate sector
its
it
cannot
countries
of
income
But South Africa
but this
revenue
corporate
and
income earners
of
individual
total
of
cent
than
not
were
that tax rates
claim
are higher
tax
per cent
15
top
distribution
and apartheid means that
not
in
.1 ) . .
tax
The
per
.
unequal
comparable countries
latter
These taxpayers
vis
Rates
than
on
of
the extremely
30
no
less
,
,
(
income countries
provide
the fact that white taxpayers
individual income
-
middle
light
the
pay higher taxes
especially
Africa
further
and
balance and sound fiscal policies
macroeconomic
in
understood
to
prepared
on
's be
should
see section
emphasis
GEAR
growing inequality
11
pauperisation
jobless growth
,
capital intensity
greater
the South African version
the tendencies towards greater economic concentration
of
,
ie
–
capitalism
(
of
nothing about the unhealthy structural tendencies
said
,
on
the simplifications
to
.47 Amid
considered
1993
it
all
OF THE AFRICAN POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE
THE HEGEMONY
117
of
non delivery
-
.
excuse
we might
all
When
the meantime
.
be
interests
It
and especially
of
the
,
poor delivery record
about the non delivery
inappropriate -
would indeed
.
to
that the
complain
the larger and globally oriented corporations and ungrateful for the corporate sector
,
,
is
fact that despite
the strategy protects white business privileges
strange
is
do
-
its
to
terms
more
even
poor performance This its
in
explained
nor
globally oriented
and
rather
support GEAR despite
, ,
is
sector continues
document
What
Africa
South
.
suited
GEAR
the
not acknowledge the
conventional neo liberal
of
not
to
fact that
,
the
approach
be
of
.
-
deficiencies
importantly
can only
explanations also
These
the
non delivery
to
,
in
have been
serious inherent
corporate
would
compensate for the human predicament
a
by
caused
a
fairness have
employment and income redistribution
also have been acknowledged and that alternativemeasures would
implemented
top
of
the
government official uses this kind expected that
completely unsatisfactory
a
the second explanation
,
term
was
it
While the Asian crisis was undoubtedly is
,
in
long
just indicative
of what was being aimed at. GEAR would ,
idea
of
deliver
setback
general
a
but
targets
,
crisis of 1998
– to the Asian
.
give
to
,
argued
director -general of finance
argument that the targets were not really
the
figures
SOUTH AFRICA '
in
, the
among others with
AND THE 'NEW
THE TRANSITION
2:
the
PART
‘
that GEAR would
-
]
.
FDI was highly unrealistic
.
years the government to
sector
tailor
of
the corporate
its
and
sector
role the government
generating aggregate demand
(
,
the positive
,
but follows
under the influence
GEAR strategy grossly underestimated
,
|
International experience
of
again
will
it .
, .
,
-
-
its
with anti statism
could have played and should have played 18
measures that
unrealistic orientation towards global capitalism
in
the
–
obsession
to
shows that FDI does not precede economic growth Owing
52
a
package
the domestic economy and create jobs
large
a
the corporate
is
is
.
of
stimulate
required instead
With
African countries
–
reliance
investment
of
on
private
the poor ability
economic growth policy almost exclusively around globalisation and
FDI What
the
if
as
it
:
, 4).
seems
,
's
demand
faction
Thus
six
,
under pressure from
have
attract FDI and underestimated the
poor performance over the past a
–
's
,
But despite GEAR continues
domestic
clear that GEAR
2001
on
of is
FDI
it
the benefit attract
inadequate
hindsight and knowledge
the real interest rates
of
, of
impact
of
growth
'(
supported
level
of
than
the high
to
and
strategy was mainly designed
negative
inflow
of
demand downwards
51
's
,
consistent with
its
the
spectrum
also consistent with evidence that aggressively anti inflationary
undermined rather
to
ideological
and that private investment would follow
stabilisation packages GEAR
poor growth performance
economists across
(
is
.. .
It
reduce demand
GEAR
Nattrass
in
, of
the warnings
to
According
is
.
GEAR
the
not only
through
word
higher
1993
of
sense
POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE
)
Keynesian
, of
the
THE HEGEMONY OF THE AFRICAN
rates
is
,
the
of
,
and
is
the
in
which
growth
is
of
.
in
,
line
with productivity
we
.
the rand
on
devaluation
What
controlling
see
Nattrass
play
more
(
of
the
in
terms
-
in
built
to
It
.
to
the day
applied
,
of
–
that cannot
South African circumstances
the larger corporations
was designed
increase their net worth through
,
an
be
for labour market the new
however not
,
is
workers
from
often alleged
.
in
levels
the workplace inherited
retrench
of
high
as
of
of
difficult
and
,
the
semi skilled
the labour market should to
is
not
as
to
The alleged inflexibility
It
despite
important reason
the inequalities
apartheid
redress some
.
those
the legislation and regulations enacted
government
overemphasised
highly skilled and
-
,
.
those categories
since 1995
sharply
increased
An
have
is
unemployment
in
workers
of
.
only moderately
skilled workers have increased
structured
was supposed
strategy Although the wages
53
important cornerstone
the
of
wage flexibility within the collective bargaining system
that to
appropriately
of
moderate wage demands supported
acknowledged
by
should
a
.y be
,
poor performance
it
's
GEAR
the South African community
by
to
of
the rest
mitigation
commitment
of
of
and net worth
.54
end
be
free marketeerism
At
.
labour instead
the
COSATU
cost
and globalisation but without necessarily promoting the interests
liberalisation
inflexibility
playing
passed several
'
of the – in
version
a
of
in
of
under pressure from
cost
consistently and successfully
unskilled
But instead
of
countries
.
in
as
,
the
ANC government
the needs
Asian
state
a
).
,
was the case
the
stimulating domestic demand and strictly controlling
GEAR represents
fit
the legacy
manufactured exports has exceeded
have required
this would
labour laws that increased
In
social
7
: To
accomplish
increases
to
by
.
costs and increasing wages
active role
be
GEAR
export led growth strategy depends
an
is
caused
and
growth
model
the Asian
Although growth
that
interventionist role an
on
is
via
,
this has been
production 2001
based
exports
realise
should
,
that export markets are good
.
supposition
expectations
taxation
address poverty
stimulating domestic demand
Instead
generated
on
,
needed
apartheid
The strategy
).
:
(
desperately
of
spending which
unnecessarily sharp
The
ceiling
GEAR strategy
taxpayers have prevented substantial real increases
are
reimbursement
some tangible
primarily concerning itself
267
the rigid
deficit
to
of
the budget
1998
for
of
reduction
Luiz
see
yet
on
very high priority
with macroeconomic fundamentals and economic growth confusing means and ends
democracy
its
,
a
have been
the
should
and with
majority with In
benefits
providing the disadvantaged
.
,
consolidated
political transition
of
in
the throes
a
be
to
still
is
Africa
.
infrastructural investment but also redistribution programmes While South
119
AND THE 'NEW
THE TRANSITION
According
what they ought
, South
to be
labour
declining
laws have
November 2001 ) .
5
employers ' costs , and have
increased
- directly and indirectly
contributed
in
legislation was necessary
principle
to
the new
undoubtedly
-
unemployment. Although
to
address the legacy
apartheid
the
–
,
the detriment
,
.
–
geared towards promoting
like
its
actions
own
other sectors
of
its
by
affirmative action
,
be
interests
'
of
the lower class while
of
worker
to
(
or
sectional class
are often
socio
groups
these
the poor
the champion
–
black bourgeoisie
the
)
of
those
claims
COSATU
to
Although
the expense
the public sector has also been harmed
of
the efficiency
at
economic positions have been improved
Consequently
,
lower middle class
.
that
of
to
in
the
especially
of
–
from
of
mainly under pressure affirmative action has been driven too hard position improve emerging COSATU order the the black elite but
of
the
a
Africa does not compare negatively with other
developing countries (COSATU Newsletter ,
policy
are receiving
of GDP , and although productivity and skills development are not
percentage
All
, workers
the economist Mike Schusster
to
'
SOUTH AFRICA
,
2:
of
PART
the
,
,
's
-
a
to a
is
.
After
-
-
of
an
( or –
adequate
their absence
,
by
the
put the cart
capacity
state
and while
involved with the private 1994
government
the new
of
departments
in
–
'
,
level
conspicuous
.56
has
as
, a
.
a
certain
investors
state capacity
and
crisis
.
poverty
)
( or
-
promoting atmosphere This crisis was ignored
an to
strategy
-
of
accumulation
continuing neglect
during
each
of
for
the
the search
government
the new
is
the failure an
during the fifth phase
for
.
the public sector
more important reason
the social
strategy
not prioritising the development
-
of
,
‘
are
,
in
foreign
investment friendly and growth
120
rife
of
–
create
these
of
a
the efficiency
are
in
corruption
huge mistake
a
55
.
to
presupposes
strategy
growth path
Implementing
one sense
than
equally important for
the government
accumulation
new
in
an
.
and
find
fundamentals are
higher economic
By implementing GEAR
more
Unfortunately
even
This
the governmental
because
fundamentals
climate and
-
in
place
sector and with potential
An
improve soon
.
the
-
)
economic
of
the horse
accumulation
made
its
of
a
socio
not
efficiency
and that
2001 were conducive
,
is
and
the other attempts
nepotism
conditions
point that sound macroeconomic
investment friendly
are certainly
strategy
sound macroeconomic fundamentals were
not particularly helpful
this
,
if
in
bureaucratic creating
protagonists claimed
stabilisation
and that growth would probably
we grant
place
before
but
GEAR
economic perspective
Even
case
strategy
They also claimed that macro
rather narrow
now
growth
implementation
FDI flows
increased
planning period
in
place
.
in
after five years
of
was not really
it
that
the end
at
In
2001
–
.
black community
the
first
THE HEGEMONY
POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE
OF THE AFRICAN
four attempts to find
accumulation strategy,
a new
from
1978
, and
1994
to
1993
is
again being ignored rather conspicuously by the GEAR strategy . In the present phase of South Africa tried not
only
to
's
, the government should
precarious transformation
create macroeconomic stability
, but also
have
to build and develop
in
, an
It
of
the
of to
. a
country
which most
per cent
concentrated
the large
to
the most important obstacle
conjunction
of
,
94
,
the World Bank
Council
it
to
– to
.
of
capitalism
that
continue with
in
the
of
in
1994
think
investment
since
on
If
57
.
1999
government had
the new
racial
and
Metropolitan
identified crime
interviewed growth
colonial
surveys undertaken
series
business sector
by
after centuries
'
a
created
,
after the
of
'
In
government that
advise the new
political transformation of
-
possible
the Greater Johannesburg
and
was indeed narrow
and crime and violence have become
short sighted
-
was equally
normal business
firms
global free marketeerism
poor
in
-
. be
would
be
atmosphere could
abjectly poor and deprived
It
endemic
with
the
the corporate sector
friendly
are
people
plight
of
minded and myopic investment
discipline
relentless
greater compassion about
a
but
is not
need now
as
Africans
the
society , including reconstructing the South African economy . What most South
1994
certainly have been lower
crime would
the
levels
and
,
,
programmes
of
-
comprehensive and well focused poverty alleviation and crime prevention
via
in
a
.
,
's
six
GEAR
after
–
,
of
:
(
far
the distribution
more serious see Luiz
achieve
and keep
neo liberal policy
higher
rate and
of
order
a
implement
,
economic systemic
population have been perpetuated
.
half
be
of its
of of
.
–
to
years
bigger
The high growth rates have not materialised
exclusion and neglect
create
the
in
,
intact
would
under pressure from the corporate sector
to
the
1993
of
.
system
poverty problem
–
in
,
the economic growth
the
faced with
global financial institutions
of
and
310
).
:
1998
The ANC agreed
remain
employment opportunities
and
unsatisfactory the unemployment problem
income more unequal and
would
oxymoron the economic growth
,
rate
is
,
announcement South Africa
growth path
-
the
sufficient
income
political transition
,
after
liberation struggle
sorely needed
neo
had been criminalised
whom
high economic
of
redistribution
many
an
years
,
a
spontaneous
Eight
is
a
and
,
and
time frame
reasonable
resolved
been
the economy with
dismal predicament They
a
and brutalised during apartheid
within
of
-
think that the poor
–
the population out
patient with vague promises that
thinking that
strategy and that this would
accumulation
the
to
were also wrong
legitimacy had
-
–
globalised
the poorest half
the
pull
crisis
kick start the modern sector of
to
liberal
after
a
and
democratisation
to
possible
be
would
the
sector and the government were wrong
The corporate
it
.
investment climate would have been far more attractive
121
PART
4
2
'NEW
: THE TRANSITION AND THE
AFRICA
SOUTH
'
The sixth phase of the AAC -led search for
.5
new
a
accumulation strategy : increased globalisation and privatisation ( 1997 - 2002)
,
(
to
these costs have since risen
than
more
We
by It
to
of
term
to
will
impact
.
62
.
The longer
a
of
60
.
fear that dividend outflows
payments
This
the sharp devaluation
)
vague
promises made
the corporate
.
sector and global institutions have not remotely materialised 122
59
,
of
2001 translates 89 )
:
R2 636 million
of
cause
a
as is
2001
foreign
of
,
the hyperbolic
.
)
and growing
quarter
(
of be
indeed worrying
if
all
,
Therefore
reason
the balance
(
this capital outflow
and there
of
Achilles heel is
remain
the
,
the rand during 2001
of
is
's
large
SARB
major
.
in
offshore listings have burdened
the second
R34 076 million
regarded
61
outflow
for
,
to
annual figure can
increased
1999 the figures
doubtful whether
whole
.
into
1994
from
an
year
-
,
,
with
This
normal controls
– 88
payments
sector
The
promises that
Africa
South
While annual dividend payments averaged
dividend outflow
on
.
sa
to a
,
the
the AAC
5
the
of
of
FDI
accelerating
the South African balance
corporate
the country
of
of
,
Ironically instead
the AAC the
from
government
the new
,
,
-
in
it is
the long term interests
FDI
mobilise
development has however diminished over large and important sections
the regulations
the strength
a
to
list overseas
their ability
owned
on
a
enhance
severe pressure
mainly
company
were allowed
became apparent that the
Beers contravened
as
would
this
private
Old
and
delist the giant De Beers Corporation
to
into
it
turning
it
therefore also allowed
Breweries
,
Under
government
conglomerates
De
it
Exchange
Stock
to
the London
Data
London
and
shift their main listings
. .
listing
shareholding between
overlapping
of
the AAC
in
,
Following
Dimension
.
.58
Mutual
the AAC
,
Billiton
are
's
London
permission
it
The corporations that have won
these issues
strategy
third accumulation
a
the search
regard
(
for
of
the
phase
R43 billion
can
interaction between the corporate sector and the government sixth
,
more
,
will rise
and some analysts believe they
defence
years was also
over
,
taken during this period
procure
,
foreign suppliers costing R30 billion
and
as the
decision
-
to
government
The
owned
state
electricity
telecommunications
,
)
transport
).
from
2004
restructure the four largest
far
equipment
government
to
and the United States and the repeated
's
armaments
-
by
(
SOE
United Kingdom
the
been
shift their main listings
to
,
the
by
in
.
enterprises
The most important of these has
to at least seven conglomerates
in
stock exchanges
further relax exchange controls
to
by
permission given undertakings
.
other privileges
them
the
and grant
government
on the ANC
corporate sector has continued
the
12
place pressure
–
to
GEAR was announced
to
In the six years since
The new
should have been aware from
1993
outset that the power structures
global capitalism were stacked against vulnerable developing countries such
undone
and especially
to
'
to
accountable
them
their exploitative which
can
policy
on
's
approach
the broader GEAR
its
policy
economic
–
.
the
new government
is
of
part
South Africa before
from
–
as
aspect
hold
escape
and apartheid
of
An important
the AAC
can
behaviour during segregation be
African economy
South
for
the impoverished majority
regarded
the
Globalisation has also created opportunities for large –
conglomerates
done
harm
.
cannot easily
be
.
,
Africa Unfortunately the
South
–
as of
government
POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE
OF THE AFRICAN
the
THE HEGEMONY
The ANC originally favoured nationalisation and strongly opposed
privatisation
and
It
an on
'.
,
:
less obvious its
meeting basic needs The government also announced
restructure some SOES
or
restructuring some
.
it
only
is
and
1
,
and that
it
can
can
an
be
that privatisation
claimed
supply the
.
to
be
very careful not
sell
Baskin
1996a
:
in
Rix
al ,
et
majority
impoverished
see
on
terms that will further enrich these groups (
,
government should
black elite groups
without benefiting
GDP
finance RDP programmes Although black economic
essential the
to
state assets
is
government with funds empowerment
also
per cent
annual inflow
argument for partial privatisation
economic empowerment
black
the
instrument
to
for
.
It
becomes very strong indeed
the
,
what the country needs is
of
quarter
that
,
of
FDI over the past eight years has only equalled
given
the
However
state assets
given the
price that would make
of
not get
,
is
sell valuable
to
worthwhile
global capitalism
–
structures
that the government would probably
.
power
of
with this argument
problem
foreign technology The
FDI and
-
attracting sorely needed
a
by
-
,
owned assets the most important being that privatisation can resolve the
accumulation crisis
a
explicit role
a
,
“
those with
state assets
.
no
restructuring
into
government
the new
1995
ANC has advanced several reasons for privatising
The state
role
government
.63
intention
to
,
role and
in
into three categories
classified Soes
July
Discussion paper
document entitled
in
a
released
programme
privatisation
De Klerk
pressurised the In
suspending
the early 1990s
.
its
, .
privatisation
privatisation
in -
of a
scale any to
a
'
of
on
,
of
the
large
Those opposed
).
16
1995
'(
government
power
–
which
net effect
larger corporations have
:
the
consolidate
that
short
not
vision
15
'.
to
in be
economy
)
.. .[
-
a
will
He warns
the reconstruction
policies therefore believe that they will not 1 2 3
the new
strategy and
term
much influence and too much power
's
case too
capital
an
corporate
long
financial crisis
programme in
privatisation
of
management
a
the economy depends upon term
because
the
fallacious perspective
finance
to
,
based
a
‘
is
the RDP
Ben Fine the argument that privatisation can help on
According
to
).
69
‘restructure ’ the South
aggravate the deep - seated
by
period
structural crisis evident
empowering
already relatively weak ANC controlled
.
,
should handle this issue very carefully and
,
-
,
but the suspicion exists that
or
of
,
,
out
are those
of
as
,
of
[
relation
to
a in
beneficiaries
the system
beneficiaries are
of
truth
or
/
and
unequal power
about one
and perhaps
form
even
of
's
uncover the
history
(
to
By only trying
inability
of
capitalism
black people under
Its
racial
millions
rights violations
'
against
.
the
).
and
gross human
victimisation under apartheid and ignoring another
124
the
as
,
,
In
small group
systemically analyse South Africa
puzzling
of
,
so
In
of
.
domination
and also many
the
1996
and systemically
.
are
unwillingness structures
,
, .
political
contrast
the TRC has ignored
collectively
to
white
society
'(
in
,
Unfortunately perpetrated
context perpetrators are
large group and victims defined
the vast majority
has identified many
Mahmood Mamdani points
perpetrators
a
)
apartheid
But
by
the South African
victimised
job
these violations
are
'
In
individual victims
doing
gross human rights violations
of
individual perpetrators
aegis
discrediting the apartheid regime and the
.
under
its
an
committed
excellent
of
atrocities
at
the Truth and uncover the truth about
to
.6
4
The TRC has done
.
the corporate sector
it
,
is
unwillingness The inability Reconciliation Commission systemic exploitation
government
of
part
the decision
of
a
to
proceed under duress from
on
arms programme
in
corporations have played
decided
of
,
vague and unverifiable
The role that local and foreign
unclear
say the least
. .
6
puzzling
the
FDI
invite
billion more every to
)
,
will
in
of
on
or
(
overwhelming
eight
the past
arms every year for
for spending R3
the case
least
at
of
the
,
is
more
is
time when
6
,
billion
argument that military spending
The
large
society
-
a
at
–
years
detriment
economic activities and
the most bizarre state project
R3
spend
alleviating poverty
on
year
12
.
to
years The decision least
as
's
can
in
the alert for the strong tendency
arms procurement programme which will cost
regarded
be
,
R43 billion
to
,
The government
so
the
disadvantages
developing
the
The government must also
prices
bargain
.
be
assets
at
-
's
to
buy government
the corporate world towards privatising the benefits
socialising
sectional
term
the global corporate sector
pressures from
to
It
.
.
interest prevails over short
term
should not succumb
which wants countries
long
Africa
ensure that South interests
it
the arguments for and against privatisation are considered
clear that the government
becomes
of
state
-
all
When
at the end
,
corporate sector and disempowering the
is
apartheid
envisaged by the RDP
in the direction
at
will
but
African economy
'
AFRICA
SOUTH
the
: THE TRANSITION AND THE 'NEW
on
2
the
PART
more
, the
of victimisation
form
quest for
,
of
,
. its
,
of the had
in
,
the
or
be
.
, the
the
,
part
its
the
for
new
about systemic
truth
in
for
individual
symbiotic relationship the
it
,
the design and
of
)
(
be
.
certain
party parties
charitable
said to
.
operate within
the
Moosa
Ebrahim
(
the
background
the
]'
in
the informal negotiations
Franco Barchiesi observes
).
116
:
to
that the TRC had
To the
)
was what
(
,
TRC
but manufactured
-
,
and the
.
be
of
truth
),
in
security
TRC identified
was expedient
judged against
Villa Vicencio and Verwoerd 2000
imperatives for the new
South
:
state
1 2 5
(
precarious political
the formal and informal negotiations
(
the at
“
that
should
Moosa
African
the new
corporate sector
the
approach
The truth was not measured
we
the interests
65
the
to to
's of ,
or
delegitimise
can say that truth was negotiated
TRC
when
pressurise the TRC into uncovering
compromises reached
.
in
do
because
repressive labour systems
was
forgotten
had been negotiated
its
of
.
of
But
utilisation
has concluded
was not
consolidate
dramatically
exploitation
The TRC
either
gross human rights violations
such violations
government not
corporate sector and
transition
ANC leaders and the corporate sector
between
benefits that
delegitimise the apartheid regime and
rather
the two
so
,
This was done
political
necessary
convincing ANC
the power play during the two sets
of
using the TRC
individual perpetrators
victims
to
After
further
to
by
.
forces
would
although
to
step
a
a
take the differences
government deemed
new
power
reconciliation
it .
the
negotiations
an
the
and
-
is
It
of
necessary
its
.
the hands
to
.
of
truth seeking
-
-
that
at in
)
,
(
least tacitly
The TRC ratified this agreement
the
enormous
Consequently
misdeeds
other whites through systemic exploitation condoned
wealth
its
mostly undeservedly
given
of -
It
accumulated
then
integral part
it
its
.
not explicitly
parties agreed
sharp
was not remotely defeated
and myth making
apartheid
of
was innocent
– if
leaders that
century
succeeded
capacity for propaganda
it
,
and
a
for more than
during the informal negotiations power
which formed -
of ,
racial capitalism
sector
–
the white corporate
and the
1994
representative democracy
to
apartheid
from
–
political transition
during
defeated
of
.
regime was spectacularly
the apartheid
while
The political
In
the
sector
in
of
corporate
formal negotiations and that prepared the way for the election
system
the balance
formal negotiations favoured the democratic movement
establishment
contrast
informal
the
. ,
section
distinguish
to
and 4 2
is
,
it
issues
in
As
indicated
the informal negotiations favoured
in
those
economic issues
again necessary
political
it
the
'
in
forces
formal negotiations
the
negotiations
this puzzle
solve
.
between
on
In
attempting
on
to
.
truth and reconciliation
TRC has failed dismally in
1993
64
important )
its
OF THE AFRICAN POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE
THE HEGEMONY
as
of
is
a
:
'.
the 66
by
a
,
of [ a of
of
8
).
–
:
to
to
'
on
–
,
and
?
,
the
explore
It
truth
vol
1
1998
,
circulated
:
TRC
the
.'
that be
can
:
,
quoted
in
lies that
sources a
All
of
use
secondary
‘
a
a
.
.
]
it
.. .
's
by
a
of
‘
do
To
]
.. .[
).
to
:
16
's
-
of
(
-
of
: ‘ .
'(
1996
truth
report
making
Michael Ignatieff
Ignatieff
of
a
spirit
shall
understanding
to
mandate was formulated
Unity
and
follows
:
National as
of
Promotion
be
by
the Its
).
of
of
1995
the Commission
in
reconciliation
rights
of -
in
is to
its
a
was established
The objectives
and whose
required
).
and
Reconciliation Act
126
is
public discourse
( no
TRC
range
reduce the number
177
2000
became necessary for the
approach
database and from statement
the truth
human
this
and
33
29
paras
, 5
ch
unchallenged
in
can achieve
the moral
question about the kind
inter alia
social scientist
following
34
commission
in
information contained
and obscured the larger
justifiable
[
in to
adopt
quotes the
the TRC has turned
But what about was
compromising
truth
report the TRC itself asks
violations
such
By
Amadiume and Abdullahi
states that the commission
Commission
The
seeking
patterns underlying gross violations
the causes
then
truth
moral compromise
was searching
of
broader
final
it
,
for
,
In
reply
it
which
truth
its
intellectual compromise
one whose
political boundaries
compromise
(
While
Interestingly
a
the political
institutionally
the
compromised
not
.
into
a
(
political compromise
with
)
a
political compromise
truth
(
: ‘
by
a
of
turned
compromise into analytical boundaries
TRC
reinforce the new power
, . .
],
that
Mahmood
and especially corporate
of
government
ANC
committed
to
was
We need
elites
truth seeking
power
is
and whose search
process
defined so
so
narrowly
it
)
the
were
the outcome
also
name for opinions
truth produced
TRC makes most sense when understood as
,
truth
boundaries power
the
of
The truth
just
the convenience
Mamdani says the following about the kind
produced
the
that truth
claim
society
power
statement about truth
of
test the
elite
of
's
of it to
-
.
which suit the demands
in
general
is
a
manufactured
the
social citizenship
1999
state
These
state
reconstruction
future with regard
present form
Armesto
We need
truth
the TRC
by
for
the
often
Africa
South
‘
'
'
truth
Fernándo
in
of
is
unresolved issue
reflected
history
for
an
as
past and the recommendations
The idea that
new
of
of
decisive influence
a
imperatives have had
the
ideological imperatives
and
, social -economic , political
TRC itself is constituted by the institutional
[ T ]he
AFRICA '
SOUTH
in
AND THE 'NEW
THE TRANSITION
2:
or
PART
promote national unity and
which transcends the conflicts
.
,
of all on
of
to
'
to it
,
of
a
of
,
,
..
and
human rights
'
between the
.
In
-
,
it
concentrated
on or
or
“
-
'
,
legal
In
first generation
.
the TRC
]’
addition
by
who
The TRC
[
]
2000
and
181
from
corrupting the
had
designed
and
apartheid
.
Abdullahi
between
).
.. .[
legitimate
system
making
]
of is
apartheid
:
–
'
perhaps the greatest moral
but not those
,
all
for
'
on
all .
.
institutions
and
white political domination
the
to
practical
individual perpetrators
mean those who had gained
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TRC 1998
governing act limited
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1994
institutions and organisations involved
human rights
mandate
victims
May
inquiries into
shall also facilitate
and
broad patterns underling gross violations
interpret
into
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commit
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inquiries
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ii )
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March
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1993
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Despite
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definition
the
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The
establishing of
past
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POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE
OF THE AFRICAN
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THE HEGEMONY
127
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;
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's
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TRC 1998
falling directly 48
as
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128
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analogy
The Latin American analogy obscured what was distinctive about apartheid
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apartheid was also about racial capitalism
American situation exploitation
the apartheid
.
enthusiastically
the TRC
Latin America when
gross denial
life span
67
apartheid
the process the TRC agreed that
way
a
,
,
Mamdani
and victims
,
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dictatorships
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4
vol
167
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: 179 ).
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racialised privileges
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conquest and dispossession
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THE HEGEMONY
superficial 129
did
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62 ).
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para 159
network
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ARMSCOR during the 1980s when
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166
sustain apartheid
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vol
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130
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AFRICA
SOUTH
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PART
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).
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blacks
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their participation
in
the
majority
181
humanity
educate the individual and corporate beneficiaries
about their direct responsibilities for the disrupted of
it
involvement
,
crime against
2000
:
Abdullahi in
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crime against humanity away
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that the commission believed
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the security
.70
the
crime against humanity before the notorious security regime was institutionalised during 1960s
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The international human rights community decided that apartheid was
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to
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income
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,
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.
per cent While
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a
lies that can
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most remarkable developments over of
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systemic exploitation
perpetrators
namely
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the TRC
183
the
lie
/ or
,
and
elitism
of
the TRC
the public discourse
blacks and
The rise
of
social debate
2000
will
).
:
'( to
and impoverish
.7
the victims
and
properly analyse South Africa
political domination
4
educate South
The unintended outcome has been
beneficiaries whose
of
,
113
1996
the following
132
great
the TRC wrote the vast
the victims
Ignatieff contends that
reduce the number
discourse
order
live with yesterday
live with
in
to
is
earlier
more than
an in
-
be
easier
to
than
open
Amadiume and Abdullahi
cent
also
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to
history
the experience
on
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.
it
reflect
may
power
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about the true nature
the new
victims
.
version
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Africa
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opportunity
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's
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of
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TRC has failed
inability
Africa was done
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reinforce
wedge between the beneficiaries
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social citizenship and
the following illuminating conclusion
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between the white master class and the unfree black working class
Mamdani comes In
and black
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the commission not only
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truth
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compromised
350 years
one sided
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credible manner
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modern history
South Africa
only interpreted
in
's
to
it 34
only
past
deal with South Africa
of
allow
it was instructed to investigate was
a
of history
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'
SOUTH AFRICA
THE NEW
2
too
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: THE TRANSITION AND
PART
nvolving
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the
of
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72
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direct link between these two divergent tendencies
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cannot identify identify
witness
22
about
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under
:
petit bourgeoisie
the larger South African society
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period
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1994
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table
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1991
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underclass
the rise
cent
(
1999
bourgeoisie and about
about million
of
an
. top
per cent More
is
years
. ).
.
(
Seventer
African households
great inequalities 30
past
dual
Africans households was eight
see Whiteford and
impoverishment has occurred among such
this
maintaining
impoverished underclass
a
of
times higher
6
the poorest
the poorest
.
40
20
per cent
Van
per cent
:
.3 ; 6
top
31
in
,
1996
Whiteford and
the
or
In
times higher than that and
The end result
the other
1975 the income
higher
and
pace
income within African
African bourgeois elite capable
the one hand and
of of
on
lumpenproletariat
on
living standards
high
see tables
the emergence
is
process
of
society grew alarmingly
unequal distribution
an
,
while
10 3
too rapid
was perhaps
supremacist
of stratification was necessary .
process
10 4
, the belated
1970
the
policies until
of
the process
Its
people ) declined
1993
by
million
ESTABLISHMENT SINCE
19
18
POLITICAL
co
about
OF THE AFRICAN
5
THE HEGEMONY
-
the inability
and
But owing
34
,
,
,
‘
in to
be
to
an
for to
)
of
of
’
of
.
the
to
be
. the
so
't
it
so it
weren
for
many other black new black elite
. of
for
that
if
.
valid
long that
the
Africa
was
.
including Afrikaners
justified
its
the relative backwardness
.
,
This elite was
typical during the heyday
It
,
-
the population
controlled of
South
and self righteousness
,
rest
for
the English establishment
and displayed little concern of
the
the
.
|
and poverty
of
Victorian colonialism
century
the 20th
for
notorious
haughtiness
and Afrikaner
setting deplorable examples Afrikaners country but also since the transition
by
and economically its
politically
for
of
,
the first half
would
more
The new black upper
good living
conditions under which
not only when they governed
During
country
is
it
can also blame the English elitism
This argument
the English
perhaps more important and
live What
is
people have
.
the wretched
denied this now
and deteriorating to
not
on
to
members
has been deprived
.
be
should
the poor
upper class
the black
elite groups were when they were governing class can indeed argue that
plight
the reasons why some
be
than
the
into elitism
the
conscious and generous
focus
of
to
is
It
expect members
whether
conspicuous consumption
and
upwardly mobile blacks have been sidetracked
socially
4
(
we need
attempt
the white and black elites more
tax
of
this question
perhaps not fair
such
something meaningful about
do
to
can answer
down the
slow
important question
,
we
in
order
South
million people whose living Californian standard
living standards
,
,
patterns
will
elite has the political
heavily thus reducing their
the
the new
reduce the alarming
‘
to
This brings
to
.
new
governing
government
scale down the extraordinarily
about
continue their
us
of
a
poverty
elite
to
of
the white
members have been allowed sea
of
government would have had
high living standards
amid
underclass But
.
position
order
in
the new black upper class the
of in
new
,
credible the
arises whether
was not possible
of
the question
deterioration
the elite
and
the new
economic and systemic constraints
if
',
Africa
sector
the
.
we accept the
development
economy
effectively addressing mass poverty
to
for
has little capacity
the ANC and the corporate
it
and
capacity
the
tax
of
restricted
employment
compromises between
Before
whole
it .
population has been politically and constitutionally included
Even
of
government
the new
The highly successful political transition has meant that the
transform
the
South African economy to
done
harm
black
more
even
downward movement
the
the
. the
to
,
during the liberation struggle
turn
sector
of
',
“
sector
large black underclass testifies
of
the private
offer the emerging black elite
to
,
in
lucrative deals
the corporate
condone the lucrative remuneration
but also
to
politicians and bureaucrats
,
prepared
In
was not only
neo liberal and globally
South Africa
the new
in
economic approach
oriented
institutionalise
a
quest
to
its
sector . In
by the corporate
'
SOUTH AFRICA
to
AND THE 'NEW
THE TRANSITION
2:
to
PART
a
of
.
, of
the
it
.
-
or
of as
. -
the intensified
-
exceptions
profited
,
-
,
NP
of the a
In
.
few
nouveaux riche Members
and like English speakers
a
is
the 30
of
.
of
the
,
a
The
the two
junior partner
and legitimise their
,
For this reason black
a
the new South Africa
elitism
has
white elitism
as
character
elite
and privilege
Africa
creation as
be
-
co
South
'
acquired the same systemic
are largely
opted the black
their own wealth
the new
in
economic power
openly indifferent towards
against this background
understood elitism
struggle that led
elite over the past
black
that
'.
perpetuate
to
order
the
.
inclination towards
white elite groups that deliberately
protracted liberation
elitism
in
and
elite
Afrikaner and English elites towards
The rise
black
poorer blacks should its
of
black
a
to
1994
years and the development the plight
of
of
black people provoked
of of
of
members
the political transition
in
wealthy
.
it
predicament
-
the
in new
to
for
governing
improve
the
the
detriment
elite apparently
alarmingly poor living
,
contrast the arrogance
the black
towards other ethnic
elite towards
of
and
the black
racial groups but towards |
are not displayed
The two white versions
.
its
.
somemembers
extravagance and arrogance
By to it
be
racial prejudice
own
or
indifference displayed
identical of
were based
underclass
South Africa are
fact
.
can never on
elitism
elitism
by
white
needs
hasmodelled
black elitism it
Although
despite the
the lower class
,
standards
obtain the resources
of
to
order
tax the
and globalism
white wealth
does old white elite and the new black elite more heavily
these reasons that
it
not have the will
to
.
It
the poor
is
of
that these ideologies and their application
of
buying into neo liberalism
into
the controllers
,
and privilege
elite has been deceived
to
black
new
by
the old
The
in
group
extensively
The indifference
in
with
-
blacks under apartheid
of
exploitation
condoned
the
self righteous
and
,
,
the trappings
the 1960s
haughty
of
all
class emerged that has been
elite
towards the
mainly concerned with
the Afrikaners
the Afrikaner
on
has
the Afrikaner establishment
of
,
)
(v
'
‘
olksbelange
the English elite but with
from
1948
this day
But the policies
).
(v
‘
'
olksgenote
government were highly sectional
Afrikaner upper
political hegemony
social consciousness and generosity
own people
national interest
general election
,
20
degree
of
its
years after assuming power
strong
onwards which
1934
elitist self righteousness
and
and
,
a
poverty
high
of
During the first displayed
establishment lost
economic hegemony
its
retained
its
-
the English
while
from
win
to
enabled Afrikaner oriented political parties
However
NP
the Purified
as the
in
the form
provoked
elitism
.
,
protest movement
1993
alleged character deficiencies
racist ideologies English
of
well
as
poor Afrikaners
terms of
in
to
privilege
and
as
position of power
the
THE HEGEMONY OF THE AFRICAN POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE
35
their ‘own people '.
status
,
from
‘
laudable
The same
While many
blacks
.
-
described
.
/
,
in
,
.
'. the
,
it
' in
to
of
in
it
,
of
the
to
's
to
,
,
,
comparison
vast discrepancies
a
of
their
indep new
former with the wealth
the black population
ideological attitudes
habits and ostentatious consumption
has penetrated
all ]
of
high demand and
is a
as
:
number
in
the
former
Mbeki against
-
the
in
growing
)
of
(
both
elite
follows
the consumerism
of
.
On
black
the
greed have seemingly
by
in
join
[
black
post apartheid order
between the black elite and the lower sixty per cent
a
-
of
in
the of
a
consists
of
from
ANC officials measure equality
thorough Americanisation
pool
of
the predecessors
of
–
.
affluence
enrich
of
.74
. to
a
eager
Most
.. .
elitism
managerial aristocracy
oppressors
segments American
the small
current president Thabo
most
that benefits
,
endent entrepreneurs
elite
created
affirmative action
own momentum
describe black
)
new black elite
political bourgeois
The policy
al
et
Adam
.
ears
governing
new
and morally unbounded
fledgling black middle class
136
many
and
structural corruption
,
,
,
on
The
deaf
[
fallen
and
and insatiable
careerism
but may have
transition
material enrichment The warnings
president Nelson Mandela black
has lent
top
and quest
–
lucrative jobs available
careerism
The
professional training and experience
education
the
the
necessary
It
fill
Africa
South
mystery
together with
for
the
people with
the
is
improper ways
both the public and the private sectors
its
sorts
of
for
many members
opportunities
all
the persistence
of
for
Whatever the reasons
in
nature
final phase
the
struck
'
deals that were
themselves
a
a
negotiated
period
.73
happened because
the new
still shrouded of
of
the
this has happened
the post apartheid
structural character
being perpetuated almost intact
which
in
manner
is
is
of It
apartheid
“
defining feature
that the corruption that attained
sad
ample
of
in
,
that has become
and careerism
in
by
performing excellently have attained wealth and status the public and private sectors others have thrived corruption atmosphere nepotism the
, or
will
nepotism
the post apartheid period
in
is
.
,
10 4 4
and
new
. . .
operating
class differentiation
apartheid
Although many blacks attained their
,
of
duality
When
be
20
years
manner and against difficult odds others benefited kind
of
to
responsible
of
section
the liberation struggle
becomes deplorable
elitism
factors
own
their
a
black
and negative
them
the black elite during the last
the rise
.
elitism
under segregation
who suffered with them
and who fought with
The positive
plight
the
in
that
indifferent
.
people
from this perspective
viewed
class -based
a
.
but also
and apartheid
based but
for
are
only arrogant and
not
to
',
people
racially
more problematic about somemembers of the black elite is
is even
that they
not a
It is therefore
AFRICA '
SOUTH
of
But what
in
AND THE 'NEW
THE TRANSITION
in
2:
of
PART
have become the
THE HEGEMONY OF THE AFRICAN POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE
the
it
).
5
’,
its
to
to
't
).
,
–
(
:
of of
24
we
,
'.
'
new
of
the
its
position
the ANC
lives and the
of
the the
between
in
-
to
to
enterprising
and
10
an
,
elite
this
South African
required
an
20th
terms
economy since
According
of
the
century
inclined
of
century
.
19th
, of
are
in
,
,
ie
-
of
the
of ,
the
English Afrikaner and black
investment and entrepreneurial needs
first half
endurance
).
:
'(
at
the end
for
in
'
of ,
improve
to
as
,
be
regarded the
of .
can
South Africa
structural determinants
,
the
Act
concrete basis
market capitalism
of
free
the
of
]
of
all
,
The new
South Africa
.
its
of
the
of
.. .[
's
of
1996
240
elite but the economy could only sustain
of
November
emulate
who are
Employment
2001
elitism
mineral revolution the
have
labour movement have acquired legislative force
certain assertions about
during
embrace the global
members Marais contends that many
alliance with the ANC
three versions
capitalism
and has
the haute bourgeoisie
the trade union movement
which supply much
savings
in
in
by
,
the positions
argument
the new
for
. -
the its
is
-
entrench
the
stopped only long
don
trade union power and
,
gains made
The protagonists
or
,
on
to
,
ways
questionable
174
not
financial gain The Labour Relations Act Employment
dramatic
COSATU
a
of
big bad world
Equity Act and Basic Conditions
these acts
1997
Peter Storey has reproached
Sunday Independent
also using
term
historical demands
no
,
It
.
to
make
'( it
its
climb
however not only some members
Alliance for short
concern were
poverty
we accept that South Africa has
naked greed
petit bourgeoisie
sea
silly
English dress
what the anti apartheid struggle stood
'
betraying
“
is ,
It
elite
enriching themselves
justify
have been
should
once said that the gravy train had
in
the
by
for
for
the black
market economy fat cats and
Ebony resembles
a new
public money amidst
Tutu
that even
claimed
by
bourgeoisie
if
for
Desmond
black elite
lifestyle
old colonisers
the squandering
enough
pervades the new
royal titles quaint British country culture
of
glorification
.. .An ... The
African progress is measured
South
in
of Hollywood
emulation
Bishop
which
elitist self -confidence
unashamedly
codes
by
5
yardstick
desired
1993
per cent
,
, an
grew
incorporating
Although the protagonists
million of
further
6
,
population
this explicitly
to
the population
required the further
the black bourgeoisie and
acknowledge
1974
at
of
'
events
a
per cent
of
20
15
‘
10
political
the
,
socio
petit bourgeoisie
not
1934
although the economy
And
,
per cent
,
market capitalism
black
from
and
-
.
the
to
15
the elite
of
of
after 1974
long boom
.
members
rate
million members of
,
3 5
some
between
some Afrikaners
unsatisfactory expansion
larger elite
to
including
entered
of
sustain
do
could
African capitalism
South
a
it
When
its
.
the population
free
this argument implies
137
SOUTH AFRICA
of
the population in the upper
classes by further impoverishing the lower classes ( see figure
the
not
the
in
in
be
black population group
.
and white supremacy arguments
'
skating
black
new
on
,
,
,
far
;
elitism
for how
and how
can
an
)
elite
-
:
ask
long
morally for
which
can
how
unjust
long can
the black
inequality
elite
between the
black bourgeoisie and the black lumpenproletariat extend before the
system
a
,
138
of
on
's
.
part
based
new
the ideology
is ,
has
politico liberal
and economically
controlled
by
The five successive systemic periods
3
detail
in
discussed
in
be
will
.
-
part
-
capitalism
during which South Africa was politically whites
It
.
a
concurrent socio economic transformation
democratic
discussed
transition
challenge facing South Africa
.
will
remarkable political
4
-
system
The systemic
a
,
economic capitalism
because
of
.
place
be
,
taken
experienced
in
.
is
?
Africa has
however incomplete
not
of
cracks Against this background the possibility second struggle cannot discounted This the last thing South Africa can afford South
to
.
is
by
African elite
liberal white
neo
to
.
remain entrenched
forced
disconcerting
is
a
to
of
democratic capitalism
We
are not prepared
controlled
still controlled
unsustainable
black
in
indulge
system
;
,
elitism
political
plight
the
system
and also
white wealth and
system
of
a
dual
dysfunctional
new
but poor the
about poverty
by
a
old economic
relieve
both the white
The fact that since 1994
concern
ponder
are presently
who
those
(
of
make the sacrifices needed The coexistence
we have reason
(
black elitism
not await
are
guilty
does
the
destiny
.
same
elite
we political
thin ice
to
of
their selfishness and arrogance
the
, )
is
of
the poor
justify
so
economistic
English
.
the
of
century
the 20th
the Afrikaner petit bourgeoisie
1940s
'
to
for the
.
of
are
and
-
the
of
At
's
plight
these terms sustained
into account
taken
the two white elite groups and the
and black elite have expressed
the
morality
20th century
use narrow
of
conspicuously
to
can
the fact that both the English and Afrikaner elites lost their
the
continue
of
-
.
of
is
inclined
because
constitutes
system
struggle against racial capitalism
existence
contemplate
and
no
a
to
.
In
the
a a
the end
last quarter
without any concern
whether
capitalist
capitalism
socio economic history
Africa
this
successful
Anyone who
hegemony
developing
the
groups
three elite
successful protest against the elitism and arrogance
establishment
continued
the fact that
South
it
clearly testifies
launched
system
socio political stability
to
in
organising
. of
aware
considerations
mobilised
of
be
should
justify
all
notion
not justify the
do
the upper class But they certainly
extravagant living standards and superior attitudes inclined
. 1) .
if
–
.
of
expansion
Those
2
these assumptions about the
factors underpinning the economy, they may justify
structural slow
– however reluctantly
be
When we accept
of
include 33 per cent
to
If
that it was only possible
AND THE NEW
the
THE TRANSITION
of
2:
to
PART
THE HEGEMONY
POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE
OF THE AFRICAN
1993
Endnotes Freund, the [ formal ] negotiation
'
process
[ also ]
has
businessmen
all of
the corporate sector
and
. to
.
It
‘
follows
.
's
the ANC a
.
257
.
1993 that the
in
:
rich They
)
1997
of
a
kind
in
the ideological shift that took place late
a
,
It
.. .
confronted
'(
was clear
is
.
in as
:
'( .
was
on
for economic maneuver
room
:
1993
Keys
.. .
,
”
limited
1994 annual report the IMF described
as
its
In
5
would have tragically November
consensus building when
Forum
seriously
by
lots
very
to
with
took
Economic
the unpleasant reality that they were not taking over surplus cash spend black economic upliftment
with
-
country
Keys
and
of
“
economic CODESA
policy makers
also played
Waldmeir describes Keys
economic
the National
it
)
'[,
to
the launch
economic matters
the NEM
the process
formalised
of
He
follows
the early
bringing about unanimity between
of of on
of
in
as
he
agreed
members
,
a
important role
the
255
new accumulation strategy
NP
an
played
1997
TEC which had ANC leaders
government and the corporate sector convincing the ANC key role the merits role
'
on
:
to
by
of
in
deal was signed the third phase the search
economic growth
generating
jeopardise that
for the
be
done
the
4
1990s
Derek Keys
local and visiting
with
at
to
,
, .
3
Strictly speaking
invitations
with
a
the same message
they heard
While the
bombarded
dinner engagements
more powerful
delivered impromptu lectures market economics ANC Washington DC for familiarisation course the World Bank
biggest priority Nothing must
, ,
the side
whom
officials were sent Everywhere
parties
,
cocktail
issues the discussions were even more
leaders were
ANC
,
to
Waldmeir
conferences
,
2
According
economic
far
,
secretive
one of
been
Hyslop 1999 : 434 ) .
in
,
on
and the power brokers
case
of
the negotiations
on
In
of
the
discussions amongst power -brokers behind closed doors ' (quoted
).
to
he
According
1
most immediate its
-
.
i.e
to
]
eschewing
]
'( of
IMF
a
's
it
,
an
establish and safeguard
–
:
'
as
-
to
nurture compromises that would yield only temporarily believed
that the ANC
to
.
positions necessary
Defining the ANC
follows
institutional bedrock
of –
,
'
a
‘
to
the
the country
by
).
:
without
1
– on
forced
political
which would create
see Slovo 1992
economy
[
inwardly based
forge
the negotiating process
'(
]
[
“
:
The
(
).
certain previously held positions
hampering real democratic advance
Marais continues
sunset clauses but
the
ANC had decided
major positive breakthrough
-
of
at
–
90
89 –
:
in
'(
least overshadowed
37
a
1992 that
in
from
the crisis 2001 important role engineering the
in
retreating
of
the possibility permanently
late
“
consensus
by
also acknowledged
an
Joe Slovo not only played
of
)
-
the socio economic features
or
/
.
”
-
-
a
socio economic programme that could weaken the structural foundations society two nation The political ideological project nation building for
"
for
meant
This
the time
political purposes became paramount and supplanted
7
of
's
]
(
political settlement
8
free trade
).
–
89
negotiating strategy was the need
the
broad advocacy
90
the ANC approach
Marais summarises
retreated from
at
6
:
1995
ideology has been
economic
its
government
new
.. .[
–
to
,
(
in
November 1993
to
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problems facing South Africa were confidence related Consequently the African government April 1994 voiced National Congress even before election
39
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state
1993
after the death
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432
forced
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1999
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Umkhontu we Sizwe
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also Hertz 2001 . ) 1950 . But despite
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TRIPS
the twenty first century
between market and society
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leading towards major economic and political crisis
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1997
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widening successful and unsuccessful countries world disturbing contrasts the gap between rich and poor countries and between rich and between
141
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AFRICA
SOUTH
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radicals and pragmatists
Black people
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ideological struggles
power
263
lists conceptual uncertainties
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42
Harare
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25
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24 The RDP
26
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Trade Unions
post apartheid South Africa
requires the democratisation
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the RDP requires
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Democratic Movement was
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239 policy should not break competition that
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31
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OF THE AFRICAN POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE 1993
THE HEGEMONY
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from
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financial markets
developing country
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39
the ANC
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without any democratic consultation which went against the grain hallowed tradition democratic practice see Marais 2001 162 GEAR
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Statement
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and
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national executive rejected
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Despite
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44
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André Roux
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POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE
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,
,
Adelzadeh most firms use temporary workers because year after GEAR Adelzadeh 1996 retrench
to
.
These remarks are naïve
all
gives
dismiss
to
they are easier
he
relations
economic
The thinking behind Growth for The large informal sector acknowledged According
replied that
a
A
42
character about certain
on
government document
1996
was ideologically neutral objective GEAR also claimed that there
ideological approach
its
strategy to sell
1993
,
(
to
a
or to
,
).
's
,
(
on
South
).
6
1997 225
–
a
in
1994 report
sector
:
the GEAR document
associated with stronger equitable progress towards
growth
appendix
of
an
living
’all (
continued
income and improved standards
7
16 ”
in
private
and Padayachee
the government
economic
to
is
Michie
of
distribution
the key
to
redistributive task
Bank
the World
for
Silva
Michie
both infrastructure
the cost
reduce
post
and South Africa
experience
and
al ,
admitted
'
of
employment creation
invited the media
of
'
even
dogmatically that accelerated
stated
Mbeki
Thabo
1996
that public sector investments
crowd
et
Da
and
awarding
a
a
Fallon
of
by
Africa Instead
June
international
'(
)
possibility
,
investment
both
can
“
services
release
by in
al ,
both
war economic record demonstrate and basic
of
a
's
,
Business Times
! et '(
Michie
to
a
45
:
'(
1999
a
44
At
According
'
Thatcherite
).
,
(
to
policy measures that government was planning
media briefing two days after GEAR
call me
46
the reforms which had already been carried out
).
assembling
already actively implementing
the
the commitments
18
with
that
strategy
more innovative
reaffirmation
17 –
together
an
,
macroeconomic austerity
of
]
essentially
was
is ,
document
GEAR
rather than introducing
that
‘
43
states correctly
Gelb
13
,
publication André Roux acknowledged that more research was needed into the link May 1997 growth and job creation Business Day between economic
the
a
“
).
3
by
:
)' (
by
[
.
of
on
a
as
the
. ).
2 2
“
1996 that the proposed
are
'(
he
see
of
,
,
growth
empirically
of
in
of
,
)
( of
,
if
'
been
analytically flawed GEAR implemented will lead for this country and fundamentally achieving the RDP objectives
policy scenarios historically unsuitable
disappointment and failure
section
).
:
'(
3
inequality transforming the inherited patterns 1996 capital intensive and labour mainly parastatal sector was the The investment
-
in
50
1996
taxation
the poor has not result their position
spending
to
to
in
and
on
to
an
a
of
‘
framework
unsupportable
,
49
Adelzadeh
GEAR
towards the poor Although some success has been achieved
which they find themselves argued was entirely correct when
poverty traps
neglected
completely
compensate for the ceiling
this reprioritising strategy the increased nearly enough counteract the deterioration with
during
approach fundamental problem with The complex linkage between
in
spending
will deteriorate
careful
.
its
48
The new
government has tried
that
redistribution is
to
leads
better income distribution and growth
redirecting
is
There
.. .
[
growth
prophetic insight
and with
shows that income distribution
the programme
that
that assumes
]
the
course
GEAR proposals
,
,
Adelzadeh claimed correctly
1996
reading
of the
In
47
).
GEAR document
,
cent
|
averaged less than
a
's
,
Africa
Lewis Jeffrey per
South
share dropped
1
Bank FDI
in
the World
1996
Africa
According
to
per cent World Bank
1990
to
1980
).
by
from
(
2
third
,
senior official
to
per cent
of
,
6 8
from
grew
a
saving
51 While FDI worldwide
45
AND THE 'NEW
THE TRANSITION
, FDI averaged
1994 to 2000. During the same period
,
address
nation
acknowledged that GEAR had delivered
. He
and reduce poverty .
spur growth
, including
8
,
an
of be
of
,
–
.
far
to
's
of ,
the
the
of
,
small
.
.
in
of
,
of
(
semi
and unskilled
-
90
).
Lewis
'
was
1997 focuses
Act
was
zenith 1996
which
and hiring and firing
.
,
the 1970 level
workers remuneration
conflict resolution
are
The real per
the 1970 level
the Labour Relations
of
Employment Act
1996
cent
:
a
in
the real remuneration
organise
59
,
than
distorted picture
the
1999 was about 280 per
,
to
in
/2
in
of .
-
(
40
per cent higher
at
low
for
these
These kinds
part and parcel
have been
of of
.
on in
the
on
increases
all
for
should
highly skilled worker was
' of
on
Basic Conditions
late and
1970 when the labour repressive system
in
).
and about
workers rights
capacity
may not even planning cycle The proposals
IDASA Budget Brief
see
The main regulatory reforms have been
focuses
term
government
and unskilled workers
1970 onwards provides
workers from exceptionally
,
broaden
2001 budget review many
per skilled worker was 110 per cent
The sharp
14
:
as
per
in
capita remuneration while real remuneration
54
the
order
government lack
right direction but too
since 1994
1970
2001
additional R7
economic growth and poverty alleviation
semi
The real remuneration
2001
level
much larger scale
programmes
cent higher than
the third
current medium
, of
–
's
but
a
an
projects
on
of
appreciable impact
government 53
,
,
Manuel
and
step
the end
spend
transport and communication and improve
acknowledged
of
by
–
Mbeki
government
South Africa had access to surplus resources
poor communities Given
especially those
completed
have
greater
The government planned
lower the cost
planning
infrastructure
projects
on
living
in
of
standards
initiative was
a new
infrastructure and maintenance projects
opportunities
to
access
taxation
are a
on the
billion
ceiling
but not
a more active and targeted industrial policy . The 2001 budget
showed that , for the first time, the new given
Mbeki
,
stability
consensus that
to
intervention
2001 ,
He called for
in
to
emerging
an
February
in
fiscal balance and macro
–
needed
articulated
and the Czech
,
economic growth
parliament
in
per
the
The
better working conditions
on
of
state
in
his
In
-
52
per cent of
2 5 –3
GDP in Argentina , Brazil and Mexico , 4 – 5 per cent in Hungary Republic , and 3 – 5 per cent in Malaysia ( see Lewis 2001 : iv ) .
.
from
to
of GDP
'
SOUTH AFRICA
too
2:
of its
PART
1998 seeks
.
encourage
to
The Skills Development Levy
of
.
action
firms
to
to
'
in
rights employed workers who and workers the workplace The Employment Equity Act seeks correct racial imbalances through affirmative provide
to
. to
encompassing
-
all
]
[
,
-
a
. ..
.
by
,
it
the market
more neo liberal strategy
popular
The anti state
attitude
New Right circles in
.
sentiments
-
-
the
in
:
"
American world
-
especially the British
277
signalling
).
1998
FDI follows
The government
through public investment
not possess
and hence adopted
'(
alternative
did
investment sources
– 8
state
it
)
(
that
be
,
of
is in
on
private investment
after 1994 realized
developmental
there
domestic
from
,
in
crowding
created for domestic
the economy and demonstrate
no
[ say
“
to
for
a
,
146
soon
must
The GEAR document reflects the anti state in
56
if
as
capacity
focus
confident it
is
that
it
should instead
However
better environment
and hence the impetus
is
,
growth
)
,
limited unless
be
.. .
fill
in
and
Luiz
.. .
by to
GEAR assumes that through conservative monetary and fiscal the state disengaging from the economy foreign investment will flow policies designed the vacuum But the success attract FDImay
policy and
a
55
According
, ‘ .
more worker training
these countries
the
of
is
,
in
of
the in
in
are
in
,
21 –
).
3
of
24
JSE to
of
to
-
)
if
has
a
to
the public
.
by
be
scrutinised
be
).
:
is
it
,
no
in
:
as
it
,
of
), ),
in
of of
75 70
-
(
outflows have
and dividend
,
draining the
export benefits have
,
fed
viewed
not
as
be
.
to
.
the
1996
apartheid
291
longer
,
.
via
in
issue
globalised the South African
the
first
economy global
.
of
the chill winds and violent mood swings
to
it
,
be
to
this
is
opened
on
has
not shown
that have
face
volte
South
a
.
'
).
to
government
any
welcomed but
'
it
keep their main listing
corporations
curb
not permit
said corporations would
He
This policy shift has
The
quickly
to
it
June 2001
' or ' 's
'.
too
and
view
six
for
It
a
's ,
.
)
The restructuring would
not
could
president Mandela
that privatisation was
entail the total sale
a
then
or
a
,
-a -
.
in
(
)
to
its
In
six
.
of
1996
the ANC
of
of
not
of
‘
.
these proposals penetrate
the systemic
nature
of
TRC process
did
,
Marais the
opposed
‘
.
other assets COSATU
,
,
of
;
has not met regularly
forum
);
ie
( to
'
key issue endangering
privatisation the partial sale others through securing strategic and the corporatisation commercialisation and outsourcing non
,
‘
core functions
provides
discuss disagreements Since 1996 restructuring plans against labour
the trade union movement
the ANC
National Framework
1996
of
of
if
policy
side
February
the restructuring policy
the surprise
equity partners
According
either the
.
as
its
(
to
It
.
seems
some assets
with
privatisation policy has become
the details
fundamental
meet regularly
has proceeded
,
Alliance
NFA
to
on
,
of
side
each
on
and
government and labour signed
Restructuring Parastatals
representatives
,
per cent
the demise
listings offshore
‘ 21
to
a
,
(
to
‘
that
however the government
declared
see
(
to
see
patriotism
Agreement
agree
can
shift their
result that the share
clear that the government would
patriotic
more
After intense discussions
wishes
the impact
government fifth
South African shareholders
move their main
Day
Business
too much and capitalism
the depression
convenient for De Beers
trade account Hence
-
be
take
acknowledgement
63
'
'
its
,
dividend inflows
unfortunately come too late
necessary
order
public
the real economy but have been repatriated instead leaving South Africa despite enhanced export competitiveness the weaker rand
expected
has
Marais 2001
activities
June 2001 Manuel made
Africa
firms firms
from
and income account dividend outflows can
corporations
other
(
to
. as
such
seems
off
no In
62
better
mid
Afrikaners increased
war diamonds
export earnings that buoyed
64
by the
in
of
;
be
matched
The service
through
perhaps unforeseen
Dimension Data the rules were amended
by
In
the case
to
60 61
for Afrikaner business
company
Lewis 2001
sixth
this perspective
1999 From
Given the controversy around private
per cent
of
59
been good
about
per cent
and administrative costs
,
per cent
abroad has had
firms controlled
in
35
capitalisation
maintained not only
mainly English controlled mega corporations
given
core operations
labour
skilled
.
-
about
(
(
of
the
and 58
shortage
The permission
a
re -
to
order
important aspects
large
of
/
and
establish
discipline
capital was rated second volatility and the rand third labour regulations fourth corruption The cost
itself
by
.
in
-
in
in
society
or
57
reinvent and
ensure that the necessary
by
.
to
which the state needs
sector but also
the capacity
economy without breaking down state and the efficiency the
well developed and well institutionalised Unfortunately this phase South Africa We are the transformation process
government remain not yet the case
involvement in
these countries
In
state capacity
back ’ state
the
'roll
tries to
1993
.
only
POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE
of
HEGEMONY OF THE AFRICAN
at
THE
147
SOUTH AFRICA ' the
-
.. .
.. .
]
(
.
”
“
,
NP
in
22
,
the
,
or
(
,
from
them
put the evidence
of
of
.
. .
3 2
.
of
-
of of of
to
the TRC
proper historical context Two business into the most blatant examples corporate myth making were the submissions and testimonies the Chamber already Mines and the AAC We have discussed their twisted version the truth a
is
of
which
,
of
be
their
in
to
are
a
the inability
the actions
look forwards rather than
of
is
.
.
inclined
were most
and apartheid
aware
historical perspective
Business people
deplorable
is
backwards But what
to
,
managerial elite
's
ask
to
perhaps too much
in
's
of
racial capitalism
when
1970
expect today
parents and grandparents would require
,
‘
:
as
which sees
view
a
on
of
,
activity
the system
capital
,
most notably Afrikaner
although
did
the business community
entrepreneurial
from
.
black
whole benefited (
a
,
as
black workers and the destruction
of
One
,
this argument business
of
According
to
exploitation
some sections
follows
racial capitalism held that apartheid was beneficial integral part premised system was the an
business because
of
system
it
a
part of
white
)
for (
apartheid
of
then described the two dominant positions
as
It
we
the
at
by
).
of
To
.
exploitative
68
to
Fernández
’
to
.
our society has
how
the search
eternal
We need
it
truth
place
of
and lose interest
is
place
from
the history
changeful
–
varying
truth
hearings the recalcitrant attitude displayed business acknowledge thatmany members today managerial elite were not their
present positions before
section
its
serious
destiny
DP
a
to
,
its
NP
deserved
per cent
2
a its
less than
exonerated
of
to
or in
the PFP
per
and closely
.
to
be
.
While
from
double standards were
's
DP
.
in we
are
-
's
-
successor
support from
tell whether
,
the reality
DP
's
–
,
in
per to
where
and perhaps unintended
2
:
In
67
mitigation
got
in
lose faith
Armesto 1997
able
universal
outside
or
we have
to
“
:
in
time
know how
should
need
the
and utilising
creating
electoral support declined
increased
not deserve
it
We
embedded
to
66
He continues
for
bonanza
be
,
and
and the corporate sector
strange
1999 The TRC
of
NP
DP .
,
has had
the NP
1999 the
per cent did
more than
the
cent
business sector
the
a
to
for
in
1994
7
to
only
associated with
While
and the
10
NP
on
the
1994
in
-
effect
come
national
and
was delegitimised for
participation
sector
repressive labour patterns was condoned
as
,
under which the
the
of
the TRC
policies but the corporate
apartheid
blow
common
).
The skewed approach
cent
the
,
is of
with
ever noted publicly On ”
stand conflated
was
corporate South Africa whose rarely
"
:
interest
still
Individual
mainly the whites
2001 302
'(
65
in
,
corporate
,
the contrary
interest
case
TRC
moral and legal culpability
The evasion
the
social landscape
devastating
in a
complicity
reconciliation
most obviously
The
context that demonstrably
antagonisms
and
while collective amnesia
.
the name
in
condoned
of
,
remembrance was demanded was sanctioned
cleavages
,
inequalities
enjoyed
[ of
-
existing
reinforce
and ideological
-
broader socio economic
a
in
function
minority
)
oppression and the corresponding benefits that
if
AND THE 'NEW
of
THE TRANSITION
2:
in
PART
the
1
48
,
long
harm
alleged
victim
the
by
as to
-
term
of
cast more
(
profitability
as a
whole
is
in a
then business
the path
of of
's
,
placed obstacles as
),
-
pro business position
In
.
If
.. .
apartheid
).
'(
)
by
, ,
of
“
doing business eroded South Africa skills base and undermined productivity and growth apartheid was this view the impact economy
6
mining houses and the armaments industry benefited more than others para position mainly argued apartheid The other business claims that raised the costs
the
,
.
, off
'
let
to
. be
to
are
,
-
-
),
example
but also
to
Mandela
for
by
.
(
of
return
.
in
is
tax
When opportunities
charity
myth making and image building
)
an
at
'.
the Bandoeng
the United
1960
general assembly
countries
( a
accepted
Nations
with nine western
declaration
1965 the general assembly
resolution that colonialism
and
international peace and security but were also crimes
threatened
,
In
).
through charity
debt
(i
in
an
be
“
not only
kinds
end speedily
unanimously accepted apartheid
Rupert International
apartheid
charity
the government
from
in
African and Asian countries decided the Bandoeng conference ncluding apartheid was all manifestations evil that
brought
abstaining
and not
its
some
colonialism
should
for
to
of
29
patronage
the Black
them the hook rather cheaply government responsibility and should
system
for
all are
sorts
,
In
corporations
often misused not only
1955
that
of
,
through the normal
financed
claim
opportunities
schools and hospitals
given publicly they
to
amounted
off their
pay
a
has already
Building
businesses
,
was supported
corporations Mike
large
by
of
The opportunity given
to
69
Barlow
1993
first view was
COSATU
this book . The second view
of
the author
the different business organisations Rand and Anton and Johann Rupert
submissions
Rosholt
70
, and
Forum
to
the
Management
and 8 ). The
7
of the ANC , SACP,
the submissions
in
,
and articulated
In
supported
' (paras
or collaborator
,
as a partner
than
of
system
POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE
OF THE AFRICAN
all
THE HEGEMONY
of
20
40
of
cent
per cent 20
:
20
of
the poorest
40
of
income
the top
per
. ).
10 4
of
In
.
opportunism
probably
for special interest groups
.
to
of
entitlements
the public purse
loot likewise
is
for
a
that
selfish
state
,
in
:
per
agreed
upon
society
is
civil
countries
relatively
underdeveloped
post colonial elites
tend
to
peripheral
-
that because
,
in
).
18
:
'
the (
point
weak
of
(
looting
,
If
.
Nürnberger makes and economically
1997
than
power claims
necessary common
between adversaries
culture
exploiting the
When one party succeeds the other come naturally
see table
The origin
‘
ten
times higher
follows
the top
1975 the income
of
as
as
as
put
years
,
as
as
among blacks
of
it
in
was
1996
past
the black poor and the unequal distribution
lies with successive governments
of . of
.
of
,
.
also
true
of
the rulers and their
scenario
is
,
-
of
are
to
the
this rather depressing
Africa
.
South
if
seems
rather than exposed Lack financial mismanagement and
for the self aggrandisement as
to in
-
post colonial elite
It
102
protected
bureaucratic inefficiency
scarce resources
:
1998
(
'
clienteles
illicit income
).
misallocation
of
Lucrative channels accountability leads
of
led
in
consolidate their power and their privileges the state apparatus The absence development effective democratic controls institutionalised corruption
the
74
the poorest
.
while the lower
poor
great among whites
it
Adam
per
per cent have become poorer But white
white households was five times higher
al
73
;
cent
et
is
also not
cent
top
the
30
among whites over
,
cent have become richer poor are not nearly
the
similar process has occurred
per
of
,
times higher than those
60
(
A
72
and
incomes
the
. .)
see table
was
1996
11
10 in 4
households
coloureds and Indians 15
of
the case
In
71
.
against humanity
49
PART
3
Colonialism , segregation , and apartheid ( 1652 – 1994 )
Chapter
5
The systemic period
( 1652 –
colonialism
.
1800 )
+
, the power
The Dutch East India Company
5 1
of Dutch
constellation at the Cape , and land deprivation
of the
,
,
to
.
,
).
in
.
of
most
centuries
,
and
the
by
to
luxury
in
,
vanity
was one
the and
of
in
.
,
almost 200 years
While the
their lifestyle
,
lasted
shipping and
,
be
of
their Calvinist austerity
it
commercial companies
overemphasised
became marked
with
the
18th
at
number
a
of
by
the largest and
and early
Typical
cannot easily
century
the VOC
one
Dutch
by
17th
uniting
of
.
in
.
of
the
Although
.
Cape stopovers
and was fraught with
the VOC and Holland
for
century
Dutch were originally known
corruption
Bay
Table
privileges and powers granted
The dominance
trade during the 17th
into
the 17th
India and Indonesia
enjoyed monopolistic
government
half
the
.
developed
for
,
it
time
1602
of
.
in
formed It
had been
extensive interests
eight months
was
3
1994
ch
(
Jaffe
Europeans
at
,
by
1
of
-
contacts
:
to
in
on
it
1500 and
fortified provision station
successful commercial companies
second
the South African coast between
including scurvy
undertakings
commercial
Dutch
and 400
six
the
,
voc
East took
but the
the 17th century
000 Portuguese
resources and people a
the
numerous dangers
that
during
regulate the benefits that sailors had long derived from
The voyage
VOC
600 Dutch
least
these pre settlement
established
VOC
to
to
1652
at
)
to
. In
-
large scale plundering
,
In
ships landed
One consequence
contest
significant portion
has been estimated that
English and French
Portuguese monopoly
BEIC
,
. in
moved
retain
of
It
1700s the British East India Company
the early
1602
latter managed
The
Angola and
and Dutch Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie
established
order
Congo
1600
established
1650
centuries, Portugal exported
19th
in
Mozambique
the
to
slaves to America , mainly from
million
5
a
than
)
more
the 16th
from
it
–
,
has been estimated that ,
important part of Portuguese trade
an
(
trading formed
(
.' Slave
,
the Portugese
by
century the trade route around the Cape was monopolised
16th
the
During the
153
,
He
to
90
of
,
,
or
, by
to
It
.
or
. to
to
both
,
a
in
1659
.
in
1660
he
or
'(
In
.
cattle
1657
Autshumao
Autshumao
told
their
from
)
the
Riebeeck
April
the
for
62 ),
van
Khoikhoi
of
the
.
to
)
grazing land was available
at
employees
Robben Island
Van
their cultural
disturb
'
,
of
the Goringkaikona tribe was banned
1652
independent farmers
broke out between the VOC and
brought back for peace negotiations
the Cape –
,
or
some
(
as
up
Riebeeck
Khoikhoi
originally applied this policy very
.
-
freeburghers
nothing
of
to
do
,
commander
After the war the Khoikhoi leader Harry the Strandloper
enough
of
, at
on
the
avoid costly wars
Jan
.
its
it
,
of
plunder
in
for
least 8000
.
,
war
little
them
a
Africa
first
and the San
southern
but after the company had released
contracts and set
the Cape was
The VOC originally depended
had lived
and socio economic stability
strictly
the white
who were
treat the Khoikhoi with respect and integrity
large part
sheep
for cattle The company was therefore anxious ordered
the VOC and white
collective name for two indigenous
in
.
-
The Khoisan
years before the Dutch arrived
Consequently
other
of .
Bay
Table
Khoikhoi who kept cattle and
hunter gatherers
military
the attitude
, is
.
This
the at
its
)
(
by
post
,
:
the Khoisan
different
during the 18th and 19th centuries
When the VOC established the
:
(
the
of
. even
,
ones
adopted
of
only
by
weaker
colonists during the Dutch period but remained pastoral farmers
their minds
interests
by
,
on
its
to
will
was not
This approach
the Cape
was justifiable for the stronger
its
.
violent means
enforce
clashed
it
)
or
group
groups
a
of
,
the notion that whenever the economic
country
military conflict
that justified
colonists and was deeply engraved
population groups
countries
inhabited
through plunder
(
–
)
gold
(
and the Dutch on
large inflow
of
the VOC
Trekboere
specific country could
enrichment was brought
methods
as
and exploitation
,
plunder
or (
Europe was that
This mercantilist mentality
rivals
was based
and was
orthodoxy
the economic
1880
of
it
could ensure
century
18th
had better trade routes and more ships for colonial exploitation
.
than
it
and
its
),
trade
if
only become rich
if
among the emerging nation states
1500
1996
1795
in
was dissolved
period
(
time
the
During the mercantilist
a
by
almost bankrupt
being
the reputation
time Kindleberger
rapidly during the second half
declined
it
of
).
214
also acquired
the most corrupt multinationals
It
one
time
of
most profitable companies of
AND APARTHEID
.
all
SEGREGATION
,
.
it
LONIALISM
3: C
its
PART
was
that
not
colonists and the
1
54
Riebeeck
diffencive oorlogh
We have won this country
welck a
ende
recorded
his
rechtvaerdigh
wij ook voornemens
just manner through
a
Van
in
,
toegevallen
?
'
intruder
,
,
,
is
“
'
too small who has the greater
't
,
the foreign
swaert gewonnen
behouden
the country
Ons dan haer lant door
'( '
waren
te
't
als met
diary
:
his
answer
the true owner in
:
right
or
:
Autshumao then asked
If
.
Khoikhoi
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF DUTCH COLONIALISM defensive war, and it
our intention
is
it.' Leipoldt
to keep
[ 1999 ]; author 's
1938
of a
of ,
'.
the
the
time the
in
the
indigenous the
as
'
due
exceptions
,
.
for
the scene was set
a
and with
,
in
abundance
,
own and exploit
to
class
it
owning
in
,
,
,
of
With land available
.
to
own land
colonists
also denied indigenous people the
colonial authorities and white governments right
and
depriving
land and surface water relatively easy With
inhabitants
Xhosa and
the fact that
system
army made the task
British
-
commando
1913 which
native reserves
an
well disciplined
area
those against
especially
were very bloody
guns horses the
introduced modern
total land
of
century
the Land Act
few
's
South Africa
these land wars
the 19th
in
of
per cent
Although some Zulu
This process culminated
colonial
250 years and sparked
for more than
that continued
of
aside only
8
set
.
many violent conflicts
beginning
,
land deprivation
–
process
seminal . This was
is
a
of
argument
-
's
Riebeeck
Van
the
translation ).
white land increasing
ever
the
and
,
at
disposal the VOC
monopoly
,
favouritism
,
long
,
as
could use legal and illegal moral and immoral measures
its the
representatives
as at
its
,
practical purposes the VOC and
company
all
For
-
its
.
the
a
.
corporal
business interests and entrench the
charter
unto itself Consequently
support
,
-
of
first successful
a
,
tariffs
matter the
that
privileges its
.
-
, of
on – in
such
for
dismissal without legal process
promote
terms
As
,
.
Cape
-
a
law
privileges given
to
,
so
punishment and
slavery to
,
corruption
it
patronage
With enormous power
mercantilist measures
and
one
received extraordinary
the
, all
adapted
company
as
a
of
the Dutch government
from
was
history
it
in
companies
share
trading
,
commercial property
colony but the colony
Dutch
-
The Cape was not
a
.
demand for unfree black labour
.
commercial interests were served
.
in
,
all
to
corn
the mercantile
terms
easy
and other
class
,
of
members
imported 250
on
land and financial support
extend
.
Thus
he
wished
.
he
the governor had the power
But
1731
.'
so
did
1705 and 435
in
in
farms given
freehold
supplying the VOC with meat
his favourite officials
his own way
,
freehold
260
of
,
to
in
the number
whomever
,
produce
to
,
them
also gave contracts to
He
50
's
privileges and favours
Huguenots and gave
1682
give land grants
for
sorts
ability
der Stel were both authorised
van
the Cape and each
governorship
increased from
of
besides
der Stel
to
freeburghers his
to
During Simon
Adriaan at
expand the agricultural sector van
to
Simon van der Stel and Willem
and
.
freeburghers
,
including the
agricultural favouritism
1705
–
the officials
system
In
governor himself were also benefiting from
)
's
fact that some
corrupt
.
not complain about the
Simon van der Stel
(
did
initially
from
of
who benefited
,
The freeburghers
155
prominent and wealthy burghers confront Willem Adriaan about
of
for
.
all
'
.'
he
,
,
by too
in
up
to
set
at
as
in to
too
,
,
wild
and
Khoikhoi
ongoing solved
.
be
an
).
14
its
:
,
importing slaves from
and
Europe
.
–
or
-
in
of
65
the settlement
never
colonial possessions
knechts
both black slaves and
parallel labour forces Contracted European wage first choice Company knechts originally employed free white population
the
time the at
.
for
five years
In
,
.
independent component
the
farmers
of
to
.
's
,
the
in
'(
in
the first
of
on
importing wage labourers years
and
Khoikhoi
had
labour problems should
those who were
sailors were hired out an
or
1950
favour
labour was the company knechts became
De Kock
how the company
white knechts were used
soldiers
their liberty
as
for
favour
Consequently
but
Jan van Riebeeck until 1717 there was
was between
,
in
The argument
of
at
the Cape
regarded
that the aborigines
's
the arrival
From
of
left undisturbed
1652
from
they were
the company could not enslave the
stipulated
law
subjugate
of
,
In
.12
because the Dutch be
any case
the drier Eastern
as
;
considered employing the Khoikhoi
expensive and
. .)
see section
the company
5 4
serfs
(
or
inboekelinge
The Voc had experienced labour problems
those
it
in
,
.
in
.
to
1721 the pastoral farmers started
uncontrollable
allowed
Slaves were
farming operations
the extensive
.
as
Cape
the Western
the Cape
1658 arrived
the VOC had been
In
the
Angola
from
of
.2
5
Northern Cape
debate
land and the
parallel
The slaves were almost exclusively used
tillage farmers
also not suited
should
became
.
of
slaves imported
174
independent farms
as
,
In
control the acquisition
only one year after nine employees
illegally
Khoikhoi
the
Cape Town
from
Imported slaves and imported knechts labour patterns until 1717
and
the
annual fees
The first group
156
a
to
Khoikhoi
further away
VOC
Adriaan
The permits issued for loan
of
As
."
payment
this
Cape Town and allowed
areas far from
Trekboere moved
the
increasingly difficult
minor
gave grazing permits
after the demographic collapse
increased rapidly
1713
farming Willem
tillage
1703 onwards
from
trade with the
and
paradoxical way
of
barter
the
farms
to
Trekboere
colonists
to
farms
-
.
,
launched pastoral farming when and loan
After
wealthy landed gentry around Cape Town
was the father
van der Stel
the privileges
and himself
.
While Simon
a
wheeling and dealing created
group
decided against the governor
the freeburghers
of
favour
in
and
of
,
and officials
officials
Amsterdam
in
revolt the authorities
to
freeburgher
arbitrarily
–
dispense
to
continued
did
he of
Only then
labour
a
shortage
the colony experienced
a
food and
van der Stel
–
Willem
.
of
an
overproduction
Adriaan
of
governorship
a
during
of
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3:
the
PART
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF DUTCH COLONIALISM Cape , entering into contracts with the land -owning class .
,
of
to
,
as
).
14
–
to
to
to
of
all
-
less free
white wage
-e
new
the
arning
when former Afrikaner small farmers Europe
of
policy
imported
the Cape
lazy
At
,
was said that the white knechts were unreliable
, .
importing slaves
to
give preference
at or
).
1986
13
Cameron
to
)
it
(
During the debate
become
further
failure
the
until 1717 when the council
with one opposing vote
decided
farms
knechts were
even
The dispute about using either free white labour from unresolved
5
all
This presaged
free
Willem
per cent
free wage earning
:
,
white proletariat Boucher
slaves remained
1703
in
to
.
.
century
,
of
in
10
:
(
to
,
.
of
the free population
the 19th
only
their numbers declined
1800
(
became
By
.
the century
South Africa until the emergence
the end
a
at
wage labour class
teachers
per cent
1
than
as
mainly
used
status
the knechts opted
their number had declined
1740
population During the rest
free
But when
of a
and
Cape Town almost
from
off their
cast
grant grazing permits and loan
in
,
Trekboere
become landowners
of
areas
in
colonists
for the knechts
easy
been estimated
as much as 50 per cent
the Cape Shell 1994a
der Stel started
van
by
Adriaan
order
in
wage labourers
was not
to
1703
far
Until
in
entire free population
it
of
free wage - earning knechts comprised
It has
66
1687 , the
the
that, in
.
a
,
.
At
.
policy decided
import
.
The first
.!
more slaves were imported
The second phase
By
This
39
to
final phase
the
slavery
time from
slaves
the
Indian
subcontinent
,
,
archipelago
the total
to
.
and price
1652 until 1808 about 63 000 slaves were imported
Indonesian
000
of
.
1838
roughly
then
marked economic expansion which sharply
of
demand
with
increased
had in
it
,
and
a
coincided for
)
1838 the
to
From
000
was finally abolished
this institution
increased
29
population was
.
,
lasted until 1808 when the British suspended the slave trade
the Cape from
Madagascar
,
even
.
,
Following this decision
freeburgher population
(
larger than
already
and was
that stage the slave population numbered
by
.
At
Europeans
to
at
Cape into three phases
the
,
about 2000
history
1652 until 1717 when the council
slaves rather than
the
68 Davenport
1986
of
phase lasted from
1808
that region
;
Cameron
:
slavery
in
,
Boucher
the
1838
of
the
We can divide
slave
in
This pattern was perpetuated
Cape into
a
-
in
turning the South Western
.
:
1991
and slave owners
)23
until slavery was abolished
labour
This was cheaper
the same time company
marketing slaves
(
colony with chattel slaves
in
as
corrupt officials joined forces
and
and
VOC
slavery
,
importing in
in
officials were involved
vis
à -
their independence
.
vis
and promoted
vested interest
a
independent class with
relatively
the
-
in
,
to
to
perform drunkenness and unwilling manual labour that stage the slave owning landowners the Western Cape had already developed into
inclined
and 157
PART
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3:
,
Mozambique most
1750
contributing about
with each region
had been
slaves
subcontinent .
imported
quarter
a
of the total. Until
Indonesia
from
the
and
Indian
For the next 30 years most slaves came from Madagascar
during the last 40 years most came
(Shell , in Eldredge
Mozambique
from
, and and
than
of
its
‘
of
50
It
.
more
per cent
slave
the
dropped
onwards When
.
1800
slaves had been born
in
of
,
parcel
increased again from
,
1838
moment
per cent
the 1760s Although this percentage
1790s
in
slavery was abolished
which more than
in
)
the
in
50
per cent
reached
.
the
was born locally
population
abolished
of
point
slave populations that reproduced
few
70
,
ie
(
'
creolisation
of
slavery was
before
themselves
below
Cape were one
it
Slaves at
at
the
Morton 1994c ).
As part and
creolisation process
the
,
(
).
the colony ibid
was extensive
there
expected
to
,
.
males among both the freeburgher
.16
populations this was
be
Given the preponderance
of
,
miscegenation between slaves and whites and between slaves and the Khoisan Children
born
and
slave
white fathers and
from
the
' in
'
–
'
in
be
,
,
large
be
'
virtual enslavement
a
Khoisan
of
captured
)
(
small gradual
;
,
in
the inboekstelsel will dealt with Eldridge and Morton 1994c Morton
58
the 19th
the Cape was relatively small
.
slaves
at
of
chattel
the 16th
)
Africa
centuries
to
from
,
million slaves exported mainly to
the more than
1652 1834
-
-
the master slave relationship
the West Indies and the Americas from
number
economy and the ,
the Cape
(
in
)
of
slavery 12
to
of
.3
The role nature
Compared
1
in
.
-
.
,
in
. .
5 4
See Penn
via
.
(
as
,
was using mainly The
booked
labour pattern during the 18th
Eldridge and Morton 1994c
5
in
of -
-
of
the Khoisan population
in
in
,
like Bastaard Hottentot serfs section
in
in
Khoisan children could
also
unfolding coercive
illegality
greater detail
due
was decreed that not only
step
percentage
to
in
(“
,
or
when
a
the
In
of 25 .
1775
Hottentot children like slaves was
children
system
which was used
century using Bastaard the direction
their parents
in
of
system
-
until
serfdom
that
the Khoisan into unfree labour The inboekstelsel
legal labour
Bastaard Hottentot children but the age
booking
it
a
to
only became
labour
indentured
turn the majority
in
form
early
From
service
were called
century
18th
colonial subjects
inboekstelsel
the
the
of
,
a
beginning
the
of
.
masters This was course
new category
these children were illegally bound
18th century
other words
as
they became regarded
rapidly
so
Their numbers grew
of
.
-
Bastaard Hottentots
Khoikhoi unions
slave and
from
)
result The children born
a
a
freed
.
as
.
slave mothers were usually freed More than 1000 female slaves were also
the
They were used
labourers on wheat and wine farms servants and artisans
domestic
gentry
small landed maintain
and
a
period of
a
180 years
Cape , and
as
huge role
in
a
. Slave labour
enabled
a
Town
to
elite in and around Cape
mercantile
luxurious colonial lifestyle
a
the Western
in
Cape Town . Slaves played
in
building the Cape economy over
COLONIALISM
almost two centuries and live
,
as
for
mostly
PERIOD OF DUTCH
a
did
.
in
of the
The
.
South
in
on
labour history would have
VOC had not introduced chattel slavery
the Cape
Crais 1992
:
's
imagine what the country
the 20th century
labour patterns at
the
if ,
frontier
the
,
by
of
18
it
,
in
.
or
slaves a
They
proper
the wealthy landed
the one hand
and poorer white
,
on
in
the
.
up for
in
-
in
the
Western Cape and
frontier areas who could not afford slaves
to
in
in
of
1808
of
the
result
,
slaves
wine farming
a
of
the price
The lowering
As .
boom
for
the demand
1660
last three
the slave trade
.
a
to
The suspension
in
.
dollars
–
to
dollars
when more ships visited the Cape
sharp increase wine
100
the economic upsurge during
in
rix
350
led
British tariffs
a
coincided with
on
slaves increased
to
the 18th century
from
rix
).
.
Owing
-
an
of
adult male slave doubled
1750
in
dollars of
rix
more
was mainly
see Müller 1981a
The price
decades
the Western Cape
(
in
the other
slaves
society divided along racial
economic stratification between
socio
gentry and merchants farmers
,
,
.
also
a
to
in
of
but
Slaves were not only
exploit slave labour most profitably through
labour Slave labour not only created a
,
lines
position
the Dutch
smaller farmers
20
capital tied say
amount
colonists
.
as
,
but also
of
the
.
Because
a
the
division
slaves
and agricultural
domestic
Cape
more prosperous farmers who could afford
were also
on
of
the pastoral farmers
of
expensive
slaves owned
owned
the Western
in
the
of on
wheat and wine farms
Western Cape
200
slaves were privately
privately owned slaves were used for
too
workers
number
the company and throughout the remainder
period the great majority
Most
most
,
exceeded those
After 1692
of
.
the VOC
of
were owned
years after the provision station was established the
40
the first by
In
).
40 – 6
been
slavery
of
To
Africa one should
to
try
the enduring impact
Cape
Western
pastoral farmers and Khoisan
servants had ramifications that reached into the second half appreciate
as
. the
to
.
virtual enslavement
(
slave relationship
Slavery served
Although slavery was
history
the economic
exploiting human
of
-
the master
its
,
to
influences
children
presence
to
of
the frontier on
Bastaard Hottentots
extension
)
,
and captured Khoisan
originally not extended have important
system
first illegally but later legally
(
easily
-
of
model that
the cost
coercive and divided social
a
and creating
led
,
labour
at
advantages were achieved
These economic
of
.
17
beautiful and spacious Cape Dutch homesteads
in
THE SYSTEMIC
slaves
159
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
,
a
of
years before
slaves held
the
the total slave population
.
of
,
Cordeur
in
Cameron
in
;
6
:
the
of
slavery its
As
ten
result
slavery was more profitable
1992
(
, of
to
be
.
.
Crais
To
to
,
.
)
of
of in
.
at
in
or
his
–
the –
law
-
,
(
,
infrequently
the
by
,
of
any
intrusion
the
early South Africa by
the
‘,
resisted
great
the the
the distances
patriarchal families
affairs
family
on
to
,
when
by
‘
century
the 18th
the head
commercial
'
. of
–
,
to
dominated
and
the legal space needed
Consequently
and
the frontier areas
more independent
The VOC
larger wine
areas became unmanageably
it
,
autonomous
slaves
this relationship
or
.
.
frontier declined dramatically
infant children
).
intervene
even
create
frontier in
.
's
became
During the second half
virtually
the
the
.
on
.
's
a
as
was always prepared
ability
and was extended
more authoritarian
Cape Town and
for the
13
,
where
the
–
even
structure was well established
it
,
18th century
patriarchs company
reinforced notions
assume full responsibility
masters threatened the good order
the 17th century
to
the
of
at
the end
family
between
Roman Dutch
,
'
:
Shell 1994a
during the
interests
slave owners and partly
The VOC only intervened
either slaves
This patriarchal family estates
attitude towards
the
applicable
Dutch law
on
of
(
behaviour
the
nature
owing
private matter left the disciplining
authority
the masters
7
see
slavery
ch
Cape
the Roman
slaves who were not only his property but also
of
the
challenged
are
head The development
their masters and never seriously interceded
the hands
authoritarian
patriarchal
usually male
from
which the master had
The VOC regarded
when
free land
as
by at
the Cape
to
in
behaviour
of
abundance
.
of
,
the
from
patriarchy
the VOC
from
focus
appreciate
the slaves were integrated Robert Shell describes
of
the Cape partly
to
necessary
violence on
is
it
,
which
manage and control slaves
based to
are
,
the Cape
ultimately
the
the
families
into at
Those strategies
authoritarian role typically played the patriarchal family partly resulted
at
reinstated
.
abolition
special strategies
family structure that developed
of
,
to
of
Cape
the Western
per cent
,
the time
slave societies
strategies used
160
After the British
slavery the number
15
its
to
30
from
of
,
years
but also
The exploitation
–
.
needed
was
wine
from
).
81
all
than
all
proportion
the
2
: In
the Eastern 1986
the the
its
last
at
enough
made
economy contracted
Cape
5
Eastern
the expansion
many slave owners during the last
Cape increased
Strangely
out
1708 . During this
in
pay higher prices for slaves
worst during this period
,
the
During
for
in
a
liability
abolition
of
only prepared
1825
.
British tariffs
at
slave labour was
became
large profits that could
increase their workload
to
tended
not
were
greatest contribution
of
wine farmers
Owing
to
.
Cape economy
its
slavery made perhaps
period
they had been
in
became three times more expensive than
30 –
3:
in
PART
family
gradually
OF DUTCH COLONIALISM
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD
at on
The slaves
it
Shell
see
.
The average
was therefore possible
James and Simons
,
near the homestead
slaves
but this
seldom
Dutch authorities stipulated
and that punishment
chained
,
or
whipped
grip
,
the
.
,
and cruel
17th
treatment
and
The
18th
relatively
low
the slave
one might have expected
demand
but owing
the
labour increased
61
1
,
would improve
this period
and therefore
,
in
1808
the
Cape
in
remaining slaves the
economic expansion
at
treatment
of
the
.
When the slave trade was suspended
the
,
speculators
may have discouraged careful and humane
masters
every
slave
by
,
during
system
and sold
violent
at
when slaves were imported
centuries
,
slave
relentless
for
Cape
be
on
the
occasion
by
nature
of
,
uncontrolled
slavery could
the slave
).
of
(
:
movement see Shell 1994a Although the chains slavery were mainly psychological subtle
in
of
firm
a
maintain
one
13
to
and for their inclination ch
,
population
it
,
fear
to
by
three
18th century and
the second half may partly account for the burghers
a
the
on
the first half
'
of
in
one
and
adult burgher
The fact that adult male slaves outnumbered
.
to
by
four
cruel
,
coercion could
family
's
This type
typical
be of
.
was more common
–
that psychological coercion
of
to
say
.
–
of
control
that
Although severe physical coercion was often used
and children
cause great distress
prices
'
.
They could complain about
the same punishment the husband and father meted out
perhaps more correct
males
or
'
.
The
Although the slaves
to
his
wife
limited
to
be
privately owned slaves should not should
of
happened
.
,
entirely without rights
internal
to
not
their
is
they were
,
were owned
treatment
domestic corrections
good behaviour and subordination
be
impose
to
all kinds
could use
ill -
’
discipline
of
patriarchal families should not
The slaves were the property and personal responsibility
he
.
,
master and
be
of
).
:
romanticised
that
slaves
to
slaves and
,
six
four
boast more than
The fact that slaves were members
fairly
Cape was
29
1989
mode
South
in
or
them
the American 20
farms could
varied between
accommodate
the Caribbean
remained
relatively small groups among small agricultural
to
slaveholding
in
of
handful
in
Only
a
.
units
in
was the case
large concentrations or
as
the fact that there were
were widely dispersed
Khoisan
slave owning households
(
by
,
plantations
in
slaves and indentured
.
promoted
feudalistic order
.
that chattel
The patriarchal structure
obedient
see section
status and power entrenched
of the
the 18th century
-
of
the Cape ensured
the
of the master - slave
the nature
no
at
The hierarchies
the end
of
institutional structure that subjugated the
of
Khoisan
395 – 9) . The autonomy
:
. ).
represented
of
majority
1994a
determined the
not
, but also
relationship
only
of
patriarchal family
it' (Shell
5 4
but only buttress
not ( and could not) interfere with family
state that would
at
governance
colonial
the
a
(
constituting
PART
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3:
sharply
, and
slaves were probably treated more harshly
then
ever before
than
also treated more humanely
imported slaves
,
than
of
.
.19
of
,
of
.20
as
.
's
.
of
. of
,
in
(
of
in
the
The fact that
.
Shell
in
–
slaves were
an
independent
the breeding ground for protest
-
as
development
of
,
and integrated with
was that slaves
away and became
mountains near Cape Town
or
common
who sought shelter
)
no
. of
the
the
.
see
were
control and discipline
agricultural units
in
'
drosters absconders (
a
.
so
,
:
;
-
.
5 5
and social oppression
Only two minor uprisings occurred
have served
What was more
Africa
serious slave uprisings during
easily suppressed
prevented
consciousness that could
South
and economic conditions
Lötter 1997
Cape
large number
households
movements
the
but both were
,
farmers
at
of
scattered among
slavery
different
but always effective modes
new
remarkable that there were
a
is
1808 and 1825
–
186 years
was exerted
unfree labour
economic exploitation
see also section
completely but social
of )31 .
in
which
it
,
although
.
,
; for
ch
,
the
When slavery and serfdom
we consider the strict and often cruel forms
over slaves
162
one
changing socio political
it
If
:
1994a
13
designed
as
described
political domination
slavery became less
ran
in
be
can
for placing the
the proprietary aspect disappeared
legal measures The history
new
justifiably
vehicle
century and replaced with other forms
domination over unfree labour remained ways and via
the most
relationships
legal aspect
21 –
,
labour repression
the 19th
the labour
employee
of
proprietary
social domination aspect more
were abolished early
it
,
-
at
the frontier became
or
the
white employer black
was still one
of
,
and
by
a
,
its
in
important
servitude
when
The social domination
ingredient
permanent
the 20th century
When the patriarchal family
personality
the slave was slowly broken
the patriarch
a
by
important characteristics Khoisan
desired
white masters became
Africa until
of
in
South
in
,
of
black slaves
pattern
pattern
slavery was perhaps
dominated the slave
Through this social domination the personality
down and reshaped
objects
of
patriarch
of
the most significant aspect
family
which the family
in
the way
the Cape only
of
.
property Within
regard the slaves
at
wrong
and
running households and rearing children
to
would
the
an
important role
be
It
played
social
and
Another unique
the Cape were domestic servants
female slaves in
.
female slaves Nearly
domestic acculturation
imported slaves
the Cape was the special treatmentmeted out
at
slavery
all
of
characteristic
those
than
at
was higher
and were therefore
slaves were reared within
The fact that these
patriarchal families implies that their level domination
slaves were regarded
Creole
as
slaves
Cape between imported slaves
to
more valuable and more trustworthy
at
.
locally born
,
‘
'(
Creole
or
and Kreools
),
An important distinction was made
the
(Armstrong and Worden 1989 : 151 ) .
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF DUTCH COLONIALISM
the
.
,
,
15
). unfree as
‘
the an
its
coloured
to
],
legacy
is
:
‘
Although slavery
abolition was announced
'
of
a
was
,
1838
–
1652
pattern
conventional South African attitude
its
its its
long duration
-
:
(
its
[
when
the
in
,
.
into the 20th century
efficiency
414
1994a
institutionalised
races
Khoikhoi and Khoisan ,
Trekboer partnerships with the
.4
owners
momentum
).
:
'(
1927
was
energies
82
this day
5
to
in
of
hubris
element
1834
slavery
convenience
also believes that slavery
died
African
South African culture
labour that was perpetuated institution
check
,
its
,
period
the true gestation
could
historical literature The slave period
of
in
its
and
suppression
South
... Only
Britain
)
most powerful empire
near universal deployment
Macmillan
was difficult to stop
its
, slavery
South Africa
truly frightening aspect
The
Armstrong and
slavery at the Cape as follows :
its
the world
's
of
in
;
1994c
.
Shell characterises Once begun
and Morton
for
3)
Eldridge
(
1989 : ch
Worden
Penn , in
(see
of
in the Cedarberg
,
South Africa
abundance
the
in
-
words
)
's
(
the engine
-
the in
Shell
slavery and
the enslavement
,
whites the growing independence land
and the chronic scarcity
of
the
,
of
process was the superior military power
patriarchal families
in
During the almost 250 years
of
.
least some parts
the Cape colony
of
Africa
South
,
,
at
in
serfdom
in
was
slavery
convenient and unstoppable
,
how universal
demonstrates
been abolished
century
19th
of
after slavery and serfdom had officially
Transorangia
in
African tribes
servitude via
which the Voortrekkers extended this
of of
serfdom
in
in
,
and
the Khoisan
the
form
the 18th century to
of
inboekstelsel
placed
Trekboere
in
which
in
The way
the
enserfment by the Trekboere during the 18th century
system
,
a
of
,
legal
could hardly withstand resisted the Trekboere
foreign
the
economic structures
intruders
.
,
and
of
relationship between humans and
political
San
new
until the end
of
,
contrast the more mobile
the VOC introduced
the
that they
the arrival
power but also
the
new approach
to
constellation
The pastoral
were such
of
,
the Khoisan
,
.
environment
view
new
a
a
economy and
Khoikhoi By
completely
,
new the
a
not only
of
the point
From
of
.
suitable labour
the
,
it
was not based
land ownership
tribes
but these
63
1
these clans were loosely organised into chiefdoms
.
clans which grazed their cattle over large areas
,
or
;
however
or
Some
society was pastoral
small kinship groups
of
but
on
Khoikhoi
on
.
18th century
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
in
of
1659
to
to
).
its
1
Given
needed
a
clear
the governor had
mercantilist orthodoxy
but
to
with
-
accordance
its
,
no
livestock
.
of
a
-
to
mutual
friendly relations were
decade before the Khoikhoi became increasingly
supply the VOC with the type
in
of
for
give preference
the former During the 1670s the governor launched several official military
.
the vicinity
).
–
,
with good reason
or
to
, .
the country
barter
other But this situation changed drastically
the
164
. to
)
to
),
go
them
inland
the
,
the
by
.
now
created
put
Khoikhoi but alleged theft
the company
the disposal
of
was
counteract at
earlier
To
.
cattle
-
of
occupied
the commando system
years
also relaxed the to
,
land
,
Khoikhoi 20
by
of its
the
own purposes
on
not only trespassed
–
freeburghers
Khoikhoi
started
These concessions were immediately abused
disputes developed over the ownership cattle
some
1707
small annual rent
Cape Town
control over freeburghers and allowed
and barter with the The
a
( at
ever increasing distances from
.
's
company
at
freeburghers
of
1699
He
Stel
–
van
of .
,
Adriaan
issue free grazing permits and grant loan farms
the 18th century
by
governor Willem
The new
beginning (
company
.
concessions would bring
der
the
the
that such
freeburghers into conflict with each
at
apparently
with many
them
and
afraid
penetrate deeper into
and spoiled
the
der Stel
van
–
He was
(
.21
the
,
them
Khoikhoi
the
labour Although Simon
freeburghers
–
.
with the Khoikhoi
allow
and violently
VOC
the
not
would
and
der
Van
The Khoikhoi were not
to
,
he
was positively disposed towards favours
by
cattle
,
their land
1679
Town
wanted the cattle belonging
the company
freeburghers wanted
but
,
by
-
While
the freeburghers
99
,
economic and political structures
destroyed their socio subjugated
Cape
many more
and
,
Khoikhoi
the
der Stel
.
Stel conquered
Simon
troops
of
during the governorship in
followed
using garrison
of
,
offensives against the Khoikhoi
van
to
choice
relationship
interests between the company and another group
–
clash
–
maintain
and
needed
civilisation between the Dutch and a
build
resist
of
in
easy
.
reluctant
about
for
1989
(
to
gap
trust After the first Dutch Khoikhoi war maintained
equipped
ill -
–
was not
the huge
being
interest
procuring the cattle
,
,
it
.
refreshment station Due
problems to
in
these indigenous groups were
The VOC experienced
the Khoikhoi
their main
concerted way Elphick and Malherbe
a
the
onslaught
cattle
the
.
clans and tribes When the white
colonists arrived with horses and firepower acquire Khoikhoi
intertribal disputes and the
ch
social structure
the
but
the tribe
.
easily
this
the clan
it
disintegration
When
Their
family became impoverished through
it :
, .
disease
drought
,
,
theft
of or
families and individuals
or
which were not owned
cattle
to
by
existence centred
political
were fragile and vulnerable
Khoikhoi
the
led
on
and economic structures
. Consequently ,
single kingdom
a
by
, of
were not unified or organised into
of
3
a
PART
for the
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF DUTCH COLONIALISM conduct punitive expeditions against the Khoikhoi . At
–
,
In
.
for
of
the
its
,
In
.
at
(
,
Boucher
1
Many of
.
via
theft
the
dramatically
-
of
the Trekboere
the commando
more serious blow when
While hundreds
devastating
the South Western
it
;
of
immunity
on
had
Cape
effect
is
the
.
even
level
several
undertook
the first decade
In
.
Khoikhoi
heart
–
,
very
in
of
the
and
the
estimated that
Cape survived the
.
23
epidemic
in
one
ten
,
apparently had
virus
the virus
from a
Khoikhoi who
a
received
low
Europeans and slaves died
result
to
Khoikhoi
as
and partly
it
1713 the
Trekboere
the colonists increased
an
barter
),
trade
to
of
livestock holdings
fleet brought the smallpox
scarcely
on
,
the
In
.22
partly due
visiting
behalf
and even more cattle captured
were killed
century
regulations
Trekboere
commandos
of
Khoikhoi
the greater
).
30
; 4
:
:
in
expeditions against the Khoikhoi
a
From
by
of
,
71 –
1996
1701 onwards the newly composed
punitive
system
Keegan
the
the 1730s onwards the commandos
from
the
But
and controlled
the commandos became compulsory
1986
and menacing
symbol
the
for
.
the Trekboere
(
in
Cameron
a
to
,
and became
became purely civilian and had only the interests service
central
protect Khoikhoi interests against
to
tried
.
of
onslaught
17th
this
first commandos with civilian members
officials
VOC
company officials often
1739
commando
,
-
were commanded
play
the Trekboere and Voortrekkers
the 18th and 19th centuries
by
of
part
and Afrikaner warfare
self sufficiency
considerable
came
that
, At
Trekboer
was established
of
an
institution
in
role
in
1701 onwards freeburghers and Trekboere were also included
but from way
could serve
-
first , only members of the company 's garrison
a
to
of
order
in
the
freeburghers
and the capture and enslavement
,
to
).
ch
to
:
2
and
They acquired the
had accumulated
it
who
sheep
over
1713 small groups Khoikhoi sought disrupted and the protection
–
65
1
whose tribes had become impoverished
,
Khoikhoi of
the
conditions
farm
adapt
of
centuries
After the smallpox epidemic
from
desert
.
semi
-
in
climate and
knowledge
how
to
century the Trekboere had
18th
necessary
.
in
Worden 1994b
(
the settlers
,
a
harsh
the Khoisan
–
the
of
30
the
years
unknown environment while knowing little about in
an
first
18th
climax
women
century but
1803 when many Khoisan serving Trekboere joined forces
with those who were not controlled
During
and reached
a
,
in
1774
by
of
1799
to
open warfare
.
escalated rebellion
.
reciprocal mistrust and
and children
into
From
of
,
continuous guerrilla warfare
cattle raids and retaliation
point
one
operation and interdependence
Violent clashes occurred throughout the
cattle
From
of
.
complex
-
close
co
of
,
was one
of
relationship
and
the Trekboere
,
hatred
it
another
a
was
it
view
dynamic
,
Khoisan was changeable
and the
the 18th century between
in
The relationship that developed
Trekboere and either relinquished their remaining cattle became their partners
represents
them
Khoikhoi
unique mode
of
.
. the
.
.
no
to
retreat
the
that stage the
to
.24
-
as
in
wage labourers
This
tensions
,
.
.
for
decades
on
as
them
economic
,
the latter with
of
for
,
rebellion
1799
1803
had maintained
'
-
exploit
the improved
the Khoisan
who
This presented
–
warriors
–
from
the
good partnerships with
or
benefit
warriors
,
as
:
either maintain
their value
During
Khoikhoi
onwards
1770
the deteriorating security situation
as
‘
from
deserted
a
'
the
revival
'
-
'
the
,
.
serfs
operation and trust with the Trekboere
co
in
;
in
,
at
in
).
them
of
of
them
the 1780s and 1790s the Trekboere opted
.
166
to
,
eagerness
devastating consequences relationship
Trekboere
tame Khoikhoi
of
their
tame
extended
more and more
had
using
economic
difficult choice because
opportunities
thousands
of
the
value
25
.
workers
labour
Khoikhoi in
’
'
tame
with
a
Trekboere
In
the
frontier increased
help
While
of
.
San
increased the scarcity
the
to
'
‘
more aggressive
Khoikhoi
longer
meant that the Trekboere relied more heavily them fight the wild Khoikhoi and the even
the frontier
tame Khoikhoi
the
subjugating
to
situation
were
share their stock farming operations with
'
security
the
tame Khoikhoi At the same time the deteriorating
and on
Trekboere
or
in
(
between
on
kind
),
,
with wages paid
the interior
they
the process The Khoikhoi
became more interested
and
As
farming knowledge
enter into new relations with
'
Khoikhoi
conquering much
they deprived the
Trekboere were far less inclined the
Khoikhoi
Europeans
and security
’
,
or
,
east and north
them
part
take
7
for
,
the east and north
land proletarianising
–
:
( on
Khoikhoi
should
century the Trekboere
the 18th
in
to
the
In
colony
of
half
86
Ross 1993
the second
dependent
the
-
co
would probably not have succeeded see
Khoikhoi
the governor
Trekboere and the tame
,
on
operation between
farming territorial expansion
sheep and cattle
Cape colony
hostile Khoisan groups least 150
was
commando
of
.
on
a
major attack
for Khoikhoi serving
the general
When
After
and San
, ‘
it
also became obligatory
stipulated that for every 100 Europeans
Without the close
Khoikhoi
the
'
of
Trekboere against hostile
the commandos
in
serve
1774 for
in
deployed
to
Trekboere
1739
see
one direction only
to
the
,
the
Bushman War
colonialism
At
:
However the protective relationship did not work also protected
into
and entered
).
Elphick and Malherbe 1989
Khoikhoi
which the
(
the
The way
led
joint farming projects with
of
,
and knowledge
cattle
century
18th
voluntary
these
of
.
the
of
,
colonists took the land
the end
Some
as
until
endured
farming
extensive
.
partnerships
of
and knowledge
labour
this way the
In
colonists not only with land and cattle but also with
of
provided
a
Khoikhoi
.
and cattle farming
sheep
in
of
or
to their new
28
protectors
,
the
the
of
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3:
PART
their
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF DUTCH
'
' Khoisan
with wild
of the Graaff -Reinet district .
co
in
the
on
As
or
on
to
-
to
the
of
.
.
in
or
.
At to
not
could
strengthened
the
those servants
'
This
which often lasted
as
not known what the total number
.
is
from
the
farm
was sold they were
where
to
,
to
the
–
.
farm
move
captives were tied
–
When the
them
,
.
another
for
was not possible
Like serfs
.
the commando
together with the cattle
a
and
-
food
they
like slaves
–
for
or
as
be
an
be
uncertain
captive children
inboekelinge received
children were divided
of
captured
it
to
;
the new owner
1
.
to
slaves
and were therefore practically treated like slaves After
senior members
were enserfed
The
serfs
illegal market
,
the
,
raid
their workplace
sold
but
sold
.
but
wages
indeed
regarded
,
clothing
on
that they
.27
and some were no
existed
,
debt peons
,
to
unfortunately
Unlike slaves they could not
passed
parents
indebted
the
enserfed women were also commonly enserfed
Whether these people should
between
were often
this way
was
inboekelinge
commando
on
Trekboere
The
of
is
.
It
.
inboekelinge
they
'
,
lives Children born
register children
inboekelinge was only legalised
their foster
and became
by
of
’
‘
servants
unnecessary
bondage
who became
either because the practice
'.
period
leave their households ownership
as
,
the children
From
Trekboere were also
already been enserfed
had
rearing
child
the children
‘
which time thousands
serfs
otherwise economically dependent
entire
a
18
.
as
or
of
Khoisan children
's
,
of
end
was regarded
of
by
registration 1775
because
it
in
illegal
was
Only
few
this manner were actually registered
of
enserfed
years
costs
Khoikhoi serving
indentured
periods
called
so
,
of
-
the
children
carry
for
about 1721 onwards
started
This practice was justified with
years
to
the argument that the slave owners had
the
.
25
-
of
for periods
–
Bastaard Hottentots
frontier
work
farmers also
and Khoikhoi women
slave men
of
.
the
indenture
offspring
not
more land became
and not suited
solve their labour problems
To
farms
, those
labour They could not use slaves
for
,
more
they needed
the frontier because they were too expensive
large cattle
ie
which the peculiar
of
to
-
the Trekboere
to
was shaped
,
on
available
–
the violent clashes
created the context
servant relationship
the master
and
reacted with more violent attacks and
Newton King
and the Khoisan
and the
and bound more
'
violence
,
' wild ' Khoisan
.26
Trekboere
of
.
between
1986
in
the Trekboere
cattle raids According
,
control
This dramatically
.
children
of
the
under
as inboekelinge , the –
' Khoisan
"captive
they
: 108 – 9 ; Elphick
appropriated more land and cattle
the Trekboere
-
As
Together
‘tame ' Khoikhoi
-operative relationships between Trekboere ( see Newton - King, in Cameron Malherbe 1986 : 33 – 5 ). the
.
-
caused havoc in large parts ended
Xhosa
and
-
ranks
so
joined
to
‘masters ' and
COLONIALISM
67
PART
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3:
Given that prisoners of war
by merciful victors
ancient world were reprieved
in the
slaves , the
and turned into
death
from
Trekboere were also inclined to
arguments
in
in
'
‘
of
.
'
,
‘
in
as
.
,
the
of
a
, be
.
.
serfs
(
on
It
the
to
“
.
:
Shell 1994a
was
serfdom
).
of
labour exploitation 13
of
be
household
more successfully acculturated
see
(
of .
In
).
:
38
in to to
to
a
was even
violently
.
become drosters
close
measure
It
still enjoyed
a
serfs were bound
of
Khoisan
in
the
,
the
-
at
who to
tribes
Cape
was mainly
Trekboere who were inclined towards landlopery
being apprehended
All as
ran the risk
of
wild
’,
tame
this
.
Predictably the Trekboere were strongly opposed
to
the service
,
at
San
much easier for them
whether
and potential stock thieves should they stray from their prescribed
'
vagabonds
and
'
Khoisan men
The fact that Khoisan
' or '
in
, ).
(
vagabondage
chattel slaves
of
made
Khoisan men
‘
the frontier
,
to
independence
Khoikhoi it
In
of
.
their enslavement
proximity
168
ensure that they could
The power constellation the frontier and the changing nature the master serf relationship
contrast with the imported
resisted
.“
the
1828
view
bind
captives
the
through
serfs morally
long after Khoisan
form
of
in
Ordinance
children
point
the
From
widely used pattern
adapted 50
by
officially abolished
an
inboekstelselbecame
which was maintained
.5
because they could
),
the
In
this way
5
household
integrate the children
called huisboorlingen
-
so
more advantageous
was necessary
and dangerous circumstances
the uncertain to
trusted
in
psychologically and physically
were repersonalised
–
.
Trekboer patriarch
man hunting was
capture Khoisan
and social domination
acculturation
the
domestic
which
Within these patriarchal households
lesser extent their mothers
it
to a
and
women
were often
well
accident that the Trekboere preferred lesser extent
Khoikhoi
regarded
and flocks some
participated
could solve their labour problems
–
a
added reasons
,
of
the
to
is
children process
of -
–
and
no
the captives
It
that
An
colonial herds for
San attacks
.
were their property
on
the chief victims
Khoikhoi
These
Tame
San
and
fact tame Khoikhoi men
with the white Trekboere
higher status than
of
people
themselves
capturing women
as
partnership
the commandos were
of
who farmed
as in
.
of
children Most members
slave raids and
in
only whites were involved
Shell 1994a
raids
retaliation
for the sole purpose
raids were conducted
(
capturing women and children
Not
.
the century commando
in
Later
the early 18th century
were only taken prisoner when caught
children
see
Khoisan
killed for that reason
and
,
,
their parents often deliberately
capture children
to
cynical because the wars were explicitly conducted
were dubious and
'
These
-
orphans
ch
of
that they were taking care
.
the
justify the enserfment of captives on the grounds of war , and with the argument
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF DUTCH
than
–
.28
ships visiting Cape Town
,
in
The demand for meat rose sharply which made cattle farming
additional land and labour brought the Trekboere
into
for Trekboer occupation This also brought the Trekboere into
.
,
.
to
to
did
the –
of
as
in
as
'
his
,
by
of 5
–
163
).
This
.
1992
:
Mostert
of
of see
a
to
to
(
the Voortrekkers
the second half
,
heemraden
in
ie
the appointment
an
.
by
the the
domain
using his status
authority over the frontier district only
was responsible
their
(
.
exert
Trekboere
regard
developed the mentality
of
could
indirect manner
in
.
a
regarded
European enlightment
for
The VOC
its
18th century entirely passed
20th
the
on
,
in
their frontier districts
It
the
of
Isolated
until well into
century
exercise
protect themselves
exercised power and discipline
this way the Trekboere
the
the colonial authorities
from
large cattle farm
reckless independence that became characteristic mentality lived
see
delegate
regard themselves
their disposal far
,
Isolated and
of
.
In
means
at
,
any
he
,
sjambok
.
,
of
.
,
to
,
and used
Town the patriarch and
not formally
.
to
their survival they began
sovereign unit over which gun
assumed many
As the patriarchal frontier farmers came
authority
not
this stage
the colonists the frontier settlers simply began
and promote their interests Cape
this period that
).
–
28
:
,
of
on
as
of
its
of
government Although the voc
irrelevant
government
own
used
but also Xhosa children were captured and indentured
powers
own forms
the VOC
raids
commando
the frontier the Dutch colonists gradually
responsibilities
their
of
as
important part
Elphick and Malherbe 1989
any
labour the Trekboere was
control
gain
35
only San children
an
‘
'
manhunting became
Isolated
necessary
more aggressively than before
system
commando
and acquire
their grazing land
It
,
land
new
the
,
over the
in
conflict with the
.
part
Xhosa who regarded the Zuurveld
the
to
the Eastern Cape
the
rivers
and Fish
and opened the
At
the Sunday
the area between
,
's
-
Zuurveld
eastern boundary
(
.
,
made the Great Fish River the colony
San
Van Plettenberg
Governor
1778
To
with the Xhosa
even
Cape and
the Eastern
in
Khoikhoi
the
Northern Cape and
In
conflict with
sharp
Trekboere
.
The
This further
in
demand
the Eastern
move east
.
for
increased
encouraged
in
economic revival after
an
of
in
number
the
see
them
.
100
1986
:
,
in
Cameron
,
marked increase
Cape more profitable
as
than
11 )
the
no
.
-
: 96 ;
to
1770 due
harm
weaker position
capital invested
noted earlier the Cape colony experienced a
As
who personified
Newton King
Guelke 1989
on the frontier
legal protection and were also not regarded
,
as
,
as
slaves
far
The serfs were also
slaves because they enjoyed
a
Cape
the South Western
valuable
punishment
more violent and associated with more bodily in
far
was undoubtedly
being
, their
captured
exceptionally cruel . The master - serf relationship
was usually
in
. When ‘ vagabonds ' were
(
duties , however menial
COLONIALISM
169
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
of
,
to
in
the
.
a
a
of
the
at
,
to
.. .
of
stratification
lower ranks
the
to
of
).
the
,
the important props
,
earlier
labourers alienating the
.
farming partners
of By as
.
noted
Khoikhoi
tame
'
As
raids
'
of
to
to
,
of
or
as
The
power
.
frontier was gradually eroded
-
19th
out
the
in
revisionist
( or
historiography
a
racial capitalism
the support
of
on
century
with
of ,
of
the system
racist
century grew
20th
liberal school
British settlers
.
the
in
mid
the
the 18th
whether
the frontier traditions
extension
by
)
institutionalised and legitimised
an
racist ideology
structuralist school regards
)
While
a
.
Trekboere
as
-
century
the
it
the attitudes
of
ideologies prevalent among white South Africans
of
African historiography
is
South
the Trekboere
(
in
controversial issue
Colonial Office
instrument
during
the
equal military
of
the
'
on
exploit
The ideological orientation century
20th
their
the fighting but received smaller
captured
this way one
in
Khoikhoi
of
,
and
most
of
.
them
the cultural and
30
a
1996
)' (
(
on
]
(
'
‘
rather than treating
'
reflection
the frontier
gradually opted
the
Keegan
and subjugating indigenous peoples
the cattle and children
the Trekboere
.6
of
dispossessing
Khoikhoi warriors were relegated
proportions
the 18th
and the chief instrument
an
the
.. .
the frontier burghers
commandos They were obliged
tame
commandos According
:
interest
Tame
5
and Attmore
exert any meaningful authority
of
cohesion
among colonists
of
Marks
single most important symbol
commando also became both
A
Trapido
political and
the VOC towards the end
in
commandos became
170
power
of
This vacuum was filled
blames
The
over land and indigenous
.
frontier
the to
capacity
.
further reduced
by
its
,
the financial decline
century
structure
(
frontier districts
see
separate constellation
entity
collective
in
for
asserting authority
co
commandos
the
).
–
any case
common
kind
dispense
2
1980 351
– in
economic subsystem
a
,
people and constituted
:
Trekboere into
was the vehicle
commando
therefore the means
and
or
,
.
the patriarchal
ordinated
organising the
tasked with
these three positions and
of
patronage The incumbents
social
of
to
.
with considerable power
Trekboer
In
one
were
and landdrosten
these three formal positions endowed
do
,
commandos Appointment
,
responsible for apointing veldcornetten
turn
the
The heemraden
-
.
'
interests
They were therefore sympathetic
,
the Trekboere
and independence
the
from
on the frontier – regarded as
of
representatives
latters
and were – especially
farmers
of
the
The heemraden and landdrosten were appointed
of wealthier
ranks
(chief
landdrosten
and
a
administrators ).
disputes )
local
settle
to
to
appointed
officials
in
3:
.
PART
the
The revisionist school acknowledges
in
,
miscegenation
18th
evident in
especially
,
and
the
in
as
is
that
of
the same time
by
mixed marriages
positions
is
a
highly stratified
drawn between white and black
,
.
frontier districts
South Western
of
What complicated matters
At
no
line could
frequency
COLONIALISM
power and privilege and blacks
and dependency
sharp
from the high
positions
.
powerlessness
in
,
society with whites
century
in
the frontier during the Dutch period created
be
Cape and
of
at
the patriarchal economic order that had developed
that
of
PERIOD OF DUTCH the
THE SYSTEMIC
the 18th century the division
the end
between white patriarchal power and privileges and black powerlessness and
due course
,
,
of
power
'
,
ie
-
also undeniable that
be
interests against those
/
her group
used
.
,
.
than
in
(
racial terms
Class
ancestry
legal
.. .
in
;
than race and persons
cultural rather
and
non European ancestry but
Europeans
persons who were perceptibly
1996
:
on
laid
racial
'
on
disabilities were increasingly
not imposed
at
;
and people were not defined
distinctions were more permeable
5
).
were
:
aversion was directed
used
Explicitly
18th
-
,
physiological traits
racial ideology
the
(
terminology was seldom
the Cape
at
not constitute
did
of
but
a
),
century
,
pervasive colour prejudice was clearly present
,
A
revisionist historian Timothy Keegan claims
A
'
,
took place along colour ethnic and racial lines
struggle
24 –
that power could
in
–
it
who were less powerful
racial
white hegemony was
the
an
drive
his
protect and promote
explicit awareness
for
the
-
so
.
a
cut that
mercantilist orthodoxy
is
powerful
to
by
the
originally inspired
clear
Although
undeniable
by
differences
is
dependency had become
-
of
:
system
new
which
entire
part
labour
Khoisan those
.
the 1820s onwards
blacks
in
as
from
the
all
to
-
To
labourers
to
the former slaves and
on
population but was also easily imposed to
applied
legitimise this new unfree labour pattern
.
of
During this period
enter the colony
did
19th century
-
the mid
not
believes that as
Like
Keegan
he
racial exclusiveness
control was developed that was not only Africans who began
began
on
British colonialism
29
.
racist ideology only emerged
in
a
of
the 18th
century
,
of
cut ideology
-
clear
).
Dutch period
'(
1994a 409
had
in
the slave period
a
of
and parcel
the end
attitudes
racial ideology before British colonialism
.
articulated
-
well
the Cape
at
exist
at
Robert Ross believes that
industrial period
racial and ethnic
remains whether the racial attitudes
crystallised into
already
the
the
first outlines in
the
the pre
of
racial attitudes
colonial identities were deeply etched The question
a
of
,
Africa He argues that
can deny
that some historians
amazed
and even the existence
a
and
South
Shell
.
of
importance
hand
is
On the other
the Cape
171
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
during the 1830s
well - integrated racist ideology
a
: ch 3 ;
1993
Crais
; Keegan
1992
not
Khoisan were enserfed power relations were
the
in
a
in
by
's
to
of this
,
Inter alia
units against the Trekboer
rebellion
during World War
and again
,
It
.
the VOC
Bastaard Hottentots and Khoisan
was revived 30
Cape
.
in
of
the Eastern
during the 1970s under apartheid 172
a
their terms
of
endure
in
longer
stations also became
the Cape Regiment
regiment was deployed with other British 1799
at
–
).
17
–
The mission
.
renamed
Society
-
of
',
the British
it
‘
or
,
1806
century
the living and working
.
In
.
1793
Hottentot Corps
escape
The missionaries were
employment The second development was the establishment the Cape Corps
19th
1
could
the
by
the
.2 ).
an
6
for
the
.
who
early
Khoisan
improvement no
for Khoisan
sanctuaries
see section
(
the
the
of
Khoisan
and
the
Trekboer hegemony
the London Missionary
several mission stations among
conditions
.
the
, an
–
.
and
wring
These attempts prompted
1989 309
During the 1790s
chief campaigners
economic revival
that enabled some Khoisan
occurred
Moravian Missionary Society
the
the Trekboere became very
rebel against
Schutte
the
started
company
– to
its
to
In
.
'– 70 ;
–
:
1986
to
wild
their growing servitude
become
a
be the
.
.
to
of
'
‘
–
in
Cameron
amid
their Khoisan servants
1790 two developments
established to
demonstrate
and
Dutch colonists
.
In
(
,
Boucher
tame
This tendency was
their hostility towards
1790s when they tried
both
1778
despite this defiant attitude
more labour power out Khoisan
officials
:
the
.
in
vulnerable
But
districts
'
in
the frontier
their independence
consolidate
the company and
from
Cape Patriot movement administration
small loss for the
the corrupt officials and landed
between
Cape tried
67
in
distancing themselves even stronger
elite
and social interaction minimal The patriarchal landowners
Western
the South
at
in
relationship
run
were the real
revolt against Willem Adriaan
,
gentry was strained
the
at
1707
in
profit After
great personal
,
, .
der Stel
in
.
,
-
illegal mercantile activities
They believed the colony should
company but
century was rather
18th
skewed power relations Senior company officials
these
who were often involved
the Cape
the Khoisan
and poverty
The social stratification among whites during
peculiar and reflected
position
.
powerlessness
in
position
of
and the slaves and the majority
of
,
power and privilege
of
,
.
Although not
clearly such that both the VOC and the white colonists were
the
denied that
a
can nonetheless
had
-
well articulated racist ideology be
,
the 18th century
a
the
argument that
of
Dutch period
from
;
white domination over black slaves and Khoisan serfs existed during
system
van
1996
6
not crystallised during the
(Ross
1840s
we accept
if
Even
articulated
.6 ).
also section
and
the British
see
colony were subjected -
it
3:
all
PART
of
.
If
in
.
to
)
.2 ).
6
it
of
in
a
all
which
Khoisan
Their culture had been the
farmers
-
as
of
language
and
co
, .
for
almost
.
'
.
The arrival
On
at
,
'
a
people was
and
.
,
during the first
somewhat but they remained
,
unfree labour force until well into –
1989
35
Elphick and Malherbe
the contrary
-
a
of
-
the
,
the
and
servile labour force deteriorated
their position improved part
–
of
it
it
of
(
the
in
a
.
by
.
,
at
,
30
or
,
ever
religion
:
see
in
century
relationship
wild Khoisan Many Khoisan had
not bring relief
the agricultural sector
(
20th
became
as
did
Thereafter
Khoisan
the
between
stake
Their survival
British rule their status
.
further
least
the
at
even
the relationship
and impoverished
,
three decades
place
had been humiliated
.
of
of
British colonialism
1809
legal
new
as
.
them
their numbers had declined
used
century they had been exploited
18th
All
The
-
a
)
culture the
in
-
had gone
bloody wars against
become inboekelinge
and equality
Their social structures had disintegrated
with
For the entire
1803
see section
between the Trekboere
and their independence
fighters
of
in
.
of
interaction
replaced
the
wage earning proletariat with the status
the
,
co
.
Trekboere and
,
of
a
defeated people
destroyed and
turning point
for the Afrikaners
a
.
latter were
servitude
and
enmity
century
completely
Proclamation
Khoikhoi For
tame
became members
After
was
1803
War
attempt
desperate
the
the frontier
When peace was arranged
(
Trekboere and
relationship
–
1799
new state
of
the
The rebellion
the
of
whole Khoisan population
was based
Khoisan
The
this promise when
the Caledon
a
the form
"
.3
,
of
reneged
a
(
in
instruments
view
Trekboer
Cape Town
they were promised freedom on
period
Batavian
British colonial authority
Khoisan
point
which
situation
the
a
another
of
during
from
system
from
total chaos
into
reassert their independence
the to
Khoisan
descended
an
was
1803
,
–
1799
have
years
of
probably
20
period had lasted another
would
serfs
and the labour patterns
without renewed military support
was unsustainable Dutch
that
.
frontier
the
-
on
domination
clearly
1799 – 1803 showed
43 )
of
war
This
PERIOD OF DUTCH COLONIALISM on the
THE SYSTEMIC
'
hidden
a
and
refreshment station that could
.
capital
.
and German
regarded
as
be
the seven United Provinces
The VOC can
The company
of
,
,
Flemish
of
Holland
per cent
of
40
30
century between
and vegetables was highly necessary
.
by
enjoyed the support and protection
,
3
The VOC was formed with Dutch
Netherlands dominated
18th
the Northern
one
of
meat
,
supply ships with fresh water
until the
these circumstances
,
In
16th
branded
33 ).
:
'(
.
all
It is
2
the
estimated that from
can
Augsburg
from
as
Portuguese colonialism
Jaffe 1994
sailors did not return
German capital
be
'
Consequently
.
and Nurnberg
German colonialism
financed
by
The Portuguese armadas were mainly
'
1
Endnotes
the first
173
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3:
PART
. It was a real ' octopus ' with trade , and colonialism .
multinationals the slave 4
tentacles
The VOC made huge profits during the first
international trade , piracy ,
in
years of the
80
.
century
17th
These
profits were not only the result of lucrative commercial opportunities in the east, but also of plundering on the open seas in accordance with the economic philosophy of
. During ships
the Eighty Years War the VOC plundered
'top
the
( 1618 - 48 ),
of
mercantilism
Years
War
silver fleet and the company
as
the
17th
of
).
as
as
that
50
in
48 )
(
in
of
well
the
is
estimated
might have
-
The total Khoisan population
000
Elphick and
century
17th
(
,
Elphick 1985
the mid
in
Cape
Western
it
.
the
population was but
Khoisan
).
4 – 7
the spice trade
been
.
200 000
of
but
1828
to
,
few
:
of
50
Ordinance
The right
, 3).
1994a
(
in
Khoisan
Kok registered land with own land was only
Adam
,
Shell
Cape Town by
the
to
only one Griqua
centuries
,
and 18th
the VOC authorities given
or
,
as In
:
1989
high
the Portuguese
asionto
the South
in
Khoikhoi lived Malherbe
big
how
;
uncertain
-
-
.
of
is
It
on
'(
‘
In
5
profitable slave trade 6
– 1648 ) and the Thirty
the Spanish
profit vyand became rich through wins the enemy possessed England going 1660 Holland 16000 sea vessels against the 4000 During Thirty and the 600 France the Years War 1618 the VOC succeeded taking over both the monopoly
7
(1588
could make use
the
.
opportunity
to
VOC pasture
,
;
Schutte
2
:
ch
a
,
(
at
a
,
powerful
months
an
loan farms could exploit
of
of
holders
area
which time the farmer was supposed
to
12
about 6000 acres for
the
,
a
,
small annual fee
at
for ).
6
ch
:
return
of
In
11
1731
, -
the free settler population
in
of
). 7
per cent
together with prosperous small mercantile elite into bourgeoisie Cape and influential colonial the see Crais 1992
land
square
8
to
share
of
his
/
freehold land and
about
2
's
individual
mere
developed
1989
the power
.
de
equivalent
facto land allocation
an
ch
(
: a
gentry
This landed
-
10
Guelke 1989
see
in
,
–
a
settler
,
9
received kilometres including both land
how much the VOC could contribute
the Dutch republic
and wealth Each
the merchant
of
-
tradition
being merchants themselves and steeped
were perfectly aware
of
8
The Dutch statesmen
it
[
).
86
:
a
'(
to
).
:
on
labour
,
;
,
by
the
.
inheritance
not
only
a
's
individual free person of
an
of
expectations
at
,
,
).
25
:
phase
first
later serfs
,
.
Families relied
labour force Family in
temporary
wage labour was
,
settlement
39
In
'(
of
years
and serfs were the primary
'(
of
,
first
30
,
the
the Cape households
a
slaves
never died out remained
a
it
to
.
to
in
,
stupid
life and was nearly always rewarded with farm but also way life 1994a
174
of
the
‘
far
of
then
, ,
century
1993
became possible and even
supplemented that with slaves and
,
it
while
‘
:‘
as
their own labour
and
paying proposition
the
require
employ the Khoikhoi 1653 Van Riebeeck lazy stinking people Jaffe 1994
dull
follows Except the economy
in
it
13
not important
make
colonial settlement
subject the Khoikhoi
the 18th century when
Trekboere
the
described the Khoikhoi
a
for
early
too great
in
farmswas
changed
This situation obligatory
nineteenth
first decade
discovered that the force necessary
work
Shell puts
During
:
as .
it
follows
as
them
to
)
Europeans
on
12
renew the lease
Ross puts
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF DUTCH COLONIALISM Council of Policy was
The
In 1713 there were 1 794 slaves and 1699 Europeans at the Cape numbered
Europeans by
861
29
Europeans 14952 .
and the
26268 (Müller 1981a :
to
In
,
. In
1795 the slaves
still outnumbered
slaves
1806
52 – 3
153 ).
)
and Khoisan serfs
,
slaves
to
it
,
.
to
the going wage rate
slaves was extremely
flexible and on
of
work
at
-
of
]
before 1795
the supply
good profits
their wages the for free labour fell and
immigrants willing
[
“
.
states that
of
.
,
obtain white
and provided
,
as
became difficult
Müller
slave women
.
as
soon
slavery was well established
owners
slave women
when the slave trade was abolished and the price
to
As
they wished
slave labour was cheap
of
.
and
in
female slaves
,
'
sharply
increased
–
1652 until 1808
-
as
their property which they could use
From
white men
between
slavery
the
chief
the lodge were the bastard
their masters households and the latter regarded the bodies
in
lived
at
few
Miscegenation
fathers
continued during the whole period
living
children
the
Most
This became the settlements
of
white
lodge
slave
the Cape
(
of
offspring
large proportion
a
,
brothel and
white women
as
's
slaves were housed
of
company
a
century when there were very
17th
17
and
Miscegenation between white men and slave women was quite common during the
in
16
,
16839
of
15
,
at the Cape
body
officials .
and senior company
of the governor
consisted
-making
the highest decision
.
14
43 ).
:
-
,
,
they attained
a
of
developed
the white patriarchal family
.
of
-
an
.
of
cases where these slaves were marketed
–
In
.
136
sell house born slaves because this was
to
-
the Cape
-
see Armstrong and Warden 1989
female slave and the male members
This
intimate was frontier patriarchal families between captured female serfs and white male members the family see Shell 1994a
,
cattle
and humiliated
the
all )
(
Cape
leading
consumed large numbers
Khoikhoi chiefs
to
colony for their livelihood
of
on
By
‘
,
the
Western
had triggered the processes
was the Company which
subordinated
but not
,
Khoikhoi
:
,
dependence
.
this new
1700 many
totally dependent
The Company not the settlers
It
security
.
and
Khoikhoi had become partially
follows
or
Malherbe put
as
and
it
Elphick
assimilated
of
'
Elphick
(
'
for
impoverished Khoikhoi
and
Malherbe
emphasis
1
's
;
at
employment
author
).
providing
:
1989
18
in
.
,
its
legal systems and instigated the expansion the colony into Only pastures stage freeburghers Khoikhoi the last did the role become decisive
Khoikhoi into -
21
).
13
ch
(
of
in
perpetuated
:
relationship
in
Town
hiring out their slaves and could earn
as a
between
of as
the
per cent higher than those imported slaves relationship intimate often sexual nature
many cases
of
Cape Town one third
prices
dishonourable
the 18th
at
in to
of
Cape
per cent of
the first half
(
their investment
3
1795 only
in
1
.
In
:
from
the
,
of
in
53 ).
in
.
to
the growing role
-
on
a
and
regarded 50
19
the 19th century due
Urban slave owners profited
large return
000
the company
The urban slaves increased
Many slave owners were not prepared
In
20
'(
-
of
.
economy
the average prices being
privately owned slaves were used
and semi skilled workers
beginning
1981a
the Cape were owned
century about one quarter unskilled
quite
level
of
17000 slaves
low
resulted
the VOC never exceeded
by
owned
The slaves
demand
,
.
by
at a
relatively
at
18
maintained
increases
to
adjust
to
supply
to
'
to
'.
,
Whenever shortages labour occurred the colonists exerted pressure import ability the authorities more slaves Up the end the 18th century elastic
75
PART
3:
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
22 During the eight years
until 1708 the colonists ' cattle increased
1700
from
and their flocks of sheep
3 700 to 8 800
5400
from
from
(Elphick and Malherbe
to 35 000
1989 : 21 ) . 18th century many Khoisan were killed in land , cattle , and raids and by the epidemics of 1715 and 1767 . The fact that the Khoisan population shrank from an estimated 200 000 in 1650 to fewer than 20000 in 1800 is
23 During the rest of the slave
the wars and the epidemiological disasters had been
devastating
24 In 1798 Khoikhoi each .
18 – 22
'white ' farms
on
).
, if not as
Some were treated by the Trekboere
subordinates. But at that time their independence 25
86
- 9).
In
clashes between
some
, then
equals
cattle and 23 sheep
at least as respected
was under threat (see Ross 1993 :
Great Commando and the Khoisan between
the
were killed and 669 captured
Khoisan
2 504
of five
an average
still owned
1786
frontier
alone . The real toll was probably far higher , for these figures do not take account
It
.. .
'
).
.
(
up
'
,
-
is
It
)
.
(
]
).
of
:
233
fewer
than
30 a
in
of
,
,
in
.)
to
10
,
of
of
an
an
,
-K
nearly
Veldwagmeesters
listing only the number
average
year
year during the last three decades
),
(
variety
of
.. .
to
coloured but rather
a
called
'
a
yet become functional within the
incorporate forced the whites steadily decreasing remuneration No rigid
-
so
'
white and
for
exchange
'
in
.. .
existed between
not
during the Dutch period
all
had
by
'
Stereotypes
yet
no
).
racial ideology
because the economy had not
as
war
of
or
higher see
88
disguised
.. .
captives
from
average
There was
:
as
follows
workers
frontier districts
Warden and Crais 1994
.. .
either secular
to
: of
the century
or
it
(
first half
Ross puts
line
the
000 people
the total number
serfs was
their numbers because
of
of to
Newton
ing
in
killed
Guelke 1989
Khoisan
almost
However
household
force
mention the taking
'(
”
exact assessment
omitted
.. . in
28
“
Bushmen
an
to
make
the total labour
Foreign ships visiting Cape Town increased
colony
Fred
capturing indigenous
near Cape Town
from
(
proportion
sometimes
29
ch
:
in
,
significant
the
understood
Eldridge and Morton 1994c According Newton King explicitly krijgsgevangenen the records made called sometimes
impossible
see
at
)
.
were captured
indigenous people who became inboekelinge captives
be
of
's an
(h
.
-
women and children
Morton
area
Transvaal According
argued
that became inboekelinge
slave raids aimed
90 a
mainly
than
can
a
that the peculiar violence
emphasis
uisboorlingen
and
that there emerged
colony
resistance
author
until 1869
1731
from
the Northern
in
Zoutpansberg
fewer
of
into the
Khoikhoi
both
African interior can best
in
were held
children
no
-
Morton contends that
106
;
:
,
in
-
-
(
1986
was not only home born children
It
27
Cameron
the South
in
master servant relations
Newton King
this long history
– 7
the context
30
within
of
is
of
that
it
sporadic but ferocious resistance to the expansion
expansion
from
frontier communities the
disturbed
these
from
Newton
be
Cape met with fierce and bitter resistance
him
San . . . It was
long process of European
6
of the
hinterland
of the
stage
far
: ‘ Every
Thus she states
26
of
109) .
:
in Cameron 1986
to
King,
sorties by individual farmers and their associates (see
to
the many unreported
,
1797
and
the Graaff -Reinet
on
–
how
(see Elphick and Malherbe 1989 :
a
of
an indication
status
in
no
,
.. .
.. .
)
[
.. .
176
,
on
many different criteria and variations based means congruent one with Consequently social life was still open and socialmobility both
another
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF DUTCH
,
of ,
and continued
.
Khoisan
the
a
in
in
). by
the
's
small numbers
The
British against
Elphick and Malherbe
see
(
– 3
the
to
,
;
90
74
the 72 ,
all
in
in
of
,
the rebellion the British
for the first time
intervened
to
1994b
'(
considerable success
).
with
.. .
were resisting colonial advances
from
Xhosa chiefs who 10
overthrow
the rebels made common cause with
the
During
decisive manner
.
to
but aimed
stem
settler society
:
the first time
‘
the Trekboere
,
of
rebellion was not simply intended
the Khoisan
in a
For
,
Worden
expansion
'
’.
early 19th century
1851
that
from
).
-
territorial
emphasis
frontier wars fought
Frontier War
end of the
the Cape Colony
43
According
within
except the Eighth
to
:
1989
35
the
Xhosas
society
direction radically different
author
British offer alternative employment opportunities
Khoisan Regiment participated
31
develop
to
a
,
(
1993
by :
as
whole
took
’
,
end
it
the
South Africa
. .. At the
fully possible
the way was theoretically open
This regiment was expanded to
30
,
which
century
in
and
in
eighteenth
', still
for
'
directions and with little concerns for race
COLONIALISM
177
Chapter
6
v
of British 1890 )
The systemic period
(
colonialism
6
.1
British colonialism
1800 –
the advent of
and
a
power
new
constellation at the Cape
,
period
.
in
to
ceded the
a
Africans Over
.
and
population
115 years
Britain
's
its
of
'
slaves
wide variety
on
was imprinted
British colonialism
each
until
1795
from
of
in
South Africa lasted
and legal systems culture and ideologies were deeply
patriarchal
feudal
,
displacing
,
this country
in
embedded
the
.
19th
,
,
century
country and
Khoisan
political
economic
the
prevent
Cape changed hands control once again during
, ,
whites
,
–
groups
long
,
corner
every
order
.
direct colonial involvement
During this
,
.
1910
during
satellite
This transitional period ended when the Dutch
on
's
Britain
the Dutch were
1806
the Cape
lucrative
1814
in
Britain
the ‘
Cape
to
Batavian
until
1803
from
French
1795 and 1814
Between
,
times
of
the
three
doing
from
so
French
;
the
Napoleonic wars and Britain assumed control
of
, .
The Netherlands had become
in
India
with
trade
its
took over the Cape colony in 1795 in order to safeguard
Britain
communal
and
global empire
,
to
,
,
its
pioneer the first industrial revolution
it
order
needed
to
Britain was the leading industrial break
down mercantilism
and
the the
Britain accomplished this important alleged merits
of
doctrines
the
Smith
of
Adam
's
of
.
merchant monopolists
the strength
own
see Keegan
century
century
led
It
.
,
,
: to
promote (
a
in
and
at
:
production labour land
the 19th
.
the
transition
and
of
3
in
monopoly
of
18th
on
the
the legal
introduction
to
ch
;
:
the world
disruptive
moral
around
way calculated
the centre
power
new
).
as
power
Worden and Crais 1994
the beginning
of
end
and
At country
its
economic interests 1996
the three key factors
redefined these factors
formidable
In
.
Britain
largely revolving
a
redefinition
economic capital
of
,
and bitter conflicts
this
exceptionally
also
of
was not only traumatic but
constellation long
the arrival
of
,
domestic perspective
a
From
of
.
systems and attitudes
179
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
, self -regulating markets , atomistic
economic liberalism
hardly visualise
redistribution
and notions
embracing power
and
–
,
to
,
.
to
varying degrees
and affected
Britain tried
sectional interests amid sharp conflicts
and cultural interests
Afrikaners and those
,
,
speak
domestic
of
settlers
'
and British
of
instalments
different periods and
the economic political
between
in
occurred
.
at –
own
its
It
the same time
different groups promote
,
at
groupings
did not affect different
and
so
immediately
the Cape
at
,
,
which power race relations and labour patterns were structured This did not happen
.
of
to
private property
revolutionised the way
British colonialism
-
The
them
of
all
-
to
individual self interest were completely foreign
their
in
centred
coercive
organised
.
economies
still communally
to
indigenous people were
And
the patriarchal
their labour force directly
they controlled
because
mercantilism
;
.
means
market
labour
obsolete ideas
was incomprehensible
by
landowners
and
of
idea
's new
Britain
the views reigning among the different groupings at
on
The
sharper contrast than that between
a
officials were still ruled a
.
VOC
, of
the
economic approach Cape
the
.
One can
, and
individualism
rights .
property
the
of
sanctity
by
3:
,
PART
in
,
Britain
in
is
it
, of ,
the its Pax
–
the
in
of
to
also
of
,
but
extended colonial world
the see
approach
this
to
“
distinguish 1795 until
transferred
to
–
is
it
would
from
be
.
During the first
whether the colony
latter
useful
long 19th
phase was hesitant
,
the
them
in
certain
,
Consequently
colonialism
's
not
yet of
was
British
Africa during the
,
in
. ).
South
',
it
–
.
180
ideas
labour markets allowing
the class and racial superiority
and the power relations that shaped
among four phases Britain
Ricardian
the industrial bourgeoisie
but also
understand labour patterns
century
1814
gentry
6 6
To
section
elite
not only
landed
These events consolidated not
its
governing
of
entrenched
bourgeois ideologies
levels
.
subsistence
in
at
be
to
determined
only the political and economic power
This constitutional
of
favoured
Britain during the
(
industrial bourgeoisie who
in
the
international free trade and merciless competition wages
in
. by
from
parliament
imperialism
and
old
–
1832
Act
the Reform
and
,
the emerging
events
power
Britain
euphemistically
rather
most momentous
of
shifted the balance
reform
colonialism
.
the
events
the
Perhaps one
century was the adoption
19th
and economic policies and
British
what was called
not
British
The nature
in
.
Britannica
century when
in
the world
in
dominated
events
was continuously shaped
a
British empire during
domestic
South Africa
of
overtly racist character
colonialism
aggressive military
its
especially
of
-
colonialism
British
on
concentrate only
to
enough
of
understand the unfolding
-
To
.
indigenous people
OF BRITISH COLONIALISM
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD
by fears that the Dutch colonists would stage an uprising . Eager to relieve the labour problems of the white colonists - especially after Britain had
of to
.
, –
.
–
52 by ),
of
(
of
in
is
of
as
:
by
the
of
property rights
(
see
Le Cordeur
1840 until about 1890 and large numbers
.
unfree labour
.
events took place during this period
Two important 1854 the Cape
1872 responsible government
,
and
‘
parliament
In
and turned into
of
–
from
the Xhosa was finally broken
representative
the
the Eastern Cape
in
arose
their
.3 ). colonialism
in
was granted
economic
to
,
,
the Afrikaners
,
of
British
initially
colonial authorities turned
deprived also
goals were
6
see also section
,
and
at
of
a
.
the British
and slavery
the
of
and
These
this phase
whites against Xhosa encroachment
were proletarianised
a
-
the fierce resistance
political
1994
abolish
driven
the Cape
chattel slavery
Serious controversies
During the third phase
Xhosa
be
of
.
to
at
and
campaign
respectively During
Afrikaners
of
of
;
ch 6
:
1986
the
,
,
. ).
-
,
a
,
Britain
in
well
the
between the British and the Afrikaners over the registration
Cameron
in
to
.
1838
serfdom
.
compliant labour force and the protection
deliberate
and Crais
in
The abolition
The Xhosa were
colonial economy
Worden
.
1828 and
of
.
sour
of
movement
friendly relations between
was
colonialism
the Khoisan
in
accomplished
Their
the most important event during the
view
as
of
evangelical humanitarian enserfment
:
British
as
phase
second
.5 ( ).
ideological point
of
an
From
resolved
6
see also section
;
45
into the
them
unfree wage labourers see Mostert 1992
1847
the four bloody
process
;
integrating
12
at
proletarianisation aimed
the Xhosa set off
on
military and economic assault
ch
But what
1853
but
them
bolster their own status
1818
All
their land and cattle favour from labour point view that
is
.
all
an
much more important
,
the
settlers
of
thoroughly defeated and deprived
Harry Smith
important cause
from
All
of
regarded
the Cape
military officers who
problems could
to
military campaigns
frontier wars fought against the Xhosa British
last one
until 1840
1814
Peninsula War against Napoleon
be
military aggression
6 2
;
7
ch
its
1814 until 1852 were senior
as
and used
from
and economic presence
people who thought can
,
military means
in
'
,
of
colonialism
Charles Somerset and
were typical military
ordered
see also section
the
's
in
especially Lord
British
military
from
Britain
Cradock
the
British troops
.
in
:
governors
served
had
the
in
'
(
During the second phase
British
which allowed the
1812 Both these events resonated through the first
the century Freund 1989
that country consolidated
1809
Earl
protect the Trekboere
13
the
.
to
of
march against the Xhosa
half
order
Cape against Xhosa encroachment
Eastern
ten
Also
governor
third British
Hottentot Proclamation
legally indentured
in
Khoisan
1808
–
issued
slave trade
,
the
Caledon
,
abolished
be
influenced
181
PART
3:
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
which enabled white settlers – both English and Afrikaans -speaking – to play the colony . But what is perhaps more important
racial
capitalism
almost completely
through
-
British
.
it
it
as
economically
the British
.
to
order as
in
and
,
by
,
tribes that were not yet controlled
conquer
well
pattern
part
the 20th century
to
of
before and
black miners
of
To
solve the problem
the inadequate
African workers
the
of
for
,
measures were implemented that created the
and exploitation
greater
on
so
did
Victorian optimism
It
in
the late 19th century with
.
heyday
of
the
characteristic
imperialist exploitation of
an
arrogance
profit
two
.
the employment
Britain legitimised
182
in
black mineworkers
its
of
supply
yield
.
enough
recruiting the required numbers
a
low
to
wages
for of
at
-
Boer War
–
-
.
Boer republics The gold mining companies experienced problems after the Anglo
Britain
To
for
.
to
the subcontinent
,
socially
,
politically
accomplish this several imperial wars were waged African
which mineral
became necessary
,
South Africa
-
whole
was overtaken
it
profitably
mineral wealth
the
of
control
corporations
South Africa lured large British
in
exploit the
To
discoveries
This phase
lost international markets the period
also
.
in
,
as
Germany industrial production and Germany and the United States This was
in
the
of
a
British economy it
by
relative contraction
.5 ).
was far more
aggressive and exploitative than the forms that had preceded coincided with
colonialism
to
which
6
;
1910
expansionism
-
until
1890
7
ch
:
(
about
from
imperialist
see also section
the
into
Crais 1992
see
Africa
South
the
an
fourth phase
–
,
)
the next 150 years but also for
,
century
-
its
black wage earning proletariat
social and economic systems that prevailed
the 20th
was transformed
the Cape colony
of
-
for the labour patterns
,
the end
During
a
of
.
a
until
of
the
racist political
and
labour The British propagated
the population
white master and land owning class and
was decisive not only
from
their civilisation and liberal utilitarianism
with evangelical zeal The restructuring into
wrenched
away
direct British domination
and unfree
of (
their ideas about the superiority
1840
from
.
perform useful
to
them
the ideology
of
slavery and serfdom
'
'
'
by
forcing
civilisation
the
to In
this way unfree labour patterns
was replaced
'
and saved for
a
white
with the colonial state
onwards with the racist idea that Africans could only barbarism
on
as
evangelical humanitarianism
system
were abolished,
of
legitimise the emerging
based
which former slaves and serfs
.
were maintained despite the abolition To
-
-
labour repression
Xhosa were subjected
of
and large numbers
operation
,
forms
close
of
designing new
of
-
land owning class succeeded
slavery and serfdom
capitalism
be
. When
system
of
repressive labour
of agricultural
system
a
co
establishing
in
in
succeeded
Cape )
in the Eastern
in
is that the white property class ( and especially the settlers
, .
governing
in
in
important role
an
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH
.
to
in
of
)
'
.
to
is
It
of
.
of
the
in
the
,
see Legassick
(
century
-
a
and even Afrikaners
The new British
succeed
This was only achieved
the 1803
Jansens
His
.
Khoisan and improve their labour conditions 1806
,
reoccupied the Cape
British
in
the
the
When
to
in
colonial authority
,
.
unfulfilled
to
grant land
between
.
,
not
the relationship
in
.
did
the
but
in
of
1803
1809
1828
Dutch governor Lieutenant General Jan Willem
to
in
.
,
a
its its
major appropriator
the Khoisan
,
1799
–
of
of
Rebellion peace
restore new
(
of
.
a
'
'
#
by
.
Africa without
South
their subservient status
Trekboere and the Khoisan was very tense the to
not possible
).
:
After the Khoisan
remained
trade and credit
237
the abolition
by
was
the Khoisan and Xhosa
from
the legal enserfment
From
.2
in
Harris 1975
promises
century
19th
the mercantile class
economy
colonial system that developed during that
exploitative
6
of
considering the role
control
-
constellation
sector
of
the
every
in
explain
and through
over political and
influence
It -
,
extensive interests
in
obtained
surplus extracted
free trade
century Under British
highly influential mercantile class with strong financial
the Cape
power
period
British immigration and British
.
at
economic events
tried
).
of
.
into
exploiting
the formal monopolies
the 19th
London This class exerted considerable
in
interests
4
ch
:
.
This initiated
class was augmented a
,
grew
This period
1948
and made large profits from
that lasted until the last quarter
capital and
in
Cape Town
1890
labour During British colonialism
merchant
can therefore
merchants developed
'
the
rule
We
.
a
privileges
the Dutch period were abolished
imperialism
the
will
1988
class
British
for importing slaves and exporting meat This class was
monopolistic
Khoisan
1910
,
by
(
colonial rule
which was responsible protected
8
a
Under Dutch
Bundy
see
,
to
of
to
(
)
Union
after
New
This constellation was perpetuated
of
the
by
,
in
chapter
outbreak
being established not only
systemic period that stretched from
discussed
slave and
and the
South Africa
local English establishment
identify be
the rest
in
but
1886
power constellation
new
Social
a
British race was superior others rule over people lesser breed The
.
Cape colony
to
led
of
Imperialism
birthright
South Africa
in
gold
a
discovery
a
had
of
it
but also that
of
the
which claimed not only that
Darwinism
of
and ideologies , and in terms
of segregationist policies
the basis
COLONIALISM
Afrikaners were still very bitter and vengeful about the Khoisan rebellion
,
of
and pleaded
their
of
poor living
judicial status
these conflicting demands the new British governor
,
To
meet
the Khoisan
denounced for
strongly
the
something about the great scarcity
same time the missionaries
.
improved
do
authorities
to
the new
employment conditions be
to
and
the
.
labour
At
put pressure
on
',
and
183
the proclamation
sought
of
1808
.
in
the slave trade
serving Afrikaners
of
.
to
of
and controlling the Khoisan labour supply
be
mobilising
irreconcilable
The end result
were immobilised
shortage
resolve the labour
intensified
the suspension
Cape government
new
.
the jurisdiction
by
,
On the other
, and
law
through measures for
two aims proved
These
the proclamation was that Khoisan legally
indentured
contract
and Crais 1994
Worden
;
1989
9
_
(
Freund
334
time
:
see
servants
,
while those who were not were forced into the labour market for
and
workers
the first
–
of
under the rule
them
their misuse and maltreatment by including
at ending
was aimed
1809 . On the
: for
, it
' in
as
one hand
his infamous 'Hottentot Proclamation
issued
the
,
Caledon
–
Earl
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3:
to
PART
of
.. .
of to
those who were inboekelinge
).
:
The
and ignored those
worse
those who farmed
177
that
three
partnership with
and those who were not controlled
legislation effectively controlled
access
Khoisan mission stations while the Khoisan were also excluded
from
this
.
first eight years
eight
if
of
the age In
years from
land
apprentice
‘
to
,
ten
In
.
for
1812 Cradock granted Afrikaner farmers the right
Caledon
's
the legal web created
'
new
into
to
,
.
proclamation Moreover
drawn
they had maintained the child
way the inboekstelsel was perpetuated
.*
were now
the
–
Trekboere
by
,
-
,
even
with new
them
1980
by
Trekboere
–
of
century Khoisan
categories
far of
,
,
.
Butwhat was
,
.
Atmore
state support they needed
extra
provisions that harmed their interests late 18th
and
instead
colonial authorities the supplied
is
Marks
and the
local officials
opportunities
Therefore
in
-
(
the
, of
King
Newton
extensive
was that
all
to
of
colonists accepted
power
in
the
increased
legal instruments
its
keep
servants
the proclamation
labour distribution
of
in
the sphere
of
proclamation
1
residence
farmers
control their
)
and veldcornetten
(
landdrosten
placing labourmatters under the jurisdiction
84
their
.
.
-
's
than
for dispensing patronage
during
of
of If
or
'.
they needed
curtailed the movement
before An important side effect
gave their masters
gave local officials
children
in
be a
of
a
,
.
'
at
on
therefore became easier
legal means
but also
ownership
Khoisan
out the terms for
permission
proclamation not only seriously
,
it
duly served
one
from
their farms
more strictly
the
Landrost
That implied that they could not change their places
Caledon
Khoisan
to
their masters stating that they had
without the farmers Khoisan
the Fiscal
the
abode
abode
other employers after completing their contracts
of
.
contracts
change their place
from
record
fixed place
‘
passes from
certificate
drawn
'
move
allowed
It
to
wanted
,
another without
be
[
district
,
they should not
and that
a
]
also laid down that every Khoisan must have
to
It
.
terms
that master servant and the authorities each had
so
triplicate
to
,
The Caledon Proclamation required that labour contracts
up
)
introduction
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH
-
The missionaries
Dr Johannes Theodorus
especially
COLONIALISM
Kemp
van der
and
'
1
82
of
:
).
the
, .
proclamation cut both ways
's
measures
–
.
,
and
during the Dutch period
between masters and slaves and masters
.
new
measures
.
a
stipulated
a
of of
century
the Great Trek
These
labour
.
the 18th
).
during
sustained
recovery
of
2
ch
to a
led
:
the
diversification
An
the Cape colony into the dynamic
.
of
1806
in
the 1830s patriarchal reconstruct the order and
Worden and Crais 1994
Empire stimulated
their political
impact
which they had become accustomed occupation
state
.
19th
its
of
and especially
British
during the protracted
of
– to
).
' as
'
the
of an
contention
important cause
and the incorporation
the British
violation
during the
its
of
,
Cape economy
the state
13
:
(
to to
The second British
and the British
in
Mason
,
(
see
main bones
the north wanted
in
,
the labour patterns
system
role
were undoubtedly
Those who trekked
century
the
conflicting views
of
Afrikaners
clashes between
relations
of
.
This was one
intervention
sphere
household
ch
an
private
their
'
in
paternalism
the public
strictly
on
now
accordance with legal regulations see Shell 1994a
cosmology
that the right
exclusively public matter that should happen
The Dutch colonists experienced
for
or
to
as
it
British authority
the
of
matter The
household
in
private
-
new
the
,
punishment was
in
power authority
,
of
state
new
law
dismay was that the
public matter While turned master servant relationship into patriarchal master regarded punish slaves his right servants
misconduct
In
.
at
's
a
legal status
' '
the
servants was regarded
as
–
the relationship
circuit
their legal rights
diminution
that had developed
a
a
of
the VOC
new
legal control over their Khoisan
and unfamiliar conception
Under the patriarchal order
000 charges
of
to
.
,
improve
that Caledon
The real reason for the Afrikaners new
completely
proclamation and Cradock
effectively strengthening white masters
introduced
equality
assemble the
to
,
in
1986
the
's
least
difficult
Cameron
and whites feared that this implied
.
what they called the
whites charged with violence against
,
Caledon
to
however
Cordeur
Whites originally did not realise
and
by
of
,
It
. Le
In
.
of 62
.
(
see
was
court with dismay Both measures tried
defiance
by
F
The missionaries hoped that
eight
the end only
Afrikaners responded
servants
circuit court
against their masters was
charges
laid against whites
servants were convicted
Khoisan
white farmers
instructed the new
.
and
Afrikaners
to
unacceptable
witnesses
Cradock
servants
idea that Khoisan servants could rightfully claim lay
'. law
the
be
the time Sir
,
at The
to
‘
Black Circuit
would
Khoi
treatment
these charges Whites were outraged
investigate
before
alleged
J
on
1811 the governor
, ill -
concentrated
the
James Reid – were infuriated by Caledon s proclamation . In their campaign to improve the living and labour conditions of the Khoisan , they now
important 185
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
the repressive
Although the maltreatment
-
1980
to
:
,
in
-
;
see
.
improve
the to
in
increase the capacity
mission
,
Lord Charles Somerset who was
with sanctuary
them
vain of
least
to
at
or
Khoisan
themissionaries tried
1820
,
the
until
1810
.
to
provide
economic progress was positively disposed towards the demands Afrikaners and therefore less inclined consider the complaints
86
. of
Dr
.
in
as
as
if
on
of
regarded free markets
moral responsibility and
self as
individual
a
much
They regarded free markets not only
a
a
reaction
for
's
Smith
as
was
the 18th
as the
It
,
Methodists
of
the
the end
.
development
well
81 – 4 ). Britain
ideology
Adam
and
the colonial
the landed gentry
the industrial revolution
The humanitarians
Christian civilisation
the Khoisan
as in
:
such
He
they were caught
as
the
churches
1820
their right
,
. the
for
condition
he
was initiated
industrial age
free markets
1986
of
-
established
at
vagrancy
at
with
antagonised
Cameron
'.
triumph
reason
,
by
of
the new
of
necessary
main
John
for the oppression
by
,
in
Cordeur
the non
interest and
the Cape
of
.
the process
the disruptions brought about
product
arrived
The passes severely restricted
charged
Evangelical humanitarianism century
the humanitarian
as
.
see
(
could
slaves and Khoisan serfs
when
Philip blamed the poor conditions
the Cape
Somerset
labour
be
of
Khoisan
and they
.
,
system
them
at
without
system
In
of
movement
Missionary Society as
the pass
exploitation
effective champion
an
gained
the London
identified
of
to
,
about the continued maltreatment
The Khoisan Philip
of
,
in
missionaries
Le
of
of
conditions
interested
to
still private household matters Newton King Marks and Atmore
)
the decade from
stations
1
settle labour
these were
43 – 50
1989
Khoisan
7
the
In
ch
Elphick and Malherbe
if
way
:
usual
as
,
the
in
disputes
's
contractual conditions
patriarchal farmers were still inclined
servants was forbidden
's
a
,
contract workers
(
's
proclamation
.
by
Caledon
regulated
for Khoisan labour almost the entire
Khoisan labour force was employed under created
highly
which inboekelingskap
.
demand
the sharp increase
raids
Cradock
and
of
the form
workers
,
a
.
to
Owing
continue
over Khoisan
proclamation
legal framework
in
and peonage could
Caledon
Khoisan labour commando
Caledon
in
regulations created
apprenticeship
labour
formal employment increased
in
of
increased demand
and immigrants . The
circumstances
control
and
Khoisan
against the Khoisan were continued
previously been . The
growing scarcity
's
.
the
.
satisfy
To
sharply
The number
Cape wines entering
it had
these
In
slaves
proclamation made the employment almost obligatory
amid
in
existing
of
price
the
1808
for
slave trade
on
of British capital
to an inflow
of
of
abolition tripled
the
British period also led
new
third of what
in 1813 to one
–
Britain was reduced
the duty
of
the economy occurred when
in
.
upswing
of
3:
in
PART
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH COLONIALISM gratifying , but also as morally gratifying
economically
humanitarians , people who enjoyed the freedom
.
According
the
to
enter labour markets
to
without direct physical compulsion would also be much more productive
who were coerced
those
evangelical
labour . By advancing
into
humanitarians
served
the
this argument the
of
interests
than
the
of
elites
new
Britain , who were concerned about the economic results
industrialising
giving workers greater economic humanitarianism
against serfdom
.
freedom
joined
economic liberalism
and
,
and slavery
hands
campaign
the
in
thought that the abolition
was naïvely
it
of
During the optimistic years when
of
these
feudal institutions would have positive moral and economic results .
,
to
's
,
at
.
'
' a
them
labour problems
of ,
,
to
en
for
the Great
1
).
50
their private
7
103
–
1996
-
to
frontier districts reacted
were important reasons
see Keegan
source
which labour
in
farmers
in
-
and often only
patriarchal order in
a
,
of
valuable
which they had
unjustified British interference
Ordinance
the north
.
most of
a
on
the idea
to
of
It
'.
at
'
to
,
of
allow
and intensified the scarcity settlers The ordinance deprived
subservient labour force
as
a
Cape Khoisan
enough
farmers
:
the
and they
proclamation
and immediately
the Eastern
British
their
what they regarded
to
to
of .
the Cape
but near
resolving
private matter Afrikaner
1830s
carry passes
and
of
grip
.
of
Trek
of
the
.
their firm
effects
all
masse and established peasant
employers
-
50
to
Afrikaners
labour Still imbued with
These
abolished
large scale disruptions
become accustomed and also relations were
the
legally equal
them
effect recalled Caledon
crime
and
Instead
(
for
led
both
of
to
Afrikaners
domain
longer required
pastoral farms
farms
the Cape
made
In
.
-
deserted
Ordinance
angrily
and
It
vagrancy
communities beyond the control
labour
Khoisan
large scale
plunder white
at
a
no the
on
restrictions
colour
radically changed labour patterns
employees
the
Cape with
improve the conditions
in
.
of
resulted
the
,
50
other free persons
particular they were
In
.
1828 was adopted
could legally own land Ordinance 1809
free market economy
.?
Ordinance
whites
While
the moral and religious development that
market
of
free
discriminatory
integrating
from
global British
and
Town
free labour markets the mercantile elite was interested
would result from
Hottentots
in
humanitarians were interested economic gains
a
at
in
This close
.
.
elite
with
close alliance
the
networks
Cape
operation was not coincidental
50
mercantile
succeeded
forging
-
and
development
and Christian
exploiting the powerful humanitarian
co
London
,
in
.
enslaved
Philip was skilful
moral
markets would enhance
the s
the
idea that free labour
Smith s economic
in
of the humanitarian
of
and
not only the productivity but also
in
liberalism
'
Adam
of
of
John Philip was an enthusiastic supporter
87
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND
the
to
“
to
at
;
the
for
-
of
in
,
of
,
as
of .
of
as
in
a
, 81 4 ). the
of
to
:
.
19th
1841 and
Servants Act passed
It
.
was
even
more
the
-
50
of
was short lived
.8
The
of
established
by -
and
Cape
to
)
the
the
West
and
the the
in
British colonial
industrial capitalism
significance
of
Proclamation
the British colonies
of
lessened
in
,
)
system
a
's
Caledon
in
the British parliament
Cape colonial matter slavery was
Cape The emergence
50
in
Proclamation
of
in
of
role
terms
much more important role
mercantile
1808
(
of
Khoisan
(
the
of
slavery
of
the
trade
slave
the
the
of
at
.
I
early
Andries Stockenström
Ordinance
.
in
, a
ie
(
)
local
West Indies than
88
easy
1838
the abolition
serfdom
matter Slavery played decline
by
, the
's
to
,
the initiative
the
(
slavery
a
was
the
1809
a
.10
of
resulted
While
well
for the
The ideological and economic forces that played
1833
violent
needed
1828
)
in
abolition 1828 also
their
Kat River settlement by
to
the Masters
the suspension
of
.3
Khoisan
The
1856
From
6
by
comprehensively parliament
frontier
the
decades
the framework
the Masters and Servants Proclamation
. -
by
away
taken
the
,
the eastern
Khoisan had
social upliftment was inconceivable
at
the Khoisan
granted
wounds
,
.
of
this direction was the
The freedom
too
,
-i
To
.
in
,
only attempt
on
an
active policy
that legal
little improvement
the Khoisan
But
new
different lifestyle
moral and material upliftment
viable farming opportunities
liberalism
adopt
of
,
to
century
in
on
programme
their
thoroughly unfounded
1986
jobs with
heal
and
erstwhile serfs into morally
moral deprivation
exploitation and humiliation
comprehensive access
and
the
were also too
naïve optimism
Cameron
their previous
wages
labour conditions and oppression
Cordeur
nor the inclination
stay
to
majority opted
develop
individuals proved
economic
the opportunity
impoverished
black
take advantage
in
102
their situation
neither
other
two groups
self mage
,
-
of ; Le
94
:
Ross 1993
that
the true sense
the Khoisan
a
sufficient
economically responsible
In
see and
be
.
alone would
freedom
the
humanitarian movement
The
Khoisan
racial divide
to
.
this entrenched
demoralised and had too negative legal freedom
and
be
,
,
powerless Given
powerful
evangelical
the
into
of
and
the Cape was divided
a
rich
,
the population
to
By
.
,
then
an
the word
agricultural proletariat
at
and they were already
late
take
bring about
independence had already been
economic
,
destroyed
white
,
certainly came
stage their social structures and
one
far
.
It
humanitarian movement
promised
colony
the liberty
the Khoisan
,
improvements
economic
inhabitant of
every
was however too legalistic
in
the moral and
market
and
law
It
the best
to
their labour
equality before the
.
)
(
except slaves
grant
50 was to
to
of Ordinance
The purpose
(
APARTHEID
3
by a
PART
Indies
THE SYSTEMIC
PERIOD OF BRITISH COLONIALISM
for the British economy . This also reduced the influence
West
strong
anti
both evangelical and business circles
The
's
a
of
a
an
it –
in
the
at
.
of
in
the abolition
In
.
of
it
of it ,
.
imbued with
see Keegan
ideology
replace slavery with
of
Britain
,
to
,
This
line with the ideological
a
material progress wanted
industrialised bourgeoisie
Consequently
civilising mission
(
brought the mission movement
and
due course the
Christian morality
in
on
appeal
and
supposed
the alleged humanism
The
it .
as
inhumane because
British establishmentmovement
its
in
than
on
to
of
In
pro
-
an
of a
,
on
the trappings
the emerging industrial bourgeoisie
.
in
.
:
to
slavery
who often misused
slave owners
82 )
in
labour the
the Poor
alleged
1
stressed
of
the abolition
Britain self confidently
Britain the
.
via
labour was achieved
In
,
for
income and subsistence
-
'
free
The liberals
in
1834
'
supply
of
their employers
.
in
necessary
on
workers
Laws
British
that avoided direct physical coercion but still ensured the dependence
of
system
and
power towards the
important role
in
a
(
78 –
:
liberalism
the early
The frequent and intense insurrections
became more nationalist rhetoric put emphasis greater became inclined the
1996
British
the
198
and
British imperialism
sense
).
of
mission movement took
orientation
lobby
the Cape
tilted the balance
The evangelical humanitarians regarded
emphasis
slavery
slavery
Indies during the 1820s also played
gave too much power
Britain
.
Indian
1832
but because
conquests with
-
of
,
Act
slavery Watson 1990
shift
from
tacit alliance between the pro slavery lobby
but the Reform
the West
far
the slave trade
other legitimated
empire
of
the West
industrialists and abolitionists
new
abolished
the
)
of
of
'(
1996
parliament was decisive for the abolition cabinet
French
the
79
moral idealism and mission influence
in
.
in
:
a
of
,
the new
1820s there was
a
than any
cause that more
evolving ruling order and provided
The loss
Britain
,
."
the
Keegan
and
role when Britain abolished
had become uneconomic
trade
was
to
.
in
‘
a
According
opportunity
their values and their liberties
republicanism
American
These considerations played
1807
not because
abolitionism
of
to
pretensions
slave trade
19th century created
assert the alleged superiority
against the
revolutionaries
belligerent attitude towards both France and the
first decade
for the British
which
of
United States during
circumstances
of
the
had adopted
that Britain
that lucrative
the
and the United States created
slavery movement could develop
fact
the 18th
slave and trade relations with
–
in
Britain
the
1996
The dramatic changes Indies
of
American colonies deprived Britain
13
's
Keegan
to
big
a
).
(
trade
of
the loss
see
century
of
the Americas during the second half
4
,
the West Indies . While Britain had
in
the
the slave trade
in
:
stake
vested interest
a
ch
slave - owners with
of British
London
in
89
PART
3
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND
APARTHEID
' free ' labour force encouraged
higher productivity
of a
of wages , but still
‘driven ' indirectly
to work by the incentive
the labour market by poverty and / or
to
hunger . In South Africa the necessary supply of ' free ' labour was accomplished the 1840s onwards – ie , after the abolition of serfdom
from
depriving
the former
serfs
and slavery
former slaves of their access
and
- by
land, by
to
'
‘
but
choice
enter
the
and
.
that forced
and
-
white controlled
them
the
conditions
created
where they had
market
free
to
deliberately
white employers
on
government
legally
to
Africans were formally
laws Although coloureds
servants
,
by adopting masters
)
and
no
,
(
tribes
and
deliberately and systematically proletarianising the Xhosa and other African
labour
unfavourable labour
into
.
contracts
at
of
of
in
.
is
.
in
’
'
an
the for
for all
all
right
the
in
,
former slaves Worden
(
discipline
of
of of
for inculcating notions
Worden and
when the indentureship
system
–
1841
.
income
14
.
of
in
.
of
-
the
curtailed when
In
,
,
,
their freedom
often
any way They were
other means
slaves was indeed short lived
emancipation
choice were seriously
or
former slaves were not compensated
final
But what
is
unjustified intervention
and
.
the Khoisan
Crais 1992
:
it
their slaves
that slave
(
.
It
of
of
in
most serious
was estimated
,
in
as
of
in
the for
of
. – the as
market value
was done remained
their private patriarchal order
the case
the
freedom
which
generations
proletariat without land capital
'
of
fall
)
to
up
four fifths
of
a
as
–
is
that
years after their
190
'.
,
',
'
-
punish their
3
.'
of 62 )
The
gradually
practical purposes the
No provision was made for
slavery
slavery and the way
the British authorities
set free
continued cultivation
classes should
For
Slaves were
apprenticeship
.
an
freedom
Afrikaners regarded this
was abolished
freedom
extension
controversial among Afrikaners
forgotten
any
5
ch
:
The abolition
owners lost
until
1833
The only break with the past was the removal
former slave holders
Crais 1994
a
their
society
the
-
.
and self control
the virtual absence
Emancipation Act
the
of
of
to
for
preparing slaves the
of
period was
’
'
apprenticeship
state
anti
.
this institution
make temporary provision
the soil and the good order
into the relationship
slavery
,
1
on
of
four years
the
elite and especially John
but the act provided
1834
to
of
period
the forefront
12
discussion
The British parliament passed
December
of
Fairbairn
the Cape
Commercial Advertiser The most striking
African
social condemnation
set free
at
.
in
the South
–
or
moral
Those
of
of
,
characteristic
the
or
editor
Fairbairn
the West Indies
Cape were the mercantile
's
drive
of
slavery
at
than their counterparts
the movement against slavery
in
less significant role
of
a
1828 played
was passed
50
who were prominent when Ordinance
The missionaries
only three
movement and
freedom
Masters and Servants Ordinance
in
,
as
;
as
',
by
'
vagrancy
viewed
The only difference was see
1991
:
(
Malherbe
,
)
.
.
in
,
.
's
15
.
at the
‘
the
cattle
the traditional policy
abandon
rigid boundary between blacks and whites His
new
policy
of of
increased
of
20
.
the
Zuurveld
Xhosas out
000
,
,
in
decided
the Cape
Eastern Cape The attempt
Xhosaland and
to
Somerset
drive
to
predecessor
in
position
to
7
).
ch
– he
was governor
Somerset
.
a
maintaining
They
and economic landscape
faced was the uncertain
serious overcrowding
1817
In
.
raiding
Somerset to
led
Zuurveld
Charles
Sunday and Fish rivers
's
,
Cradock
the
Africa
three bloody frontier wars were
in
30
:
in
the first problems
the area between
by
Lord
1826
of
One
until
South
between the British colonial forces and the Xhosa
Cameron 1986
1814
From
political
Africa
South
years after their arrival
their insistence
at
Nash
,
see
–
fought
time
capitalist progress and imperialist expansionism
notion
that drastically redefined
During the first
19th
of
a
them
the
that would
profoundly influence labour patterns and power relations brought with
40 in
first half
group
Cape
the Eastern
, of
event
population
new
–
(
settlers arrived
in
completely
a
,
adding
,
of
5000 British
the
group
1820
of
first
aftermath
of
the
6
1820
settlers and the Sixth
its
).
Frontier War and
century
(
still
the British
This was perhaps the most portentious
-
the
the Cape parliament enabled
poorly paid wage labourers
now
farmers
.
a
and
period
considerable
slavery
subservient labour they
property
their
COLONIALISM
4
'
“
'
were
slaves
for
'.
‘
slavery
The expansionism
.4
–
23
that the
In
slaves
The masters and servants acts passed
perpetuate
to
‘
them
to
their former
illegal
abolition
retain their former slaves
as
regarded
6 5)
of
. . After
was issued (see section Western Cape tried
PERIOD OF BRITISH the
THE SYSTEMIC
Le
see
;
settlement
most important
free sea passage and land grants
to
,
Britain and
.
eastern frontier The settlers
and were lured
to
colony
's
to
.
16
,
000 arrived
in
The first group
of
,
request along these lines and
relieve unemployment the
defence
on
:
a
dual purpose
on
British
the 5
a
a
as
a
of
).
5
white
barrier between the Xhosa and the
,
offered
free press
establish
of
cheap form a
a
This project had
were
until the next year
They soon clashed with Somerset over several issues
being their attempt
supply
settlers
the Cape
to
.
1820
000 British
act
government granted
a
sent
The British
the need for
.
20
.
Afrikaners
the boundary
to
colonial side
the
Somerset
of
This war convinced
84 –
1986
to
,
and caused havoc the war lasted
in
Cameron
,
Cordeur
in
the Eastern
Cape
:
1819
In
.
with some chiefs while excluding others had failed the Fifth Frontier War erupted when 10000 Xhosas invaded (
concluding treaties dismally
the Cape
191
.
But
the great demand
wool
the
or in
four
latter
British
from
to
.
–
.
of
of
the permanence
labour and
for
series
Africans that lasted
more
than
150
.18
to
specifically
1828 began
a
.
unfree labour patterns Ordinance
of
is
another striking example
49
an
the Eastern
for the purpose The fact
unfree and pass carrying labour force three days before
Khoisan serfdom was abolished pass laws applying years
farmers
Ordinance
.
employ Xhosas provided they took out passes
that Xhosas became
of
The former empowered
British settlers
in
50
,
Bourke issued
rather cynically
49
the
would create serious
-
,
realised
-
to
Cape
in
,
,
-
To
three days before Ordinance
Afrikaners
General Richard
labour problems not only for Afrikaner farmers but also for pre empt these problems
become slave
the
settlers could therefore use only
it
the
in
join
then acting governor
issue Ordinance
to
.
,
decided
1828
not allowed
for
hunger
almost insatiable
would
they
The British
, .
‘
'
the San and Xhosa
Khoisan serfs When Bourke
that
he
,
manhunting
The settlers were fear
50
additional land and labour probably out
holders
an
farming created
sheep
.
The profitability
of
of
?
."
textile mills
large profits owing
to
make
sheep farmers
;
.
)
,
to
began
difficult
extremely
an
failed After
years many settlers became either merchants
five
years
closely knit tillage settlement
for
previously the Zuurveld
(
Albany
creating
or
's
idea
a
Cape government
a
promise that they could become landed gentry within
few
the
with the
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3
of
PART
.
192
the
is
it
a
20
Xhosa
conflict between
at
). and
the
the Xhosa had numbers and
18th
century the Boer commandos
any meaningful military
support
from
the
the late
a
.
.
and wagons
,
,
,
on
no
apparatus
longer count
king
the 1830s onwards Although the Trekboere were
with horses guns
disciplined military could
from
from
6
:
(
in
British and the Xhosa equipped
Cape between the Trekboere
century differed greatly
the 18th
In
of
the end
the Eastern
single
there was
;
the Khoisan
ch
than
a
in
more effectively
crops
manner that they could
unifying loyalty among the different clans see Mostert 1992 The confrontation
planted
like the Khoikhoi not united under such
cattle
. , 19
they also
Khoikhoi
,
of
the
,
,
far
or
resist white intrusion
the case
although
chieftaincies were organised
The Xhosa
had moved southwards along
a
,
Xhosa existence
Although the Xhosa were their clans
As
in
about 500
from
were the focal point
Nguni peoples who
.
seaboard
of
the eastern
the
AD
were the southern wing
three
and 1853
1834
examine the difference between these two groups of
to
necessary
understand
,
bloody wars between the British and the Xhosa between
course with the
graze their cattle
To
inevitable collision
.
to
an
them
-
the
Xhosa moving westwards
on
'
their profitable sheep farming put
acquire more land and labour for
to
eastward expansion
The British settlers
colonial
21
.
in
to
of
,
.
in
at
For
1831 and
,
'. on
see Keegan
the
1996
:
'
Albany farmers incipient prosperity
(
In
1834 war erupted
December
In
boundary
,
the
In
violence
the
his
Zulu
47
,
(
into
launched incursions into Xhosaland destroying kraals
Xhosas were starving
frontier shattering
, . of
's
by
driven
Shaka and
.
to
violence meant escalating
.
1833 many
Its
.
of
,
a
).
–
unleashed
burning fields and pushing Xhosa across the
cattle
for
.
'
,
')
the
('
crushing
Natal was
southern
,
state
,
capturing
in
's
.
.
the the
of of
,
to
.
This was aggravated
,
,
colonial
1833 the
the
had become highly unstable The the Sunday River and their land east
result the Xhosa increased their cattle raids into Albany
British settlers responding
see
remarkably
inroads into the living patterns
1820s when the Mfengu tribe the mfecane
in a
As
.
impis
the settler community
on
in
he
.
to
In
’.
,
to
embracing 7000 square
. D ’
,
Urban
completely
now
allocated large farms
prominent
the Eastern Cape and the mercantile elite
Cape Town This created lucrative opportunities
.
he
a
’
D
'
,
in
of
members
the settler bourgeoisie
rivers
the
land speculation
While
.
taken
Kei
with
Kei River and proclaimed
Queen Adelaide
the
abandon
accordance
to
the Keiskamma and
Urban was persuaded the
was
could implement these
by
between
the Province
of
of
miles
by
establishment
tow
of
a
of
boundary further east
set
When
was very strong
total expulsion
the
in
.
,
he
policy
in
,
policy
favour
1838
more conciliatory policy
the chiefs But before
instructions war broke out During the war the treaty policy
1834
for
with
introduce
to
treaties
to
he
frontier based
was instructed
on
,
and
from
evangelical humanitarianism
.
the influence
,
London
of
appointed
Urban was governor
'
Benjamin
D
Sir
).
136
in
had progressed
of
the
of
end
besmirch
Albany
been deprived
two
disposition
civilised people
of
,
by
.
as a
1996
result their remaining land became overpopulated
Xhosaland
this
become
settlers
making
1834 the situation
Xhosa had already the
to
1830s the British
economic terms largely Xhosa But
the
see also Keegan
and the
the Xhosa
thieving
laziness
:
;
,
:
their
and general inability
777 828
the early
alleged
of in
By
1992
Cape Town
most effective instruments
the detriment
to
,
untrustworthiness Mostert
of
for
The main purpose
capitalist activities and
settlers
Town
case against the Xhosa
settlers
72
people
by
indigenous
one
the settlers
justify
to
major themes were
themerits
out
legitimising the expansion
editor
'
The settler press turned
1831 the Graham
colonial authorities
the
be
of
London
in
colonial office
convince
to
newspaper was
the
Robert Godlonton
promoting
4
with
established
the British settlers
In
Journal was
warfare
as
the sectional interests
was impossible
it
enormously influential role
an
played
of
The settler newspapers
open
in
conquer the Xhosa
to
Trekboere
for
support,
authorities in Cape Town . Without such
the
OF BRITISH COLONIALISM
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD
193
117
as at
,
of
in
of
.
by
D
of
the ’
to
,
for
at
.
–
Urban
British
that the
were totally
–
from
point
the
Africa
's
South
of
one
history
the
see
(
as
regarded
. ).
,
Masters and servants laws proletarianisation growth racial capitalism
and the
,
section
also
The
9 3
race relations
in
;
in
see
760
;
, 8
–
:
776
land
194
this
a
of
period
a
in
–
,
most formative one
racial
)
( or
of of a
.
the
on
designed repressive pattern
settler
black labour South
's .
Many historians regard
based system
clear cut racist
of
the newly
crystallisation
in
but also
racially the
legitimise not only
repressive
unfree black labour But perhaps most
period also witnessed the
,
to
this
new
and powerful
which not only controlled
but also consolidated their status
based
shaping
new
,
the
at
settler capitalism
,
capitalism
Cape
saw
as
of
events
importantly ideology
–
.
colonial elite
both agricultural and mercantile
the emergence
the English
and
the colonial state became actively involved
This period also
system
the British settlers
a
the
economic and
new
missionary movement
labour pattern
political
of of
At
.
the instigation
–
–
years
in
by
ideologically
supported
the formulation
to
which
labour policies over the next newspapers
led
,
the Cape
at
took place
the stormy 1830s remarkable attitudinal and ideological changes
50
end
,
the
of
At
of
.5
6
1992
–
the Cape this war can
most decisive turning points Mostert
aftermath
be
Africans
negative
Urban
now claimed
unless they
furious
fundamentally changed the relationship
at
of .
the settler bourgeoisie
its
-
to
Christianity
The Sixth Frontier War and
and
racial attitudes
mainly Methodist
conquered
whites
the
, 5
–
in
converted
them
together with the reversal
of
not
Cape Town were
attractive opportunities
profundly changed
missionaries
be
the
of
.
,
the settlement
on
decision
1834
the British
Both
's
,
them
hand
and embittered
’
’
decision deprived
Xhosa offensive
Xhosa could
the latter
the Cape
mercantile elite
and the
devastating
Some
that the Xhosa had
This decision shocked
community
state
to
.
he
.
The new secretary
grabbing and land speculation already promised
between
see also
John Philip and Andries
had concluded
of
's
Xhosa
the white
Cape
the Eastern
in
to
of
all
sections
because Glenelg
view
143
reached London
invading the colony and ordered
.
'
‘
Queen Adelaide back
Urban that
D
informed
ample justification
the
Lord Glenelg
the new policy
opposed
for
strongly
,
Stockenström
settlers
1835
it
'
's
total expulsion
'
policy
Urban
serious protest from the humanitarians
almost
1996
D
of
When news provoked
he
the
Keegan
–
:
Crais 1992
of 21 ) D ’ .
"
'(
quoted
arrived
in
official
and irreclaimable savages
treacherous
settlers
them
Xhosa when
pronouncements
;
described
towards
:
,
the
in
Cape
pacifically inclined
by
’Urban was ‘most he
D
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3:
PART
Africa
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH COLONIALISM and colonial hegemonic order was created that lasted –
-
of the
by the
of by
,
in
The opportunities for
stations were rather limited
in an
slaves
that
in
.
and
. –
in
),
(
was
were owned
.
After emancipation the Eastern
1
labour crisis
in
Cape Amid
them
living
slavery
When
almost 6000 slaves
a
the Western
.
whites
found
by
.
of
control
for
slaves
became drosters deserters
.
to
the
Cape After the
the former serfs
Cape farmers who had paid high prices
many drifted back
the
This economic revival
or
,
all
of
15
the
-
at
,
Eastern
of
.
. of
the settlers
the Eastern
their previous jobs
the Kat River settlement per cent
of
in
'
'
up
of
of
of –
evacuated
for both
.
in
in
the
on
.
at in
-
in
land
the land was already occupied
peasant communities beyond abolished
the
the higher
the Eastern Cape the situation was very different Many Khoisan
sanctuary
the
the
for
to
by
,
,
.
“
.
,
:
of (
an
of
,
in
,
all
,
because almost
especially
towns and mission
in
lifestyle
alternative
value
the ivory trade
the
of
Cape remained
full
the Cape Together with
Cape Town
majority
frontier wars and
less than the
economic prosperity
and slavery
serfdom
the Western
In
increase
economic
.
period
created serious labour problems
abolition
of
,
(
-
the
to
,
and
Cape and the mercantile elite
Eastern
area
capital
lucrative land speculation led
–
of
.
and
wool
policies that would
slavery marked the beginning
volume
exports
the
1992 797 805
of
investment Voortrekkers
see Mostert
slave holders although
increased
high levels
of
)
slaves
sharply
paid
to a
,
that lasted
the return
civilisation and economic
until the 1860s The money spent
the compensation
western
was replaced almost completely
,
abolition
the
now
Khoisan labour With this new
discipline for the sake
Benthamite liberal utilitarianism
boom
to
the implementation
prosperity evangelical humanitarianism
Civilisation
the opening and
discipline Xhosa
and
This idea was
an
to
to
addition
state imposed
Ironically
newspapers
well
“
–
the missionaries
-
on
successfully control emphasis
elite and
civilisation
)
for
system
'
'
Urban
and
and several
Christianity
land speculators and wool farmers
to
Xhosaland
–
basically meant
the settler
in
as
grasped
for their conversion
–
– by
eagerly
precondition
a
.
the Xhosa
Afrikaans
coloureds and
Fairbairn now regarded the enforced
and
events
militarists
John Philip and John Fairbairn
changed their perceptions about
Philip
Even
British
the most effective spokespersons for
atmosphere
tense
the Xhosa
whites
and mercantile elite
its
.
the
missionaries
take root among
the agricultural
movement
the humanitarian
Xhosa
this
In
23
missionaries
endangered
and
six
-
,
and English speakers
return
experiences
were traumatic
having being deserted
African subcontinent began
South
‘D
Kei River
and
and
A
the
to
up
feeling
.
settlers
of
annexed territory
Frontier War
Sixth
all
of the
The violence
than a century . 22
more
– for
the
with some modifications
the
racial
a
as
history, when
95
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
,
the
of
be in
,
)
(
of
blacks were labour
black
labour
.
In
of
. the
or
launching
’,
'
wandering poor
a
peasant society and created
the
)
the gentry parliament
a
by of
repressive
several countries
(
the
of
.
'
from
enacted
and
the western
world
an
is
the
command
the the ? 40
or
, only
social
30
in
latter
political institutions
of
the
to
lasted
South Africa
for
this system
important
higher
see Trapido
(
.
the
introduced
other countries by
in
there
the working population was able
country
fact that
which this process
of
The only
of
,
However
in
of
a
section
in
).
France owing
the repressive labour system and those
labour repression
to
1966
wages and was incorporated into social 310
system
In
Moore
industrial revolution
rights during the early phases
property
).
see
(
Revolution
in
A
similar
,
there were granted
years before
in
decisive role
Germany and Russia but not
1840 onwards
:
employers
1841 until 1974
,
133 years
dislocation and proletarianisation caused
196
white
impressive edifice
industrialisation
relatively early date
difference between
1971
.
.
,
on
to
to
which
.
a
in
developed
from
been
and therefore
deliberate proletarianisation
. of
of
Britain
French
of
in
at
in
This reservoir played
peasants
employer
cheap labour
a
of
destroyed the structure
became
state
maintaining their workers contractual conditions
cornerstones
the early phases
bound
already
had
of
force
proletarianisation
state
they
laws became apparent
labour
Britain the enclosure movement
reservoir
:
(
of
in
the
the side
Barrington Moore clearly describes the causal role
case
,
,
.
,
‘
to
,
,
ie
it
,
of
very much
enter into contracts with
repression was built and maintained
systems
Although these laws
their contracts and the
the
the two
a
).
support
servants laws and
and
1994
6
of
for
but
alternative
state
The slightest breach
punish their employees
black
forced
on
Masters
could
in
who enjoyed
and imposed
subjectively determined
1974
masters and servants
the
or an
proletarianised
former slaves
masters and servants laws that
books until
the duration
potential
the
where
not have
in
nature
be
situations
may
Worden and Crais
offence
series
labour relations
of
The repressive
indeed
–
:
the
on
important player
right
the
employers
to
employees
criminal
people who
their employers
and resistance
South African statute
employers
deprived
did
104
was the first
ordinance
remained
an
employees became
race –
the Khoisan
including
contract
defiance
,
disobedience
Ross 1993
This
breach
into
of
;
15
13 –
'
contract
'
crimes
by
severe sanctions
applied
’
an
The ordinance bound workers
of
.
24
and Xhosas
for
to
lead
Cape
idle and vagabondising life
not
and
–
hypocritical liberal tradition at inclined
of class
the
typical of the
to
in
–
was written
ordinance
the language
of 1841. Although
Ordinance
the
issue the Masters and Servants
to
–
authorities
convincing the colonial
in
of
influential British settler elite succeeded
a
, the
for
Cape
the
3:
a
PART
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH
incorporation
. The fact
was extremely slow was Britain
COLONIALISM
that it was an industrial
by
',
‘
of
-c
–
(
or
in
of
if
(
.
place when
as
as
,
in
in
as
,
.
terms
Thus
of
understood
the structural
.
systems
sophisticated
of
for
responsible
was
The
labour repression were
of
phases
its
-
/
to
in
well
the power structures
the different
and maintained
introduced
Africa
South
South Africa
and
white empowerment and black proletarianisation
which
in
power context
of
interdependence
had
contract
and industrial revolutions occurred
this country should
in
labour repression
agricultural
,
,
mining
the successive
terms
breaches
the same extent
labour repression
explained
South Africa
of
longevity can only
see
conspicuously racial character
in
In
.
, be
These characteristics
labour tenants
other industrialised countries
criminal offence
of
a
as
were not regarded
were
the repressive measures were very harsh
in
,
were applied relentlessly
its
of
.
eventually
then
),
not originally
from
ropping
independent
labour repression
be
:
several unique characteristics Apart
rural
white rentier landlords were
wage labourers and
into
The system
3
1983
protracted
that stage economically relatively
turned
22 –
Meara
result
the Cape and
rent paying and share
the
,
at
universally
'
O
–
African peasants almost
,
capitalist farms while
into
).
transformed
and
first a
both the large and small estates
government
the Union
as
class struggle
,
subsequently
assault
a
legislative
of
labour repression applied mainly
by
a
system
of
process
of
By
means
.
to
Africans
the
of South Africa ,
In the case
of
pioneer may explain this .
of
“
.25
plundering that lasted until the 1970s
the
, in
in
of
.26
,
as
,
'.
, .
as
possible
the chiefs
colonial authorities Smith as
the
Kei rivers
of as
Fish and Keiskamma rivers
a
frontier policy
.
white magistrates
new
and
27
This began
His
.
the
of
to
be
the
destroy the power
undo as
his
,
by
and direct rule
.
British Kaffraria
the
,
in
.
,
-
do
.
to
thoroughly
,
the crown colony annexation
land between
ably
Victoria East and the area between the Keiskamma
of
of
immediately annexed district
re
the control and discipline the
and subject them
and
appointment Smith declared that
Xhosa society
first task
Given
please the settler farmers
what Lord Glenelg
restructure
his
a
considered to
end
he
To
outspoken purpose was
this
to
‘
the Cape
Cape
British government could hardly
the
After
less suitable person
to
was going
to
he
have appointed
direct
nor
the colony
did
towards indigenous people
This was
of
blatant racism
eagerness
governor
so
military aggression
,
his arrogance
the Eastern
contrast with the past
Xhosa neither
Harry Smith was appointed
in
,
the
).
–
of
behalf
time
This
to
Sir
.
In
1847
Keiskamma River
7
1846
public case was made
Britain
allowed the settlers
the
Xhosa War
(
the area east
of
Sir
the Seventh
Peregrine Maitland
on
encroach
cause no
on
Cape
of to
,
the then governor
,
racial attitudes among whites during the early 1840s
Amid the hardening
197
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
a
of
, .
.
on
the
by –
,
in
of
.
,
is
,
.
by
in
.
in
in
in
,
(
in
,
,
employed
,
,
.
,
in
Kat
settlements
unacceptable and some
(
many Khoisan the Masters
create the
to
,
an
creating
view
The
the 1840s the
in
of ,
the
,
of
under
coloureds
of
.
they wanted
'
by
,
ie
.
sanctuary
labour
and Servants
rural workers
and inhabitants
the
Kat River
,
legislative council tabled the Squatters Ordinance
in
. the
of
)
80
per cent
have been
the
1841
Shortly after
1
it
by
they were giving
who could
Ordinance
98
From
adequate
the farmers point
Kat River and other smaller ones were
situation because Xhosa
proletarianising
of
such
inflow
abolishing
labour and capital
the productive land
capital Consequently
-
as
River Settlement
an
conditions for such
inflow
owned much
, of
by
profit
an
to
stood
settlers
,
British
settlement
capital land and labour and
colony unless ensured
who already
Kat River
the
.
the Eastern
the
former
Cape The productive wool farming
activities required the proper combination capital would not enter
of
for
among land
the interaction
emerging capitalist economy
colonists less secure
the abolition
of
example
Cape where land
80 ).
of
:
typical
settler farmers
of
a
is
278
–
and Crais 1994
The agitation
small peasant
of
,
,
complicated the labour problems Worden
Cape had been
Eastern
Eastern
Ever since
1850
independent peasant communities which the colonists considerably Crais
slaves and Xhosas established
serfs
European
the Cape legislative
living
Khoisan
areas
The Khoisan
, ,
In
was more plentiful and the control
.
communities outside white control
of
those
1803
that until then they had
squatters ordinance
of
against
measures
1799
the whites
the
a
enact
the farming community
1828
the
an
on
so
intention
of
agitating
side
the
rebellion
Frontier War was triggered to
in
declared
Ordinance
much more important
frontier wars
the Eighth
for 50 of
's
the
all
in
participation
1851
the colonial
frontier war What made the
a
.
of
Khoisan Rebellion
council
first time since
the Eastern Cape participated
in
the Khoisan fought
For the
important turning point
of
by
of
the 19th century
the
146
The Eighth Frontier War was also
history
them
for free enterprise and
the
(
1992
the war effort For
victory
in
Crais
see
resounding
).
prosperity
The settler farmers profited amply
British government
wars was
both
:
of
the money spent
outcome
the
.
settler farmers and their supporting press from
white farms Both the
Frontier Wars were enthusiastically sanctioned
and Eighth
Seventh
while thousands
and cattle
.
work
their land
contracted wage earners
on
to
no
choice but
destroying crops
,
,
.
large portions
Xhosa were deprived had
the bloodiest , longest , and ugliest of
Some 16000 Xhosa died during the war After the war the
of
.
and capturing cattle
– 3 ) was
British tactics involved burning huts
the frontier wars
as
all
The Eighth Frontier War ( 1850
to
3:
of
PART
1850
and other
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH COLONIALISM
settlements
of
former serfs and slaves managed
and many
the
–
– in
proletarianisation
coloured
confiscated
After
,
Cape
Eastern
their
war was
31
process
settlement
.30
,
Kat River
including the
of
This resistance was the
to
resist their total proletarianisation
when the Khoisan revolt was suppressed
however
1851
for some time and with 29
how
success
settlements
of
the
former serfs and slaves and the Khoisan Rebellion
of
,
broken
small peasant societies outside
.
demonstrated
1830s and 1840s
,
control
reasonable
in
by
The creation
the
and Somerset East -
.28
revolted
white
of Albany , Fort Beaufort ,
the districts
in
its
,
it
;
a
on
's
to
'
in
of
-
as
its
).
:
(
the
the Cape
,
he
.
from
represented
the
of
?
“
curtail the
chieftainship
of
their authority
and power
.
in
the structures
barbarian
to
his way
33
He went out
directly
their
of
them
'.
“
by
intervening
of
.
-
'
of
'
,
by
209
1854 until 1861 Although perhaps
social and material basis
the
those
Britain
He
started public works programmes for employing Xhosas with the purpose
of
and
the chiefs
attendant
the elites
dissolution
see Keegan 1996
for civilisation
them
undermining
and
better than anybody else He explicitly believed that
liberalism
customs and save
implied that
colonial ties through economic
only direct rule over non European people could authority
had
self rule was regarded
rid
’32
Janus face
,
goodwill
British governor
and sophisticated
the
did
‘
-
and mutual
George Grey was governor
able
the contrary
the maintenance
of
Sir
with
compatible
interdependence
most
colonies
colonies
government
not involve
on
colonial bonds with perfectly
self rule
;
by
of
The idea
its
.
colonies
from
responsible
policy
free trade
colonial policy inter alia
Britain should disengage itself partially financial burdens
of
The triumph
free trade
granting
Corn Laws and embarked
at
of
international
implications for Britain
important
the
policy
British parliament abolished
of
1846
's .
In
the
.
accelerated
inculcating
-
the
, . 34
-
, .
'
by
be
-
“
elected
males
and
Almost immediately
political power
a
Afrikaans
,
.
colony
it
,
both English
-
of
'
the new constitution
pass
the
a
the Cape
century
colour blind franchise
to
on
the
of
19th
the
their newly attained
the
political power
–
-
dominant white minority
capture
children
year and owned property with
colour blindness
'
.
the
a
earned R100
Despite the
R50
the Xhosa into cheap for
.
to
for
he as
in
1854 based
projects
treating Xhosas
mid
-
a
liberalism
two chamber parliament were
colour who
used
draw
to
colonial elite
hospitals specifically
parliament
His road building
educational institutions
in
to
–
enabled
them
effort yet made
established
Victorian
,
rental value speaking
well
the
irrespective
of
houses
actually
time
representative
of
Both
a
gained
ethic
in
a
line with
of
In
,
Xhosa chiefs
as
the same
of
.
labour
work
the most systematic
At
represented
western
infamous
199
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
had
'
a
,
as
'
a
, .
an
,
of
a
of
at
to
's
a
it
in
'.
Grey
way
by 36
to
restructure
all
, ,
, all a
, the
in sea
,
their cattle
east
and
.
the prophecy being fulfilled
the
13
destroying stock and In
into
whirlwind
their cattle
of
1857
.
the
,
crops the fateful day came without
two Xhosa girls
Xhosas killed the
on
18
,
all
a
as
that
great herds After months
in
to
be
them
lure the
politics
system
Xhosaland
February
white men and unbelievers
restored
London that
told
.
in
prophesied
the sun would rise and set again would
He
the roots
'
the situation
in
reaction
Nongqawuse and Nombanda would sweep
Kaffir
their best interests
in
be
struck
godsend
if
desperate
month
.
to
believed
The consequences
the war the oppressive new
break down Xhosa society and
to
a
In
which
to
he
main purpose was
the
never
Sir George Grey
most favourable opportunity
destroy
bovine
Europe with
of
,
to
Xhosas into wage labour and
the
,
at
the
5
.
in
Xhosaland was
form
from
Xhosaland
cattle
situation
1854
same time that
western
000 head
Xhosa society Grey regarded the situation
.
in
-
.
;
and the death
act
the Xhosa had previously
wrought
the destruction
of
, far -
oppressive policies
reaching
policies
precisely
of
his
struck their cattle
introduced
vagrancy
the Eighth Frontier War
introduced
been
bulls The disease which
Friesian
encountered
Xhosaland
lung sickness had
a
, of
shipment
occurred
as
pneumonia known
were
also served
and
three years after the destruction caused
greater tragedy
even
severity
of
breach
or
long called for
by
which the settler elite
Only
out
stood
five - year labour
to
for desertion
In
The
severe punishments
,
s
stipulated
tied employees
.
contract .
and
, which
1856
its
contracts
of
Servants Act
and
for
Masters
a
3:
act
PART
“
40
in
the Xhosa people
to
,
ie
–
to
achieve
–
of
and successive
charges relating
and sentenced
their
transportation
?
a
to
large number to
on
bring
to “
,
of
British
to )
five year
-
and enforced long term
(
',
Kaffirland
Kaffir Employment Bill -
of
prevent the disgorging
the
Robben Island
1857 the Cape parliament introduced
'
000
great ultimate good would
opportunity
killing
. -
.
social structure
the
.
on
,
of
40 37
).
30
,
's
.
'
.
of
,
ie
In
-
the missionaries
They were found guilty cattle
their
was that prospects for the colony were
ever before Grey also used
incarceration
What
reaction was that
The settlers reaction
behaviour during the period
and
only 37000 remained
years had been struggling and the
and destroyed
000 left their homes and entered the
;
to
:
chiefs
chiefs before the courts
200
At
.
of
the
1222
cattle
cattle were slaughtered
find work
come about Grey
it
had suddenly
better than
1992
the previous
destroy the power
from
least
people
Mostert
see
governments
flow
of
destitute
(
Kaffraria
starvation
of
as
Xhosas died colony
Xhosa adult men killed their
estimated that 400 000 head
of
.
corn
per cent
is
It
85
about
all
-
,
months during which the cattle killing prophecies swept across Xhosaland
. These
or
of of
as
.
also
individual land
trust and
Fingoes
–
tribe that
the cattle
.38
in
and did not participate schemes
new
system
racial domination
at
a
justification
,
the humanitarian movement and the of
6
.6
The failure
Grey
's
-
from
labourers
episode
')
.
farmers
who benefited
-k
was mainly the Mfengu
entered into alliances with the government
killing
in
earlier experiments
illing
(“
for African
tenure
the cattle
It
enabled
push forward
to
Grey
British Kaffraria
in
created
be
to
,
The vacuum
the contracts
equal number entering the colony unregistered by
end
what the terms
1857 nearly 30000 Xhosas had registered
with perhaps
the colony
employed
relief had
a
of
.
the
be
would in
By
over where they were
an
say
were drawn up by magistrates , while the destitute , desperate
contracts
no
Xhosa work - seekers
on
,
compulsory contracts of indentureship
PERIOD OF BRITISH COLONIALISM
of for
THE SYSTEMIC
the
Cape
It
.
in
,
,
.
for
,
The Masters
the
and
of
a
to
to
system
racial
former slaves and
the
a
it
,
the abolitionists
by
the the
was still mentally
,
he
of
a
, “
by
was
). state
it
Given that
why could
it
settlers
of
the
movement that had played
?
of
colonial
the issue
and slavery unable
serfdom
the British
address
to
why was
a
in
why
1
must
question
,
the
century
is
at the
to
.
and support
of
and militarism
of
the
abolition
fundamental question
was legally freed
mind
racially
Cape immediately after
19th
The Negro
the British
1982
answer Stepan
in
of
operation
role
half
:
slave
but
evangelical humanitarianism
expansionism
years
African history that
South
of
in
1833
's
to
morally and physically
crucial
of
the
of
was being lost
:
Emancipation Act
such
create
Nancy Stepan
the first
'(
racism
failure
this
many repressive measures
against slavery was being won
,
of
.
of
racism
a
as
According
slavery
the battle
attempt
enough
13
for only
that applied not only
labour economy was introduced
history
war against
slavery
which individual
Paradoxically
lasted
colonial authority
the great riddles
of
the
abolition
first
–
a
in
by
,
of
–
despotism
.
one
based repressive
a
was
serfdom
Xhosas
of
, It
remains
,
1841
Cape
the
to
serfs but also
the
and open society
rights were valued
and racial capitalism
domination
-
corruption
and legal equality
Britain
transforming the feudal Cape
.
,
by
introduced
co
civil
freedom
Servants Ordinance
Any
marked
both
and Khoisan
and for only three years for the former slaves
Khoisan
that just
purpose
post Enlightenment
and
pivotal role
chattel slavery
-
a
into
individual
about
century
19th
integrity
, of ,
period
in
the early
and serfdom freedom
–
of
society
the abolition
profoundly instrumental
a
had served
-
at
and
the Cape
movement played
in
The evangelical humanitarian
stem
the
had the full
not prevent the
201
,
,
to its
of
,
a
,
South
if
the
of
to
of
in
a
to
a
).
7
ch
by
in
:
;
8
in
.
in
of
of
as
. ,
of
They corrupted
.
'
and were convenient
).
–
of
:
shallowness
60
',
divide and rule
(
evangelical
humanitarianism
also
moral naïvely
described
the
Xhosa
fundamental
as
assimilated into
a
the scene was
',
treacherous and irreclaimable savages
Urban
set
When
’
.
civilisation
D
optimistic about the ease with which the Xhosa would
were
both
naïve
re
The missionaries
develop
be
to
enough
for
progress
.
and economic
be
would
alone
the
being too closely associated with British liberalism on
it
British colonialism
.
and
Xhosaland after the Sixth
agents
early 19th century Both ideologies were based
and Christian
when
Queen Adelaide
imperialpenetration
see Jaffe 1994
belief that legal freedoms responsibility
those
the
Cape Town
2
-
'
as
of
from
the province
rather dubious role
and
racist
only
and land speculation
of
a
especially
,
probably stemmed 18th
mercantile elite
-
the annexation
domination
superficiality
the late
also
in
to
but
the
the former The
Frontier War when not
opportunities for land grabbing
played
which Afrikaners
destroy
neither the humanitarians nor their
the
Eastern Cape
reversed
–
after
and especially the frontline troops c onsciously the chiefs used policies instruments
agricultural
based
had any vested interests
after the Sixth
the missionaries
Frontier War
the British
racially
new
government
triumphal progress
stop the
of
Lord Glenelg
the
of in
were deprived
become
see also Crais 1992
and slavery
;
elite
,
,
the mercantile
situation changed drastically
,
8
but failed
,
vested interest
, ,
serfdom
British settlers
their attempts
accident that the humanitarian movement helped
British settler capitalism
Moreover
,
126
ch
in
:
1996
feudalism
closest ally
“
liberal
based
.
to
be
to a
–
of
racially
liberal
emerging white capitalist class
institutionalising
of
a
Cape had
202
avoided
all ,
no
(
perhaps
of
is
see Keegan
the remnants
western
racial capitalism
been
into
they had not been supported
–
and
if
's
in
,
Africa
capitalism It
have
been turned
less successful
settlers had been
and the colonial authorities
The
could
historical
development could have been more humane and less exploitative
the British
system
easily
serving the interests
utilitarianism
gentry
1990
the
had not
humanitarianism
Africa
1840
from
not much point
believe that 150 years
attempt
1850s became
and
in
'.
there
London
the
in
to
of
in
Although
to
–
Africa
South
reason
so
,
there
is
‘
speculation
the 1840s
of
,
-
settler capitalism
claim
tawdry
shallow
humanitarian thought
Society was the very seed bed
justify racially based
out
1820s and 1830s
the
in
).
:
(
While
127
infected with racial sentiment
in
turned
is
the
1996
'
Missionary
The
prevent the institutionalisation
1840 onwards prompts Keegan
from
,
“
deceptive thing
to
Cape
the end liberal humanitarianism
in
,
that
at
racial domination
labour
unfree
if
of
the humanitarian movement
Xhosa
?
of
to
'
settlers land grabs and the reduction inability
the
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3:
PART
by
,
by
-
, :
.
on
)
In
39
)
,
to
an
the
,
in
in
'
in
in
,
the
say
,
.
,
movement in
at
all
1840 onwards
same entrepreneurial
.
-
in
,
it
valued more highly than liberty
was only
small
As
1990
5
Watson
of its
on
‘
of
,
between
two ideals
the liberals had valued
.) . ..
property rights
anti slavery
,
classical liberalism
'(
property more highly than liberty
weakness
:
and that
the
the rights
soon
as
,
For Watson
of
oppose the steady diminution
human rights
-
ideology
liberalism
the
Africa
of
South
the Janus face
of
of
the
century
on
the
failure
of
19th
the conflict within
freedom
playing field
faire Britain
a
in
.
of
‘
movement lies
laissez
From
with
systematic and comprehensive
coherent movement
human
decade
Watson blames
develop
unfree labour
Britain
force
and Crais blame the racist ideology that emerged
Worden
coloureds and Africans
that
repressive labour system
to
to
'.
a
or
inability
order
and the labour market was still
the Cape was imbued
the middle
the
the same time when the working class
of
in
the Cape
1834 the
abolished
surprised that the humanitarian
exactly
,
earlier
40
at
As noted liberalism
but level
industrial bourgeoisie
a
as
spirit
the
the settler bourgeoisie
a
to
Britain was subjected
in
at
the Cape
then
-
of
labour
free
'
to
'.
“
was defeated
century
the 16th
sell their
be
One should perhaps not
unfree
'
'.
for
to
in
of
.
in
(
of
the industrialising bourgeoisie
was
From
.
its
is
a
(
by
class capitalism
.
and employees
Act was passed
gentry capitalism
bourgeois and laissez faire capitalism
system
Queen Elizabeth
The
was all but
century
the first Reform
when
repressive
and women
-
all for
employers
was relatively easily
the 19th
Because trade union rights were still denied
market
1992
Britain were superficial
Britain
system
system
by
was
able bodied men
see Crais
).
, an
was
roots
1832
archaic
British parliament controlled Poor Laws enacted
and especially
22
until
a
1
practice
,
in
,
it
was
until World War which
because
the contrary
capitalism
British
ch
:
at
;
humane
the 1840s onwards
from
whether humanitarism
institutionalised
system
on
economic
Cape
the
ideas settler
the
(
to
in
–
in
,
An
7
ch
;
interesting question
defeated
The new
legitimise the new racially oriented labour
and economic policies implemented
Mostert 1992
of
'
of
on
Sir
by
order
colonial authorities
the
aftermath
liberal utilitarianism
into
indigenous people
were not only propagated
and racism
but were also accepted
George Grey
into disciplined and
them
transformed
I
of
liberal utilitarianism
bourgeoisie
was
the racial inferiority
notions
force
and the
the obverse
the Sixth Frontier War and
by
.
crucible
that evangelical humanitarianism based
of
in
was
It
useful labour
prolonged domination the
need
moral development
culture were replaced
into western
optimism
Humanitarians
.
of
Africans
for
the
and
indigenous people
of
about the potential assimilability
culture
COLONIALISM
its
latter and their primitive “
of
evaluation
in
the
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH
step towards
property was enslaving the 203
PART
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3:
indigenous population groups
order
in
boost the wealth of the white property
to
class .
of
of
the
the
'
in
.
,
of
'
:
' ?
.
in
,
a
so
at
,
,
in
,
of
it
.
and
its
in
order
see Legassick
colonialism
in
-
the replacement to
Cape
the eastern
1993
.4 ).
8
to
.
on
of '
after
Kei River were
cattle
fight
their privileged position
à
that they should help
the
were
,
the war
)
000 head
the
of
in
of
'
total expulsion
vis -
.
wage labour
,
to
in
his
them
was
Xhosa the Mfengu quickly adapted
22
,
settlers with
The idea
condition that they
not participate
who did
wage labour
seek
the colonial side
who brought with
near Grahamstown
policy
In
,
and 16000
and supply
of
the
Xhosa
all Africans
The Mfengu
.
resettled
’
D
.
.
‘
',
liberated
their employment
Urban announced
Frontier War not
were expelled
the 1820s onwards
on
of
49
provided
1828
took out passes When the Sixth
from
(
6
Ordinance
an
the colony
Africans entered
vis
capitalist colonial expansionism
own
:
-
section
for
of
,
68 ;
–
see also
and the
The rise African peasantry the Cape Colony during the second half of the 19th century
.7
329
and
the general conclusion that the
draw
century Victorian
19th
race
with utilitarian and racist ideologies
liberal humanitarianism mid
was the British
of
.
the aggression
Britain and among British settlers legitimise
the 18th century
of
also
not result
did
(
but
have taken
movement was not only the result
the humanitarian
weakness
him
for the hierarchies
We can
of
failure
societies
Africa
South
the British colonial authority after
-
, of
African
race
of
of
conquest
responsible
were
the frontier
He believes
evangelical humanitarianism
not the Boers who
according
Trekboere
in
the failure
capitalism
racial
more adamant that racism
institutionalised
42
of
but was systematically
even
but
liberalism
believes that the colonial state
on
is
Keegan
failure
the same time invented
also
could
from
He then asks What was
to
capitalism
the attitudes and practices
from
Crais
by
in
,
!
.“
black peasant road
337
and
institutionalising
Without this intervention
the antithesis
.
1993
:
in
Legassick
freedom
).
spoke
decisive role
a
(
played
not
transition
itself The racial forms of
contradictory discourse
of
one part
rooted
liberalism
century Cape were
19th
this world which quoted
much
-
in
the
its
in
,
grew
of
out
domination
was not
the ambiguous nature
of
but
liberalism
capitalism
of
racial
to
slavery
,
Keegan take this argument further. For Crais
and
of
Crais
western ideas and western modes
204
traders
their ranks During the Seventh and Eighth
.
commercialisation
independent and
.
the
gave way
market Their close contact with missionaries in
hastened
the
tillage farming
for
Their communal organisations and pastoralism
to
.
production
with
the
,
to
.
at
no
.
in
the in
in
.
it
40
.
mode
western
of
of
production
on
communally
;
with individual land
and peasants
small scale
,
,
independent
-
';
the
‘
proprietors and who either paid their
halves
relatively
living
commercial
44
farmed
of
a
into
and sold their own produce squatter peasants
farming as
by
them
mainly absentee
from
or
Africans had the combined effect
and
an
of
rise
–
or
the
repressive
African peasantry with
landowners were responsible
Africans Until
.
white
of
an in
(
in
–
if
. ).
50
years
halting this process mainly because
for
1890
the
succeed
in
did
not
60
proletarianisation
ongoing offensive against the peasantisation offensive
for
, of
Consequently
,
apprehension
the
The peasantisation
with their almost insatiable demand
African labour viewed
,
and bonded
.
cheap
slowly
,
farmers
important and
for
Many white
.
labour practices
more
and
an
humiliations and impoverishment caused
–
escaped
therefore
was
the Cape
Africans became landowners and
by
and
section
of
significant number
,
independent farmers
same period
the
Africans meant that
a
the
–
This also happened
.
in
Transorangia
century
19th
7 4
development
the see
)
promising
half
the second
of
Natal during
relatively independent African peasantry
(
The rise
a
of
.
farmers
years the African
:
,
who
tenure
Over the next
that time individual peasants who farmed
but produced
cash
would help facilitate
Colin Bundy distinguishes among three different
by
of
peasants
in
lease
villages enabled
the 19th century the parallel and interrelated
and proletarianisation
land leased
the Cape
,
half
and western labour patterns
owned land
'
.
in
to
Christianity
detribalising Africans and integrating kinds
system
Cape expanded but never numbered more than 2000
Eastern
the second
peasantisation
farmers was
the Cape parliament The scheme was supported
of
1996
During
money economy
62 ).
the
in
Rich
Africans
:
see
(
vote
qualified franchise
Sir George Grey and the missionaries who thought
peasantry
the communal
small freeholding African
land and house plots
freehold
a
to
qualify for
the conversion
on
by
.
acres
of
to
the introduction
of
by
owners
peasantisation
this
down and was replaced
class
ten
.
to
Two
1853
of
The development closely linked
From the 1850s
the market a
for
of
and production
economically
among the Mfengu
not only
developed
Through
Africans broke
wage labourers
a
but also among the Xhosa
longer formed
and was
,
peasantry
as
resist employment
onwards different forms organisation
land ownership
‘
enough
system
of
independent
African peasantry developed that
,
communal
the
to
of
part
an
Through these events
land grants
Cape government and were
43
rewarded
loyal
remained
.
generously
Mfengu
of
Frontier Wars
of of a
the
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH COLONIALISM
this
coalition 205
PART
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3:
the influential
between
liberal mercantile
favour of peasantisation
After
(see
of
the discovery
fortunes started
Bundy
,
gold
1988 :
legislation that
in
forced them
join
to
a
3
was
in
).
of New
, peasants '
Liberalism
the early 1990s onwards
by white landowners , the mercantile resulted
ch
and the advent
decline . From
to
elite and the missionaries
combined offensive
a
elite , and the gold
mining industry
due course destroyed the African peasant class and
in
wage -earning proletariat . 45
Both the traders and the missionaries (ie , the champions of Cape liberalism
in
of
for
of
it
, 9
–
of a
of
, .
' .
‘
-
a
new
approach
).
48
48
peasantry
land and
the mercantile
this period was squatter peasants
white owned land
labour tenants
,
crown
134
by
was opposed
-
form
of
(
:
Bundy 1988
results
general anti squatter
1892 when gold mining necessitated
in
in
legislation
on
on
unalienated
idle squatters
as
,
206
such
a
.
,
,
,
to
on to
living
onwards
1872
by
from
These laws did not always have the desired
act directed against Africans
The most common
Africans were
cheap wage labourers
increasing demands for labour
ever
by on
.
,
as
,
thousands
Although white farmers were agitating very strongly for
proletarianisation
and
squatter farming
enacting hut taxes pass laws and vagrancy laws thus forcing
elite and only enacted
of
of
modernisation
'
'
meet settler farmers
the labour market
to
:
( as
-
;
to
the other
responsible government
,
best
to
its
did
communal land
enter the labour market
enjoying
The Cape assembly
the Cape
speakers
-
on
-
and forced
vote
farmers and small scale commercial farming
absentee
Africans with individual land tenure proletarianised
influence
-
from
peasantisation
on
land leased
promoted
956
double barrelled and contradictory one On the
,
,
one hand
it
detribalisation was always
1992
buffer against the demands
1990 the process
to
1860
from
to
,
who
both Afrikaners and English
a
30
the
In
years
break
the
qualified
parliament supplied the mercantile class with the settler farmers
could never
effective method
into the sphere to
.47
this
them
Those peasants
accept
.
and drawing
Africans
economy
regarded
Mostert
see
an
in
,
detribalising
they
the
missionaries strongly favoured
both the traders and
because
turn
Xhosa society and tried their best peasantisation
and
in
,
The missionaries
they had
,
.
.46
detribalisation
due course
peasantisation
western
of
.
of In
6
–
).
by
means
polygamy
through
were usually
Peasants
for cash increased
.
prices for their products
understand the role
1220
As their need
accordance
Cape Town built lucrative
relationships with Africans
white traders
depressed
elite
a
exploited
By penetrating African culture
goods the mercantile
speculation
and
labour through kinship units
,
and selling
by
trade
of
customary rules
with certain
buying
the products
of
the
distribution
breaking down the communal ownership of land and
in
in
vested interest
a
of
had
)
policy
,
and
to
.
of
,
,
pattern
in
which white farmers remained
cultivation
. the gold mines made
proletarianisation
companies
discovered that tribal
,
of
propertied
'
controlled
Christian
progressive the
mining
The
to
to
prefer
its
revised
.
class
at
in
,
while
important ideological shift took place
from
than
the greater
cattle farming and hunting
class the
of
,
Consequently
.
of
African
assimilation through modernisation and segregation
retribalisation
and increased
,
away
new
the
-
for this was
reason
,
century
oxen
families
extended
liberal mercantile
modern class
of
peasantisation
than the
Consequently
a
19th
to
the
end
of
.
African peasants
,
were
'
proletarianisation
the use
and also made
more convenient collaborating class an
chiefs and headmen
same time a
the
.
peasantisation
stimulated
proletarianisation and peasantisation
mercantile
the
At
it
for
the basis
buy ploughs
increased demand for cheap and bound African labour necessary
the
use
By it
to
cultivation
African farmers
the
convictions about the congruence
to
their
An important
gold
him
for
of
discovery
colonial cultivator
cultivation more successfully
several maize producing areas
the
pre
).
of
a
.
did
family labour available in
labour
African squatter tenants became involved After
...was
pastoralism
income
-
of
cash
landlords and became involved
rentier
-drawn
other purposes
than
pastoralism
from
their white counterparts developed
:
'
peasants often shifted
the
well
earn
as
,
to
Africans
using the plough
supply
reliance
drawing ploughs rather as
;
for it
necessary
pastoralism
from
decreased Africans
for
of
animals
ox
the ox - drawn plough
According
on
plough shifted the balance subsistence
1988
95
the Africans
)' (
arming
,
[f
peasant
of
innovation : the
basic technological bridge from
by
the
undoubtedly
was strongly promoted by
as
'the adoption
plough . Bundy contends that
to
survival .
peasantisation
important technological
an
' paid
,
of
introduction
to
From
' economic
of
1870 onwards the process
allow Xhosa
to
so - called “kaffir farmers
to
the latters
to
to
to
the years of economic
were more prepared
squat on their farms. The rent these
white farmers was vital
the
farmers
, during
that
in
families
ironic
49
, white
depression and despair
It is
on
rent tenants , or share - croppers.
PERIOD OF BRITISH COLONIALISM
a
THE SYSTEMIC
at
1838 Dingane gave
in
the strength
the Zulus under Dingane
of
.
and the defeat
of
-
Port Natal and
Voortrekker leader Piet Retief immediately before
Retief and his commando were murdered concessions
February
–
the
Shaka and Dingane
settled
,
concessions
Natal during the
and hunters
On
land
to
received land grants from
British traders
In
an
of
small number
.
1824
African peasantry the 19th century
of
of
The rise second half a
.8 In
6
.So
proletarianisation
these
land
the Voortrekker
207
area south
into
Tugela
The British
separate British colony
a
1842 and turned
in
annexed this republic
in
in
established
.
of Natalia was
republic
APARTHEID the
, SEGREGATION , AND
of
COLONIALISM
it
:
the
3
,
PART
the
)
of
from
to
in
the the
of
as
result
,
abundance as
wage Africans their labour problems
by
tried
solve
to
,
.
Voortrekkers
The
.
1843 While land was available experienced problems recruiting
000
in
they
underpopulated
Tugela
Dingane the African population increased
in
to
in
1838
Voortrekkers labourers
50
.
mfecane After the defeat
area south
a
ie
(
the area was substantially
of
,
in
the late 1830s
10000
,
6000 Voortrekkers occupied Natal
When
the
.
1845
the
on
on
the
by
51
).
to
,
by by
or
to
occupied
and
of
Natal
's
million acres
3
,
.
By
.
of
1970
–
just less than 175 000 acres
in
6
–
rentiers
,
of
of
to 5
more
land owned
acres
.
one
,
,
but
'
'
supreme chief
as
to
their own
their own people was
system
first
.
until
was ignored 1910
,
who
government by
British
This stipulation
Natal
that
The key
of
colony
,
in
English speaking whites
-
the
territorial segregation
system
.
colour blind
location
,
British
Shepstone
the
,
's
grandiose
-
be
Natal became
laws should
to
,
54
.
a
,
of
implement
Shepstone
a
to
the last resort
Natal
skilful
'.
'
(
,
its
and
and
indirect rule
called
called
the
as
a
African control similar
colonial Africa
in
convinced to
method
He was
,
a
Shepstone
African reserves
officials made responsible not
subordinate
1845
in
,
million
acres were set aside
in
of
)
as
the to
208
the
steadily and reached
African chiefs preferably not traditional rulers
government scheme
the mainly
land
South Africa
Theophilus
lieutenant governor
stipulated that
of
of
million
white magistrates
When
the
of .
2
by
'
‘
or
but
brought British settlers
had
absentee proprietors
the British would later apply apprentices
).
:
.
to
in
12
of
than
use
million
Natal
million acres remained unalienated crown land
paternalist and improvised was
over the
and trekked
various mission stations More mission stations were active
any other part
locations
annexed
African population had increased
sizeable portion
Natal than More
the
5
.
1870 some
was granted
area
that which
that stage
53 A
African squatters
total
Natal
from
The white population increased
the hands
in
whites were
By
.
250 000
than
After Natalia was
and Scottish settlers were brought
000 English
1820
in
1870
.52
in
18000
some
scheme similar
Cape
Eastern
167
(
50 to
–
of a
terms
harvest and eat what others have
the Transvaal and Orange Free State OFS
By
,
in
In
1849
African villages enabled
to
about 4000 Voortrekkers withdrew
in
British
Drakensberg
raiding African
‘
(“
(
Bundy 1988
planted
'
quoted
guidance
to
through God
Voortrekkers
barter
Military attacks
their subsistence
')
for
produce
either
or
Voortrekkers depended
the
's .
Natalia
on
.
in
'
'
‘
children supposedly captured during legitimate commando skirmishes with the Zulu and other African tribes During their four years
'
apprenticing
practised
THE SYSTEMIC
on
,
to
to
,
of of
and
(e
productivity
specially
in
.
Natal
-
proletarianisation
.
to
resistance
,
It
'.
of
was only
the Natal parliament that the
state
when finally
labouring for white employers For most
.
alternatives
government
the 19th century white commercial farmers complained
labour and
unjustified
'
shortage
‘
bitterly about the severe
the
of
the second half
to
responsible
commercial farmers gained control
limit African
interests
The commercial farmers were unsuccessful until 1893
granted
to
when Natal was
pay
rentier class and missions stations strongly
‘
.
this strategy
the
)
(
,
However the absentee farmers
farming
living
implement anti squatting and other
overcoming African
of
aimed
state
apparatus
or
measures
use
at the
to
attempted
this period white commercial
19th
white
after
African peasant farmers were able
taxes and rent without endangering their economic independence
Throughout
the
their modest
to
.
of
drawn plough
Africans
from
),
the
levels
-
of
introduction
ox
satisfactory
half
of
the second
surplus was extracted
large
by
Natal during
to
relatively
in
.
a
the power relations
standards and
to
obey
Africans became landowners
landowners and the colonial government But owing
of
to
required
were
Large
locations
.
's
,
but
the
African
of
A
Shepstone
land
large scale
allow
-
to
their economic
into successful peasant farmers
Given
,
mission
small number
.
developed
and
in
,
farming
also
on
.
were
religious prescriptions
began
all
of
,
to
crown land
unalienated
reduce
extract rent from
to
their farms and
on
')
‘
content
,
.
Kaffir farming
or
for maintaining
Africans
farmers were quite
The absentee
of
the in
.
a
of
).
6
–
:
exploiting different forms
peasants
opposed
economic
Natal between Africans who
Attractive farming opportunities were also available
century
to
of on
continued
154
these
lineage mode
on
(
open
become
.
for a
system
and Atmore 1980
With
degree
squatters
numbers
to
.
of
high
,
independence
options
the
the locations
mission stations
attained
struggle
a
Africans
by in
,
,
(
the number
squatting
Africans
Marks
second half
were prepared
land and farming and white commercial farmers who tried
of
to
access
and
their economic independence
maintain to
tried
see Slater
1840 until 1893
From
cash
white farms This was because there were
their typical Zulu in
independence through production
earn
pay
.
,
crown land
available
Africans
subsistence
,
farms
opportunities
on
sufficient alternative means
on
labour tenants
of
is
or
of
.
,
that only small numbers
labourers
absentee
Natal during
characteristics
the remarkable
19th century
wage
obliged
pay these expenses
to
necessary One
and other fees They therefore needed
excise duties
taxes
All Africans were
electoral rights
obtained
,
hut
racist policies . Although Africans could
blatantly
to
few
,
own land very
COLONIALISM
the
segregation and implemented
PERIOD OF BRITISH
competition
209
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND
they experienced
important way
:
mission stations
the
for .
to
on
on
,
of
,
crown land
possible
their own land
the
to
become peasant farmers either
white farms
farms
absentee
characterised
by
in
;
56
,
(
).
Natal
showed great progress
,
in
Marks
considerably
.
diversification
Peasant
sensitivity
and
to
,
intensified
see Slater
African
1986
improved
by
production
sell their produce
to
opportunities
al
in
;
Beinert
onwards
1860
et
from
,
on
from
commercial farmers
import indentured Indian
Mozambique
1870 until 1893 the African peasantry
From
to
the decision
Richardson
9
168
brought
also
–
:
and Atmore 1980
experienced
the sugar plantations
migrant labourers were
as
by
of
clearly illustrated
work
to
labourers
labour problem
in
most
is
in
The seriousness
Natal
the
.
ss
,
locations landlords
make
on
on
Africans
or
all
,
could
wage tenants
enough
and
result that large
it
of
Natal Africans
access land easily
half peas
the second
in
the proletarianisation
Cape
in
in an
Africans became wage labourers
numbers almost
differed
were parallel processes , with
of Africans
antisation
Natal
Cape and
century . In the Eastern
the 19th
In
1980
.
The Eastern
of
African peasants (see Slater , in Marks and Atmore
from
or
158 – 9)
APARTHEID
, ,
3
at
PART
.
it
market opportunities During this period white commercial farmers found compete
to
–
not impossible
if
difficult
-
increasingly
African
with
'
in
other forms
to
1910 Although the
the same extent
of
large numbers
of
land
became
them
in
access
of
.
to
,
in
.
to
.
,
colonial
the
period 1893
peasants
the
the Eastern
6
–
).
183
:
see
(
Bundy 1988
constitution
, of
Natal
's
benefit some
proletarianised during this period but not Cape
of ‘
the in
locations and the retention
of
of
the
order
the economic independence
to
in
to
. to
continued
there Under the new
these two developments
The absentee
the Witwatersrand
Natal gained decisive influence
African peasants was sharply attacked existence
responsible government
as
the
in
shift their investments
farmers
government Owing
granting
labour situation fundamentally
profitable opportunities
new
commercial
1886 and
to
landlords started exploit the
gold
1893 changed to
Natal
in
to
The discovery
of
.
agriculturists
to
as
so
them
bad treatment had travelling
travel
without
pass
.
wages
being arrested
to
.
low
a
and run the risk
confuse
to
complain about
not
1820 onwards
for
the nearest magistrate
Afrikaners
,
the Trekboere
or
Khoisan who wished
210
refer
of
2
can
settlers who arrived from
as
we
to
now
with the British
to
1
From
on
Endnotes
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH COLONIALISM Khoisan outside the borders could not enter the colony without running the risk of
'
‘
was issued
by
“
: of
a
:
of (or
3543 Newton
.
-
experienced
,
public
the
servant
the
not bring about the expected moral
'
of
intolerable intrusion
the master
1838 Afrikaners again
in
slavery was abolished
changed
'
of
1828 again
best part
the
of
of
Afrikaner patriarchs
did
an
as
the unfree labour
;
of
.
The rest
Elphick and Malherbe 1989 )
( :
very high percentage
into the private domain
state
Proclamation
.
,
1994
7
of
legal subservience
50
an
these measures
on
a
Worden and Crais
figure implies that
This ch see
a
in
the British
and when
settler
'(
as
their slave counterparts
and Atmore 1980
of
,
the 1810s Khoisan workers
ideological confusion among Afrikaners that lasted for
relationship
British state into their
patriarchal domain of
.
'
private
'
kind
32000 slaves
century When
19th
in
.
of
).
in
Marks
The intrusion caused
the 18th
in
as
as
were trapped
that
virtual
the Cape colony showed that almost 27000 Khoisan were
contract workers
force consisted
King
in
is
)
.
18
registered
the claim
firmly enchained
The 1820 census
Khoisan
of
There
of
century
-
).
when Proclamation
slavery
validity
plunder
,
procuring children
them
’
‘
',
who
by
of
'
–
1809 until 1828
for
might sell
legal system had become the victims serfdom many respects that was even worse than the inboekstelsel
farms were
5
bent
Malherbe 1991
most Khoisan
6
‘
from
apprenticeship
50
years from
deeds
16 on
quoted
fraud
prepare
persons
from
: 81 - 4 ).
1986
savage parents
:
as
',
well
'(
or
‘
a
the
In
almost
as
'
‘
for
depredation 4
to
children
paltry bribe
protect them
in
Bosjesnien
to
1917 Lord Charles Somerset saw
In
20
3
fit
being arrested as vagrants (Le Cordeur , in Cameron
When the abolition
and slavery
serfdom
among former serfs and slaves humanitarian idealism evaporated and was replaced drive new disciplinary measures directed the former serfs (
by
-
,
all
an
,
his
in
of
‘
to
'
,
). had been policy
see Keegan
to
a
of
new
1996
:
as
the Xhosa
part
former slaves and serfs
89
–
which
:
land from
547
(
,
1992
it
in
,
ie
–
It
. .
but
at
. .
6 6
.
6 5
.
Slavery
the Cape was
four year transitional period
-
in
,
December 1834
and
1833
1838
,
in
1807
but the abolition
only took
.
1808
concerned
with the materialistic and pragmatic
interests
of
was
only
-r
its
sections
slavery
government abolished the slave trade
the Cape
eaching implications for labour
a
to
1
on
to
abolish
far
.
1
December
discussed
in
-
be
in
will
abolished
until
in
in
The British
Fairbairn
be
10
South Africa
was allowed 11
Mostert
was abolished
volte face and
The British parliament decided supposed
12
Fairbairn
entrenched
)
-
9
The reasons for this dramatic patterns
effect
Philip
John
28
proletarianise coloured people 116
1829
only lasted until 1851 when
law
persuading the then acting governor
1828 on
pass Ordinance
,
.
serfdom
This settlement was established expelled
by
.
Khoisan
see
equal civil rights persons Their greatest accomplishment was the
give
and slaves
50
,
Richard Bourke
to
formal termination
Pringle
Thomas
(
Khoikhoi of
,
',
the
son
strong humanitarian case for
'
that would
ie
and unchallengeable law
cause
, in -
Commercial Advertiser put forward
liberals
. ).
for his humanitarian
and Andries Stockenström
colour
8
also section
ally
the utilitarian
6 5
82 ; the
editor
at
for
a
–
75
of
,
Fairbairn
strong
a
found
a
:
1996
Philip
in
to
Keegan
the economic results desired
attain
see
and slaves
to
7
by
,
reawakening
the
211
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
.
the Cape
His main
of the anti - slavery argument
defence
of labour and
allocation of both
a better
argued in favour of adequately
,
in
,
in 2
,
3 5
in
.
compensation
The main
-
an
,
'
'
in
in
in
of
South Africa
forms
new
and the
of -
by
of
,
them
labour
odysseys
as
).
–
trapped
90
,
86
:
slavery
the frontier wars between
the greatest human
slavery was
the British and the Xhosa
and endeavours
the
Mostert
history
'(
of
1996
but
would
the slaves themselves
the United States when
in
Noël Mostert describes
of '
,
.
Depelchin
abolitionist movement rather
the latter
the abolition
set slaves free
(
in
.
did
-
not
the case
The same happened
Consequently
servility and poverty two
.
'
an
'
1863
United States
product
one
In
,
slavery was abolished
compensated
abolished
xvii xviii
of
6
;
85 –
of
an
:
,
the
important
Cameron 1986
.
1840
wool ).
:
and
While
of
Cape
Eastern
wool
158
.
49
1996
50
Keegan
in
90
to in
4
–
the
By
annual average
(
at
9
farmers
000 kilograms
1860
about Ordinances
their
created the opportunity for mainly British 1996
104
6 .)
Keegan
(
-
cattle
which outnumbered the human
,
economic unit was bound
up
an
,
affected the tribal economy social customs and
the Nguni family
as
tap
of
one
–
least two
The security
1840
£984 000
unfree African labour
the possession to
,
at
by to
source
49
Afrikaner
,
system
Bundy
of
legal
the new
.
to
population
-
in
.
deprived mainly
subservient Khoisan labour Ordinance settlers
1855
something hypocritical
in
million kilograms In
,
,
£73 000 and
1822
in
and
1855
of
50
at
exports were valued
According
in
in
in
9000 kilograms
from
8
increased
million kilograms
Ordinance
into
).
wool
was also
the victims
and played
1825
Cordeur
had become the most important colonial export
There
brought him
the press
.
Le
see
governor
London
(
recall
in
5 5
, ,
1832
freedom
12
's
The export
ch
of :
1992
as
-
's
high handedness gathered
Somerset
in
role
Mostert
suppress
Thomas Pringle and John Fairbairn Several
sharp conflict with
governor
attempts
to
's
Lord Charles Somerset
of
).
-
:
1992
18
The mainly Afrikaner
.
to
-
. of
to
Depelchin
emancipationist
have been
19
This
London
dependent
them
and English speaking merchants
Afrikaans
were both
per on
-
the level
-
in 14
compensation
made
paid
Cape Town
According than
15
because
collect their money
slave owners were also not satisfied with
beneficiaries
collect their money
to
-
,
and slave owners had
The money was
.
.
000 slaves
merchants with British connections
16
British government had awarded to
38
the
£1 ,
the
that
great discontent among slave owners
caused
17
to
-
for
cent government stock
Meltzer
them
).
was announced
compensation
in
million
indebted
.
Cape Town
7
:
September 1835
it
In
13
-
and Crais 1994
Worden
the mercantile class
slave owners were heavily
the
to
and industriousness into slaves before abolition
slave owners was important ch
of for
because many
compensating
of
of
inculcate habits Compensation
diligence
and how
at the Cape . Consequently , he slave -owners , and the need to
abolish slavery without disrupting the labour situation strongly
labour and
of slave - owners ,
to
motivation
a better
capital . His main concerns were the property rights
it
through
economic growth
(
at
was purely economic . He believed that abolition would promote
be
entrepreneurial classes
in
3:
:
PART
212
an
of
around the cattle kraal Cattle intricately
.
semi circle -
a
in
family were grouped
,
17 ).
:
(
-
with milk based products which were more easily stored than agricultural products 1988 Life literally revolved around their cattle since the huts extended and
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH indissolubly bound the material
egalitarian
as
,
. At
of ,
at
).
of
century
the 18th
.
to
in
.
of
as
white and
between
them
the Boers and the
(
to
so
).
390
:
(
1992
introduction
;
:
1994
detailed exposition
of
a
.
would have come
’
of
;
for
racial divide and Crais
9
ch
section
See also
it
..
].
life that integration into
6 6
:
7
;
ch
21 .
:
ch
:
1992
Trekboere
[
‘
:
their own way
their posterity would have been unaware Keegan 1996 See Crais 1992 Worden
,
22
upon
intrusion
naturally
Mostert
the end
,
close
of
(
so
),
the Boers
Without overseas of
)
were discernible
the Eastern Cape
the
would have resolved their own contest along lines that already the end the 18th century Xhosa society was familiar
at
probably
Xhosas
its
As Noël Mostert
puts
the end
clashes with other tribes
whites and Xhosas
between
way
in
well under
was
this day
the Xhosa tribes
at
racial integration
to
of
Khoikhoi
–
A
process
some
the Cape the
among small groups
had developed
-
close
of
operation
co
century
18th
-
– 23
Xhosa would probably have remained unconquered
who had allied themselves with
well
but practised
not arrived
had
--
the zenith
15
:
their military power
of
-
British
at
the
If
21
(
.
,
balanced diets African societies were not entirely redistributive economy see Thompson 1990
,
.
healthy and lived
generally
-
They were
tools
and cattle
farmers cultivated
, ,
,
and made iron
sheep
a
.
Besides owning
were
units
on
mixed farming
They practised
tribes
thousand people
hunting the abundant game and gathering indigenous plants sorghum
the lobola
to
a
,
40
000
and other African few
the Xhosa
–
,
Khoikhoi
into centralised chieftains ranging from
as
large
they sealed marriage bonds through
).
1992
contrast with the San and
organised
the
6
Mostert
.
In
, because
the future
:
(
system 20
see
represented
also
of their lives . Cattle were
parts
and sacred
ancestral spirits , linking the living with the dead . Cattle
to the
ch
of sacrifice
medium
COLONIALISM
this new by law
all
,
-
race free
).
38
:
in
' . '
in
a
. -
an
, ‘
'(
from
as
The main
.
the
1930s
)
from
that created the legal shield
(
the second and third phases
the fourth phase
.
description
for
Trapido 1971
of
and exploitation
of :
third
labour repression
(
the
of
intensifying the repression
of
a
beneficiaries
The Glen Grey Act
of of
of
in
.
.
description for
a
.
)
of
for
and section
9 5
.
and
labour repression
as
by
to
of
-
74
sections
black labour repression
8 6
See
persist with labour repression
phases
, 8.5
).
industry
1970s made possible
the mid
labour repression was
This second phase
–
the mining
with this phase
to
until 1948
(
and the fourth
1913 played important roles
,
Act
and exploitation associated
was perpetuated
diamonds and gold
English magnates and stockholders
of
1894 and the Land
The second phase
/
this phase were British
it .
implement
to
)
power
in
olitical
implemented after the discovery
by
the
a
in
.
of
in
unfree labour South Africa four successive and overlapping labour repression Each phase was implemented another modernising community the white with vested interest labour repression well
group (p
apparently
that
masters
and severe poverty that have
-
resulted
19
1838
But since
Bundy 1975
race domination
of
of
'
brown
ascribes the large scale social dislocation
–
25
black
Trapido
310
over the abolition
peak
both masters and servants
servants
consolidated rather than weakened
phases
bitterness
freed slaves reached
or
,
all
and almost
feelings
1841 and 1856 were colour blind and fair
of
spelled out the obligations
were white
for
paid
Voortrekkers was murdered
of
Natal Afrikaners
and the compensation
The masters and servants laws they
large group
a
1838
of
's
slavery
Zulu impis
.
the first half
Dingaan 24
of
During
in
23
.
hegemonic order
213
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
Harry Smith was
was closely involved
Despite his dramatic threats and
use
21) .
).
of
where
disloyal during the
. . In
.
)
of
50
of
to
in
of
10
;
ch
of
.
of
.
by
,
).
of
,
the uncompetitive terms upon which
advanced society
enyon
the
,
technological
'
a
an
policy towards the Xhosa has drawn of
”
see
point
in
3
–
Benyon makes the interesting
in
Afrikaans
-
Xhosa
philosophical
(
's
In
.
settlers
Grey
his
).
'
the in
colonisation
for the detribalised
(B
163 and
be
)
:
at
the long run
'
a
:
of
operated
labour pattern
is
effect the new
elite
-
white
co
-
speaking
It
to
-
162
– 4
:
1986
1986
historians who stress the more negative aspects
the Xhosa through
).
”
them
representative parliament 14
:
(
,
23 ;
by '
,
:
,
in
identity
the European
"
-
,
are now
to
-
so
's
past there
English
he
On
.
,
,
:
in
'
,
35
The
Cameron
and
employing
had completely replaced evangelical humanitarianism
governor admitted
Cameron
the establishment among them
deliberate attempt
new
'
a
of
by
be
utilised
utilitarianism
the
by
', , ,
' by
and the creation
underdevelopment
“
the
:
in
,
88 ;
–
-
to
his
,
of
by
(
mind
Grey urged that the Xhosa should
was quite benevolent and significant
Legassick 1993 329 Crais 1992 200 that while Grey called assimilationist
the
of
,
,
of
:
(
.
as
'(
on
Benyon
the 19th
the Xhosa
missions connected with industrial schools
quoted
68 ;
34
1994
assimilation
philanthropical works were
identity that could
praise
Ross
built schools and hospitals Legassick 1993
the other
and civilisation
'
'
to
Christianity
Although his governorship the Xhosa
racial
Sir George Grey On the
of
In
33
‘
and Crais
policy
public works
seemingly
Worden and Crais 1994
and personified
useful labour
see Warden
beyond our boundary
orientation
Crais
break down the tribal customs and structure
into
accordance with
them
175
Janus faced
'
wanted
for the Xhosa
raised
Ordinance
the colonial state
Warden and Crais who describe the middle decades
force them
to
down
1992
enormously
he
A
one hand
the preparedness
also
)
-
coined
term
century
but
not
Cape
10
102
:
1993
see Crais
slavery
the
239
the Eastern
reinforce and extend the newly designed methods
to
implement measures oppression
determination
'
the farmers
and the abolition
1828
Plots
became
inhabitants
1996
nullify the effect
to
only demonstrated
32
see Keegan
The long struggle between white employers and coloureds
.
31
proletarianised and dispersed through the colony
2
of
the Kat River Settlementwas decimated and many
its
£1
-
to
settlement was opened
to
those considered
be
all
of
the
.
a
the
land
war was confiscated and white land grabbing fetching less than £20 before 1851 were changing hands for 000 and more process
in
in
,
in
.
;
to
the urban centres
free and skilled labour force
the Kat River Settlement
In
due course
several
important bifurcation occurred
labour force increasing numbers moved
they became
coloureds remained
accordance with the prescriptions
,
:
masters and servants laws But
the majority
century
the 19th
proletarianised and unfree labour coloured
Kirk
see
9
and Atmore 1980
Squatter Ordinance
,
to withdraw
in
convinced
During the second half
30
and fear throughout the colony , and (
revolt of 1851 led the legislative council
hysteria
to
the
Smith failed dismally to impose
of
1992 : ch
The Khoisan
Marks
.
Queen Adelaide
the Xhosa . His actions were the direct cause of the Eighth Frontier War ( see
on
Mostert 28
of
of force , Harry
up
order
29
proclaiming the Province
in
ch
27
commander during the Sixth Frontier War , and
's military
’Urban
D
of
26
its
3:
an
PART
ironic
new
that the
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH COLONIALISM
to
see Crais 1992
204
his
accomplish
Mostert
1992
:
traditional Xhosa society
break
the opportunity
to
of 1857 gave
(
to
:
purpose
tragedy
;
-killing
If
1828 , and perhaps even more so .
– 6
in
labour that was as bonded as before The cattle
and slavery.
abolition of serfdom
the Cape for 20 years , they would have had access him
those who left had remained
36
of the
1836 because
:
Voortrekkers left the Cape in
that
'
show
this
a
of
).
5
–
of
of 75
in in
.
-
era
.. . of
historical and Crais
of a
.. .
Capitalism
in
state
labour
“
]
]
colonial black
[
.. .
the
.. .
in
the making
Africa But the
capitalist
hand with
of
the 20th
backward
,
on
of the
for in
of
the hierarchies
race rather
white colonists rather than weaken
he
).
; 3
–
292
the to
,
,
undermining African customs started land After the Eighth Frontier War Grey proclamation return for annual payment
.
an
of
in
Mfengu
1996
my emphasis
.
policy
than
on
harden
of
to
'
's
isolated
African societies was usually dependent
their communal ownership to
spawned
attitudes
the hegemony
imperial power
the
the white supremacist state
survival against harsh conditions and hostile
of (
)
went hand
coercion
:
strengthen
of
to
,
(
-
,
a
of
road
.
a
peasant
black
state
.
up
(
25
a
the
Worden
)’ (
a
crucial role settler
The origins
particularly
Sir George Grey
gave individual plots
a
,
in
of
.. .
it
as
,
lie
:
follows
British
:
(
. .
6 7
of
',
it
it
,
,
in
the
of
with
gold
that
connective
173
The permanent conquest of of
.
it
and
them
The
kind
played
‘
:
not
non racial
).
in
which massive
frontiers where Boers struggled indigenes British influence tended
break
of
of
in
of
'
:
)
, .. .
century
as
did it
puts
exercise As part
South Africa
much
in
's
as
could have taken
1992
'(
42
after the discovery
The colonial state
the Eastern Cape
in
road
development
dissolve
established
white farmers and economic development followed
repressive
Keegan
emphasis
follows
Africa
South
supported
”
in
colonial order [
of
author
1853
unfree labour and perhaps more
Cape constitutes beginnings colonialism
the
the industrial
was also about power and
but
modern racist ideologies
slavery
uniting
;
Crais puts
ending
it
,
6
:
1994
23
developments
of
emergence
forms
new
the British
was enormously Janus faced
[
tissue
bonded labour and
ended
the emergence
era
the the
historical
that
freedom
1834
).
witnessed
tragically
was about human
system
similar role
Worden and Crais
did
era
of
also
, ,
franchise
saw
.
control
41
slavery
The very
(
.
to
in
in
).
colonial state and the liberal ideology that informed The ending
to
of
to
of
).
in
(
.
of
Laws
Britain
the per
about
racial capitalism
and the system
According
1996
per cent
parallel between the
remarkable
played
the Poor
Keegan
the working class
The Land Act 1913
1993 330
:
,
Legassick
(
by as
Africa
about
)
1840 until 1990
the repeal
Britain
the 19th century
in
in
Britain
from
See also section
the cost
a
One can draw
:
in
themselves
at
:
classes
).
Africa
Crais quoted
40
162
– 6
'(
,
the population
1986
upper
the
empower
to
)
of
South
Cameron
enabled
class capitalism South
in
;
90
system
–
38 39
Benyon
This cent
,
Benyon under severe pressure Cameron 1986 164 Mfengu quickly peasant developed The into successful farmers
population
43
phenomenon
supernatural route total belief the attainment better usually associated with the rapid disintegration traditional
society
288
studies among
of
.
a
the
Pacific
western
claims that recent
Benyon
A
,
whites
in a
in
the future
in
the a
”
“
,
millenarianism
mystery why the Xhosa killed their sacred cattle
against
their wrath
anthropologists
world
remained
is
demonstrate
it
For western people
or
37
).
1178
215
PART
3
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
1858 permitted
of
( Keegan
Africans (mainly Mfengu ) : 1454 - 7; Bundy 1988 : 44 - 60 ) .
1996
The three different kinds
44
of peasants
buy crown land at £l
to
acre
an
, but
not only an economic division
constituted
also a social and cultural one . The
).
co
the mercantile
-
: ' It
follows
difficult
(
the
at
and
separate the
,
of
of
of
).
of to
.
30 to
.
of
).
–
Britain
1892 was led
until
ordinance
to
as law
:
a
110
affected
the
,
of
their
and ploughs more 101
).
–
95
:
different
their crops emerged
oxen
of
to
see Bundy 1988
the ideological conviction
,
section
could
buy more
way
a
such in
in
members
selling part
of
almost
all
were organised
their strict control over the living standards
8 .4
in
of
-k
to
,
involvement
of )
possibilities
could accumulate capital
the New
Imperialism
;
-
:
of
,
(
of
for
290
for
important reason
).
— 3
1996
:
Keegan
An
segregation
,
of
retribalisation and increased proletarianisation Africans became the basis the social and economic policies racial capitalism South Africa during the first half the 20th century see Bundy 1988 134 140
of
about the justification
1873
26
a
(
the
easily than their white counterparts indicate
squatter
ones
for
command
As soon
.
-
families
As we will
Bundy 1988 general squatting see
of
,
– 1
partially detribalised
given
–
African peasants
and from
that adversely
recession
(
of
that their heads could
extended
the 1860s
The period
the previous
1851
even
cultivation
the tabling
when
as
families
(
Khoisan Rebellion
aspects
the 1880s
the
.
of
1850
a
elite opposing
reason for themercantile
Extended
'-
'
its
Britain severely affected the Cape
the experience
Xhosa
capitalist countries but especially that
the advanced
of
One
in
The decline
up
to
in
.
Britain
of
1896
the economies
great depression
the Ciskeian
white farmers
Serious droughts were experienced
experienced
was limited
,
to
Xhosa
for
prosperous
the
opportunities for the
white and missionary farms and expanded
the Transkeian
as
,
1860 until the 1890s was not
from
years had been
the detribalisation
create
peasantisation
, it
of
.
to
during the 1860s and 1870s and
illing
the chiefs and
of
a
on
squat
of
to
–
for
-
the Xhosa
most
in
Robben Island
The general policy
also the rationale behind the drive later also
point after the cattle
high
George Grey rounded
.
them
Sir
:
on
,
when
become landowners While the process Mfengu east the Great Fish River until 1860
48
elite
with earlier settler conquests and economic
in
incarcerated
49
see
the
as
in
of
1857
Africans was Mfengu and
50
.
its
operation between
'( of
episode
in
the time
their white counterparts
than
. ). close
the
promoting peasantisation
Marks and Atmore 1980 249 The onslaught against Xhosa tribalism reached
expansion
47
in
in
to
's
,
producing maize
peasants which had begun
orientated
51
the saddest
missionary frontier from that European merchants and trader Christianity creating the market process the free trade hastened the
and
216
one
history because African peasants were
the
46
missionaries
and Natal
the Transorangia
was undoubtedly
Act
8 6
.
and
Trapido describes expansion
Africa
more successful
8 5
sections
destroy the peasantry
at
considerably
South
in
developments
order
the African peasantry
of
of
1913 was passed
The destruction
high point when the Land
of
7 – 13
The offensive against the African peasantry reached
45
to
Bundy 1988 :
first of the three categories was culturally ‘more traditional and more receptive to western culture ( see
' less
and the third
is
traditional ' ,
this withdrawal was that the Voortrekkers were experiencing
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH COLONIALISM as had
to them
the Eastern
in
case in
(
in
thousands
his
the
faction wars between
,
Cethwayo
supporters
and
Mbuyazi
.
of
),
a
1856
in
When Mbuyazi was defeated
of
the sons
's
in
African population was result Mpande ingane successor (D
of
increase
of the
:
The
52
sharp
supporters
been
).
–
experienced London Davenport 1991 100
farms allocated
the
mainly mercantile and financial groups Cape Town and problems obtaining titles for several farms see no
–
,
Cape land speculators
of titles of
Cape. And , as had also
in the Eastern
,
been the case
the registration
the
same delays over
the
fled across the
a
.
)
In
In
.
in
.
:
, ).
share cropping
State
,
(
.
, 25
for
,
of
,
it
workers
for
and resulted
in
to
about 100 000 the
outnumber the
2
).
– 6
:
(
in
at
the
.
1875
continued until 1911 –
a
least
Indian immigration
sizeable Indian population one that would eventually white population Natal Davenport 1991 105
of
that
was also made
,
.
10000
in
,
of
The
Provision
their contracts
after 1872 and the population rose from
end
another five years
provided
including the flogging
.
, .
to
absenteeism
system
At the
Natal was inevitable that The Natal legislature took special
put right certain alleged abuses
the century
law
at
.
to
India Since men transported
Indians who had completed
serving
to
100
or
,
returning
wages
agreed minimum
of
-
on
in
they were given the option
for
to
in
1872
accelerated the
Free
). freedom
allocating land
by
He
locations per cent 1882 almost
the Eastern Cape the introduction food production see Bundy
sharp increase
five year contracts
excessive pay deductions
creation
among
prevailed
among whites
the designated
(
in
.
the case
permanent Indian population would emerge
and
of
-
of
).
:
of
As was
women should accompany every
steps
law
in
in
in
:
of
their contracts
obtaining their
a
from
African the Cape
the Transvaal and Orange
the late 1860s led
Indians were brought end
customary
outside the locations see Bundy 1988 170
lived
controlling
168
move and live
mission stations
Natal
in
to
prevalent
the plough 170
the situation
claim
_ 4
of
as
In
55
was not
56
Africans
the locations and
contrast
1988
Africans
on
of
1851 two thirds lived
absentee landlords
whites who laid
over
taken
(
Dutch
persuaded large numbers
system
to
and Roman
Bundy 1988
dual legal
in
,
Africans
several groups
:
(
in
Natal
Shepstone also imposed
a
54
land and politics
1893 the small and well organised
of
were the most influential
small
-
Until
relatively
Company owned
to
.
acres
to a
million
.
a
nearly
the hands
The Natal Land and Colonisation
60
landlords
in
Natal property was concentrated
absentee
law
group
see
of
large portion
of
A
53
.
Tugela into Natal
17
Chapter
7
the
by
arrival
to
it
in
-
into
of
of of
.
Union
of
-
the
a
to
gold
wage earning
of
30
of
with white farmers
considerable
legal
and
in
–
South Africa
especially
the
labour history
.
important element
of
-
in
.
its
in
,
used
struggle between Afrikaners and Africans
northern provinces
in
, of
sector
the Boer
producing
break African resistance
an
The protracted
corporate
collaboration
's
administrative power
Africans
subjugate
.
emerging
useful
of
difficult
especially after the discovery
state
during a
to
so
it
mould Africans
years after the establishment
when the new
the
extending
the Transorangia
African tenant farmers
,
,
1910
to
the
period
is
and
in
South Africa
a
in
over
not
turn Africans
struggle
provinces were only reduced
the northern
the
resisted these attempts
.
for the emerging markets
,
foodstuffs
success
and
of
the
,
relations
difficult
to
A
.
labour force Africans vehemently
and the relative
proletariat
of
.
,
.
Voortrekkers
the Transorangia were the political and economic weakness
Africans
the
the
of
'
, -
to
an
It
a
a
to in
by
various means
republics
way
The Voortrekkers did
protracted
took place
The main reasons why Afrikaners found in
property
the Cape before
their land but found
20th century
well into the
manageable
resistance against
,
to
large parts
which Afrikaner farmers tried and
deliberate attempt
docile and subservient labour force
1850
act
depriving the different African tribes
of
of
.
a
into from
Afrikaner population
and used
remarkable degree
serious problems
Transorangia
owned
prevailed
that
They succeeded
experience
was
states the labour patterns
new
patriarchal feudal order British
regarded
a
in
their
be
can
in
to
recreate
Trek
their own states north
particular against new British definitions
which land and labour were The Great Trek
Great
‘
,
and
in
British colonialism
the
large part
.
the Cape became known
be
.
emigration
at
River This
trek parties and established
of
of
series
as
the Orange
in
Eastern Cape
Afrikaner frontier farmers left the
and 1840 about 15000
1834
as
Between
causes
of
The Great Trek and
7 1
a
.
its
The systemic period of the two Boer republics ( 1850 – 1900 )
219
PART
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3:
During the process ofmodernisation initiated by the mineral revolution and the commercialisation of agriculture , many Africans as well as Afrikaners
the
in
Boer republics became proletarianised . While the struggle between Afrikaners
,
.
by
of
of
the
in
.
. to
,
.
the
-
in in
existence
more
escaping the British sphere by
‘
in
an
desperate
of
Trek
a
Great
as
the
of
regard
of
-
-
,
can
were deprived
Afrikaners
Cape
,
British
.?
Cape Town gave preference
requests
by
.
abolition
title deeds
title deeds
the
.
labour and land
loan
and
the
new
liberal
, of
's
apply
to
,
easy access
was Cradock
Trek
had
now
their
The liberal
economic
influenced
for for
Farmers
Great
of
Afrikaners
colonialism
to
by
British
to
1813
.
in
We
the
deprived
British
from
English
more land than they could
.
for
make way
use
owned
to
for
,
whom
years were forced
far
of
,
speaking claimants some
it
,
,
land surveyed and had worked
220
the British
Often Afrikaner farmers who had submitted land claims had had the
.
settlers
in
officials
indigenous
when
When the mercantile class
Great Trek were undoubtedly
for
about
Another important reason farm
particularly
After the arrival
many ways
.
to
of
,
,
reforms brought
life
and land speculators
The main causes
system
way
considerable period they were closely followed
traders
humanitarianism
British settlers
perpetuate their traditional mode
the
.
,
financiers
a
influence for
1830s
rebellion not only against
of
,
to
operate
Although they succeeded
of
by
distant venues
the
maintain their hunter trader raider pastoralist
income
Afrikaners
especially
a
kind
Town started establishing trading centres attempt
-
,
in
to
life was endangered
important source
process
.
for
Afrikaners
in
of
opportunities
larger
frontier districts
raiding
-
.
people were not prepared way
the
the
trading they turned
From
and the courts
Trekboere became accustomed
co
people
latter did
wealth through barter and trade with indigenous
they accumulated
to
which
18th century
than
'
the
Great Trek represented
British colonial authority but also against During
Economic
broke down during
this alliance
thus
remarkable alliance developed
of
of
Consequently
elite groups
and British
the Xhosa
1820s
the
in
respect
of
it
,
Afrikaner
the
?
,
While
.
between
in
all .
at
authority
and
that
claim
administration
the 1820s was symbolic
-
colonial
the
disempowerment
would
is often
It
important role
more
wrong
The anglicisation
in
not
played
of be
ideological and political ones but play any role
Afrikaner nationalism
the rise
probably
labour considerations
and
British domination
from
a
freedom
important event
an
as
projected
quest
a
19th
contest
a
.'
Afrikaner historiography .
in
a
as
major theme in
interpreted
a
of
form
African proletariat
an
a
The Great Trek is
the
of
the labour arena between an Afrikaner and
it took
is
the 20th century
to
of
the first 40 years
for
in
, during
a
century
largely indecisive during the second half of the
remained
the
and Africans
,
:
1986
the
,
to
for
Cameron
in
(
,
,
,
to
.?
1830s
particular racial an
The fact that they trekked into
the Great Trek
.
out
on
set
often asked whether the Voortrekkers subscribed
ideology when they
the
of
during a
a
.•
to
many Afrikaner
The economic position
trek
districts deteriorated dramatically
the Eastern
in
rather dubious perhaps even treacherous role
,
To
).
Du Bruyn
losses during
aggravate matters after the war the British settlers and especially
encouraging Afrikaners
It is
compensate them
none was forthcoming
but
Grahams Town Journal played in
Farmers were
.
to
expeditions
farmers
frontier farmers
use their own horses and equipment during punitive expeditions
They expected the colonial government
129
Sixth Frontier
.
on
inflicted heavy losses
5
(
–
1834
required
these
and particularly
frontier conflicts with the Xhosa
),
War
the
The
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF THE TWO BOER REPUBLICS
argue that they were not necessarily
ideology
the great animosity
and
their predicament
The
doubt that
high point among British settlers
War were also prevalent
Afrikaner
in
after the Sixth Frontier
There can therefore
no
.
the bitterness and racial hatred that reached
affected
those who had experienced
be
well
as
,
as
serfdom
great losses during the Sixth Frontier War
by
in
sensitivity
a
of
the
abolition
.
;
.
that had developed
Afrikaners who trekked were those who had been most negatively and slavery
An
Frontier War
.
and lacking
develop among
their ingrained racial assumptions to
unjustified
challenged
,
practices
as
in
which the evangelists
the 18th century
The former regarded the
.
between Afrikaners and the humanitarian evangelists way
of
the end
did
by of
the Trekboere had probably
three decades after the Sixth
Great Trek was
racist
circles
the
in
the
settlers during the two
important reason for
an
argue that such or
.6
section
conscious racial ideology we
a
into
6
in
,
British
used
we argue that the racial attitudes
not crystallised however
sometimes
to
is
.
section
5 6
In
make treaties
to
unknown interior populated with Africans with whom they were prepared
‘
. the
of
the
of
the
west
the a
unleashing
of
Sothos
,
involved
This
)
(
South
half
exactly the same by
.
Eastern Cape
mainly
power struggle
the second at
in
for
the east coast
other group conflicts
of
on
the case
tribes
people
the
these wars were also
economic considerations
.10
by
triggered
in
As
.
Drakensberg
African
')
or
',
-
scene
Zulus under Dingiswayo and Shaka consolidating their empire genocidal attack
of
,
British settlers arrived
in
the
time when
and indirectly
both directly
Transorangia up
century The mfecane erupted high
.
19th
in
between Afrikaners and Africans
hammering
eastern and northern parts the
These transformations the
.
Africa
total war
caused large scale movements set
Trek
the on
Great
a
‘
the Great Trek
the 1820s and 1830s that transformed
later South
in
smash
the
Both the mfecane and in
meaning
important role the
an
also played
difagane
in
The mfecane
(
or
.
Eastern Cape
221
claim
that
seriously
the disrupted
the
for
it
.
tribes
by
some
This made
as
in
the Transorangia
of
pt
-o
to
Voortrekkers
arrived
-
,
Voortrekkers co
the
when
disrupted
establishing themselves
re
many African tribes and that many were still busy
occupy
to
Voortrekkers
easy
labour tenants
."
.
the
perhaps more accurate
is
It
those areas
that made itmuch easier
Natal
and in southern
of the Drakensberg
west
a vacuum
it
is often said that the mfecane created
for
of
,
On
.
,
in
,
the
of
a
central
remained
–
)
ZAR
state
in
,
the Vaal River but the
(
in
resistance
Britain recognised
of
by
,
and
establishing
lack
a
as
as
-
well
the
Republiek
the Zuid Afrikaansche
internal strife
to
vulnerable due
-
.
This state
of
north
different Voortrekker factions only succeeded 1860
conflicts between
1852
of
a
of
Voortrekker
republic
but
the British
the Sand River Convention
Most
the north
the
a
,
At
.
2
African tribes
of .
-
,
in
state formation were disrupted
contrary
objectives
great variety
establishing Boer republics
accumulating elite groups the intervention independence
group
integrated
of
their attempts
well
several factions with
were interested
at
Voortrekkers
of
they consisted
single
a
The Voortrekkers were not
the
in
.
7 2
The establishment Afrikaners semi independent power and vulnerable constellations the Transorangia
-
It
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3
to
PART
economic and public
.
financial viability
of
frontier districts
the Cape
serious conflict among Voortrekkers
,
conduct military campaigns against Africans
),
landowners
stable
political
,
tribes could
7
Voortrekkers
enabled the
reassert themselves
The Voortrekkers
the tribes and offered
.
against the stronger African kingdoms
earlier the
,
noted
to
this
.
these
treaties with some
of
negotiate
and
land
to
,
Africans
weakened the
the Voortrekkers was the
As
which they deprived
. of of 4). 14 .
ease with
occupy land before to
(l
'
the more remarkable accomplishments
,
of
see section
mfecane had disrupted many tribes
222
resisted the
arger and more prosperous
Their recalcitrant attitude (
'.
“
the
notables
Voortrekker republics considerably
tried
and continuously
The radical group also supplied African tribes with guns much
the dismay
relative
they
not prepared
They were
who needed the protection and patronage
of
to
.
institutions
Afrikaner notables
‘
drive
of
accumulative
One
of
acquiring forced African labour
,
nor
this tradition
group were neither
this
of
in
state formation
.
caused
a
interested
Because members in
some Afrikaner circles
.
in
between Boer and Brit over labour and land issues strengthened
The conflict
to
century
at
-
18th
.
the
of
the end
Voortrekkers moved northwards with
perpetuating the anti statist tradition that had developed in
of
the intention
group
,
of
A
,
smaller more radical
protect
them
The Voortrekkers encountered two
THE SYSTEMIC
PERIOD OF THE TWO BOER REPUBLICS
powerful African kingdoms: the Ndebele kingdom Natal . Well - organised
by
the
.
by
to
in
-
.'
to
.
,
.
the a
in
of
, to the
,
in
the
way and received
.
Moshweshe After several wars
Britain resumed responsibility
present
(
,
70
,
,
of
poor that
). by of
9
–
,
,
landdrosten the
were reinstated
the ZAR was
the financial
heemraden
in
system
of
.
The hierarchy
commando
million
-
198
:
1988
the 19th century the existence
,
the
, of
and
state
so
,
Bundy
(
of
of
was
conflicts between accumulating elite groups and the new
whites
claimed
however
despite
and graze white owned land until the
the 20th century
the second half
and
,
,
to
coercive capacity
occupy
?
African population
till ,
's
.
The ZAR
But
set
in
.'
to
the ZAR after the flight
increase rapidly
its
-à -
vis
vis
its
African population
its
of
of
by
enhancing
its
In
in a
of
be the
friendly
were
After independence
of
1
the
end
veldcornetten
back
given
and that the new
state
area
million morgen for African occupation
the first decade
weaknesses
Barolong tribe
Basothos
many Africans continued
threatened
the British
white population
for themselves
For most
was
that stage the British
satellite
peaceful conditions prevailing
the Ndebele allowed
morgen
trustworthy
and
this territory
.
)
in
1868
The relatively
small size
At
Griqua
16
OFS and
day Lesotho
1854
the area had been secured
wars with the Basothos the
the
in
its
OFS government treated
aside only
a
of ; in
.
in
that their interests
emerging capitalist interests
between
but
the Bloemfontein Convention
Boer government would
assistance
1848
not attempt control Harry Sir Smith annexed
British Orange River Sovereignty
the Voortrekkers convinced
the OFS did
the area
at
it
the
African tribes calling
),
‘
.
to
,
,
The Voortrekkers
The
challenge
the strongest
powerful and well armed kingdom
Transvaal
eastern
the
the
British traders and missionaries
provided
Voortrekker land claims they established north
the
temporarily
ruled only
'
to
them
Pedi under their king Shoshangane that ruled over much
effectively ruled
Voortrekkers demands was strengthened
given
arms and ammunition
their vassals
Transvaal acknowledged
the
that they had been
Pedi claimed
resist
tribes
had never been
Venda
the
to
Their capacity
liberated
Ndebele
from
s
.
,
Ndebele while
living
tribes
claims The the
'
Voortrekkers
tribes
them
by
to
pay tribute
the African
African
,
,
ie
(
,
. all
who were now obliged
Not
have liberated
Consequently they regarded those
oppression
and the Drakensberg
Kalahari desert
for
claimed
to
Voortrekkers
and
.
Limpopo rivers and between
the Vaal
the area between
as
the
their Transvaal empire
the
from
in
Ndebele had been
,
expelled
. After
both cases before 1840
in
the
the Zulus –
driving the Ndebele into today ' s Zimbabwe , and
in
'
defeating
Voortrekker
armed
it
commandos succeeded
and heavily
in
in
all
kingdom
Zulu
Transvaal , and the
in the
Afrikaner
223
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
the
the apportionment
and were therefore
,
labour were concerned
of
burgher
land and
strategic positions
to
powerful positions
far
were
– the
an
Afrikaner
the new
in
pivotal officials
of
It was mainly the veldcornetten
who
African
and social stratification
in accumulation
as
-
state
.
century , these institutions played
the 18th
in
in
important role societies
the Cape
in
as
. As
republics
in
3:
PART
a
,
of
'
of
of
its
.
20
.
.'
state
of of
the relationship
private matter centred
not
between
in
the Cape
in
the case
the 18th
the patriarchal
on
a
As was
did
state
in
to
and black tenants
both republics
in
–
the
the burghers
.
of
,
the salaries
acquiring
patronage
and
intervene effectively
labour relations became
household
OFS
.
white landowners century
extent
power
coercive
outside the ZAR
for corruption the
–
the
have
lesser
funds
among the the poor administrative and financial position
to
and
a
the ZAR
21
elite
.
Afrikaner
Owing
lack
Another method
based
civil
poorly developed financial
improved dramatically after the discovery
opportunities
it
and with
Because
land
companies
financial position
to
,
gold
to
to
's
The ZAR
sell land
paid
in
administrators were often
revenue was
and
,
worsened matters considerably
system
its
collecting the revenue needed
military expeditions
administration and
of
raiding and the indenturing Africans the Transorangia until the end century the 19th of
7
.3
Slave
in
of
of
The ZAR was incapable
for
.18
enrich themselves and their close friends
see
by
-
of (
of
San
Batswana
,
,
Khoikhoi
population
,
an
')
racial mix took
intimate
group emerged
The Griqua groups were familiar
forcibly
numbers
of
;
large
they
dominated
African
their
children and
perpetuate the labour
loyal black
former serfs and slaves
23
The Great Trek involved about
As
soon
equal as
take large numbers
).
, .
ie
whites and blacks
to
of
the Trek (
of
on
them
.
servants with
doing this was
18th and early
an
was
of
Trek
to
of
the Great
which Afrikaners had become accustomed during the One way
224
Khoisan and
.
the main purposes
19th centuries
number
enslaved
them
22
,
as
inboekelinge
of
One patterns
to
women
and
Bastaard
European
,
a
new
Griqua
with Dutch culture and economic activity
African neighbours
,
on
'
or
tame
section
.
missionaries
the
of
the
(
,
this miscegenation the
christened
Khoikhoi Oorlams
some
land occupied
the Orange River
as
the
Out
by
.
Boers
the
of
the area north
place between and
criminals
Orange River and settled
of
In
.
Batswana
the
,
Hottentots
labour were common 18th century
century groups
the 18th
escaped slaves and convicted
migrated across
indentured
end
–
During the last two decades
into
of at
on
Trekboer frontier
,
.4 ).
5
practices
and turning Khoisan the
Slave raiding
the
, they
had moved beyond British authority
Voortrekkers
started slave raiding
.
24
African children
for
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF THE TWO BOER REPUBLICS
the
by
of
in
,
’
or
‘
)
(
in
or
of
,
see
(
in
in
in
recreating the feudal and
the
the Cape
speaking
-
in
bourgeois democracy and
a
kind
,
a
that
from
British colonial authorities closely with both English and Afrikaans
18th
,
establishing
century
the two Boer
radically
differed in
,
the 19th century
of
the
elites
by
of
.
–
working
in
succeeded
-
Transvaal and none
and legal framework
the Voortrekkers succeeded
patriarchal order
capitalist
system
on
them
to
The to
.
.
to
Although
their land and forced
was still possible for Africans
,
part
too undeveloped
to
in
of
the Transorangia
labourers
contract
to
them
it
,
to
Voortrekkers deprived Africans
of
pay wages
of
burghers
Africans
progressive enough
the two Boer republics were also to
the
enable
of
similar proletarianisation
financial systems
tribute
contractual wage labour under masters and
,
bring about
the proletarianisation
or
and
the two Boer republics were not strong
laws
a
servants
Africans
on
and
the Cape was based
in
coloureds
labour system
,
While
of
.
the agricultural sector the
in
after the
the area under Afrikaner control
of
the second half
While
the Cape
to
olitical economic
,
-p
in
republics
Shortly
and
9
:
socio
slavery
).
437
settle
that
–
its
Thompson 1978b The
of
in
or
The society was promptly expelled from
members was allowed
were orphans
Society alleged that the Voortrekkers were
.
doing both
Africans the
the London Missionary
convention
sold
.
ammunition should not
and
justify
1852 stipulated
slave raiding to
firearms
be
in
the Transvaal should not engage
other legal
the Voortrekkers
The Sand River Convention in
.
26
was not convincing
any
,
The attempt
obtained
to
'.
gifts
of
Africans
from
as
]
were given
inboek
this practice with the humanitarian argument that the children
that
in
to
'
a
of
could indenture
,
orphans who
voluntary manner
burghers
system
Cape government when slavery was
Transvaal burghers
(
,
child orphan
,
apprenticeship
the
.
Apprentice Law or
its
Under
and
1812
children
method for establishing whether this
25
1834
in
abolished
Cradock
training
their
with food
them
the
)
perpetuation
veldcornet
the service
provide for
,
This was simply
in
.
by
created
to
the latter had
and
some useful occupation But there was ever happened
remain
They were also responsible no
.
and clothing
.
,
shelter
of
masters until the age
25
.
landdrost
or
captured children
was not legal unless the apprentices had been registered The children were compelled
and
Apprentice
of
.
The employment
by
the OFS
passed
a
session
the
‘
in
(
.
Law
in
These laws also applied
Lydenburg
in
In
1851 the Transvaal Volksraad
’,
provided for native apprenticeship
1840 the Natal Volksraad
the
pay
maintain their traditional 225
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
.
The ZAR government enacted several anti - squatter and masters
were the only labourers they could effectively
be
,
.
to
up
an
a
of
of
.
the to
In
.
of
upper
children
.
in
the the
at
the
was
of
such
sons
illegal slave raiding
in
in
the
as
group
slave
it
Delagoa Bay only began
During the 1830s and 1840s
.28
of
the
.
Delagoa Bay for the
(
of
in
end
that Shaka took part
evidence
to
order
capture
legal way Although the
presumably
,
1852 Voortrekkers
was not
taken
seriously
by
in
apprenticed
African communities
.
on
up
Sand River Convention
their raids
of
.
Transvaal
prohibited slave raiding and trading
convention
their
said that this triggered
sometimes
death
'
who could
children
From
from
Griquas who participated
period following be
In
the
the eastern and northern
dramatically stepped
is
,
's
and
passed
eastern and northern
the
Mozambique
the radical Voortrekker the
)
Coenraad Buys
of
mainly members
after Shaka
the
–
.
of
the 1820s
children
slaves through
of
raiding The increased export end
It
.
.
however
,
Natal There
in
mfecane
American markets is
and
live
the maltreatment
very profitable slave trade
a
1820s the Portugese ran
theZAR
1866
embarrass the ZAR government
developments
to
Transvaal were linked
Voortrekkers were
their independence
children
in
and continued
Slave raiding and the capturing
Brazilian
by
-
allegations
no
,
continued unabated
new
a
.
,
despite
and other
the government would play the role
while
to
,
role
But
guardian
direct threat
,
guardianship
law
which
law
missionaries
Britain that
people with destitute
required the
new
control
they enacted several anti slavery laws
,
Consequently
as
slave raiding and trading
in
involved
the Cape and
the feudal and
many burghers inboekelinge
the accusations
saw
in
humanitarian groups
in
The Boer
a
republics
in
19th century must
of
of
the two Boer republics
permanent
on a
( inboekelingskap )
against the background
.
of
)
(
patriarchal order
half
second
not justified
although
understood
in
two Boer republics
the
inevitability of slave raiding and indentureship the
the
become wage - earning labourers
to
,
. The
basis
not prepared
were not forcibly proletarianised
to
they were also
Africans
27
and servants laws , but as long as
in
independence
For
3:
it
PART
,
in
,
(
white
supply
large
'
the
,
of
a
capacity
burghers 1850s
major source to
burgher circles
for
in
Transvaal
ivory and children during its as
smuggling
district
.
it
',
226
became known
who had
slave raid see Eldredge
of
northernmost
and 1860s While the Zoutpansberg was known
ivory
of
–
'
,
cattle and
of
the
actively participated
114
–
:
1994c
Zoutpansberg
,
In
Morton
the
and
the
Eldredge
in
the task
were the veldcornetten
21 ).
of
distributing the captives after
as
‘
.
were also actively involved a
two republics
–
in
.
It
the widely dispersed Voortrekkers was not only the poorer Voortrekkers who were involved slave raiding The notables and even the presidents the
8
burghers
in
of
,
).
ch
, :
,
to
encouraging
from
the
a
of
.
in
trade
form
, .
as
burghers nor Africans regarded barter
These
.
of
Slave
of
to
pay
by
1851
means
but neither
slaves
,
in
of
African children
prohibited trading
barter The Sand River Convention
–
.
to
in
,
or
the Apprentice Law
the acquisition
often
tribute
were not inclined
of
on
embargo
the
discipline tribes that
to
of
important aspects
the
order
of
to a
terror
were
collect children
their payment
the burghers
-
of
order
the burghers
weapon
African tribes Some
terms with the burghers
tribes
operate with
co
to
other
.
of
was the absence
an
One of
.29
their tributes
as
raiding was also used were not prepared
had the effect
The fact that burghers claimed tribute from
as
were
were then given
children
also prohibited Cape
Africans
friendly
on
which
slave raids
in
involved
earlier
noted
for slave raiding between on
smaller tribes
–
created
1994c
the Transvaal after the Ndebele had been driven out also
in
possibilities
white and black
as
,
.
exchange for captured children
tribes that remained
to
Morton
and
which
)
children
obtain firearms and gunpowder
to
the smaller tribes
, or black
Eldredge
selling firearms
from
of
some
ivory
River Convention
The Sand
merchants
Boeyens
,
(
smugglers
in
see
of “ Zwart Ivoor ’ (black
numbers
the
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF THE TWO BOER REPUBLICS
They were members
in
nothing wrong
's
the farmer
30
white farmer and farm
.
a
saw to
squat
on
rights
in
such
service
to
kind
children
)
captive
as
in
receiving compensation
( or
giving their own children
.
money Africans probably
the absence
,
was marked
of
by
of
pastoral communities organised along patriarchal lines whose economic life
, as
in
,
'
of
the “
,
'
tame
.
on
commando
as
is
the number
commando
33
on
,
Boer War
).
22
claimed
; of
the Anglo
burghers
306
It ,
militia
- .
the
of
enslavement and that
Fransjohan Pretorius
of
an
quarter
in
element participated
According
to
.)
indispensable part
the number inboekelinge must have been 1991 a
(
a
their farms Like
African inboekelinge were used
(
of
agterryers were about them
labourers
fascinating that commandos were used once again
significant inboekeling auxiliaries
and
farming and
Afrikaner landowners who needed
white empowerment and black
inboekelinge again formed
repersonalised
the 1870s stock
–
It
.
of
as
instruments
were
on
,
18th century
against other Africans
many
Until
of
,
and mobile
is
in
the
,
loyal
they
‘
which
hunting remained the principal activities
agterryers
were indentured
centuries inboekelinge were
19th
.
families
in
Afrikaner culture and religion
to
adapted
that
, .3'
as or
and early
into patriarchal
Khoikhoi
south Ndebele
:
in
'
the
18th
integrated
permanent
After their defeat
the ZAR
the Cape during
in
As
apprentices
Ndxundza
,
large numbers
inboekelinge
.32
,
1883
were registered
them
of
because not
of
all
,
or
to
is
It
determine how many children and women were captured during commando raids purchased from African and Griqua suppliers
difficult
227
PART
AND APARTHEID
,
of an
African tenantry , and the deepening of class differentiation among Afrikaners in the Transorangia ( 1850 - 1910 )
,
independence
white owned
Owner tenant
land
to
,
the agricultural economies
:
in
first the state
both
coercive policy against Africans
both republics retained their feudal
in
.
.
-
in
east
the influence
including the smuggling
of of
.
Owing
to
,
34
,
as a
-
,
in
mercantile activities
the north
practise their traditional
self sufficient
,
they were active
over the Tswanas
and the Pedi
continued
areas
agricultural methods and remained
white owned farms
authority
to
in
these
exert
the north
in
,
The tribes living
tenants its
difficult
the west the Vendas and Tsongas
to
The ZAR found
quite
it
on
their tribal land and
on
,
tillage farming
,
the Transorangia
with white farmers remaining pastoralists while Africans practised
character
traders
when the
.
implement
two factors
a
be
attributed
in
,
second
were only proletarianised
to
in
-
Boer republics was too weak
to
of
.
the 1850s onwards can
And
capitalist farmers and
proletarianisation did not occur
scale
the
Colony during the same
the Cape
the Transorangia
1913 was implemented
The fact that large from
not
in
proletariat
-
Most Africans
Land Act
this feudal relationship was
servant relationship between
the master
the wage earning African period
However
considerable
.
as
exploitative
at
-
.
African tenantry
exploitative
wealth
accumulate
-
of
the
one that enabled the larger landlords cost
was nonetheless
,
in
,
until the 1920s the owner tenant relationship
unproletarianised an
republics remained
the Transorangia
and complex
.
relationships between Afrikaners and Africans were varied Although Africans
their
in
to a
high level
subservient
inboekelinge the
as
tenant farmers
indentured
. It was ,
them
-
areas
Africans maintained
as
or
own
of
great majority
from
reduce Africans
who became
those
from
.
labour force
them
tribute
in
Apart
for
however , much more difficult
claimed
to
large part of their land , but also
a
the Transorangia
in
a
depriving Africans
in
as
succeeded
.
not only
The Voortrekkers
of
The rise
-
.4
of
SEGREGATION
.
on
7
COLONIALISM
3:
.35
ivory and children
of
in
it
taxes were
the territory
.
in
in
In
.
to
's
in
Britain
steady supply
was restored
to
them
the
forcing
,
independence
by
by
land inter alia
Pedi autonomy
British
migrant labour The
.
had secured
destroying
of
Zar
's
the
achieved
from
a
they
,
,
.
were satisfied that 228
or
alienating Africans generally 1881
the authority
wanted more migrant labour for the Kimberley
believed this could
pay taxes When
terms
1877 only £3000
Africans living
It
mines
African tribes
administration was still
,
the ZAR because
taxes payable
700 000
than
1877 the latter
be
more
in
and
by
diamond
from
.
annexed
exert over
it
collected
the tribute
all
claimed
collect
all
to
weak
to
it
too
When Britain annexed the ZAR
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF THE TWO BOER REPUBLICS
its
.
,
.
of of
:
,
to
,
in
of see
)
(
by
by the
as
by
(
a
a
on
,
.
of
bywoners
.
37
and
on
, a
to
for –
remained
pastoralists
until
they
as
not
but also the necessary labour
seeking
wage labour had been available
white
to
avoid
to
independent enough
.
,
.
wage labourers
If
Africans were still
as
,
As
.
become maize
comparative disadvantage
-
at a
,
soon
using family members to
by
in
the 18th century
who might have been inclined
their own land were
as
a
,
its
al
it
,
a
,
in
et
on
or see
-
big landlords and
They were mainly cattle farmers and hunters and
,
to
a
the
.
-
both large and small
.
on
employment
days
offer wage tenants
Afrikaner ranks
the necessary knowledge and capital
stage
to
.
the
on
of ,
At
that
smaller
and
certain number
The rivalry between
produce maize profitably
labourers white landowners only lacked
work
tradition that had begun early
African tenants began producers
the larger landlords
Both
The landlords were also able
the 19th century
were continuing
a
).
5
.
of
the crops
and were strict about
one hand and the smaller landowners
Afrikaner landowners
laws
serious labour problems They
the sharecroppers
the other caused bitterness and animosity
the end
rent
While absentee landlords easily attracted
convince their tenants
wage tenants
companies
the other
-
'). –
34
:
1978
better terms than the smaller ones land
larger group
sharecropping contracts offered
than the
in
to
tried
decisive role
The squatting opportunities offered
of
,
as
a
landowners
the
African families farming
few
small landowners encountered
half
their
and
,
halves
supervised the activities
obtaining
1986
1910
large scale squatting
'
‘ the
‘
or
see
(
Trapido
squatter families
year
1850
white squatters
enter into partnerships with
former were mostly more attractive
closely
Beinart
feudal
their farms the smaller farmers favoured anti squatting
on
)
(
sharecroppers
to
and preferred
labour and
retained
from
the one hand
encouraged
the notables
on
. .)
8 7
36
While
paying tenants
the latter
years
(
bywoners
small landowners and landless
two Boer
the
Remarkably
on
'
‘
notables
and
important ways which deepened the the competition between
in
.
-
small group
a
polarising
section
that
smaller landowners for African labour played
and
of
larger
of
the
tenant relationship changed class stratification among Afrikaners landlord
annexation
,
dynamic
.
,
quite
In
but
static
Areas
white farms
shortage
Trapido
over
this political economy the situation was
60
of
).
not
land
(
Anglo Boer War
Despite the primitive nature
339
farmed
,
by
surplus
-
the
until after
the British
therefore not surprising
is
It
.
of
capital
authority
the political economy
industry
was much
collect more taxes
could
,
mining
could exert
during
Africans who squatted
the gold
from
character
on
more efficiently and
republics was characterised scarcity
the ZAR
burghers increased considerably
did the number
Apart
now
a
occupied
From
of
by
African tribes
the
so
predecessor
by the British during this period
.
better than
far
its
public administration developed
229
PART
3
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
maize farmers
, it
century
in the 19th
poor Afrikaner farmers . 38 In the years after gold
land was increasingly
for the
concentrated
hands of Afrikaner ‘notables ' and in those of mining and land companies . this tendency intensified , many of the poorer farmers lost their farms, and
the
-à -
decade after gold was discovered
to in
on
.
,
,
-
white commandos
Many
attempted
. .) or ,
,
by
the
1907
43
.
position
-
in
to
Anglo
Boer
pursue
of
in
the
high commissioner
In
as
British role
'.
to
of
notables
‘
reconciliation with
South Africa the
of
Lord Selbourne
the
rent
power
to
Henry Cambell Bannerman rose
critical
the
their bywoners
of
Party
This party was sharply sent
step
than the smaller
of
rid
In
.
Liberal
first
enter into share cropping contracts with their
paying squatter tenants offering them better contracts many cases the landlords also got landowners could the
squatter
,
As
a
or
from
one bound with they
.
as
capitalist farming
owners and maize producers
to
as
'
“
their manorial estates
transform
in
not
wealthier landlords tried
.
move
.
.
to
could
themselves acting
War and policy
armed
8 2
;
6
:
'
see also section
war the larger landowners
kaffir farming into commercial
Britain
easy
their cattle had been killed and that arable maize farming offered better opportunities However
these landlords
1906
of
,
,
by
would have
they
the consequence was resentment and
Meara 1983
arable production
1899
from
to
decade following
them
,
of
-
British victory
24 –
African circles
the ( O
in
the British
–
by
.
the
a
,
after
cattle many
seized many Afrikaner farms
lands were reclaimed
these
the the rinderpest
.
,
.
2 5
,
42
.
land When
they realised
In
the
the economic
Boer War fought
During the war African peasants
pastoral
,
one
the first decade after the
million head
The second was the Anglo
Africans believed that
restlessness
a
.39
,
of
their landlords increased
Africans The first was
and
which killed about
1896
for the purpose
230
This
and from
of
by to
and many
In
another
century two events negatively affected
19th
Africans
until 1902
from
that
and even further
,
the
both Afrikaners
epidemic
access
African tenants
.41
of of
position
of
the end
owned
depended
claim
Boer War
At -
Anglo
farm
in
,
,
power and their relative power
stipulated that
tenants had considerable bargaining
the time African vis
At
.
to
another
and
one district
from
his
power between
power relation differed markedly period
his
landlord could him
the balance
crop
a
.40
on
primarily
it
The proportion
maize farmers
which
improved market conditions for African
created much
,
smaller landowners
1887
the
intensified the struggle between larger and
gold
of
the discovery
Law
five squatter families
than
of
While
of
farmer could not have more
Squatters
'
to pass
vis
of the ZAR
Volksraad
this trend the smaller landowners convinced
To stop
a
.
became impoverished
the
As
a
,
was discovered
of
in
have been too expensive
would
these
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF THE TWO BOER REPUBLICS
wealthier landlords was considerably strengthened government to the Transvaal . “ responsible
make
only
to
successful
enlist the support
they could
of
.
the
.
a
-
of
a
if
to
by Selborne
smaller white landowners and against
.
45
African tenantry
the
power
the land owning class and between
capitalist farming
their dual struggle against
The symbiosis
profound effect
the latter that they could the
in
the state
pastoral
stronger position
a
wealthy farmers convinced
tenants
Smuts won the first
The support given
44
white landlords and African
from
in
'
‘
'
notables had
struggle between the different elements
transition
Botha and
on
the
between Selborne and
notables
‘
,
election which also placed
Jan
of Generals Louis
party
Volk
the
The Het
Selborne granted
when
more attractive contracts
many sharecropping tenants More white farmers
.
the Transorangia
,
to
moved
and entered
Natal
from
the
larger landlords and smaller landowners resulted
for
-
-
considerably The competition between
improved
.
highveld
,
Anglo Boer War the socio economic position
the
in
the
Africans
on
of
In
the decade following
and
Cape
sharecropping contracts with
into
at
47
–
in
of
low
by
a
-
evidence
,
in
Also
,
in
of 48
.
smaller white
and
contrasted
of
sharply with that
,
and 1910
was
the
repeated
the decades after 1913 see
(
the Transorangia
1890
of
,
the Land Act
the next chapter the attack
in
show
eve
on
.
Transorangia
been under serious
.6 ).
50
in
On the
the status
of
had already
the Cape between
Africans
the Transorangia
1890
in
the
in
As
we will
in
peasantry and tenantry
8
.
in
)
(
of
Africans
the Cape
against independent
liberal Cape since
.
in
the
Africans
the decade after
than the latter
including tenant farmers
the supposedly
position
in
.
to
a
of
is
'
-
the detriment
,
is in
of
,
the highveld
ironic that while this was happening
African peasants
compatible
was highly
socio economic position
respects
marked
farmers were better maize farmers than whites
fact produced more maize
section
family labour
South Africa had
emerging landless Afrikaner proletariat
suggests that African
the first
.49
the
Africans many
in
happened
landowners and
1913
input
high
maize production
weather conditions
The improvement
attack
Their type
on
uncertain
promise after the Union
of
with
the
.
in
of
capital and
,
input
the Transorangia
tragic that this emerging entrepreneurial class
its
to
fulfil
1910
in
a
chance
been established
war
it
was not
given
,
of
the 20th century
decade
It
Africans
and relative independence
wealth
the
of
in
by
in
.46
African tenants There were also better job opportunities for Africans Looking the relative wagon transporting goods railroad building and
231
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3:
PART
Endnotes
. ).
8 7 in
-
.
,
in a
(
an
in
as
.
reached
of
These tensions
of
of
its
(
labour
and
financial intermediaries
will
1978
slavery
:
Trapido
of
240
;
:
1975
– 5
Harris
in
(
by
.
privilege
of
50
them
in the
contractual
,
in
as
.
For
1828
in
,
When
.
,
enough
docile
vagrants
1828 created serious labour
the Eastern Cape
in
,
especially those
labour supply was never enough
unjustified material
establishing themselves
outside white control after Ordinance
problems for Afrikaner farmers
1828 and
,
a
in
serious and
an in
as
Khoisan serfdom
1838
or
.
)
(
of
.
the abolition
The fact that many Khoisan succeeded
settlements
was abolished the labour force serving Afrikaner farmers not only became free but also less exploitable and less obedient see Crais 1992 While the Afrikaners were effect deprived their land rights the British settlers
).
, :6
in
-
almost unlimited land was therefore
north
land and labour see Keegan (
by
of
,
its
.
,
aftermath
at
heart but provoking the
,
in
military advances
ie
interests
claiming
Keegan
1996
:
and
By
the other
own agenda
Cape
the Eastern
see
of
'
in
annexation
its
)
did
not have the Afrikaners
policy
evacuated
Frontier War and
the Sixth
fact advancing
a
to
(
in
Queen Adelaide
–
of of
,
of
the Province
the Grahams Town Journal Keegan was according imperial power into
the situation
(
the one hand and the bleakness
on
the Journal
land
of
,
on
in
Natal
buying
the availability and quality
overemphasised
that the Great Trek was the direct result
and the British settlers drove
for
,
at
their the
their cattle Against this
.
a
Afrikaners
the commando system
of
deprived
by
the Xhosa
background the abolition
of
,
1830s cattle raids
by
-
.
to
in
unprecedented land prices levels their quest additional land profitable sheep farming activities During serious drought the beginning
the British and the inability
of
longer available
of
was
for
farming
,
extensive
no
for
–
).
200
Land
2 3 2
1996
:
to
the
the
with the
imbued
a
trek
to
'
their access
who were interested
settlers
after the disannexation
194
in
of
Their decision
to
' .
this closure
still
the
).
–
For those British
prospective emigrants land
For many Afrikaners
their easy access
restore
scale land speculation
96
184
.
traumatic
deliberate attempt
the support they needed from
large
to
must have been
Town
Natal
the Trekboere
to
of
wanderlust
and even
–
Cape
in
colonial authorities Eastern
engage
all
Cape
and mercantile elite
to
in
Cape Town were given
in
in
of (
,
,
serfdom
5
-
in
in
see
insufficient compensation
loss
6
intervention
important hierarchies
the ZAR and OFS
Legassick
,
section
.
8
in
26
to
burghers
experienced
Afrikaners with
7
When the
serf relationships
)
be
discussed
which the Trekboere
heemrade and veldcornette were
British military authority
of
)
subjected
The subordination
not only
1830s when the boards with
politically
and self rule
the master slave and master
and the commando system
abolished
-
attack
century
their patriarchal cosmology
on
an
-
in
,
the
18th
individualism
these interventions
8 7
A
relations but also
section
of
favour
in
way that reverberated
see
-
to a
experienced
breaking point patronage
high degree
intervene
to
started
Afrikaners
3
20th century
patriarchal feudal order developed during the
British
4
but
Africans
the of
detriment right through
became accustomed
‘ resolved '
white and black proletariat was
the
Afrikaners and to and ideologically 2
a
,
This contest between
1
:
,
many
Cameron 1986
in
see
not
north
(
to
important role among the Trekboere but that Afrikaners became far more religious the 19th century the
states
of
took place
.
punitive judgemental force
of
:
'(
by
]
so
of
83 ).
–
of
in
,
.
.
This was one
Frontier War
the see
(
to
of
,
to
:
in
,
,
to
is
.
It
,
to
(
Cape
the Sixth
.
of
1843
.
In
Britain
in
annexed
by
but
1839
,
Natalia was established
in
of
republic
A
12
).
:
in
the
Thompson 1978b
generation
435
]
a
presented the African inhabitants
high veld with their second massive challenge
'(
,
serious shock
the Transorangia
in
Afrikaner settlement
the difagane wars
was
the Voortrekkers
(
of
).
the growth
a
,
upon
order
9
that contributed ch
1986
:
in
of ,
Cameron
Thompson
to
1799
survival The the mfecane drove the Mfengu tribe
the Eastern
in
Xhosa areas
the other tribes the arrival
hortly
Bay
traders and
slave trade through
and
,
of
.
the
to
penetrate
)
following
(s
According
Delagoa
closed
victors Among others
reasons for the overpopulation Edgecombe
778
the participating tribes were plunged into wars
Zulu were the ultimate southwards
1992
lucrative ivory meat
,
. all
trade
in
After the Portuguese
,
Delagoa Bay
possible that their
during their relative
conjunction with European
in
tribes
were
of
in
of
several northern
whale hunters monopolise
Mostert
the 19th century
involved
the north
racial superiority hardened
the
the
half
the second
them
is
,
in
)
-
,
or
a
clear cut racist ideology with
18th century
For many
gelykstelling
any kind
between white and black and did not allow Africans own land enjoy political rights the Voortrekker states irrefutable evidence that
racist ideology and attitude isolation
to
.
-
)
2
(
they took
In
of
in
’.
opposed
marry
10
Boer and that the racial viewpoint the equivocally articulated either Mostert 1992
The fact that the Voortrekkers were completely equalisation
11
mind
.. .[
well
had never before been
frontier
781 9
as
British
,
colonists both
racial matters among all the frontier
on
newly sharpened
‘
War caused
as
,
an
its
of
,
Voortrekker religion with strengthened Calvinist affirmation the electbecame the face indigenous agrees new enemies unshakable faith Mostert that the Sixth Frontier When
'
the Great Trek
, of
,
in
,
the 18th century
play
in
Mostert believes that religion
an
–
128 8
the
trek
Du Bruyn
31 .)
to
sufficient reason
farmers
farmers against Xhosa invasions were
did
the latter to protect the frontier
PERIOD OF THE TWO BOER REPUBLICS for
THE SYSTEMIC
of a
is
tribes
in
far
as
204
).
:
1996
1867 they had
to
subject the Pedi failed
states
away from
abandon
2 3 3
.
see Keegan
the
Potgieter
satellite
get
to
was
In
attempts
and formed
relationships with African
.
The Voortrekkers
to
Transvaal after the Ndebele had been expelled
‘
,
in
of
intention
close
(
his .
,
.
as
possible He developed
'
15
the
British control
-
co
of
at
of
which would
the latter part
increased
poor white Afrikaners core the beginning the 20th century typical example the radical Voortrekkers Rather than setting operate with the British
establish similar
.
and accumulation
'
'
order
to
In
a
state formation
and
this radical group
in
in
'
the Transorangia
century the outsiders and landless Afrikaners
,
19th
succeeded
in
-
the notables
‘
As
14
relationships with African tribes
the
the 18th century
operation with Xhosa tribes and trekked
co
close
resisted the
more equalitarian atomised
280
).
'(
-
in
lived
1996
,
self sufficient economic system
Voortrekkers
A up H
,
bureaucratic government sought
:
entrenchment
groups
the more radical
of
Keegan
of
According
to
13
.
1848 Harry Smith annexed the territory between the Orange and Vaal rivers
PART
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3:
.
the Zoutpansberg area to the Pedi and the Venda
British when the latter occupied
the ZAR from
The Pedi were only defeated
1877
by the
1881 . The tribes subjected
until
by
the Afrikaners in the Transvaal were ultimately forced to pay tributes in the form of taxes and labour ( Thompson 1978b : 437 -40 ). When , in 1881, the ZAR was given
back
military
In
of
( Thompson 17
In
1978b
Kokstad
in
in the
and
.
East Griqualand
the
OFS . The farmers employed coloured
many became
sharecroppers
labour
and
population was
and the white
100 000
tenants
15000
;
by
(see Heydenrych
,
in
population
numbers were 800 000 and 43 000 respectively
these
in
: 442 –5 ).
1852 the African
1880
communities
labourers ,
African
and
themselves
Orange River to
century friendly relationships prevailed between
the 19th
Afrikaners and the black
of the
their rights north
sold
the OFS government and established the rest
the cost of the
1994 : 15 ).
000 (see Clark
1861 the Griquas under Adam Kok
During
charged
ZAR , with the result that the republic 's public
to the
£257 000 to £426
from
of Britain , Britain
a suzerainty
of the Pedi
conquest
debt rose 16
Afrikaners as
to the
Cameron 1986 : 152 ). The unequal social stratification that developed in the Afrikaner republics had little
18
to do
with economic productivity , but largely depended on burghers positions in the
'
commandos and as official functionaries .
before the discovery of gold ,
In the period
some burghers became quite prosperous through land speculation , raiding African tribes , hunting and trading in ivory , and capturing children ( Trapido , in Marks and Atmore 1980 : 350 - 6 ). military expedition was undertaken
against
African tribe,
an
was often
it
currency secured by the land that was to be taken during the
expedition ! This caused a continuous devaluation
consequence that many commercial
of both currency
land, with the
and
transactions (also between employers and
by
,
of 94 –
:
,
in
of
(
of
,
Trapido
see
(
in
1881
in
,
but the latter creditors persuaded
the ZAR government
's – a
revenue fold
-
Boer War
,
of ,
Piet Joubert and Louis Botha each
the century the dominant group to
them
:
and Atmore 1980
,
in
to
1898
356
informal network which
accumulate profitable land
).
–
'
million
7
).
17
£33
established
and enabled
Regular Griqua slave and cattle raids
234
and
–
as
:
the
'
the notables
Marks
and
Thomas Francois
Immediately before the Anglo
Paul Kruger
on
,
in
(
this increased
last two decades
with information
Trapido
Marks
).
,
22
holdings
them
–
Afrikaner landowners provided
In
farms
.
40
up
to
prominent Afrikaner leaders such owned
the ZAR
The bank was liquidated
1994
(
a
in
decade Clark
Trapido
the bank and other
years before gold was discovered
had averaged £110000 annually increase
see
an
353
state
4
.
1877
result
,
In
in
a
As
.
:
in
its
the
of
the
15
Whereas
1980
owned
the
121
companies
loan with the Cape Commercial Bank
-
to
and Atmore
name
the then president
1872
funds
annex the ZAR
in
Marks
000 farms were
favourable
a
,
could not recover Britain
).
354
Burgers negotiated
60
:
1980
–
Atmore
21
11
(
,
In
20
1899 more than 2000 almost 3000 were registered
foreign
land
conquest
a
,
on a
the ZAR off further quest for more land continuing vicious circle greater debt and increased insecurity and instability see Arndt 1928
became set
employees ) took place through barter , while the system of tax collection practically unworkable . In the long run , the devaluation of both currency and
of
financed by issuing
, ).
a
-
When
30
19
San and Batswana
groups affected the latter
as
the
,
the
1830s readily admitted
in
that
capturing slaves simply
:
a
as
“
the AmaZulu
Similar raids
114
).
the attacks
or
Khoisan children
the 18th
see
,
in
of ).
–
of
is
,
to
).
3
, .
3
'
in
at
the same
the region
of
is
).
3
in
,
Morton
;
Kistner 1952 232
:
see
recalcitrant
reminiscent the Khoisan during the second – 3
'
the wild
on
in
these raids
This pattern
(
in
raids
on
.
bridegroom
There
custom
involving
indications
the
that the 2 3 5
the
the African marriage
are
fee
It
it
.
a
to
to
:
–
Transvaal to
in
in
.. .
participate
.
lobola
by
a
of
and eastern
–
262
procedure closely resembled
payment
slave raiders supplying the Delagoa
the northern
the Cape frontier
:
1994c
1825
1830 onwards
).
:
’
on
to
of '
Eldredge and Morton This
Khoikhoi
18th century
000 from
'
and
in
of
the
more than
protect their own positions
tame
stamp out
Delagoa Bay before
through
the 1830s
‘
to
operate
Eldredge Morton 1994a 129 African auxiliaries were often willing
half
242
also
malpractices and use
Boer frontier brought raids and turmoil
time that the expanding
tribes order participation
blind eye
of
an
annual average
Eldredge claims that
Bay slave trade began
1952
to
few
a
(
Elizabeth
increased
Kistner
slaves were exported
dozen to
this figure
turn
did not have the administrative capacity
it
excuse that
slave raiding and trading only
,
of
-
to
the government was inclined
the convenient
and other labour laws
evade the anti slavery
see
that
act
The continual strife between the followers various relatively easy for the government and made
Boer leaders weakened the control irresponsible burghers
93
,
little means
government
to
the
it
immense area with
difficult for
.
against slavery and misconduct
:
an
over
administration made
and
kin
,
by
in
see Boeyens
,
rules
no
in
,
of .In
or
their parents were sheltered and were Eldredge and Morton 1994c 188
had lost one
guardianship
communication
While
the
Malherbe
law
justification for regarding African was however orphans traditional African societies children who
The fact that burghers were scattered
possible
if
a
by it
, ,
It
.
an as
,
there
regarding displaced
(
to
more accurate
been
inboekelingskap
).
as
orphans
had been orphaned
subject
would have
30
15 –
:
indentureship
(
of
,
to
' ,
if
,
act
By
any
the Cape government
had enacted
While there was some validity century
28
the
of
explicit purpose on
of
in
in
‘,
Natal
Eldredge and Morton 1994b
,
very little naming their
cases
children without parents
29
of
'
members
.
in
these
.
In
1991 26
,
(
the unregarded
training took place and was also not including the controlled the Apprenticeship Act and training condition the Voortrekkers tried deliberately system create that would both
Voortrekkers
30
and sold
Eldredge and
the OFS and the Transvaal during the 1840s
win the approval
27
Eldredge
see
the Koras and
century
19th
in
.
Eldredge
”
expedition
such
first three
).
:
Many Boers thought
cattle
took place 25
Boers
.. .
as
as
hunting
Trek
against the AmaZulus for
battles were waged
well
the
Elizabeth Eldredge
to
24
'(
1990
According
in
114
describes blacks
movement
turmoil
).
:
1994b
Thompson
the OFS and Transvaal
in
Voortrekkers
The
88
23
Morton
groups
raiding African groups well into the
continued
to
the captives
19th
during droughts
famines
as
the
-
Bergenaars
severe
Breakaway Griqua
century
(
decades
that there were
on
such an extent
of
to
.
of the tribes north of the Orange River
slave raiding destabilised some
the
by
themselves under Griqua authority
that they placed
such an extent
generated
93 –
to
PERIOD OF THE TWO BOER REPUBLICS
SYSTEMIC
–
THE
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
:
:
1991
in
'(
3
a
for
of
and that some
of
loyal members
of
in
,
a
Eldredge and
less important part
believe that the inboekstelsel the inboekelinge
to
,
of
reason
the 19th century
of
,
,
large numbers
Morton
Inboekelinge probably became
however there
end
see
(
to
.
;
was maintained until the
Transvaal farmers
special
Shepstone
who assigned
1877 until 1878
from
61 )
256
-
:
,
181
the labour force after 1877
Theophilus
Sir
,
in
the Transvaal
until 1881 the apprenticeship
1877
Afrikaner households during the first decades
of
perpetuated
African women and children 1994c
by
was probably
from
,
controlled the ZAR
is
is
it
for several years
sometimes claimed that slave raiding and the inboekstelsel were
abolished when Britain
remained
the Ndzundza
from
indentureship
.
.
Malherbe
Morton
and claimed
their
25 ).
and debt bondage perpetuated
commissioner
to
,
five years Unpaid tribute was backdated
system
annum
among the burghers and indentured
This taxation
Although
per
000
173
10
:
several hundreds
from
000 Ndzundza were dispersed
( 33
1994c
range
of
32
period
together with those transferred
,
'
,
-
owners
Eldredge and Morton Some
the number duly registered
that
new
to
extra legally
228
).
Kistner 1952
Morton claims
normal and legal practice in the
a
35
Transvaal ( Fred
was regarded as
children
–
of bartered
31
apprenticing
).
3:
see
PART
the 20th
in
not
succeed
employing large
in
of
did
the two Boer republics
To
land
.
Africans could not own
in
or
circumvent as
).
by
of
continuing
gaining access
to
in
collect all the rent payable
to
.
a
–
in
-
to on
it
was the rent
of
the
gold the opportunities
tensions between
,
higher level and state only
became
intervene
in
to
-
.
disposition
be
).
-
:
white owned land could only
maize prices
the
10
additional
Bundy 1988 200
wage earning proletariat The
and developed the necessary
-
of
relations between
worsened
at a
to
stabilise
and corruption
patronage
-
;
caused
see also
-
become
kind
).
.
intervention a
state
often
their farms But
34
8 7
see
,
–
strong enough
which
section
on
In
.
strong
forcing African tenants
2
the means
African tenants producing maize to
of
(
'
This pattern by
38
‘
notables and the rest
land
their feudal state and from
the decade after the discovery
for land speculation improved
36
difficult
was
the ZAR
despite their extensive
experienced problems
to
‘
'
had access
two groups even further
broken
income
squatted
the government and the commandos
in
officials
2
.
.
of
1978
The fact that the notables
26 –
the land companies even
see Trapido
:
their land 37
Africans who
of
Some
But
free themselves from
was that these landlords found
(
.
them
large numbers
the total land area
absentee landlords
.
the
by
problem
mercantile
from
–
or
these landlords failed
one fifth
of
1900 more than
land companies
mercantile dependency Their chief source paid
–
:
(
themselves
free
of
,
holdings
for
tried
to
in
by
the fact that claimed
dominance
land and buying numerous farms This speculative urge accounted
farmers
speculating
to
Wealthier
by
36
'
to
on
,
on
prosperous African chiefs used missionaries the prohibition land ownership buy farms dummies their behalf see Bundy 1988 200
as
sharecroppers
rent paying squatters
-
white farms where they produced maize
as
,
Transvaal and the OFS many Africans became as
of
parts
,
tenants
the century
Africans
the central and southern on
In
the end
the Transvaal was the gold mining
.
numbers 35
but until
of
,
industry
.
34
The only capitalist sector that developed
it
.
century
the
PERIOD OF THE TWO BOER REPUBLICS
THE SYSTEMIC - tenant relationship
landlord
relationship
after the Union
of South
political power was entrenched
it
change
and
- African servant 1910 , and after
into a white master
Africa was established
in
white hands by the Act of Westminster ( see section
in
prevent wealthy landlords from earning rent from large colonies African squatters their multiple farms and growing rich from farming rent kaffir The small landowners hoped the law would increase the sharecroppers Trapido 1978 numbers their farms see Bundy 1988 the
was
to
on
;
:
7
on
a
, of
's
on
of
on a
Beinert
al
on
).
8
–
:
30
its
up
to
:
).
the
dozen
morgen are
landlords and
the this
swelled
the ranks
were crucial of
in
process
the
productive relations
Marks
and Rathbone
2
(
,
Keegan
'
the highveld
in
– 8
).
52
-
–
46
:
–
where they
additional
of
,
areas
caused
an
.
of
a
,
large portion
–
).
and
sharecroppers
of
of
of
in
)
(
it
'
, of
(
,
to
the
37
:
al
et
subsist
et
.. .
of
urban
the
of
in
the passage
small landowners and see
(
wage earning proletariat
-
get
into
of
rid
them
tenantry
the African
a
This act enabled
strategic role
sell their share
it
transport facilities made
the crop
far
for African tenants
urban areas and improved
of
maize
in
The large demand possible
to
for
.
)
8 7
.
1913
to
and transform
OFS played
a
and
in
).
'
bywoners
,
of
the Transvaal
Land Act section
proportion
plot
-
:
notables
‘
The
201
195
settler agriculture and the transformation
the maize belt
in
the
on
1982
farms
the tenant
power between
unemployed Afrikaners Trapido 1978 According Keegan the half dozen years after 1907
of
44
1982
the balance
African
poor whites into
capitalisation
form
the terrain over which agrarian class conflict was
the terms offered
movement
the
Afrikaner and African farmers destroyed the rivalry between landlords and smaller landowners
This intensification
time over
and Rathbone
300 bags
Afrikaner homesteads were burnt down
000
and crops
livestock
1986
own labour could
produce
given
to
About
much
form
of of
40
'(
42
by
,
(
it
Beinart
,
fought
took
195
could
Marks
that
claim
provided
tenants
in
,
see Keegan
correct when they
43
in
, a
maize
cultivated
largely
landlord took the
family unit using
year while
a
bags
the white
and Rathbone 1982
has been calculated that
of
It
'(
in
surplus extracted
Marks
large urban
considerable measure predicated
enterprise
This
opening
which surplus labour was expended
a
the
crop
system
with
was
,
on and
of
inception
the
its
.
From
peasant enterprise
black
sharecropping
the agrarian
.. .
'
of
the highveld
markets the South African maize revolution
45
ch
had profound effects
claims that the mineral discoveries
of
Keegan
formation
46
:
(
on
of
‘
'.
or
).
6
-
42 40
,
of
The purpose
of
39
law
8 . 1) .
more profitably than
Many
on
to
,
on
–
and
the ones of
class
these farms
independent African peasantry emerged the African tenants also owned large herds an
’
.
dummies
the tenantry
On
.
death during the war –
or
losses
missionary
.
to
parallel
by
market because bought
of
of
to
of
.
on
before the war After the war the ban African land ownership was lifted and many opportunity buy chiefs used the some the many farms that had come the
peasant and tenant class
900 000
in
of
the African population on
land
of
per cent as a
still had access
80
1904 more than to
In
47
.
cattle and sheep
the Transvaal
terms more favourable
than
237
PART
3
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
as
became increasingly precarious
land became
more
access
commercially
viable
land as
'
to
A similar situation prevailed in the OFS ( see Bundy 1988 : 208 – 10 ) . Bundy claims that the status of the white bywoner declined and
and
of
48
his
the 123 000 on government locations or the 50 000 Africans in full - time employment .
a
.
report
‘
in
quotes
in
class differentiation Afrikaner He 1910 which fears were voiced that the black peasant with his more thrifty habits and small society deepened
1910
better
direct interest
the in
successful production
'(
towards
its
best endeavours 201
large numbers
Africans
the Cape had been proletarianised and
in
not exert
:
will
of ).
and Rathbone 1982
While
by
50
his
he
Marks
,
crop
good
in
and that unless the farmer has
,
farmers than some white men
sharecropping or
commissioner that some natives are
of
).
the maintenance
as
of
:
210
a
before
in
'(
1988
favour
‘
the OFS testified
1908 whites a
,
to
ousting the poor white
Keegan
in
is
gradually
According in
49
wants
.
,
.
Act not political
racial capitalism
à -
vis -
in
–
the
highly disadvantageous position
white employers and the Afrikaner proletariat
238
the Land
vis
a
in
African proletariat
but of
,
in
of
new
But
.
wage labourers
only proletarianises Africans the northern provinces framework white supremacy and the emerging system placed the
in
to
a
small percentage were employed
as
Only
a
in
to a
reduced subservient labour force subject harsh master and servant laws 1912 Africans the Transorangia were still prosperous and independent tenantry
Chapter
8
The systemic period of British imperialism and the political and economic hegemony of the English
establishment ( + 1890 – 1948 )
8
. 1.
of
The institutionalisation
a
power constellation
new
in
the late 19th and early 20th century about 1890 until 1924 , South Africa experienced
From
political
“
economic and
an
’. During this period various political units , Afrikaners , and independent African tribes – were
revolution
the British
controlled by
–
united
into the
Union of South Africa under the effective political control of whites . During and agricultural revolution took place
system
the North
but also
racial capitalism
sectors
of
the northern
agricultural
institutionalised
,
in
the Cape
in
system
of
fledged
fully
of
first established
in
capitalism
racially based
all
provinces that not only extended
a
mining
the
a
to
the same period
the South African
.
economy
during which white political
building
a
and physical racially based
Consequently
.
;
the power
Bonapartist
,
secondly
,
of
by
,
thirdly
the well organised certain
in
firstly
,
,
explained
-
by
exerted
strongly
and agricultural
largely
key state
character after 1910
.'
that gave the state
and
,
agricultural sector
only
mining
the mining corporations
“
departments
political influences
a
the
,
Afrikaner
the
;
terms
enormous influence exerted
of
in
of
revolutions and building racial capitalism terms
the
be
facilitating can
the state
by
the
racial
1990s in
The active role
of
that endured until
and
a
,
labour force
symbiotic relationship developed between white political domination capitalism
of
on
the
,
and docile
cheap
.
a
farmers with
created
behalf
supplying foreign corporations
at
economic and labour structure aimed
and white
it
the same time
-
socio
.
white supremacy
infrastructure
At
of
-
–
in
,
domination was consolidated but also one which state foreign owned mining corporations built the institutional
–
,
state
-
of
This period was not only one
239
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID power constellation
was
based
on
corporations that controlled speaking
South
British
,
collaboration with
in
and
Afrikaner agricultural elite
South Africa politically almost uninterruptedly
controlled
'),
notables
‘
(
the
electorate which
in the 1930s –
local English African economy and the English
alliance between the
close
a
was finally consolidated
– which
,
new
the
The
3
the
PART
until
,
of
to
an
to
a
as
in
–
of
in
(
of
.
,
in
in
a
of
last quarter
and
the 19th
was permeated
by
an
in a
all
.
Victorian
an
, the
the in
as
,
–
and more
British imperialism 1948
section
All three
only required
the state
to
not
superi
played formative
system
1890
(
racial capitalism
in
in
discussed
of
be
will
The institutionalisation
greater detail
white
(
the local English establishment
of
the
's
–
systemic period
–
three ideological strands
.4 .) ).
.
'
and practise segregation
of
its
hegemony
during
well
early 20th century the British
,
,
labour patterns
as
British civilisation
8
propagate
official native policy All
launched
other British institutions
–
to
started
‘
with
corporations
segregationist policies and ideologies
emulating
in
,
but
as
together
liberal capitalism
-
and
–
United States
the
others
1840s
–
,
which
the
press
South Africa
ideological strands
240
key role
liberal capitalism
ority liberal capitalism and racially oriented segregation constructing South Africa political and economic roles
and
– if
of
a
during
century the mining
19th
',
‘
of
authorities
racism
in
ideologies
notably
to
of
of
about themerits
zealously propagated the alleged merits
's
since
South
the racist ideology
deepened
Natal
. of In
the
influential mining
the
civilisation
more
.
of
the end
country
not
Victorian liberalism
the values
At
British
their zenith
played
Darwinism
therefore not surprising that British imperialism
of
.
It
century
is
free market economy reached
Social
and
dogmatic optimism
equal
the 1880s
motivating British imperialism
and therefore
Cape
ideologies that
British imperialism
of
in
the
,
and
but
the legitimisation
new set
the
liberalism
whites its
by
propagated
a
's
African civilisations
to
especially
theory
superiority
the alleged
in
role than economic ones
.
justifying
the start
from
Spencer
Paul
and social transformation
racial considerations may have played
Africa Herbert
class forces
the
and –
important
and
157
The new power constellation was legitimised propagated
power
).
:
]' (
1996
especially the
'.
‘
major economic
period
decades after 1910
were actively
a
-
)
a
reflected
of
a
during
formulating
According
state
own right which was crucial
its
in
agent
great deal
within
states
institution that simply
an
not
',
the
acquired
effectively became
the NAD was
state authority
NAD
by
and
,
independence
Cultural
major actor
racist policies Several government bureaucracies
native affairs department
independent
state emerged
.
's
the country
Rich
the
,
decades after union
(
In
the
.2
1948
PERIOD OF BRITISH
colonial states
to
.
in
.
to
–
the
.
,
.
the
region
late in
the
its
.
of
imperialism
and
).
lay partly outside and
mostly
(
developing world
them
gain
Africa
)
War motivated 1
years before World
industrial to
the
British imperialism
1994b
:
Worden
19
and economic power that shaped
Sharpened economic rivalry between
those parts
in
'
,
of
the map
(
of
aggressive
in
of
in
)
–
phase
political
the
political control over
on
,
of +
(
'
to
if
new
of
the west
.
region
colonial
the high costs involved But from
the 20th century
this new phase
1910
as
1890
Britain might scale down
a
it
,
of the
's
of
partly inside
patterns
new
development
50
institutionalised The origins
embarked
the
conquest and the alliance
that fundamentally changed
Africa
South Africa
due
upon
competition
.7 ).
in
and
,
it
1880s onwards
several segregationist and
and
particular against black
seemed
South Africa
in
involvement
the
-
century
19th
at
(
the
control
British imperialism wars between gold and maize mid
These
8
sections
.
(
see
exploitative measures
protecting whites against black encroachment
8 5
labour market
.2
the 20th
proletarianising laws laws aimed migrant and compound systems
,
,
),
at
influx
impoverished Afrikaners
in
and
discriminatory laws aimed
8
explicit
of
,
coloureds and Indians with
complex
laws
tradesmen
diamond and gold mines
In
battery
labour legislation
repressive
, of
a
highly structured
-
,
Africans anti
countries
a
passing
protecting Afrikaners against black competition
were
southern
led the to
,
.
,
no
for
of
white political
by
,
a
ie
–
to
in
lesser extent
included masters and servants laws pass
the
of
,
)
,
-
the same jobs
The labour patterns underpinning racial capitalism during most century
enter
proletariat The
and entrepreneurial class
of
a
addition
,
,
to
–
of
and
but
choice
last
became
farmers
system
the period after Union
in
‘
was resolved
discriminatory laws applied
purpose
of
a
of
as
almost exclusively white property
an
competition
From
the
element into the South African labour market
new
of
,
domination and
also
unskilled wage earning
the new power constellation
framework
and had
the Afrikaner and African proletariats
between
areas introduced
Africans
smaller Afrikaner
almost 200 years
members
inadvertently
the Afrikaner population
onwards an
the
first time
labour market
competition
large portion century
19th
these revolutions
of
the
for
landless
this
before . While both
than
farming elite pressurised
'
of
quarter
the
–
(
proletarianisation
urban
into
brought about
modernisation
the
to create an
indispensable for the mineral and agricultural revolutions the process
a
this
1910
of
labour repression
proletarianising Africans because they regarded
in
as
before and after
-
the
large corporations and
by
the
even
system
, but also
In
more comprehensive
and completely
IMPERIALISM
–
proletarianise Africans more deliberately
the
THE SYSTEMIC
241
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND
‘
Africa
Britain
Africa within
southern
to
the
scramble
those parts
several
of
grip
this prompted its
consolidate
on
its
countries joined in
European
in the industrial core . When
by a country
',
that were not yet controlled
APARTHEID
for
3
of
PART
sphere
federation
a
republics under British sovereignty
the
,
African
South
British
colonies and
Besides infrastructural considerations his
242
It
.
by
,
's
.
,
of
,
E
.
on
.
,
of
(
costs
–
ore
the
of
meant
,
of
the
.
The nature
and especially
century two factors
produce gold profitably
,
Cameron
1986
185
;
,
(
in
even more
with
:
.
'
outside
economically
sufficient cheap labour for the
mining companies became
the
By
the
.
mines but most
of
The
convinced
.
cattle farmers
wages offered
,
Africans worked
on
the mines
and
economic independence
the
high level
of
were successful maize
100 000
Zar
independent African
'
‘
to
release
for
in
work
.
from
Thompson
Africans and the other with the
the
of
the century almost
enjoyed
and to
land
They were not prepared came
19th
see Grundlingh
and
the Transorangia
,
-
white owned
see
2
1890s traditional
in
.
on
Africans
aim
).
120
their
the
–
:
the
of
do
to
to
1990
the ZAR
communities were still not prepared mines
of
,
to
in
production
During the
with the behaviour
Afrikaners
Carnavon
grade
in
be minimised
a
During
of
-
Thompson
from
an
a
its
profitably
undermine the gold companies ability
behaviour
Milner
extending
South Africa
threatened
one had
gathered
and
). interests
labour costs
could
in
of
, .
in a
, .
produced
despite this
conquer the still independent
and particularly the
be
,
the case
–
that gold could only
state
low
gold mines
lived
provided Britain
1886
compelling reason for expanding Witwatersrand
of ,
gold
But
subservient labour force
if
discovery
vast British in
a
of
:
;
Worden 1994b
expressed
Cecil John Rhodes and Alfred
As
further
into
Gladstone
25
it
to
to
turn them
of
The
53
146
create
even
ideas
Transvaal After the First War
control over land but
gain
tribes and –
:
1990
of
.
Zambezi and
the
Carnavon
the ZAR was restored
the century
their mission
was not only African
end
against
1880 the Liberal Party
South African federation
in
to
considered
independence
idea
's
At the
momentum
Cape
),
Carnavon
,
setback
1881
(
Liberation
the
serious misgivings over British policy
the
leader William
its
,
in
Britain
1877 When
in
ZAR
the
fields and
the north
from
ZAR
the
was
colonial
the Natal
the diamond
to
to
the annexation
general election
a
won
of
motivated
labourers
protect the migrant labour route
burgher commandos
of
interference
the
to
as
.
it
became necessary
African labour
diamond fields and
migrant
Many Pedis worked
authority
flow
on
officials
control the
on
strongly supported
desire
the
by
idea was motivated
a
by
.
,
,
1867 Lord Carnavon
,
diamonds
colonial secretary pushed for
of
discovery
in
Shortly after
of
the
.
influence
end
them
that
PERIOD OF BRITISH
THE SYSTEMIC
their labour problems would
remain
sympathetic
undermine
that would
state
Africans, thus
unresolved
powerful and
a
independence
the economic
volume of
creating the required
without
IMPERIALISM
of
labour ( see Clark 1994 :
cheap
the gold mines needed
.
as
in
the
's (
to
to
(
see
',
the
on
,
the
,
fiscal
's
as
position
the
in
a
in
a
of
the Rand gold mines
In
.
It
was therefore not
.
gold
by
its
to
of
to
a
.
large parts
internal socio economic
of
increasingly more aggressive and ruthless colonised
problems
people
see Worden
(
solve
the gold
economic and trade problems
-
its
to
on
-
' a
's
to
,
its
to
to
in
of
Britain
shrinking economic interests
an
,
of
attempt
in
,
.
still feudal
a
in
,
in
,
a
of
:
civilisation
superpower
the
the surface
power but caught
a
challenge
On be
of
the
at
emerging Afrikaner
seen
the powerful British
At
the
world
.”
and
orientation and impudent
to a
;
downward spiral
its
marked
turn
the century
two white civilisations
the arrogance
in
a
struggle between
by
,
civilisation
Boer War must therefore
-
global capitalism
wider framework
war was
the Anglo
of
that led
to
).
:
world based
given London
,
solution
conducted
economy was
Britain
imperialistic conquest and capitalist exploitation
The factors
the
protect
United States
that stage gold was central
even more crucial
saw the
and
26
an
in
1994b
Britain
In
,
At
.
gold
were rather
Britain
widespread poverty and unemployment
greater and more profitable production
policy
century
19th
the current account
the world
surprising that Britain
the world
, ).
an
late
sharp inequalities
desperate attempt
1902
long depression
Germany and
the capitalist world economy and
financial centre
–
,
,
).
:
,
of
the
was losing
Britain
stability
In
288
chronic deficit
standard
1899
.
a
,
and
a
characterised
Boer War
imperialist war par excellence and
had experienced
lost economic and industrial ground 1988
for
high commissioner
economic conditions
Since the early 1870s Britain
Kennedy
the one hand and
gold war
the 19th century
by
had
of
the
.
bleak
the Anglo
to
on
the
, be
the other eventually led
little doubt that this was
end
ZAR
the administrative and
build
gold mining industry and Alfred Milner the British
At
economic
the sharp increase
The growing animosity between the ZAR and Kruger
more specifically
zar
increase the
.
,
the government failed
channel
bleed
money
in
.
However
government revenue
There can
possible Kruger
He was hoping
and
despite
physical infrastructure
South Africa
sympathy
.
's
,
the British
from
order
to
development
to
independence
profits
the gold industry
,
of
portion
local economic
cheaply
stance towards the mine owners
adversarial
sizeable
a
off
an
adopted
produce gold
to
the gold mines and their quest
Kruger, had little as
the ZAR and their leader , Paul
in
in
Afrikaners
for
22 – 5 ).
deeper level the
243
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
primitive
by
led
),
were also
the
its
(
who
.
throughout South
Africa
capitalist mode
of
establish
but the Afrikaner
,
production
companies wanted
a
British mining
The
traditionalist
primitive accumulation
in
interested
equally
maize
and African
still maintaining corrupt tribal chiefs
-
economy
redistributive
rather corrupt nouveau riche
accumulation
producing and cattle farming feudalism
kinds
ZAR amid two
,
in
agricultural elite interested
by
feudalism
in a
Afrikaner pastoral
operate
to
led
feudalism
it had
,
constrained because
:
seriously
which was
capitalism
of
of British corporate
war was about the expansion
to
3:
PART
was neither
elite
a
at the
at
be
,
.
of
,
of
-
co
).
7
,
the
,
-
,
the
To
a
.
-
of
the highveld
by
the comprehensive onslaught on
to
,
onwards between
South
,
Faced with this onslaught Africans
-
wage earning proletariat
see Legassick
(
.
a
a
:
34 –
in
Boer
cost and the way
economic and moral decline
an in
high
South
safeguard
as
's
was conducted hastened Britain
consolidate and its
Africa
southern
,
in
Britain
imperial interests
.
While the war was fought
tragedy
in
the greatest
-
Boer War was undoubtedly
Africa
s
on
-
to
be
.
generals to
of be
reduced
history
it
accomplish this
this perspective the Anglo
to
The Anglo
' 's
British became
).
:
–
1975 244
to
,
option but
Boer
feudal
wage earning proletariat
African tenantry
the
operative
had been defeated
large British corporations and the Union
two former
led
no
by
formidable alliance
of
essential prologue
and two
British
1906
From
mind
51
a
on
–
the Transvaal
a
in
the
turned into
from
British
between
the Afrikaner and African
Afrikaner elite
the defeated
against the economic independence
244
be
,
of
in
64 ;
.
seen
elite as
can
which
1999
not
British imperialistic
after the two Boer republics
could only
of
-
be
and the Afrikaner
had
the way
Halisi
rapprochement took place
remarkable
mines
elite was
competitive and
'
operation
co
with the
Africa
stalemate
mines labour problems were still unresolved that Africans
crucial
produced
wage labour
into
,
same time When
convinced
War
Britain
to
(
the
at
It
the
but
a
a
,
take
was not possible
orders
strangely
Legassick 1975 259
:
see
Africans
force
very much
for
intentions
employed
expansionist frame
relentlessly
other but
each
only
the
.
the
with
dictated
could
and the feudalistic Afrikaner
,
to
,
,
with
feudal civilisations locked relationship
could
before the war was
situation
capitalism
that gold
tribal and semi feudalistic Africans were not
But
political power
its
use
Therefore corporate
wages
capitalism
Africans
become mineworkers
to
prepared
of
,
's
extremely inclined
economic history
large numbers
low
if
profitably
same time the imperatives
Britain
in
juncture
the
.
States
At
to
the
to
to
nor able create the social and physical infrastructure conducive compete against Germany and the accumulation Britain needed United
prepared
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH IMPERIALISM
. From
.
disaster for Afrikaners as well as Africans
to
,
by
status
he
a
letter
which
Africans
-
a
is
Shortly after the
in
.
for
Africans
an
,
in
‘
the
labour from Cape Town emphasis the original During
to
).
in
Thompson 1978a 330
:
'(
by
-
treated and justly governed black
a
Boer
in
1902
Transvaal
)
-
postponed until after self government had been restored
OFS would
the
of
8
a
crucial
and
to
Africans
article
(
them
the
vote
making
in
promised
by
of
all to
these promises
in
.
granting
the Peace
Vereeniging
(
that the question
be
)
treaty
Afrikaners
the defeated
the
concession
of
the
to
British imperial politicians reneged
on
.
the
negotiations that led
population groups after
It
defeat But during
granted
to
'
would
to
be
-
,
laws equal liberty
the
:
(
the
attack
61
economic
boom
his
As part
of
war show clearly that the war
.
an
envisaged
to
,
of
see Bundy 1993
and
).
to
white power bloc strong enough
of
a
the process
59 -
,
a
mining companies
,
government
the
qualified
provinces
and
the
national
of .
of
by
of in
the
northern
parcel
the British
African
not extending
control over African labour
,
British
Westminster
intended
that would attract
immigrants He hoped this would not only ensure
.
massive influx
passed
South
the Cape
the African tenantry
he
gain
programme of
reconstruction
to
's
fought
by by
.
of
8
treaty
labour policies during and after
Milner
Act
but formed part
assembling
independence
the economic
a
of on
the British
Afrikaner elite aimed
was mainly
accidents
,
no
among
-
operation
the
Africans and coloureds
These events were
African
South Africa
draft prepared
at
voting rights
the Union
honoured article
of
convention
and based
-
,
parliament
constitution
white political domination that
The South
of
of
the for
–
)
(
1909
system
the 20th century
most
endured
a
-
.
republics
This laid the foundation for
co
South African
Anglo Boer War the British colonial authority assured Africans that equal
the
a
The
self governing white community
;
quoted
proletariat
labour patterns
and
political and economic
-
Zambezi
well
the
The ultimate end
:
supported
ex
on
of
future South Africa
create
dominate
Milner wrote
November 1899
his views
by
a
clearly formulated
power relations consequences
-
the war
was hastened
.
view
Anglo Boer War had devastating outbreak
of
The proletarianisation
century
the 20th
the point
From
–
larger African
even
these two proletariats were
of
politics during
of
conflicting claims
Transvaal and OFS
imperialist plundering was
Britain
proletariat and
Afrikaner
.
is
the mineral revolution
's
of
Thus the end result
of
large
a
motion
.
by
the war
in the
livestock – were destroyed
,
Africans and Afrikaners
of Afrikaners
. It
both groups
in
to
, houses , furniture , and
set in
ie
war
It not only brought about huge
social dislocations , but also impoverished many people estimated that 60 per cent of the assets
, the
.
a
view
of in
was
economic point of
an
,
industrial and imperial superpower
245
at
'
,
in
a
,
see
its
of a
:
(
the the
in
-
.
It
to
to
at
of
be
the
?
co
-
succeed
rapprochement
the
a
to
of
Transvaal and
,
and British capital
May
the first major strike higher wages
On
demands
or
(
first three
alliance
.
staged
the
1907 on
forge
23
to
.
Africans Within
speakers
-
English
won
the In
.
party
In
(
of
from
the franchise
an
from
.
state
the Transvaal and OFS
)
to
'
)
in
(
fields
in
the
Afrikaner
support
support
that was destined
mainly British miners
gold
operation
South Africa
The Nation
for
symbiosis between
-
the
,
of in it
it
-
's
the
an
the encroachment
important event occurred
Witwatersrand
Liberal
).
given
Volk
the Transvaal with considerable
English speaking
246
for
.
the to
, if
-
'
possible
large landowners
Het
of
in
General Louis Botha
)
a
even
was probably
would not
bringing about
the task
self government was
who were concerned about months
about
course
7
–
:
‘
264
large
convinced
who
with constitutions that excluded Africans and coloureds elections
as
CM far
he
Its
'.?
-
if
.
‘
notables
-
the
( In
with
mining
the
and especially
-
a
'.
‘
as
In
of
Sir
the
the
for
most remarkable about faces
Lord Selborne was sent
1906
had
were politically accommodated
notables
British government and responsible
1907
1982
'),
of (
,
be
as
Afrikaners
wage earning proletariat without the
see Mostert 1992
March
the
. by
, .
,
the
in
-
in
into
high commissioner
1907
Cell
. ). one
the
indispensable
Henry Campbell Bannerman that
least the notables
OFS
1913
was accepted
8 6
stabilisation
companies and
turn Africans
proletarianisation
approach
British policy towards South Africa What brought
government
major
Boer War the British government
‘
in
– be
Anglo
achieved
the Transvaal
regarded
mining
implement
migrant labour with
the principle
and
but
1905
not immediately
Land Act was promulgated
only
could
landowners
between
import 64000 Chinese
segregation
native reserves
decided that socio political
Milner
east and central
could
Its
.
for
65 ;
the
Within three years after
of
afield
report was published
report became
the northern provinces
section
This can
wages
mines serious labour
solve
before
the ideological justification
subsistence base
industry
Lagden
London
The SANAC
unreservedly when 58 –
,
recalled
recommendations
Africans
Sir Godfrey
of
chaired
was
vehicle
mining
gold
Milner appointed the South African Native Affairs Commission
the
Milner
from
attempt
another
the
),
SANAC
as
to
,
In
, .
problems (
1903
bringing about
employing Africans
Milner allowed the
failed
1901
that they
also
war rate but did not succeed Milner gave
recruit African labour
by
CM
workers
than
this also
.
When
labour From
get the gold mines going
about one third less permission
The key ingredient
to
tried
in
companies
.
was cheap African
boom
pre
economic
minority among whites , but
and denationalised
to
the
would be swamped
a
AND APARTHEID
the
would become
-
that Afrikaners
Africa
, SEGREGATION ,
COLONIALISM
the
:
to
3
‘
PART
the
May
alliance
an
at
(
in
gold and
’
of
“
as
mining
important section
the Afrikaner
On this basis Afrikaans
,
authorities and interests
elite gave rise
of
the
and
.
and the British
the 19th
6
–
:
between
'
'
reconciliation
the
)
‘ of
iron and rye
that
In
alliance
an
of
.
Jewish magnates
).
on
and
of
the
British
industry
).
70
1983
This event
the government
mining
This new alliance between the Afrikaner elite to a
in
,
)
control
German
from
see Yudelman
community
mines
the
gold
and
the new power elite has been described
policy
British imperial troops
-l
a
'( ,
maize
the the
very much under
apt phrase borrowed century
restore order
large Afrikaner landowners
(
still
stage
called
close and long asting alliance between
remarkably
representing
Transvaal
to
,
(
in
still stationed
forged
minister responsible
Smuts
the
General
the
Jan
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH IMPERIALISM
,
.
In
parliamentary
system
.
,
to
.
in
1936
system in
a
a
be
.
the
Indians
and
the
coloureds
The
Act
The
South
political
when limited
1984
of
,
by
1956
practical purposes
in
to
remained
was given
representation
Hertzog and Smuts
place until
with
parliament
tricameral
.
.
This
system
changed
and effectively disenfranchised blacks in
,
white political domination
franchise
–
Westminster therefore institutionalised
houses
by
franchise
for
limited
–
’
coloureds
rights
only
could
both
but these rights were
Cape
of
.10
session
Natal of
in
joint
and
franchise rights were abolished
'
the
-
the
by
century
the
the 20th
new state was assiduously
English
the two pillars
Both the gold
on
,
built
as
regard these
.
We
.
the
edifice
of
the
the Pact government from
was obsessed with two things entrenching white political power
and entrenching racial segregation
which
: of
first half
can
establishment
During
predominantly
of
Africa was controlled
,
1933
the
1924
1948 South
establishment except for the nine years
.
English
1910 until
to
From
24 )
(
1910
–
of
8
.3
of
The Union South Africa and state building the entrenchment white power and racial segregation :
and
a
of
-
two
thirds majority
the Cape
perpetuate
Coloureds and
The qualified
Transvaal and Free State
coloureds and Africans
Africa
the
the
colonialism
in
not extended
to
their qualified voting rights
South Africa
in
European
the British parliament
of of ,
.
that enabled whites
the power relations
limited
act
both Afrikaners and
in
be
bridgehead
Africans retained
Africans
An
take over the unified state
–
enabled white settlers
all
,
1909
of
the
years
84
–
-
was therefore
constitutionally
entrenched
of
Westminster
English speakers
for
of
Act
to
The
of
white political power should
NP
of
-
to
English speaking elites agreed unify the four British colonies into the Union South Africa the preceding negotiations parties easily agreed that and
mining 247
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
strategy for developing
-
the
African
its
to
to
reserves under the control
was also hoped that relatively able
control and
to
that would
African
stable
).
that was institutionalised depended upon maintaining rural Africans
with
clientelism
close
A
and
.
political patronage
of
it
1996
The social control system
ties
rural
established
(
discipline themselves
state
contain any threats
be
developing
communities could
white controlled
own policing powers
tribal chiefs
strong state and in
social control mechanisms that would not the
.
and authority
a
blacks .
provided
11 –
of By
own security
using
on
depend simply
be
a
with
in
12
According
to Rich , segregation
vested interest
a
of controlling
method
a
had
]
segregation as
farmers
[
and the maize
its
industry
:
3:
PART
system
similar patterns
on
an
a
In
.
of
this way
white trusteeship was institutionalised that was built
power and status between whites and blacks and
,
unequal distribution echoed
the white political authorities
political patronage
and clientelism
other British
in
and
of
indirect rule
clients
of
act
of
to
prepared
as
relationship was built with obedient and often corrupt African chiefs who were
-
the success
of
white
could not
the doctrine
of
co
a
to
of
Westminster
of
political and
which essential colonial structures
the
in
.
how
to
.
pressing
.
The
the mining industry
Within
years
after
,
both these problems that enhanced the stability
Unfortunately
however
,
state
,
new
.
the
to
the
given the conflicting
.
248
and profitability
of
viability
'
, , ‘
solutions were found
most
political legitimisation
solve the serious labour problems
and the maize farmers without endangering their alliance
Union
of
an
in
,
and threatened
14
second was how
state
British
Africans The first was
proletariats
,
and African
capital accumulation and to
demands
of
accommodate the Afrikaner
and poor
terms
least the
The two
state
new
or
problems concerned poor Afrikaners
at
an
,
existence
unresolved
(
continued
the
stability
of
and
,
American world
legitimised
and
that was generally accepted
several problems remained
Afrikaner farming
of )
segregationist ideology
was initially rather
1910
alliance between
British English business elite
/
elite and
that came into being
state
Despite being based
a
.
vulnerable
African
on
The South
in
."
2
social control were perpetuated
remarkable
-
.
not
of
the
for
84
Act
operation
The system
of
by
means
years were
by
institutionalised
have been maintained for indirect rule
and with the
until the 1970s
radicalism
it
defusing African
political domination
',
the native reserves
successive white governments succeeded
–
degree
in
,
collaborating chiefs
in
indirect rule
'
Through
of
."
colonies
both
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH
, and very much
of Africans . The
the detriment
to
the
.
1920s
The second
when the Land
Act was promulgated
proletarianised
and forced into wage labour The
problem
and thousands
.
,
in
1913
was
also prescribed
formula to
. ). .
10
' of .
“
–
,
’. 14 to
the
In
,
the
.
,
-
15
first two
. ).
8 7
and
state
its
A
post union
the
the white proletariat and
accomplish
this
,
To
secured
could
only
be
the Smuts government became convinced the
,
in
,
large portion
. .1 ).
see
small farmers
and
section
section
1907
capital accumulation
accumulation and legitimisation
economic position could
.
-
so
,
of
to
the Transvaal
of
the
;
4
ch
of : to
1922
.
petit bourgeoisie
see also
of
if
conducive the
the
(
Rand Revolt
that conditions guaranteed
1983
and
demonstrates the
authority through strikes and insurrections during
see Yudelman
After
the state
rejected the validity
be
its
challenged
electorate
sustain
the gold mining industry
white workers
(
severely strained the legitimacy
the white
interests
of
initial neglect
order
This policy
was conducive
of
's
government
collaboration
.
industry
close
3 2
this relationship
Afrikaners
mining press
and capital established
state
was
the mining industry and the symbiotic
extraordinarily powerful position relationship between
From
their numerical
bloedsap
from
was
state
capital
British
establishment
“
-
the new
government and the gold mining
the interests
Although
In
.
of
the powerful English oriented
the state adopted policies that favoured
protected
, of
),
received
in
13
they
of of
-
UP ,
the support
the English
the economy
control
SAP
called bloedsappe
),
speakers
After
its
B
M
–
he
J
The rest were the
political hegemony
of
,
African
1914
years
reconciliation
the majority
Party
of
the
A
revenue
which over the next
mainly the larger Afrikaner landowners
characteristic
remarkable
between
of /
in
SAP
the influence
decades
8 6
(
the
English
the
on
majority
peaking
the SAP the
'
('
on
until 1948
based and
of
supporters were English blood members
the South
from
.
's
defection
'
Hertzog
NP
the Botha and Smuts policy
challenged
of
increasingly
the
from
for being too
Botha and Smuts
British capital and the empire
launched the National Party
-s
Hertzog
the
the proletariat
and
Hertzog who was excluded
had criticised
towards the interests
sensitive
then
both the petit bourgeoisie
General
1912 because
in
cabinet
in
powerful leader
a
found
by
solved
Africans were
,
for
Marginalised Afrikaners
(
of
both groups see section
the
order created
distributing African labour between the gold mines and maize farmers
satisfaction
of
the interests
the consensual
in
marginalised white groups were entrenched the two white elite groups during
when
'
to
resolved
and
‘
were only
of
imperatives
stress this
reconcile the accumulation
‘
legitimisation
attempt
act
government
new
's
on
placed
the
conflicting demands of the African and Afrikaner proletariats and
of
nature
in
the
racist
a
’ were
“solutions
IMPERIALISM
Afrikaner
the
Smuts 249
in
–
by
the balance tilted
of
the
,
.8 ).
8
as
or
white
disadvantageous
Although
to
the
(
1924
mining
the gold
power and privilege after for
its
( a
,
it
remained
–
as
.
1922
dramatic position
extraordinary
the
of
by
,
did
the strike
of
–
as is
-
not regain
of
industry
Botha and Smuts
senior and the state the junior
Pact victory
section
see
never
they
petit bourgeois Afrikaners and
wage earning class This tilt was not alleged
but
strongly supported
of
the
')
was
1922 and
now controlled
often
relationship
,
the
.16
of
partner After the strike
capital
premiership
-
‘
mining press
the state
(
'
.
-
/
this symbiotic
,
the
),
. -
English speaking
towards
During
British controlled mining capital
24
–
(
1910
symbiosis
symbiosis
a
1910 forged
and British English controlled capital
until 1948 the terms
1910
and maize
sometimes came under strain and small power shifts occurred threatened
see
1924
In
after
of
and
gold
‘
before
of
from
alliance
state
-
the period
the
based
years immediately
between the white controlled
on
in
the
The power constellation created
early
6
:
Yudelman 1983
Industrial Conciliation Act
).
passed
-
government
the
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3:
ch
PART
formidable pressure group
the greater part
of
)
for
both these
section
. ).
declined
which
in
intellectual atmosphere dramatically
English
and
white circles
in
and the
8 4
of
Afrikaner
see
in
liberalism
segregation
(
Cape
)
( or
African
both
The almost unanimous support
could only have occurred
elements South
repression
an
.
establishments
labour
and even until the 1980s was the
black
1948
the symbiotic relationship
the racist ideology by
of
system
until
1910
the remarkable support given
longevity
(
to
state and capital from
between
to
A
factor that contributed
the
.
the century
to 9
it
,
and
its is
,
by the
of
of
a
was
the
'
successors
in
'.
policies
)
(
high level
This department
native
‘
applying
state
its
a
“
a
century
the NAD
empire with
ideology The NAD and
white governments ruled the different colony see Rich 1996 South Africa were still ).
10
–
9
:
(
a
if
as
and
separate provincial native
from
state within
formulating
).
:
'
O
(
the
be
the a
in
1910
20th
instrument with which successive
African tribes
250
played
role
and
decisive role
greater part
bureaucratic
due course became
accordance with segregationist main
of
the
.
a
played
in
and
,
independence
slowly became
It
affairs departments
188
1996
state and capital
strategic
The NAD was constructed
Meara
symbiosis between
.
.
successors
emphasise
the
necessary
in
also
true nature
irresolvable see
staying power during
remarkable
to
its
appreciate
to
of
hegemony that proved
To
crisis
This led
a
disinvestment
.
undermined both the accumulation and legitimation strategies
–
as
the 1980s that the ANC driven policy
of
was only
Germany and the United
-
.
States
countries such
and other industrialised in
Britain It
of
Another contributing factor was the continuing and lucrative economic support
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH IMPERIALISM
The decline of Cape liberalism ideologies (11880 – 1948 )
-
to a
.
by
of
by a
, of
. a
an
to
,
.
on ?
to
of
of of
to
,
'
(
and
:
).
428
of ,
liberal ideologies the
of
to
needed
progressive
the
mostly corrupt chiefs who
,
'
reserves
the dark
side
–
.
was
-
, of
the 19th century
With the bright side
that remained
and
turning
the
ie
the end
of
‘
in
the
Victorian objective
missionaries
all
Africans
-
. the
eclipse
,
liberalism
in
'
of
by *
both the mercantile elite and
convenient
the retribalisation
social control
The mid
Africans into black Englishmen was given
Janus face
to
).
3
ch
. ).
5 5
.'
the
At
4
;
1978
loyal
up
with white employers
collaboration
process
more
propertied
Kuper
at
double function
The purpose
hasten
were
under the control of
the
the
supported
of
reserves
turn
same time the mining companies
class
remaining
migrant
Ballot Act
and
),
(
was
'
fulfil
‘
in
had
to
now
native
transformed
–
the
the
(
the Cape parliament
headmen
:
,
1890 onwards instead
the economic
the beginning
his Franchise
1892
mercantile and financial elite became the champion
Africans
view
Afrikaner Bond
controlled proletarianisation
of
(B
)
From
and
undy 1988
African labour
cheap
, of
chiefs
than the modern
secular African peasants
section
acts
Eastern Cape
collaborating class for the the gold mines
Grey
.
tribal
)
(
in
the
-
discovered
that
Glen
and
in
–
-
's
),
anti squatting
proletarianisation
by
Act
squatting
Cape
Eastern Cape and began
coalition with
and his Glen Grey Act 1894
1892
(
Anti
see
the
vested interest
for
.
labour reservoir in
the Transkei into
a
the peasant economy
Cecil John Rhodes
the
and the growing demand
labour undermined
1890s the mercantile elite
from
The mining revolution
in
quite drastically
,
the Cape economy
ch
of
this material interest the elite changed the African peasantry
African
of
role
the
Consequently
Imperialism
gained
At
political
vote
a
.
of
and
the
depended
,
the basis
1860
lesser degree
the New
meant that the Cape liberals
This
From
financial and
the
shifted their financial interests
elite
the mining industry whose profitability
On
in
gold and the advent
its on
Rand gold mines
Bundy 1988
see
Xhosas
creating and maintaining
its
the discovery
mercantile and financial the
committed
of
After
buffer against the Afrikaner
the Eastern Cape
in
peasantry
was strongly
and several
maintaining the electoral rights
of
Cape liberalism
carried
:
coloureds
interest
in
Africans
elite had
to
This
.
missionaries
and
was
Cape Town and Port Elizabeth and
in
mercantile elite
Cape liberalism
small African
enacted
,
the torch
an
1890
of
until
proletarianise large numbers
to
.
measures implemented
non racial franchise
institutions
time repressive labour legislation was
same
as
At the
elite
of
,
in
1854
George Grey established
and gave property rights and educational
the mid -19th
in
the
'.
in the Cape
that developed
liberalism
century was ‘Janus - faced
and the rise of racist
a
, the
earlier
Sir
noted
a
As
(
.4
8
the
251
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
of
).
:
on
of
's
In
).
50
44 –
: in
–
by
.
,
by
–
, ie
(
fell
)
)
eg
. to
for
(
,
(
of
of
the
of
is
It
the
.18
to
as
,
of
of
by
.
-
of
in
self evident truth
aggressive and ruthless British
–
8
that
mining
In
cheap African labour
,
20th
is
the
It
into
this
colonial and racial
century
.
until
an
of
propagating both
Victorian complacency the haughtiness deep
the
'
called
.
based
of
.
the press
“
:
of 9) .
the press
-
so
Rhodes
of
the
of
,
in
the
in
50
,
a
dominant role
and the supposed merits
were perpetuated
1996
belief
of
,
of
liberal capitalism
speaking whites
superiority
whites and the alleged merits
-
of
and secretly
English speaking
way the ideological onslaught
Thomas
years after his death the
play
of
system
to
In
,
the
had created continued
-
self
Victorian
public relations and the power
both openly
'.
of
he
'
the
personified notions
anyone else
than
understanding
superiority
capitalism
the 19th century the attitudes
the exploitative nature
(
1902
)
–
1853
He acquired newspapers rules the minds men
English
alleged racial superiority
of
remarkable
unfettered
note
.
Rhodes
English perhaps more
alleged
important
Britain and large parts
dominant role and
non
ideological justification
British superiority
in
British imperialism
poor
South Africa
Cecil John
press
to
be
's
in
of a
played
(
in
capitalism
252
)
(
the acceptance
,
of
expansion
natural inferiority
were characterised
elite
was
the alleged
ideas
.
of and
British
the
Both these characteristics
a
centuries
the wayside
a
of
and early 20th
19th
which
struggle between
recent history
-s
righteousness
the
racism
1977
strong
became
divine destiny During the last quarter
actions
had
of
In
the
worst forms
used
struggle between
white races and the alleged
peaking world were the pioneers
based and
ultimately
this way Social Darwinism
the late
English
into
on
,
that
in
one
of
for
.
white races
the
enhance their
rich and weak
as
,
)
natural superiority
broadened
and
and weak nations
.
Britain
strong
between
,
a
struggle
This was subsequently
order
the
social
and
life and survival
Social Darwinism
and weak individuals
groups
work
the economic
see Galbraith
ie
into
Spencer
(
quickly broadened
,
survived
poverty
the face
nature
strong individuals
were
The British sociologist
divine revelations and
of
his
'
'
individualistic
The
selected
idea were regarded
justify their wealth
247
attained cultural and racial connotations
of
to
the rich
quickly
struggle
‘ '
.
'.
‘
His
theory
in
, of
and
and America
Britain
coined
poorly
a
liberalism
Charles Darwin
Darwinism
the phase
argued that the fittest must
generation
Darwinism
vulgarised
and
and applied
animal world
humans Spencer
fittest
Social
,
of
the
Herbert Spencer reinterpreted
life
,
the rise
and Atmore 1980
and the decline
to
with
of
closely associated
Imperialism
the New
into
labour was essential for capitalist
Marks
in
;
:
The outbreak
survival
Trapido
Rich 1984 123 of
see
paid proletariat with the argument that such
progress (
of Africans
the conversion
in
to rationalise
the a
side that was prepared
see
3:
on
PART
indeed
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD
OF BRITISH IMPERIALISM
difficult to properly evaluate the merits and demerits of British imperialism in South Africa , and the same is true of Rhodes 's contribution . Although British
European
based
Americans
of
)
to
a
19
.
of
to
in
legitimise
the American South were
and
thatdeveloped
American
that African Americans
this idea crystallised
the American
South
South Africa was formulated during Milner
Social
The ideology
reconstruction
’s ‘
in
segregation
segregation
John Cell the origins and early
When in
had already become popular
Darwinism
United States
the conviction
.
to
were inferior
segregation
segregationist
,
.20
The system
Civil War was
South after the
Africa
South
of
historically linked
on
segregation
in
of
development
variety
the
.
to
similar segregationist measures According
was formulated during
the ideology
stage
for two decades
entrench racism
years
100
.
had already been propagated
At that
place
in
measures that were already
legitimise
the
,
(
the 20th century
decade
segregationism
ie
segregation
for almost
in
its
mining capitalism
to
first
several important
with
greatest negative legacy was
of
the
The ideology
in
structural element
of
a
as
accomplishments , perhaps
be credited
should
of
Africa
South
in
.
imperialism
and immediately before and after the four British colonies were united
into the
Union
legitimise
composite
a
well
to
an
refers
was
ideology
umbrella
as
it
).
52 as
practices seeking
to
and set
legislation
restrictive
life
panoply
:
of
,
Beinart and Dubow
:
see
1989
segregation
Dubow
of
ideology
Africa
South
of
than
a
‘
more
to
According
(
of
',
period
social differences
and
methods
,
by
in
already
's
;
,
4
, :
cheap
and
; the
(
stipulating that certain
on
docile
the labour market could either
jobs could only
,
,
statutory wage discrimination stipulating that whites whites paid higher wages than blacks for the same job Job and wage
, of
possible
.
a
as low
as in
keep production costs
as
to
its
in
method
quest
mining
discrimination was important for the white working
of
a
as
,
farming and industry
)
labour repression was important for the white employer class
method
(
.
discrimination were often applied simultaneously Segregation
Segregation
aimed
.
should
discrimination
from
labour
cheap black labour
labour discrimination
or
occupied
.
on
job
be
statutory
the other Discrimination
supply
methods
at
an
adequate
but
distinguish carefully
should
legislation
black
be be
and those
applicable
in
,
as
guaranteeing
and
protecting white labour against competition black labour
)' (
in
,
)
,
the one hand
at
repression aimed
we
labour was concerned
segregationist practices
between
legislation
of
especially African
segregationist
to
far
areas
and urban
and segregation
of as
As
rural
and educational institutions
of
.
workplace
as
in
political
white and black
in
territorial segregation between segregation
[
-
a
).
as
in
every aspect economic inequality South Africa 1995 author Segregation emphasis comprised socio economic system inter alia
253
(especially proletarianised Afrikaners ) in
quest
its
class
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3:
protect itself against
to
PART
.
black labour
1840s onwards when pass laws and masters
,
a
,
in
In
of the
.
a
22
.)
,
it
–
.
.22
-
-
their way
provide
of
)
not only
small
to
of
sustain their African populations
, to
of
207
.
)
:
’
black
1991
creating
later
native
‘
the
mines
]
an
land ownership
South on
.24
(
segregation
of
of
labour problems
into
immense influence
the territorial separation
1905
According
rigidities
introduced new
,
too
a
in
English speaking experts
‘
,
It
.. .
as
envisaged
solve the
which were
'
graduates
by
and
permanent mandatory principle to
It
his inner
the SANAC report
-
an
.
debate
also hoped
. 4
were
was that between the
,
by
British
African thinking about race relations which had
25
speakers
and his Kindergarten
Milner
Rodney Davenport the SANAC report
reserves
the
,
in
to
:
).
22
(
of
segregation
Their ideological approach was distilled
which was produced
and white
that
ideological rationalisation for new and existing segregationist
elaborate
political
and
Legassick claims that the
created additional segregationistmeasures but went out
practices
the
(
23
Afrikaans
rather than
were young Oxford
whom
view
to
of
officials many
,
circle
of
-
Boer War and World War
emerged
The liberal
ideology
1989
the policy
.
crucial formative period for Anglo
as
segregationist ideology
1
responsible
speakers
-
the
believes that English
Dubow
limit
Boer republics has been repudiated
19th century
-
of
direct heritage for
a
was
and why segregation
over when
who was responsible for segregationism
115
1990
an
see
Thompson
:
Historians have disagreed
white
1889
control over their working conditions
(
of
African workers
and severely
protect their skilled positions and their
1890s the ZAR government created colour bars and imposed upgrading
to
in
' a
to
white managers
all male
on In
to
companies
(
to
the mining
gold
split labour
racially
African men were kept
African foremen responsible
organise and maintain
1886
.
and controlled
struck successfully
mineworkers
by
,
in
Kimberley
precedent
part and parcel
-
the Kimberley
the ZAR
in
.
,
by
disciplined
as
On
.
compounds owned
rights
in
as 21
the 1870s and 1880s
When gold was discovered
the Rand
which small
discriminate against black
of
Kimberley
mining industry followed
' . in
a
contract labourers
in
in
the mining revolution
tribal area
where white employers could recruit
and
The first segregationist measures introduced
labour were applied
According
1894
.
)
(
as
without plots
force
to
)
-
to
African farmers
coloureds
specifically segregationist character
this act the Glen Grey district was demarcated Africans
proletarianise
Cape parliament enacted the Glen Grey Act
plots were given
laws were passed
as
the
.
These measures gained
the Cape Colony from
and servants
anti squatting laws implemented
,
and Africans when
eg
measures
(
and the
Labour repressive measures were institutionalised
and could
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH IMPERIALISM
serve
report
approved
, and
establishment of segregated locations for urban Africans
of blacks
the separation
,
undoubtedly familiar with Social Darwinism
and convinced
.
and especially Englishmen
unrestrained
Moreover
were
the alleged
they were
capitalist progress and obsessed with the idea that
,
,
of of
champions
whites
segregationism
the
ideology
the
of
elaborating
,
Those responsible superiority
urged
parliament .
in
of
whites
the
whites in political life , with Africans represented
from
for
systematic
by
‘ reservoirs ' for migrant labour . The
as
Although the roots
Beinart
,
and Dubow
1995
:
and
,
the
of
.
to
(
earlier
applying segregation during
in
a
in
As noted
and
, to
he
is
be
-
'
‘
,
in
as
of
was because
the racism
it
in
did
and social cum
-
the specific political
class
-
ethnic nationalism
1910
'
,
be
–
)
).
8
–
:
1995
-
and
analysed
economic and
the reason why unification pan
,
of
rationalisation
regional divisions
the late 19th century
should
the case
which segregation was based
7
–
-
a
history
or
and Dubow
and Trapido
on
.
a
as
Beinart
little doubt that
segregationism
product
,
of
of
a
Marks
the outcome
Darwinism
There
single pan South African
'
was
to
not lead
to
(
see
the
farmers who were
.
in
the
of
capitalist imperatives According
on
,
.
redominantly Afrikaner
motivation
be understood
mining
labour not only for
economic terms The racial beliefs
should therefore
and gold
the
During this period the overwhelming
for
(p
but also for white
between
cheap African
becoming commercial maize farmers primarily
influx control
period
political authorities
adequate supply
an
to
secure
British imperialism
,
's
,
, 1
-
the
in
formulated
of
was
is
(
see section
corporations were collaborating closely the gold mines
,
‘
:
of
vehicle for administering
was the main
Anglo Boer War and World War
concern was
It
.
)
.'
–
to
minister For several decades the Urban Areas Act
segregationism
When
when
creation
the white man and should depart therefore
the needs
’
so
'
and urbanisation
the white man
allowed
. ).
on
Stallardism
to
based
ceases
the following
The Native should only
are essentially
,
when
he to
minister
Stallard
was based
Local Government Commission
1921 Transvaal
Colonel Frederick
enter urban areas which
willing
1923
government
the Smuts
9 5
by
chaired
the
in
enshrined
dictum
Act
Areas
Urban
(
the
Native
African urbanisation in
about the threat
Concerned passed
of
).
– 7
153
British imperialism
20th century
see Dubow
previous
ideology was qualitatively
launch
rationalising
years after unification
14
first
the
strategic role
a
the NAD played
efforts
during the first decades
capitalism
British
to
and inextricably linked
new
modernising the
segregationism
the as
,
three centuries
the racist attitudes and ideas
of
undoubtedly
segregationism
in
lay
.
only the gold mining industry could drive such progress
of
therefore
255
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
of nationalism
struggles which were being legitimised by the discourse
circles ) ' (1987 : 103 ) . For English - speakers
- who
Afrikaner
and African
dominated
South Africa politically and economically during the first half
of
by
,
its
/
,
, ',
. .)
9 7
of
.
'
the
“
25
Although
.
to
,
the
Westminster
segregationist principles
was
ANC
,
Between
. 1
of
World War
end
1917 and 1922 black
political
. 10 ). on
8
section
,
of
in
the peasantry the Eastern Cape and growing numbers Natal and the proletarianisation The assault
of
the colonial governments
,
their quest
the
convinced the relevant Cape
and
Natal
and
the
mines and the large farmers
In
.
labour was available
if
mining for
gold
and of
the
in
the
nature
,
,
governments
the gold ie
,
both
Both
gold
white farmers claimed that they could only operate profitably
cheap and docile African
–
enough
profits
for African labour
the
and
white employers
fundamental change
in
by
companies
demand
generated
-
–
agricultural production
the
social economic
The emerging capitalist nature
.
.
political relationships
revolutionary changes
of ,
,
South Africa experienced
gold and the adoption in
the discovery
century between
of
)
1913
a
the quarter
Land Act
–
(
of In
–
-
in
.
ch
:
in
important segregationist legislation
protest movement against the disenfranchisement
Africans 1890
256
see
sharpened significantly when black political leaders were radicalised
awareness
and
liberal
and against
the British English
and
turn
northern provinces segregationist legislation was not strongly the
before
as
in
1912
the
in
opposed
see
sections
complement the
the Act
a
by
In
Africans
(
parliament
entrenched
established
.5
see also
superiority
the years immediately after Union
already
8
;
and alleged
and Trapido 1987
was enacted
African nationalism
militant aggression against Afrikaner nationalism
the economic domination
Marks
racism
was
nationalism
the 1940s onwards and replaced
from
1
a
with
Afrikaner Christian
insulting version
became much more Africanist orientation
and African
1930s Afrikaner nationalism
.
by
content
new
English
and African
both Afrikaner
9 1
'
into
the 1930s onwards
from
aggressive version
an
derailed
accompanied
was strongly
struggle between the Afrikaner
.
nationalisms
an
gained
a
proletariats intensified
nationalism
Africanist underpinnings
of ‘
-
its
As the
of
the exclusiveness
liberal values originally propagated
19th century
and missionaries
. While
, but
nationalism
late 19th century European
of
speakers
despite
-
influenced
roots
'salvation ' in
their
nationalism
In
by
nationalism
had
of
black
its
these were two different versions
Afrikaner nationalism
ideology .
was an alien and perhaps unnecessary
Both the Afrikaners and the Africans saw
of the
in
20th century – nationalism
[ in
of
3
(
PART
,
they
of , .
–
-
'
.
a
-
in
,
of
,
in
for
to
–
in
)
during the last quarter
than the
the 20th century
Africans were not
experienced
were nonetheless
their economic
less organised
pressures exerted
economic
necessarily bloody
this assault
the five
.
the extra
economic
the labour markets
as
Although
farmers
extra economic
northern provinces
the three
Africans
independence
labour
and even more aggressive state
on
for political
white
1889
wage earning proletariat This
courageous although
as
was perhaps
of
recruitment
African
on
The resistance
struggle
the
-à -
in
'
to
in
its
controlled
of
labour market
.
decades after 1913
1910
-
of
–
or
'
favoured
down African peasants
to
the
1890
from
of
Natal
jointly
active state involvement
in
in
shortage
(
of
the Cape and
independence
established
agitate
into becoming
them
to
,
and coerce
huge task that necessitated
intervention
mines intensified
severe
break
to
legal measures
independence
and
the
supply
previously
of
an
increasingly
the adequate
elite
shifted
industry
retribalisation
monopsonistic
)
pressures
vis
.
.
the
through
the gold
Africans
became expedient for the white employer class
it
,
As
of
Africans
and construction companies
( or
,
mining
supported
now
farmers experienced Consequently
the mercantile
CM
.
,
migrant labour
a
,
,
'
proletarianisation
a
While
material interest
Cape
the
who for decades had
the gold
“
from
it
peasantisation
the peasantisation
the Cape and Natal
mine labour
African
rentier landlords
in
The mercantile
and developed
Witwatersrand
was
African peasant farmers
the
investments
their
and outside
gold and agricultural sectors
political and material interest
a
had
Natal declined
of political
structural underdevelopment
1890 onwards the fortunes
.
and
Africans
deliver
to
process
of
‘
')
was reduced
developed and modernising From
comprehensive
a
relative economic independence
native reserves
the
Through
to
the
,
engineering
.
-economic coercion
extra
in
cheap and docile African labour
use
(
– to
of
government after 1910
Union
IMPERIALISM
vis
PERIOD OF BRITISH
THE SYSTEMIC
violent and the –
,
Firstly
early 1890s
,
the
independence in
to
events made the
.
of
its
,
an
in
a
on
,
-
in
,
.
Secondly
to
started
way that
and induce
the same
change the terms
greater surplus could
be of
such
find
the American mid West
from
a
by
predominantly African areas
of
of
, '
series
African peasants
a
,
the profits made
peasant relationships
-
trader
traders
this assault
attempt
independence
the Cape reached the Vaal River
in
undermined
decade
the same time
cheap maize were imported
in
which
'
-
.
-
in
as
break
of
large quantities
from
the white agricultural class
down the peasants
African peasantry more vulnerable after the railway line
which the governments
anti squatting measures
become wage labourers
to
the hands
to
instruments
effective them
with various
'
experimented
firmly
now
the period
At
Natal
regarded
to
Cape and
–
The 1890s can
in
be
.
disruptive
257
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
258
the
to
all
in
in
the
's
or
-
the to in so
[ by the
in
,
of
an
–
in
-
of
.
'
“
.
were
and employed
',
-
the
to on
in
.
). he
(
the
.
an on
,
( he
do
to -
,
:
of
,
the
of
of
the
in
of
to
(
,
,
the
to
To
26
.
a
on
of
an
.
regarded
as
.
can
'
This
well
turned this into the prototype
the
for the or
While whites were prohibited from acquiring land Glen Grey area some blacks would receive eight acre
1913
in
.
to
or
,
insufficient
The land
provide
a
cases
add
to
most
,
to
subdivide sell be
in
of
one holder would
-
,
the
as
’
27
to
tribal
as .
law
overpopulated district
Kaffraria The act be
the Cape and
“
force Africans
the employers
became on
to
Africans
–
great contribution
of
's
–
-
the former
allotments which they were forbidden possession
These acts
.
of in
attempt
,
'
in
of
Kei River
‘
property
1899 and
the squatter peasant
become proletariat Glen Grey was
native reserve
Land Act
Rhodes
a
to
a
'
'
the
Act
and indirect
in
on
'
land
Location
anti squatter laws and had already done
the economic independence
-
In
‘
deliberate
enable
137
1894 the Glen Grey
onslaught
first
1988
anti squatting
already possessed
undermine the position
:
Eastern Cape
their farms
first act were closed Bundy
the Bond
).
much
(
]
that time
formidable battery to
a
)
[ by
,
effective that the Cape
according
and
who were anxious
Additional location acts were passed in
which loopholes
.
1909
south
–
-
of
passed
in
Act was
their farms
turn
English
missionaries
-
the rid
1892
squatters
to
get
farmers
white
even
united
both
African peasantry Many
quasi feudal relationships
in
dispense with
was
the
offensive
Afrikaner Bond and
was
the Cape
the white farmers
mercantile elite
against
This
241
120
were commercialising Afrikaner farmers
supporters
1910
support ie
the the
in
),
,
-
'
'
with
the colony
speaking
employers
1988
,
)
1896
interest groups
Afrikaans
Bundy
see
the
peasants used
their land
Rhodes became prime minister
1890
in
office until
control
gain
the
these events impoverished
,
of
the smaller peasants
stratified the peasantry more sharply
When
see
(
of
.
1896
early years
the smaller peasants more successful and moderately well the predicament
or
by
,
be
to
the
severe drought 7
,
epidemic
the
and the rinderpest
them
vulnerable
population increase that put pressure of
1890s
was
,
areas allocated
to
limited
remittance
).
113
events that made African peasants more
against them
'
legal assault
:
;
1978
of
A
third series
debt
–
Wilson
1
130
–
:
1988
either
mines This procedure amounted migrant workers Bundy enslavement
from
'
deliberate and systematic
repaid
26
when the latter returned
and were empowered
gold mines
labourers
to
advances
cash
. Most
their peasant clients
on
to
exert greater pressure
to
the
them
traders became recruiting agents
pay lucrative
'
their interest to the Rand s mines
trading centres – shifted
could have induced
who
that members of the mercantile elite –
As all
of the
owned most
. The fact
peasants
from
–
extracted
for
3:
PART
PERIOD OF BRITISH
,
to
a
labour tax
see
(
pay
a
be
to
be )
-
of
,
,
to
a
assistance
The Cape government
mining
gold
but none
industry
to
. the
,
white farming
1910
to
forms
and other
received from
1890
of
from
of
,
20
,
, of
it
these subsidies
until 1980 the predominantly African
,
While
,
of
years
white agriculture
.
been regarded
as
not have
the Cape could
the
'
of
the
African farmers
Africans
'
a
hut tax and every
).
income
every aspect
almost to
would have
not sell his labour outside the
did
underdeveloped appendages
of
in
areas
of
a
sizeable part
was available
pay
compelled
grants
subsidies
the commercialisation
subsidise
family
each
offensive against the independence
employers
massive programme
used
who
would
Cape government also launched
promote
compelled
IMPERIALISM
4
ch
:
landless
month period
Bundy 1988 Apart from the the
or
whether landowner
within
area
Every family would 12
male
and
in
.
seek work
some males from
so
whole family
the
(
to
living
,
for
THE SYSTEMIC
this
-
,
.
the Cape
.
'
the kaffir farming
,
the
125
squatters
‘
African
Lieutenant Governor
African
to
at
. in
in
squatters
over the African
and
Natal Native Code was streamlined Sir
authoritarian
issues
:
on
1891 the
two
for supremacy
',
1988
farmers
estates bought from rentier
).
Bundy
-
In
centred
.
the
commercial
85
see
The struggle between commercial farmers purchases
When
African land
and consolidated
,
in
white farmers and African peasants on
of
than
,
1890
commercial farming with labour tenants
resisted this vehemently
peasantry
.
Africans was already proletarianised
–
into
transform
the
the Cape
:
landlords
relentless
1890 because
rinderpest epidemic But
more independent that that
‘
,
attempted
to
Natal was more
As was
of
1909
in
effect
the struggle between
(
a
Consequently
the
devastating
small percentage
by
.
to
541 000 acres
white
the
of
rentier landlords sold their estates
of
the
and
.
to
at
‘
(
or
1891
Natal was economically
in
peasantry
giving
English
African peasant agriculture deteriorated after
the Cape
severe droughts
while
from
commercial farmers The area cultivated
85000
from
white
and
redominantly
indirect income
,
in
case
increased
absentee
As was
the Cape
the gold
in
its
Many
in
.
)
farmers
those
the mercantile elite was neutralised
power and increased
support the commercialisation
exceptionally low prices farmers
of
,
in
to
speaking
responsible government was
when
many respects similar
the Cape the influence
government used
mines
1893
from
(p
were
1910
in
Natal
to
)
the
the case
which they have
.
Developments until
backwaters
day
in
to
remained
granted
and
white agriculture degraded the predominantly African areas
extent that they became underdeveloped
an
such
for
of
,
support
of
'
state
'
in a
dual model South African economic development the double barrelled effect the legal onslaught against the independence Africans massive
Theophilus Shepstone almost 259
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
controlled
the
Beinart
‘
to
to
the five decades after the adoption
,
,
-
in
,
(
of
KwaZulu Natal also
economy see Slater
of
).
162
–
:
and Attmore 1980
appendage
4
underdeveloped
an
rent tenancy
of
The Land Act 1913 and the proletarianisation Africans the three northern provinces
.
financial
in 29
the
.
allay the fears
of
',
213
).
see Bundy 1988
against
that
which made
about the amount
14
them
:
successful African peasants
protect
-
and
to
-
the Transvaal and OFS
to
‘
The purpose was
(
Africans
in
especially
stipulated
native reserves
.
South African territory
1913
land
the competition
of
.
It
at
“
on
’
the
industry
and
satisfying
simultaneously
mining
longer own land outside the
,
by
white farmers
of
per cent
-
8 3
,
up
Africans could
purchased
an
,
both white farmers and no
of
demands
ideal formula aimed
,
a
'.
industry
maize farmers the Union parliament passed the Native Land Act This actwas based
and
As result
mining
both the gold
in
the
on
wages offered
native policy
'
issue
farms
who represented
Unionists
solve the labour problems
to
enough Africans were prepared
and
of
an
effort
mines the
in
SAP and
mining interests largely agreed
the on the
's
Botha and Smuts
not
,
.
to
become wage labourers
at
feudal production activities Consequently
semi
in
the three northern provinces were still engaging
of a
was that Africans
government after Union
the new
of
problems that confronted
the main
in
One
of
in
.6
to
in
that predominantly African areas
the
in
in
.
It
was only following concerted
its
–
into
proletarianised
of
the
in
as
Eastern Cape
and
provisions against African land purchases
sharecropping
8
al
).
those
Union government
with
degenerated
Natal had not been dispossessed
–
and
the –
by
same extent
Marks
,
Africans
land
white settlement in
36
In
1910
African
and
Richardson
see
governor
28
:
129
pressurised
open Zululand
industry
(who now
farmers
squatting
(
.
1986
the
from
Land Act
the pressure
the prosperous sugar
came
action
of
extraordinary power against
great deal
A
purchases
Natal executive council ) continuously
his
using
into
. White
et
power over matters concerning Africans
the
unlimited
the
3:
PART
The act also stipulated
the
Swaziland
,
the then Bechuanaland
in
to
recruit migrant labourers
,
,
high commission areas
ie
reserves and
was given the right
(
while the in
',
reserves
CM
-
‘
that white farmers could employ pass carrying Africans outside the native
cheap and docile African
which not only the political alliance between 260
a
.
labour for white farmers and the mining industry
section
was truly the rock
on
creating large reservoirs
of
and
proletarianising the great
of
Africans
successful
It
majority
of
The Land Act was extraordinarily
in
).
and Basotholand
the Afrikaner farming
OF BRITISH IMPERIALISM
the
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD
,
of
ultra exploitative system
-
racial capitalism
which the
on
British English business elite was built but also
/
elite and
was built and maintained until the
.
1970s
,
shortages
to
,
in
a
to
,
.30 a,
,
for
it
possible
the gold
The fact
industry
1982
:
Cell
;
:
Beinart and Dubow 1995
ch
plundering not only African men 3
system
the
).
8
(
,
but also African land Wolpe
in
successful
rural areas
ch
extremely
gold production made
of
of
‘
the cost
entrenched
countries originally
'
and foreign southern African
the
to
subsistence
also
.
and
,
areas
in
is
exactly what happened
the
based
migrant labour thus
in
of
reserves
on
commission
labour
and
recruit migrant labour 32
.
high
in
and
the
This
a
be
gold production
CM
of
the
cost
land
way that they would
of
such
in
'
‘
to
reserves
maintained between
organised
Land Act authorised
of
the
Beinart
secure the migrant labour required
to
would have
migrant labour
African
create
proletarianise see Legassick
be
in
,
order
'
31
.
areas
an
‘
to
The
order
in
”
compel indirectly (
,
in
“ to
'
forcing Africans into wage
to
attempts
other words
that
the
of
bearing part
create
labourers
.
to
become wage
support migrant labourers before and after their spell
bore part
be
,
and
numbers
drastically
).
:
Lagden wanted
that
SANAC recommended
white areas should
48
'-
1995
equation
principle
On the
to
favour
SANAC realised
native
white areas
in
'
in
adequate
of
was
and Dubow
tribal
commission did not favour directly in
it
,
land
thus inducing
the
after 1913
because they
,
labour
.
,
'.
the
'
end
would
SANAC also concluded that
Africans temporary sojourn to
access
voluntary supply
delicate
To
.
of
,
,
.
the native reserves
Africans would not
'
,
Although
marginal
remain
that their families
and
of
Africans
labour
Africans would always
these dubious assumptions and conclusions
curtailed
It
,
or
/
based
would merely shorten strength
that
assumed
their supposed undisciplined nature and
short periods only
in
to
be
for
in
white areas
higher wages
that
Africans
the economy The commission concluded that Africans would
in
participants
continue
cultural peculiarities
extended families
to
their attachment
commission gave specific attention
the
their traditional attitudes
for
of
and
that South
about 300 000 workers
.
African labour
anthropological
because
of
,
of
,
mines farms and industries were short
explain the lack
stay
investigation the SANAC concluded
exhaustive
,
,
In
's
Africa the
an
after
1905
system
)
prevent theft impose
a
mines
to
enabled
the
mining
was at
.
if it
“
as
,
to
This
had not
soon became apparent that the system It
gold
but
.
other advantages
,
diamond mines
successful
system
for health and safety reasons
for
Kimberly
labour compound
it
originally developed
the
not have been
ie
been complemented
would
(
by
The migrant labour system
the
had
quasi 261
PART
3
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
,
Trapido 1971 312
,
,
white wages 1911 1990
*
Manufacturing
construction
24 , 19 , 18 ,
8 , 6
and
7
/1
6
/1
, , 18 5
/
1
21 , 5
/5
0
1944
/
1
16 18 , 7 6
/6
1955
, , 22 0
29 5
1985
0
, ,
1980
7
/6
1975
21 , 20 ,
19 17 12 , 0 0 0
/1
1970
1990
Cash wages only
:
;
be
css
7;
involved
table
in
an
it
.
.
enormous Land Act
kaffir farming were still the dominant
’
’.
the maize triangle
Farmers who
labour tenants and the
,
or
many farms
‘
and
was
share Africa
South the
of
,
'
white
many Africans When
in
in
-
,
of
farming
were becoming commercialised wanted wage labour
262
Davies 1979
fully implement this provision
independence
production
1995
Africans could not
and squatter
was promulgated share cropping relationships
:
;
that
“
setback for the economic
table
'
,
took decades
to
,
tenant
it
Although
farming
Fallon 1992
in
The Land Act also stipulated cropping
12
and
table
.
1991
11
.
tables
4 .2
Crush
:
:
1986
et al
30 ;
:
Sources Lipton
10
.
*
labour
'.
'
native reserves
1940
1960
and
white areas were merely
1930
1950
.
is
in
in
to
the
Mining 1911
the
by
.
percentage
The migrant
,
a
as
African wages
The
clearly
-
of
life
million
justify average wages below
the grounds that jobs
'
:
.
and 1972
the mining industry
in
for
1910
abruptly
were
,
of
not increase between
possible
supplementing Africans basic economic
8 1
African
Land Act mining African workers
of
by
the fact that the real wages
the bare subsistence level
Table
million
33
a
than
whites over blacks created
on
made
system
it
did
demonstrated
agriculture
more
stage the African population was about
.
structural domination
undermining the social structure
and
5
At that
proletarianised
skills
).
, :
,
(
Act
Land
the
)
rural society
trade union
from
of
them
(
eg
hindering
organisational
Under
male mining barracks political and acquiring urban
their rural families and the
oscillated between simultaneously
all -
.
the
military discipline upon African workers , thus further restricting their freedom in labour market Throughout their working lives migrant workers
under the Masters
.34
the
of
state
and not only contracted
wage
be
(
not elsewhere would
,
and Servants Act and therefore guilty
defined
servants
as
African tenants
although
of a
,
the OFS
in
)
earners
down that
the active intervention
,
The act also
labour was
such
all
laid
of obtaining
only way
PERIOD OF BRITISH IMPERIALISM
via
THE SYSTEMIC
criminal offence
the
Act further institutionalised
The Land
close relationship between
up
patronage
system
see section
(
lucrative
8 3
. ). 36
,
from
the
personal relationships with chiefs
of
administrators built
specific tribes who benefited
a
the
's
,
NAD
CM
.
of
collaborating tribal chiefs and white employer groups With the support
of
if
.35
they broke their contracts
Many poorer farmers
.
and vulnerable white farmers
,
-
of
of all
of
, of
maize
,
,
the
at
The the
to
.
to
Legassick
1910 and 1935
-
to
farm
loans for capital
term
Act
1937 whereby
,
produce were brought under
control boards
much
their land
and ending
share 26
3
in
of
-
long
the Marketing
Africa
producer friendly farmers
and
's
South
provide white farmers with both
, .38
of
of
of a
of
-
.
in in
harvesting
.
By
depriving African
land between
of
crop
the bulk
series
According
way that benefited agriculture
1912
improvements This policy culminated the control
the
economy
the
for
-
loans
be
not
.
rest
a
bills
relating
The Land Bank was established
marketing
of
’
the gold mines
was also developed
the
of
from
87
Union parliament enacted
should
the independence
acts and large scale subsidies mainly
farm
‘
series
farmers
the support
the economic position
strengthen
to
with tax revenue
of
financed
adopting
a
farmers
,
the government tried
term
maize
legal assault
'
Apart from the
by
.
government
Land Act
the
on
Union
to
the
system
see
and the African
of
–
50
in
years after the promulgation
the
underestimated
expense
less
(
37
to
years before more
or
took the best part
50
to
,
.
change rent tenants
of
,
of
,
destroy sharecropping and
tenantry
railway
tenants
8
334
:
In
by
maize
white farms were forced into the wage earning proletariat
1976
given
the
Natal African
the OFS and
large companies
assessing the struggle between white landowners
tenantry
short
needed
).
on
by
on
.
Morris
could not
The Land Act enabled
land owned
labour tenants but
Africans
Transvaal parts
the highveld
on
farmers into
live
to
continued
the highveld
continued illegal sharecropping agreements with
it
.
African tenants
not only
bywoners and small
buy the implements
not
could
them
In
Many
and
the
of
,
afford wage labour
favour
for
large numbers
also
,
the countryside
transform
of
proletarianised African tenants but
resolved
between
, .
not immediately
on
did
.
It
white farmers
farming
rural struggle in
the
It
which
be
terms
and African tenants would ultimately
white landowners the
laid down the
in
Land Act
The
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
PART
3
cropping and tenant farming
on white
land ( if
-owned
not
, then
immediately
in
due course) , an important agricultural and entrepreneurial tradition and store indigenous farming knowledge were destroyed of
value
tradition
this
,
. ' It is
of
difficult to determine the
but it was probably considerable , because
was well
it
adapted to South Africa 's weather , land, and labour peculiarities . If this African agricultural tradition had not been destroyed , but given more or less the same
government support (both
,
farmers
financially
Africa 's agricultural
South
and technologically ) given
and economic history
white
to
could have been
radically different.40
section
Act
served
of the
of
by
in
a
,
as
, it
the
on a
'
of
free people
radicalise African
as
–
by
as the
of
,
to
relatively
and
military
.
an
class only
revolution
had
made
impossible
for
those
white
by
the land suitable
had been occupied and when the modernisation brought about
for
.
when almost
all
19th century
a
–
of
-
the
+
a
the end
it
mineral
political
,
farming
their
der
become
the members
white wage earning class did not exist Such
of
emerged
1880
at
to
1700
to
led
abundance
van
indigenous people into unfree and exploitable labour force the extraordinary state affairs that for almost 200 years from
turn
-
to
power
and used
Adriaan
the knechts opted
during the 18th and 19th centuries
white master class remained landowners
and white
or
With land available
Willem
-
Trekboere
.
,
-
easily conquered
or
,
almost
soon
all
Stel made loan farms easily accessible pastoral farmers
As
all
with chattel slaves
.
tandem
was the
the VOC
the company
as
by
whites imported
in
the 17th century
-
in
landowners
)
–
(
second half
white farmers remained scarce
-
by
occupation
of
for
as
the
in
land
knechts remained wage labourers and were used
#
upon the elementary
,
of
.7
8
case
264
a
,
M
infringes upon the common
Afrikaners and its political and economic ramifications 1870 1924 The proletarianisation
As long
This
the
.
Land
described
resting
to
Thus
the
.
1996
act the
it
,
]
as
in
(
were
. : 10 ). 18 )
in
(
see
(
which
recognised
pariah
criticising
from
Makgaltha
justice and humanity which are the heritage
Rich
but
slave
8
the
of
of
quoted
Sol Plaatje wrote
the ANC refrained
,
the Transvaal
‘
principle politics
people
passage
before the Beaumont commission
fraught with the most momentous issues
rights
actually
‘
’.
,
in
In
the Congress
.
leader
testimony
1916
not
African black
During World War
his birth
of
act
the
national protest campaign
Act
the
as
of
that the act made the South
a
Native Land Act necessitated the land
Africans
foundation the ANC found that
1
Soon after
.
Westminster
disenfranchisement
of
protest against
to
S
1912
its
in
the
The South African Native National Congress (later the ANC ) was founded
the
farmers
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH IMPERIALISM
(predominantly Afrikaners ) living
A
.
Cape gentry class emerged during the
of
in
18th centuries
myth
the
.
This
wine producing districts
-
social strata
or
without hierarchies
,
,
century Afrikaner society had been egalitarian is a
the
5 2
Afrikaner populists claimed that, until the end of
In the mid -20th century 19th
persist with
to
. ).
farming ( see section
subsistence
small uneconomical units
on
and
17th
the Cape whose members
,
at
to
the
product The
larger
247
wealthy
9
1975
of
the farms
–
Harris
Consequently many
:
of
.
in
on
bywoners
on
effect
of
The combined
, of
.
important player
,
became
smaller ones
,
;
to
the transition
bankrupt smaller farmers
state
Legassick
and
.
of
maintain
least until the
in
of
mercantile
the
both working
,
hampered
of
the status 34
to
detriment 26 –
the
to
Trapido 1978
:
(
see
smaller farmers were reduced
41
by to
The interaction
modernisation and state involvement consolidated the domination
landlords
to
.
in
43
.
in
,
to
onwards the
lack
agricultural transformation throughout South Africa
wealthier landowners
Africa
).
1870
South
tended
credit and paid
not only
but also helped
but
an
.
uneconomical units From
'
'
agriculture
,
commercial
enslavement
on
to
.
the
-
,
'
mercantile
anything
affairs
state
chronic
investment capital farmers mostly bought farmers
, If
of
.
did its
in
semi feudal and dependent Due
the Cape
mercantile intermediaries and the
not promote modernisation
century
.
.
42
by
.
in
-by
a
-
of
the 19th
mercantile activity
white farmers was complex
bound
agriculture
European
than 200 years between
more
1870s
1880 onwards
from
the two Boer republics White agriculture
of
as
period
1883
the 1860s and
mercantile intermediaries not only
product
intermediaries
in
1873
from
two
.
the
land
There were
, At
severe
,
off
1863 and
droughts
The
policies
of
1857
swollen
Europe
from
onwards
1860
from
,
of
:
from
to
of
unskilled labourers
of
An
Natalbut also
a
emerged
important factor that impoverished many Afrikaners
tradition
of
.
-
the
was the dubious role played
over
of
(a
,
far
.
A
the
import
immigrant labourers
developed
cheap
but affected smaller
white wage earners was considerably
many Afrikaners moved
end
only
same time particularly after the
and
the
more
indigenous pool
waves
One
successful white farming was the scarcity
white wage earning class
favouring
ccording
farms that were unworkable
black labour This factor also inhibited larger landowners
landowners
all
.
much divided farms
.
law
for
most inhibiting factors
on
,
Roman Dutch
allowed almost
–
precepts
farmers
the
some smaller landowners were existing
on
subsistence
of
as
precariously
become landowners or
to
Afrikaners
Although
social stratification
the 19th century
land until the end
)
abundance
instruments
-
of
commandos
used
of of .
as
were far wealthier than the Trekboere Both the Trekboere and the Voortrekkers
265
is
’
'
-
'
more numerous smaller landowners
and commercialisation
relentless struggle
produce successfully
market
of
in
of
.
to
It
was only
up
Act
1986
:
Beinart
al
to
Bundy
smaller
the Land et
20
severe
continuing process
swallow
in
357
this
commercialisation that
years after the adoption
1980
a
,
as
, of
the
in
the
Attmore
and
bywoners
,
Marks
in
its
peak
dubious methods
larger
many smaller farmers
1910
acceleration
:
in
Trapido
,
(
see
landowners reached
1880
urbanise Paradoxically
larger landowners used
which
awkward position facing
.
were forced
African squatters
the agricultural sector
Act and
Land
to
passage
bywoners
the
of
the
,
in
most
other
of
.
of
went bankrupt but remained
From
hands
the
the
,
both land and labour
easy access
in
land smaller landowners were placed
land
to
,
landlords and land companies and
after
of
concentration
;
the
an
of
.
Afrikaners Because
the proletarianisation
to
directly
Afrikaner farmers contributed
shortage
some
onwards the rapid capitalisation and accumulation
1880
the
From
of of
.
44
took place between larger and smaller Afrikaner landowners
to
.
normally not the
reality
in
Afrikaner historiography But and
wealthier
between
is
modernisation
that developed
for
and
control over land and labour
gain
the
state
so
in
acknowledged
poor white problem
called
a
during the process
struggle
the intense the
.
supported
(
farmers
of by ,
Consequently
control
the
colonial exploitation and other factors beyond Afrikaners
to
often ascribed
emergence
so
Afrikaner folklore
In
of
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
)
3
the
PART
).
108
of
by
it by of
.
It
it
of
of
a
measure
’
'
poor white Afrikaners
.
,
During the period
ethnic
identities were
and black
workers
,
black
rural
and
and urban
There was
vicissitudes
clear line between
changing circumstances
the 18th
and
19th
a
to
linked
in
parallel
centuries the
,
.
and
closely
was During
the
of
history
century people
the Afrikaner community
Afrikaners and coloureds were
them
and what line there was
,
.
shifted with
coloured
no
economic
intertwined
20th
In
early
of
and
19th
large portion
of
.
quite common
proletarianisation
266
alongside
sexual liaisons between white
The proletarianisation
social and
employed
were
then
poverty made
with
political mobilisation
poor whites was neglected
whites and
used
issue
was only
Afrikaners were impoverished
and dislocation
.
.
intermarriages
late
’
'
Poor
poor were
,
in
ideological
when the predicament blurred
the poverty
Boer War that
the nature
unfortunate fate
was only when large numbers
a
became
ruling class perceptions
for
-
Anglo
an
the
the 1890s onwards
of
.
It
sympathy
from
regard the poor whites
to
possible
community
was only publicly recognised
of
major shift
in
that
a
broader Afrikaner
among Afrikaners had already assumed
1870s and 1880s
of
the
serious dimensions
the
'
Although the poor white problem
many cases the determining
factor was
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH not colour, but the ownership
of
land
.
IMPERIALISM
Brown Afrikaner landowners were
gradually
incorporated into white Afrikaner circles , while many whites who
lost their
farms were
incorporated
of coloured people . When
the ranks
into
of as
.
of a
by
no
31 ;
26
–
:
,
.
.
find jobs
45
The war
of the
of in
a
-à -
by the
by
property
impoverished
and
the hostile
exacerbated
also
it
towns and cities where they found
to
move
vis
vis
‘
In
of
'
to
of
of
of by
7
–
difficult
extremely
them
the social dislocation and destruction
choice but
coloureds
the
coloured ethnicity and
was strongly stimulated
Afrikaners
to
Afrikaners had
to
the Anglo
and
position
the
rigid definition
governing urban
1948 and again emphasised
Boer War After the war many landless
no
during
1896
-
rinderpest
of
The
at
'.
purity
making numerous apartheid laws applicable proletarianisation
.
in
and
1930 they were
.
through
and legislation
pass laws
Afrikaner upliftment
Africans
',
degraded
NP
,
was again
relation
had taken office
a
.
the need
for
But after the
coloureds were nevertheless
,
influx control
those
upliftment
when the
to
a
,
priority
advantageous position from
century
in
the 20th
dramatically
,
of
's
rights deteriorated
proletariat became
segregation
in
'
(
.3 .1 ). people
the early decades
exempted
steps
'
of
While coloured
relatively
a
as
‘
to
chronic community poverty Marks and Trapido 1987
see also section
Afrikaner
coloureds Unfortunately
similarly uplift poor brown people who were already exhibiting
the syndrome
in
'
against impoverished
upliftment were stimulated
,
them
the rising
beginning
the
.
protect
Part
10
to
the
and steps taken towards Afrikaner
were taken
whites
Afrikaners
late 19th
Cape Town
cities such
dangerous class
the poor white
Afrikaner consciousness about desire
proletariat
coloured
and Port Elizabeth was regarded
century
By
the
,
large portion
their coloured workers were also uprooted and
hopelessly impoverished proletariat the
a
century
a
urban areas
as
driven
the 19th century
of
of
end to
the
many small and subsistence farmers went bankrupt and were proletarianised at
.
relationships between larger Afrikaner landlords and Afrikaner bywoners After
')
(“
-
to
).
46
,
pastoral
bywoners
the
they
because
Lord Selborne
the conditions
of
Many
as
tenants
high
Afrikaner
The commercialisation
of
see section
.4 ).
landlords quite dramatically
1905 improved 7
South Africa
from
of
.
provide wage labour The arrival in
commissioner
for
were more likely
:
by
bywoner
their
217
already deteriorating relationships
landlords preferred African tenants
(
modernising
and
change
.
Afrikaner landlords to
between
and
and this
1986
,
.
This also aggravated
Cameron
of
the
arable production
tried
to
notables
‘
the Transvaal
'
After the war
Grundlingh
,
(
aggravated their impoverishment
hands uppers
other Afrikaners
in
during the war were rejected see
')
sell outs
-
joiners
had become hensoppers
to
war many bywoners who (“
the
the
267
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
three
the
in
provinces
northern
the
of
The
its
,
a
.
'
'
as as
.
.
-
,
).
9
,
up
as
as
'
in
stir
to
,
.
or
ethnic mobilisation
and
on
as
).
– 64
the
after
religious
poor whites
,
of
the predicament
such
12
,
, 1
,
on
immediately
critical
Afrikaner political
when
the
).
4
:
labour were
prime instrument
the bitter struggle
for of
the course
of
–
colour bar
1978
the
(
emerged
acute
,
subservient African see Trapido
in
,
-
the
from
the mines was that these
.
Merle Lipton
suffering
an
own reckoning
by –
to
employ landless Afrikaners despite the fact that
their owners
the workplace
characteristics
Joint findings paras
a
,
NP
limelight
the
However the commission
-
for
at
48
. 1
:
'
a
time
also
'
by
–
In
of
be
became
arduous underground work to
of
, in
exclusion
but
having themselves employed
According
African and
the opportunity
political
unskilled labour The reasons offered
to
unsuitable
to
to
an
to
1932
Afrikaners
gold mines were unwilling
Afrikaners
para
serious
poverty
white
party
part
:
or
.
War
-
factors
Grosskopf
organisations became highly conscious the mines were
Joint findings
aggressive movement
systemic
At
Anglo Boer
who
Those
did not blame poverty among Afrikaners exclusively
among
Poverty
or
by
;
, :2
in
It see
(
of
/
environmental and industry
1932 part
used
the
compete with black labour
to
,
it
, it
its
findings
.1 ).
(
9
see section
into
third
the unfriendly English dominated
way that gave the Purified
Afrikaner nationalism never intended
adapt
very poor
poor
classified
third
the Carnegie report placed a
,
and dramatised
another
Grosskopf
About
million were Afrikaners
white poverty was not nearly
1932
in
Le
(
poverty
1932 the white population
the Carnegie commission
difficult
very
Roux 1984
poverty
coloured
less
cities lacked the necessary skills
They also found
Although
and
the time
1
, of
to
migrated
the 1930s
the
of
beginning
shortage
first third
compare Afrikaner and African
of
which more
of
1 8
,
million
Afrikaners was classified
lack
of
meaningfully
white poverty
.
,
and
determine the severity
were laced with the racial prejudices
cities
with
measurement were unreliable and the value judgements involved
methods was
push
.
difficult
the century
final
47
Land Act to
the
is
It
passage
to
of
proletarianisation of white and African tenants received
consequent
the
and
the
estates
50 –
larger
in
3:
of
PART
.
the
positions previously occupied
268
,
'
1907
,
of
miners strike
'
in
'
the
skilled and semi skilled on
.
)
whites
first time
the
British mineworkers The percentage South predominantly Afrikaners employed the mines
(
born
-
African
the
and after
problem
of -
were employed
During
awkward
the 1890s were reintroduced
in
Boer war
by for
Afrikaners
Anglo
solve this
the ZAR government
.
after
-
the
colour bars introduced
To
.
Afrikaner poverty by
to
significantly
49
by
in
mining industry and state sectors The discrimination against mining companies and British mineworkers contributed Afrikaners jobs
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH IMPERIALISM
:
of
a
at to a
in
of
a
, .
,
farming
them
political bargaining power The
and
.
land
laws
pass
access
created
modernisation and
but
emerged
Anglo
Boer
-
was not deliberately
inadvertently mainly because
by
‘
52
white employers
the
however
series
their
of
, ,
proletariat
mine
,
(
behalf
to
of
measures that denied
,
and
Africans
manner
by ).
: of
created
measures included masters and servants laws deprived
.
to
by the
,
2000 634
'(
institutionalised
that much
white management
white labour
the
lay down
ie
claim
of
advantage
helped
correctly to
.
,
increased
suppressed
before and after Union
on
,
white workforce
changes
These
,
Saunders
Thus the African proletariat was deliberately
,
move towards
1907 onwards through
of
the
to
than
)
owners and the notable farmers
largely
the
1907 between the to
attempt
became increasingly evident that
which this was donewas more
Afrikaner
of
strike
creating semi skilled supervising jobs
and era
.
it /
;
colour bar but
opportunities
the mines
-
by
,
of
/
was done during the Botha Smuts
that
reserving
,
the
of
poor Afrikaners
deliberate
from
and
Botha Smuts government Davenport
These repressive
African
Mines and Works Act
1913 and 1914 which were harshly
labour measures
sanction
on
The
Afrikaners rather than employing British artisans
measures
in
.
.
In
.
done
This was
and electrification
the strikes
the criminal
changed the structure
,
.
)
(
in
that had existed since
Africanisation mining employers fragmenting jobs
Africans
from
whites only
gold companies and British artisans
repressive
a
,
was the tense relationship
mechanisation
discriminatory
various ways inter alia
influenced the position
that
created
and servants actssº
striking
a
Another factor
was put
state
.si
the mines
on
certain jobs
and the other
extended
masters
from
them
protected white mineworkers
for
)
and prohibited
1911
in
-
,
mineworkers (
cheap African rather than
protecting white miners against competition
against contract breaking contained
legislative
intensifying
repressive measure aimed
a
the one was
decades
from
accumulation was
legitimising the white controlled
The Native Labour Regulation Act
by
to
)
employ
:
for
last
at
measure aimed
trigger off
for
to
on
,
African labour the
making African labour cheaper and more docile
for
the other
1911 two important segregationist laws were passed which
pattern that would
1911
mining and
them
-
,
In
.
at
state
to
,
poor white workers the risk
new
employers chose
as
but insofar
the
prevent
aim
respect
in
repressive measures promoted
to
,
legitimacy
of
endangering
accumulation
faced the
1910
pamper the white electorate
poor Afrikaners
and
aim
the
mineworkers
of
on
)
(e
specially
the one hand and having
of
difficult task agriculture
.
1983
of
of /
creating conditions conducive
75 )
see Yudelman
The Botha Smuts government which assumed office
By
about 1250 men
during
to 24 6 per cent
(
of
increase
an
strike
,
per cent before the strike of 1907
17 5
(
,
from
-
the
increased
269
, SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
white discriminatory
labour measures were institutionalised
and
mainly
the
measures
English -speaking mainly
were institutionalised
Afrikaner proletariat or working class . While
,
,
with
vested interest
capitalists
in
the other
who
, .
Those
those
Labour
and
.
( LP )
to
-
–
protecting 233
,
:
1991
6
see Davenport
(
,
employees
ones aimed
–
but rather discriminatory
not
were
repressive measures had
at
necessary
1924
(
of
Hertzog
33 )
,
(
),
the mainly English speaking
of in
by
,
1921
in
,
forced the
to
.
Smuts government CM
the
by
strike
-
inter alia
eliminating the colour bar
plans threatened
the jobs
15
it
,
25
.
by
The decline
more Africans
1918 and
The chamber
55
.
:1
in
15
1920
of
.56
-
and
than
white and black
,
to
fewer whites
status quo agreement
for semi skilled work
sharply
by
the
employ
of
,
announce plans
gold declined
more
ANC organised
1920 that was again suppressed harshly
1920 the price
gold
by
led
The rate
1920
between
an
African mineworkers
to
1911
in
.7
:1
11
from
's
in
in
,
the sterling price
to
of
the real wages
abandoning
1910
the same time the wage ratio
mineworkers increased
Africans
increase
of
.
54
per cent
At
inflation outstripped
in
the
'
from
of
Gold mines profits declined steadily
to
).
53
,
of
of (
Pact government
predominantly Afrikaner
19
–
introduce repressive
Botha and Smuts while the segregationist
perhaps because
already been adopted white
behalf
the
measures introduced primarily repressive
the
by
) by
the SAP government
on
is
It
not surprising that the most intensive attempts
electorate
When
one
class
UP while
the SAP and
NP
on
discriminatory measures
segregationist measures were made
518
Afrikaner
and large
who favoured discriminatory measures mainly supported the Party
English
the
cost saving repressive measures
repressive measures mainly supported
favoured
them
the mainly Afrikaner petit bourgeoisie and Afrikaner employee in
,
hand
a
emerging Afrikaner
vested interest
and
a
landlords with
of the
developed between
struggle
,
capitalist class
speaking
behalf
on
-
a
,
protracted
class ,
repressive measures saved
costs for capital the discriminatory measures increased
Consequently
behalf of
on
capitalist
.
employers
the
War . While repressive
on
COLONIALISM
3:
the
PART
000
270
air
of
.
:
9 1
casualties featured a
also
to
Afrikaner working class
led
200
The
)
in
more than
maintained
.
the
consciousness
esulting
of
(r
of the
in
prominently
the strike
the South African
was agreed that the ratio between
African mineworkers and white supervisors would harsh suppression
used
the world
at
the strike
,
After
it
suppress the strike
Smuts
It
'.
white South Africa
Workers
‘
the slogan
:
and with
mainly poor white
(
white mineworkers
be
'
‘
a
fight
flag
Red
a
under
1922 strike
.
force
to
unite and
off the for
Afrikaners
),
This triggered
by
.
white workers
F
'
,
).
.
secured
the
on (
within
it the
gold
Smuts
The
more actively
even
in
to
intervene
protect white
57
white workers
could
state had to
's
of
if
Afrikaners
order
8
see
the position
predominantly
industrial
was that
1922
could only gain legitimacy
white supremacy
Africa
of .8
;
Rand revolt
be
government that
government also realised that the South
the
also section
)
(
now
effect
)
of
parameters
mines
to
demonstrated
the
The most important
of
(
:
see Lipton 1986
1924
it
'
of
election
the
anti imperialistic sentiments the Pact won the 114
)
capitalist and the Afrikaners
By mobilising
NP .
Hertzog
and
Col mineworkers anti
-
Cresswell
- speaking LP (
the mainly English
's
PH
led
‘pact between
class -based white
by
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH IMPERIALISM
workers against black
.
'
-
Africans
and also
longer participate
no
–
not become
-
reaching implications
discriminatory measure
,
of
the bargaining power
because Africans could
repressive measure with
most
official labour
the
from
far
This was
a
.
,
and were thus excluded
a
system
black men could
in
relations
trade unions
,
of
'
members for
a
,
and agricultural employers and white trade unions
important stipulation was that pass carrying
broad
united front
,
,
mining industrial
interests
the white bureaucracy and
of
.
political
,
spectrum
1924
a
before the Pact government took over This act was supported
Its
,
early
by in
Act
passed the Industrial Conciliation
it
this
accomplish
of
,
ie
To
.
competition
wage negotiations alongside
(
of
as
.
a
to
18
,
a
for
,
to
,
as
adopted
this
.
by
the economy and the
white workers and
interventionist approach
the Electricity Supply Commission
section
ESCOM
)
of
important result
increasingly
(
imbalances
British capital an
it
1
,
so
strongly
. ). “
the first state corporation
(
in
,
as
1922
the Industrial
when
disgruntled and unemployed
.
petit bourgeois Afrikaners
For African
/
,
to
the structural
legitimacy caused
was the establishment
propagated
of
crisis
of
interventionist approach
pay
the Botha Smuts government accepted
after World War
the decade
, An by
of
liberal capitalism
see
,
in
the
However
the latter
won the
were disastrous
When the Union was established ideology
1924
employees
(
and
they had 60
59
1922
Act was passed
had
9 6
Concilliation
the events
power
)
mineworkers
Although white mineworkers
bargaining
their
was the case after
.
terms
the
per cent and remained
against African competition
protection
of
statutory
of
in
price
for
.
at
their wages fell
colour bar
and
white mineworkers was
by
,
result
this lower level until the 1940s
battle
led
,
.
reduced
a
considerably
But
the bargaining power
1907 and 1914
As
of
the strikes
trade union rights
from
especially
white
entrenchment
the
in
Africans
and the exclusion
victory
of .
of
)
Afrikaner mineworkers insofar
it
1922 therefore turned into as
The strike
of
.58
white workers
271
PART
3
The Pact government and the ' civilised labour policy ' on behalf of poor white Afrikaners ( 1924 – 33 )
.
,
,
,
.
a
caricature
of
hostile
as
record
the Pact
rhetoric against the gold mines during the election campaign
not translate
in
the
by
.
no
it
,
,
the
to
the
and
accumulation imperative
of
,
has
Act
,
civilised labour
and Works Amendment
.
1927
years
the
the “
four policy initiatives
Mines
by
.
Botha Smuts
it
almost
/
the
:
the for
Act
during
senior all
expert advice
of
from
of
inherited
hardly ignore
the
the SAP government
’
the
,
Pact was hampered the
it
‘
’,
,
',
1925
and the Native Administrative
2
could
adopted
become notorious
the Wage Act
longer
legitimisation imperative
While the Pact government perpetuated
of
subsequently
72
approach
new
-
native policy
segregationist measures
Smuts
23 ).
–
215
evolve
the NAD
of
-
.
be
to
to
:
devote more attention
was
.
in
its
-
As
officials
Consequently
about
and business oriented bureaucracy
regards
policy
concerned
a
its
In
to
it
the
1983
(
English
Pact
Act
Conciliation
previously militant white labour force into
consensual order
free
attempt
Industrial
the
-
necessary
see Yudelman
opted
co
controlled
-
the white
was therefore
the its
1924
of
.
adoption
for
government
the
and
in
1922
be
apparent volte face must judged against events during the two years before election victory The defeat the miners Its
into hostile policies
the gold
the
However
did
as
high
,
63
).
–
;
1994
2
Clark
see
60
1909
in
1924 were almost
:
in
(
amounts paid
foreign
contrasted the economic
many white South Africans with the enormous profits 1923 and
62
,
.
far -
reaching
's
–
It
.
of
dividends
might
of
the
Hoggenheimer
Jewish capitalist greedily exploiting South Africans industry
capitalism
state and capital
'
critical
did
and foreign
empower impoverished whites The
to
order
the Pact
1910
in
-
state founded
imperialism
symbiosis between
economic policies
problems
LP
-
.
Smuts
than
for
far
white oriented
and
Given that Hertzog
During the election campaign the Pact called
Pact was relentlessly
Those
small businessmen
government
greater extent
British
and
be margin
,
the
–
to
a
–
1924 that
white workers
white supremacy
“
in
changes
the
its
endangered
legitimacy
strong hostility
in
feared
.
was
of
the
white interests
strengthened
Given
controlled
now
to
represented
the
a
petit bourgeois
after the
The Pact victory can therefore
primarily white workers
of
the
alised white communities
The
be it
victory for the consolidation
as
regarded
and poor Afrikaners
.
particularly unemployed
completed
bitter campaign that strongly
state protection
greater
for
, the
the NP and
of
emphasised the need
election after
1924
a
strike won the June
1922
union formed
electoral
power
assumed
practical purposes
of .
, ,
on
government based
and Cresswell
by
was – for
formation
state
an
of
process
all
of Hertzog
When the Pact government
in
.8
8
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
1926
competency
about 8000 jobs
whites While the Pact government was less concerned about the
for
in
',
)
on
it
industries
.
levels
to
for
Thusminimum
per cent lower than they had been
in
in
service
stimulate employment
relatively
the
for
'
, ie
put pressure low
at
23
were
the public
66
in
1933
policy
doing
(
to
'(
65
,
its
In
'
'
wage rates for whites
civilised labour
higher wages
and also
attempt
was
mainly
'(
To
.
“
a
)
.
so
do
to
tariffs
the
.
It
.
of
's
64
.
.
African
civilised wages were pegged
),
whites
create
,
.
protected
and the
jobs for white unemployed
civilised rate
Railways
white
solve the
labour policy
civilised
The government applied this
blacks
the South
by
on
same jobs and
some coloureds as
and
whites
the
wages
initiatives
main
effect the policies involved paying
In
of
difficult
very
were
the minister
eliminate the economic incentive
The Pact government
industrial development
Industrial
to
to
this was
“
of
,
.
The purpose
empowered
prescribe the same minimum
white unemployment problem promotion
the
of
's
a
to
white employment
protection
employ black miners
labour market
loopholes
closed certain
1925
wage board and
and black labour
blacks
(
at
,
)
Act
Wage
Conciliation Act
to
from
segregationist measures
protecting whites predominantly
aimed
in
.
,
Consequently
against competition
was more concerned
it
predecessors
,
than
the
its
of
African labour
enacted were mainly discriminatory
appoint
It is
.
and 1933 the Hertzog government transferred
about white unemployment
The
.
be
to
–
'
estimated that
supply and cost
Afrikaners
The
.
to
blacks
from
vires
themining industry
,
1924
ultra
of
.
in
skilled trades
Works Act
and
this time simply
whites and coloureds thus excluding Africans and Indians between
' on
for by
reserving certificates
colour bar
the
in
restored
1926
in
amendment act
of
of
but
the Mines
1923 the Supreme Court had declared this
in
1911
fact been introduced
in
colour bar had
“ colour bar
a
workers This measure was not entirely
white and coloured
‘
, .A
new
Act introduced
and Works Amendment
favour
in
mines
Mines
' of
The
PERIOD OF BRITISH IMPERIALISM the
THE SYSTEMIC
and established
'S
,
of
35
-
)
black
mass movement voiced branches throughout
ICU ).
of
(
the strike
a
:
10 to ,
's
Commercial Workers Union
into
in
the
,
1996
distribute
broad
Union
.
popular grievances
itself
over
a
of
see Rich
efforts
,
transformed
of
-
co
'
NAD
the
and
sectors
a
–
1920
state authority
'
to
also advanced
African and coloured workers which organised
,
range
of
workers
Industrial
indirect rule
the reserves and controlling the rate
various economic
the
-
of
union
the mid 1920s
in
In
cheap African labour
NAD
opted tribal chiefs and
maintaining the
This
means
in
African proletarianisation
act
society
.
the disintegrating African
a
as
customary
colonial policy
the authority
enhanced law
revived African
It
,
'.
native reserves
‘
the
and consolidated
its
and power
influence
1927 significantly advanced
(
The Native Administration Act
of
of
.
1920
273
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
of
,
,
,
to
and to
).
:
,
to
.
,
it
to
the
in
if
–
-
at
’
‘
sharp increase
in
the
in
artificially
jobs
solving the poor white the
Afrikaners
of
/
not succeed
in
.
did of
1932
the
,
by
.
the 69
At
and exploiting blacks
segregationism
This only happened after
the enlistment
,
in
of
gold
problem
policies
widepread agreement among
Although many poor whites were employed
blacks the Pact strategy
unemployment
the same time
British English capital and the creation
, .
cost
of
the
for poor Afrikaners
274
in
of
the profitability
the Afrikaner petit bourgeois and
Cresswell
perpetuating
of
of
of
the importance
behalf
price
and
Pact government strikingly illustrate
of
the
of on
whites
Hertzog
1924
of
of is
on
the Union
which
South Africa was based was not endangered when the capitalist oriented SAP
white worker parties
to
a
as
,
not the ideological level What
.
the rhetorical
strengthened
that the power constellation
Botha and Smuts was replaced
in
in
'
).
,
as
.
were undeniably
or
on
'
'
,
perhaps more important
least is
,
then
and the
during
of
's
/
‘
racial capitalism
white supremacy
racial policy However
the Pact government the whiteness
actual policies
of
fact
1924
,
's
in
the
crucial
racial history the Pact government
Smuts Botha government
racial character
tax
:
(
to 68
182
contracts were granted
).
(
:
1993
South Africa
at
period
was not primarily
assist those industries using
government
,
in
mind
of
of
perpetuated
is
' of
,
but
Although many historians regard the Pact victory turning point
and
did not
it
'
in
.
's
67
.
the
same objective
whether
nor would be mining opposed
tariff protection
stimulate white employment and numerous
with
black
inward industrialisation policy was clearly meant
Its
to
comprehensive
stimulate industrialisation
mainly white labour
industrialisation
1932
1983 228
Kemp
Tom
of
a
it
see
The government
intended
the in
in the
According
industrial capital
representative
1924
see Yudelman
the Pact government
-
a
to
.
capital
1931
the
significant
white
gap between
white
However
from
.3
11
,
in
respect
mines
of
:1
in
:
). 15
1921
the mines more
employ poor
contributed
gold
was only
unionism
not
did
capacity
1926
1946
253
1986
earnings
consciously worked out policy
correct
trade
to
,
in
to
-
of
colour bar
the
Native
the
strike
promote the industry
industrialisation
initiated
,
his way
:1
of of
–
question
it
what extent
from
as
see
(
wages declined
about the mines
Remarkably
114
black
Cameron
foreign shareholders
1986
The main
,
,
to
.
entrenchment
Lipton
have
mineworkers
from
the Pact government
concerned
went out
disinvestment
Murray
expectations
heavily Hertzog Afrikaners
see
(
in
the 1970s
Contrary
renewed
Apart
000 black workers participated
rekindled
the
contained strictures against black trade unions
.
movement declined 70
the
,
also
rapidly
adoption
to
Administration Act which
which
But after
demands
.
in
radical
become
the ICU had some 100 000 members and had
the
,
peak year
to
quite
its
By 1927 ,
its
3:
PART
the
South African forces
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH IMPERIALISM that participated
,
World War
in
ofmany additional jobs
and the creation
2
the
in
industrial sector during the war .
The English establishment regains political hegemony in 1933 , and maintains it until 1948
of
.
It
in
to
it .
In
and
,
-
–
,
of
CM
the
from
Smuts
–
serious
the
entered into
a
to
in
solve
to
)
,
the Cape
.
's
.
Smuts
hidden
support
This was
agenda was
was
of
.
on
lower taxes
in
gain
's
' 's
to
the
the economy
'
for
-
in
this
gold
the
revenues
)
50
tax only
per cent
the bonanza
50
50 /
“
called
-
the
so
Under
economic and political
of
the
"
on
).
:
1983
altar
.
.
-
Africans
to
sacrifice
It
that Smuts
to
old
of
,
in its
NP
,
.
tax most
also demonstrates
Hertzog agreed
,
arrangement
currency thus
English oriented SAP were prepared
of
the
Meara
'
see
's
,
‘
the mining industry
entrenched political rights
expediency
exchange
43 –
in
in
in
most members
(
the
(
and
South
taxing the gold bonanza The fact that Smuts ugly horse trading and allow the abolition
the Cape
power
role
support Smuts
Smuts
the
preceding negotiations both was
voters
of
demonstrates
Hertzog
common
with
1936
of
the
African franchise
from
from
engage
to
to
prepared
the
removing Africans
O
for
.
Hertzog and Smuts had hidden agendas
stop Hertzog
a
a
of
of
March 1933 During
threatened
pressure
Under
.
in
coalition with Hertzog
sectors
higher taxes
the prospect
sterling
per cent
attempt
among Afrikaners by
(
which was distressed
support other
to
sector
unemployment problem
fact accomplished
some
an
farming
the
which
and devalued
1932
6
especially
September 1931
the pound
Pact government announced proposals
bonanza and use the income
1932 and
.
mines
gold
insoluble
and SAP respectively
45
in
December
in
1933
the
only
government made the costly mistake
by
of
the
Early
in
boosting the income
1929
.
all
in
Africa left the gold standard
the economy
the
the
of
both Hertzog and Smuts
not
South Africa
seemingly
year between
political turmoil
Amid
.7º
suit
and especially
that followed the collapse
and depreciated
.
not following
leaderships
gold standard
per cent The South African
40
than
6
.
suspended
sectors
–
In
unemployment rocketed
per cent
and
power created
Africans
serious and
of
by
Pact government with
economic crisis GDP declined Britain
white
October 1929 made itself felt
in
York stock exchange
presenting the
of
its
4
but also intensified
the early 1930s the great world depression
New
more
ramifications
,
prolonged their subjugation the
and
The context
was exceptionally detrimental
society
–
Afrikaner
1933
–
of
by
.
power relations were significantly restructured the events
political and
political and economic structures
–
that period
in
its
economic history ;
's
years in South Africa
by
The years 1933 and 1934 were watershed
in
.9
of
8
This
275
private
later acknowledged that after 1993
had
as
,
Yudelman
1983
:
Potts quoted
avarice
in
dreams
'(
.
‘
made profits beyond
of
the
mining house historian
72 A
sector
well
to the state as
,
arrangement was extremely advantageous
it
the
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3:
,
PART
)
.
252
(
),
to
F
.
of
of
to
,
of by
to
60 ;
-
:
see
of
,
in
256
a
as the
of
in
(
as
on
,
to
a
by
this period the
manufacturing
state
creating
the
for
period
of
of
.
In
of
.
basis
of
40
the
, for
any meaningful
the
increases
gold
in
not result
feature
of
on
more strongly
and the regaining
The most remarkable
the
of
,
both
1911
and
The huge
).
253
7
1983
–
Yudelman
in
they had been
:
see
1946
the real wages
',
avarice
were lower than
(
level until
of .
,
low
even
the
black labour force
African mineworkers
at
prime minister
imported machinery also encouraged
amid riches beyond the dreams
that
gold
years
in
it
.
or
either the white
did
industrial
an
or
(
of . 2
, to
the development
High duties
mainly
interests
establishment
in
.
that lasted
the
their capacity
launched
and
policy was
state
white
promote
symbiosis between
1948 the
the
growth
of of
in
In
and the English
the 1930s was that
remained
the
)
.
Its
-
until
Smuts succeeded Hertzog
effect subsidised local industry
and
new
them
1986
)
co
of
.
accumulative
English establishment laid
iron and steel industry
white
Neither
beleaguered
explicit purpose was
the effective price
significantly
1936
by
)
(
's , ie
(
a
.
of
(
Cameron
white Afrikaners
period
World War
in
1932 increase
unprecedented
wages
already
between state and capital was
operation
the
), in
,
1939
towards business
political hegemony
boom
nationalism
.1 ). 73
.
When
participation
contributed
Afrikaner
Both trends subjected
system
and the economic
by
The
Purified
the
1948 and the subsequent
Africans
see Murray
interests
)
( or
-
of
oriented
symbiosis
capital nor the upsurge
and capital solved the poor white problem
issue
276
formation
the
and
state
excellence
developmental
English speaking whites
revolution
political history
and
9
business alliance par
farmers and workers
and
labour
and plunder
relationship
The new
state
These two political
and discrimination against blacks
for
of a
repressive
deprivation
social
Malan decided
heightened
the election
was good news
In
of
and
Smuts
radical version
symbiosis between
Afrikaner nationalism
and
NP
the repression
the heightened
also section
of
.
of
Malan
's
)
to
intensification
types
The second
presaged the upsurge
the victory
segregation
and
and
,
growth
accumulation and that led
Hertzog
economic
Fusion
capital and created conditions that were highly conducive
state and
movement
Africa
in
,
between
Purified
South
on
the alignment
(
The first
of
ie
,
a
profound effect
D
the Gesuiwerde
Afrikaners
section
NP .
break away and establish
led
a
of
,
launched the United Party
events had
Samesmelting
on
Hertzog and Smuts decided
1934
in
,
When
PERIOD OF BRITISH
of
at
the
a
it
,
.
it
as
)
for
of
the
.74
the
,
to
a
in
of as
,
on
, of
as
see
(
as so and
,
'
the
pay
of
an
'
because
obligation
rejected
vigorously
in
The chamber also
,
and
the
the 1946 African
arguing that
level
of
that the
.76
mines low
claim
the
this by
had
in
supply
a
could
to
,
CM
‘
a
labour was
Landsdowne
the
stable urban labour force
mineral
migrant
African
agricultural revolutions
in
of
'
cost
chamber
This culminated
often
to
wages paid
of
by
of
low
conditions
economic
myth
to
mines continued
African workers organised
.
the
capitalism
for
of
well
mining
the “
of a
to
a
migratory
precondition
chiefs
the gold
the
(
).
AMWU
The
of
a
'
from
'
a
liberal
the prohibition
).
wage
'.
in
.
living
that the
disastrous policy would force the closure
wages was
At
it
(
.
as
of
.
,
concluded
,
from
labour
black
75
'
the
in
the reserves
was
subsistence
provoking protests
move
Proponents
Smuts
collaborating
reproduction
which was violently supressed
'
a
such
gold
)
in
’.
by
'
resisted any
Afrikaners
1943 that the idea that the reserves
workers
strike
extend
After exhaustive investigations
African Mine Workers Union miners
to
-
,
:
the
,
in
so
‘
argument that part
migrant workers with
recommendation
final consolidation
migrant labour
The gold mines justified the
the reserves
migrant
pay
and
real terms despite the deterioration
growing poverty
the Fusion
white and black workers
much more problematic was that the
(
the
structural exploitation
commission concluded
of the
system
separated
institutions that
native reserves
part
,
its
of
.
on
,
laws the migrant
Harris 1975 257
carried
the
African labour was sustained
labour through the NAD
of
pass
workers with
had been
the third phase
coercion
Legassick
wages
the same time
position
and unemployed
such extra economic
of ).
in
:
(
by
behalf
perpetuation
low
poor
The relative cheapness
African strikes the control
industry
While Hertzog was
of
the
313
the persistence
What made
had lost
the state and capital
Both
proceed with
what Trapido identifies
repression 1971
modified
that
sector were responsible for several measures intensifying
corporate
labour repression
the
effectively
and capital under
state
of
a
as
strong enough
discriminatory legislation
rate
Industrial Conciliation
19349
for Africans
setback
segregationist legislation
and
’
'
'
the
for
symbiosis between
themselves
grew
unskilled urbanised poor white Afrikaners
It
regarded
cost
workers
and black
industrial bargaining power
Fusion government
interests
huge
so
?
a
-
co
6
government was
white
while the economy
1940
regards white labour
its
look after
until
opted and depoliticised
important
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of
year
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.
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1932
militancy but also
as
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it
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had
1924
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per cent
the
of
of
almost
from
were therefore attained
could the wages
both white and black labour How
increase only slightly
–
industrial take -
government income –
in
,
'create' the
to
used
off
profits of the gold industry and the sharp increase
IMPERIALISM
at
THE SYSTEMIC
the
277
we
the
).
(
on
' its
the
of an
in
important
to
in
to
,
African labourers
.
,
,
of
,
.
(
.
promote and help
,
finance new industries and build
278
'
was
'
to
racial stratification
classified
unskilled
either exclusively
for be
and
'
'
'
skilled as
jobs would have
. If
Africa
be
these new
South
to
,
continued
in
outside the racially defined legal classification used
Mass
semi skilled positions which fell
of
new
-
created
‘
in
.
closer relations between government and privately owned industry wartime factories
was
)
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local industries to
strongly
countries
other
and
requirements IDC
's
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to
war industry was established
the Union Defence Force
from
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scale industrial boom
-
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81 A
.
of
full
of
:
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imports
labour previously
mere
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food was
,
,
of
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cash
annual wage
of
,
1947 the average
In
.
white farmers were
labour
80
the 1930s
decline
production
to
continued
,
a
.
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result
the dismay
to
;
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.
order
remnants
finally end
).
30
in
.
.
79
to
)
As
farmers
conditions
considerable
in
Smuts
fearing black unrest the Smuts
despite the scarcity
proportion
1940
quest
urban areas thus intensifying the labour problems
to
,
.
to
(
2
transform
this issue during the war years
white farms including the
established
a
the 1940s played
was designed
increase African wages
continue the gold boom
established
'
,
a
,
in a
on
its
heels
World War
stimulated
it
.. .
its ”
(
)
of
6
on and
see Posel 1991
sharp
first
The
the Stallardist
The inability
give farmers greater control over
However
on
African males
Land
,
in
13 ,
(
1936
)
's
,
(
of
not prepared
and
The third prohibited
Stallardist line
white farms into wage labour
white farms
white farmers
The
areas
urban
it
of
from
the
1937
areas thus extending
was not implemented immediately
migrate
with
1948
white predominantly Afrikaner
produce
South African land
more aggressively
in
to
NP
of
Land Act
government dragged
R64
the common
urban
Africans victory
election
squatting
African
mark
Laws Amendment Act
control African urbanisation
labour tenancy
However
per cent
and taking
influx
the
4
in
Chapter
of
1923
of
of
the
to
control
water
the Development Trust
1936
the Cape from
acquiring land
legislation
the
of
a
total
,
from
role
Native
high
to
78
.
Africans
'
to
a
separate roll
see
roll and placed them expand the native The second authorised the government
removed African voters
government
)
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Blacks Native Act
and the Black
reserves
reached
(
of
legislation
(
(
),
Representation
and
extreme
occurred
),
Segregationist
emphasis
the opposite
been
).
's
:
;
.
1971 315 author
have suggested that
turn
practice
In
labour was not essential
Trapido
1936
might
wages
control
Act
of
1935
of
have
in
to
would
raising
The
Mines cost structure
accept
raise African wages significantly some time between
of
.
1950
the Chamber
of
the
imperative
possible
important point that even
if
.
early 20th century Trapido makes
‘
the
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3:
PART
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,
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or
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's
NP
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).
78 – 80
the
into
urban
areas during the war their
coercive mechanisms
,
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used
by
an
of and
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among Afrikaner workers about and Wolpe victory See important role the
:
,
conditions
in
.
,
, .
the commission
The growing dissatisfaction
The large influx
be
at
,
which would
corporate sector
Afrikaner employees
's
of
Africans
properly implemented the UP was defeated
Beinart and Dubow 1995
made
they would have resulted
-
of
that the Fagan
,
be
time
English dominated
and the real wages
Smuts government accepted most
wage security played
the
patterns were concerned
and labour
,
for
employment opportunities
jobs
threatened
limited concessions
economic conditions
have either reduced the profits
this
for
that certain
Africans
and improved
before they could
'
'
‘
was
of
urbanisation
It
.
recommended
the
higher wages
unskilled
,
84
.
colour bar
the
of
)
8
–
1946
and
and their political control and therefore began
these recommendations had been implemented
.
it
'
‘
low
of
to
of
of
relaxation
the
as
far
the Smuts
war the English mining and industrial
After
their enterprises
(
a
to
commission
skilled
realise that growing African militancy
to
began
profitability
as
openly
).
:
corporations
of
growth see
industrial and political conflicts between
increased
employers and black workers
living
strict
1983 227
manufacturing gave rise
1948
53
,
,
).
,
Without acknowledging
The ambiguous situation concerning
favour
by
of 10
–
118
based
encouraged the rationalisation and mechanisation paid African labour during the war years the basis
on
'
O
Meara
per cent between
would not sustain such dramatic
government actively industry
labour costs fell
became apparent that old labour policies
107
:
1994
of
-
–
manufacturing output jumped
race and skills differentiation
Clark
at
positions
as
value
1939 and 1945
,
-
the industries
manufacturing production expanded rapidly throughout the
But the
–
country
skilled whites
it
83
.
markedly
those
than
Smuts
skilled and semi
which African workers were drawn into semi skilled operators wage rates considerably lower
82
.
-
In
blacks during the war years
by
the
In
many
process
the post war period
all
take
war
skilled work under
do
to
.
to
when white soldiers would return skilled jobs occupied
labour issue
sensitive
to
addressing
. of
merely postponed
in
-
the engineering and other industries up
in
supervision
Smuts was not manufacturing
masked under emergency
diluted
the
to
be
Fearing
skilled and semi skilled labour
unqualified black workers were allowed
a
;
measures
semi skilled work
, of
.
allowed the colour bar
Smuts
white businessmen
alleviate the serious shortages
To
to
address
industries
legal definition
production costs
,
white voters and
from
of
repercussions prepared
for
whites with serious ramifications
,
blacks or
the
for
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH IMPERIALISM
the
state
poor and
279
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
‘liberals ' who
.
segregationism
.
some
gold
white artisans formed their
own African Federation
.
1946 it
ten
,
in
)
of
all
of
contingent
mines
and was
The strike leaders were tried under War
.86
.
many others
with
145
which the Smuts government suppressed
assumed power
1948
in
Natal
the
segregationism on
of
colour
discrimination
'
“
argues that systemic
.
when
NP
was well entrenched
the
.
bar and influx control Basil Davidson
Indians
pragmatic concessions in
notwithstanding
,
labour repression
the strike and
to
was still committed its
Transvaal shows clearly that
1943 and 1946
it
curtail the land rights
in
to
passed legislation
87
in
The manner the
on
seriously affected
which 70000
,
.
16000 policemen
on
Production stopped completely
.
The Smuts government suppressed
of
strike
the
increasing
about in
CM
commission
wages the AMWU organised
'
not accept
did
in
Landsdowne
a
, of
the
which
senior members
than
workers participated
and
(
(
more radical position
When the government and the
recommendations
ANCYL
),
of
.
radicalisation
the time the
black politics that caused
a
,
in
organisation
mineworkers
adopted
1944
.
the
was formed
a
government circles The ANC Youth League
war
to
great concern
in
social upheavals
It
.
1944
in
000 members
campaigned
At
In
.
constituted
a
led
to
(
have
1942
1943 the African
of
the
and claimed
)
AMWU
'
,
energetically
was formally 25
Mine Workers Union
Measure
145
.
,
to
was introduced
280
CNETU
The CNETU soon launched several strikes War Measure prohibit strikes but was not effective
from
Unions which
Trade
Non European Trade Unions -
of
in
a
,
.
1941
Council
of
realising they could expect little support
,
the 1930s African workers was incorporated
By
suppressed
then
.
1920s but were
,
in
the
.
Black trade unions were active
and
be
the price
85
in
the future
century
have been partly valid earlier
,
1932 onwards
-
stage
however they were entirely invalid after the sharp increase from
a
economy would
; .
Africans improved
might
manufacturing
of
–
arguments
Liberal
the
the
These sorts
wages
,
,
of
and
liberals
economy still needed more African
argued that the expanding the
,
and founded
but that the industrial colour bar and repressive
dismantled
be
This moral
The humanitarian
mainly mining
to
liberal capitalist
and
the
abolition
1953 The economic determinists
entrepreneurs workers
economic determinism
.
to a
advocate
to in
Party
entrepreneurial class
split between the humanitarian liberals and
school that emphasised began
speaking
first
the
and economic progress proved
segregationism English
' of Africans . For
in
for
'
the retribalisation
-
irreconcilable
had, before the war , favoured
in
of
the ideology
dilemma led
' and
of
time,
segregationism
of
“ protectionist
the new urban squatter settlements created
in
serious moral dilemma for those
the
a
control Africans
to
,
municipalities
at
3:
–
PART
Although Smuts
his
relaxation
of
,
measures were relaxed during the 1940s
these
).
9
(
:
of
of
)
of
the
of
it
until
favouring
an
act
late
gradual ways that
in
to
in
in
,
.
much
the segregationist South
very careful not
brand
to
of
(e
the basic legitimacy
opposed
1913
moderate organisation
would enable the white government
organisation
that acted
unconstitutionally
During
segregationist period there were periodic signs
of
the
.
or
illegally
and
specially the Land Act
Until the 1940s the ANC was
state
protest against the disen
the northern provinces
remained
and did not question
the 20th century
first half
as
African
,
, .
1940s However
it
the segregationist legislation
reform
25
,
Africans
a
franchisement
the 20th century its
the
1912
in
The ANC was established
of
of
puzzling
racist
black protest against the segregation
the mainly English establishment
.
is
policy
and ineffectiveness
it
The weakness
see
ineffectiveness and ideological orientation of
,
weakness
years
half
the first
in
Black protest
in
10
8
.
legislation would occur during the next
ch
would have foreseen that the most comprehensive and cruel phase
few
.
of
which
to
books
statute
many racist measures was nonetheless meaningful
the implementation
Given the extent
from
IMPERIALISM
,
law
single segregationist
a
did
of
not remove
the
PERIOD OF BRITISH
THE SYSTEMIC
more radical
.
sharpened
.
its
)
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of
100 000
were sufficient reason
and
for it
1926
to
,
ICU
of
39000
the
of ,
dangerous organisation and legislation
Act 1927 contained exiling political for leaders
.
provisions
When this clause proved impossible demise
the
ICU
1930 enabled
of
the in
.
to
Dubow
,
;
3
ch
1996
:
;
3
–
Rich
This
led
Riotous Assemblies Act
of
.
the
Beinart and Dubow
).
-
5
:
the ICU
embracing both urban
and the close links between
deport several ICU leaders
see Davenport 1991 270
(
from
CPSA
subversive
, to
the minister
a
of
clause
politically
implement amendments
:
the 1920s when
The Native Administration
tough
to
'
be
to
it
to
neutralise
hostility
considered
Africa
regard the former
'
its
in
was enacted
South
to
government
to
the
.
the Communist Party
as
Its
-
.
membership increased
1927 The aggressive attitude
164
came
the radicalisation
nation wide and regional black movement
and rural workers
1995
second example
resistance
but this was harshly
1920
in
)
(
a
became
in
coloured
of , ,
'
and especially
A
security forces
.
by
.
black
strike
of
to
out The ANC organised the mineworkers suppressed
political
persist with segregationist policies commitment disagreements among key ANC leaders the protest petered
's
of
,
because
1917 and 1922 black
distinctly when black political leaders were radicalised
the government
But
Between
in
awareness
by
,
harsh and authoritarian manner
a
in
,
black resistance but the government suppresssed these easily although often
281
The
ANC
its
,
,
an
roll
1936
(
a
) the
(
four appointed
and
further
'
per cent
of
to
13
South African Native Trust
native reserves
‘
by
were elected
a
by
the
represented
Native Representative Council NRC
establishing
the
size
and
,
the common
Union were
)
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(
Blacks
by
to
of
of
provoke
South
Jabavu
,
,
the AAC
by
more specifically
and
led
.
's
Africa
territory
of
the
tasked with increasing
.
.
to
D
,
.
,
it
'
the
1936
.
)
territorial segregation
effective
).
bills
government was created The Development Trust and Land Act entrenched
ICU
3
ch
in
whom
and
)
African members
CPSA
becoming
from
the Cape from
.
the same time
of
16
with
All African
create the
The Representation
roll All Africans
(
.
four white senators
voters
At
separate
a
them
in
,
African
This ideological
the ANC
native
in
removed
elite
.
the African
on
of
placed
1936
from
a
sharp reaction
Hertzog
‘
have expected
One would
Act
a
in
) (
:
1996
affairs
DT Jabavu
divisions within the AAC prevented
protest movement see Rich
moderate Pixley
the 1930s both the ANC and the CPSA
united front
12
,
However
1935
the
the
(
AAC
as
division created the opportunity for Convention
1930
little influence over public
exerted
radical
operation between the ANC and
of
and
of
.
,
declined
For the best part
rather
-
.
,
Seme was elected president After this CPSA was suspended
adopted
James Gumede
the ANC reacted against this and
in
,
others
protest politics When under the
ANC president
the then
co
,
influence
views
1920s the CPSA became active
late
,
the
In
in
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3:
PART
protested
but peacefully against the Hertzog bills Jabavu described the Cape justice inherited from African franchise treasured gift
, of
of
,
the
.
,
leaders
and the
Rich
the ANC
black
1991
284
;
–
for
on
of
African
7
the
,
,
from
The strike drove
in
of
,
frustrations
African mineworkers failed
and
improve
the
attempts
to
its
’
indirect rule
of
of
When
the
claims
,
1946
and
the
August
the
.
in
trusteeship
.
strike
.88
declared
in
wages and working conditions
auspices
the ANC published African
1943
principle
1941 under
'
.
the
it
rejected
of
B
A
Dr
in
,
to
was established
of
,
the AMWU
a
the
the African
Despite strong resistance
demanded incorporation into white structures
282
NRC
white trusteeship
see Davenport
segregation revived
Transvaal African Congress which
principle
Xuma became president
In
CM
,
When 1940 political opposition the
representation
patronage between
white political domination
seats
:
of
the ties
and obtained
some
and
, 6 ).
:
1996
ch
system
the white
4
and
system
new
albeit implicitly with
of
,
agreed
strengthened
fought
of
By reluctantly accepting the leadership
a
)
though not Jabavu
the
the end
noblest monument
(
',
In
ANC members
than
African leaders accepted the Hertzog bills
(
rule
'.
's
man
nothing less
and
'
Victoria
Queen
as
in
the
.
vehemently
AMWU African
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH IMPERIALISM
point,
leaders with the NRC to breaking
the
co
the
-
.
a
the
in
power and the
of
state
+
to
of
of
of
(
in
the
.
of
,
racist ideologies
,
huge irony that
in
the rise
the
justify
repressive labour
liberal values and
the
to
among whites was suspended
idea
.
parliamentary government
a
.
for on
.
African elite remained devoted
.
in
order to
segregationism
in
,
when
(
of
1950
vested interest
cheap labour From then
!
),
practices
the
the ideology
to
1890
Cape liberalism
until
discovery
to
of
was the most important
which segregationism from
creating the space
The Cape
19th century
After
the Cape gained
is a
liberalism
in
of
the mission stations
whose profitability depended declined
the
1850
stations
mission
Christian humanism
the second half
the 19th
the privileges
the Christian
,
liberal tradition
from
elite enjoyed
,
the gold industry
only stretched
It
mercantile elite and
the second half
in
state
on
-
the white controlled
.89
of
white pressure groups played
of
,
the
, )
by
liberal tradition was maintained gold the white champions
and
the virtues by
convinced the African elite
its
of
of
In
.
Apart from
not understand
small African
legislature of
in
the Cape
is
It
. all
).
7
–
to
by
26 –
:
and ineffectiveness
white
Cape liberalism
but during that period
for its
a
of
of
in
5
an 1996
'
O
at
in
64 –
Meara
racial
Westminster had concentrated
of
age
a
The golden
participating
by
1948 the ANC called
enormous
liberal tradition
of
90
, .
1890
the Cape
in
by
A
century
of
the very end
of
Act
and
very important factor was the strong reformist outlook inculcated
black leaders
period
ANC
aggressive
and demanded that
the 20th century
consolidating and perpetuating the power
in
67 ).
:
:
(
first half
ideological rationalisations
the
in
.
the it
9
157
had done
leaders simply
,
important role
regime
advanced for the weakness
economic power the
hands many black
1996
did
black protest during
political and
-
the
can
formulating
segregationist
Bundy 1993
be
Several reasons
Rich
the first time
abolished
vigorous
adoption
the
of
-
be
discrimination
#
36
:
(
universal suffrage
;
strategy against
see Posel 1991
the ANC
more
into
the formulation
's
to
strategy
operation
first attempt the ANC political against white domination
This was
remarkable that the ANC only succeeded comprehensive
political elite
soon dominated
–
,
of
1949
1940s
organisation
new
renewed
moderate
was instrumental
and
common
a
formulate
action
from
so
strategy
and
Programme
The ANCYL
.
nationalism
ideology
this
in
mobilise popular support under
.
African
prepared
role
;
militant movement
the
to
during the 1930s The ANCYL was
been suspended
had
transforming the ANC
to
committed
strategic
a
with the CPSA that
played
in
(
in
which Nelson Mandela
The radicals
1944
)
ANCYL
in
was the formation
a
of
the
the most important events in African politics
of
Perhaps one
1890
during the strike, they voted
this body .
suspend
rule
,
and
283
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
the two
settler communities
Africans
the
of
understood
Boer War
all
to
against the assurance given
This betrayal must
during the Anglo
by
the hands
British
Westminster placed political power almost exclusively
Act
'.
of
in
betrayal when
not appreciate the full meaning
‘ of
the
,
the African elite
and parliamentarian
Cape liberalism
-
government
their devotion
be
strength
to
On
did
the
3:
of
PART
the
's ,
of
. the
of the
by
co
of
-
of
to
.
,
,
,
of
by
of
the as a
by
to
(e
The NAD was employers
best interests
,
Africans that
of
of
white
elite core
to
,
of
not only
the
.
state
in
in
the
)
African
putting Africans
-
This enabled the white controlled
also section
. ).
157
another 9 7
the Africans belonged
to
as
Rich 1996
it
'
“
‘
for
on
behalf
succeeded
:7 if . ,
see
its
on
business
(
or
the South African state
another realm
the
see
with
to
–
“
,
as
-
.
in
At
NAD gave the government was
mainly rural
activities the NAD
the
labour specially the gold political and ideological
–
its
of
carry
'
and
(
an
the range
'
to
‘ “
important
reformist policy applied
Through
time the NAD acted
the white power constellation
‘
was
.
community
284
sounding board
repressive African labour patterns
a
to
'
segregation
country
cheap African
maintaining the authority and sovereignty
convince
chiefs
white authority
given
advice
the same
The information
therefore strategically placed
state
co
.
.
in
to
and
and
reformist leadership
of
African society
the
the missionaries
corrupted
the 1940s the
the
trends
),
and white farmers
of
’
for employers
mines
outside
Until
the NAD
a
-
'
house
their discourse
collaborating class during
not escape the moderate
the ANC could
and although
themajority
white trusteeship
opted
patronage
English speaking bureaucrats
but also
the rhetoric
.
forms
in
of
with generous
develop
segregationism
Many chiefs were
the 20th century
of
of
various African tribes were
and black unrest
families
of
principle “
the
(
:
1996
accordance with
In
of
See Rich
intentions
11 ).
with African leaders was reminiscent
crucial
,
in
accepted the ideology
they enthusiastically
enter into
the NAD was remarkably
missionary
from
and
reformist
defusing black radicalism
even
of
and
officials were recruited
Cape liberals
supposed
about the
a
.
containing
clearing
Westminster
operate with white
their own governance
During the segregationist period
successful
in
servants
whites
segregationism
core
Act
black protest during
67 ;
discourse with
mainly tribal chiefs
–
politicians and white public
first half
them
,
especially African leaders
NAD
the
‘
weakness and ineffectiveness
prevented
period another remarkable phenomenon was the preparedness
segregationist
Many
of
from
the state created
of
Apart
the
questioning the legitimacy
from
a
of
loyalty towards parliamentary processes and the rule
law
,
40
.
a
'
population groups would enjoy equal laws British colonial authority that equal liberties after Boer defeat For more than years African elite
PERIOD OF BRITISH IMPERIALISM
THE SYSTEMIC
Endnotes 1
The large British corporations involved
and diamond exploration were new
in gold
Africa . From the beginning of the mineral revolution until 1910 a close partnership developed between these corporations and the British government, players in South
co
in
-
,
.
in
in
the
.
by
,
30
-
– a
to
,
to
on
it
for
).
war
1899
in
:
for
-6
to
,
cause that was lost
a
,
a
,
)
in
).
by
on
50
),
as
of
35
,
(
).
desperate
scorched homesteads and putting
'
a
,
000 Afrikaner
000
Africans many In
000
000
camps
a
,
;
estimated
concentration 20
in
least
an
It
).
2
a
at
least
the
Canada Australia
and
at
colonies
the war Lord Kitchener launched
burning down more than
to
,
British
fought
500 000 men
which conditions were appalling
phase
conduct
has been
(
from
40
in
million
million
It
£20
.
:
,
).
Almost
soldiers and
of
of
to
,
,
[
“
)
30000
-
:
),
(
184
the republican side accompanied
women and children
them
camps
a
£3 3
to
.
of
21 ;
(
,
Britain
22000 British
stop the guerrilla
by
as
,
of
-
a
by
men fought
( an
concentration to
as in
27000
estimated
policy
'
and budgeted
Zealand 000 from the South African colonies Thompson see 1990 141 was brutal war
Afrikaners died
attempt
1986
empire went
50
–
365 000 from
strongly
colony that
producing gold more
and cost Britain more than £220 on
000
companies into
peg
companies
Atmore and Marks 1974 128
,
that about
Cameron
British
about 30000 African agterryers auxiliaries
Africans
(
50
.
on on
a
at
of
17 –
Grundlingh
Kruger
the mining
Boer War the gold
last three months
lasted almost three years
fold
not prepared
pressure
than
annex the ZAR and turn
of to
'(
the war
expected
90
It
quoted
year
The burghers were also
supremacy that was finished
(
a
great illusion
and New
put
much higher level
social and economic conditions conducive
concept the restoration
British side
million
the gold mines
their farms and
the Anglo
see Clark 1994
estimated
the
of
as
.
,
behalf
Robinson and Gallagher conclude that the
Britain
for
essential
Heydenrich
discoveries ZAR government revenue
government was also
The ZAR
the eve
:
profitably
independent African tribes
gold
'
On
.
create
these were Pedi from north eastern wages higher than those elsewhere The
). a
in in
decade
in
over
(
could
interior entered and left
buy rifles which they regarded
the idea that Britain should
favoured
from
year this figure increased
little
pay
to
to
the area
years before the Rand
the labour situation
to
wanted
a
greater detail
155
15
:
1986 the
experiencing labour problems African mineworkers wages
.
discussed
.
labourers Most
,
in 4
increase
intervene
earth
will
1924
000 Africans
political existence
had averaged £110000
5
,
1890
to
,
'
#
“
1875 about
annually
Cameron
Whereas
it
–
-
from
1871 and
ensuring the continued
6
of
in
co
'
in
,
constructed
Pedi largely used their cash income
them
the maize
operation with the mining
opting the Transvaal and South African governments before
Transvaal who were drawn
well
–
8 .3
Between
Kimberley
for
mid - 19th
Cape Town and the
expansionism
their territorial close
in the
Grahamstown
in
solving their land labour and marketing problems which the racially based South African economic and political
in
2
The manner
systems were
3
colonial administration
support
in
–
companies
and after 1910
section
London
the northern provinces succeeded
in
farmers
'
the
. co
in
in
succeeded
colonial office
-opting both
the settler press
– and
,
the sheep - farming British settlers
be
,
century
. While ,
government
and the South African
them
in
and then between
285
to
).
:
18
.
of
on
–
1907
follows
;
a
000
of
of
the
(
the
from
).
:
(
342
– 3
,
Africans
enjoyed
different
1978a
'
in
people and 6000
coloured
the
race attitudes
not fundamentally
and the United States
the Cape
in
14
10
Province were
a
.
In
.
.
,
.
a
in
be
to
of
.. .
Rich
157
:
;
1996
(
it
of
of of
of
millions
segregation
,
,
For
48 )
-
(
.
a
special type
colonialism
and apartheid
and
into
new
party
:
‘
fused
on a
decided
their two parties
a
and the SAP respectively
).
was responsible for
This belies the popular myth and
policies
repressive
in
when
power was a
ideological
and
it
the 20th century
,
of
economic
,
,
political
discriminatory
that
1910
-
NP
1934 they
.
section
establishment
circles
of
of of ).
:
see
the
.
of
what were
61
the leaders 1933
colonialism
segregationist legislation
speaking
social controľ
and
difference between
formidable during the first half battery
developed and rationalised
that segregationism
's 8. 9
The English
(
coalition government the United Party
157
1996
in
(
Herzog and Smuts
14
no
perpetuation
In
Rich
see
political
claim
–
)
were
the
there was indeed
-
13
apartheid
the
– is 94
(
1948
Africans
in
's
12
indeed merit
There
entrenching white
).
emphasis
resilient instrument
that emerged
state
control and peripherilising black political policy making echelons What was unique
was the way
state
essentially colonial structures author
of
‘
the control
from
about the South African
Cape and
the
the Union parliament
modernising structures
demands away
in
in
proved
after Union
only three
1906
Africans
and
-
to
Africa
South
domination
million whites
Natal Coloureds
the important conclusion that the white controlled
by
in
11
Natal could not become members
1 1
in
the hands
the vote
.
Africans had acquired
of
4
,
vested almost exclusively
Rich comes
10
,
of
In
per cent
5
,
.
85
Cape voters were white per cent vote 1910 some per cent African coloured and only The total coloured population was half million and the total African population more than million Political power was to
qualified
the Western world
Europe
that
when Social Darwinism
century
20th
]
in
the culture
attitudes that prevailed
About
of
in
[
,
)
the early
in
,
).
:
it
'(
prominence
were
the
75
by
to
in
-
is
“ 9
Afrikaners
British
them
for the entrenchment
Thompson acknowledges
Leonard
:
as
out
of
May
events
quoted mines Yudelman 1983 Although mainly was Afrikaner leaders who lobbied franchise
that
the squatter
getting topsy turvy The whole position Boer Government calling troops keep English miners order while Dutchmen are replacing
white
a
the northern provinces
undermine the position
described
,
,
mining magnate
a
217
Cape
Eastern
Lionel Phillips
1986
the situation
already had legislation
the
in
peasants
Cameron
provoked
.
7
The SANAC report concentrated stage the Cape
8
Pakenham
the
worldwide outcry (
concentration camps . This strategy
into
in
see
the women and children
At
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
,
3
in
PART
English only
were
.
to
rebellion against the
the side
Britain
.
in a
staged
smash the
the Transvaal and OFS
of
World War
/
of
to
, -
newly established participate
000 government troops
small farmers on
Afrikaner
)
1914
NP
of
government used
1
's
286
Hertzog
decision
's
(
of
supporters
government
to
In
.
/
the later half
.
The Botha Smuts
strike
in
threatened
capital
60
of
general strike
by
mainly English speaking skilled workers seriously the accumulation function the state the dismay British English
1914
a
Early
in
15
-
institutionalised under the Afrikaner oriented NP government
This
PERIOD OF BRITISH
threatened
to deteriorate
civil war that
into a
IMPERIALISM the political
could have undermined
. Botha
the Afrikaner rebels
The
1922 when most white mineworkers
government the symbiosis between
its
;
, ,
an
on
-
3
.
:
in
the in
dominant role
section
In
).
,
to
;
a
the idea
. ).
9 1
the 20th century
play
until
follow
the 1930s and
in
God and destined
63 ,
:
of
African
1978 428
(
in
Kuper
in
,
47
(
1996
of
Hitler
see to
the second half
1936
in
,
in
to
in
Rich
1886
).
(
:
to
,
1887
its
such
proclaimed
people chosen
vote
racial superiority and divine election
(
Africa during
in
.
,
to
'
.
a
were
268
Victoria East
per cent
such measures were
of by
as
century Aryan superiority
an
In
1882
their parliamentary rights
;
18 19
of
).
an
set
by
constitutional measures Many
Relevant examples are British notions that Afrikaners
1996
the African
early precedent for the progressive diminution
the Africans were deprived
South
per cent
14
,
These acts
Thomas
King Williams Town Queenstown
and Woodhouse rose from
political rights
19th
whites
qualifications for Africans were first tightened
Franchise 196
506
348 non white voters
Ballot Act were passed
of
Eastern
Aliwal North
4
.
in
Cape seats
remove
by
ten
bill was
the first year and add
years before the Franchise Act and
five
the
-
the electoral roll
from
the
The effect of the
non whites
number
qualification
the property
from
R50 R150 and included education test poor white farmers the list and decrease the
from
the number
increase
owned property
,
of to
in
order
qualification
property
during
1948
1994
,
tribally
assumed power
state and capital was occasionally
but remained intact until
stressed
The Franchise Act excluded the
17
also severely
raised
the
of
years
NP
important power shift took place when in
46 An
16
.
,
in
even more damaging Rand Revolt took place were already Afrikaners
against
.
mainly Afrikaners
–
000 soldiers
-
of
an
army
40
legitimacy of the new state . It was fiercely repressed by Botha and Smuts
led
THE SYSTEMIC
evaluation we must take into account that Britain and
imperialist
of
Africa
South
).
:
of A
,
).
4
ch
:
Natal when Shepstone
and
. ).
in
1988
8 5
.
segregationist laws
Bundy
in
)
in
and
Britain
.. .
by
'
reconstruct the institutions
power greater than that wielded before and since
his
Milner
of
1905
]
1900
to
from
‘
the opportunity
to
years
[
]
[
with
a
.. .
administrative appointees had
Africa
[
'
:
Legassick also claims that during the
South
6 8
sections
192
were 1900 less racially segregated settlement and economic activity than were Natal and the Eastern
land
six
1994b
see
1982
to
..
'(
Cell
).
of
Cape
the
tried
73
terms
of
multitude (
a
of see
(
’
‘
'
or
of
‘
his
system
who
'.
's
kindergarten
1913 was the most important
reserve
of
.. .
influential members
did
Sir Alfred Milner
territorial segregation was also introduced
location
decade
studied the
.. .
So
.. .
the
on
subject
Worden alleges that the Transvaal and OFS
'(
23
of
21 22
created
or
in
ran a
.
segregation
The Glen Grey Act became the prototype
form
the
racial capitalism
the system
reconstruct the former Afrikaner republics after the Boer War
similar
racist to
-
deplorable
Several English speaking South Africans
British High Commissioner
which the Land Act
to
,
in a
,
,
,
of
highly
-
America
of
In to
The evolution
American literature
extensive
imperialist
the mining sector
.. .
behind that
terms
large scale
mineral revolution that was crucial
the process they extended
‘
follows
:
as
it
the agricultural sector
of
so
20
in
.
South African economy
He puts
their actions
in
and justify
succeed
the same time they launched
.
ideology
groups
a
At ,
plundering
local population
the
all
all
entrepreneurs had the necessary political military economic and financial power subjugate
287
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
45
price
low
Beinart and Dubow
in
suitably
'(
,
feudal relations of
on
.
for
)
In
'
.
of
90
. ),
(
Act
full implications
The
and
1923
),
)
(
Urban Areas
of (
.
in
,
Africa
these
of
liquidated much
and made ploughing more
a
and had
their capital
,
South
in
cattle
It
. of
farmers
their creditworthiness
affected
land ownership
. .
.
per cent
peasant
smaller
towns
which imposed
1911
8 7
and
8 6
almost
on
impact
catastrophic adversely
in
destroyed
This disease
sections
Act
and the Native
;
for
discussed
Kindergarten
which segregated
1913
residential segregation 80
be
laws will
and
),
Act
prohibited squatting and sharecropping which provided
his
Milner
these were the Mines and Works
the Natives Land
;
the colour bar
envisaged
(
,
The most important
by
‘
it
,
in
'
' of as
:
24
based
state
paragraph occurred the first time the report thinking about segregationist native policy for the systematised
Africa
future South
26
a
create throughout South Africa the conditions for
black labour
segregation
The word
many ways 25
destroy
to
– 6
1995
in
and
a
sufficiency
Transvaal
to
securing
a
in
at
power . .. was called
British
production
of
3:
the
PART
difficult and
as
,
us in
,
',
.
in
It
.
(
of
-
of .
Before his
white farmers
At
.
imperial interests
.
's of
to to
of
, ,
it
.
planned
introduce stricter measures )
especially the OFS and prevent
.
(
:
Africans were generous
,
to
to
occurred
Britain
native
work
enough
for
the land granted was be
'
‘
,
opportunities too restricted the native reserves would not support the migrant workers partially while they were employed and
,
to
,
in a
(
to
to
in
-
be
the
to
If
30
He also
areas
the needs and demands
self sufficient they would not come out
too little and farming
288
see
provided for the
the cabinet because
from
political incentive
land and farming opportunities granted
position
,
.
'
for
segregated
was dropped to
more sensitive Smuts had
then minister
since
than eventually
Africans
against Africans pacify white farmers order Hertzog see Rich 1996 them from defecting
them
in
in
in
by
Africans
18 in )
and
In
's
for
of
,
enacted
a
far
final bill was
white land grabbing and
Hertzog
complaint that the Botha government was too sensitive The
the government
wage earning proletariat
system
in
on
tenure
he
be
's
could
1912
the Glen Grey for
of
in
was drafted
individual land
that time Botha
leaving
).
Bill
.
to
into
a
to
African peasants
allocate substantially more land
bill
Zululand
male not liable hut tax 1906 The Bambatha claiming the lives was the almost 4000 Africans
affairs His bill was modelled
Hertzog
their proper
the Delimitation
1905
squatting
and undoubtedly the result
turn
will
the day
– 9
:
The original Land
1906
counteract
the native
with
century was
the 20th
white settlement
every
,
',
-
attempts
To
.
on
until 1907
Davenport 1991 208
extension
;
be
2 6 in
R2
a
of
,
systematic
29
tribal hands
Anglo African war
‘
last
rebellion
million acres
,
set aside
unrest continued
emphasis
author
sparked the Bambatha
million acres poll tax
3 9
only
imposed
271
actions against Africans early
's
Commission
it
that
thankful that we have the natives with
:
in
'(
28
The government
connected
supreme race
the
so
Thomas 1996
quoted
to
If
.. .
all
position
in
is
.. .. I
come when we shall
aggressive
their position
the whites maintain
and
their own
).
I
:
feel rather glad that the labour question here
question
the United States
occur with the English people
in
that are going
see the troubles
country
that are occurring
see the labour troubles
I
when
Rhodes said the following about African
. If
When
'
labour
parliament
,
act was debated
the
to
When
in
27
.
transport facilities rarer and dearer
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH fully when they returned economy were prepared
's ' delicate
small
accorded
in a
in the
on
,
to
-
to
,
on
to
,
(
)
to
50
in
80
, .)
:
or
.
of
to
(
,
in
to
-
co
of
a
its a
,
;
:
and
in
,
of
in
(
see also
,
;
Legassick
in
,
to
,
see
of
the
in
-
and industrial
).
70
1995
,
and Dubow
,
mining
be
its
‘
:
).
9
native
production
African reserves can only
agrarian
–
the
peasantry
underdeveloped
of
the
,
Beinart
[
(
to
(
Marais 2001
:
,
in
Wolpe
).
or
:
underdevelopment
The African
absorbing part
of of
by
,
industry
of
the
1946
598
many decades
the development
– 4
the framework Bundy 1988 223
in (
'
832 000
easy
2000
late 19th
plagues like the rinderpest transport good markets
68
'
independent African
.
loans
for
1936
the gold mining
in
to
access
to
million
:
(
1978
Those who succeeded
legal restrictions
from
;
'
.
subsidised
see
story
partly from
succumbed
of
)
lack
in
,
or
,
drought
Bundy concludes that
capital
1948
from
the
,
Saunders
had been short and unhappy
2 5
from
understood
231
during the war years they increased
ie
rule
(
NP
and
OFS
1988
40 ).
of
Davenport
Both Bundy and Wolpe emphasise that reserves
1940s
)' (
of
-
38 –
:
30
years
but most decisively
costs
until the
despite
Africa
South
the Eastern Cape and the
).
:
to
or
),
– 7
of
1986
and early 20th century
dwindled
persisted
251
entrepreneurship
1896
pockets
maize farmers declined
sharply during the first
According
for
).
).
al
et
,
in
, '
,
of of
the law
Although subsidies Harris 1975
share cropping
the south eastern Transvaal
Beinart
see
personal account operation the Crown Mines and the ruling regent his native Transkei
in
:
Bundy
to
contravention
broad swathe
tenants
Keegan
55 – 8
1994b
(
According
Act
in
at
,
the authorities
see Mandela
century
to
,
see
.
.
of
their defence against landlords
– 7
:
205
had
1916
tenants and for against their aid recalcitrant
the Masters and Servants
his autobiography Nelson Mandela gives
to
In
36
and Rathbone 1982
Beinart
It
(
in
be
in
.
The extension
effectively stripped tenant families
between
the powerful
The act was only
the legal status
that the farmers could summon
unwilling workers
the only
work for
done
implications
had considerable
coercive apparatus
1973
Natal existing share
these two provinces
of
the
35
This stipulation
Marks
illegal due
cash was
the Transvaal and Natal after the Beaumont Commission
recommended how this should
and
force
in
-
cropping contracts remained
then
white landlords was
the Transvaal and
in
land owning companies
influence applied
the crop
share
a
the form
per
407
laid down that from
rent
pay
of
of
in
of in
.
African tenants could
which
Lipton 1986
the OFS
in
was immediately applied
Rent
1982
in
42
to
per cent
act
34
The
them
37
the
on
.
in
of
to
place until the 1970s
foreign African migrants gold mines oscillated between The number per cent from 1911 until 1961 and increased per cent cent and
legal way
38
even
support migrant labourers before and after their
60
33
remain
before dropping
39
with
the larger
giving this monopsonistic privilege chamber the state legitimised and formally sanctioned the extra exploitative African labour system the gold mines that was
40
short term
perspective ,
longer - term
.
on
was
1936
reserves' perhaps
'. But,
equation
white
in the
gold mines
By
32
spell
the
allocation of
.
the
Lagden
to pay
' native
The land set aside as
too
31
not enough land was
if
have to be set at higher levels than employers
would
to
, wages
granted
families . This meant that ,
to their
IMPERIALISM
289
of the
21 000 whites were employed
al
wage labourers
as
in
a foreign
.
]
in
[
[
).
in
36
per
:
in
,
17000
were
see Grundlingh
in
in
'
and
,
there
side
(
in
on
')
-
(“
‘
Grosskopf
(
'
a
to “ a
',
.. .
as
included the number may even have increased
the to
in
1929
.
about 300 000
South If
in
'
by
.
there were
1906
the very poor
,
is
1916
in
106000
from
that
Estimates
‘
the Transvaal estimated
to
in
adding
1911 and 1921
between
21 ).
,
considerable
fairly harmless and normal process
the Transvaal alone
in
refers
'
'
on
poor white question
by
the
)
by
]
[
to
the
of
by
prevent the
;
9
–
87
see
Mines
labour
was finally defeated the Davenport Yudelman 1983
:
1926
(
of
Works Amendment Act
codifications to
the Chamber
,
.
Attempts
it
by
the
mines
).
By making
white miners
colour bar were successful but
:
186
.
the threat
this
and Saunders 2000 634
excluding
they became more accessible
on
of
introduction
and
.
recruit and retain
two acts were the first comprehensive statutory
discrimination
to
)
1986
:
their unions
British competition limit
standard wage rate for African mineworkers
,
to
and thus accentuated
from
Britain
from
' ( (
by a
]
exclusive craft unions and tried
skilled jobs and very low
were dominated
trades
further immigration
agitating
African miners cheaper
only between whites Afrikaners and immigrants
[
the skilled
.. . from
also instituted
originally
(
,
Initially
They established
to
]
.)
(
struggle over jobs was
not
the
“
[
,
but also
their jobs
,
the British
1933
immigrants
It
cent
were bywoners who
1902
the field
and blacks
51
an
in
'(
in no
joiners
between local whites mainly
290
the
of
)
of
-
of
,
of
May
Lipton contends that
and
from
urban areas were Afrikaners
.
in
ceased
500
the
para
whole increased
a
]
.
in
of
)
)
of
be
,
'
, 1
:
as
of
treated
Commission
mainly British
50
5
'.
-
(
:
in
the
(
47
48
and
the Great Depression
Afrikaners
had
between
14000 burghers voluntarily laid
fewer than
white rural inhabitants
Joint findings
10000 white indigents
330000
1900
hostilities
1932
number
The Indigency
effect
urban areas increased
the new arrivals
these hensoppers hands uppers Some them even fought actively
When
that this could not
Africa
ZAR
217
1986
1932 Part
June
bitter enders
The Carnegie report decrease
49
the
“
,
of
.
to
defend
.
no
Pretoria
'
Cameron
informal network
).
:
of
( 46
bittereinders
Afrikaner landowners
173
joiners
became
Many
1904
arms Many
land
the larger and smaller landowners
the 19th century
the white population in
to to
1978
down their
Mines
the
which provided them with information and enabled profitable land holdings Marks and Attmore 1980 357
per cent
53
45
Welsh
dominant group
and veldcornetten
accumulate
After the fall
These
, from
value
industry
mercantile value and the small wine
the last two decades
The percentage
mines
economic
.
to
Trapido
in
landdrosten
from
that almost
Cape (see Bundy , in
in the
's only
1870s
the
).
In
44
According established
had
was
struggle little love was lost between
this
1891
23000
Cape
Western
them
,
perspective
its
43 Until diamonds and gold were discovered, South Africa
in
is estimated
It
1875
111 - 15 ) .
:
1986
and nearly
Cape rail system
of unskilled white workers .
absorbed large numbers et
,
1863
.
1873 and 1883
The diamond mines and the construction
Beinart
1857 and
in
between
AND APARTHEID
immigrants arrived between
41 About 10000 42
, SEGREGATION ,
COLONIALISM
).
:
of
3
of
PART
THE SYSTEMIC
PERIOD OF BRITISH
IMPERIALISM
52 According to Johnstone , the collective restrictions on Africans in the labour market
was
repressive
unskilled Afrikaner
workers
.
the job security
It
.
by
for
unskilled jobs
ultra exploitable
'
workes were made
that they threatened
'
in an “ open market
them
level that poor
a low
-
because African
measures
to such
‘
whites could not compete with precisely
of Africans down
the wages
to force
of
made it possible
to
as
as
’
(
of
see
).
and
and
milled
1911
to
per
in
ton
,
81
. ) . R1
237
million
,
,
(
64
£10
see
of
total
million
96
,
a
the mines earned earned only
whereas the 179 000 blacks employed
£5
:
Horwitz 1967
for stricter repressive
9 5
.
9 4
see sections
the gold mines increased from
455 whites employed
the
racial inferiority
).
of
see
21 (
55
1920
in
1920
,
58
The working cost In
54
discriminatory legislation
R2
:
NP government became notorious
the
already
an
'
on
;
49
-
:
1976
1948
on
After
wages
well
Davenport 1991 506
(
53
Johnstone
26
of
:
a
racial matter employers justified extraordinarily proletarianised class workers the additional grounds
class
for
the
colour bar was
a
exploitation
the 1910s the
' -
end
low
.
proletariat
of
At
the
of
,
its
Consequently the government used political and bureaucratic power protect the Afrikaner proletariat against the competition ultra exploitable African
Davenport
in
,
– ie
by
In
.
to 1
white
14
.
to
11 4
be
).
per cent
24
1945
the most
see
(
and
86
,
in
1930
per cent
in
:
per cent
from
of
of
,
65
in
1921 the
formation and specifically
,
state
,
the process
Act was one
Conciliation
of
in
the Industrial
of
Yudelman
,
.
:
to
1920
the final
By
.
and racial capitalism
of
in
,
of in
,
).
to
order
avert
,
of
-
co
white
).
6
1984
ch
Yudelman
the political and
to
the Pact government when the Iron power 1928 When the NP came
.
by
see
(
state
into
:
incorporated
controlled
)
in
of
opting
-
of
1921
labour the white trade important section the marginalised
This interventionist policy was perpetuated and Steel Corporation ISCOR was established
(
24 8
'
: By an
of
to
that structure
the white
white supremacy
structure
mainly the proletarianised Afrikaners
administrative structures
per cent
190
(
whites
revenue fell from
1979
the new industrial order organised white labour was
opted into the leadership
the stability
industrial relations legislation
)
Yudelman
gold
1983
union movement was depoliticised and
threats
finally
,
By
.
‘
:
of ch 7 ).
total
see Yudelman
(
a
as
1922
,
in
percentage
.
effectively
co to -
per
18
According
to
1983
(
and 1981 see Yudelman
cent
economic
the Afrikaner proletariat and against the African proletariat and
that lasted until the reformist
White earnings
system
passing the act the Smuts government
in
of
in
favour
pattern
exploitation
in
set a
chose
and black
enforce industrial peace
a
,
-
state intervention
segregation
to
Afrcans
mining
opting white labour the act comprehensively institutionalised the principle that
justified
,
its
as
.
,
in
several other state corporations were created The NP used the state corporations important instruments comprehensive interventionist policies 1948
in
59
increased
the symbiosis between white supremacy
consolidation
60
7 4,
at a
132
important events
61
1986
of
(
Lipton
per cent
1983
According
co
see
blacks
Afrikaners among white mineworkers increased
51
to
in 58
Yudelman
of
'
be 50
per cent
The percentage 1907
ratio
that the ratio would
announced
almost 57
frozen
that the number
Africans for every one white supervisor
)
CM
should
stipulated
1918
of
).
The status quo agreement
'
56
:
1991 254
291
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
PART
;
:
(
a
in
.
“
a
in
29
of
per
of
by
1964 a
,
47
of
.
in
gave the appearance
which
act
of
in
',
the
.
-
in
, .
white workers
the Wage Board
(
the Hertzog
)
profitability
and
of of
.
never made
a
to
the powers given
to
jobs
restrict skilled
to
),
to
and
the
mining
,
of
whites
blacks fell
of
while the number
17783
to
the number
1933
).
:
,
1942 251 264
(
cent
In
central and local government the proportion
per
in
and
of
1924
,
760
4
from
,
per cent
the public sector the
civilised labour policy was made compulsory resulting particularly displacement Indians and coloureds who had moved into such jobs from agricultural forced labour system
the
in
,
'
the
in a
by
.
of
of
371
. the Pact government and the
between
legislation
create
local
steel
industry
.
to
192
,
1928
combined session
both houses
of
passed
of
was eventually
which
the English establishment the legislation establishing in
ISCOR
by
's
corporate sector was the former
Trade and Industries
substantial increased tariffs The number
considerable tension
Despite strong resistance
their lesser skilled white
a
caused
from
a
An issue that
jumped
Board
of
,
of
,
via
:
the tariff schedule
by
items
on
selectively encouraged local industry 68
the employment
1983 238 This strategy operated through the reconstituted
'(
67
the price
to
of
colleagues
,
particular paid part
).
in
decrease
concludes that the increased employment whites was paralleled wages suggesting white real terms that the more skilled workers for
Yudelman
in
66
.
,
of
“
of
of
.
]
.. . of
all
an
in
[
the
in to
for
.
‘
in
cent
was that only
a
whites
Likewise to
from
industry
)
:
.
22
008
45
whites rose
the railways rose to
564
1945 and
fact powerful and subtle colour bar The also determine wage rates non unionised industries
der Horst between
van
paid
South Africa
sensitivity towards the interests Sheila
their class
mining dividends
proportion
might raise mine wages But the board mining industry This another example
the
South
corporations were still owned
the board
(
37
from
by to
65
employed
regardless
the gold mining
was strongly opposed
industry Davenport 1991 509 According
rate
64
's
government
fragile
interventionist state
is
determination
was
whites
per cent
.
feared
for
because
Mines
number
Only after the
.
it
The Chamber
of
(
thereby setting higher rates
and
1910
the white
).
's
of
fairness but was the government
the
for to
empowered
the
of
.
).
principle
,
complete
Another criticism huge profits was invested 258
the
: on its
It
64
operated
notion
the mining
1918
per cent This declined
82
tiny part
Britons
them
,
1986
(
Lipton
of
abroad was
shares In
foreigners most
and
militarily
1924
.. .in for the
”
“
so
;
of
per cent
stage
and 1922
1914
state
emphasis
471 author
80 :
'(
63 At this
a
.. .
all of
,
the
of "
securing institutionalised minimum privileges
Between
various elements
which were suppressed
called Pact government consensual order forged around
1996
of
:
a
violently contested strikes
position
see
colonial elites rather than
electorate
consensual order pushed
population into two serious armed rebellions
Africanist
1994
central South African
competing
the overwhelming white
of
broad consensus
1922 this absence
The creation
compromise between
job
on a
‘
an
important point
tenuous
of
a
on
1910 rested
election
see Clark
. ).
Meara makes
'
O
62
discriminatory and repressive policies
9 6
also section
its
and to implement
43
3
292
striking illustration
strength
of
this
the
regards
of
Yudelman
'a
69
as
.
parliament
the structural
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH
shaping the development of the increasingly interventionist South African
factors
from
R12
in
of
J . H
of
's
companies made
see
of 6
to
)
in
1930
that level until 1940
33 ,
percentage
also
(
a
as
(
,
million
2
( or
R3
in
in
90
the mining
the
in
,
,
to
in
,
48
1940 and R25
)
in
(
,
and remained
ordinary per cent
Hancock
new
long
joined Jan
.
'
'
in
the
into
of
,
.
at
wages As relatively order create more jobs for whites the days Pact the public sector and subsidised manufacturing industries were pressurised to
in
the civilised labour policy
of
commitment
'
The Fusion
low to
its
.
,
of
jobless Afrikaners went
poor white problem Young Afrikaners who effect profitably employed
' in
,
of
.
the
solving
1934 onwards created thousands
from
The employment
a
economic growth
'
's
R16
the gold mines
per cent
war were also government maintained
Smuts
industry
at
,
the gold
from
white and black workers
way towards
1932
.)
)
in
1935
voted
the entrenched
1973
of
:
for
The acceleration
from
5 8
.
)
R21 million
betrayal
both working capital and shareholder profits
The revenue
increased
and Van der Poel
on
Despite the higher taxes
state revenue
Smuts
the
1910
increased
decades after 1933 ( or
.
of
gold
of
in
the constitution
extraordinarily large profits
jobs
(
old
of
.
.
71 72
1950
FS
act They were bitterly critical
1936
–
,
of
-
Hofmeyr
The price
73
African
against the principles
74
South
and aggravated the already serious economic situation Eleven members the SAP including Malan and
,
currency
retention
the
against
speculation
scale
the world
)
.
The government
's
off large
triggered
the metal
in
confidence
its
demonstrate standard
discipline and financial
the main gold producing country
as
,
should
fundamentalist viewpoint that
stability
,
unmistakable symbol
probity and that South Africa gold
the conservative
,
case
-
an
convertibility was
gold
of
its
The government based
on
' (1983 : 243 ) .
state 70
IMPERIALISM
.
of
to
, in
In
).
:
,
but also
would lead
the
migrant labour
,
in
which 230
would
Committee had not even effect called for the
264
).
the
' ‘
Natives themselves
,
1983
:
the
1946 strikes
Meara
'
O
see
this
,
To
.
the chamber alleged that
ended
the 1930s
keep African mine workers
of
,
'.
the
of
on
foreign labour hoping that
with mechanisation
the AMWU before
system
407
the Lansdowne Commission that
(
read the demands
1986
the gold mines
Presumably the Gold Producers
be
be
suspended
the
.
of
use
the
In
.
curtail the
mines proceeded
oppose
migrant labour
Lipton
Africa south
total migrant labour
late 1930s the ANC requested the government and
,
gold
to
to
should
low see per
50
73 (
–
1950
in
a
year
wages but the request was rejected
the proposal
When rejecting be
76
,
subservient the
to
Mines
it
increase
the first
80
of of
the economy
of
an
to
-
to
other sectors the Chamber
system
per cent
foreign migrants not only kept wages
in
of
,
the use
60
In
.
rising
the
establish
of
needed
monopsonistic migrant labour system that covered almost half Sahara 1931 migrant workers constituted cent force
on
of
's
the help
it
with
In
.
a
shift
.
low
industry
recommendation that
The real wages Africans the period government until 1960 this the
cents
all
mining
gold
4
raised
exceptionally
gold mines remained the
Mine Natives Wages Commission by
Africans
be
CM
rejected the
of
In
75
1934 the
provided
an
of .
the economy
weak sector the wages
of
to
in
'.
'
to
giving preference civilised labour The uneconomic protection local manufacturing and agriculture meant that these sectors were unable compete especially world markets At the end the 1930s the manufacturing sector was
293
PART 77
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3:
and foreign
,
the economic growth rate averaged
In 1933 – 73 – when
per cent, and both local
4 5
made huge profits - African workers were
cruelly exploited
so
try
investors
as
.
to
-
,
to
justify this that even the staunchest proponent of liberal capitalism should not According Legassick what neo classical economists euphemistically describe
:
(
'
of the
its
of
).
– 7
256
in
‘
'
in
of
'
'
of
-
'
profit retention self financing and high rates fact represent the reinvestment capital accumulation from the forced African labour economy Harris 1975
by
to
it
).
as
.
8
;
10
a
,
be
,
-
as a
in
).
4
:
see
(
43 –
to a a
,
for on
-
the
-
27
in
to
19
of
of
the
of
13
of
–
the
:
from
the South African
-
).
,
in
the
–
-
.
– 9
000
The
in
)
1946
years
Africans
,
involving
58
1930
in
:
268
African minewokers in
of
to
of
the increase may have
who were not subject
Legassick 1974b
304 strikes
the
).
Africans
blacks
in
of
In
.1 ).
8
in
Much
.
than
,
,
of
).
:
(
areas were employed
urban
),
of
(
:
(
38
record number
little more than the
the war the number
250 000
but declined
1945
mid 1930s the number
(
to
the end
extra economic coercion
coloureds and Indians Posel 1991
105
, 24
to
(
in
table
per cent
was about 100 000
-
saw
1994
African wages were less than
1940
which included the massive strike
also
in
of
an
or
,
.
.
1948
-
of
salaries see Clark
million Africans
By
.
the
artificial wage structure that resulted
in
–
of for
manufacturing
Most
a
45
in
',
to
sector
1684 915 African man hours were lost against 171 088
-
agriculture increased
of
,
this
assumed power in
NP
While
(
– 9
In
1936
labour narrowed the gap between white
among coloureds and Indians rather
the same forms
294
GDP
mining declined
weak
figure increased
1
of
whites
and
African
manufacturing industry had increased
1939
and R918
.) especially
an
(
in
of
per
20
of
demand
mining and domestic service
84
per cent
contribution
wages
manufacturing
white wages
blacks employed
1940
R1 600
10
: . see
19
.
to
per
,
was
,
in
in
,
increase
sharply after the
been
and those
most striking features were low average productivity per worker the per head employees was about half that factory workers
and African wages
number
year
402
1986
white workers earning the bulk
cent
white workers were
same period the contribution
Canada and New Zealand
The sharp
Posel 1991
the mines earned R100
increased from
Lipton
production
Australia
head plunging
).
-
(
in
Its
.
of
value
83
cent
that stage manufacturing
economy
a
and incoherence
per cent while
,
At
82
1951
13
from
per cent
During
per cent to
15
per cent
409 manufacturing 1986
of
80
in
The contribution
pro
.
ambiguity
The figures
R250
Lipton
serious
Stallardists won the argument long standing African labour brought
-
into
pro
,
wartime demand
At
's
Although the
this stage African migrant labourers
respectively
anti
and
while the latter regarded African urbanisation
and anti Stallardist factions within the NAD
policy
manufacturing
Black
involve
,
growth
economic
the department
The former regarded African urbanisation
supremacy
1937 the extraordinary
conflicts between
rift developed between pro
for
for
essential
12
‘
.
in
theNAD
white political
to
threat
helped
patronage
163 see also section
1996
While the legislation was being drafted Stallardist factions
81
Rich
:
to
it
few
suspend itself
of
79
decided
Native
dialogue about native policy and blunt more radical years the NRC proved disappointment and August (
.
a
demands Within
dispense
in a
African political leaders
ability
to
.
)
(
's
Act The department
Native
1946
)
(
78
The NAD policy indirect rule over Africans reached zenith when Representative Council NRC was created Representative the 1936
for
the
,
–
';
to
)
(
,
whites
table
This was the first time black workers had seriously
in
:
'
to
to
.
strident reimpose
speaking
itself was deeply
)
-
(
its
defuse
nor
divided
.
'. O '
of
claims that the
also
the war
and predominantly English
UP
Meara
white
after
,
‘
,
(
on
for
'
O
constituency
behalf
to a
immediately
years
the
government was able neither Meara the change and restore stability through reform African demands ideological control
in
in
;
:
in
,
the industrial relations
266
led
a
in
racially
government policies
manufacturing
Davenport and Saunders 2000 progressive divided society
1986
in
to
Cameron
challenged
UP
of
According
UP
'
paralysis
struggles
class
).
– 8
Rising
Stadler
(
since 1920
Africans
(
those
the gold mines were lower
. ).
the
of
of
wages
8 1
while
of on
migrant workers
1911
in
per cent
17
, of
-
on
,
In
.
1970 were only 86
English
the legally entrenched and ultra exploitable migrant labour
real terms the wages
1971 than they had been
357
the
especially the mining industry was formally opposed but nevertheless maintained the repressive
sector
labour economy based
system
argument
and discriminatory legislation
apartheid
system
heyday was in Oppenheimer thesis
the
‘
was propagated
economic determinism speaking corporate
as
85 During the 1950s and 1960s – when apartheid
IMPERIALISM
ie
its
THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH
The
puts
on
:
'
(O
the
, of
is
a
,
of to
no
a
NP
on
of
to
(
-
'
,
of
in
as
a
the
in
.. .
is
'.
,
of
,
of
the state
's
,
it
basic system
controlled labour Marais quoted
very cheap
response
of
a
of
.
for
looked
imperial mother country of
the
the field
in
the real terrain beyond the confines
of ”
,
in the
century
South
for
in
faith
)
.
of
major reason the failure power state after Union 1996 61
:
the nature
benign
'(
understand
a
'
and was undoubtedly
a
,
provided the basis of
to
tradition
for
). this
parliamentary gradualism leaders
number
Africa was formed
lay “
CPSA
the
)
like
overseas
in
political authority (
at
the late 19th and early 20th
.. .
in
the
: of ‘ in
of
missions
Union had
South
10
, :
Rich
'(
According
to
the time
way the political terrain
conflict that also extended
1996
)
Worker militancy
not only indicated the but forshadowed the extreme repression after
the violence
Black political leaders
others
class
African state
(
90
landmark
).
,
.. .
of
trained
For
international
black
capitalism
African
portrayed
better working conditions challenged
felt threatened
follows
source
Britain
commonly
12
as
:
it
Some leaders the ultimate
in
and
that
different conceptions
many
.. .
,
'
, ‘
an
on
of
's to
(
'
89
which
strike
South
abundant supply
remark
2001
Rich puts
crisis
a
,
'
O
1948
the 1946 miners
higher wages
that pivoted Meara degree
a
).
Marais
event announcing support
to
17
-
114
to
88
:
1994
According
white minority
task was complete what already existed that kind while taking growing volume repress non white protest Davidson to
,
additional measures
that
power came 1948 way install systemic
of
of
- -
but only
When the
apartheid
full blooded
discrimination
Afrikaner
its
speaking
whether English program
their people into the helots and servants or
of
the transformation
since the 1880s
ancient and stable rural communities and
in
‘
:
South Africa
dispossession and eventual destruction
.. .
The history
follows
as
it
87
).
He
–
229
30
.
an
economic policy
on
African political rights but also fundamental questions political escalating The result was crisis Meara 1983
the question
of
only
of
on
,
of
wartime restructuring South African capitalism and the intensified class struggles provoked growing produced which this conflict within the capitalist class itself not
295
PART
3:
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
91 Rich puts
it as
follows: ‘Missionary - educated Africans
in the Cape enthusiastically
embraced parliamentary government and continued to assume well into the 20th century that racially discriminatory legislation would be ultimately reversed through
296
a
in
of
indicates that the
as
lie )
did the
by
[
African elite
of
:
1996
'(
missionary evangelisation
62 ).
a
in
,
of
this commitment
under the 1854 constitution [of
Cape liberal tradition sphere not only but also fundamental restructuring African society
century
processes
economic
result
19th
the rights secured
to protect
The tenacity
.. the
roots
if necessary
of
Cape
of ) .
the
intervene
parliament would
believed that the British
the
( parliamentary ] means . Many also
Chapter
v
9
The systemic period of the political hegemony of the Afrikaner establishment
by three major ideological paradigm
racial attitudes towards blacks .
of which hardened
onwards , when evangelical humanitarianism
hamite liberal utilitarianism
occurred during the last quarter
the
, when
century
19th
The
ideologies
racial
the
from
second
upsurge
Social
and white superiority
.
Darwinism
religiously oriented
Nationalism
from
and
aggressive and
the
1930s onwards
racist ideology during the NP
implementation
's
of
The third
.
shift involved the rise
Afrikaner Christian
and the hardening
declined
of ,
regrettable
and
an
a
period when Cape liberalism
-
perhaps most
in
liberal capitalism
segregationism –
this ideology was supplemented
due course
, ,
In
of
was legitimised
imperialism
British
of racial superiority .
and notions
,
was replaced by Bent
by
# 1840
shifts
first occurred
The
of
each
history is marked
South African history
in
of
South African
shifts
of
Three major paradigm
. 1.
by
9
– 94 )
the
( 1948
of
. , 9 3
a
in
be the
NP in
power
the apartheid
the
of
black protest
the implosion
in
will
the second
be
and perpetuating apartheid
half
the apartheid regime
-
to
a
prelude
labour
The important role played
of
. in . ‘ 9 7
The radicalisation
.
respectively
these two unfree
of
of
.
9 6
.5
and
a
,
discussion
discriminatory
final section
.
discussed
in
be
the 20th century
will
crisis
repressive and
both
manufacturing
as
section
–
discussed
and
new
section
. . the
section
state corporations in
by
intensification
9
follows
patterns
discussed
section
apartheid regime
in
measures
by
Because
discussed
will
government institutionalised
9 4
section
of
in
regime
be
will
Nationalism
Christian
which the
in
The manner
constellation
of
Afrikaner
the
. .
9 2
The rise
of
.
apartheid after 1948
297
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
PART
3
The rise of Afrikaner Christian Nationalism , and the hardening of racist ideology
.2
9
When , and
a
1934
in
, Hertzog
NP broke
section of the
, Dr
and Smuts decided on Samesmelting
Party (G /NP ). This caused
away
form
to
the
D
F
Malan
Gesuiwerde (Purified ) National
so
sharp division in Afrikaner circles between the
a
called Hertzogiete and Malaniete (Herzogites and Malanites), which triggered
to in
of of
'
to
the mobilisation
prior conflicts within
section
of
.
, a
the
Afrikaners were
by
dangers
a
of
the as NP
in
swart
creating the
In
.
this way
portraying Afrikaners
the first was their exploitation
the second the uncivilised
'
and
by
,
of
Afrikaner culture being swamped
‘
and foreign capitalism
an
:
double onslaught
by
by
ie ' , ),
'-
a
of
other population groups
British
of
the
to
. Afrikaners
and exaggerating
ethnic power
British colonialism
'
of
-
During
the idea that the existence and interests
by
a
'
‘
'
external
victimisation
below
as
a
2
of of ).
.
,
. ).
7 4
Certain
Anglo Boer War also helped
the
injustices done
,
in
–
the
of ,
alleged
mobilising Afrikaner
'
‘
from
losing their land
Afrikaner ideologues succeeded
of (
‘
‘
danger
during the process
ʻblack swamping
wrongful victims above
the
larger
between
Afrikaner propagandists
Afrikaner volk were endangered
from
Afrikaners
the latter
section
impoverishing
and foreign capitalism
syndrome
ch
'(
,
obfuscated
oorstroming
succeeded
and especially
in
in
their role
overemphasising
imperialism
20th
the 1930s and 1940s
the
deliberately
By
of
,
ethnic power
by
to
pests droughts
Afrikaner society
and
intense during the last quarter
predominantly rural Afrikaners
impoverish
Afrikaner
proletariat
urbanised
see
an
as
factors such
notables
internal struggle
smaller ones leading (
in
to
the detriment
and becoming
small elite
some larger landowners consolidated their economic
when
and
the
position
the
protracted
19th century and the first quarter
modernisation
which
1996
far more
they referred
least two thirds
century and was particularly
the 18th
towards
young
over control over land and black labour This struggle
and smaller landowners began
(c
result
Meara
into
omprising a
was largely
Afrikaners
of
)
1930s
large underclass the
relatively
see
at
of
‘
Afrikaner Christian Nationalism
nationalism
of
group
new
A
party
:
which
aggressive and exclusive version The stratification
guided
of Afrikanerdom .
or soul
very intense . the
/NP was
,
G
'
the
emerged
a
of
the ranks
in
intellectuals
urban
debate about the true nature
of
The polemic
ie
unprecedented
an
O
off
of
,
'
purity
the reverse side
of
Consequently
as
.
with ostensibly inferior indigenous races 298
the ethnic
protecting this purity against miscegenation
,
imperative
emphasise
‘
Afrikaner ideologues
oorstroming
of
Afrikaners and
the
of it
became expedient
to
growing African urbanisation fuelled fears for
1940s
as
, .
the
In
African majority
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY OF THE AFRIKANER
Afrikaner
of aggressive
explicit and insulting version of racism apartheid . The NP regarded
.
the
.
,
by
to
of
for
'
.
,
. to
.
.
,
NP
to
ever
embracing movement
see
For many
(
it .
rule
an
its
,
NP
NP
an
of
')
in
that had preceded
an
a
to to
perpetuate
.
sick
apartheid
society
The conversion
relatively wealthy
of
this
was
one happened
to its
that uncritically Afrikaners
from
a
,
establishment became notorious for
in
a
institutionalised and defended
harnessed
the volksbeweging went seriously
’
Afrikaner
self righteousness
relatively poor group into
Afrikaners
'
the
of
,
its
)
alia
;
uncritical
carried away
political power
political and bureaucratic power
it
Inter
became
rule
power
1
ch
sectional interests
,
.
wrong
power and
-
promote
misused
system
and
suppress and exploit blacks
.
the
the
With the NP
in
1975
:
Moodie
volksbeweging
party had risen
political power
the
important
-
racist laws
played
the perpetuation
Afrikaner
greater degree than the white governments
Afrikaners
;
,
-
of
of
,
's
,
and
constitutional to
plethora
of (“ the
manipulated
movement
all
of
the proper use
the volksbeweging
of
a
and passed
it
;
grand scale
exclusively
of
the emotional élan a
on
by
Without
that
any experience
1948
turn blacks into
exploiting blacks
from
, of
first time
This was the
benefit
people
victory
election
an
the NP
's
in
role
to
.
volksbeweging
Afrikaners
had captured political power
After Afrikaners
their turn had come
The Afrikaner
attain
their wealth and realised that the latter
-
by
-
economic measures
cheap and docile labour force
the British
their promised land Many
and
had become wealthy
extra
space
'
aims
economic
using
and
accompanying this
racism
Afrikaners envied English speakers
many believed
of
.
.
The
for
and
out
ethnic power
create the
,
political
order
in
allegedly inferior indigenous races attain their
NP
example
end namely maintaining the subordination to
an
to
a
means
for
Afrikaner nationalism was
mobilisation
,
also
of
. the
-
on
ideology
political power and especially greater wealth ideology was
other whites they
injustices meted
the
,
end namely
,
to
an
-
means
a
Consequently
.
speakers
the
's
and English
Some
only were their
Afrikaners and English speakers
backlog
economic
Afrikaner
racism
Not
other whites
the economy than English speakers
propaganda incited hostility between blamed the former
version
capita income lower than those
in
a
lesser role
crystallisation
accompanying
Afrikaners felt deeply inferior
educational levels and also played
role
by
permeated
of
and
per
'
'
backward
its
Nationalism
,
Christian
capitalism
major
a
factors played
Economic
,
people with dubious moral standards
as
materialistic and egotistic values
to
ethnic groups as heathen
be Christianised and civilised by Afrikaners . White English - speakers
were portrayed
really
an
into the policy of
crystallised
in
to
, which
ideologues formulated
the different African
of
nations
, NP
nationalism
to
the coin
ESTABLISHMENT
the surprisingly 299
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3:
PART
of
short period
25 years. It has been
claimed that Afrikaner business was
largely responsible for uplifting Afrikaners economically – ie , that Afrikaners
had pulled themselves up
.
a in
,
a
'
were shocked
mushrooming urban shanty towns
.
the
NP
'
in
labour
urban areas
,
The Sauer commission report
1947
in
to
its
which
the growing racial
'
'
solution
published
a
,
and recommended
,
,
]
commission
it
,
UP
see
.
of
of of
for
.
example
an
prime
of
a
the
of
of
the –
It
is
'
the pinnacle
political
Afrikaner self delusion -
,
and represented
zeal
development
nine African ethnic groups
of
of
to
with evangelic
separate
apartheid
sovereignty and
, ‘
was propagated
Afrikaner
tried
legitimise
advent
of
the British
the
the late 19th century
to
. . ).
9 5 2
see section
policy
each
and foreign
the system
national
to
granted separately
ideological travesty
he
,
ideology
the upliftment
that the policy
announced
non racist
‘
with the
notion
imperialism
British
.
This ideology
realise that
adequate justification
-
.
would
who had become prime
Verwoerd
victims
Consequently
Verwoerdian be
freedom
replaced to
be
According
Dr
,
longer
power and privilege would
the alleged an
no
-
as
of
was
Hendrik
was astute enough
–
1958
–
capitalism
In
in
,
the
native policy
the 1950s
poor Afrikaners
(
of
from
programme
the
.5 ). the in
At
end
of
minister
300
NP . [
of
reaction apartheid the
African
a
's
stabilisation
the
9
in
conflict inherent
1948
was horrified
the Fagan
African urbanisation
’,
the NP
formulated
section
.
'
strong
a
provoked
When
' s '
the
facilitating
of
policy
inevitability the
emphasised
black urbanisation and the
oorstroming
as
of
alleged dangers
of
,
However both Afrikaner farmers and urban workers were distressed economic implications
their
by
Africans
lowering
by
UP
of
a
as
(
means
further
by
of
poor living conditions
and among the
favoured
protective segregation
favour
and the
.
:
'
O
.
the industrialists
in
those
in
the Transvaal the
rapid black urbanisation
of '
),
shift
(
by
(
it
While
influx control and job reservation in
of
social forces that supported
the
historic
themselves with smaller Afrikaner farmers
which widened the already deep differences within the
production costs
The support given
urban industrialists
prosperous farmers represented
the
farmers during the
(
interests
and
in
of
the
in
the rural constituencies
Afrikaner petit bourgeoisie see Meara 1996 The other major issue during the election was
relaxation
of 1938
27 – 37 )
It
.
the elections
was the first time that wealthy farmers
associated
')
‘
neglected
,
.
of
Afrikaner circles notables
strong support
generation
new
1948
in
NP
/
to
the
G
in
favour
. During
was unexpected
However
OFS
and
the
Transvaal war
1948
UP retained
'
of
1943 , the
of
a
its
's
The NP
There is
victory
'
degree of truth to this .?
it
of 1948 .
victory
own bootstraps before the NP s election
by their
the New
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY OF THE AFRIKANER
terms of Social Darwinism races ,
of other as well as a indigenous people . of
people
segregationism
inferiority
British /English tried hand ,
the one
.
differences But
these
strands were
The similarities between the ideologies with which the
on the other ,
plunder
plunder
and their economic
which Afrikaners
with
those
and economic
sectionalism
the supposed
on
ideological
legitimise their imperialism
to
and the
on
.
based
over
tried
legitimise their
to
perhaps
greater than the
differences are nonetheless important We can identify
.
of
half
the 20th century
Both
superiority
by the local English establishment during the first
and propagated
maintained
and their alleged
at
in
are
Imperialism
ESTABLISHMENT
surrounding British
.
so
in
to
–
of ,
high
moral values
(
a
as
as of
typical response
By contrast the Afrikaner
,
.
petit bourgeoisie trying
to
a
into the
political
attain
the first time
propagated
formulated and
their double barrelled
-
British
of
in
downward spiral
Providence
–
)
by
by –
prescribed
.
for
and economic power
,
task
regard the British ideological onslaught
ideological onslaught was typical the
belief
Afrikaner churches that they
and instilling
civilisation
a
,
a
supported
other population groups including the English
great world power
Finally
the British
)
Christian
we can
Third
role
,
Afrikaners
(
a
claim
of all
members
explain
these considerations were not nearly
divinely chosen people with the
promoting
of
divinely chosen people
of
as
the
German
Afrikaner political thinking
,
were
a
explicit
1930s helps
the 1920s and
Second while religious considerations played that they were
were exposed
.
herrenvolk ideas
rather
Afrikaner nationalism
in
of
the influence
and Verwoerd
Nazi propaganda during
and
on
philosophy
,
,
Dr Piet Meyer
a
.
Dr
-
Nic Diederichs
the key ideologues
of
of
in
Afrikaner superiority and black inferiority they did
clumsy way The fact that some
the
English ideas a
While Afrikaners undoubtedly imitated
of
and subtle than the blatant and almost crude propaganda
Afrikaner establishment respect
more
to
sophisticated
English superiority was
/
First the propaganda
far
, .
least four
ideology about British superiority and indigenous inferiority before World while Afrikaners formulated their ideologies about Afrikaner superiority the
of
.
in
,
it
is
.
its
it
What
cultural support
say
if
long Needless
it
got away with their crude and
,
so
opinion
were not
great powers such
as
economic
and
the large scale
-
for
post war world
that the NP and Afrikaners
unwarranted ideological propaganda
the 1950s and 1960s
to
its
grain
ideological propaganda
the
the
racist policies
for
remarkable
is
went completely against
NP launched
When the
most important
brought ideas about racial
in
and institutionalised
was that
.
the 1940s
.
into disrepute
,
superiority
Nazism
Perhaps one
-
's
war against Hitler
of
the
result
of
and aborigine inferiority during and after
it
, 2
War
301
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
PART
3
States , Germany , and Japan gave South Africa during the for
second half of the century , the apartheid regime would not have lasted
46
, the United
Britain
a
-
the
to
it
,
of
as
of
of
the
.
–
“
a
of
a
,
,
NP
.
the
,
“ the
‘
,
'
‘
to
It
.
,
',
and toyed
introducing
of
that the
victory
the
non
Although
.
NP
NP
a
.
in
is
It
the secret
the war
control
panic after the
government and the English business sector )
.
mining industry
state and
'
the NP did not restructure
or
the gold
The symbiosis between
maintained with little adaptation after 1948
until
Afrikaner government
‘
the contrary
,
On
system
some
foreign
the
During
mines and
the
the
a
NP
in
–
the capitalist
replace
therefore understandable
economic order and nationalise
unfounded
control
continuity
socialist order
English establishment that
.
be
new
of
(
the
fear
whereby
processes
the rhetorical level and occasionally hostile
.
capture
to
would create proved
especially
a
,
1960s
the
state
single
responsible for the anti
almost completely
then
was
the relationship between remained tense
.
-
–
establishment
agricultural economy
sharing
of
profit
on
of
system
English
a
to
of
,
the gold
idea
‘
radical ideas about nationalising
forward
notion
was mainly
the NP
an
of
attitude
of )
the
(
-
pro socialist
grand
5
-
that was originally
Afrikaner
statutory
of
the
:
'(
a
)
and even
the
1991
had
she notes there was
socio economic order
new
AB
capitalist
“
extent
–
’.
, of
Broederbond
(
Afrikaner
with
Posel
government the NP failed conspicuously
put
workers
urban
mean that the
Nevertheless
apartheid
capitalism with
spokesmen
farmers and
Deborah
4
,
the
in of
system
taken
exaggerating
planning involved madness
in
Once
be
.
'
method
to
Afrikaners
aims According
apartheid was built greatly and long term
alleged
comprehensive welfare policy for
fundamentally misrepresents the political
master plan
to
.
to
of
Two groups
The third
special governmental support programmes
its
for attaining
a
in
in
implementing
the
the Afrikaner
racial integration
poor white Afrikaners and remedy
This threefold agenda should not plan
process
to
for
.
uplifting Afrikaners
and adapt
ensure the purity
–
the past
were identified
of
by
injustices
problem
restructure
Afrikaner volkskapitalisme implement the policy apartheid
order
',
‘
solve
of
to
the
volk and defuse the conflict inherent
was
`
a
The second was
the native problem
to
solution
socio economic
new
first was
The
system
a
(
').
ʻnational capitalism
a
creating
to
to
so
free Afrikaners from
the Afrikaner volk
create
foreign capitalism
,
needs
items
had three main
–
of
economy
as
.
order
This agenda
ie
s
agenda before the 1948 election was
).
NP '
9
.3
The NP government and the institutionalisation new power constellation
The
302
of
.
years
capital was
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY
,
Afrikaners were
expanding Afrikaner
system
to
.
by
its
of
racial
growing Afrikaner state bureaucracy
policy the NP built mammoth a
,
control not only the movement
Africans
.
,
its
apartheid
of
order
plethora
,
(
at
during the mining revolution the
system
was well adapted
apartheid with
to
system
on
mainly based
its
migrant labour and the compound
segregation
(
the system
agriculture and the emerging
(
While
of of
to
sector
.
Afrikaner industrial
demands
of )
meet
the
of
order
9 6
and
. ).
on
and discriminatory laws was put the statute books see controlling Much the political legislation was aimed
in
.
9 5
of
black labour
also
taken
of
and
growing a
a
dynamic
but
embourgeoisement
but also their living and working patterns and their intellectual lives sections
NP ,
a
problem
to
rapid
)
too
'
poor white
A
organisational structure segregationist
the
's by
to
of
of
's
.
to
the
.
of
:
),
The lucrative
public sector and parastatals not only
(
to
multitude
).
implementing in
the course
and
NP
the
and
of
by
(
controlled
creation
the English corporate sector and
sector
the
drive towards statism
The bureaucracy was also
the 20th century
an
in
(
controlled
In
by
'
‘
controlled
corporate
advance
the security
uplift Afrikaners
probably
two vehicles
to
in
of
the third quarter
-
the
.
the
of
the rapid
NP
'
in
contributed considerably
capitalism
of .
),
the
.
-
all
developed
including
strict control
The
of
-
by
system
the remnants
their promised land
of
,
)
at
the same time
employment opportunities created
Afrikaners
corporations
’ it .
state departments
the private sector and
the welfare
out almost
the more
-
to
use that system
were brought under
NAD
stimulation
shaped
but
the Transvaal
state and semi state bodies and institutions
enlarged
–
of
'
-
of ‘
all
,
the
'
the
‘
involved
almost
politicised
and
not
farmers and Afrikaner
NP
the
.
ten
departments and
racial capitalism
restructuring
Afrikaner agenda instead years
insight
The NP
nature
capitalist oriented economy was growing
may also have convinced the
Afrikanerised
was far more advantageous
from
-
(
The fact that
–
the
in
“
mainly
(
in
the
was more important
government were probably
and already capitalist oriented
Within
Africans
order
government the NP discovered that the
anti Afrikaner
new
AB
policies
the Western Cape
strongly
white hegemonic
the
staying power and dynamic momentum the
the
,
in
Once
supposedly
firebrand ideologues pragmatic
maintenance
and white
state
with the responsibility
confronted
African capitalism
South
its
the
than
demonstrates
.
'
of
/
‘
racial character
of
,
the
squabble
Boer Brit
Secondly
was
the structural subjugation
which entailed
Afrikaners
the
white Afrikaner
of
.
soon
realised that
it
government
the
As
English capital
NP
the symbiosis between as
underpinning
wiped
ESTABLISHMENT
should
perhaps
new
THE AFRIKANER
we explain the NP 's volte -face on this key issue ? Firstly, it is another example of the strength of the structural and racist factors
How
than
OF
labour needs
comprehensive
303
3
:
, SEGREGATION ,
COLONIALISM
control over Africans
urban areas ) was developed
in
industrial revolution . Verwoerd industries
the
from
AND APARTHEID
developed the abortive
onwards
1960s
in
, but this was doomed
territorial segregation with industrialisation
'reconcile ' the very
from
.
beginning
of economic growth was maintained
very high rate
A
1960s. During the heyday
of
in the 1950s and the racial disparity
and racial capitalism
state
. ).
.
in
of
of
10
10 4
,
.3
. ). fiscal
its
,
used
social spending
policy significantly
redistributive
and
implementing
In
of
(
.
to
', -
NP
the
,
improved
the poorer two thirds
favouritism
was even more
ie
.
the past
and increase
the Afrikaner petit bourgeoisie
economic position
of
of
kind
This
and the further
sections
social upliftment
or
of '
Afrikaners
Afrikaners
English speakers
tax wealthier
this period
solve the poor white problem and
of
powers
affirmative action
to
its
policy
Afrikaners
see
in
the NP
remedy the alleged injustices done
10 8
concentration
The
Afrikaners
Africans
agenda was
to
on
item
's
a
The third
the embourgeoisement
and impoverishment
proletarianisation
the hands
–
economic and bureaucratic decisive role
zenith
power
the early 1970s
in
reached
in
undoubtedly
in
of
Apartheid
its
ratio between white and African incomes became much larger (see table
played
the
of border
system
attempt to
desperate
a
of
suit the interests
to
the on
PART
the
,
types
Afrikaner
favouritism
contracts
,
quotas
and
sorts
of
.
fishing
mining of
government
Afrikaner liquor
and
inside
valuable
the 1950s and
Meara has made
'
O
white business
.
good for
all
be
.
1960s Apartheid proved
in
not only Afrikaner business that profited
,
,
was however
to
It
allocations
Examples
champion
.
,
concessions
the
all
were
, of
of
a
of
favouritism information
unbridled Afrikaner capitalism
an
' fate
in
uplifting poor
Afrikaner haute bourgeoisie was created which quickly became system
late 1950s
emerging
and
generous
of
ideological
farmers
it
‘
,
a
richer
extraordinarily
Through
of
of
from
and
,
.?
entrepreneurs
curious twist
enriched
the
helping
towards
whom
of
emphasis shifted away
Afrikaners
In
.
a
in
spectacularmanner
Afrikaners
aim
's
the
Afrikaner
the
NP
empowered
policy
the upper layers
to
advantageous
the
of
However
NP
, .
Afrikaners
304
from
in
”
no
81 ). “
system
while continuing
of
The hypocrisy
ugly
'
:
the
to
itself
–
criticising the
important cause
of
[s ] “
interference
1996
'(
' in
partly created
NP
]
he
]
to
]
[
workers wages
establishment was
the
of
benefit handsomely
from
by
and apartheid
black
profit
an
the English
–
segregation
and raise their
it
free market
displayed
by ”
“
liberal businessman who declined
[
[
,
-
‘
the important point that although English speakers may have had moral and anglophile theoretical qualms about the NP racial policy know
continued friction
OF THE AFRIKANER
and English -speakers.
between Afrikaners
the
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY
During
ESTABLISHMENT
1950s and 1960s South
,
a
to
."
of
in
, ,
to
),
(
of
,
to
to
of
,
the
NP
an
its
the
those
of
culture
of .
economic
as
on
NP
the
of
-
NP
in
.
.
in
so
'
.
unhealthy process
,
The
create
mechanisation
a
's
Verwoerd
programme
to
,
part
and cheap African labour
in
'
,
an as
favouritism
explicitly favoured
haute bourgeois
sector did not become
and
especially
system
a
in
its
in
,
the political
increasing by
in
succeeded
was
liberation
against the apartheid by
,
of
.
of NP
society Protest
However success
a
and PAC
.
the ANC
of
racist character
civil
accumulation
the century
Although the
broader
purpose
times but was effectively suppressed
at
for
.
the
by
,
as
questioned
became violent
policy
of
on
.
of
parliamentary majority organisations such
Afrikaner
state and capital attained
legitimacy was mixed
increasingly
secure higher prices
capitalist farmers remained vulnerable
spectacular manner during the third quarter
terms
the
agricultural capitalism
this support the agricultural
self sustainable
The symbiosis
this way
became
prevent African
15
Despite
of -
independent
stimulated all
'
.
agriculture
14
'
white
economy
victory
election
1954 the maize price
applying
credit subsidies
interest rates introduced
or
low
to
,
their industrial counterparts most their dependence
In
3
the ranks
Although their ideological orientation
of
was nurtured
favouritism
farmers
.'
more efficient
in
and
,
,
subsidies Land Bank loans and
larger
due
a
in
But
of
almost
per cent
.
50
by
,
, ie
-
rose
and the
NP implemented
The
way
and
–
for
of
Agricultural Marketing Act 1937 such agricultural produce between 1950 example
of
(
the
cities
the
as
migrating
FCI
After taking office the
labour bureaux
–
from
the
powerful position
its
workers
Industries
sector
12
the
the maize farmers
extremely
the contrary
the English corporate
ASSOCOM
almost immediately reorganised
farm
South
).
).
an
in
them
),
(
by
Commerce
to
NP
demands
,
Chambers
The decisive role played 1948 placed
to
(
very sensitive
can
Afrikaner business
Despite popular opinion
SAAU
industry the Federated Chamber
of
Association
both public and private
of
NP
the
,
ie
the mining
than
the emerging
the AHI and the strongly Afrikaner oriented
African Agricultural Union remained
power
as
such
the strong bargaining
,
as
corporate sector
growing capitalist orientation
of
in
terms
the
terms
in
explained
organisations
FDImore
helping the poor towards favouring the rich
from
of
and partly
policy
of
NP
be
office
,
partly
Afrikaner
century
1960 and 1972
in
The shift
the third quarter
large and sustained
.
doubled between
the
capital
contributed
of
foreign
all
the gold price in
inflow
the rise
of
and
,
levels
of
.
of
supported
its
by
the large industrialised countries despite racist policies The intensified exploitation African workers high profit
Africa was strongly
system
harsh and effective
305
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
in
far
A
.
, the Its
.
,
a
the
in
,
the
In
of
, if
a
in
.
by
not
at
gaining
.16
the
mobilise electoral
60
.7
and 1992
The
per cent were
of
perpetuate
to
a
for
)
diabolical ways
white political supremacy
successive
11
win
typically
–
to to
NP
which
a
aims
)
into
of
to
NP
the
period
46
the
consolidate
realise the lofty NP
,
to
ie
by
from
received
1980s
the
.
it
-
,
at
–
a
(
which only whites
system
coloureds were
early
referendums between 1948
could vote was used cleverly but
control within the
long
deplorable
the
the
enabled
(
)
questionable
and three
system
after
These and other means
in
parliamentary Afrikaners
used
the media
for
until
least
-
to
general elections
easy
Another method
and morally
undemocratic
was
religious purpose
capture part
1956
from
parliamentary groups
the ideological support
'.
‘
Christian Nationalism
support was
step
Namibia
Cape
senate
morally
( of
.
.
of
Afrikaners
first
citizenship
attain
laws were passed aimed
and extra
Given this
in
NP
society
churches
volksbeweging with
enlargement
Numerous
was also bolstered
great majority
Court
it
of
,
manner
control over civil
three Afrikaans
the Appeal
political rights
their
whites
in
to
representation
the
,
after
and
by
'
was halted
of
to
unconstitutional
The
of
as
roll
deprived
stronger
or
white political power
on
give parliamentary
constitutional struggle finally
African Unity
,
in
grip
remove coloured people living
to
in
1951
common voters
international
the party developed
the 1948 election
lengthen the period before immigrants could
attempt
NP
white
than
).
this direction was
and
small majority
about consolidating
obsession
other
9 8
NP
to
the
of
an
Owing
people
the United Nations and the Organisation
's .
see section
) (
(
OAU
such
more
own power base among white voters than about protests
the ranks
in
brewing
organisations
those years the NP was
In
,
about
concerned
of white supremacy was never
viability
until the mid - 1970s .
endangered its
seriously
in
. Consequently , the
system
its
security
of
3:
to
PART
.
years
,
306
in
an
69
banned the
,
the Nation
),
.
wing Umkhonto We Sizwe the Spear
the
of
off townships
people Once underground (
guerrilla
response
, .
)
,
,
the
PAC and arrested thousands
,
up
a
set
Vaal triangle during
campaign against the pass laws
the nationwide protest the government cordoned
ANC and
the
people
,
police shot dead
African township near Vereeniging Africanist Congress
period was triggered
In
–
1960
in
in
the Verwoerdian
of
Pan
(
/
ANC PAC
March
94 )
,
.
,
Sharpeville
to
legitimacy
the Sharpeville unrest
-
off
an
by
The most serious crisis
In
of
(
a
to
of
.4
9
of
The intensification the liberation struggle the survival crisis white supremacy and the transition negotiated settlement 1974
ANC
which
into
up
at
. ).
9 8
see
(
that turned
1960s
of
John Vorster
legislation
.18
the
,
in
of
a
the
end
police
the security
their
minister
formidable political force his
built
Vorster had
by
a
'
state
security
web
section
parliament
a
,
into
1964
of
's
.
Africa
South
police
life
assasination
Vorster created
police
'
,
Verwoerd
became primeminister
ESTABLISHMENT
leaders were rounded in
and incarcerated
following
1966
In
Rivonia
in
headquarters
of sabotage until
acts
for its
various
,
committed
OF THE AFRIKANER
As
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY
whites and blacks
,
power towards blacks Although
the
,
,
20
.
Without the
pack
a
new
of
to
–
,
failed
a
,
the
.
its
the
by
up
all
provide
dismally
cards
and
1974
,
in
in
by
'
in
,
from
the
Lisbon
,
to
South Africa
and
's
W
by
P
uhuru Africa and communist Angola The abortive invasion Botha to
the rest
the north
of of
in
coup
of
1974
African
in
.
to
in
of
support
the nascent strength
.
the continent
April
The protracted nature
of
for a
organise
of
penetration
trade
Angola and Mozambique broke
white colonial regimes
the white minority regimes
black
the economy
Durban struck illegally
the strikes demonstrated
.
exposed
sanitaire
white
1973 South African industry was shaken
African workers
subsequent independence
of
cordon
)
‘
of In
of
1976
Lisbon
way that surprised even Africans The
of
the
'
·
labour power
in
support
that precipitated the
the downturn
General Spinola
.
of
June
of
état
1973
demands for higher wages and the right
wide
1976
to
(
crisis
'
d
oil
,
,
uprising
large numbers
Soweto
1973
from
survival crisis included the unlawful strike
1974 onwards the coup
and
facing
political and economic power
Desperate attempts
white rule
years
white regime managed
,
events
the OPEC
1973
in
unions
and
and
20
's
hegemonic order
the
shoring
structured
. of
the
early 1990s
The cluster
when
movement
liberation
legitimacy
justifications
the next
legitimacy the white hegemonic order collapsed like
necessary in
maintain
it
;
ideological
survival crisis
During
countries
.
to
but failed
from
for
ward
its
off
to
mounting offensive
western
1970s the
ideological power and enjoyed the
and
,
,
major
its
of
all
-
the
the victors
the early
well
took
of
a
support
economic
based
The
-
.
-
political
was
on In
the
of
mid 1970s were nonetheless decisive
white hegemonic order seemed invincible
in
and racial capitalism
power struggle stretching two decades before blacks emerged
integrated
changed
.
of
crisis also tilted the broader balance
and dramatically
as
both
shift
it .
a
profound paradigm
power relations within white political supremacy
well
the
the mid 1970s plunged the white hegemonic
.
of
ideological thinking
the events
in
in
events
-
to
dramatic
survival crisis This caused
a
order into
African protest
1973
in
of
series
A
1963
from
suppressing almost
.19
;
it
succeeded
all
's
.
brutal methods decade
,
to
suppress black protest but also which was used not only own nationalist opponents Vorster highly security system was authoritarian and employed
307
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
from
critical attitude
immorality
'
the
of
putting
in
succeeded
.
view
In the
the Carter administration
of
the United States and the increased hostility
Angola
in
the
and the Group
OAU
regime
apartheid
in
decade
,
half of
second
the
the
complicated the situation rather seriously
of Cuban troops the NP point of
77
and the resultant deployment
1975
of
in
the
in
army
of
3:
the
PART
a
prolonged
into
,
a
as
be
;
2
:
,
1992
to
sections
see also
10
(
long and
seated structural crisis for
deep
Schrire
in
Smit
a
,
of
racial capitalism
conducive
regarded
ch
to
cannot
normal cyclical downswing but represented the system
create conditions
stagflation
-
21
.
The long period
all
.
hegemonic order
the white
accumulation
and
,
the threat
see
(
if
(
in
of
militarist
The
liberation
a
after Soweto
.
took
not
22
Africa
South
.
in
disinvestment
the 1960s when
as
circles
southern
damaging
the awakening
than
the white hegemonic
to
During
of
community generally was
of
'
organisations programme
frontline states
'
from
the 20th century
as
unleashed
African
in
resistance
as
economic history
for the white hegemonic order
of
)
so
it
and the international
9
Africa
and
deteriorating
most decisive
the
off
's
The reaction
section
.8 ).
in
political
one
'
Africa
regarded
in
be
.
economic circumstances This must South
was partly caused
1976
the
June
in
uprising
The Soweto
by
.2 .3 ).
.2 .2
the
reinforced each other and nullified
struggle
liberation
of
attempts
3
downturn
recession turned
.
by
the intensifying
culture
and
that lasted until the 1990s The deteriorating economic situation and
stagflation
more
the
oil price hikes
the OPEC
international economy The South African
events
economy had moved into in
caused
1976
a
,
serious recession
Soweto uprising
of
Even before
by
the
.
international limelight
order was
million
The
six
.
of 9
,
R1701
1975
this period that the defence
total strategy
to
in
was
to
1971
/2
Angola debacle
'
establishment devised the ideology
It
table
23
1986
R345 million
:
Calitz
see
(
years later
from
of .) ' .
defence budget increased
the in
This insight was confirmed
15 6
.
real menace
by
.
in
be
,
an
identified internal one the police budget and security legislation enjoyed preference Early the 1970s the NP realised that external forces might the
counteract the alleged
, “
of
.
'
economic pretext for into
unholy
'
capital turning
‘
state and
and
ward off
an
ideological
it s
Botha regime
to
W
P
,
symbiosis between
an
supplied
commonly mobilised electoral support
by
NP
'
,
noted earlier
the
As
'
in
blurred
.
attempt during the
which the normal dividing line between the two domains became
coalition
308
total strategy
but also became the key mobilising element
it
redefining
also
separate development
,
the
.
survival crisis
state
's
the apartheid
ideology
ideology
an
only functioned
as
's
Verwoerd
It
of
not
contrast
to
In
“
'
total onslaught against South Africa
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY OF THE AFRIKANER
campaign
the Soweto crisis was internationalised
and
any
the
of
,
',
'
'
In
the
as
(
in
of
to
),
JG
of
in
NP
of
aim
as
(
of
to
for
'
in
's
,
25
of
,
'
.
of
meeting
bureaucracy
–
the
strong
–
maintain
a
aimed
at
', to
The
the corporate
three partners its
and
was
policy package but also had vested
,
the
the
its
of
but
,
became staunch
hoping
that reformist policies would
.
’,
and
the
The first was the
establishments
loyal bureaucracy
,
in
of
a
.
'
,
on
at
reforms
rather odd
behalf
managerialism
Each
new
-
, a
in
to
an
in
the
of
'
of
a
centralised
of
on
formulated
reform
comprehensive
the securocrats
of
,
a
of of
of
)
(
direct vested
collaborate
the in
to
interests
of
.26
policy agenda state and capital began
,
Botha
the merits
ARMSCOR
operation between and overlapping
-
close
the business community developed
co
the
expansion
's
main partners
concessions would convince urban blacks
large part
in
A to
the
.
Owing
without falling
grievances that communist revolutionaries could exploit and also
-
in
interest
the early
total onslaught
and security
the other two Surprisingly
free market
that neo apartheid capitalism
military
specific aspect
'
supporters remove
policy
the process
a
the
,
of
in
each
forces
ensure the survival
business sector and the government
interested
interests
mixture
the government and
securocrats
1978
of
grip
existence
policy was three ingredients
.
managerial
of
-
of
.
the ambition
attempt
accumulation strategy
new
the dark
the overreaching purpose
counteracting the alleged
security interests
a
the
“
aimed
sector The third was
mainly
–
integrated
',
total strategy
the
give greater substance
neo apartheid
'
.
well
from
and
protecting
architects realised
'
NP ,
white hegemonic order This
second was
Malan
.
on
weighty moral arguments
and
had shifted
the eventual transition towards
strategy
for the first time justified
policy agenda was implemented
meeting
and thus
24
the
more important
as
all
of
the common interest
Shortly after Botha became prime minister
nonetheless
days
the
its
, , by
. -
of
racial
the
against
presenting the survival struggle
Also
government the
back
propaganda
white South Africans
Africans
South
non racial dispensation than
1970s
organised
militarised
,
of
This widening
total strategy was
the
the Cold War
executed
Verwoerd and during the Vorster period
'
to a
promoting the interests
existence
communism
Afrikaners
sectional interests
.
continued
of
through
),
the
Strydom
latter days
and
.
also meant that the main
promoting
far
Total
.
‘
of ,
racial connotations
strategy
of
"
deprived
Moscow
from
said
-
a
well
,
and
on
,
,
the Soviet Union
part
be
-
a
was presented
financed
orchestrated
values
to
high profile project
as
total onslaught
The
Christianity western
'
strategy
' total onslaught '
a
–
.
system
white civilisation
,
existence
capitalist as
of
continued
and
the anti- apartheid movement as
characterised
of
cleverly
of the total
the the
inciting fear about one peril or the other. The ideologues
ESTABLISHMENT
309
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
PART
3
rural
's policy
the best answer
agenda represented
a
of
introduction
,
,
Soweto uprising
in
favour
the tricameral parliament
the former
September and
1984
escalated
,
half
the
and
1985 Botha deployed the South African Defence
.
in
hugely during the first
created
give
liberation organisations 1985
The
with increased
African townships throughout the country
of
the
together
something had
these circumstances
white establishment took another decisive turn unrest erupted
This shift had important
-
for
after
The protracted power struggle between Shortly after
.
,
.
serious budget problems
'
maize producing farmers the
and black education
defence
.
constituency comprising
economy
the sluggish
the
on
of
spending
capacity
In
tax
the main
the NP s traditional
from
both the Afrikaner and the English haute bourgeoisie
shrinking
of
it was co - opting the others 27
an urban
implications for agriculture , and especially
difficult
are
These
that every one
is
shift away
Afrikaner constituency towards
and
at what price .
compact of power ' believed that
players in this
Botha
. Perhaps
answer
to
, and
- opting whom
co
, .
questions
significant
a
who was
about
sections of monopolistic number of businesses raises
.
and
of , the
.28
questions
kinds
the bureaucracy
to
parastatals
different
The
, key
the government
interconnections between
,
phenomenon .
everyday
an
the private and public
between
of
became
sectors
' interaction
Close
in
artificial manner .
in
rather
a
loans South Africa was plunged into
,
worst ever financial
.
30
-
In
billion was
less than R50
to
a
in
of
15
.
to
.
',
no
'
Rubicon
foreign
When Chase Manhattan and other American banks refused
short term
renew
crisis
the ten years after
large outflow
its
disinvested
speech that resulted
'
.29 .
investment
a
in
of
in
)
infamous Rubicon
'
made
In
his
a
(
desperate attempt Force SADF the townships smash the uprising July 1985 partial state August 1985 Botha emergency was declared On
.
-
co
,
In
an
June
1986
a
.
white plunder
as
be
can
regarded
31
became
'
)
32
.
opted
-
co
willing
,
whites but only those be
)
populations groups
of
.
This
tragedy
not benefit
to
the drive
a
In
.
Lusaka
-
co
of
. the
to
of
to
given
Eminent Persons Group
all
of all
elites
plunder
drama
council
Botha used
1986
optive domination
structural corruption
the long
constitution
May
optive
and additional security
was declared
,
members
the
this method
,
However
system in
important episode
310
emergency
of of
adopting
zenith
reject the proposals
However the strategy
of
an
pretext
for
.
legislation adopted
reached
of ‘
state
(
comprehensive
the tricameral
and ordered the bombing
of ,
Commonwealth
a
the
of
his
extraordinary powers
additional power
, of
president
its
state
towards centralised managerialism
by .
executive
did
Botha
Due
The state security
to
's
close collaboration with the SADF
effectively governed the country as
)
(
SSC
policy approach was one
( or
',
domination
1985 and 1989 Botha in
Between
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY
While this was not realised at
time, this development
the
ESTABLISHMENT
hastened the downfall
old order ( see Davenport 1991 : 437 -45 ) .
several important policy
.
announcements under severe internal and external pressure
These concessions
to
.33
in
an
to
.
.
of
,
of
,
,
16
.34
a
35
.
still mobilise the
At the
restore
to
.
,
same time
it
was unable
to
,
NP
a
for
to
the
.
.
to
the
conditions conducive
-
-
failed for
so
.
long
attain
the
vulnerable
any
,
the prevailing social economic
,
had
was indeed remarkable that
South Africa was extremely from
of
the
the A
all
.
.
.
an
at
,
be
of ,
given that
.
exclude
it
,
situation
peaceful
the white controlled state and white controlled
In
a
,
of to
initiatives
maintain
legitimation and accumulation
political
could
state
However
serious survival crisis
the symbiosis still existed
objectives
failed
it
to
.
The symbiosis
capital was experiencing
seek
mystery
internal and external legitimacy
for almost two decades
accumulation
NP government was
The true reasons
still shrouded
quo
faltering Botha
that Nelson Mandela and
political parties
system
volte face are
maintain the status
the system
West
with his announcement
that the
and
the 1980s the South African
's
,
,
or
power needed stability
set free
-
a
to
the end
and
stagflation
high level
world
unbanned
of
to
's
By
of
of
–
stunned
democratic political
unexpected
After
years
who had succeeded
enter into negotiations with
government
States Britain
unhealthily
all
on
de
F
W
,
in
1989
political prisoners would
transition
and
Klerk
the liberation organisations would
prepared
had
August
United
third
international political
crisis Unemployment reached record
-
a
in
,
2
On as
president
state
almost
South Africa
deep structural
February 1990
hostile block
the
governments
and government spending was
levels
other
,
),
friendly
Germany exerted strong pressure
be
the
(
out
Mass
the
several defiance campaigns
isolated
South Africa
COSATU
municipal elections
in
,
,
.
extremely
forced
the economy was
enact additional
regrouped itself into
which organised
Africa was
South
world countries had forums Even
MDM
point
It
a
successful boycott against
-
.
Democratic Movement Internationally
necessary
ban several organisations and restrict COSATU
The extra parliamentary opposition
1988
almost
and economic
it
Botha government deemed
nonetheless mobilised
that
,
,
from
security international
further
international markets During 1989 rumours were
.
1988
crisis
legislation
security
to
‘
state
boost
liberation movement
,
In
.
of
view
of
.
end
their
both
the concessions was
the 1980s the white hegemonic order was
the
At the
unmanageable
The overall effect
and intensify the onslaught
of
,
the moral stature
organisations
of
internal wings
and
a
external
which power had already shifted
government towards the liberation
of
the
from
the extent
it
NP
because they clearly indicated
but
reform
to
,
were important not because they were valuable contributions
,
government made
–
1987
to
to
1985
to
From
the
of the
OF THE AFRIKANER
311
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
,
could
of
,
the in
of
36
.
the
,
an
in
as
or
–
,
on
a
peaceful
alliance
's
the
the
in
,
huge
the country
,
1992
tense and volatile
was
,
of
government
democratic
severe crisis
of
favour
of
veto
in
situation
its
NP
so
the idea
sharing power
national unity
.
to a
17 an
of
the
. 7
on In in
,
in
June 1992
the
of
In
.
,
,
and influx
,
,
different
from
segregation
.
UP
the
,
in
order
often
is
new
from
the segregationist policy
as of
'
as
'
native policy was not
during the 1948 election campaign
or
–
apartheid
“
(
,
However apartheid
312
term
'
its
to
distinguish
the
entrenched
alliance signed key Minutes doing the abandoned
labour repression
as
a
The apartheid system NP coined
this extremely
minority
rather limited manner
control 1948 The
Klerk government a
De
.
a
,
in
to
five years
September
and accepted
veto
dilute the demand for
the
86 )
9
.5
for
prepared
The
election
ground
the situation
demonstrate
a
, In
it
.
civil war
26
on
of
majoritarianism
bureaucratic
COSATU organised
1992
Bisho massacre
of
on
early August
minority
statutory
issue
the negotiations
from
government and members situation the Understanding September 1992 demand for
votes
high
after the Boipatong massacre
NP
the brink
command
majority
Union Buildings the
.
'
“
at
mass demonstration street power Following
the
.
country became very tense
held the moral
broke down over
the liberation alliance withdrew
and
alliance could only count
of
,
the
in
in
–
1992 negotiations
was hovering
that
disadvantaged
minority veto When
economic
mass demonstrations
form
.
(
white
voice
May
)
In
organised
of
and
the
,
's
power
ideological power
on
-
on
people
the
the
in
–
form
securocratic media and professional resources
of
establishment
.
structural
‘
considerable
the ANC
,
white
of
.
,
The differences between
black alliance were striking While the white establishment power
the
of
volte face
they quickly developed
predominantly white bourgeois the
and SACP
of
, as
1990
Soviet
the chain
establishment and the predominantly black liberation alliance COSATU
its
-
. . ).
(
government
-
struggle between
the
kind
new
implosion
's
in
May
a
the
in
of
a
into
power
the 1980s which culminated
1989 and
causal role
When tentative negotiations began
should
part and parcel
scenarios have been constructed
external events that played
the
maintain
1990
of
November
seen
Africa
the
years
few
South
,
.
in
Different
should
see section
in
to
.
Berlin Wall
in
the
of
the
fall
global power shift during the last
1991
took place
isolation
in
seen and judged
Union
South Africa
'
'
be
not
Union
,
not applying sanctions The political revolution that
Commonwealth to
and the European
council
of
policy
from
3 2 2
United Nations security
pressure
to
in
mainly due
–
be
difficult
government were finding it
Conservative
of
increasingly
Thatcher s
the
'
that Margaret
rife
NP
3:
It
PART
,
,
,
.
government
it
in
of
.
the powerful
suppress
to
,
in
’
NP
‘
a
,
.
NP '
's
segregationist
black
legislation
mainly
did
to
94
–
,
1964
white political
perpetuate
differ qualitatively
from
the
the
in
used
English establishment during
first
37
of
especially
)
,
system
apartheid were confronted with the same challenge
co
.
).
:
(
operation
The
with
-
accordance with
for African industrial workers
demand
during the war years created the opportunity
anti Stallardists
in
in
8
a
in
close in
)
the
The Native Urban
-
increase
new
urbanisation the
The sharp
38
was not
for
Stallardism
control African in
sector
to
the business
.
1948
1937 and 1945 were designed
1923
endangering
without
,
NP
government faced
faced
labour policy that
black
political domination see Posel 1991
white
,
Areas Acts
of
dilemma the
accumulation
(
stability
and
capital
of
encourage white
develop
to
segregation how
:
architects
legitimacy
the NAD
relax influx control
it
,
a
,
it
the
,
,
Also while
.
was inevitable
the latter did not advocate
urban areas
39
3 1 3
from
While
white political supremacy
urbanisation
African labour
African urbanisation
.
unrestricted
of
call for
the complete withdrawal
strong
.
and
latter acknowledged that some African urbanisation the former did not
took
the Fagan and Sauer reports were
influx control
thoroughly committed
1947
,
,
differences
the Sauer commission
in
was published
but not inhibited
of
regulated
the report
to
the
issues
of
these
. on
former remained
be
8
a
of
(
' . -
Stallardist position Despite the
permanent African population was
anti Stallardists When
blueprint for apartheid
both ambiguous
stated that the continuing expansion
and that they should
-
the
side
's
the
NP the
took
and desirable
,
inevitable
–
1946
urban industries and the growth
of
of
When the Fagan commission
)
.
to
also with
.
of of
the
to
,
of
The architects
–
50
.
then apartheid
the 20th century
by
the
apartheid
due course the term
policy but
native
difference
discriminatory and social engineering programmes
repressive
segregationist regime
would
constitute only
mean not only the NP
,
its
,
domination the
enacted
the draconian security
also
half
by s
If of
.
(
but
laws
security
we take apartheid
including
they probably
qualitative one However
was associated not only with the
protest
coloureds
differences between labour patterns under the segregationist
a
in
degree and not
arsenal
labour market
and made partially applicable
regimes are important
and apartheid
segregation
over the African
-
Although
practice
well the
as
and Indians
intensified
and
but
the discriminatory character
This means that long standing state controls
were restructured
predecessors
to
intensified both the repressive
English
Ideologically
years
,
segregationist
by
laid
the previous as
as
foundation its
regimes
segregationist
regime was
apartheid
on the
of
's
establishment the
scrupulously
built
and
. It
alleged
the
OF THE AFRIKANER ESTABLISHMENT
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
PART
3
NP a
it
diabolical
a
decisive role
of
persistent beating
its
s
regarded
in
NP '
.
The
as
to
up
,
of
'
'( '
“
the election the
probably played
drum
most contentious
the
and presented
white civilisation
black peril
')
the
the swamping
swart gevaar
run
with horror
urbanisation
‘
for
growing African formula
.40 In
the 1948 election
was probably
-
issue during
the
of Africans
The growing urbanisation
it
, its its
.
‘
practical school a
is a
about
policy saw
it
a
as
it
saw
' the
the
were two schools
there
in
but
white supremacy
maintain
in
.
41
. for
,
the
, ‘
be :
to
1940s
and
to
set
, by
.
solving
supporters shared
the purist school
,
to
a
as
years
but had conflicting ideas
of
At
the end
ought
total segregation between white and black policy intended
'
‘a
of
preserved
what apartheid
1970s and
government
below
from
grand plan Its
by
,
,
it
did not have
white supremacy
.42
it
NP
on
of of
popular struggles
the Smuts government
from
sanctity
could best
thought
be the
commitment how
assumed power
had inherited to
it
problems
the
but also
to
, ,
of
of
a
'
‘
to
When
above
from
was
both organised and
unorganised black struggle groups over period more than important apartheid only shaped understand that was not intervention
to
of
NP
orientation
the
militant
repressive measures were challenged
were
which
state
40
the a
police
measures
in
state with
securocratic
In
.
did
control
by
a
into
All these
the structural
early 1960s onwards the
legislative
the institutionalisation
and
hindsight one can
not resolve
a
developed
by
complemented
and
From
resolve
process
modernisation
of
administrative
statism
them
.
's ,
of
multitude
accentuated
control
based
government
With the benefit
comprehensive
but
contradictions
.
Africa
South
the
.
NP
that the
1980s
inherent
white political domination
perpetuate
a
and regularly amended
limits
social engineering
racially
the multitude
's
the contradictions
word
catch
blacks
comprehensive programme for
the
measures implemented
see
its
,
‘
'
Apartheid
implementing
powerful pressure groups
and opposition
while the resistance
could achieve with is
it
what
apart
torn
by
own constituency
planning and control
of of
government was
in
the
had
comprehensive statist approach
by
greater degree NP
approach
of
the
from
much
a
with
UP
.
inherited
government required
and
,
government was confronted with serious social economic decided that the contradictions and potential conflicts
It
racial problems
It
The new
,
NP
.
victory
way that would not by
Racial Affairs
practical conception
into the
AHI
in
those
, ie
(
emerging Afrikaner entrepreneurs
of
The
cultural
the
Bureau
of
propagated
‘
(
DRC
).
,
African
the South
and those organised
,
Afrikaner volksbeweging
314
AB
the
as
was propagated
was
),
apartheid
apartheid
Dutch Reformed Church by
and
),
(
SABRA
conception
such the
organisations
'
purist
'
The
of
.
hamper Afrikaner business interests
and the Afrikaner
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY OF THE AFRIKANER
ESTABLISHMENT
farming community ( organised into the SAAU ) . The AHI argued that business
profits depended
on uninterrupted access
African labour . It also stated that
to
it preferred
abundant supply of cheap
an
permanently urbanised African
a
migrant labour.43 The SAAU , in turn ,was not opposed to African urbanisation as long as this took place from the ‘ native reserves ' and not from
labour force
a
.
employment
did
its
of
'
in
NP
,
migrants
Verwoerd
were
stricter
the
ensure that
available influx
control
more exploitable
48
and
to
,
increasing numbers
influx control measures
African
As
.
,
in
areas
. . ).
9 4 1
,
46
.
-
on
-
the urban
migrants became increasingly more vulnerable
see section
–
of
by to
a
Due
onwards
Africans
and deteriorating
for
more
1950
's
47
not
like
the pre capitalist economies
of
from to
of
but
-
-
enough
influx control measures
African labour repression
regularly redesigned
government
measures
final phase
to
in
the
subsist
The
What was frightening was the dynamic and ever
those areas drove them
manufacturing
(
in
'.
‘
of in
conditions
was
increased rapidly
the reserves
NP
1952
the battery
wage earning proletariat which
was supposed
native reserves
changing character
only
–
by
Verwoerd
migrant mineworkers
the
sufficient
arresting African urbanisation
in
succeed
large migrant labour force created
the
almost
.
not
These measures did
enacted
while still allowing
zeal
45
to
of
cheap African migrants
supply
influx
Although influx control was
government became notorious
stop African urbanisation
–
1986
designing stricter and more efficient influx control measures desperate attempt
in
an
'(
'
,
until
in
,
for
set
s
40
policy
native
1948
an its
practised before 1948
also
from
flooding
for
the NP
years
'.
control was the core
For almost
's '
of
.
urban areas
was obsessed
integration and the
economic
the
Africans into
the 1940s onwards the
From
a
the supposed dangers
and especially
'
should
ongoing battle
native policy
–
of be .
)
influx control policy
not of
[
NP circles over what the
and
because
practical conceptions
the scene
NP '
in
the Sauer report
NP
Afrikaner
ambiguous
and
60 ).
:
)' (
1991
The contradictions
ambiguous
and
purist and the
the
of
wove together strands from mutually
apartheid
finally choose between apartheid
because
Posel puts
it
exclusive conceptions
contradictory
internally
it,
single hegemonic conception
,
contradictory
imprints
,
-
document
was rather
It
.
of
apartheid
not bear
it
the Sauer report
conceptions
report. Consequently , as
the Sauer
in
practical
the
and
'
did
apartheid were contained
‘ purist '
the
an the
to
of
Posel, both
'
According
with
areas . 44
- controlled rural or farming
of ,
white
to
315
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
of African migrants
identifying five phases of influx control measures during
, when
Verwoerdian dogmatism
in
a
,
's
'.
'
'
‘
on
.
of
)
(
a
its
of the
the
.
term
'
to
claim
complete political a
.so
‘
In
,
of
him
white domination was
–
of
dictated
moral situation
a
create
by
exception
'
-
a
-
as as
the
–
what
In
of
of
,
of
the
as the
a
',
49
–
same blueprint
NP
final
of
in
1952 differentiated
between
two categories
',
and thus permanently urbanised
legislation
which gave rise
,
the African labour market
was
be
This labour market was
to
,
urban labour surpluses and unemployment and labour shortages
to
the new
to
.
be
identities and should only
the in
tribal
of
their
into urban areas The purpose
.
, of
effective
'
retained
control
.51
of
by
,
of
be
in
presented these two
Verwoerd presented
the policy
means
'
,
term
of
a
of
of
).
66
:
(
,
solved
white agricultural districts 316
“
,
as
of
a
as
‘
'
's
to
:
the rid
problem
Verwoerd
short
minority who were detribalised
the vagaries
the
supporters about the large number Africans the urban areas Verwoerd promised 1953 that all
The two native affairs acts
who
The debate
This approach also enabled
would
allay fears among
these problems would
get
1950
Passes
the morally desirable and long
final result
and economic segregation
temporarily
Abolition
the Sauer report continued
policy and the existing reality
because
majority
Black
shrewd ideological device
1991
that would still work
practical conceptions
legal foundation when both
the
two separate phases
practical conception
native
morally justified
allowed
,
in
of
and the NAD until
total segregation
the
,
'
that the NP
formulations in
of
NP
of the
'
conception
economic realities
and
and
period
gestation
Documents Act were promulgated
apartheid
Posel describes
Africans
purist
the
)
-
in
conceptions
and
migrant labour
battle took place behind
relentless
native policy gained
and ambiguous
the
“
's
.
Co ordination
attempt
regarded
Natives Laws Amendment Act and
contradictory
ideal
can
During this period
NP
1952 the
(
the
NP rule
scenes between supporters In
the
.
African labour policy
purist
when
insiders and outsiders
the 1950s and the design
be
of
The first four years
unabated
initiatives
reform
for the manufacturing sector
7
.5 .!
9
Verwoerdian pragmatism system
and
.
.
W
P
of
Botha
distinction was drawn between African
Black
policy
post Verwoerdian ideologues
The 1980s were the years
apartheid
when
which influx control was applied increasingly
-
by
rigidly
official
'
' iii
growing
separate development became
The 1970s were the years
iv
manufacturing sector
the
' or '
territorial apartheid
of
1960s were the years
The
ii
was designed
an exploitative
, .
African migrant system
for
The 1950s were the years of Verwoerdian pragmatism
of NP rule .
40 years
ie
i
by
can be demonstrated
NP
The deteriorating position
a
3:
of
PART
replaced with state
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY OF THE AFRIKANER
.
of
'
‘
'
.
.53
)
to
a
of
–
',
as
an
it
to
. ’ ’
as
'(
54
)
(
should
in
Africans could remain
1952 to
the
ss
’
When
Verwoerd made the important concession
the
urban areas even
to
.56
migrant labour
the early
enact legislation
the concessions the
system
,
.
But despite
certain
in
,
the
creating
influential AHI and the
NP was not
and was careful not
1953 election a
succeeded
in
defeat
in
,
parliamentary majority
the
for
the pressures from
pragmatic concessions
to
from
Verwoerd
the
advanced
's
for
be
.
acts
ULPP which
Africans was undesirable
business organisations
to
its
of -
English oriented
1952
The NAD was adamant that influx control
urbanised African elite with considerable bargaining power
the business lobbies Apart
that could lead
migrant
This concession had the ostensibly unintended effect
Several reasons can
1950s
enter urban areas
of
.
small
who
influx control
,
a
creating
wanted
)
‘
section
'
business lobbies that
all
an
legislation was finally enacted when unemployed
small
permanent urban labour resources had been
’
in
influx
the further
Verwoerd
1952
made several concessions
, .
the “
until
that
10
,
utilised
tribal Africans
The
documents
urban areas
economic realities
apartheid
well
Campaign
in
to
live
Urban Labour Preference Policy
(
categorically
identity
Defiance
1952 legislation
employment
, of
specify
on
should
be
absorbed based
was
source
detribalised Africans with urban residence rights had
the
'
all
that would only allow
fully
farm
52
passes
–
'
When the NAD planned
been
the
women
‘
of of
After taking account the purist conception
workers after
were created
.
)
carry
about who could become permanent city dwellers
system
was in
to “
to
African
Africans with permission
restricted
'
supported
to
led
,
and
to
influx control
.
percentage
rural employers
amended the previous Stallardist
‘
applying
great discontent 10
Section
a
and
of
, (
1952
announcement that African women had provoked
of
urban
efflux control
the
legislation
NAD affecting
national labour
local labour bureaux
This imposition
Laws Amendment Act
by
The Native
Organised
restrict and control the movement of
.
successful
,
s
idea
.
The
constraining African urbanisation
in
quite
urban areas
to
labourers
due course
order
to
,
agricultural districts
In
the SAAU
.
proposed
African labour
allocate
in
by
that could
the
NP '
in
routine and institutional links with the NAD bureau
the white
was the only capitalist lobby that enjoyed
at
supply
the
of
agricultural labour
the main
government
new
white farmers
all the activities
in
to
participate
.
the
agriculture was invited
favour
the labour problems
addressing
in
time
It
in
no
wasted
the
.
Given the decisive role played
swinging the election
of
'
in
the maize triangle was one
by
issues during the 1948 election
rural vote
see
.
)
African labour
‘
The scarcity
different sectors (
to
1
–
1993
of :
Bonner
30
et
al
labour bureaux tasked with rationally allocating labour
ESTABLISHMENT
industrial 317
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
employment that was not only harsher and more repressive it , but also supplied
(see Hindson 1987 : 64
of
The Abolition
Passes
act, reference
books were
to
distribution and
the
only given to
leave
for
urban area without permission
72 –
to
as
but were
find work within that period they had
.
–
of
or
migrant workers
work
seek
other
work for
many more
,
to
prison
set period
white farms
both English
and Afrikaans speaking
labour bureaux and influx control Their
the
.
of
were rhetorically very critical
–
Organised industry and commerce
-
120
to
the urban areas
a
of
offenders were sent
-
:
pass law
).
Posel 1991
areas
8
see
out
‘
endorsed
(
was established
,
a
thousands
were
-
system
control over
their local labour bureau
being
-
; if
was
While
a
criminal offence and the police were tasked with monitoring
–
.
this
–
reasons
limit
this
urban
they could not
of
Exceeding
so
to
hours
prior permission do
the
Tribal Africans could enter with
degree
' local', ' district ,
.
African labour
labour
at the
bureaux
Through these labour bureaux
of
allocation
of labour
network
unprecedented
an
exercising
to enable the
the
control and channel African labour. The act
– to
an
for
.
levels
a
of passes by Africans . Under
57
'regional
and
of
the creation
carrying
the
to
be issued ( to men and women )
bureaux - created by the NAD authorised
Co- ordination of Documents Act ( 1952 )
and
repealed previous laws relating
– 8 ).
of
they demanded
those that had
than
urban employers with as many tribal workers as
in
preceded
on
3:
PART
,
the benefits
skilled African labour
.
them
in
in
‘
find jobs
to
a
native
their position was
the need
often had
no
-
,
72
the
labour bureau
poverty to
,
remain there illegally and
the cities
hours
by
driven
for to
-
to
.
to
choice but
find employment within
Many
from
to
’
tribal Africans
“
for
conditions
Given that those who received permission
urban area had
more
,
economic
-
socio
became urgently necessary
exceptionally vulnerable
in
'
the large far
.
urban
,
the fact
60 ).
–
.
to it
enter
deteriorating
.
areas an
',
urban
the
:
(
reserves
155
workers
employers
in
‘
influx control most
Despite
’
of
to
Africans
tribal African migrant workers
employ
see Posel 1991
Owing
318
opposed
of
remained unskilled
1960
some
employed
unskilled jobs available They were much cheaper and also
number
docile
‘
per cent
that organised business formally
actually preferred
semi skilled
and
majority
–
84
–
,
increased
manufacturing
skilled
the overwhelming in
steadily
employed
state permitted
workers Although the
semi skilled African
-
of
Africans
performed
as
be
percentage
by
skilled jobs
to
,
without antagonising the hostile white trade unions the
-
employers
allow
of
to
order
In
.
urban areas
in
if
-
as
argument was that they needed Africans semi skilled workers and that they lived permanently Africans could only acquire the necessary skills the
find employment
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY
OF THE AFRIKANER
ESTABLISHMENT
was even more pressing. Government officials were aware that most Africans the Bantustans would return
in
of
,
' of
the
,
the for by
.
of
not
the mining industry
in
on
percentage
manufacturing and mining native reserves
')
the
'
both in
1970
a
1950
the
the
The fact that African wages
as
'
for migrants were supplied
to
,
as
and
,
of
,
housing so
,
health
123
58
of
-
,
education
the case
in
As
.
in
to
'
for
the barest minimum
the
.
of
migrant workers
of
-
‘
,
of
Africans
in
from
bolster
predominantly
the manufacturing sector was also based
services
).
1991
NP
the
larger centres were replaced
to
'
Posel
(
’
Consequently
comprising well built houses
despite the economic deterioration
(
to
.
,
‘
of
',
' or ' the
to
cities
for employment
white wages declined industries
poorer Afrikaners
for urban Africans was deliberately minimised
:
'(
‘
see
scale
-
to
,
of
of
townships
the supposition that welfare reserves
-
.
to
43 ).
:
The shanty towns
on
.
migrant system
see
From
stabilisation designed
urban
Government spending
Africans
the
was looming racial
living and working conditions
’
‘
attract more
large
proletariat
especially
conditions
-
strategy
Influx control deprived millions security
to
“
',
or
37 –
whites
in
.
urban decay
detribalised Africans with residential rights and hostels social citizenship
about
development
urban
urban problem
semi squatter
locations
‘
-
neatly laid out
social
–
).
',
,
urban areas
heavy
perform
migrant workers
and African
most pressing
the a
on
control over
in
's
an
,
living
also
government embarked
Africans
low
contrast with
complaints
employ
problem
untenable
the threatened swamping
and
the state
the
NP ,
of
of
the
and had
laissez faire approach
the urbanised white coloured
view
who were
and especially
and growing poverty and unemployment among
in
conflict
,
overcrowding
,
point
of
members
threat
tribal workers could
despite their public
1999
's
the
1940s created
squatting
',
', '
‘
8
-
:
Halisi
The Smuts government during
cheeky
employers preferred
;
many urban
Hindson 1987
lazy
Consequently
64
,
choosy
be
.
industrial work system
in
'–
or
'
to
not afford
employers
exceptionally
unpleasant jobs
perform
to
work
Africans with permanent residence rights
urbanised
'
migrant workers
were not only prepared
wages but were also prepared
upon
depended
and were vulnerable
,
'
. ‘
–
, ’
illegal migrant workers
‘
Tribal
the authorities
to
exposure
illegally
flout the regulations
to
preparedness
employment
to
for
:
(
looking
charge
more disciplined and
even
In
's
a
result migrant labour became
even cheaper see Marks and Trapido 1987 Those
who were prepared
influx and migrant policies
,
As
.
the Bantustans
of
put tribal authorities
help administer the government
rural
the liberation organisations
at
government
banning
22
1961 enabled the to
to
to
in
would
accept lower wages . The crushing of African
early 1960s and NP
resistance
the
then be prepared
the urban areas , and
to
'
to
the
forcibly removed
shows
319
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
of foreign Africans
:
the
by
al
et
of
by
–
, (
,
industry
their
until
of
The real wages
1960
,
1932
from
was
'.
The gold mines stubbornly
,
Beinart and Dubow 1995
:
Wolpe
foreign countries even when
,
on
the grounds that they had
in
and
'
‘
ie
the
of NP
.
61
in
to
'
see
the
native reserves
320
as
'
a
.
,
in
of
of
Africans
white
'
order
curtail
to
also adapted
in
'
an
whites and
circles between
those favouring the
purist
'
Afrikaner
.
the urban areas
“
in
The struggle
to
,
of
the flow
migrant labour
and with
ideological shift towards the purist conception
but administrative measures were
apartheid
These
1952 were too flexible and
Renewed concerns over the growing numbers
urban areas caused not only
policy
arena
stopping the growing economic integration
.
Africans
the
that the influx control measures
had not succeeded
apartheid
Afrikaner political of
realisation
in
new
in
in
coincided with important events
apartheid
territorial
1960s
the 1950s important shifts occurred in
of
At
the end
the
and the acceptance
dogmatism
of '
). Verwoerdian
official government policy
of
the Pact
gold and the serious deterioration
Africans
longer the case
during
3
. .2
9 5
ch
wages
(
was clearly
this
no in
to
subsistence base
in
the native reserves
low
also
including the
mining
the
mining remained unchanged
economic conditions pay
yet
also taken into account
local and foreign African labour the price
The
mines not
gold
apartheid regimes
and
in
in
1910 until 1972
despite several increases
continued
the
successive governments
, is
,
no
exploitation
after 1948
foreign countries
from
1993
the
the NP government
English establishment but
the segregationist
cahoots with
of
in
doubt that
migrant workers
(
in
the
to
given
. The gold
.
of
1920s and the
recruit migrant labour
be
see Bonner
industry
so
system
labour bureau
Afrikaner establishment
the
,
the
in
the support
to
NP )
If
government
systemic
industry and
secondary
in
of
of
hegemonic periods
the hegemonic periods
fully
the legislation explicitly
the extraordinary bargaining power
by
only during
of
South Africa
the gold mining
CM
the
another example
the scope
from
recruiting Africans
of
of
also excluded
special treatment
there can
. While
the gold mines were given the rights to continue doing
mines were course
so
other African countries, but
of
,
to do
them
to
a
easier for
even
' and
the ‘native reserves
in
prohibited the employment commerce
' ability
in
recruit migrant workers
went
Verwoerd
ensure that it would not hamper the gold mines
to
would make it
,
,
out of his way
1952 was adopted
).
of
When the influx control legislation
years . 59
25 apartheid
8
during the first
more exploitative
became
–
in
considerably
industries
both
in
is
that the migrant labour systems -
clearly
in
3
60
PART
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY OF THE AFRIKANER
,
order
)
)
(
and the
in
of
,
Africans the authoritarian
suppress black unrest more effectively
.
to
was created
and
1961 onwards
from
at
,
and
,
were banned
61
–
of
(
1956
the
the Sharpeville protest
an
of
Trial
growing hostility between whites
in
an
security system
the 1950s strengthened
Treason
African resistance that culminated
liberation organisations
forced the black opposition movements underground with the the
apartheid declined
of
that open resistance
in
consequence
the
,
system
to
This
on
the most important being
atmosphere
English business
same time
the end
the
,
of
'
In
62
.
1960
events
.
to
'
escalation
of
wages Certain
purist position
practical conception
the
influx controlmeasures but continued migrant workers both legally and illegally
employ large numbers low
the
1950s
organisations increased their attacks extremely
At
during
unabated
favouring
those
at
continued
and
.
of apartheid
the
conception
ESTABLISHMENT
second half the
.
1960s
’
in
the
at
In
63
.)
a
of
as
),
(
in
the
'
a
in
,
it
in a
as
.
the
of
for
in
's,
(i
did
operate with the
of
to
not always
a
'.
Johannesburg
-
an
UP ,
by
,
‘
applying influx
their
long and protracted struggle
bantu affairs administration boards
64
the
part
deprive local authorities
This caused
-
,
of
be
ethnic
's
on
of
the convenient
Africa
It
on
created
1936
the );
of South
Act
.
in
proposition that there was
scheme rested
also
independent
South Africa
Trust and Land
African majority
to
NP
in
for
per cent
and decentralised industries
The Bantustan
was
different African
;
.
the Bantustans
1948 was
separate development
13
be
comprising
'
‘
stemmed
apartheid
this new package
created
the Development
policy after
of
the
of
'
-
In
, ' ‘ .
terms
would
no
of
urbanisation would
to
(
according
policy
racist policy
the native areas
be
or
on
’,
Bantustans
1959 that
non
apartheid
“
as
,
groups based
,
ncluding
most important policy shift
grand
homelands
borders
tried
the creation
replaced with the supposedly
territory
BAD
important role
and
the
native affairs
announcement
's
Verwoerd known
1960s
.
in
Perhaps
)
1971
in
that culminated
the early
at
)
BAD
for
.
Many local authorities
the outset
responsibilities
(
authorities had played
were still controlled
From
dogmatic
implementing influx control more effectively
the
.
control measures
more
more
became
electoral position was vulnerable
renamed the bantu affairs department
Until that time local
BAABS
colours and favour
1958
co
was
restructuring exercise aimed
NAD
primeminister
the 1950s but improved dramatically
1958 the NAD
example
The
control measures
,
beginning
his true
.
influx control
influx
was elected
's
show
apply
NP
him
of of
application
to
.
he
pragmatic manner When
for
’
,
him
.
1950s had forced
possible
practical
However economic and political conditions
in
early
apartheid
(
conception
to
of
“
Verwoerd was always inclined towards the purist rather than
held that 321
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
but belonged instead
of
,
it
,
10
of
'
of
'
to
,
,
66
.
its
.
settlement and
,
,
in
-
,
10
In
of
'.
10
of '
.
the
in
,
ie
', In
It
.
the
in
on
‘
to
,
,
a
to
labour bureau
,
by
was widened
for
migrants
women
and
,
oppose
the
)
and African
capacity
to
's
employers
per cent increased
a
.
administration
the
migrants
The high average annual
demand
the same time that the deteriorating situation
for
urban areas
at
economic growth rate
time when the
African labour
in
strong economic motivations
At
one
it .
both white to
,
stronger
5 5
experienced
grew
of
administer
it
ideological obsession with influx control and
the other
the
influx control
the BAD
(
main administrative
on
1960s was the intensified struggle arm
the
on
,
of
.
67
controlling the entrance
.
procedures
of
.
the BAD started
'
' ' or '
‘
an
of
‘
to
be
.
.
and
hand and those opposed
in
to
.
' -
of
result
characteristics its
the main
between the government
3 2 2
the
The 1964 legislation also strengthened
,
were made much stricter
to
One
1964
idle and undesirable
Africans who refused three jobs offered
the same time the regulations
children
1960s
enabled the government
idle person
efflux control and streamlined registration
of
At
and
the mid
rights
movement
1964
non productive
The definition
and thousands were removed
influx
Act
)
of .
areas
as
include section
rural
communities living
black people Under this legislation
millions
10
urban
section
Africans
large scale social engineering with devastating effects
remove individuals declared
from
reject the
urban removal policy
the homelands However
The Black Labour
the
the new approach
section
(
of a
on
policy
of
the lives
to
on to to
embark
used the idea
with
accordance
with
Africans
those who were urbanised and
legislation concerning
Africans
the residential rights
urban and rural areas
the relocation
Africans
remove
government amended employment
of
.
's to
they also began
areas
a
'
in
rural white
now
these rights came
on
of
the
the
,
attacks
authorities emphasised
spots
black
and
contrast with the pragmatic
the residential rights
disclaimed
BAD
some
and the idea
claimed that section
Africans
ties with the reserves
BAD regularly
Initially
sharp
,
Africans
idea that there were two kinds those who retained
attack
residential rights
guaranteed
claim
first
rights
the 1950s the government now
fundamental ethnic unity
The
renewed
.
10
section
of
not
could
separate development
excuse
'
approach
and
the African problem
'
'
an
as
Africans with of
of
used
with
outside world
During the 1960s the policy ethnicity were
Afrikaners
solution
their own
in
opted and corrupted African leaders
a
in
was never accepted
was
of
multitude
-
small number
co
of
a
morally justifiable the
a
impressed only
a
propagated
of
as
speakers
edifice
majority
and was accepted by
)
English
this.
the
evangelical zeal ,
ideological
for
'homelands ”. 65
Although
to
exercise their citizenship
by
‘ national / ethnic groups ', and should
(
,
Africans
via
not South
In
' were
“Bantu
-
3:
PART
the Bantustans
-
be
of
–
of
on
in
the
,
the
).
so
of
of to
's
,
to
to
:
'( a
of
for
,
of
in
of
at
, . the
Africans
their control over African
of
that
,
urban area the records would show
labourer and therefore not eligible for urban employment
(B
all a
soon
as
,
This meant that
that
he
inter alia
,
,
.
Pretoria
the
government passed as
, .
Coincidental with the
1964 which stipulated in
to
of
an
in
be
registered
flow
stopping the
in
in
did succeed
the 1960s
of
Laws Amendment Act
arresting
the
,
areas
it
the urban
succeed
in
did
not
undy
).
–
44
1971
stricter influx
the 1960s For some
.
the English
speaking
-
'
tribal
'
turnover
of
and benefits
controlled
'
migrant
workers
was
improving labour productivity For employers
.
-
serious obstacle
mainly
to
undoubtedly
a
–
-
capital intensive industries business sector the high
of
and the mass removals
costs
surplus people
by in
relative
or
the
determine
of ‘
difficult
to
5
a
the inflow
the BAABs
movements and rights
the labour tenant and squatting systems
farm
is
stop
labour quotas
1967 which introduced
agricultural sector
farm
It :
to
the Bantustans
the white
labourer was employed
control
In
.
,
government
labourers had
1975
desperate attempt
the 1970s The first was the Physical Planning
controlling
farm
was
decade
.5 .3 ) . NP
the
(
from
Throughout
large
combat the illegal employment
thus depriving municipalities
see section
Although
and the
9
,
level
task
bureaucracy
from
The second was the creation
of
.
urban manufacturing
the Bantu
Horst
der
Van
this
government introduced two drastic
the
of
scene
Resources Act
which took over the
of
“
and others for
the
of
of
and Utilisation
destruction
farms
deter resistance
1991 253
measures
new
,
that set
from
the Cape
African migrants was
BAD
,
with
migrant workers
Africans
In
.
in
on
August 1966 see
work seekers
-
employers
migrants and improve influx control
efflux
part
1966 African labour
were insufficient
attitudes
the BAD experimented
labour
1961 the authorities
the western
the expansion
,
of
to
Posel and
of
general hardening
local
severely
).
:
,
strong that according
the
more
(
,
the number employed
would
province
contracts
year and
a
region
During the 1960s the demand for and supply
measures
and Colesburg would
114
1976
numbers
that part
announced
31
in
this
at
part was frozen in
rest
migrant workers
Province could only last for Truu
.
',
families
'
decreed that
either
the Bantustans fell
and that African migrant labour and the
of
African
discouraged there than
in
'
a
settlement
of
preference area
coloured
native affairs
line between Humansdorp
a
the Cape Province below
become
minister
then
in
-
In
1954 Verwoerd
urban areas
onwards
the late 1950s
from
to
production per capita
the
dramatically
migrate
to
in
illegally Agricultural
.
legally
of Africans
of
or
forced increasing numbers
the
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY OF THE AFRIKANER ESTABLISHMENT
323
to
pay for the ways
until the
the
in a
,
.
(
324
its
's ).
46
by
46
in
,
an
.
problems
for
set
the
in
.
the cities
scene
their
The
the formal mounting
part
of
,
large
the
most unfortunate part the everyday the
of
activity became
a
criminal
perhaps one
of
this criminalisation
a
of
,
juvenile delinquency youth gangs and urban
urban areas
As
apartheid
.
legacies
of
African population
in
.
crime The cumulative effect
)
reservation
is
job
of
given
unemployment and the spread
of
to
channel African youths born
(
labour market
impoverished proletariat but with
crime records rather than chronic health
the ULPP
impoverished
chronic health problems Many migrant workers
industry were also
of
inability
the mining industry were
into
impressive petty
which millions an
,
the
In
the manufacturing
forms
new
the Group Areas Act
1960s migrant workers from
decade
in
This was also
Africans were relocated under proletariat suffering
experienced entirely
them
This
than
of of
see table
the rapid economic growth
.
.
repression and exploitation
from
the
because many
of
,
but
in
did
was not because Africans benefited less
to
:
)
white
.
23
per cent The ratio
African per capita income rose sharply during the decade whites
of
,
in
Mohr 1994
(
a
,
5 5
in
only
Africans increased
year
Africa
South
constant rand terms increased
by (
whites
in
to
result
per cent
at
grew
structural
.
to
of
to
of
the
the
,
,
per cent that
growing
with
the most prosperous decades
economy
per capita income
unfortunate
succeed
the urban areas the demand
sharply
decline
of
While
average
of
the
.
On
The 1960s were one history
African workers
the Bantustans
in
unemployment
started
)
.
.
and economic growth
the
labour
such
flow
the
labour pattern that was dysfunctional for
,
to
prevent
by
,
so
.
1971 onwards created
There
that the labour quota
ironic that precisely when the government began
is
It
next section
the 1960s and the obstructive role played
continuous capital accumulation
for
detrimental effects
.8 ).
from
African
cost
low
of
BAABs
the end
show
the supply
10
introduced
we will
for
for
control
stricter influx
and
serious that the
compensate
of
system
longer
the 1960s
and need
rate
major bottlenecks
were
of
on
,
could
little doubt
create
labour These were
at – as
be
of
specific categories
economic
the one hand
to
the other began
no
on
technological modernisation
less the end
–
high
its
the very
black
of
or
growth
,
During this decade
attempts
illegal
1980s
of
1841 and continued
in
to
that began
that the different stages
functional for capitalist accumulation until more
can
of
undermining the bargaining power
general conclusion
(
repression
migrant labour
which influx control
269
We can come
measures
,
,
labour
the
:
'(
1991
was
).
workers
by
cheapened the price
mechanise their operations this instability
small price
Posel
of
to
according
APARTHEID
in
capital
motive
in
lacking
labour
, SEGREGATION , AND
COLONIALISM
to
:
, ‘a or
3
the
PART
OF THE AFRIKANER
the 1960s and 1970s many people
of
.5 ). :
of
so
.
on
the
of
If
to
.68
's '
in
75
‘
,
the
by
their
the Bantustans and
speed 45
to
in
realise that Tomlinson had up
in
in to
cheaper power
commute from
,
000
industrial jobs for
new
.70 the 1970s and
,
ideologues
in
of
a
of
. reserves
1966
,
assassination
in
commuter migrancy
's
His election had two important consequences
.
endorsed
a
primeminister
NP
police
the
minister
a
-
in
ten
74 )
recommended that
and reserves
post Verwoerdian
-
and
due course accommodate
prime minister after Verwoerd 1978
on
’,
“
,
;
of
’
.
of of
border areas
political
underdeveloped
the
fewer than
1966
society
the commission
,
electing
tried
then
these
.
office until the
,
by
remained
in
,
John Vorster elected
system
as
the creation
a
The increasing rigidity
of
. .
had been created
of
Africans
the end the
but
in
decentralisation
lay
economic development
government by
69
.
The
periphery
Verwoerd until 1964
took
the difficulties
,
areas
develop
common
1959 that the
their workers who would
, .
,
homes nearby
9 5 3
for the
to
attracted
and transport
border
years
The commission of
population
African
water housing underestimated
problem
that these areas should
It
be the
of
industrialists
–
the African
and declared
per cent
in
:
he
nonetheless decided
,
reserves
solution
critical
very
to
,
economic
initially
was
Verwoerd
recommendations
Firstly
's
a
.
see Davenport 1991 368
of
Although
1950s was
the early
the Bantu and European populations into
endured
estimated that
the inevitable consequences
commission warned
the
The
central finding was that
spent during the following
'(
must
of
,
be
the integration
and
urgently needed employment opportunities
create
funds were not spent
The commission
as
and
,
reserves
to
R204 million should
extreme poverty
the reserves
the 1920s
since
land
that other
small and often corrupt elite comprising only
the population be
, 7
12
per cent
the income earned
the hands
in
concentrated
of
, 3
46
per cent
of
African peasants had escaped the ravages
The commission
prosperous portion
small and relatively
a
commission also found that only
denuding
of
,
,
,
overstocking
or
as
1956
the reserves
in
-
into socio economic
.
its
report
homelands
it
'
'
inquiry
government commissions and committees had documented malnutrition
the
see also section
to
referred
now
confirmed the appalling socio economic conditions stark poverty
apartheid 10
;
:
5
and
1993
in
in
‘
‘
civil manner after
of
the
native reserves
the native reserves published
in
conditions
that it became
an extent
which the NP government embarked
Tomlinson commission
The
')
‘
Bantustans
.
to
develop
al
a
Bonner
The 1960s was also the decade
policy
lawful et
(
had been abolished
in
act
to
them
such
to
(
system
of
many
see
for
were not only criminalised but brutalised
difficult
ESTABLISHMENT
,
of millions of Africans during
existence
34 –
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY
325
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
police state which Vorster
further entrenchment of the authoritarian
.
to create
, the “ purist ' conception of apartheid was now applied rigidity by ‘ smaller prophets ' on whose shoulders the
increasing
with
.? !
Verwoerdian mantle had fallen
1960s the government took
late
labour quota system
a
introducing
the
earlier , in
As noted
already
had
Secondly
urban
in
begun
areas
a
3:
by
PART
first step towards the Physical
passing
of
the
of
on
the
a
area
or
industry
.
border
a
to
decentralise
to
of
of
In
.
of
compelled
Any
thereafter
:
and only
labour
industrial workers 1 2
to
in
it
of
African
,
to
quota would
the government
1970
the implementation
authorised
1973
industrial
72
exceeding
until
their responsibility
growth
and
jurisdiction
white
be 25
the
Witwatersrand was
which
ratio be
.
The maximum
:
quotas
white paper
1
a
published
local authorities
industrial development
their areas
in
workforce
of
regulating the
African
The act deprived
rate
for
.
industrial purposes
in
of
to
,
of
Planning and Utilisation planning Resources Act which gave theminister authority designated the restrict the use land controlled areas for
to
,
'
'
fell
now
white
in
administering Africans
and the
to
a
BAABs had been
these
the BAD which had campaigned the late 1950s for full control over the application
of
,
a
. its
This was inception
improve influx
municipalities
few
white local authorities
resounding victory in
,
from
performed
of
areas previously
1975
.
in
The task
.
surrounding farming districts boards
By
1971
responsible for regions comprising
each
by
,
set
the BAABs
for
up
control was the creation
Vorster government 22
of
The second drastic step taken
the
by
.
Bantustan
.
326
' .
;
–
5
a
' be
better
201
:
in
of
At
By
it
.
(
urban
1986
growth
of .
serious
adoption the
of
in
,
as
an
of
urbanisation
a
in
but especially after
in
big
instrument
urban areas had been
in
The
urban areas
the
century
housing
of
of
African townships they
,
the
of 1923
.
in
the beginning
the Stallardist legislation
in
in
,
a
in
use the availability
.
from
Savage
housing for Africans
influx control Adequate housing for Africans problem
white
jail would still
).
to
control over the provision
They immediately started
the end
3
–
80
,
74
68 she –
Bantustan
When the BAABs took over the administration also gained
influx control
the 1970s the Bantustans
person who could find work
had remained
As
surplus people
see
it
1987
:
Hindson
violate them
nine months and then spend three months he /
off than
was estimated that
if
area
for
the 1970s
the increase
stem
became increasingly necessary
fully proletarianised a
had become repositories
the 1970s
in
the Bantustans
of
poor people
in
for
measures becamemore efficient
urban areas
to
migrants
73
authorities were still unable
to
the illegal employment
the
in
Despite these measures
of
.
influx control
1940s
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY OF THE AFRIKANER
the
of
in
,
'
'
.
to
or
of
of
it
to
in
to
by
,
of
a
to a
in
in
.
.76
even
they
Homelands
-
on
confer self government
any
-
,
became self governing
even
no
this way
,
and these deportations were
In
'.
As
longer
limited legal rights granted ?
including five years income
exemptions favourable
,
billions
of of
during the 1970s and 1980s amounted
road and
taxpayers to
industrial decentralisation
.
,
tariff rebates and other concessions The direct and indirect cost
,
loan rates to
tax
agency basis
offering industrialists incentive packages
,
'
Decentralisation was encouraged
and also
.
the Bantustans
an
white entrepreneurial activity
the Bantustans
by
allowed
areas bordering
on
industrial decentralisation
the Vorster government stepped on
,
industrial licensing
in
policy
of
its
justify
to
up
To
.
African migrants under the pass laws were removed
a
foreigners
as `
’,
these areas who
from
deported
the
1970
of
1971 the Bantu
if of
to
,
of
Act
the homelands
several Bantustans
'
change the
to
.
In
to
one
areas
president
As
the
'
.
African
their homes
government was
' .
legal appeal
form
be
'
in
a
,
to
in
'
, '
in
by
,
–
from
migrants independent while also supposedly were illegally white urban areas were now regarded result they could now
the
African workers were forced
,
white
the
new
developing
centres
The Bantu Homelands Citizenship
eight territorial authorities
subject
many
–
creating
Vorster
all Africans
Constitution Act empowered the
the
'
of
never lived outside
and after
reappear
and back again
area
by
Africans
.
rights
, 7).
:
in
of
step taken
attached the citizenship had
of
a
white industrial
'
– a
to
citizenship
policy
this
industrial
wholly
over considerable distances
often
third drastic
more difficult
industrial licensing and
commuter migrancy
of
A
Bantustan
system
the 1970s
'
a
:
travel daily
African
built hostels
even
The result
Bantustans near major
in
By
(
areas
government succeeded migrancy
526
housing
scarcity
dormitory
black
white
–
Davenport 1991
creating
make
conditions began
'
if
deterrent
'
-
urban areas
'
white
order
urban areas
was that slum
and
decree that Africans could only gain permission work housing was available was another powerful albeit cruel
new
A
.75
urban areas
from
Durban
urban areas became more acute
.
'
deliberate deprivation
'
in
'
white
the
.
,
to
-
the to
'
move
late
houses for
building houses
the government only
the urban areas to
of
addressing this shortage
families
‘
for
white
in
commuter migrancy Bantustan
Africans
for
to
.74
,
housing shortage
bachelors quarters
. But
include urban areas near East London
By shifting home building
urban areas Instead
to
encourage the growth
borders were redrawn Pretoria
of
to
,
order
in
Bantustans
1960s the NP
down the construction
slow
urban areas and concentrate
'
'
in
white
the 1950s and
clearance and housing programme
slum
1960s the government decided
Africans
in
on
launched an energetic
,
result
a
to
large - scale squatting. As
in
in
resulted
ESTABLISHMENT
327
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
. Although
, their cost per capita
border industries
was
higher than
could
as
thousands of new jobs were created in the Bantustans and in be
rands
3
far
PART
regarded
,
a
.
,
of
into
unskilled African migrant workers were
the poverty
by
of
stricken Bantustans
-
to
forced back
the early 1970s the
Africans were drawn
,
made redundant
and
not only
,
,
.
in
larger numbers
even
and
,
Therefore
existed that while large numbers
strange situation
skilled jobs
white urban areas
whites
reservation
skilled work
to
-
border areas but also
relax
to
Consequently the Vorster government was forced perform allow semi skilled African operatives
filled
in
could
by
than
the structure
changes caused job
in
workers
These
be
in
for skilled
industrial sector
in
demand
the 1960s changed
.
greater
,
and capital accumulation
the
economic growth
of
The high level
of ,
.78
economically justifiable
stricter
.
influx control measures
of
,
; 5
–
,
403
a
as
,
– 74
:
(
.
1971
.
to
of al
Crush
et
per cent
;
88
While
which influx control was improved and
its
decade
,
the
.1 ).
:
Hindson 1987
of
in
.
jobs
1982 the real wages
white wages were only
(
the
in
of
a
40
guaranteeing
, 9
of
1985
in
a 19
per cent
as
percentage
per cent The
5
In
by
less than
consisted
in
its
to
of
.
a
specified period
workforce
the
8
;
10
,
The 1970s was
to
in
mining
table
per cent
As
1975
in
a
of
result the rise Mozambique from
as
to
rise
were almost four times higher than
1971 they increased
-
368
Marxist regime
their migrant workforce
stabilise
African mineworkers
104
on
in
subsistence
also changed
migrant labour
1982 this figure had dropped
workers who returned within African wages
80
1973 almost
in
; .
tried
to
foreign migrants
mines also
to
In
in
.
socio
the
important shift towards using domestic labour took place
mining industry
:
,
.
the
in
migrant workers started
gold and the suspension
by In
an
a
,
result
in
produce
gold mining industry
of
:
.
system
after this territory had become independent under
3
rather than
Ironically
see Davenport 1991
of
the price
28
But
402
1986
early 1970s The wages
1991
to
the
in
the sharp population increase
The migrant labour
in
Bantustans and their ability
1979
).
for
result Lipton
,
government buildings
costly
from
their inhabitants declined dramatically during this period mainly
of
base
sharply
per head
developing infrastructure and subsistence mechanisms economic situation
the Bantustans
increased
a
,
R89
the
1980
.
capacity
64
to
1961
million
of
carrying
11
in
1960
to
,
the
to
)
on
(
caused the populations
development also
1978 prices
the
38
much
million
improve
Bantustan
money was spent
of
,
per head
in
the amount spent
4
,
to
almost desperate attempt
R18
resettlement policy
increase sharply from on
an
Bantustans
of
'
its s
,
border areas together with
decentralising industrial development
policy
in
The Vorster government
a
than
century
and docile African
cheap
of
many white employers
,
the
of
,
relax some
to
,
hesitantly
than
labour repressive measures had
costs
thus
economy The Vorster government
.
already declining
ESTABLISHMENT
became more destructive
,
more
the new measures increased
further depressing started
the African population
supplying white employers with the
,
labour
costs
for
. While ,
ever before
decreased
of
large part
a
by
effects on
OF THE AFRIKANER
the costly discriminatory measures
the
in
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY
the
in
,
by
79
in
,
'
“
as
of
,
so
to
the
.
oriented corporate
sector believed
labour would solve their accumulation economic conditions together with the political the government
criticise
's
to
Portugal
sectors
economic and especially labour policy was the most
on
organised business
government and almost
of
The clash between the Vorster
all
.
economic and labour policies for the first time
état
in
indecision after the coup
'
's
Vorster
in
,
African
prompted Afrikaner capitalists
also
urban labour markets
-
,
by
.
,
1974
Deteriorating
created
vacuum
to
improved access
increase the size
the urban areas Although the downturn
in
workers
organised
business sector
-
to
the economy was universal the English
problems
corporate profits
order
liberalisation
in
, of
and
increase the mobility
that
by
of
influx control
caused
the economy
of
urban African workforce
the downturn
especially the English oriented in
in
of
for the relaxation
called
).
:
.
caused
and commerce
As
sharp declines
,
/4
industry
onwards
insiders
Vorster government
the
during the 1970s
the
1973
of
influx control policies
widespread controversy
indentured
between African
,
'(
1978
not
89 )
's
outsiders
stricter
from
initiatives and the distinction
reform
–
,
PW
(
. .
9 5 4
Hellman and Lever 1980
Botha
and
The
in
labour Dugard
legislation
goods produced
47
United States that prohibited the import
prompted
in
's
but was
initiatives
reform
this
80
Vorster
from
stem
However
.
,
repressive labour systems since 1841 were repealed
of for
part and parcel did
and had been
a
criminal offence
d
to
break his her contract
/
In an
employee
, ,
masters and servants laws which made
1974 the
it
.
1970s
government and business
as
requests
least some sections
the pressures from the business
unjustified interference
the realm
generals became not only
the total
'
,
prime minister his
Botha
Vorster
as
Botha succeeded
's
,
formulated
by
strategy
1978
P
,
When
W
government in
of
,
community and denounced
its
.
organised business Vorster reacted furiously
and
of
the day
African
South
in
the government
to
between
to
.
Union
in
destroy the symbiotic relationship that had existed since
threatened
a
history
of
between
It
serious confrontation
main propaganda 329
his political agenda
'.
a
of
-
via
to
black
Soviet inspired
the government
government
Botha
a
'
.
FMF was
message
cultivate
or
communist
particularly those linked
,
interventionist policies the NP had followed since 1948
dismantle
the
and accept the free
in
.
not resolve either the legitimacy various structural
403
.
the existing
)
(
1981
institutionalise
see also section
. ).
to
and
9 6
7
–
;
,
the
official institutional
and
statutory framework
,
,
the improvement modernisation
of
of
The Riekert commission concentrated
272
1996
:
'
(O
Meara
in
the mobility
In
its
-
reservation
and attempted
Africans on
formal trade union rights
and regulate industrial conflict
330
restrictions
job
and
statutory
African labour eased The Labour Relations Amendment Act
and reform
labour
on
sector was abolished
to
extended
investigate
.
training
of
manufacturing
recommendations
,
commission
,
the
stimulate
make recommendations thatwould stimulate productivity
's
line with
brief was
commission
would
to
legislation and
The Wiehahn
operative relationship
initiatives
reform
's
entrepreneurship
sector and
new
to
corporate
the
.
with
its
The government was quite optimistic that
co
–
(
:
397
the
creating
for
them
).
Davenport 1991
As
Botha government
.
fiasco
on
the serious
contradictions The business community must bear some responsibility ensuing
by
)
in
by
the white business
,
the
be
,
accumulation crisis but intensified
and
the growing
the Botha reforms
blamed
reforms
the Botha
1979
conferences were
sector
by
role played
did
below
,
in
we will indicate
the Riekert and
and the business sector
on
to
.
the strategic
these initiatives cannot only
The
for the private
role
formulating and legitimising
in
community
the
conferences
by
'
'a
institutionalise
to
and
bureaucratic state Owing
or
1981
.
and Good Hope
)
)
,
policy issues
flaws
whose reports were published
enhance agreement between the government
to
held
1979
(
the Carlton
both
(
Wiehahn commissions
reformist policy was formulated
of
Botha
's
Elements
(
of
.
81
enterprise approach
a
to
the
,
'
and
to
,
of
of -
bulwark
persuaded
also
The
spread
The business community
urban blacks
against
the
ARMSCOR
threat
capitalist
easily convinced the Botha government
life
quality
Business leaders
, .
revolution
class
blacks
a
urban middle
FMF
and
improve
to
need
the
a
spearheaded
as the UF
by
enterprise among young urban
free
save
'
to
all
by
in
established
government and the
forces
white civilisation from the communist major business groupings 1976
and
became
of -
)
(
system
could
remarkable
the
sector both white and black
business
for
The total strategy
which
terms
in
comprehensive policy framework
.
and capitalism
destroy the capitalist
the space
created
join
apartheid
between
Africa
South
in
system
of
collaboration
-
'
'
total onslaught was Soviet inspired and designed
free enterprise
the
The pronouncement that
the
cornerstone
to
also
APARTHEID
to
tool, but or the
, SEGREGATION , AND
COLONIALISM
.
:
of
3
the
PART
the
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY OF THE AFRIKANER
Its
and the living grain
NP be
–
against the
of
that separate
urbanised Africans should
long last
of
at
Riekert commission
the Fagan commission more than
the view
'
,
be
'
,
in
,
be
to
'
' in
better
kept out
.
This on
'
the white areas and
was
it
place and that
,
in
'
outsiders was based
of
the pre
,
.
extent than before
see
(
greater
even
of
only while the movement
,
‘
to to
and
both the corporate sector and the
'
–
restricted
any urban area
control measures Paradoxically
insiders
an
be
accepted
now
applied
be
to
–
was
to
'
outsiders
was
means
by
Bantustans
the free market approach
government
by
the
in
capitalist sector
'
‘
dualistic economy was still
separate the modern capitalist sector
to
possible
a
supposition that
should
control measures
insiders and
into
'
'
of
'
the
division
the commission said
urban areas with even stricter influx
the African population
were those with
Rural outsiders were
.
,
white
the one
improved through property rights
housing better training and higher wages the
on
's
,
should
insiders
insiders
and work
to
move
be
, '
life
to
in
'
freedom
recommendations
‘
:
be
in
the other Urban
white urban areas whom
of
'
whose quality
two groups urban
‘
unrestricted
Riekert commission
.
granted
on
10
rights
' '
section
divided
outsiders
‘
,
and rural
the
the
most important
was that Africans should hand
of
.
years earlier
Perhaps
of
main focus
of
,
of
acknowledged the correctness
).
18
mines
the
argued
the
,
.
but
of black
better utilisation
the
The commission reiterated
permanence
facto
process
the
In
acknowledged
30
-
urban areas
de
that
to
excluding
was non negotiable
–
orthodoxy
Africans
-
development
labour market
the
conditions
view
a
Utilisation Commission 1979 : para
in
of
the African
was
with
-
' (Manpower
manpower
Africa,
in South
.
labour market
ESTABLISHMENT
).
10
of
'
’
‘
'
for
,
to
tape
red
,
This was urgently needed the
Bantustans
introducing 99
massive electrification project
see
(
and launching
a
for
-
,
upgrading greater Soweto
run down
.
renewal
to
urban
by to
in
sorts
On the positive side the government accepted
.
)
had
important
political the
’,
'
of
it
‘
insiders
still convinced that the Bantustans political rights outsiders presented with difficult political
'
vehicle
permanence
the
for
the government was
of
While
recommendations
's
commission
adequate
acknowledged
section
5
–
:
.
implications
83
ownership
The Riekert
with
which African townships had been allowed
plan was announced
Hindson 1987
an
another
Vorster period when home building was shifted
year leasehold
were
insiders
a
of the
1980
a
In
during
.
recommendations
's
Riekert
from
area
the government encountered
.
doing
them
the way
possible
now
one industrial
from
prevented
because
was
on
move
to
rights
While
so
.
several problems
it
,
In
applying the Riekert recommendations
all
–
:
Davenport 1991 379 400
331
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID the early
1980s to allow
1981 election manifesto
local authorities
these black
BLAS
a
,
suggested
eventually
also
could
Bantustans thereby providing the basis
the
political settlement
tied
that
to
its
local authorities . In
by
be replaced
the the
which the BAABs would gradually
in
in be
process
a
townships .
of
in
NP
envisaged
black
it decided
this problem
elect their own 'community councils ’ in urban African
‘insiders ’ to It
‘solve
To
for
challenge .
)
3
(
PART
terms
Meara
the
:
1996
'
(O
-
the
of
.4 ).
10
in
'(
facilitated
also
of
.
in
'
in
of
to a
Riekert reforms
simply
who
and vehemently
struggle against
1980s The government
attacks
that received considerable
international
to
in
the
aggressive movement
squatters gave rise
on
resisted
forced removals
explosive situations
and put the government under
coverage
was especially the situation
the Western
in
.
It
pressure
into
moved
in
The squatters
’
“
areas
,
urban
late 1970s and escalated
's
of
the
'
white
squatters
'
.
already impoverished rural outsiders
millions
'
back
them
.
the wages
see table
an
the
by
to
's
send
severe international
But
sharp increase
outsiders
the
.6 ). defeated
the periphery
in
started
was
to
attempts
urban areas
more capital intensive basis
barricade
to
illegally
applied
9
;
intention
the Bantustans
force
the income
and a
production
see also section
Riekert
Wiehahn on
reorganisation
of ,
together
Taken
274
further decline
of
and
both commissions led
the
‘
',
insiders
a
recommendations
more flexible labour
a
corporate sector
the Wiehahn and Riekert commissions
long way towards meeting the demands
a
the government went
of for
by
The recommendations
as
of
.82
Verwoerdian doctrine
a
.
to
,
in
,
.
to
.
1986
–
the squatters In
,
build new
137
-
:
1986
policy
;
cherished
of
government abolished influx 45
the
–
of
In
,
a
be
in
started
and
the Cape Peninsula
al its
Cobbett
et
of
–
83
1987
:
(
Hindson
the failure
the
large informal African
immense symbolic importance sector
1985
the
territorial
see also section
332
urban
Africans
there
was
in
,
to
the
in
rights
no
Africans with voting
,
perspective
urban
of
to
-
so
but not
coloureds and Indians new
logic
BLAs
.
called tricameral parliament was extended
,
the
1984 representation
in
second structural contradiction was created when
,
A
in
3 2
. .3 .)
apartheid
two weeks When
Crossroads
rights
corporate
control thus acknowledging
;
under pressure from
5
the
a
resounding victory
at
’
-
African townships with leasehold attained
within
the permanence
the
-by
'
in
Soweto
African women were sent back
, of
returned
them
government finally accepted settlements
of
thousands
sea
,
Transkei but most
wills
,
battle
of
protracted
of
to
,
,
at
Cape and particularly Crossroads that received the most attention because Cape larger the Western was supposed coloured preference area
From
the
not extending
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY
play
of
in
of
low
voters
Front
the BLA elections
all
in
a
to
to
, .
of
to
South
of
the
,
prevent
to
protest and
in
participating
liberation
political
the black trade union movement was struggle
the liberation
see
(
fully involved
3
, 2
–
:
500
the Congress
).
Davenport 1991 401
,
and
–
.
in
already entirely politicised
prevent any
the late 1880s
in
by
At that stage
vain
the
political grievances
internal wing
the government
COSATU and other black trade unions from
movements were
permitted
and
December 1985 established close
in
(
attempts
in
,
the
.
founded
UDF and became part
Renewed
express their
and especially those affiliated
African Trade Unions COSATU
political
political parties and trade unions
between
of
trade unions
struggle
it
of
financial links
any meaningful vehicle
the
from
1981 abolished
also laid down strict rules
the
or
of
the absence
with
trade union membership
mixed trade unions
direct association
Africans
, of
to
to in
respect
,
of
formation
ties
reforms arose
extend formal trade union rights
Although the Labour Relations Amendment Act
racial distinctions
black
the Botha
.
vacuum
of
structural contradiction
third
),
A
.
-
co
83
ordinating the internal struggle
the liberation movement during the 1980s
.
reform
the United Democratic
turnout
the
key role
in
to
The UDF came
1983
Wiehahn proposals
In
well
as
1983
formation
a
,
in
)
of of
(
UDF
August
as
programme was expressed in
ESTABLISHMENT
with Botha 's restricted
. Dissatisfaction
to them
the
parliamentary rights
OF THE AFRIKANER
90
to
.6
9
,
The apartheid system and discriminatory legislation with special reference the black labour market
into
tried
different racial groups and
of
the
or
'(
‘
legislation despite the strange that during the
the English establishment displayed
scruples
84
few
racial discrimination
more 3 3 3
entrench
far
began
a
NP
in
1948 the
to
In
.
over repressive and discriminatory practices
African
, ,
is
and
indeed
and
nor the legal profession
,
the 20th century
It
'
costs
the coloured
society
discriminatory practices
fact that they increased employers
first half
themain motivation
,
neither civil
.
was particularly critical
legally
protect poor whites
from
of
Before World War
2
)
.
proletariat
against competition
to
.
this racist and discriminatory legislation was
Afrikaner proletariat
by
first half unsystematic somewhat
social conventions Besides health considerations
sanction
the racist
to
divide the population
During
were
of
and segregationism
various governments
an
20th century
and early
South
practices the
19th
Social Darwinism
,
,
to
manner
century
.
the late
18th
a
since the
century
the 20th
for
of
ideologies
in
legitimised
integral part
Discriminatory
century
in
society
legislation have been
and
,
African
practices
.
Discriminatory
of
)
–
(
1948
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
PART
3
comprehensive and systematic
way , at
world about the advancement
of human
time when thinking
a
rights
and
the western
in
elimination of racial
the
organisation
of by
,
,
in
's
of
).
3
of
'
:
of
et
(
al
,
To
.
'
a
.
of
were
well
as
as
)
1950
(
',
‘
the Prohibition
Population
The
identified and registered
from
,
.
,
In
.
to
secure residential and occupational segregation
declared
for the exclusive
the
Group Areas Act which
use
of
be
a
purity
whites and blacks
scheme contained
uniform to
1993
described
and white people
black
of
in
by
Bonner
one particular racial
of
of
.
the
The Extension
minister
away The
education
and
a
century
, .
black
be
,
of
than
the
secretary
taken
of
Dr
,
education
'.
Bantu
empowered
schooling
for more
formalised the segregation
‘
1959
)
Act
(
Education
)
laid the foundations
(
1953
As chairman
Werner Eiselein
to
,
the Christian missions that had controlled
Black Education Act
334
1949
that control over African
recommended
for
from
Commission appointed
it
of
the NAD
the four population groups in
systems
separate education Bantu Education
the discriminatory legislation was the creation for
An important part
of
.
group
and
racism
85
provided for areas
people
racial
four racial groups This act caused severe hardship community 1950 the piecemeal regional attempts
period
-
were replaced
on
,
required
)
of
(
as
in
the pre apartheid
.
to
:
)
of
between
extramarital sexual relations between birth members one especially the coloured
lines
and the Immorality Amendment Act
forbid marriages
Registration Act 1950
racial
in
to
introduced
Hitler
and discriminatory legislation
segregationist
maintain
and
the alleged
address
politicisation
racial
be
In
(
Mixed Marriages Act 1949
to
order
statute books
a
,
,
,
a
plethora
after
felt increasingly
the influx control mechanisms
besides
.
the
on
the
of
For this purpose
earlier the NP placed
embarked
racism
Afrikaners
advancement
and
entire society along
,
, 30 ).
28 –
on
the restructuring
especially
to
of
black
black swamping the
dangers
from
racism
with the dangers
was obsessed
Whites
social mobility NP
by
.
swamping and racial mixing threatened
a
power
to
came
it
,
NP
(
When the
against
reaction against the blatant
Hellman and Lever 1980
in
see
detailed code
The movement away
doubt that the reaction
discrimination after the war was Nazism
1948
decolonisation that had gathered momentum
no
can
aspire
82 —
the process
Dugard
and
rights and fundamental freedoms was
and towards human
There
This was followed
of
to
by
.
war
respect
Human Rights which contains
be
the
enhanced
religion
which states are expected
discrimination
‘universal
for
’.
language
the Universal Declaration
freedoms
or
race sex
,
distinction
working
to
rights and fundamental freedoms for all without
human
,
as
observance
to
of ,
that
of
committed
for ,
discrimination was changing fundamentally . The UN charter adopted in 1945
University
designate colleges for
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY OF THE AFRIKANER
specified African ethnic groups. 86 African education was
mission -based
educational
still imbued with
system
assimilationist ideals (Marks and Trapido 1987 : 21). Although the
in
into
who were not only concerned
,
prospect but were also alarmed
,
89
,
the
been
'.
division
blurred
and
servicemen
about their own economic
the advancement
black workers into
to
)
(
).
to
–
–
use
.
townships Africans
to
:
5
, -
if
urban
,
).
from
the act
in
in
for
introducing
urban
African trade unions
divided into four phases
,
labour discrimination can 1990
3
1950
by
its
,
job
–
(
training and
under
white urban areas But
of
(
the ban
the government
reservation
Even
.
It
's
the four decades from
the
103
taken
:
.9
policies
'
in
The
continued
NP
townships
encouraged
Africans
1976
be
act prohibited blacks
This
building industry
housing
Truu
report
endorsed
1951
on
and
on
permitted
of
the supply
increase
in
performing skilled work
the
Building Workers Act
Black
to
the
the white trade unions
from
not the steps
in
Van der Horst
before the commission could complete pressure
races and
in
ensure the desired protection
for
be
adequate protection
ILC
the existing wage regulating legislation
,
or
‘
not
all
as
whether
'
to
operates
an
report inter alia
the Industrial Legislation Commission
appointed
on
1948
NP
the
In
.
90
industrial jobs during the war
dilutions
sharp
Many
of
by
were Afrikaners
.
area
semi skilled jobs had emerged
-
of
racially mixed
war Smuts
these
the formerly
white skilled and black unskilled workers had
between
'
the colour bar and
'
'
.
Blacks had advanced
serious shortages
After
created
more skilled jobs
,
from
Owing
of
meet the
-
‘
,
To
the
steps under emergency war measures
addressing the contradictions
and
semi skilled jobs racially defined legal
dilution
a
'
jobs
,
refrained
groups
.
an
fell outside
skilled labour the Smuts government allowed
masked these
the public
explosive labour situation
.
who
race groups
,
be
to
to
,
to
faced
and unskilled
skilled
'
classification
quality between
industrial production during the war new
for Africans
created
particular
different population
'
in
power
'
were
of
to
the increase
the
differences
transport facilities allocated When the NP rose
reserved
88
there were large
it
although
transport
and
voters
which allowed
1953
for (
),
(
facilities
the common
from
Act
Separate Amenities
and the Reservation
public
removed coloured people
of
,
roll
Separate Representation
.
Act 1951 which
effect on not only
of
very negative
a
-
laws that had
Africans but also on coloureds and Indians were Voters
it remained
. 87
ex
Other discriminatory
,
education
),
white education
to
of primary
extended the reach
by
inferior
vastly
' greatly
education
the
* Bantu
of
system
'
a
for
of
of
the
ideological control over the black intelligentsia who were
to gain
product
over by the state
taken
a
an attempt
in
ESTABLISHMENT
35
i
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND
APARTHEID
3
In
the
1950s
legal
the
for
PART
framework
grand
apartheid
more
and
the policy encountered
stiff opposition
employers complained vociferously about the shortage
of
low
level
,
skilled workers
'
while growing concern was expressed over the
of of
implementation
;
of
the 1960s
In
ii
the
.
comprehensive job reservation was created
most
wages
-
to
an
. to
the
in
of set
the
recognised
The Black
of of .
be
rejected the
becoming members
from
to
'
not the same
definition
)
(
exclude African men and women
the
employee
registered
.
92
to
obstacle
they had
trade unions should
Labour Relations Regulation Act 1953 amended trade unions
trade unions
The government immediately
'.
that African
led
of
,
workers
when
'
non European
colour bar was
the
Europeans
that
as
opportunities
that African
recommended
more
1950s
an
's
.
of ,
and concluded
introduction
discriminatory policies was
a
1951
further progress as
NP
the
in
its
the
report
and
,
discriminatory measures
be recognised
recommendation
.
for grand apartheid
The scene for the first phase
reforms
the Wiehahn
militancy
and
It
. ./
9 6
comprehensive
attempt
Wiehahn reforms
the
labour instability
ILC tabled
on
.
implementation
The legal framework
should
This culminated
of
iv
During the 1980s unforeseen
in
stagflation
many policies
in
the
grip
the
break
government backtracked
of
the 1970s the
In
iii
.
blacks
336
'S ,
)
in
of
of
for to
95
.
,
far more affected
,
directly
maintain the
employment
of
the clock
respect
to
to
in
,
the number
people
to
in
to
of
.94
back
‘
to
' ,
of
der Horst
were conducted
they were
,
turn
of
It
.
of
,
an
the “
,
reserve particular
the
also
van
labour
any race
particular areas
of
but
,
status quo
investigate and
investigations
reservation
Sheila
job reservation
her these orders were not only designed
to
.
indicate
According
to
,
important than their number
some cases
employees
industrial tribunal
of
.
According
non
manufacturing
The act gave the minister
of
and 1971
and orders issued
five members
in
1956
job
Between
and also
particular race groups
27
work formembers
was extended
the economic welfare
,
of
trade
reservation
requiring
ignored the ILC
the further progress
act provided
the new
industrial tribunal
safeguard
by
or
blanket powers
to
issue orders concerning
Africans
of
Section
Industrial
the
legal job bar which previously had only
employment 77
an 93
of .
and for the creation
kinds
and
1924 and 1937
obstacle
to
the new act
and commercial
coloureds and Indians
any industry
was
industry
job
,
construction
replace those
or
the mining
government introduced
the
to
'.
to
In
colour
European workers applied
to
1956
bar
of
a
Conciliation Act conclusion that
deliberations
an
lengthy
After
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY
of different racial groups
. Many of the orders
,
'
on
the positions
of
,
of
the 1950s
to in
white
even
those with
and training
,
rights
and were
their opportunities
addition
,
In
reservation
section
-
contrast with the statutory privileges
.
job
by
of
trade unions were using their
entered the labour market with much less education further disadvantaged
of
white unemployment was
for
Africans
protect large numbers
'
.
In
to
starkly
-
white workers
end
1956
their petit bourgeois privileges
entrench
At the
differed
,
enjoyed
the Afrikaner
stage
.
of
African workers by
and
competition
black
15
.97
passed
,
the one hand and that
‘
of
and 1937
1924
bargaining power
considerable the face
At that
1956
and
important difference between themotivation for the
.
in
an
issue
both employers
council decisions
unemployed poor whites against black competition not
such
overrule
other While the first two were
' .
representing
Whites
)
at
(
enabling
industrial conciliation acts the
were paid
the government amended the Industrial
it
,
in
1959
there was
than
industrial council
an
,
However on
lower wages
vetoed the determination
Act
Conciliation
the competition experienced from
,
unions
trade
different oper
to
When
: ch
were threatening
firms
to
because
'
the
Bantu
, ’ .
manufacture
1994
,
.
employed
Clark
%
given was that some
The reason
replace their white workers
firms who
reserved
1958
to
ations for whites
also
).
Job Reservation Determination
on
discrimination
public corporations
certain level ( Van
a
1991: 512 ; see
of
Truu
3
6
1976 : 102 – 8 ; Davenport
of
stipulated that the percentage
coloureds ) should not decline below
and
in
for
job
der Horst, in
of
whites (or whites
which
in
10
changes were taking place
ESTABLISHMENT
occupations and industries
in
no
members
OF THE AFRIKANER
,
and therefore their
and the police
–
contract
African
farm
1932
the
The
and mineworkers
a
by
-
criminal offence
of
masters and servants laws and the Native Service Contract Act last named actmade breaches
by
the bureaucracy
rendered
).
employers
were
(
-à -
vis
in
trade union membership
legal strikes Many African workers
vis
virtually rightless
from
,
participate
their exclusion
, .
right
to
reduced
by
advancement and mobility were seriously curtailed and their bargaining power
which meant they could not legally leave their jobs without
from
reservation
the 1960s amid
employers about the growing scarcity
of
increasing complaints
job
in
of
reformist implementation
'
The
'
. .2
9 6
'
.98
their employers consent
skilled
labour
,
,
During this economic
boom
3 3 7
year
.
per cent
.
of
the economy During this decade South a
,
grew
5 5
economy
sectors
by
's
Africa
all
,
in
of
skilled labour occurred
in
NP
by
discriminatory legislation and practices introduced the government coincided with the prosperous 1960s when serious shortages
The second phase
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
numbers , and at higher
Successive economic development programmes
.
, it
,
of ,
,
,
.
on
and
.
,
.
99
. )
a
by
/
be
’,
'
to
a
or
cheap
,
of
supported
unskilled African
an
.
labour
intense struggle in
in
-
'
.
to
According
-
to
.
, to
attitude
Nationalists
'
of ,
with many
the as
'
discriminatory measures
racist policies and step
According
government
its
NP NP s
A
strange love hate relationship
the the
.
and divisions among
). that
cen replacement
to
or
.
African workers for whites
per cent
to
,
These problems led
increase
of
was estimated
1970
,
substitute
in
to
R30 million
70
to
a
:
(
the
declining industry with many mines kept open
the
It
.
mechanisation
of
,
By
renewed pressures
the
132
1960 gold mining was
with subsidies amounting
its
some
black unions showed were hardly out 1986
of
at
many
of
industry and
of
the
mining
1980s supported
repressive policies
ambivalence
and apartheid
industry was opposed
the
,
but until
gold
of
),
the
mine owners over segregation
the heart
to
this conflict
existed between
labour
white
which white interests were entrenched lay
,
Merle Lipton
in
,
skilled labour market
Lipton
and the high cost
of
and
compound systems
to
the unskilled African labour market
in
power
of
-
their monopsonistic
discriminatory
sharp conflict between mine owners
a
.
There was
in
visible
increasing effect
and the cost
which Africans were deliberately proletarianised and also subjected
migrant
these
demonstrated
skilled jobs
no
.
of
of
clearly
so
the supply
that
despite
mining than colour bar became more strongly entrenched economy industry the other were the cost decreasing
repressive measures
benefits from
the
the
's
of
1970
was docile and exploitable After
In
the
it
.
These enlarged
This occurred
But
's
keep Africans out
the
which allowed
black worker
1890s onwards the mining industry strongly
,
in
black
person
the
the 1920s
in
under
reclassified
replaced
determination
any other sector
3
and
Laws Amendment Act
Bantu
labour and ensured that
(
the
for the
to
would work
repressive measures
38
and predicted
the government
floating bar
of
concessions
measures
attained
supplying
As the pressures mounted
become
fragmented
white worker would
white person the
no
condition that
colour bar
to
employed whites
the skills
,
no
traditionally white jobs
government
targets were
solve the problem
into the labour market
government allowed
effect
growth
work legally reserved
unilateral attempt
and enticing women
From
African workers would have
and
encouraging immigration upgrading
to
resorted
type
to
.
In
Bantustans
(EDPs ) quantified and made
African unemployment and underemployment especially
in
increase
a
the an
personnel required
levels .
skills
that the white community was incapable
The EDPs also indicated
be
at
,
government
to
work
higher levels if
Indian
to
the
,
explicit the notion that coloured
them
in
greater
in
to allow
of be
Africans
the government
on
for
employ urban
their pressure
to
white employers intensified
a
3
(
PART
white
the
OF THE AFRIKANER
ESTABLISHMENT
At
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY
to
a
,
, in
as
'
to
et
(
of
a
,
–
’
,
'
' a
of
to
'
,
' of
.
‘
no the
,
in
,
on
As
see Van
(
in
100
the be
of
an
of
the
of of by
the the
1960s
,
;
the
1950s
and the
and
the
1960s
in
;
it
in
)
of
political rights
,
,
,
white political
1960s the discriminatory
in
few
legal
of
the
political
collective effect
concessions
1918
in
of
'
the
Africans whose
becomes evident that
the 1950s and 1960s than
in
more exploitable
and
African labour
the 1910s
.8 ).
10
8
is
in
-
‘
with only
in
far
far
and
.1
tables
the border areas
and trade union rights enacted
more proletarianised than
Africans were
lucrative
these areas
collective effect
the 1950s
job reservation
fact that Africans were still deprived and were
ceiling
these areas
institutionalised
a
and implemented
part
position
we consider
in
.
of
respect
(
,
influx control legislation in
measures
describe
residential measures
and
domination and racial capitalism repressive
.
in
to
of
term
If
,
ultra exploitability
in
we
.
the
by
F
.
described
personal power had been destroyed educational
Africans
1950s
112
Johnstone uses this
A
In
section
factories
lower wages
living
to
1976
:
Truu
establish
surprising
important priority
that there would
the border areas
maintain
the alleged lower cost
in
der Horst
itself
to
to
entrepreneurs
8 6
, of
strength
(
–
.
the
at
government announced
-
the
the government pledged
see
the 1940s and during
end
the
,
the
in
1960s
incentives offered
1950s
1960s onwards
Bantustan and border area development became
the skills Africans could acquire
1918
the mid
white
productivity bargains and
).
on
black advancement deals from
The preparedness
in
to
their unyielding attitudes
As
given
participate
the reorganisation
white workers received higher
retraining schemes
agree
NP
jobs
productivity bargain with
of
,
and
to
fringe benefits
workers and white trade unions
the
of ‘
In
.
,
and reclassification
this sector followed the
onwards
for rationalisation
return
severe shortage
ie
negotiating
in
1968
industry
trade unions
fragmentation
,
.
of
the gold
wages
the 1960s From
mining
in
skilled workers the white
;
to
).
-
The steel and engineering sector also experienced example
well
productivity See Crush
90
86
:
the increase
in
the proceeds
share
of
al
1991
of
in
lions
1966
some white
guarantees against retrenchment
return the whites obtained
'
,
as
the
and the
, '
.
After several white strikes
compromise agreement was reached that allowed blacks jobs but
allow
.
,
in
government blocked the experiment
other mines objected
on
productivity but white miners
increased
the
for whites The experiment resulted
reserved
do
fill jobs legally
relax job reservation
agreement with the white unions
an
black workers
to
gold mines reached
owners
of
a
by
took the initiative
12
of
.
In
1964 the mines
a
,
workers
.
industry R30 million year workers with Africans could save the same growing shortage time the mines were badly affected white skilled
339
in
in
,
the
and
job
(
),
Laws Amendment Act 1970
.
by
rights and
more efficient influx control
'
section
‘
attacks
10
intensified
growth
the 1970s While black labour repression was
in
was not extended on
reservation
desperate
a
the
to
1979
the highly discriminatory Bantu
from
1970s
the Wiehahn recommendations
conducive
conditions
of
acceptance
Apart
reservation
economic
create
to
attempt
of
in
The gradual dismantling
by
..
9 6 3
job
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3:
PART
),
in
(
such
in
as
of
1971 job the BAABs the quota system and the creation reservation was gradually dismantled the 1970s under immense pressure
measures
job
in
101
to
of
of
of to
for
the
In
it
.
to
)
for
be
,
as
,
to
long
would
the white unions
under whites was eventually run
-
direct African taxation was also general revenue and expenditure
,
to
principle that expenditure
Business organisations in
that had made
1974 renewed
their
103
reservation
.
relax
that had begun
unofficial black strikes
Durban
in
to
subsidise the industrial training
in
The widespread outbreak
industrial training
.
,
at
.
be to
improve
the stagflation
the government
from
job
on
due
work
Verwoerdian
pegged
finance came
African education started
pressure
340
In
should
Henceforth
poor profits
1972
to
education
to
and
.
abolished
sector
of
African
than those
including Africans
government
several
preparedness
.
by
the private
wages lower
white areas
the
the
established
and announced
trained
government also acknowledged the need for training
its
In
.
for
blacks
,
centres
1972
, /3
.
facilities blacks
in
skilled work
The sacred rule that blacks had
abandoned
them
from
trainees and skilled
these
as
.
perform
to
agreed
white areas
Vorster announced that blacks
1973
In
the
white skilled workers
allowed
in
illegally
Africans were employed
white areas but allowed
townships Many
black
prohibited blacks
which whites were
102
building work
in
for
performing skilled building work
the urban
1951
(
Building Workers Act
The Black
1970
jobs reserved
jobs
to
appointed legally
,
.
unavailable
not
in
but could
be
, .
areas
of
.
for
at
point
.
job
to
a
.
As
do
to
in
Their inability
illustrates
workers were
use
became increasingly
reservation
industry
white construction
result
employees
Many skilled African construction workers were available
them
on
skilled white workers
the
of
per cent
enforce
the building
reservation
be
almost
bar
wages
in
40
maintain the
the
the beginning
strong incentive
skilled work
authorities
of
job the
for
difficult
half
of
gap between
and unskilled black workers became
black workers illegally
the
growing
from
from
discriminatory labour machinery
skilled workers became critical
a
of
1970s This and
.
The scarcity
the
,
determinations but did not dismantle
but also
the first
In
.
several exemptions
authorities allowed
the
white trade unions
)
'( '
enlightened
the
decade
verligte
‘
of
some
the
,
not only English and Afrikaner business organisations
from
1973 drew
OF
the
.
provided
,
job
Bantustan
of
reservation along racial to
was
lines
explicitly
)
17
.
–
avenport 1991 512
,
in
of
, .
,
expectations the 105
trade unions had risen from
totalmembership
.
the
African workers belonged
,
system
be
the apartheid
any
to
quarter
the 1970s politicised workers increasingly
part
the
to
.
conflicting ways
regarded
avoided
for
almost
of
–
in
trade unions
registered
per cent
of
registered
end
of
At the
and
National Manpower Commission
a
of
In
.
to
1982 the
1981 20
in
1983 less than
as
union
260 000
all .
at
,
However
to
1980
in
700
,
.
Contrary
labour movement
the African
that African membership
reported
labour stability to
.
promote
Black workers and their trade unions reacted them
Their demands were
of
full scale politicisation
rights extended
trade
labour instability and industrial conflict
of
to
led
urban blacks
unprecedented
-
to
the
Wiehahn reforms
to
these recommendations was
the living conditions
improve
their
accepted the Wiehahn recommendations The
of
main purpose
relaxed
to
of
when the government
should
given
granted some form
in
job
met
reservation
be
Africans should
,
largely
be
-
rights and that
,
union
people
white business
of
,
. .4
9 6
the mid 1970s onwards most
accumulation crisis believed
56
excluded
The unintended consequences Wiehahn reforms increased labour instabili instability and growing trade union militancy the 1980s
From
new
Black trade unions
but that existing determinations had
repealed before they would lose force
due
they
:
,
in
principle
1979
the
.
for
to
implication was that
The
abolished
first time
(D
citizens
the
.
Act
and built this into the Industrial Conciliation
register
Wiehahn
the official labour relations system
.
admitted
declared
formal trade union rights
government accepted the recommendation
commission that Africans
were allowed
trade unions
,
some white
and
Africans
granting
recognise African trade unions 104
refusal
be
of
employers
be
1979
In
favour the
themselves
in
that stage many
in
government remained adamant
At
.
trade unions were formed after the strikes but the
,
African
ESTABLISHMENT
for African labour
consultative mechanisms
effective
of
new
THE AFRIKANER
to
Several
lack
to
to
its
attention
of
the
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY
that
.
reason
white mineworkers
1982 against the
1982
.
in
to
African unions
major The
very rapidly and organised
,
)
After
.
1984
grew
was the last
of
CM
,
NUM
(
Mineworkers
African mineworkers
Owing
.
,
to
the
extend recognition
in
by
strike
bitter rearguard
but found their employers unyielding
of
'
employers organisations
National Union
struck
trade union
to
reservation
of
hostility
job
the
repeal
of
the
.
battle against the reform measures White mineworkers
for
a
but the more verkrampte unions fought
Africans
a
the recommendations
in
trade unions supported
,
rights
for
Most white
extensive negotiations between
341
,
and NUM
workers
stipulations
Act
the Industrial Conciliation
.
trade unions
)
,
labour reforms
the highly charged
of
the
to
, of
all all
,
.
these powers
not use
). at
the end
1984
inception COSATU had
,
It
of
the internal
stabilising
order During
1987
,
from
taming
or
such
became with
part
reforms politicised
.
of
was deeply
COSATU
it
the Wiehahn
to
It
.
in
was
3
–
,
,
ironic that far
white hegemonic
vain
.
an
were
openly militant way
of
in
its
From
as
in
onwards
.
, .
results
the
labour movement for
devastating
,
-
–
to
It
. or
job
:
(
402
the UDF and
is
of
the liberation movement
the African
342
member
It
, , a
and acted
other black trade unions
wing
financial links between
the Vaal Triangle
and rapidly spread through the entire country
However strict
give full trade union rights
1991
December 1985
black workers
a
the
.
of
on
Davenport
the unrest that had started
strong political agenda
gave
and think that they would
it
a
All
to
to
in
to
in
its in
formation
working
black workers
cover
these attempts
the government
vacuum
230 000
reservation
prevent any association
exert political pressure
involved
remaining
trade unions
political
from
government redefined the definition
and abolished
completely unrealistic
considerably
,
compared
(
a
1981
in
days were lost
,
to
the
organise
political parties and
From
which was
1982 when almost 400 strikes
Labour Relations Amendment Act
rules were laid down
Africans
South
.
point
including local and foreign migrants and commuters
right
Federation
,
It
107
formed
was subsumed into COSATU
new high
working
In
1973
).
in in
'
eschewing the newly
them
strikes and working days lost increased
took place and 365 000
'
system
formally non racial but
1985
1980 onwards and reached
the
).
FOSATU
(
December
of
Trade Unions
formed
in
African
of
,
and most
formal industrial relations
employee
;
.
largely black memberships
days lost
statutory
system
numerous militant trade unions
1979
The number
employers outside
from
–
April
the
demand direct recognition
industrial relations
opened
In
,
to
opted
with
.
surrounding labour relations black unions proliferated many
to
atmosphere
them
of
to to
state control
them
represented
In
subject
empower
trade unions
an
attempt
unregistered
their
and
the
or
,
genuine attempt
unions had been
unions had simultaneously been
registered
result black workers a
,
rights
registered
form
(
,
than
a
as
felt that rather
;
circumscribed
join
to
,
Africans
to
extended
right
the
of
Moreover while
the
)
(
the 1980s was African
that Bantustan citizens and migrant workers could not become members
registered
them
in
.
industrial unrest
They were not satisfied with
of
abolished
of
The main source
1979
the industry was finally
in
in
1987 .
August
colour bar
the
the
CM
of
the
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3:
106
PART
with
more strikes
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY
took place than ever before . Most and formed
of
OF THE AFRIKANER
integral part of the struggle against
an
almost desperate
, attempt to
126 – 8 )
1987
in
/8 . But this was
,
1991 : 401 – 2
(Davenport
515 – 17 ; Worden
,
in
,
its
on
of
to
in
a
of
unique
IDC was
was
task
to
.
original
state
place
partnerships with private
Act was
amended
rather than simply
assist
160
state
corporations became
far
).
rule
own
given
power The
Its
.
in
local ventures
,
years
130
1994
,
(
46
the
:
establish
:
'(
,
,
. to
came
public corporations
undertakings
production
doing this the
had already
'
NP
the
far
for
to
to
'
when
NP
In
During
and
their
and large numbers
1942 the Industrial Development Corporation
private enterprises Clark
increase their
labour patterns already
duplication
This
attract FDI
of
to
1939
of
allow
it
.
business
the
.
industry
the establishment
to
fund
in
established
production
racial capitalism
to
character
skilled white workers
,
the gold mining
solve the
was not easy
use highly mechanised
disenfranchised and cheap African workers
corporations perpetuated
were created
and
their higher capital
compensate
In
to
.
of
a
,
,
unskilled
elite
,
powerless
corporations had access
the foreign
capital The only way
small
)
(
by
8 6
. ,
unemployment problem
cost was for the state corporations methods
1928
20th
industry
expand their operations and lower the cost
,
.
order
cheaper European
and ISCOR
foreign companies
compete with foreign corporations
complicate matters
To
products
in
market shares
to
or
ISCOR
)
to
and especially the Afrikaner
ESKOM
1922
1994
(
]
ESKOM
markets dominated
(
white
section
in
As indicated
[
and
disenfranchised and potentially volatile African workers gain access
mining
but
,
class ,
working
,
industry
throughout the
and developed
the needs of the dominant
to
powerful] white
[ and
mining
gold
)
vocal
of the
corporations
state
in
11 ).
[also ) grown
have
century with due attention paid the
her, the labour pattern
to
labour policies of
a
corporations
Africa 's industrial
in South
‘manufacturing ’ the
labour pattern
the
Nancy Clark analyses the
It
‘state
in
,
the
corporations
state
on
apartheid
.
by
period . According
was not only moulded
to
the
by
to
role played
the apartheid
for
of
.
development , and more specifically
in
the end
was almost completely beleaguered
her seminal work Manufacturing
strategic
to
At
too
State corporations and the 'manufacturing of apartheid
.7
In
:
last,
a
or
9
government
trade union movement
1994b
In
counter the politicisation of black trade unions, the
intensified the militant actions of trade unions .
it only
the 1980s the apartheid
black
white regime.
the
government tightened up the Labour Relations Act
late , and
politically motivated ,
were openly
these
ESTABLISHMENT
more 343
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
PART
3
instrument , not only
for industrial develop
general but also for increasing the share of Afrikaner
Afrikaner entrepreneurship
South African manufacturing
complement of cheap institutionalised . The
white
workers ,
African
workers
of
small elite
a
and unskilled
sector –
corporations concentrated
state
"upstream produced
these products ) through processes not unlike
.
.
‘
‘
dilution
To
.
.
,
a
of
a
of
further
skilled and
,
new
the
ESKOM
and
the
NP The
create
of
,
and
to
.
capitalists
S
'
and
mining
of
to
of
a
.
.
protected environment
the
corporations
the
a
of
vehicle for creating via
all
state corporations
In
huge amounts
110
Afrikaner businessmen could as
a
new generation in
to
suspicion
.
to
reversed the
new
ISCOR
control over strategic industries
and channelled
two
Both
extremely valuable
NP government used the IDC
of
,
SASOL and FOSCOR the
gain
experience
early 1950s
finance
despite
a
in
which the
the
entrepreneurial In
gain
Africans
very important tool
racial policies
and
government was eager
state
state corporations
both
their markets and
employ more
corporations became
state
maintained these partnerships corporations
war
them
Anticipating continued
in
to
.
them
partnerships with the AAC proved NP
to
,
to
to
enable
economic
's
monopolisation
be
government
expand their production
its
.
jobs
After 1948 the
NP
and that this was depriving
109
in
work
-
of
move towards
semi skilled
344
the production and marketing
for their products after the
demand
fragmentation
IDC
Africans
.
and steel were making huge profits
to
of
decided
and large numbers
semi skilled and skilled work During the war both ESKOM
the revenue they needed
growth
make profits
steel increased sharply
and
diluted
and ISCOR learnt that their private partners electricity
of
2
the colour bar was
in
in
were employed
electricity
gaining
blacks
with
both
2
an
.
whites
-
,
the demand
War
Even before World
replacing
for
demand
job
creation
the
'
the
the
war
and steel
important justification for launching ESKOM
increasingly
were
achieving
the local market for electricity
this intention
,
meet
gold
their market and labour costs
both
significant control over their workforce and their ability During
production
corporations Although
foreign
both deviated from
corporations
as
).
a
hands
opportunities for whites was and ISCOR
what Clark has called
steel , chemicals , electricity ... ( and
ESKOM and ISCOR succeeded
control over
sizeable part
of
the
in
was still
of
significant measure
Despite this success
large
a
10
:
period before World War
of
the
In a
1994
'(
or
diamonds
goods ... such
mechanised
became far more
–
on
, key , or produce
‘ skewed '
together with
in
the
ie , highly
,
of
character
production methods and
capital and
the industrial sector. Consequently , the
in
the
in
of
–
public money
the state
the colour bar after strikes
by
ment
strategic
– and even
of
important
white steelworkers
the the
In
in
(
was
1963
following
of
established
ARMSCOR played
hugely
a
in
IDC was made
the
.
of
important role
ARMSCOR
international arms embargo
an
announcement
1960
Border Areas Development Scheme and
Corporation
Armaments
corporations
state
1956 amply protected
in
the
Industrial Conciliation Act
ESTABLISHMENT
,
responsible
the
for
white skilled workers
THE AFRIKANER
.
.
1948
OF
)
before and after
The
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY
's
,
, or the
'-
,
of
cheap
be
employed
the experience gained to
rural areas
and
state
the
to
extension
by
border policy and industrial decentralisation
of
's
while
corporations were shifted
state
decentralising plants
in
on
of
‘
By
the
. of
,
in
in
fact
the 1940s
in
corporations
an
NP
.
of
1970s were
were made
which African workers could openly
government
mining
as
to
,
a
.
to
remote rural areas
ESCOM
upstream
white elite and large numbers
protected
African workers Where possible the plants
the
developed
the gold
producing
large capital investments
relatively
they
corporations concentrated
state
less finished products
labour force was split into
operatives The
's
.
a
far
all
.
of
goods
,
producer
–
on
the production
NP rule
precepts
the economic
investment and labour patterns
keep production costs low
To
.
reflect
to
but continued
greater role during the
The new corporations were mainly patterned the
to
operate largely according
during earlier years industry
of
corporations played
state
continued
NP rule
111
.
While
years
25
during the first
of
protecting and perpetuating the apartheid regime during the 1970s and 1980s The public sector share the economy almost doubled
of
and
.
the other By modelling
capital intensity
of
.
This second phase
,
in
.
at
were from
forced
to
,
.
corporations
to
of
state
-
to
the
When
Consequently both the for
the
.
'
,
be
cost effective
large
which
low wages
African workers started
higher level substituting machines
take
unskilled workers
the 1970s onwards
.
the employment
of
on
unskilled migrant labour While semi skilled African operatives were drawn into employment
devastating effect
large numbers
the
and
conditions
,
far
ceased
to
,
capital
the high
Mechanisation proved
employed
1980s the wages
a
racial
gold mining industry and the
production be
in
of
upstream
‘
to
a
to
industry
grand scale
a
a
on
both
of
,
the old formula
mechanisation
had
create
especially
and
mining
gold
the hands
unskilled African workers could
of
in
increase
of
of
state corporations
the 1970s
system
large numbers
the gold mines
the economy was significantly increased
powerful instrument
numbers
their
-
a
be
intensity
the pattern
on
the state corporations
modelling
of
,
the one hand
unskilled and easily controllable African workers
its
,
onwards on
,
capital intensity
by
,
the
a
rested
and
South African economy attained
the mineral revolution
From on
capitalism
state corporations
mining industry
gold
.
unique character
variety
on
on
production
the
By developing
of
‘
'.
native reserves
345
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3:
PART
the 1970s onwards , even larger numbers
from
of unskilled African migrant
of
the gold mining industry
in
for the unemployment
.2 .2
10
see
workers were made redundant by capital deepening and in the state corporations (also section ).
this growing capital intensity
effect
in
the
346
NP
in
.
the
a
of
,
of of
by
'
-
the
to
of
.
(
to
it
in
the
-
's
the
.
'
,
the
,
( of
ANC
,
of
.
the first
During this civil disobedience campaign aim
the
of
of
'
NP
the
the
getting
,
Amendment Act
Communism
of
Riotous
was passed
of
-
opposition more
7
383
Africa
had been
Lötter 1997
;
South –
:
Davenport and Saunders 2000
of
law
which the public
ignored
: 43 ;
',
national security
the
measures introduced over the
'
interests
of
a
series
the
to
–
,
the on
after the Defiance Campaign
of
to in
and especially
under the Suppression
suppress extra parliamentary
act
,
see
(
).
6
:
1983
ch
then
1954
was one
civil liberty
black circles
the latter was banned
of
In
.
1950
in
.
the
Act
years which
of
few
1952
more radical Congress Alliance
growing militancy
the government
until
influx control measures
laws were openly violated with
CPSA
.
based
Kuper
counter
effectively The 1954
Lodge
extended
the Defiance Campaign
government
Assemblies and Suppression
principles
reaction
The government silenced these protests with threats and
of
Communism
next
context
arrested
of
To
.
influence
enable
government
African
the
transgressors
the
and urged
and non cooperation
understood
1952 applied
between
discriminatory
violence
an
,
-
.
on
-
)
and
laws
This provoked
confrontation
selected
trusteeship
self
).
's '
native
African women
and CPSA
and the
The programme
70
459
–
:
counter revolution
Verwoerd
head
1948 should
means
Africans
',
,
,
political movements after 1978
of
It
.
of
civil disobedience
strikes
and CPSA
militant Programme
and the rights
white
against
parliamentary
system
important victory
white domination
from
rejected the principle
boycotts
apartheid
gained
be
freedom
determination use
ANCYL
the
NP
demanded
to
overthrowing the existing
When the ANC accepted
won
intensified
Afrikaners
the white dominated
.
,
1949
in
action
The
same time the ANCYL
its
revolutionary struggle
and especially
of
began
to
',
democracy
talk
and
to
question the legitimacy
relentless
and
century
,
'
‘
started
a
.
African majority
the uncivilised
protracted
that promised
manifesto
protect whites
to
segregationist measures
ideological
the
’, of
the basis
place
for
half
the second
the
election
the scene
a
on
along racial lines
confrontation
the 1948
whites that set
and
of
blacks
orientation
important shifts took
1940s
of At
the
in
of
end
of
At
the
of
9
.8
of
The growing radicalisation black protest second half the 20th century
NP
in
For
,
of
all
.
,
,
,
.
/9
in
to
a
the
in
in
's
for
). by
4
arresting
156
,
,
-
communism
on
built mainly
After Verwoerd had announced
indirect rule since
introduction
his
it
1927
,
and with
.
of
)
and corruption
chiefs
policy
authority
enhanced
that were part and parcel
patronage
by
(
1951
tribal
of
Act
its
the
The Bantu Authority
of
.
tribal chiefs
the
a
of
in
Even before the Sharpeville unrest erupted March 1960 the government started moving towards more radical version indirect rule
by NP
of
on
case was
the Native Administration Act
separate development policy
of the
Charter was inspired
political
western
in
state
extra parliamentary
, .113
mind
African liberation
52 –
:
the mainstream
from
by
allegation that the Freedom
's
.
its
,
the
of
'
of
.
.
in
opinion With this consideration the
of -
.
an
;
to
opposition without alienating itself
1958
the state against black protest
clamp down
could
Conference
Their trial which lasted until
's
a
more active strategy
what extent
1958
Conference
Charter
the Freedom
the
seeing
at
aimed
to
,
1961 marked
Halisi 1999
with treason
them
and the
Africanists were not committed
by
black leaders and charging
March
283
1986
it
The
Cameron
government responded
head
The
being resolute and courageous
,
NP
(
,
in
see Coetzer
image
take whatever steps were necessary
:
,
to
-
who would
Africanists
1957 and
African People
The pan
PAC
and projected
Ghana
the All
and
were inspirational events for the non violence
-
‘
.
Independent African States
people
)
-
The independence
Africans
between
African nationalism
was established under the leadership
PAC
(
the
of
'
‘
of of
Robert Sobukwe
for
112
a to
betrayal
ANC and Congress Alliance came
when the Pan Africanist Congress
ethnic
Africanist perspective
operation
ideological rift between the exclusive non racialism multiracialism
the People
inhabitants Certain
-
racial
of
represented
this
minerals banks and industries
co
of
its
,
,
,
and Indians
goal
a
.
the
state ownership
the
The congress adopted
equal rights
those African nationalists with
Charter with
Freedom
coloureds
To
'
'
were also adopted
called
Africa belonged
South
socialist principles such
1955
of
,
that
and declared
as
,
groups
Congress
.
inter alia
June
for
Charter which
, ,
Johannesburg
south
,
Freedom
a
of
at
Kliptown
held
in
purpose several opposition movements organised
victory
their strategy
rethink
all
black leaders were forced
to
election
,
1953
ESTABLISHMENT
Defiance Campaign and after the
an
After the defeat of
OF THE AFRIKANER
,
the
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY
the Afrikaner
officials
)
(
the
English
convincing many
-
speaking
the supposed developmental merits NAD
1960s
could not establish the same rapport with the urban African intelligentsia
They
'
'
new
.
the 1950s and
,
the
of
leaders
successful
of
African
While
in
a
.
the NAD had been exceptionally
urban
segregation
urban intelligentsia
of
rural and
black
of
of
more militant
officials
-
’
-
to
the
in
and
co
,
of
January 1959 the Promotion Bantu Self Government Act 1959 was passed opt order the conservative rural elite and drive wedge between them
347
as
its
of
,
.
' he
,
,
as
it
the
.
,
,
it
6
–
Halisi
1999
:
352
;
, it
Davenport 1991
legitimacy
gain
gaining growing
:
the
to
the
in
undermine
(
in
an
about 1960 onwards
From
,
the
ceased
of
It
was nonetheless
storm
.
it
the in
at
up
.
's
the
a
led
on
to
led
,
-
of
30
widespread international
Unlawful Organisations
prohibited
organisations Conse
.
be
prison
provoked
passed the
these events
Orlando police
a
NP
the
for
of
government
1960 the government
.
,
in
Coetzer
,
treason
Mbeki
Ahmed
life imprisonment for (
of
were sentenced
to
,
Govan
the ANC
In
July 1963 police raided
the leadership Sisulu
,
as
their military wing
of
.
,
).
10
:
ch
18 ;
Lodge 1983
In
In
.
in
and Lionel Bernstein
Walter
sabotage after the state had withdrawn charges ch
')
the Nation
Rivonia and detained
Nelson Mandela
launched
1961 the ANC and CPSA
Poqo for the same purpose
-
,
Kathrada
Spear
of
,
1964 these leaders
–
the MK headquarters
MK
("
we Sizwe
or
to
oppose the state
the PAC launched
:
leaders
After
the ANC and the PAC went underground and increasingly advocated
Umkhonto
348
PAC
foreign investment and
the ANC and the PAC
violent measures
1986
Cape Town
The Sharpeville massacre
to
,
an
.
With
.
April
Act declaring
flight
a
On
8
protest
,
and caused
.
.
and were arrested
unarmed
March 1960 Philip Kgosana
gave themselves
effective protest movement
unrest
while
the centre
leaders
PAC
huge ideological setback
quently
March 1960 when the police fired
,
in
an
be
69
000 Africans
which
anti pass campaign
people On
to
30
of
and killed
Soweto
21
Sharpeville
Sobukwe and other station
PAC launched on
at
1960
demonstrators
march
the
). In
ch
process
neither the black
the black protest movement was
and
tried
concerned
4
March
massacre
to
impressed
which the white regime tried
protest movement
international recognition
a
regime
white
ideological one
and the black
However
nor the international community
the struggle between
became
government internationally
.
urban intelligentsia
1960s
was extremely
to
to
.
Bantustan policy was offered instead
NP
in
legitimising
and
accepted internationally
and externally When the treason
internally
both
the
-
own legitimacy
When
was hopeful that
the early
From
black protest movements that the
trial did not succeed
largely
'
,
NP
the Bantustans would
decolonisation
version
clarion call
international relations
rebuild
NP
's the
to
its
about
Africa
with
two years later
'.
Africa
evident
Bantustan
government
'
'
that the independence South
policy
of ' of
the
help
the rapid
be its
his
a
new
of
prospect
Verwoerd announced this would
decolonisation
of
, .
,
up
it
opened
the lucrative
uhuru
1957 Ghana became independent
in
When
leaders
offer
on
patronage
and Bantustan
development mainly because
separate
,
supposed merits
convincing many tribal
of
succeed
,
,
however
the
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
in
3
of
did
PART
Cameron
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY
OF THE AFRIKANER
ESTABLISHMENT
and PAC , and the imprisonment
After the banning of the ANC
of their key
ten
leaders, the liberation movements and protest organisations were largely
revolutionary
NP
by
,
of in
a
,
.
-
,
the
,
its
in
all
in
of
in
by
,
non violent
1940s
onwards
,
one hand
,
the
on
Africanists
off
a
growing
The and
.
exploitation
be
the late
a
favoured
democrats
-
Christian
to
).
10
,
, an
or
While the
fierce
the ANC
insisted that the communists had
former
,
ANC the latter insisted that while the two organisations had
).
the 1950s the NP government took over African
education
order
to
1999
3
Halisi
:
the other
ch
,
long and fruitful fraternal relationship neither movement had ever (
a
From
and European
in
In
considerable
But the whole
system
increase
by
several ethnic universities
the
was designed
to
black tertiary students
resulted
were therefore still
in
education
and
of
Bantu
The creation
.
number
of
the department
of
.
imbued with assimilationist ideas
system
a
education
in
the mission based
-
produced
,
ideological control over the black intelligentsia who had until then been by
gain
liberal thought
the black protest movement sparked
.
the
the other
were
they
capitalist
and
,
on
captured
'
and SACP
option
.
(
ideas
black
which the
apartheid
African intellectuals and increasingly came in
Marxist
section
colonial
both
founders
's
.
The ANC
debate between black nationalists
controlled
114
rights parliamentarianism
,
acceptance
of
its
with
to
as
as
associated
see
appeal
race consciousness
missionaries associated
democracy remained
liberal democratic path lost
the
elite educated
trends
.
–
by )
198 200
cultural and religious values long
a
)
formulated
humane treatment human
enjoyed
of ,
of
.
by
,
:
1990
(
The African
BCM
class
United States
the
American
explicit and radical rejection
an
signified
Thompson
influenced
8
of
,
,
.
'
'
black
period The
this
among the new
declined dramatically
Left student movements
the New
thirdly again
consciousness movement
liberalism
the
generation
new
intellectuals Secondly radicalised black middle
African
And
popularity
whose
(
and Europe
and
hindsight
hugely important one
thought were prevalent among blacks
students were inspired
with
and nurture
them
.
of
first was liberalism
forms
With the wisdom
ideas
government
without trial and hold
the 1960s and 1970s was
radical
new
the
see section
leaders
Three strands
generation
to
.
in
gestate
to
serving
arrest people
solitary confinement
peaceful period
seemingly
term
institutionalised
,
. ). 9 4
gave the police broad powers
into
was highly authoritarian
system
suppressed with inhumane methods
Inter alia the coercive apparatus
indefinitely
Africa
(
This security
a
to
and allowed black protest
,
.
'.
'
state
a
comprehensive police
security laws that turned South
of
set
years During the 1960s John Vorster then minister
be
created
a
police
,
of
inactive for more than
349
,
the number
embracing character
.
racial capitalism
and
multitude
At
consumerist
similar experiences
had
of
in
the
in
at
.
in
–
.
students
the
all
the
apartheid
rules
to
in
,
)
(
in
to
)
's
National 1972
)
(
,
prison
Their defiant
similar attitude
from
injuries sustained
while being held
by
1977
–
's
.
among black youths during the Soweto uprising two years later Biko
death
in
and stimulated
a
. of
,
sent
their leaders
the security
sent shock waves through South Africa and not only stimulated
the
,
the dock was widely publicised
many
a
Act and
on
charges under the Terrorism
1974
to
September
installation
of
the
.
,
of
Mozambique
and welcomed
1973
in
in
the
Durban strikes
attitude
–
1968
provide black students with
Convention BPC was formed
were tried
police
In
(
SASO
).
a
black caucus
-
-
NUSAS
90
to
In
Christian
political front while the Black Community Programme BCP
Frelimo government
September
1967
formally non racial but white dominated
Students
an
a
to
in
the University
the
the large
a
,
government
.
in
.
to
of
of
founded
them
the ANC and PAC
NP
the
of
.
in
(
'
encourage
African Student Organisation
.
the
create
.
of
on
of up
was
promote black health and welfare initiatives When SASO and the
BPC supported
in
played
voiceless and vulnerable
delegates
their own The Black People
to
set
was
South
the
South African
operate
black strong
Rhodes University Black delegates formed
SASO broke away from
vehicle
and
(
)
(
UCM
black
'
'
and
at
'
white
the BCM
and
the
Steve Biko
The banning
relatively
liberalism
resulted
black people
and propaganda
which developed into the Union
dignity
left Africans
scale social engineering
Movement
which
of
the
of for
and
circles
The purpose
their own achievements
1960s had
segregated
),
for
In
take credit
merits
role
black
of
.
BCM
intellectual and leadership awareness
Left
the New
consciousness movement
early
1970s the growing rejection
the late 1960s and early
enthusiasm
to
the
the
regulations
and
350
and
military industrial complex during
of
,
radical black
Left
the New
embracing character
the
War
Vietnam
of
the influence
and
of
capitalism
While
student bodies
all -
from
United States was protesting against
Europe
ideological
received
of
foreign
1960s
consisting
–
's
organisations
and
universities
indigenous New Left
Africa
South
students
intellectual support
radical students
student activities and organisations
the
,
white
of
universities small groups
,
At
and the United States and
the
explosive
of
important role
an
black
time when New Left students were causing havoc
black
What
apartheid
both ethnic and English
played
institutions
was creating
graduates whose upward mobility
of
increasing
was blocked
a
did not realise was that
channel
.
situation
by
by
government apparently
segregated
into
an
black middle class
emerging
to
educated black labour along racial lines and
it
market
in
the
structure
for
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3:
the
PART
7
to
new
that
a
.
He believed
.
a
mass cultural
see Lodge
1983
:
programme
to
revolutionary intellectuals
before they could steer
effective revolutionary
.
by
)
(
of
' a
.
to
of
of
in is
It
by
:
remarkable
that
thinking
anti apartheid
-
and
a
the American South exerted
to
of its
of
consciousness
in
which or
to
be to
of
military
the
mass action
–
changing
the
teachers
taught teach
in
the government had
in
for
the extent
schools should enough
the
to
the fact that there weren
,
,
.
,
African
for
young black
join
irrevocably
1976
dimension
be
despite
certain
Early
't
Afrikaans
,
that
subjects
in
.
African political landscape
into violence in
'.
Soweto erupted
a
as 115
'
June
stipulated
to
is
It
.
violence
precondition
116
16
'
regarded
dimension 1976
determine
subjective transformation
of
circles that Biko
objective
the
the BCM
the country
The strong
the reason
Soweto uprising thousands
not possible
PAC
it
on
for
)
.
of
brought about
subjective
mass action could
formerly associated with the BCM left the ANC and PAC
the
“
its
it
necessary precondition
rival the ANC
was strongly committed
own armed struggle
and especially Biko
1976
or
to
replace
,
a
'
violence
the BCM
could not sustain
revolutionary failure After the
South
).
.
in
1972
(
,
of as
emphasis
On
which the early
years later
revolutionary action
black
192
–
of
.
8 6
see
Power
raise
segregationist practices and
Cell 1982
and other liberation organisations and although
wings
liberation
during the first two decades
anti segregationist
Although SASO launched the BPC
people
the
.
70
some
(
and black
and
the United States
the way
6
,
black
similarly strong influence
we discussed
-
notions
theology
liberation
was the first organisation
BCM
influenced
American South
part
been
segregationism
was strongly
on
of
in
ideology
section
the ideology
century
20th
the
the
Africa
In
'
development
of
in
South
not
had
organisations discourse until then the this idea
particularly
,
black power
of
idea
in
the
dialogue between
Africa and the Africa diaspora
'
in
the
While
the BCM encouraged
in
to
.
Biko and other members
intellectuals
the 1960s
subjective dimension
the
in
populism
struggle
and
Student Non Violent Coordinating Committee SNCC
American
similar commitment
a
shared
civil rights
black theology
-
and
during
of ‘
SASO
Afro Americans -
power
the
black
of
Black consciousness was strongly influenced
the
).
– 6
an
construct
precondition for mass action
of
,
stressed the responsibility
greater
(
he
Africans
necessary
themselves psychologically
movement with
his attempt
South
consciousness was
–
:
of
Consequently
black
a
's
transformation
323
for
consciousness
emancipate
gave the movement
Davenport and Saunders 2000 434
most important contribution was
Biko
ESTABLISHMENT
).
see
credibility ( political
black consciousness , but also
of
philosophy
OF THE AFRIKANER
a
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY
351
,
which continued
performance
economy since 1974 had caused increased unemployment
the
and poverty
in
of
Afrikaans was not the only
the growth
in
of
confrontation with the
the country
The compulsory use
The downturn
by
an a
bloody
thousands
of
the uprising
.
of
.
sporadically until 1980 cause
that ended
illegal march
Disturbances broke out throughout
.
police
direct cause
Soweto
in
school children
of
This was
in
.
Afrikaans
the
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3:
117
PART
of
in
a
,
of
of
of
of
a
(
the
of
,
.
the
refinery
,
August 1983
in
oil
SASOL
liberation
against
tricameral parliament
,
the new
from
7
–
,
as
campaign a
a
guerrilla
and
and not only
truly militant
UDF was launched
Africans
.
the
war Despite
a
slippery slope that undermined
the
of
belated
reforms
,
open
the 1980s
vicious circle that its
a
on
plunge the country into
developed into
.
resistance
and during the latter part
to
,
's
state
The draconian
suppress black insurrection provoked more
it
securocrats
to
'
.
total onslaught against South Africa
to
the mid 1970s
-
'
'
total strategy
in
).
the trade union movement
strategic targets
regime was
account
of
for
an
. .
section
9 6 4
see
:
(
;
228
the ANC and other liberation
the early 1980s Davenport and Saunders 2000 30
in
close links with
–
:
in the
on
by the
a
in
of
of
into
in
the
its
NP
to
struggle and threatened
1990
the alleged
terrorist attacks
,
.
-
of
.
a
When
government introduced
measures used
for
to
.
joined the ANC
,
;
78
–
well
organised
1976
But many
powerful internal wing The same happened when COSATU
Thompson
counteract
352
of
,
started
organisations were launched
apartheid
It
.
in in
the Soweto
and other trade unions with
growing militancy
the invincibility
was relatively ineffective
uprising
life but transformed
the exclusion
the ANC acquired
view
).
The ANC
protest against
and
the pass
see Davenport and
black South Africans
Africa after Soweto
South
and various power stations
The
psychological point
the myth
destroyed
Soweto
the South African army
regime and attacked strategic targets such
apartheid
458
from
-
.
left
lease
The defeat
1960 the ANC
a
its
new
a
it
minds
marginal role
young people who
movement
the
banning
of
a
played only
, .
of in
54
:
449
—
Saunders
2000
1975 was also
white power
white military power Following
conditions
slum
it
.
with increasing rigidity
the end
great setback
emergence
Africans
serious housing
The BAABs also took over the implementation
for
Angola
so
at did
in
,
laws and
It
.
,
other townships
Bantustans This resulted
the
the
to
shortage which led
gave
to
'
'
white urban areas
mainly white officials Moreover
government had shifted home building
-
the early 1970s
from
immediately increased rates payable
pay higher salaries
re
inter alia
to
,
residents
from
City Council
Johannesburg
the
benign
by
a
of
.
,
black townships Harsher influx control measures had caused great discontent and BAAB had taken over the administration Soweto from the relatively
the
trustworthiness
OF THE AFRIKANER
and bargaining power. Although economic
of
the
of
as
as
the
be of the
of
to
political
new
).
4
,
:
2
vol
ch
For the activities
see TRC 19981
,
in
preparedness a
.3 .
9
1990
of
.
,
in
;
see also section
the liberation movement from 1960
it
to
1990
,
to
announce
creating
This crisis
situation
9
183
–
:
'
O
see
1996
of
(
Meara
crises
that could not
the liberation movement over
with
against
had succeeded
them
to
of .
enter into negotiations
the
organisations and the large
economic and security
hegemony forced the NP government
well
1980s
hegemony
the 1980s the liberation
almost unmanageable
or
,
protest movements associated with
of
variety an
By
defend the
of
.
the end
crisis
a
legitimacy became
At
of
Africans
black South
the end
system
the security forces
disinvestment
the propaganda
its
of ,
by
the apartheid
remedied
dispensation
the efficacy
but
of
of
authoritarian methods used
and
redistribution
.4 .1 ) .
the
(
of
war that disputed the legitimacy
accumulation
caused
was perhaps not
white supremacy
the liberation organisations
the international community
legitimate claims
had already
black that brought about
eventual collapse
the military campaign campaign
the struggle
10
‘
of
income see section What hastened
white
from
and political power was ostensibly
a
substantial power shift
intensification to
white
in
the
still
hands ,
ESTABLISHMENT
a
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY
NP ,
the
of
)
,
'
to
A
.
its
in
of
in
to
to
on
,
's of of
-
.
)
(
to
and
Afrikaner
movement
(“
')
salvation
(
')
Salvation League
what extent
'
great leap forward
.
War
,
of
World
2
economy
The
.
in
result
of /9
a
,
1938
,
in
of
1948
what extent the larger share
Reddingsdaadbond
the people
fact Afrikaners
excluding agriculture
it
to
1940s
as
in
9 6
to
/9
in
economy per cent
reddingsdaadbeweging
,
realities but
face harsh
resulted
during from
came after the election
when political power fortified the economic movement After the
,
office Afrikaner corporations became influential
.
the new power constellation
Afrikaner
pressure
business leaders strongly
groups
in
.
1948
assumed
In
, .
of
victory
NP
the
determine
the
the formation
economic congress
war effort
rate
' ' ’
the the “
from
from
African
1938
the
difficult
resulted
emanating
of
growth
supporters
South Africa
South
of
it
is
high
a
Consequently
per cent
to
from
maintained business
£5
increased
the
the ranks
evil forces outside the Afrikaner
Afrikaners not
of
all -
to a
ownership
Afrikaner
their minds
self delusion was not only extremely damaging
make believe world the people
but for
them
,
for
'
'
escape
them
evade hard
deficiencies
some scapegoat
The inclination
lands before
ideologies was the inclination
/
on
)
.
or
society
,
(m
volk
the
ie
blame problems and
to
of
NP
reality and
ainly Afrikaners
‘
of
,
many
1948
rather peculiar
false consciousness
characteristic
from
ideologies about Afrikaner promised
unattainable
–
,
comprehensive
a
and instilling
presidents
later state
and
his supporters with misguided
placing the prospect
victimisation
2
prime ministers
misled
or
the
(
1994
of
until
six
Each
of
1
Endnotes
supported the
353
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND
emerging Afrikaner
and
cheap ,
with
industrialism
favoured
docile , mainly
of the anti -squatting
.
,
of
's
low
.
in
,
).
3
,
on
of
in NP
,
the 1948 election
the cities During the 1950s
.
to
it
–
).
4
stay
to
. ).
6 4
per cent
a
4 8
,
average
government
section
of
an
(
urban areas at
grew
due course
in
but
sector
,
in
the public
year
however remember that the economic growth
should
of NP
.
the
40
NP . of
of
The
to
. in
–
, to
:
-
a
'
six
‘
way
,
).
We
product
,
table
in a
:
1974 gross domestic
:
(
1994
–
African migrant labour
1
6
Mohr
to
1947
From
before
industrialists convinced the
.
sector Afrikaner
maintain the supply
the
with their own industrial revolution
initially
in
the private
black people
succeeded
government support
elections The per cent total
future
the advantage
320
and
syndrome
dual
This
but only
the one
and capitalism
clever but questionable
of
in
also
of
'
' '
' in
(
and 1960s Afrikaner entrepreneurs with lucrative
also
about African urbanisation of
in
never succeeded
seats
deloaded 1948
stopping the flow
were
22 –
:
as
be a
were
argument
formula
with
imperialism
British
years Davenport 1991
indignation
's
5
46
the next
Despite the
NP
for
power
black
per cent support
food levels
farmers
strategy
double barrelled
peril
winning
election
rural seats
that stage
40
on
.
vote
to
apartheid
ensure
cheap
relatively
at
,
‘ ' it
won the first
At
proved
built
of
.
part
of
the
'
(O
on
the other
used
victims
exploited the
victimisation
its
4
,
it
presented Afrikaners
the
to
,
As
way that would
food policy was maintained after the war Afrikaner
cheap
Second
the government
maize was maintained
profoundly alienated Meara 1996 During the election campaign the NP hand
Fearful
this issue
.
its
applied
to
.
to
When the
of the
prevent the migration farm agriculture strove persuade the
strictly
higher prices for agricultural produce price
IV
to
be
to
heels
workers urban areas Third organised government implement the 1937 Marketing Act policy during the war
on
work
,
laws
as
African labour tenants
unrest the Smuts government dragged
farmers wanted pass
white farmers
wage labourers
a
would have forced
to give
. Implementation of chapter
over African labour tenants
to
greater control
for major policy
vain
in
of act
fought
provisions of the Native Trust and Land Act ( 1936 ) , designed
black
migratory African
First , farmers wanted the immediate implementation
.
supply
to
9 4)
1940s , organised agriculture
Throughout the
measures
stricter
. .
labour ( see section changes
of apartheid ,
conception
NP
‘ practical
3
APARTHEID
3
see
PART
rate
it
)
(
on
see Moll
).
80
1996
:
'
Meara
If
.
1975
of
in
of
private industry
per cent
industrial output under the control 1975
a
21 ).
of
:
to
1948
21
Afrikaner control in
,
per cent
policy
Afrikaner community instead
see Sadie 2002
policies
(O
,
the total
in
of
45
to
per cent
of of
'
NP
from
Stellenbosch already favoured
the
problem
9
)
(
rose
of
'
consequence
state corporations are included
3
rate
were not
doubtful suppositions
(
C
Schumann
the poor white
excluding agriculture
rose
growth
.
a
Largely
as
concentrating 8
GW
promote the wealthier component on
to
7
During the 1940s Prof
54
but based
large influx
91 )
.
-
:
271
interesting
,
His argument
apartheid
is
if
.
of
foreign investment during this period Terence Moll claims that during the 1950s and 1960s could have been much higher
1991
73
–
(
'
and South Africa enjoyed
for
foreign investors
the a
lucrative opportunities
,
for
.
its
'
of
capitalism the OECD countries during the golden age 1950 was even higher The white hegemonic order and repressive labour system created
the
Afrikaners
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY 9
that , 'as
of NP
was part
While ethnic favouritism
OF THE AFRIKANER policy
it
the NP administration matured
political corruption
. It
administration
was
common
ESTABLISHMENT
,
1948 onwards Lodge observes
from
.
became more degenerate
By the 1980s
both central government and
in
was especially entrenched
domains of government
those
in
homeland
in
secret funds . .. Quite mysterious operations the world of covert (several] central government
activity which one might term “ strategic ” and which expended
.
:
by
Africa
South
)
the average
American
investments
against
174
conducive
capital
by
-
far
:
'
1996
conditions
to
Meara
,
South African
as
1974
controlled corporations but also
the Afrikaner
after
-
as
As on
apartheid
the post Sharpeville crackdown
late
create
ease
The costs were visited upon
'(
.
see O
(
preparedness
's
accumulation not only
Britain
to
in 18
an
NP government
The
in
8
of
return
per cent
cent return
the world per
of
,
ie
(
corporation received
. ..
view
comparative
) with
Marais 2001
fears had been allayed
after investor
only
).
by the apartheid
resolved
system
foreign capital invested
on
,
return
among the highest
was
a
'were
the 1940s
population
,
the 11
particularly African
The average rate 1964
of
end
capital 's point of
. .. from
and little disruption
12
at the
system
(on behalf of the English -controlled capitalist
black
9 – 60
19 )
observes
political economic state
:
1999
).
Marais
' (Lodge
corruption
correctly that the contradictions inherent in the South African
by
10
of routinised
had a history
departments
in
aside from
the
the Afrikaner owned insurance giant Sanlam
.
co
in
but
Slowly
to a
its
the late 1960s
and Finance Corporation
-
of
subsidiary
,
this was when
General Mining
surely
by ,
The best example
the AAC practically handed over
,
of
the English business sector
.
by
-
more prominent English controlled corporations was acknowledged and rewarded
the
–
, ‘
to
a
of
as
'(
)
full swing Marais
in
)
of
-
Afrikaner capital
by
,
1967
or
. ) .
in
,
million
9 5
(
R66
8
to
workers more
farm
see section
-
on
.
.
education
,
an
of
.
on
state
per cent
commission
average white
power was
to
consolidate
its
160
).
:
1978 to
the
NP
Wilson
74
despite the fact that black agricultural
(
1966
the most effective methods used
1960 and 1975 most
support
A
year between
20
per cent
by
1866
low
the government
The government also
The output white owned Although 1949 until 1959 the average real
black
prevailed –
This situation
).
:
.
to
control African
a
on 7 3
,
by
grew
increased from
of
,
all
to
agriculture
workers were exceptionally
per cent from
143
–
by
farmers
of ,
a
to
,
of
'
(O
.
50
in
in
75
to
in
of
.
in
income
1996
white farms declined
the money spent
1972 that state assistance provided
farmer
's
Meara
were virtually totally dependent
reported
wages barely
per cent
spending
white farmers
white farmers
1976
the number
for white farmers amounted
state
by
of
farm
47
The wages
farms increased
of
000
Similarly
the 1950s and 1960s was related
Total state subsidies
income
1970
the steps demanded
almost double the
16
In
.. .[
(
1950
000
that more than
of
.
strictly
96
.
all
research
to
in
estimated in
14
120 000
on It is
1936
from
took
15
the
economy was
favouring the larger farmers led continuous outflow whites agriculture The number agriculture fishing forestry whites and fell from
180 000
One
the graduation
of
policy
in
from
1970
still English dominated
into the steadily
.
:
13
The
conglomerates
the economy and integrated
21 )
junior partner
in
evolving web
of
into the upper reaches
propelled
2001
–
-
.
-
-
especially ideologically opted Afrikaner controlled corporations were the English controlled corporations According Marais Afrikaner capitalists were
355
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
the
of
Africa
South
into
By
of
.
republic
,
1961
.
change
to
in
1960
enough
important point that the English establishment lost the political
'
Freund makes
and republicanism
on
17
support was mobilised
into large scale corruption
turned
Afrikaner nationalism
in
long run the favouritism
beating the ideological drums
patronage and
-
.
favouritism
every possible form
through
a
Afrikaner constituency
its
build up
the
3
In
PART
of
).
:
This protest against the
of
439
1999
state was valuable during the final and repressive
apartheid
]
[
[
to
be
)
Hyslop
in
the Rechtstaat
(
violations
'
of
) (
to
”
.. . ) [
civil
“
of
in
many key areas terms that encouraged their continued prominence society when they protested against the political order the apartheid state against abuses legal they tended the structures and battle but
phase
the apartheid
12
.
the later
This was judge
by a
if
authorised
in
to
interrogation
days was permitted
indefinite period
an
regard
with
in
of
1963 and
to
to
days
police were extended
without trial for
and detention 90
,
procedures extended
powers
in
1962
the
the
In
18
.
regime
,
an
.
, .
9 8
to
;
the
.
of
view
to
.
,
20
the
,
,
found blacks
.
,
,
by 1 7
to
to
. ).
section
10 2
(
astonishing inability
to
an
per
year amounting
,
,
0 7
of
R900 and
1994 real GDP only increased by
.
1974
a
From
price increased
see
1
,
when the gold to
1994
1980
of
a
increasingly
order
made more and more concessions
The Vorster government was paralysed and displayed the true meaning
until 1994
1974
from
bargaining
it
20
years
,
a
TRC
them
were
of
revival
years
per cent cent year while real per capita income declined quarter century creeping poverty and rising unemployment
22
1994
and ideological point
moral
economic
/
The only two exceptions
an
this
pacify
/5
to
attempt
the economic
1960
from
active
For the see
. At
of a
:
the
of
from
in
a
slope
,
a
in 21
see also section
was that the white hegemonic
,
on
slippery
during
gradually
Consequently during these vain
200
198
white regime was sudden and dramatic
blacks increased
The main reason itself
that stage
).
collapse for
of
position
consciousness
black
ch 3
2
vol
the
20
:
1998
Although
1960s was the
philosophical movement than
the state against the liberation movements
,
of
(
,
however black consciousness wasmore political programme Thompson 1990 actions
resistance
of
of
African
the powerful new ideology
–
important development
The only
emergence
in
19
.
1965
to
,
to 4 8
,
.
a
2 4
,
in
supremacy and
it
white
the
,
rather astute twist because
,
a
the business sector
by
of
ARMSCOR
not
).
,
by
in
by
establishment
strengthen their position
bureaucracy but also
,
of
a
real
was not only
'
' .
in
communist countries but almost all countries the world government the Botha could not have maintained total strategy its
,
to
,
government
was against the racist character
supported
.
.
W
,
the
Botha and the military
production substantial expansion propaganda point view this was
struggle
However
of
's
of at
's
P
of of
Vorster
in
It
a
as
period
'
‘
From
a
24
(
through
per cent per cent GDP doubled from this high level until 1989 This was clear
defence
the government and
in
only
.
six
lame duck
used the
percentage
remained
that the minster
indication
3 5 6
the liberation organisations
Defence spending years these in
23
encouragement
to
by
of
by
.
to
the crisis Vorster was clearly unable reorient himself regional Mozambique independence the new situation created the and Angola political leadership gave unexpected moral The vacuum created Vorster lack grasp
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY OF THE AFRIKANER empire ' without the comprehensive
ideological
– was essentially
'
that the total strategy
moral considerations , could its
of
the
a
NP
bureaucratic
'
:
the
300
few
the
during
, To
.
to
(
.
,
a “ co
of
'
spending was more
despite the serious
of
Dr
an
of
(
between January to
1991
464
enabled the ANC
From
now
far more effective punitive measure
was
it
.
It
(
South Africa
.
on
them
and externally
Africans
South
).
prices
:
withdrew
Davenport
bargain
,
a
British firms had
184 American corporations
buy
This crisis had many ramifications both internally
mounting external pressures
Andries
on
,
1989
firms which
sold their assets
)
One fifth
April at
By
1988
and
important
).
table
. 15 .6
:
1986
ie ,
, of
-
/9
and 1978
/2
1971
level
1982 and the defection
114 American
the
its
'
'
all
for
“
of .
by
February
Calitz
clear that disinvestment was
an
to
,
).
into
).
of
This low
the Botha years
mainly whites who could raise the finance
(
and
especially
his reforms degenerated
firms was considerable
Africa
and
corrupt wheeling and
This happened
half between
than
GDP
to
, .
in
NP
Africa Of the and April 1988 most
consolidate
sorts
The fact that the Botha government was unable
by
by
South
from
had left South 1986
foreign
private
between
maintain high agricultural subsidies was
Treurnicht and his supporters withdrawn
more
per cent
(
the
to
)
.
in
the split
,
of
'
,
on
in
the early 1980s
perhaps also unprepared
Disinvestment
1985
during the remainder
less maintained
for
0 6
to
,
1 5
only
and
1989
'(
Terreblanche
agriculture was cut
per cent
of
Rubicon
's '
,
speech
.
of
after Botha
optive domination
legislation
14
agreements
into structural corruption
turned
led
of
security
transactions between ARMSCOR
subcontractors set the scene
dealing that eventually
reason
-
its
's
of
.
reforms also
'
total
It
public sector institutions and the lucrative
drought
neutralise
the military and security
strategy
strengthened
was not surprising that the overt and covert
from
also
SSC
violence against the liberation organisations
ch
321
,
:
(
1996
3
their supporters
repression
–
even
security interests
,
more ruthless levels
Spending
)
',
'
or
did
the
political
sanctioned
when
but
council
),
of
-
,
he
to
Meara
multitude
and the
political position
security
state
total strategy
and
states correctly that the
intensification and
co
(
to
his
the reform
of
.
process
administration and
'
forces
O
interests
consolidate his own rather vulnerable
power even further Botha created the
,
of
therefore
operation with the securocrats
policy agenda was cabinet whom not like trust Botha attempt reconcile the economic interests business the political his
an in
ministers
or
298
1986
of
.
Botha used his close
manage
to
not only
28
and
'
,
,
of
PW
his
consolidate
29
Cameron
stagflation
business community
30
the
moral content
structural corruption
in
Aswegen
not
profitable concerns ARMSCOR was one expansion parastatal the continued this was crucial for 5000 odd
and
to
the
be
'.
Van
:
'
(O
1996
;
1980s Meara During the time
The absence
the reason why
into such widespread
descended
subcontractors
27
could also
'
establishment
26
,
total strategy
ch
of
ideology
white establishment
and even immoral methods
ruthless
such
the total strategy
with the methods
agree
beleaguered
but also against those political opponents who
enemies
of
not only against
as a
during the 1980s )
( especially
13
employed
The fact
survivalist ideology , deprived of any
why the
be the reason
.
moral and religious crusade
a
was now presented
– as a typical petit
nationalism
did
bourgeois phenomenon
258 – 69 ) .
in
the G /NP in
of
25 Since the formation
1934 , Afrikaner
and material
- 8,
'
support of Reagan and Thatcher in the 1980s ( O Meara 1996 : 224
).
' evil
the
–
against
ESTABLISHMENT
than trade
357
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
(
-
,
of
the
.
the
of
“
'
in
a
to
.
.
At
a
be In
to
be
a
NP
,
an
by
A
.
25
.
).
a
in
–
with after
parlous Botha
's
P W
had
.
Reagan and
.
important
seek jointly
the first results
peaceful settlement
of
,
of in
Namibia and Angola
for
decisively to
as
in
One
.
as
those
on
it
,
,
Iceland
of
a
superpowers was
and
of
in
by
,
.
–
-
.
1989
the same time the MDM
was decided inter alia
such
to
at
of
(
,
had been associated
summit between presidents Ronald and
1987 Net
townships ungovernable
Reykjavik
1986
per
Smit 1992
see
leader However
unabated
regional conflicts
,
these
GDP
20
3
27 ,
to
18 7
to
of he
GDP
per cent
the
its
because
at
October
to
All
gross domestic
.
1982
per cent
and coloured
so
–
continued
these takes the
in
of
.
be
to
'.
,
of
to 7
of
in
'
of
,
the two
also
and
would
per cent
'
9
7
in
before his election
Africa the Middle East Afghanistan agenda
of
).
co
–
(
at
per
, 1
cent
GDP The ratio
per cent
1982
They reached remarkable agreements solutions
The
principle
this
spending puts the figure
per cent
27 ,
to
‘ 8
25
,
from
more unexpected
in
Michael Gorbachev
3
,
's
W
or
per cent
1985
found
government spending increased
as
of
NP
's
.
from
making many African
The most credible
negotiated
and that
control was abolished
of
16 “
succeeded
and
desert
one citizenship
stagflation and rising unemployment economy was foreign investment The large outflow which accelerated after
Rubicon speech
58
survival
.
,
of
per P
14
from
speech was Klerk the right wing the
state
36
, of
,
GDP fell the
De
savings dropped
to
/8
investment
years
the
the 1980s the
the highest level
how
influx
term
cent rising
budget
1987
the
main purpose
that Africans were
South Africa
indicating
real security
estimate
'
of
“
fixed
35
18 5
of
11
34
annual average
making
a
the system
the principle
united
of
', 1986
In
but without
concessions were too little too late During the years Botha conservative
itself
found
-
decision
of
franchise
to
universal
cent
,
at
-
“ co
of
levels
the principle
itself
.
of
all
‘
into
committed
implemented
and
in
of
incorporated
While
while
restore the legitimacy
admitted that the homelands policy had failed incorporating the African population politically had
federal congress endorsed
NP
's
the
direction
and
,
of
its
purpose
1980s was
optive dominance was any price At the end order
the white hegemonic
1985 the
different way 1986
purpose
early
especially
rewarded
NP
May
opted Africans
.
lost
the
in
'
'
had
–
),
in
,
the
disillusionment In
reforms
only
perpetuation
NP
and
including sections
were handsomely
of
total strategy
system
the media
Asian leaders
and
be
,
more
,
's
coloured
bureaucratic state
opposition was mercilessly suppressed
every form
33
,
,
business sections
the Bantustans
the
of
the bureaucracy
operate with Botha
-
to
co
32
Those prepared
in
,
at
.
in
Despite the miraculous political transformation
structural corruption continued unabated and has perhaps become even comprehensive and more structurally entrenched see Terreblanche 1989
of
endemic
the public sector proved
to
in
far
corruption
1994
of
'
' or '
in
power
When the democratically elected
damaging
,
government assumed really structural
the time and
more serious than was appreciated
1994 was
'.
15
dealings between the public and private sectors
effects were extremely
term
-
its
long
.
of '
of
31
.
in
the public sector and
years before
the
the rand lost one third
The political effect Rubicon was devastating Botha hindsight we now realise that the structural corruption that took
With the wisdom hold
already its
week after Rubicon
already declining value
's
Africa
South
of
In
crisis aggravated
for
.
situation
'Rubicon '
' ',
, the
sanctions . Internationally parlous economic
“
3
the
PART
South
this joint
the Namibian
and
the
,
-
,
,
.
in
a
in
[
12
).
in
'
far
a
sharp
,
urbanisation
stricter
fuel
to
African
of
in
favour
(
-
favour
of
in
(
a
on
NP
:
.
in
-
, 1
' ,
of
:
to
:
by 1
per
57
by
.
),
's
the liberation movement
documented
control
in
of
of
millions
struggle
organised
the unorganised
the role
co
close to
and industry
-
–
mostly
,
,
in
- .
While
well
migrant workers against influx control
millions
urban
and widespread
the struggle
also
of
has been
mining agriculture
,
migrant workers against them against apartheid
NP government
the
migrant labour but
cheap
These demographic
drama was the influx control measures
,
of
the
flow
Posel
expanding avenues
of
to
this protracted redesigned
operation with the white employers
not only
from
which increased
manufacturing
the growth
cent
24 ).
:
.
,
to 1 7
and regularly
see
64
59 –
According
by
important facet
designed
of (
'
(
due
grew
the urban white population
,
,
1 3
from
African employment largely rural impoverishment 1991 An
:
;
,
to
per
31
million outstripping
million million had two principal economic determinants
cent
changes
41
1987
and 1946 the urban African population
1936
million
and Hindson
of
Between
1 8
40
:
Posel 1991
ch 2
,
39
For the differences and similarities between the Fagan and the Sauer reports
of
)
and anti Stallardists
growing industrialisation
the
more aggressive
the act was drafted
Stallardists
pro
sense
way that
).
control
influx
the NAD between
wider
the
temporary sojourners
Stallardist line than the original 1923 act When differences developed
Thatcher exerted
'
be
merely
1937 Native Laws Amendment Act took
The
.
urban areas
Africans would always
negotiated
1989
that apartheid
'(
Stallard
this scenario
rigorous and totalizing ideology
a
be
to
to
. the
De
on
)
second half
government
Beinart and Dubow 1995
had never been
,
For
segregation
According
are correct when they claim
purported
the word
all
of
decided that Margaret Thatcher was the best
discussions with the
renew
Klerk during
Beinart and Dubow
38
working relationship between United including the United Kingdom West
new
the South African problem
strong pressure 37
to
,
of
,
for
state
ESTABLISHMENT
the greatpowers
Canada and Italy
France
placed head solution
of
part
Soviet Union
-
Germany
As
OF THE AFRIKANER
of
the
problems .
Angolan
States and
the
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY
struggle
the dompas has not been
and
Posel correctly
observes that the
apartheid won the support
term
of
42
.
sufficiently appreciated
Afrikaner
to
:
).
1987 123
In
.
it
feared
apartheid
English
economic integration
,
cheap African labour
see
(
implications
the of
's
’,
because
).
ch 2
:
4
While
‘
the business which were concerned about the availability
and less concerned about the political
Posel 1991
organisations
of
,
establishment
proposal that the government
African farmers The practical conception
strongly supported
also
SABRA
the native reserves
of
from
opposed
potential
of
competition
increased was
the economic
control African urbanisation
.
develop
,
,
The SAAU was however strongly should
to
could effectively
of
the state
by
long
as
’
as
supremacy
45
policy
'(
of
apartheid
Afrikaner business circles the conviction was nurtured that greater economic integration was not necessarily irreconcilable with white economic and political
'
43
these conflicting versions
44
it
an
in
,
successfully described and legitimised the nationalists across the board because ideological Afrikaner cause discourse sufficiently ambiguous accommodate
million Africans
were arrested and prosecuted
under pass laws and influx
359
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
in the
,
31 ,
influx control laws the
1980
. of
per cent
,
per cent
8
to
1951
in
,
slightly
pass and
in
law
, ,
in
.
in
3 5
but not
205
).
:
181
per cent
27 2
from
and declined
battery
,
1986
of
But without the formidable
BAABs dealt
court prosecutions
of
so
81 ;
:
1970
,
per cent
,
1960 and
in
in
urban areas increased
33 1
46
Africans living
newly introduced
the
million
The decline
during the 1970s declined
Savage
Hindson 1987
the 1940s
the 1970s
that the number
Africans prosecuted
(
number arrested
in
of
.
The number
million
deceptive because
with technical pass offenders directly declined
prosecuted
influx
up
prosecutions
32 9
is
,
in
the 1970s
and
,
1 9
5
in
prosecutions
1960s
the
of pass
compare the number
million Africans were
million
the 1950s
in
,
decades
:
successive
took place
which the NP government stepped
to
if we
million prosecutions
13
in
1950 to 1980 . The manner in
from
control becomes evident
, almost
to 1950
1916
–
from
4 2
regulations
control
,
3
,
PART
rate
).
:
'(
'
‘
in
deteriorated
to
.
of
3
two
of
's
Lenin
SACP
the
-
of
,
).
:
reminiscent
to
every tyrant who wishes
control his
however unattainable this vision Afrikaners were during their period
political
,
the
NP of
is .
device
,
that the
intention
native
's
Verwoerd
segregate blacks
to
such
the long term
-
legitimised
's
arguments
by
morally
1980
in
11
,
to
or
-
via
'
remarkably
from
million
402
1986
(
is
's
see Lipton
increased
and the two phase programme
the
It
.
Joe
is
by
to
being deceived be
,
grand vision
how susceptible
remarkable
could
Slovo
a
with
hegemony
of
, ‘
in
of
-
is
It
constituency
policy
Verwoerd
programme for communism
propagated
Bantustans
the total African population
the total African population
This two phase formulation phase
the native reserves
per cent
of
40
or of
in
per cent
of ,
53
Africans
1946
as
part
The population
the native reserves
migrants were driven the urban areas paying but their total subsistence low urban jobs
of ,
an
not
a
to to
earn
or 49
extent that increasing numbers
such
million
50
‘
the 1930s onwards economic conditions
From
by
48
47
in
,
to
African urbanisation would have been much higher due the deteriorating socio economic conditions the native reserves see Lipton 1986 401
in
'(
But
to
)
with
to
.
low
(
in
to
.
as
in
(
by
be
of
of
in
at
'
wages
the
system
African
In
.
.
:
urban
areas
15
born
continuous employment with one employer
). , 64
,
Pass Year but
-
Anti
Hindson 1987 in
Africans
the
1959
,
in
to
1959 native
register contracts with employers
(
at
the act
several years
Sharpeville
,
of
)
urban
).
women
for
of for
passes
passes continued
b
&
conjunction
disposal This
farmers
farm
those
labourers
farm
or
with ten years
offences
1
260
of
it
( 1 ) (a
10
in
section
the NAD
pay extraordinarily
1960 with the shooting
'
Africans
of
In
terms
the
obligatory
carrying
to
,
136
6
125
,
farmers
labour regulations made was finally broken
to
white farmers
the carrying
against
agricultural districts
put convict labour
-
:
Posel 1991
petty
without the necessary permission
African women resisted
Resistance
of
]
,
to to
the
)
of see
(
of
prisons was
those
–
documents
forced labour enabled
labourers
large numbers
the mining industry
who were convicted
were also sent for fixed periods
department
53
[
(
or
,
. )
with the exception
those Africans
the biggest service rendered
54
,
,
,
'
-
seekers
addition
without identity areas
quoted
frustration
).
:
foreign work
work
360
and better combating
68
),
in
better order
serious labour problems the NAD also channelled
solve farmers In
To
of
52
better control better influx control better control
the towns
Posel 1991
the people
of
' .
Verwoerd promised there
[
51
and whites politically
and
with
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY OF THE AFRIKANER
, were
several employers
. And
unemployed married
permanently in urban areas even if women living in rural areas
to remain
10 ( 1 )( c ) , African
terms of section
in
' urban ' status
men with
to
entitled
ESTABLISHMENT
join
could
and become permanent city
them
dwellers . Despite these concessions , the act excluded many thousands of Africans
who had settled in urban areas but had not been continuously employed
of
'
to
of by
' .
of
‘
.
of
or
–
–
if
A
.
.
The first
the
,
to 3 6
At '
off
as
.
African workers
of
the detriment
of
for
wage increases
government
white workers
of
in
's
Verwoerd
social
urban unrest among both
1960s
1950s and early
see
(
in
an
of
This part the
.
development
the
.
-
per cent work
of
manufacturing
to
and
60
mining
in
in
take into
semi skilled jobs received
Wemust also take into account thatmore than mining were foreigners who were prepared
).
gold
1950s and early
mining But we must in
Africans
in
the wages
of
as
in
manufacturing and construction
in
).
23 – 8
high
10
–
,
,
.
as
:
as
of
al
for
wages
.
:
in low
a
(
the migrants exceptionally
409
both
trade unions and buy
much higher wage than the migrant workers 1986
range
1954 some 800 000 African
1959 the number had risen
account that those Africans with residential rights and Lipton
unemployed
African residents the new urban the NAD insisted that the former should carry the full costs
Africans
1960s were twice
to
,
by
By
to
them
'
et
The wages
even
the labour bureaux
of
the end
urban workers declined
crush African
and township
1993
areas
migrant labour but also made the
programme was important reason for migrant Africans and workers the late
urbanised
skills
64 ).
:
-
,
housing
engineering
'
(
's
to
on
urban
cancelled
By
the rents and transport costs
townships soared
59
to
and
58
( the
by
granting
a
of
10 10
or
an
1952
.
in
,
renewed
mid 1950s real wages
the same time
Africans
Africans with the required
enormous bureaucratic machinery
men had been issued with the new pass books
employers sought
not the labour
large number
.
,
to
be
of
of
issued
reference books were issued
Hindson 1987
whether
Africans much higher wages Many
could remain
influx control required
permits had
control the influx
enter into wage employment but become petty wage section Africans labour and the in
to
The aversion
migrants more vulnerable
Bonner
'
‘
a
to
pay the section
made industrialists not only more dependent
urban
of
be
,
employ
of
a
'
.
who wanted
that such labourers
discontent
(
an
for
.
such
opted not
ability
loophole that licensed the continuous growth
particular urban area justified
had
,
however
entrepreneurs
Until
see
).
.
to
, '
permanence
created
irrespective
employers
Those urban
milion
workers
detribalised
than
undermined the NAD
population
urban
of
requirements
The system
Afrikaans
only because they were much
–
seriously
urban areas
the African
concession
the praises
5
82
:
Africans
sang
both English and
not
docile
the type
labour ULPP was strongly opposed
Although these organisations
they were more
because
concession
's
of of
The proposal
’
but also
Verwoerd
57
irrespective
employ migrant workers
It
)
preferred
,
56
applicable
workforce many employers
and permanent
Posel 1991
them
employers
urban
to
’
a “
stable
cheaper
ULPP
commerce and industry
speaking
formal
Hellman and Lever 1980 : 84 – 5 ).
.
organised
and
the
NAD also wanted
demanded
in
to
The
by
55
,
Dugard
to
( see
in the cities
in
of these people were women who were only doing casual work
jobs . A large portion
361
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
1911
.
to
,
gold mines
per cent lower than those paid
61
on
,
).
:
to
whether agriculture
foreign African
in
to
was
reserves
establish
from
While from the 1930s unproductive help sustain 407
1986
'
native
Lipton
(
in
1973
the gold mines increased too
,
10
the
difficult
is
,
mineworkers
per cent
in
agriculture it
,
onwards
to
1951
in
per cent
to
pay their migrant workers real wages
foreign migrants employed
'
The percentage
79
of
:
(
61
per cent and
20
that were respectively Lipton 1986 tables
1961 and 1971 8
late
11 ).
,
enabled the latter
as
as
The labour market privileges granted by successive governments
60
in
3:
the
PART
of
While the
NP
is
5
per cent
1961
.
but also loaded with loyal
'
‘
The shift
the scene for
the
relentless
a
set
.
apartheid
of
,
of
'
'
conception
purist conception
who favoured stricter influx controls and those applied more flexibly abolished Posel 1991
,
:
(
or
,
be
and
be
to
'
'
a
which the
exercise their political sovereignty
.
to
different African ethnic groups were supposed
gained
now
geographical space
became the
and
While the reserves
they
in
, .
Bantustan
migrant labour
ethnic
given the
political
its
-
'
or
'
reservoirs
of
the
realisation
’
/
of
They
on
's
'
‘
in
character
.
new
calling
national
own homeland
the 1950s
as
completely
in
treated
–
economic independence were
emphasis
national ethnic minorities was
these
each
divinely ordained
its
realise
of
),
the volkseie
to
right
nationalism
its
–
).
35
to
,
and
in
1958 and
per
44
,
in
53
5
in
48 ,
to
,
in
1948
those
keeping with Afrikaner
identity
(
In
per cent
of
purist
the
the 1960s between the policy
the popular vote
BAD was not only increased
government and BAD towards the who wanted
of
per cent
increased
Nationalists who favoured
65
(
.
this figure
40
only
received
the meantime the staff
227
industrial disputes and strikes were nearly
the early 1950s
1953
struggle
,
.
the number
1958
,
In
of
and
1955
were even worse
)
Mozambique
double that
in
63
Between
cent 64
in
especially
62
of
in
to
.
to
help sustain foreign migrants However there countries was productive enough agricultural reason believe that conditions some these foreign countries and
of
in
a
as
Ghana became
the colonies
did
it
:
'
the
no
,
to
as
it
leave
year
-
on
's
the nation 30
in
,
the
declined
removals assumed massive Bantustans population increased
Bundy
, 3 , 5
According
to
'
).
1987
68 – 70
the
Forced
1970
:
(
promised
of
,
to
.
,
7 4
to
and
rural receptacles
longer own their own houses
them
Hindson
the 1950s
surplus people
'
in
Bantustans
Africans could
million
defined
with dependent children
the
,
in
4
million
BAD
.
in
.
1968
areas increased
no
and women
making
urban
1967 circular
leasehold plots but could only rent proportions the 1960s From 1960
3
,
of
'
notorious
,
,
,
unfit widows
to
of
its
.
In
the ratio
the 1960s
stone unturned unemployed From
62
succeed
Posel 1991
).
While
from
in
,
10
women
removing
35
–
67
“
in
227
in
men
interest
the in
vested
(
not succeed
in
a
.)
BAD and those with
between
Although BAD
place residential rights section Africans and put ULPP firmly depriving many urbanised Africans their residential rights
aged
of
(
all .
of
)
( or
the time
years almost
did
rights
of
section
ten
,
struggle
sustained
policies
independence
.
maintaining
and
uhuru
the following
were granted
10
This
to a
led
66
European countries
in
'
anti colonial
1957
in
independent
-
countries
western
–
's
–
policy Verwoerd had hoped that separate development decolonisation bring ideologically within South Africa borders would South Africa line with
POLITICAL HEGEMONY OF THE AFRIKANER ESTABLISHMENT
THE
1960 and 1982 , representing
million people were relocated between
‘ some
of the
most dismaying pages in the entire history of South Africa .. . In them may be promises , naked force , shattered communities , learned the details of broken desolated camps
million
graves
shallow
in 1956 prices
would
' ( in
34 )
. prices .
in 2002
of
the already proletarianised majority
.
, If
,
we consider
,
all
the
,
and did little
ideological political
and demographic forces
economic
at
Bantustan petit bourgeoisie
for
of
'
on
developing the Bantustans during the the government mainly improving 1960s and 1970s had the effect the economic base the small
69
money spent
Schrire 1992 :
about R9 billion
be
by
The
68 R204
, and
work
a
,
of
.
of . If
a
we take
the sum
underestimated population
,
the African
development is
the
and around the Bantustans during
the fact that Tomlinson seriously
,
fraction
it
development
in
on
be
.
in
,
created every year
clear that at
economic conditions were much worse during the 1960s than they had been beginning the 1950s when the Tomlinson enquiry took place The
of
:
(
35
to
's
NP .
The Vorster
-
it
in
of
20 to
on
job
to
idea
with the
take direct coercive measures
negative effective
creation and economic
in
of
of
.
.
On
in
,
to 4 2
to
of
.
.
in
,
as in
While
the white
'
from
' .
urban areas
urban
near the Bantustans was now
the Bantustans
.
to
Africans
sending culprits
.
these Bantustan
housing and employment
draw Africans back
The number
Instead
migrants were still forcibly removed
of
,
the provision
the
the pass laws
the Bantustans in
to
jail ,
,
but not the number arrested
schemes were developed
the 1960s African
million
centres for dealing with technical pass offenders
court prosecutions declined
many were simply deported
to
This
Africans
infringements
of
They introduced
was reduced
,
.
to
of
the 1960s
pass
of
in
thousands
law
million
decline
in
5
from a
interpreted
as
law
not
prosecutions
that the number
Large housing
the BAD
to
prohibit
or
.
so
prosecuted
given
the
to
power
of
in
,
the
NP government before
the 1970s the BAABs largely took over the enforcement
the police
,
the Verwoerdian
her legitimacy
than any
so
In
.
pay homage
years after Verwoerd
.
.
in
The decline
contrary
402
).
It
in
the
to his /
to
1986
and was prepared its
of ,
(
).
8
.
in
in
:
-
,
3
,
–
in
1986
see
building and expansion factories During the 1970s BAD used this power prohibit industrial
pass
the 1970s should
also used
Lipton
and turn down applications for the employment
expansion
74
1970
million
the Bantustans increased
administering the Physical Planning Act was
designated areas
areas
increased
from
urban areas
gave the department
directly
actually
The population
ensure
more
urban areas
irrespective
the
in
The task
to
of
Africans
stop this flow
of
to 72
million
order
was obsessed
be
,
1946
2000
almost every NP leader continued
growth
73
426
influx control was scrapped
government
from
to 7 4
3
million
territorial apartheid
flow
million
Saunders 2000
and
Verwoerdian death
to
8 5
71
from
1951
in
,
million Davenport
16
projection was that the total African population would increase
commission
in
the
.
of
-
socio
years
jobs
000 new
the homelands and the growth
needs
little doubt that influx control played
government spent only
the
Tomlinson
of
first
's
in
ten
recommended the
that
had recommended
account the fact that
of
Tomlinson into
There
this contradictory outcome
by
70
decisive role
Africans
is
the majority
45
the lives
of of
of
is
it
history sharply ironic that the most prosperous decade South Africa living impoverished increased the standard whites but further and disrupted
363
3:
PART
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
of
75 According to Bundy the NP government already began in the 1960s with a policy
' of
to a 80
as
of
.
far
11
of
it
in
some Granting independence
to
foreigners
'.
,
the South
205
).
:
197
This kind
the urban African population
1970s half
either illegal
remains part
–
Savage 1986
see
as
to
travel pm
had
home
'
and returning
(
the late
classified
case
in
the Bantu
at
migrant workers
'
,
this day
to
in
,
was estimated that be
It
77
African labour pattern
facilities '
attractive
own homeland and accustom
thoroughly institutionalised that
so
migrancy became
relocate
).
:
day rising
a
kilometres twice
Bantu
or
of
76
'(
1993
generation
this new
towns could
'bigger , better, more 's
with
Bundy
the effort to
minister who warned the local
quotes a deputy
of
compete
foreign taste
Some
Bundy
1967 not to provide
in
these should
.
of
large townships as part
70 the
authorities
areas
in the
am
rural
to
'
at 3
Africans
deprivation
as
‘ deliberate
:
(
in
,
-
on
as
,
from
of
,
).
70
69 –
on
:
(
to
workers and only
information
urban
areas
the one
the other hand
were
,
subsidising industrial decentralisation
on
of
registered
work seekers
in
of
Savage 1986
per cent registered industrial workers employment Hindson 1987
industrial licensing and labour quotas
policy
see
1970s based
46
case
registered prior
of
per cent
the early
in
study
of
.
in
,
,
policy its
and
,
The
's
NP
no 78
found that
vacancies had been
hand
later
A
registered their contracts
labour bureaux
30
national survey found that
considerably
and accepted jobs without registering
urban areas found
the
1970
Africans was augmented
In
.
a
numbers a
–
).
5
201
of
'
increasing In
of
'
in
of
the Bantustans therefore had the important implication that being illegally white areas became far more serious criminal act this way the criminalisation
some
both ideologically driven and responsible for serious economic wastage
--
for white
43 )
those who
of
,
between
'
inter alia
,
a
–
'
breakdown developed
serious
,
(
laws that controlled
been rationalised and
then
extent that the masters and servants laws had become
establishment
enlightened
(“
80
Within the Afrikaner verligtes
of
A
.
redundant 1975
new
and
.
such
:
to
strengthened
an
,
directed
serious
government made the masters by
the
barrage laws increasingly anachronistic and disciplined the black labour force had
servants
during the period
. of
,
to
79
in
economic decline that started 1974 According Bundy the policies
–
potential African employees NP
well
as
as
employers
the
favoured more pragmatic influx
'
–
).
to
in
1977
of
a
the AAC
improve the living
).
a
for
'
O
see
(
an
new
potential voters went
to
of
Meara
).
per cent
the search
government
of
the Botha
16
the first phase of
but only
80
a
' for
. . .
1983
,
in
accumulation strategy during the first period The first BLAs were elected
of for
– a
per cent military approach
3 2 3 1
;
see also section
20
'
to
programme and
323
,
182
– 6
:
1996
82
the initiative
9
1996
incorporate
key role during the Botha Even the Defence Force generals who played such regime victory against the alleged Soviet now claimed that the only recipe onslaught was per cent win the hearts and minds the people through
political reform
364
and tried
. , At
of
' UF
was established
Meara
'
,
the
-
81
urban Africans
(O
of
and the Rembrandt
group
urban Africans
capitalist economy
class into the white
'
black middle
sectors expressed
and Afrikaner business
to
both the English
concern about the living conditions
ch
1976
:
unrest
conditions
/
(“
of
of
Soweto
'
'
)
control measures and the verkramptes constricted cramped those who favoured purist concept apartheid the and wanted stricter influx control After the
POLITICAL HEGEMONY
THE
the polls . BLAs were
introduced
OF THE AFRIKANER
1983 with powers equal
in
ESTABLISHMENT of
those
to
the white
. Although the BLAs were supposed to be financially self- sufficient , Group Areas Act precluded them from gaining not the case , because be
'
.
when
of
1986
these
agents
defusing African
and
'
as
seen
a
of
,
,
all
.
anger
the new
,
Instead
the tricameral
targets
The main
BLAS
the hated
in
introduction high point
and informers
of
, of
‘
.
by
'
of
a
in
.
regime
the apartheid
Africans
urban
was announced
policemen
.
'
of
stooges
'
state
should
stricter influx control
emergency
were the BLAs African
insiders
the
competition for employment and housing
uprising that started shortly after 1984 These uprisings reached
comprehensive uprisings
means
improve the financial self
reason that Riekert recommended that the
the political aspirations
satisfy
the to
sparked
parliament
of
protected against
that the wages
the
,
, be
‘
Intended
was for this
and
migrant workers
from
83
should
'
insiders
it
BLAS
markedly increased
was accepted
it
the
sufficiency
of
rateable commercial and industrial property
to
access
of
this was
To
the
municipalities
of
,
,
law
-
,
the pre Second World War
was
by
in
as ,
the legal process era
over the use
“
discriminatory order
of
.
-
:
achieve
made many townships ungovernable
inter alia
observes that there was little concern
a
to
84
(
Davenport 1991 428
John Dugard
which
,
the MDM
45 , )
passed
to
on
in
.
constitutional dispensation and the BLAs provoked uncontrollable black protest struggle When the UDF was banned 1988 leadership the internal liberation
seen
in
attending
from
.
the reserves
by
The Group
the Universities
,
).
:
5
;
1986
23
,
Lipton
–
84
1980
:
in
,
(
of
trading
trading within the
blacks and for the first time
Hellman and Lever
were prohibited
to
return
of
to
encouraging businessmen
coloureds Dugard
students
2
government stopped
,
of
the hope
all
.
The
of
86
(
-
.
in
of to
an
The emerging black middle and skilled
after 1948
back
Areas Act further restricted the residential rights Black
for their classification during World War was
area designated
economic segregation
the reserves and townships and discouraged
Africans outside
those
and law
.
the
were pushed
classes
live
NP
reversed
NP
energetically
working
by
.
became compulsory for people group The significant erosion
in
in
large scale social engineering this resulted removals that caused immense disruption and distress Under this
it
law
The implementation population
latter
'
of
,
82 ).
of
85
:
and Lever 1980
in
of
a
as
lawyers and politicians reared mechanism control the positivist legal tradition which denies the importance legal values Hellman essentially
Cape Town and
)
(
on
It
in
).
10
on
to
in
increased sharply 1990
in
,
of
of
(
per
per capita
: 9 ;
Berg and Bhorat 1999
see also
injustices
).
Voters Act was declared 1956
after the senate had
illegal been
the appellate
enlarged
to
6 ;
der
25
levels
African
give the
.
two thirds majority
-
a
,
white
1996
1953
by
Representation
and only became law
government
:
al
et
racial inequalities and systemic
expenditure
white levels
De Villiers
per cent Van
result
of
The Separate
division
a
.
.
and reached 1993
1975
22
per cent
As
per cent
in
.
section 88
Bonner
10 4
(
see
on
terms
13
from in
job
,
-
taxation
,
after the Soweto unrest
4
to
only
Education Act 1953 required that Expenditure African education was
the Bantu
self funded
African
per capita terms
1961 and
,
in
in
to
the level
fell
education
cent
be
education
pegged
reservation largely
of
African
to
auxiliary
an
As
87
.
the Witwatersrand without permission
365
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
servicemen returned and demanded preferential jobs and training
of
,
better
opportunities
higher wages and of Africans on the mines deploying 16000 policemen After the war 106 000 ex
the strikes
by
job
89 In 1946 Smuts suppressed
for
3
.
PART
.
The definition
.7 ,
8
in
'
The most important was the civilised labour policy the Pact create protected employment opportunities the industrial sector for in
to
the
-
,
seemingly fruitless struggle Afrikaner Nationalist orientated After long years trade unions finally captured control the white Mineworkers Union after 1947
in
the
).
– 7
-
40 ,
skilled building
-
it
strikes illegal
.
;
85
Hellman and Lever 1980
:
,
employment Dugard
to
'
'
plant level works and
-
of
of
made lock outs
,
In
addition
and sympathetic
separate system
in
of
a
.
on
the 38
;
:
36 to
-
strikes and lock outs
(
‘
140
within which management and African workers were meant
committees
'
liaison
negotiate terms
striking
from
African workers were provided with
1986
registered
had been
1948
111
a
instigation
of
the
,
blacks
Rand
won
).
:
,
in
(
act
92
Truu 1976
totally prohibited Africans
Lipton
The
which regarded black
electorate
as
1974 almost 8000 Africans
workers Van der Horst The
:
'
(O
,
of
By
91
the end
seats
an
class
general election and was therefore sensitive competition with great fear Meara 1996
, .
of
,
critical number
predominantly working
the steel industry
in
and also made important breakthroughs
strike
NP
of
90
areas
'
of of “
poor whites who were moving into the urban
the large number
.
.
in
this area government
of
of
.
burning
a
'
'
'
'
skilled and unskilled issue As indicated section numerous discriminatory laws were enacted during the first half the 20th century jobs was
Horrell
and
,
as
.
(
to
he
,
be
of
worker
'
of
so
77
,
)
will not
In
.
a
by
and
,
,
percentage
62 ).
12
:
the
fallen from
should
per
not in
,
45
the Witwatersrand
,
it
505
–
. in
:
in
jobs
Truu 1976
the
was stipulated that the Uitenhage per cent
East London and
in
in
of
,
ie
–
(
act
the
65
that
had
on
of
white employees
,
of
per cent
white coloured
Davenport 1991
per cent
new
African trade unions were
vehicle assembly
der Horst
1960
The act prohibited
unions
excluded
in
,
the
by
courts and replaced
was stipulated
per cent
1957 skilled
104
).
It
.
25
,
(
Van
,
that only
the European
but the determination was
.
to
be the
in
1955
motor
Elizabeth Durban
'
:
(
to
for whites
under
percentage
of
to
was claimed
in
20
registered
2 9
It
97
per cent
the Sword
that
).
it
respect
will
employer
Industrial
the
protect white workers
been
whites should not fall below
Bellville and Port
3 6 6
per cent
Section
stabilise racial percentages
of
.
fall further percentage
In
1938
24
,
in the
In
96
cent
invalid
Africans had previously
not illegal but could not clothing industry
introduced
the expense
of
.
workers
as
,
,
of at
of
he
,
worker
-
to
said
any further mixed trade unions
establishment Asian
was declared
designed
determination
labour
the white
in
withdrawn when
and
coloured persons Van
col 5852
1954
,
,
31
17
May
At
( 95
in
-
1954
first the minister only used these powers work the clothing industry was reserved
and
the
all
parliament
minister in
then
exploit the non European
Hansard
The building
Natal
the Wetern Cape were open
Damocles that will hang over the head dare
well
the Cape Province and
OFS were excluded
apprenticeships but this
104
, :
in
Bill
Conciliation
Transvaal
).
Schoeman
in
Truu 1976
Ben
in
especially
in
-
industries
,
,
furniture trades When
all
apply
to
not
der Horst 94
non whites
1956
,
Act
skilled and many semi skilled occupations
from
did
of
Under
IC
the
93
).
1978
the industrial sector were formally
THE AFRIKANER
Merle Lipton this
If
.
(
the
and
per
18 , 6
in
1945 an
per cent
24
,
of
compared
discriminatory measures
of
in
,
50
of so
secondary
142
to
in
in
the result
the 1950s had
,
).
,
's
to
in
or
, It
-
of
of .
of
of
).
– 3
:
at
in
,
in
’
‘
a
in
to
all
.
,
in
the
Afrikaner
trade union
. in
books
In
1971 the Economic Advisory Council permit less skilled work to
of
use
order
be
.
the to
of
in
of
law
kept the legislation the unemployment and white
,
for
.
-
In
.
of
(
,
Van der Horst
to
-
skilled work
,
skilled workers
black
In
building sites
.
of
on
thousands
unskilled and semi skilled do
by
were also used
in
on
labour practices
the building and engineering industries
illegally
these areas
).
:
police
African labour
to
was almost impossible
172
– 8
in
1996
of
the
a on
better use
Meara
'
O
a
of
.
to
;
108
the Bantustans and border areas 1971 the industry the decentralisation which
white paper
to
by
-
employment
section
Truu 1976
:
in It
the late
verligtes and
Indian workers for both skilled and semi skilled work Africans were for
be
to
and
government issued
102
black people
semi skilled workers The council also advocated the increased white release male labour more productive use and the training
trained
contained
to
‘
of to a
to
led
an
of
that the government
accepted
female labour coloured
the trade unions about the
not dare dismantle the discriminatory machinery
recommendation jobs concerning the reclassification done
The white jobs were
trade union movement
NP and
prolonged and serious depression
government
war
labour hampered economic
on
,
did
white
the pre
trade unions also
white
bitter struggle between
the
of
is
it
also possible
skilled
persuade
Afrikaner
the right wing
the government
movement the event
in
,
.
in
Given the strength But
and especially
the white
core
the concessions made
1970s nevertheless
verkramptes 101
advancement
,
1960s and
black
intensive campaign
,
of
necessity
20
:
the
. to
.
Despite
security
The leadership
the
the border
attitudes
and poverty
in
to
black
understand that the scarcity
started
drive
and prosperity advancement and the fragmentation
initially handsomely compensated growth
101
made
any area
white urban areas
from
Truu 1976
high unemployment
had given way
circles
workers who agreed
any job
for the more accommodating
given
the mid 1960s
Afrikaner
in
period
can
Horst
der
Van
-
By
Several reasons workers
divert economic activities
1986
Bantu
The act coincided with the government
'
.
Lipton
(
100
of
the 1960s
see
:
areas
be
end
the employment
any employer to
of
service
the
of
far of -
possible the prohibition
33 ;
99
(
occupational advancement Lipton 1986 409 reaching job reservation measure ever introduced This act was the most
.
see
it
to
.
of
,
employers
-
on
their negative effect the socio economic conditions blacks was enormous They not only impoverished urbanised blacks make was not possible for them but also criminalised many youths because on
important cost effect
one
determining the
manufacturing and construction were
white wages respectively
the additional
the
).
1986
41 ,
Lipton
(
years
30
for
the next
per cent
While
years
of
.1 ).
(
8
table
,
cent and
next
38 –
As
)
in
.
industries
for the
determining the labour structure
1960 and 1970 African wages 16 7
In
the 1924 election was decisive
of
was decisive
1948 election 98
the result
which employed
account the number affected must have
into
the gold mining industry
labour structure
tertiary
are also taken
the effects
,
substantial
1970
whites
the public sector
:
been
whites
of
third
of
'
in
colour bar and the civilised labour policy
employed
into 217 500
translated
,
million
ESTABLISHMENT
of
OF
to
,
of
the
1 5
.
,
But according
per cent
15
1970
in
jobs
whites
or
reserved
,
for
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY
workers
the enormous 367
PART
3
:
, SEGREGATION , AND
COLONIALISM
APARTHEID
financial benefit of white workers . These blacks were often paid the wages of unskilled or semi-skilled workers . This was an illegal and crude version of black
of
a
of
UF
-
60 ;
59
:
),
TUCSA
(
be all
.
1976
Almost
the
trade unions
of
of 28
in
August
that African
an by
big
a
.
,
dominating many
that blacks were already
Second many employers and particularly markets were becoming increasingly aware the
of
-
.
,
skilled and semi skilled labour categories to
argued that
changes had made existing industrial
recognise
to
which failed
unions First
law
economic and workplace
he
in
a
,
accept the need for black organisations and black
foreign
68
).
6
–
as
, as
”
;
[
,
]
of
“
of
a
’ ,
of
:
,
,
8 8
(
17
in
to
)
.
-
This
it .
to
'
of
overt
was
of
up
as
the UDF was
sanctions and disinvestment
and
).
.
-
:
al
et
in
(
:
business interests Davenport and Saunders 2000 486 based mainly Clark 1994 and Clark Bonner 1993
95
own
,
its
trade
set
94
in
.
in
was
rival
contrast
,
,
by
.
COSATU Inkatha
consistently opposed
the 1980s until
65 -
1986
the
170
1985 when COSATU
and organisations such
,
This section
capitalism
on
support
and
,
in
UWUSA is
,
3
108
The
joint purpose linking
apartheid
the early part
community unions joined forces
of
fight
the
to
.
founded
1986
factory and political demands The tension between
'
and several
Lipton
become embroiled
'
to
separate workers
-
FOSATU
per cent
about restricting their struggles the workplace community unions which believed variety
black and non racial trade unions persisted
sought
to
-
:
was contested
impossible
held
mining
in
.
of
,
4
,
approach
adamant
over important issues
bargain
unions which formed FOSATU were reluctant and were
his proposal
class economic struggle
1990s Africans
Davenport and Saunders 2000 616
politics
union
working
the semi skilled jobs
a
The
per cent
by
107
12
6 ;
204
36
skilled and
political protest
industrial relations
continuing
from
notably wages and safety conditions
the
:
1989
not stop the NUM
In
did
(
and Padayachee
vehicle
67 ).
of
the radical and overt politicisation
of of
rather provided
fostered
Morris
of :
7
–
-
proposals
facilitating the depoliticisation
instead
But this
243
1996
;
26
:
al
co
[
,
intended
)
Wiehahn
Mamdani
reasons for the failure the Wiehahn reforms allowing for the option the insiders working class his
of
'
:
Instead
1991
the
,
put
and Padayachee
follows
106
Crush
et
(
growing fast
Morris
105
see
,
.
,
50
accommodate black labour Thirdly there were already about black trade unions operating outside the statutory framework and the number was to
urgent need
the
).
–
of to
requests
Africa
South
per cent were white and
der Merwe director general manpower and member major role played persuading the state and business
Wiehahn commission to
home
stay
the Soweto
-
.
with
,
van
considerably
organisations made renewed
at -
a
,
:
of
a
.
72
acknowledge African trade unions
The pressure
escalated
companies exposed
1986
which
business
anachronism
Lipton
and commerce
million members
per cent coloured and Indian
1979
elimination
the
employment This code was
Hellman and Lever 1980 118 important 104 The most was the Trade Union Council
recognised Piet
for
published
.
it
aspects
industry
1977
20
quarter
organised
In
pleaded
of
representing
which
colour
,
Van der Horst
race
all
on
per cent in
accepted
90
by
discrimination based
.
the trade unions concerned
practice
in
of
code
employment
(
of
with the concurrence
force had been
in
two ( in the metal and engineering industries ) suspended ,
a further
of
cancelled
work reservation orders
in
, and
: 205 – 10 ) . of the 25
1986
1977 , 18
of
or
exploitation (Lipton 103 By the end
THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY 109
As
OF THE AFRIKANER
result of close co -operation between
a
Oppenheimer of the AAC , the privately
J
H
Bijl of ESKOM
der
van
and Ernest
owned Victoria Falls Power Company was the AAC . As the major
early in 1948 with huge financial support from
expropriated
ESTABLISHMENT
mining house and consumer of electricity , the AAC benefited enormously from the cheaper electricity supplied to it by ESKOM . With the support of Ernest Oppenheimer , ISCOR also made headway towards a steel monopoly before 1948
,
of
of
,
12
in
,
's
and
of
at
the cold war that the west would
,
make
on
March
convincing
1961 Rich
1996
:
to
failed 29
.
However
the liberation
darkness
which
was
]
view
of
the point
: (
by
from
prolonged period
,
was
‘
,
that
a
Jaffe observes momentarily moonlit
1970s
of of
the 1960s and early
struggle
it
at
).
–
Organisation
the
the communists
were acquitted
whom
,
71 Looking 167
consisted
).
side
it
on
more sympathetic towards apartheid
the height
, of
,
it
if
could prove
all of
be
(
of
hoped that
case against the accused
a
of ). a
of
key
to
in
of
in
to
,
'
so
had worked
of
a
:
It
as
to
'(
an
be
to
.
the
the
a
,
élan which transfigured the major beneficiary was rebuilt ANC
Soweto
was thus
a
emerging militarist political play culture which was to
-
a
politics
.. .
South African an
the 1980s
of
catalyst
revolutionary
crucial moment which significantly shaped culture throughout the whole southern Africa
also
that
the first half
the young rebels defying the might
the dominant force
be
Soweto regenerated
was
Black Consciousness movement
a
generate
follows
population
a
the
.
black liberation
which emerged
in
the
an
Soweto
the black
vast courage
in
politics
state helped
of
apartheid
The
to
.. .
produce
as
to
psychological liberation which
was inculcated
of
much
of
in
of
pride
ideological orientation
). of 21
117
'
sense
gradual but was destined
the black protest movements
Meara describes the importance
hard
in
.
,
In
1999
of
that
-
(
this way
:
Halisi
Africa could not
Its
the
.
was completely different the 20th century
regime The BCM inspired blacks not only develop awareness that the path
apartheid
solidarity but also
South
apocalyptic and violent
O
'
for
”
fundamental reform
in
a
their struggle against high degree achieve
deep
organisations could not have succeeded
without which the liberation of
radicalism
,
,
“
workers strikes Natal the early 1970s 1994 182 believing that There are however reasons BCM infused blacks with kind
to
114
Charter
SACTU
the
,
NP government
Trade Unions
the main black protestmovement was
116
235
,
1986
the Indian Congress the South African Coloured People
ANC
115
per cent Afrikaners coloureds including employment Africans the state
the People which accepted the Freedom
the South African Congress 113 The
economically active
,
Lipton
sector declined
(
as
ISCOR
per cent
,
The Congress
1980
investment
The state sector became the largest
,
112
of
corporations such
per cent
14
Asians and
,
per cent
even larger percentage
an
(
and
of
whites
in
.
79 )
16
, accounting
employer in South Africa
:
1996
34
53 per cent ( O 'Meara
),
to
per cent, while that of the private for
to
: 283).
1986
state corporations in gross fixed
of
of
63 , 5
11, 5
corporations (Lipton
state
(
rose from
per cent
supporters of an
- speakers were initially
,
6 ,2
any English
of
the managements of
to
1946 and 1973 the share
:
appointed
from
. Hardly
the protective
in
later became outspoken
free market capitalist system
111 Between
nurtured
a
environment of state corporations unbridled
,
that many of the Afrikaner entrepreneurs
ironic
).
It is
in
110
Bonner et al 1993 : 77 – 86 ) .
in
of
,
(Clark
369
PART
3
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND
APARTHEID
'
crucial role in the unfolding regional tragedy of the 1980s (1996 emphasis
:
).
first year after the Soweto uprising an estimated 600 people died, almost 6000 were arrested ( Davenport and Saunders 2000 : 453 ).
117 During
3 70
'
181 – 2 ; author s
the
and
Chapter
10
of colonialism , segregation , and apartheid The legacy
. 1 The legacy of the pre - 1994 period
10
historical
in
of
-
.
to
African history For many years
.
the 350 years
modern South
come social historians and social scientists the
of
.
at
the
of
-
.2 ,
pre 1994 period
the
As we
and abject poverty
attempts
relieving
population finds itself
not thoroughly
is
legacy
All
-
in
which the poorest half the
if
fail
social disruption
long before 1994
of
will
the
terrible predicament today
to
endogenous dynamic
an
gained
section
in
have already indicated
contribution
the
contemporary socio economic problems
of .
,
colonial period
extended
should not lose sight
2
doing
so
,
However
we
.
distinguish between what happened before and after that year in
will
point
the biggest turning
and economic exploitation
of
regard 1994
in
white political domination
,
We can
summarise the dismal socio economic legacy
of
periods
five systemic
is
this chapter
as
purpose
to
of
The
perspective
recorded
a
be
to
is
to
, the
it
-
its
political compromise in
,
Mamdani
the
into
a
between
In
.
,
of a
by
the process
the compromise
as
so
,
to
of
of
turned
(
in
the
truth
the TRC
exploitation
systemic
Amadiume and
).
–
:
177
was
8
,
Abdullahi 2000
because
identifying the business sector
from
and beneficiaries
,
sector
moral one obscuring
seeking
Mamdani this constrained plight many black South
see
the
.
the
,
in
the
the political constraints imposed
ANC and the corporate
huge responsibility
,
.
.
.
the
of
main players
accepting
causes
prevented the TRC
,
Africans Notably one
of
the truth about it
search
investigate
compromises forged between ANC leaders and
the early 1990s According
in
a
as
for
corporate sector
restored
The TRC not only interpreted truth
,
its
mandate too narrowly but also compromised result
if
places
colonialism
social historians and social scientists
established
justice
The fact that the TRC failed
systemic exploitation during extended on
necessary
so
lasting reconciliation achieved
and
also
do
past
to
study
is
the
thorough
of
A
.
and studied
371
educating
whites about
.
its
for
,
of
in
) as
(
of .
-
to
,
it
.
the ANC chose short
have
leave the
expediency
term
-
sector
By opting
the corporate sector
uninvestigated
certainly
would
to
managerial elite
the
appointed
been
of
a
convinced
.
had
‘
business
commission
',
embarrassed
government nor the TRC could
new
,
such
could also
JRC
a
If
for
investigation
their responsibility for restitution and nation building
Unfortunately neither the the need
a
Such
IRC
systems had
white controlled
how
impoverished blacks and enriched whites have sensitised whites
Such
Commission
JRC was regarded
a
mandate
open
be
essential for
Justice and Reconciliation
an
a
longer life span and
the TRC
proposed that the TRC
this book
-
complemented
white political
appointment
the
an
by
ncluding the author a
be
should
with
and others
(i
Mamdani
Before and after
inability
)
.
domination and racial capitalism
reason
social injustices inherent
of
's
investigate
.
unwillingness
short life span may
TRC
the
,
earlier
)
( or
As noted
be
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID the
3
to
PART
above
exploitation
,
.
the
it
,
,
its
.
the
of
,
to the
is
)
,
an
of
:
.2
in
.
various kinds
'
to
', "
employed
the extended
in
',
involved
the total labour
in
20
of
or
in
of
is
40 in
to
15
per cent
underemployed
,
or
The growth
subsistence agriculture
according
were
1995
subsistence
the informal sector has accelerated since
the
.
agriculture
per cent
the unemployed
casual employment
of
hoc informal
)}
unemployment
definition
and
or
per cent
contrasted with
the formal sector could find
informal sector
between
even
mostly structural rather than
almost
‘ ‘
,
1995
of
least
,
that
potential labour force
the potential labour force were
not find jobs the
'
in
employment
or
(
to
. in
20
this rose
,
in
1970
of
( or at
estimated
this study we
which employment fluctuates with
South Africa
than
those who could
40
some kind
of
,
Fortunately
in
."
.
per cent
While more
already unemployed
In
in
the
extent
cyclical
is
also
white domination
Structural employment
business cycles Unemployment
ad
will
with structural unemployment the overall inability
cyclical unemployment
It
and
this overview
1994 has been hotly debated
business cycle
its
of
the peak
of
zenith
1994
provide employment for the total
ie ,
to
economy
372
socio
.
of
unemployment
are mainly concerned
force
the dismal
reached
five systemic periods
black labour before
last However
of
is in
of
the nature
1994
truth
Unemployment and underemployment
The extent
at
1970 when apartheid
Hopefully
uncovering
.
the
.2
10
and
better understanding
1970
from
of
on
further deterioration
–
its
economic situation that existed
first attempt
the
will certainly not
,
contribute
stimulate debate
not
ugly past and a
Africa
hopefully
to
will
this chapter
's
about South
in
The analysis
be at
.
justice and restitution
1980s
OF COLONIALISM
THE LEGACY
of the
,
.
formal sector
1000
( % )
2454
+
159
.38 .5
+
+
+
+
+
.5
+ + + +
+
100
128
4840
.6
.6
27
+
152
93
+
903
45 46 .2 . 3
8585
+
13425
63 .4
445
7542
659
+
Labour supply
718
+
1
2117
9
2269
Employed
,
.13 8
.
1
+
42
154
.3
2937
+
+
+ 1
+
043
labour force outside
the
of
definition
the
36 . 1
1
20 .2
(% )
the expanded
3980
+
6 7
(% )
Unemployed
to
166
+ 59
( % )
1551 458
Unemployment according
+
331
Unemployed
114
+
165
Unemployed
202
23
Employed
Unemployed
140
13 48
379
12 21
177
Employed
185
+
132 17
( % )
177
Labour supply
65
421
317
Labour supply
Unemployed
Total
606
380
75 .3
642
1063
Unemployed
Whites
46
24
' ( % )
774
Unemployed
Asians
–
-
1666
2657
Employed
Unemployed
)
-
203
4323
+
5074
Labour supply
Coloureds
)
5277
+
Employed Unemployed
Unemployed
9397
6
supply
943
1
Labour
95
000
35 .4
000
,
Change 1970
(
1995
(
group
1970 )
Category
Africans
'
,
1970 and 1995
in
:
.
,
10 1
Labour supply formal sector employment and unemployment
Population
|
labour
the
the demand
in
for
increase
slow
Table
rapid increase in urbanisation after influx control was abolished in
the
and
because
, SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
CSS
.
unemployment
,
,
the formal
same period
by
1970
sector
number
of
in
that from the
.
potential labour
is
),
employed
per cent During
million
employment increased
really shocking the
is
).
But what
per cent
the
1995
1970
,
from
to
increased from
1 9
.
1995
-
of
apartheid
;
;
CSS 1970
7 1
:
25
7
, of
years
African workers
,
table
unemployed
42
the
million
( or
4
of or
203
.
, ie
–
. in
8
,
13
(
the number
1999
last
1995 While
per cent
,
decreased
Barker
The number
almost
000
1995
by
1
million
,
to
only
or by
,
8
to
in
million
force increased
table
during
considerably
worsened 1970
1995
to
1970
4
From
:
1999
;
.
the formal sector
Bhorat and Hodge
:
Source
3 8
Employment
in
2
.
formal sector
373
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
non - African workers employed
female unemployment among
,
; 60 in
and
65
.
no
,
1995
fewer than
were unemployed
.
24
years
25
16
of
than
per cent Unemployment
at
estimated
higher
and unemployment among African women
was
also higher among those younger
per cent
of
male unemployment
than
million (or 45 per cent). In
1 3
racial groups was substantially
is
1995 ,
,
increased by all
3:
PART
Africans between the ages
Unemployment was also much higher among
a
for
to
by NP
,
of
the
the
unravel the role played
the sharp
we can
attribute
in
sharp increase
:
to
the
-
.
of
non Africans Although the
vis that
of
;
of
the economy
has changed
which
,
i ii
capital intensity -
growing
the
number
the economy since 1974
growth
the slow
1970
policies
those responsible
,
next four factors are closely interrelated unemployment since
attributed
to
5
–
in à
African unemployment
in
increase
concentrate
-
,
also
our attempt on
.
we will
these factors
can
the liberation struggle and
predecessors
its
government and
linked
1994
were beyond government control while
them
In
others were strongly
Some
vis -
factors
to
of
interrelated
of
. of
unemployment
The high levels
be
.
the poor
the primary sector
of
a
in
as
,
decline
rate
growth
of
;
of
iv
reflected
service sector and
the
in
increase
the sharp
in
sharp increase
a
and
production the
structural shifts
in
iii
;
production methods
group
the African population
system
the
in
of
labour
on
production
literacy and schooling
The segregated
other
of
for
of
in
demand for different categories
the one
different
the
for
groups
.
population
labour
took place from
of of
the different levels
and
increase
important interaction
the method and structure
of
in
changes
the slow
demand for some categories
in
.
for
others
the changes
the
,
demand
1995 between
result
hand
responsible
,
decline
on
a
as
1970
mainly
for labour and the increase in
and
to
the
demand
factors
An
first three
of
The
are
.
since 1960
education
374
a
of
means
large inflow
1974
of
of
its
.
of
African
labour
This high rate
foreign investment foreign
per cent
a
5
least
of
1947
at
relatively high rate
of
be
for the
-
as
as in
the
in
from
other
1974
,
post war period
the
especially
supply
since
certain
the oversupply
.
economy grew
economic growth
to
's
attained
decline
well
the undersupply
total population
the increase
of
The sustained
by the
in
year
,
also contributed
to
–
The sharp increase
South Africa
blamed
skilled and professional labour
-
.1
2
10 .
component
should
in
.
categories
education
at
categories
of
different systems
of
,
different population groups and the large qualitative differences between these
growth was
entrepreneur
THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
Many of the
,
in
of
,
.5 .3 ).
9
(
or
,
on
for
,
however
another
decade
developed
from
see
.
The
(
only
for
,
1960s and the need for
the
it
,
to
in
,
-
-
20 of ).
.
be
a
by
in
,
year This outflow made
growth potential
of
1985
a
August
the
'
speech
.
a
to
achieved
importing fewer capital in
by
in
a
19
:
the
of
from
At ,
. . ). 3 2 2
(
in
The current account
the economy
the steady decline
domestic 3
This became evident
the
payments
GDP
a
no
of
3
unrest
1974
1992 the average annual outflow
to
1985
per cent on
,
1
4
to
From
.
its
of
sharply from
the
of
.
balance
Rubicon
'
notorious
of
the
foreign capital was equal
of
and black
products
decline
,
in
of
.
Botha
serious debt crisis developed
more serious
primary
affected
declined
and
year since 1973
balance during this period but this could only
. 's
.10
After
FDI also
for
a
was negatively
political instability
improve
OECD countries
per cent
.
the century
less than
curtailing domestic spending and P
deliberately
W
a
as
was kept roughly
in
a
(
,
by
large demand
demand for these products after 1973 result
economies
its
of to
1973
order
the capital labour ratio
from
year but
,
of
quarter
increase
Bantustans had
in
the
,
'
per cent
This
migrant workers declined
machinery
sophisticated
1950
from
limits
see section
African employment Gelb 1991
age
1970
longer supply migrant workers
,
5
almost
constraint
substitution
-
golden
in
As
.
to
especially
While South Africa benefited the third
inward
the productivity
sharp
a
.
by
invest
This caused
'
the in
In
decline
crisis
cheap and docile African labour
extent that they could
base
subsistence
productivity
by
in
a
to
by
an
such
became necessary
far
group
the 1960s socio economic conditions to
deteriorated
goods
The
skilled labour that could
policies
economic
the effective control
industrialisation policy
of
an
the end
a
to
was based
on
and
population
see section
accumulation strategy reached
when the Verwoerdian
strategy
1984
demand
discriminatory
Stephen Gelb
on
onwards
grew
created
the 1960s
. ).
According
with
and
from
until
9 6
section
then
the white
costly
its
with
in
,
the
rate
with
the collapse
1841 and continued
during the 1950s
it
the
be
supplied
continued
that began
but became dysfunctional
technological modernisation not
contrast with most other
stagflation that coincided
capitalist accumulation until the end
high economic growth
very
South
early 1990s
a
,
1970s
But
into chronic
The repressive black labour system 1980s contributed
big profits .?
very
and black unrest culminating
in
white political domination
early
that invested in South
.
,
the recession deteriorated
of
a
severe recession
political instability
period
totalled
1974
in
1973 slowed down economic growth elsewhere
.
crisis
Africa also experienced countries
corporations
foreign
cheap and docile African labour to make
of
oil
Africa exploited
prices, FDI
2000
in
NP ,
almost R175 billion .
When the
. Measured
technology
of
,
ship and foreign
75
.
in
This low level
investment
political
regime and South Africa
the apartheid
cent
the sanctions and disinvestment
to
–
at
16
indirectly
and
1993
's
directed
per cent
,
campaigns
directly at
,
it
attributed
stood
-
can
1972
in
be
GDP
only
of
investment after 1980 . Whereas gross domestic investment was 30
of
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3:
per
PART
and
and limiting access
,
involved retricting international trade opportunities
All
these anti apartheid measures
black wages
. ,
to
,
in
,
3
its it
,
to
’
to
damage
economy after 1970
the South African
economy
over
the
),
and has increased considerably
and
(
the
of
of
capital labour ratio
countries
the
.
's
almost any cost But
attempts
to
structural unem
government
has always been relatively high compared with other developing countries some developed
in
(
.
its
the latter
economically
NP
it
alone in
go
'
to
During
1994
)
or
and
.
1974
the South
-
on
,
by
2
."
the liberation
from
supporters
movement also helped
growing capital intensity
(
The capital intensity
the
and economic privilege
the South African economy
where
the short sightedness
The sharp increase
1974 was largely caused
The high and
and
done
the harm
government was prepared
destructive methods used
76
to
of
.
.
the
be
blamed
NP government
the cost involved
political power
arena
at
of
NP
the
NP government and
the economic
system
to
to
the liberation
longer conducive
we take into account the fact that the NP was
largely
by
of
the 1980s the
ployment since
.2 .2
fought
immoral and discredited
recalcitrant attitude of
.
harm
If
other was mainly
economy should
irrespective
the one hand and the
-
an
irreparable
defending
even
the
and
organisations and their allies
liberation
in
)
the
on
securocracy
on
'
level war between
-
'
low
the international community
10
,
of
of an
to
led
-
investment and domestic capital accumulation
cling
unrest
intensification
foreign
1950s and
the 1970s helped
This
and created socio political conditions that were
struggle
the
-
suppress
onwards
1970s
,
attempts
early it
from
1994
the same period
black poverty
,
's
government
in
.
unrest
1974
from
during
stricter influx control measures
to
fuel black
political instability
socio
the
,
1960s together with
part
inflation
caused several devaluations
economic performance
accident The perpetuation the
by
did not happen
African
level
high
no
's
South Africa
and the parallel increase
caused
payments
balance
.
in
The decline
The
of
-
's
and the
problem
)
of
sharp increase
Africa
South
African rand
the South
to
payments in
(
to
partly due
a
The continuing balance
vulnerability
of
'
exploited
'
deliberately
the
.
international loans and foreign technology
regime
of
."
Economic sanctions against the apartheid
a
and technology caused
investment
to
foreign
of
the inflow
productivity
in
decline
of
The decline
in
.
social instability
past
OF COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
THE LEGACY
.
creating capacity
of
its
. from
high capital
lower
demand
of
In
.
of
.14
and
or
'
a
on
to
,
,
of .1 .15 ).
.
a
on
of its to
's
of
tip
.
of
economy Verwoerd
the
for
.
at
the southern
third world continent not a
in
,
so
did
of
way
.
it
not During the 1960s
job
a
of
The
enough
serious
white
meet
the
large
supply to
simply
the economy
.
sectors
growth resulted
in
?
."
,
rapid economic
skilled workers
,
Over the next three
the economy but
of
to
in
all
and
)
labour and
Africa African economy His policies
African workers
workers was
was maintained quite rigidly
11
see
(
economy
-
-
and even coloured increasing demand
for
of
labour
contributions difficult
-
the South
the 1960s and early 1970s skilled
the economy and
price relations
a
‘
European
the employment capacity
that was highly detrimental
state
This dramatically
government embarked
capital intensive first world economy
only weakened
of
to a
their relative
’
a
in
section
skewed development on or
a
of far -
reaching effects
the
capital intensity that clearly
labour
on
NP
,
complex
white
level
capital intensity
economic policy that seriously distorted creating
industry
,
,
for
the high
1960s the
decades this resulted
mining
unskilled African
and
are
the
.16
determine
1970
In
increase since
a
. ).
the gold
unemployment among Africans
The factors responsible
small
large cheap and unskilled labour force When wages for Africans began increase
and moved
employment
the
gap
in
,
‘
producer goods
their labour force was also split between
of
the
,
damaged
a
upstream
manufacturing industry changed their methods
the private
quite drastically
mining
unskilled workers until 1970
producing
onwards
1970s
production
shortage
the gold
9 7
section
(
the
from
creating
between
of
finished production
corporations and
In
white mineworkers
corporations were also relatively capital
The state
concentrating
African labour force
increased
white
those
several state corporations were modelled
highly paid white skilled
sharply
1911 the
,
of ,
instead
by
.
the gold mines
intensive but
(
those
gold production and the large
on
did
of
those
had
of
4 5
per cent
not necessarily disadvantage
The production methods
policy
per cent
skilled and unskilled workers the capital intensity
industry
and
factor prices
relative
, of 8 , 6
Given the nature
,
only
of
,
1971
in
,
and
8 of .1) .
(
wages
influenced
unskilled African mineworkers were
mineworkers table
strongly
by
this occurs
is
which
wages
of
,
unskilled labour and increase the demand for more skilled labour the pace
at for
a
capital intensity tends
investment the
mines
level
-
in
increase
deep
than
Although
to
intensity
exploiting in
an
especially
or
,
inception
high levels
needed
–
capital intensity
.
mining industry
gold
The
much poorer
is
's
Africa
of
that
. South
other developing countries with lower levels
of
especially since 1970
job
This has weakened the job - creating capacity of the economy
-
years
30 to 40
discrimination
was only during the 1970s that Africans 377
PART
3
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
were allowed
to
move
skilled and semi - skilled jobs
into
. Influx
control became
in
onwards
1975
from
the
by
to
a
incentive was reinforced
This
industrialists sharp
18
to
labour
African wages
strong incentive
.
capital
substitute
increases
1960s and 1970s provided
.
in
for
unskilled )
the
much stricter during the 1970s and early 1980s . We can therefore say that the non -availability of different kinds of African labour (both skilled and
,
,
by
,
8
19
of
NP in
agricultural sector
),
while African and
in
agriculture
from
1980
:
Bhorat and Hodge 1999
break down
(
,
,
the
.
to
.
least until 1978
growth
general loss and
,
an
in
the services
in
and
all
Although
sector
,
.
of
,
the gain
employer
of
.20
a
generally
,
Africans
The significant
Asians who
employment was
employment resulting
of
economic
of
the case
sector and
significant decline
Hodge mainly whites
the
the slowdown
from
and
compensate
caused
workers
,
to
large enough
traditionally
increased employment
for
this shift
In
from
.
benefited
Bhorat
to
according
in
,
was
from
coloured
the
of
four racial groups benefited
and
to
in
in
of
African
1995
–
1970
–
a
:
in
from
important ways
the
in
employment
the
the primary
decline
the
in
increase
the tertiary sector
an
).
.
shifts
primary sector decline contribution mainly unskilled African and coloured workers in
per
9
–
2 3
10 .
production
Structural
The economy changed
it
168
government continued
more expensive
and
onwards when influx control started
not
in
,
-
-
-
coloured labour became scarcer 352
the
the
in
cost capital
1980s may have
increased
the capital labour ratio
( at
of
.
supply farmers with
and continuing
unskilled workers declined
distorted factor prices The
low
to
in
per cent The increase
force
substitute capital for labour
while the employment
1995
was largely the result
the early 1970s onwards
sector the capital labour ratio
to
1970
employers
,
to
In
the agricultural
from
16
by
cent
stronger incentive
even
strikes
1970s but especially
to
an
labour and township unrest been
the Durban
in
From
docile and manageable work
a
ceased
to
Africans
be
.
increase their real wages
to
During the 1980s Africans used their new trade union and strike rights
growing capital intensity
that after
1970
,
seems contradictory
,
first glance
it
, .21
At
the primary sector
the
South
African
378
overinvestment
in
.
-
labour intensive activities
in
16
to
per cent
unemployment among Africans and
relative underdevelopment
the informal sector and
the
of
high levels
of
coloureds was
the
reason the
Another
for
-
,
capital intensive activities and underinvestment
only
22
explained in
This apparent contradiction can
1972
by
GDP
in
per cent
be
.
1993
from
of
investment declined
30
-
economy should have becomemore capital intensive while gross domestic
or
because
years
illegal
was
manufacturing
engage
for
.
23
activities
their own enterprises
head
to
Africans
partly
the
.
,
informal sector was relatively unknown
For many it
informal manufacturing
in
investment
in
level
, SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
OF COLONIALISM
to
of
low
THE LEGACY
30
-
’. 24 ,
,
,
South and
,
a
,
result
the
a
a
,
of -
favour
and
exploiting
, of
white core
years this twist
in
.
40
interests
century
political economic
than
,
serving
and apartheid
by
in
its
the
at
economic development was shaped
world oriented modern sector became much stronger
first large
Black
of
after 1970 during
the
develop
for
.1
11
see section
African economy
into
an a
the South
stagflation
to
to
of
the no
period
had been destroyed
Africans
protect themselves against the
(
.
.
the tendency
already proletarianised
poverty worsened spectacularly
capacity
of
a
and structurally
then the economic independence
of
of
pauperisation effects
of
years had
white
this process had been
when
growing number
because those whose economic independence
description
the unfree
of
just
By
unemployed
had already been destroyed
130
into
of
,
.
Africans became
previous
them
the white controlled economy was modernised
When that happened
transformed
1970
,
labour
In
unskilled
a
,
completed
force
-
employers
order
economic independence
thus satisfying the seemingly insatiable demands
.
for
,
labour market
undermined
historical
broad
and
Africans were delibrately
1970 the freedom
from
to
until
in
at from
unemployment problem
African
1841
,
perspective
the
.
the unskilled periphery was declared redundant
Looking
were
effectively
deprived
defeated
and subjugated
forms
in
).
they
been
of
,
colonial wars
population groups had
all
the black
of
After
,
first world capitalist enclave
-
,
of
'
,
For more
as
.
struggle
black periphery During the past
open
in
-
of a
' –
the
of
in
-
-
South African economy during segregation
the
into
ideological forces aimed
part
the
economy but also contributed
RDP that serious structural problems had
and especially during the liberation
's
and not only undermined
of by
become built
the
The ANC acknowledged
the
in
),
the
'
job in
creating ability
1960 onwards
from
the 1960s and 1970s
development
distorted
Africa
Verwoerdianism
1970s and 1980s
total onslaught
.
its
growth potential and to
ideology
by
by
-
by
total strategy
'
and
large public
but also
the economy
in
The large scale government intervention
was strongly driven
distorted capital labour
total strategy against the
'
behalf
the
labour intensive activities
separate development
of
sector investment
in
, -
was not only the result
Verwoerdian on
caused
capital intensive activities
and underinvestment
the
by
the
in
informal sector
(
ratio
of
overinvestment
private and public sectors and
the South African economy over the past
-
by
'
characterised
–
years
development
skewed
‘
The
political 379
, SEGREGATION , AND
, with contradictory
political point of
and the economic
view
From
market As
economic processes
marginalise
a
.
From
a
of
political domination
white
they spelled
soon
deliberately
set
black
the end
happened
this
of
protracted process
view
class and white bureaucracy to
entrepreneurial
.
the labour
in
subservience
set in motion
South
in
system
of racial capitalism
the breakdown
economic point
an
the 1990s
.
in
black unrest that ultimately
political
effects on the
system
, the Durban strikes
points
the white
,
white domination
to
Africa 's
of the most important turning
1970s as one
racial history
can regard the Durban
the black labour force
socio
motion
in
the early
in
led
strikes
. We
discrimination
system
an elaborate
as
of proletarianisation , repression , and
through
of
‘ enslaved ' economically
and also
of
,
representation
APARTHEID
as
COLONIALISM
,
:
as
3
of
PART
effectively
.
possible
of
,
12
a
,
it
'
‘
,
.1 ).
2
, of
.
years
However
,
the
25
to
25
.2 ).
table
African
four population 10
of
each
1960
69
percentage points from
,
by
6
7
an
to
least
Africans and whites changed
whites declined
per cent and that
extent over the next
(
the
of
. ,
1910
Africans increased
,
, .
5
76
per cent
share
per cent that
to
19
to
significantly The per cent
stable from
1996 the percentage contribution
, of
1960
the total population
remarkably
5
from
to
groups remained
even greater
by 5
share
economic war
has also contributed
to
The percentage
will
so
,
and
structural
African population
the African population
do
unemployment
of of
rate
of
The high growth
growth
of
in
(
.2 .4
10
The high rate
and figure
the black
organisations
that the liberation
,
10 4
see table
part
seemingly insoluble
winning the political battle but lost
for the time being
skewed
–
.
can
large
the
situation
unemployment and abject poverty We succeeded
ie
enslavement
, 5
in
the miserable
liberating themselves
the inheritance
of
,
a
,
population
the
and
say
structure
–
economic
economic price
huge
of
but
at
politically
political and economic
in
black people ultimately succeeded
‘
,
subservience
safeguarding
of of a
.
their endangered economic interests After centuries
of ,
among whites aimed
reaction
blacks
'
enslavement
at
political
the
at
ending
of
in
powerful protective
a
provoked
succeeded
‘
strikes ultimately
of
While the black protest movement that got under way during the Durban
percentage points
from
coloureds and Asians declined
only
with
explosive phase
mortality
the result that population growth
is
or
growth rate
is
the cycle
of
and
of
,
mortality
, ,
and
a
The first phase
declines starts
to
than
fertility
or
,
cent During the second
,
per
2
.
almost uncontrolled fertility
more rapidly 380
,
five demographic phases
characterised
about
population group has moved
each
through
.
,
moving
Professor Jan Sadie
by
According
to
.
marginally
THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
Table 10. 2:
total population of various
The share of the groups ( %)
White
African
population
Coloured
67
1910 1925 1946 1960 1970
70
1980
72
1991
75 2
13, 5
1996
76 , 5
12 , 5
starts
.
.
,
49
to
, ,
21
3
African its
.
and reached
per cent Africans have
.
96
the
of
its
.
and
0
per
,
in 6
,
-6
only
growth rate was
The growth
of 2 ,
cycle since 1985 with
average
Africans
per cent and only
59
,
,
5
against
70
'
1970
and Africans constituted
per cent
1970
in
of
.
the total
In
million
9 4
to
million
per cent
,
from
76
,
,
workforce
9
6
from
70
or
,
1995
the total population was
68
.
26
,
an
the
in
–
in
a
of
cent
The coloured population
1950 onwards
growth rate
the population
per cent
the employed
1990
from
African labour increased
in
1990
1960s when
in
, 5
with
–
in
73
accelerate
per cent
as
of
in
of 2 ,
a
in
per cent
of
70
to
per
per cent
1996
by
.
in
cent
1980
declining phase
The supply
68
population group started transitional phase
1
to
,
only
to
transitional phase
per cent declining
share
growth rates declined
.
, 1
group reached
growth rate
their transitional phases
,
its 28
, 3
69
per cent respectively Their population per cent respectively per cent and
been
decline and during the
1951 when their population growth rates were
to
1946
peaks
fertility drops below replacement level
The white and Asian population groups were from
. .
:
population growth
population growth
2 2
,
fifth and final phase
transitional phase
,
phase
,
During the fourth
table
to
,
the third
Seventer 1999
,
During
and
or
.
increase
Van
Source: Sadie 1989: table 1; Whitefield
2 1
16
,
of
in
4
37 ,
the
,
years reaches working
per cent age
,
9
only
and aggravate the already high
their ranks
high percentage
of
,
will
A
in
African labour force unemployment
than
increase dramatically
.
of
whites When the generation younger
years compared
At present 20
than
,
Africans are younger
14
per cent
to
.
African unemployment until 2020 14
considerably
. of
contribute
to
20
.
in
76
to
,
projections made
of
to
Sadie the supply African labour will large per increase cent the total 2020 The numbers Africans that years will undoubtedly will enter the labour market during the next According
Africans presently
younger
381
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
on
, 28
is
.
of It
11
/
to
(
is
are
50
18
be
,
ie
–
a
of
to
/
the
as
,
if
-
,
,
,
,
by
.
in
economic
less According
.
to
18
by
be
2015
per cent and 21 per cent
the decline
,
be
a
-
-
will decline by
18
the
in
on
will
probably Its
meaningful manner
.
a
the
a
on
.
,
0
9
(
.
-
,
the demand
,
more serious than the economic one
impact negatively
political
-
The socio
the
economy
.
latter
.
the
far
pandemic
on
,
will
complete Over year per cent higher
negative effect
in
,
be
former has implications
The projected
increase
view
2010 and
the overall population
is
of
,
have
for
the
likely
which
1 5
,
be
will
unemployment
aggrevate
to
nor
AIDS scenario
decline
GDP
course
per cent lower
a
is
to the
to
than
unemployment point
is
an
).
'
relieve
‘
to
.
to
.
,
is
), (
labour From
will
This
climate could deteriorate
monthly expenditure
in
As
lesser
the poorest
4
the
of
1996
,
and
,
people
In
coloured
.
,
degree
81 ,
case with unemployment poverty affects mainly Africans
poor
.
are abjectly
a
the South African population
to
.3
very high percentage
of
Poverty and deprivation
10 A
for labour While
substantially
non
period real per capita GDP growth
even though
the
high prevalence
.
/
by
2015 compared
human and social impact
382
will
suggests that per capita
BER 2001
neither
and skilled
the unemployed countering the
scenario
projected
significantly less
.
for
average
semi skilled
that
reduced
non AIDS
,
,
7
5
,
,
in
GDP
which
projection
HIV AIDS
AIDS
HIV
per cent lower
per cent
factor
not entirely clear that economy wide unemployment
Overall real GDP growth decline
likely
the demand
employment and income
of is
it
,
a
as
result
to
respectively compared
the BER
not
AIDS were
However the relatively
the population and labour force will production
It
29
.
replaced
the labour supply
working people
total population will
most serious threat
by
AIDS
skills
be
can
on
impact
that
the be
is
it
.
million Arguably
for labour productivity but also
only
HIV among the youngmakes the
estimated
would
the
most acute
2000 HIV prevalence
.
at
of
.
61
by
than
per cent
skilled and highly skilled workers has serious implications not
among
HIV
2015
HIV AIDS
about
HIV AIDS quite serious
It
.
impact
on
negative
to
workers lost
of
of
is
the economy
its
instead
the end
people
/
,
–
million
million
The high incidence
potential economic impact disproportionately affected per cent smaller
and
6
4
million
-
)
15
in
the
taken into account According
factors have been identified that have made and
were HIV positive
49 age group
population growth rate and
Africans highly susceptible
South
estimated that between
population
of
a
/
number
make
to
continue
)
(
the
2000
be
on
employment unemployment rates needs BER
the
of HIV /AIDS27
effect
their lifetimes ( see Sadie
in
of
, the
However
of
: tables
never have formal jobs
a
1999
will probably 1 . 1 , 1. 2 ) .
is
than 14 years
of
3:
PART
follows: 21,5
per cent spent
8,
and
per cent
,
:
,
households 7 8
,
follows 25
the
less
27
of
In
as
,
6
a
less
-
).
(
:
2000
regarded
those
Even as
month
a
households that spent R1 001 R1 800
poor
be
regarded
59
,
very poor whereas households that spent can
could
households that spent R600 as
regarded
or
,
as
be
South Africa
be
-
000
per cent spent
coloured
per cent was
or
.3 ).
(
month
a
R1 000
R601
Statistics
could
1996
in
month
table
to
According
-
, ,
-
R1 001 R1 800
47
per cent spent R601
13 6
spent R600
the poorest
R1
monthly expenditure
next
the case
or
of
).
constant 1996 prices
APARTHEID
10
–
R1 001 R1800
at
per cent spent R601 -R1000 , and
(
,
32 4
, AND
per cent spent R600
,
per cent of African households was as
less ,
SEGREGATION
5
,
THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM
relatively
,
or R3
RI
RO
-
% 5
,
7
,
17 4
18 0
20 37 , 0 4
8
64 8,
,
, 51 , 71 , 44, , 20 2 1 1
, 4 2
11 , 1 , 47
8
5
to
, 14 , 32 7 2,
%
1
1
%
27 , 25 , 8,
9 3
,
5 8
23 3
of
22
.
other correlations urban
women
.
headed
by
the rural poor live
per in
is
rural areas
in
rural than
63
,
in
in
of
are
32
).
Many
'
‘
urban areas
.
what
between
1993 and 1995
rate
,
of
,
-
6
(
:
of
Africans and
,
There
.
educational achievement and poverty
of
are
in
one measurement the poverty 22
of
,
so
is
'
poverty
between race and poverty
strong correlation between
will
of
an
]
in
60
2000
per cent
poverty are much higher
per cent
South African
Irrespective
of
.
to
the nature
clear cut and pervasive that for
Bantustans where many households
erstwhile
501 more
determine the extent
in
in
50
,
is
and
of
, .
cent compared with
a
pictures
close correlation
also conspicuous Levels
also
of
the
(
,
are
from
800
appropriate technical tools
array
coloureds were living
areas According the
application
used between the
32
per cent
Apart
is
Leibbrant and Leibbrant
very similar poverty
measurement
Africa
South
among Africans and coloureds
produce
and
to
'
."
According
any reliable data
-
-
32 , 13 6, 4, 1 7
.1 3
,
9
,
Several measurements are used poverty
1996
801 R3 500
.
table
population group
001 800
5
2000
:
SSA
:
Source
%
%
483
9001
24
|
Total
, 78, 21 5,
741 244
0 8
Coloured Asian
1 , 4
6534
White
RI 000
16 5
' African
R601
600
000
RI
RO
:
Households
poverty
by
Monthly household expenditure
.3
Table
“
10
.30
poor and vulnerable
among
rate rate
Women
,
almost double the overall national
.33
of
.
poor households
is
members
The unemployment
.
or
unemployment are also closely linked of
and
be
to
no
primary education Individuals with education less than seven years poor than individuals with higher levels Poverty more likely education
383
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND
a
is
. is
28
1996
month poverty was not
.
a
,
)
who
the
,
a
of
.
For most
in
and squalor
and
their destiny for many generations
been
for
.3 .3
poverty amid plenty
multiple deprivation
less
It
.
11
index
million were Africans
R1 800
of
-
malnourished
35
of -
in
all
– 14
8
;
to
25
are
).
's
,
whom
poverty
see also section
especially
humiliation
live
Africans
,
or
had
children
human development
The
of
impoverishment and proletarianisation tribes was
tables
per cent among
per cent among male headed
South
experience
households that spent but
of 31
,
per
6
,
2
the
on
a
million
define poverty
destitution
Africans
phenomenon
cent
or
to
belonged
61
a
:
South
pain
UNDP
lifelong
of
accompanied
million
describe
normally by
is
Poverty
to
not easy
(
's
It is
position
,
(
South Africa
and
3
that
11
is
It
.
estimated
Leibbrant 2000
and
the poverty rate was
compared
also estimated that between
Leibbrant
survey
1995
-
to
,
.
households
-
female headed
households
the
According
greatest burden
60
poverty
elderly and those with disabilities bear
34
,
the
children
new
APARTHEID
3
the Khoisan and the different African
long and relentless process that began
in
PART
the late 17th century and
arises whether the economic subjugation
undoubtedly
,
on
which colonialism
,
colonial
coin
and
exploitation
the
of
,
the
the
the empowerment and enrichment
and
.
Africans and coloureds the other
arrange
factors that contributed
the
We
side
power relations
to
can
impoverishment
were based
of
were one
Given
of
whites
and apartheid
the
segregation
groups
the
a
indigenous population
political
less exploitative and less humiliating manner
.
developed
in
have
the economy would
indig
for
,
power had been less unequally distributed
inevitable
If
enous people over the past 350 years was historically
.
The difficult question
of .
continued uninterruptedly and with increasing intensity until the 1980s
poverty under
following
the different African
tribes
proletarianisation
order
the
of
deliberate
to
and
in
i
land deprivation
the
:
headings
Khoisan and
repressive
institutionalise
black
especially
(
social spending
on
;
black proletariat
education and
and
two thirds
the
further pauperisation
of
and
of
,
iv
stagflation since 1974
a
);
training
in
iii
official discrimination
from
Afrikaner
)
(
protect the white and predominantly
proletariat against competition
the
discriminatory measures
to
ii
;
labour systems
and repressive labour systems
the Khoisan and different African
colonialism
and the hegemony
of
during Dutch and British 384
,
the ancestral lands
of
The seizure
,
Land deprivation proletarianisation
of
.3 ./
10
.
population
the
tribes
English
, SEGREGATION , AND
'
to
,
In
.
of
it
.
–
to 36
the
in
. .)
6 4
;
11
ch
It
of
of
,
the land wars were
more correct
that
claim
to
would
in
:
.. .
remarked
-
for
the
to
In
of as A
such
a
northern in
the early 20th century but not
,
similar
.
–
7
the
in
of
the
of
of
,
so
and
that the Xhosa
1856
occurred
the Eastern Cape
systematic and aggressive character after the discovery
diamonds and
more gold
.
Africans assumed
a
economic independence
of
in
as
seizure
of
the
The onslaught
on
bloody way
land
contract
.
of
the 19th and
relentlessly
killing movement
in
in
the cattle
colonial conquest and
at
of
‘
'
salvation
Xhosa were assaulted
Xhosa
and physical
,
the
employment
of
search
the
their land
thousands
and
for
the colony
into
settlers
,
by
,
British
social structures
the
undermined large parts
to
of
, . 38
and 1853
and
deprive
During the three frontier
cultural existence
and
virus
1713 the
,
smallpox
colonial conquest the cosmology
the end
Town
.
of a
by
van
Cape
their land and cattle 1835
Stel used the
the socio economic and
the
sought their
der
it
,
in
Simon
destroy
the vicinity
their chieftainships
farming
sheep
37
.
to
17th century
During
.
most
land was not always seized
was relatively easy for the Trekboere
impoverished and driven
dramatic
of
.
,
–
De
the
Khoikhoi
the greater part
for
provinces
case
see also section
cheap black labour
to
of
access
in
of
the
century
Xhosa were disrupted
process
,
to
'
-
,
the
As
:
in
se .
Kiewiet
be
:
to
gain
the Eastern Cape between
workers
and
who did the conquering
case
the Western Cape were decimated
18th
of
of
the
in
South African
official commando
an
as
political structures
seized
with superior military power
of
garrison
wars
South Africa
their land than was
Perhaps
During the last two decades
Khoisan
tribes
South Africa the land wars were more often than not labour wars
land was seized
Khoikhoi
used
the Dutch colonists who
the African
Diamond 1997
180
colonisers still
considerably more military aggression
it
1941
'(
,
(
,
be
that
land per
labour wars
ie
see
).
of
for
the sake
large parts
-
colonies
emphasised
but
indigenous populations and
the
equipped
the Africans and deprive them
other European
must
use
,
conquer
the European
and domination
to
However the British had
the case
those countries where millions
in
.
expansionism
with
obsessed
rest
and other diseases
conquer
the case
was mainly the British colonisers
VOC
smallpox
This was also true
in
.
But
land because
seize
diseases
in
to
their land
the Khoisan
Even
America
and South
European
foreign diseases
.
them
conquered
them
North
colonists
is
It
Europes colonised
New
of
so
vulnerable
over gunpowder
of
deprive
of
indigenous people died their monopoly
so
all
,
African tribes were immune
also
centuries
20th
Africa the Khoisan were vulnerable
South
called
was easier for European
indigenous peoples were
the
very sensitive cultural issue .
a
to
Australasia
in
and
the 16th
from
APARTHEID
to
Europeans
the
South
to
it
by
not specific
of segregation is Africa , but to the
the period
in
to
establishment
In
THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM
385
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
also
impoverishing and proletarianising Africans . 39 From owning land
from
the
,
in
on
a
of
)
the
to
,
.
)
)
48
–
important role
community
African and coloured population growth rates their
.
protect the white
and mainly
Afrikaner
)
in
during
especially
of
can
The sharp increase
in
.“
in
so
1900
of
.
coloureds
in
in
of
-
of
,
,
40
say
the ranks
the
the labour market from
most serious
cheap
of
the
black
of
racist ideology
Social
The real motivation
was
for
protect poor white
and especially
problems that confronted
African
the
)
20th
society
South African
(
the
century
.
an
integral part
Union
1910 onwards was the dual proletarianisation unfolding
as
of
.
One
government
386
on
,
the
to
especially
Afrikaners against competition labour
and
social and cultural
also argue that chronic
and were legitimised
the beginning
-
discrimination
1900
per cent
played
–
,
century
at
the
Darwinism
but the range and
least
groups
disruption
increase
practices have been
18th
severely
against black competition
in
.3 .2
Discriminatory
But we
measures
1910
(
Discriminatory proletariat
than
undoubtedly
social and cultural
communities contributed 10
century
.
black poverty
and
also more
-
the
the 20th
the
poverty
of the
, of
aggravating
lower
African and coloured population
of
the second half
the
)
–
of
the growth
bribe
was poorer and socially more dislocated
population
and probably
1950
in
1994 than
Africans and
from
and poverty
,
70
per cent
1652
segregation
were undoubtedly more severe
The poorest half
since
on
.
exploitation during the periods 94
of
(
lower
1970
from
Bantustans and
indigenous population groups
and caused more alienation
view
their production
rands
linked
during the Dutch and British periods
1948
part
government buildings and used
underdevelopment
The
and impoverished
penetration
of
leaders
rural poor were
this expenditure benefited the
by
in
disrupted
apartheid
small part
white urban areas are therefore structurally
Colonialism
the
(
',
corrupt Bantustan
point
only
the money was spent
.
poor Most wealth
government spent billions
development
'
Bantustan
the
of
of
Although
dubious moral grounds
of
.
costs
absorbing
NP
by
areas
urban
in
gold
subsidised
.
For many decades the underdeveloped mining and industrial development white
Bantustans
'
‘
native reserves
to
country
rural areas . Most
in
.
the erstwhile
in
living
were living
1996
in
a
month
to
a
of the
for
1994 , Africans
per cent of households that spent R1 000 or
70
of
less
than
87 per cent
1936
the
As noted earlier, more
in
of
were prohibited from
tribal' as
most successful , measure
the
of
the
“
proletariat . The Land Act (1913 )
impoverished
most notorious , but
existence on
(
an
independent
–
40
– into
relatively
a
–
'white ' land
as
was
maintained
an –
well
then
attempt to turn African peasants
deliberate
a
a
who had until
Act ( 1894 ) was
at
The Glen Grey
to
3
(
PART
THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
of the process of modernisation and industrialisation . While
proletariat was largely deliberately
both
exacerbated the unequal struggle
in
in a
in
,
was the vested
keeping the African proletariat
in
What
the same time
'
‘
of
place
by
practical purposes been disenfranchised
1909
the
Africans
had
for
all
Westminster
the same act and were therefore
,
Act
(
the
of
created
the predominantly white parliamentary
in
their participation
),
of
.
of
virtue
by
by
as a
system
the century
not possible
apparently
proletariats
economic
cheap and docile labour While Afrikaners had strong bargaining
source
power
was
the first half
between the two proletariats
the white employer class
interest
Africa
South
.
address the poverty
,
place
it
the power structure
in
adequately
mineral based developing country of
a
given
and
with each other Given
-
as
-
‘
capacity
two proletariats were
fact that the
.
-
relationship
zero sum
was the
with the
in
for escalating conflict
potential
thorny problem
in
.
such
-
What made dual proletarianisation
century
place
the 20th
's
dominated
of
‘
African
the South
for
policies
to
political and economic
a
the Afrikaner and African proletariats
a
.
. ) .
between
'
struggle
The
8 7
and
sun
sections
8 6
(
of modernisation
result
as a
the African
repressive measures ,
of
series
a
white proletariat emerged almost inadvertently
see
the
by
created
at
part
discriminatory laws prevented Africans They were paid lower wages
,
to
,
NP
of a
.1 ).
see
(
of
table
are
white
the 20th century
8
percentage
of
a
the exploitative
white privilege
whites and Africans also
apartheid
table
.1 ).
per capita income
halcyon years
of as
,
vis
during most
(
increased
sharply during
the
The racial disparity between
the
African exploitation
Africans
of
The
of
good indication
.
the others
-à -
mining and manufacturing
in
wages
,
of
wages
character
Africans Many
and reinforced
of
,
interrelated
vis
closely
low
measures were
The
.
.
and
years
30
,
.42
to
see sections
Both repressive and discriminatory measures degraded these
first
this
disruption and
immense 9 5
Africans
(
ranks
the
1948
coloureds and Indians
removals caused
forced
of
of
,
pauperisation
intensified during
and
applied
and also
policy the
's
government
in
NP
of
government
power
10
-
discriminatory laws were enacted before the NP rose
practical
While several
work
.
unskilled
and
legislation was considerably extended
for
. ).
low
to
paid
all
that they were
,
,
condemned
skills and undergo
gain
in
professional training with the consequence purposes
of
.
opportunity
9 6
legislation also deprived Africans
from
the opportunity negotiations Discriminatory
wage
and
doing skilled
they were employed
see
action
from
were prevented
they
and therefore deprived
of
in
.
,
trade unions
industrial
Moreover
whites
the
categories
joining recognised participate
as
job
the
in
same
if
even
.
and highly paid jobs
to
multitude
to
of
A
.
politically powerless
387
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND
APARTHEID
the narrowing
and Africans
1970
are
in in
in
20 %
10 %
+
+ 4 %
+
15 38 % %
72
-
%
%
14 20
+
122935 31
25 % %
%
882
306 662
+
19 %
+ 8 %
463
3 %
%
0 %
13 7 %
-
+ 46
23 %
134 821
80 + + 36 13 %
-
+ 6 % Whiteford
;
:
.71
-5
+ 5 %
%
+ 36 %
29
967
49569
table
20 %
20 %
)
9
-
13 26 % %
-4
26 % %
-
780
17878
and McGrath 1994
and Appendix
.
from Whiteford
table
3 .6
Estimated
1996
C
Income
Top
19183
%
+
-6
1991
25
8214
1996
91
1975
Asians
–
Income
+
0 %
-4
%
91
–
-
1991
Next
120
83 506
29549
1996
6
1975
Coloureds
40 % %
-
40 % 16 %
–
6
1991
Income
%
–
6
1975
Whites
2383
1996
91
Income
:
of in
given job grade have
in
(
91
1975
Next
21 42
Poorest
1991
:
der Berg
-6
in
Africans
388
Van
,
91
Period
group
1999
difficult for
per household income class 1975 and 1991 and the main household income per income class 1996 constant 1996 prices -
:
.
Population
a
.
,
10 4
Percentage changes
to
equal footing According
an
on
,
to
compete with whites
it
in
the labour market were abolished
and Bhorat racial and gender wage differentials within
Source
vis white
.
and discrimination
1979 but unofficial discrimination and cultural barriers still made
Table
Africans
became unemployed
Job reservation
blacks
all
-à -
in
a
wages
the
per cent
vis
,
80
whites while the other decline
of
20
of
white wages
per cent
the
of
,
of
during the third quarter
about
three
sectors were
except
grew
The
in
or
.
all
in
in
;
2
,
à -
vis
;
,
those
workforce either experienced
the African or
vis
gap
the
less than one sixth
the last quarter the wages
increased considerably
,
, -
and
in
sectors
,
African wages declined
wages
and
sector during World War
century
the 20th century occurred
,
wages
white
of
manufacturing
small elite
became unemployed
African wages
the century
,
one fifth
.
in
a
during the first half
than
their real wages
to
less
1970s onwards
From
African workforce
of
:
phases
deceptive
whites
gap between
more skilled and better paid jobs but most Africans
decline the
impoverishment
of
either experienced
to
advanced
,
of
Africans
since
of the per capita income
a
of white wages , and
percentage
a
of
The increase in African wages in mining and manufacturing as
+
3
+
PART
192 103
and Van Seventer
, SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM
considerably since the mid - 1970s, but
declined
not
had
been wiped
out by
job
, of
is
on
coloureds less than
per cent
multiple depriva
of
lifelong experience
a
was less
1975 40
on
)
as
is ,
.
are
.
It
on on
,
of
; to
Africans until
adequate
Consequently they have owned very little human
little they own
constantly
undermined
the
proper
of
,
and
alarming that per capita social
by
capital
the
.
educational opportunities
lower during the first half
even
have been singularly deprived
Africa
South
however
There
,
poor
see also section
poverty
is
The
in
.
tions
referred
education and that
whites
.5
(
,
Earlier
on
(
whites table we
that
that 10
on
than
per cent
not available
blacks was
the century
including spending
of
12
spending
second half
of
the
during
than
groups
the four statutory population groups
the 20th century
little doubt that social spending
four population
. .3 ).
on
first half
during the
social spending
of
Reliable statistics
social spending on
in
10 4
Discrimination
on
..
10 3 3
the
1989 .43
lack
a
is
the
the
of
,
13 6
4
into the
.
65
per
.
to in
unskilled per cent
that category While The
,
unskilled workers almost as
different
table
1994
(
not substantially
unskilled in
of
skilled
:
Berg and Bhorat 1999
table
in
of
(
3 8
6
,
72
100
29 , 29 , , 32
%
groups
36 1
8
1
6
43 , 35 , 46 ,
62
9,
1
5
0
54 , 39 , 42 , , 39 6
69
All
a
as on
%
Asians
8,
100
,
| Van
der
:
Source
475
%
100
1993
0
100
1972
8
2033
1986
8
1975
11 , 10 , 12 ,
100
20 , 9
100
1511
50 , 9
978
1969
Coloureds
.
1949
Africans
whites 1990 percentage
9
%
Whites
3
(
on
Whites 1990 rands
-
– 93 on )
Estimated real per capita social spending rands and social spending non whites spending whites 1949 )
:
.
Table
10 5
. ). 44
the labour force was
highly
10 6
classification
useful
the executive
classified
coloureds were classified
of
Africans and
per cent
as
whites were classified
whites were classified
be
of
of
per cent
43
, of
, of
cent
1 2
only
per cent
50
coloureds had the educational and skills qualifications
first two categories
2
category
the lesser skilled category and category per cent 1985 only Africans and
,
,
in
3
; (
represents
; ) ;
While
1
.
category
,
category category
managers and directors
,
entrepreneurs
four categories
into
Category
educational distortions
category
.
the labour force
5
barometer
classification
of
's
Sadie
of
.
opportunities
389
PART
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3:
The skills composition of various South African population groups versus that of the entire population of the United
.
10 6 :
Table
States Categories
-=
( 1985 )
US
Whites
%
%
,
0 6
0, 1
18 4
12 6
4 9
44 ,2
30 , 2
,
,
, 63 4
12
14 0
42 ,6
64 ,8
100
100
100
7 0 100
,
, 48 ,9
,
,
,
,
36 8
51,0
Africans
Coloureds
4 2
13 , 1
12 6 29 , 4
= =
Asian
,
100
of
of
low
a
of
. . ). for
to
for
of
as
10 4 3
see
(
the
of
in
lower
a
by
almost
(
Africans
over 70
to
,
(
of
4
50
.
60
of
per cent
1996
owing
to to
the contrary
was paid –
no
On
compensation
the the
very large part
per cent
45
from
in
labour force became redundant and
Africans and
25
per cent
of
explain why the poorest
70
.1 ).
10
table
(
1995
a
-
1960 onwards
24
African
from
.
in to
46
to
is
It
390
not difficult
to
of 42
by
.
per cent respectively
the South African economy towards greater capital
erstwhile unskilled per cent
next
.4 ). century
-
of
income
structurally unemployed African unemployment increased 1970
and
10
the 20th
intensity and post industrial production the
per cent
repressive and discriminatory measures were abolished
systemic exploitation
structural movements
1991
was therefore considerably
.
worst victims
income
,
the
the last quarter
of
during
a
an
of
Although most
of
the
see table
equal
1975
per cent and
African population
in
in
1975
from
The mean household
The household
(
of
per cent
per cent
1996
.
these two periods
the
The mean household
African households
26
Africans declined
the population
)
to
1991
reason
by
)
21
declined
of
20
per cent from
per cent
than
,
, to
in
,
40
,
. of
the
of
the African population
further
further
thirds
per cent
1994
important
the poorest two
poorest
the poorest
African
was
of
income
section
especially
turn
This
Africans
1994 sharply increased
1974
unemployment pauperisation
1974
from
levels
capital during the
the further pauperisation
and
population
The economic crisis from
to
)
for the
two thirds
of
.3 .4
,
10
Stagflation unemployment
result
accumulate human
enormously
them
Africans were either
the inadequate opportunities
coloureds
century has burdened
20th
paying jobs mainly
low
The cumulative effect
lesser extent
large percentage
-
employed
of
,
(
a
to
.
education
the apartheid period in
end
unemployed
and
of
At
or
the
Source : Sadie 1991 : ch 7.
,
THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM
.
apartheid
By
dramatically impoverished
so
during the last 20
almost two thirds of the total population were
1975
already so abjectly poor that they had very little material or human
the pauperisation
withstand
of the 1980s, growing
of the droughts
effects
capacity to
,
per
40
(
,
of (
maintain their example
the
, ,
, -
by
income declined and expenditure
the century
high indebtedness
subsidies The
favouritism
cent
high
government could
Afrikaners after
,
high levels
when
.
in
government
on
government
serious droughts
to
riche
,
Afrikaner nouveau
for
the third quarter
for
not maintain
decline
of
the
a
,
interest rates and
to
, the
of
of of
to
terms
and
and perhaps
the rapid
income levels when economic conditions deteriorated agricultural sector was burdened
poorest
. 46
1996
Africans was whites
in
the
in
Afrikaners
1975
from
NP
many
that
income
explained
the
inability
of
)
rapid
of
embourgeoisement
too
white households can perhaps
be
The decline
of
).
47
mainly Afrikaners
and the
that experienced
household income comparable
in
decline
only other population group
in
The
unemployment , and the socially disruptive effects of the liberation struggle
a
of
years
of coloureds were
of
per cent
SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
1974
when
defence and black education
,
of
,
the in
to
in
income
Also
of .
a
the last quarter
monthly
less than
these inequalities
The
,
.
of
a
.
and
',
cultural
historical
that racial inequalities
terms
, of
's
in
but
'
as
apartheid
should
deeply ingrained
largely
be
, in
of
.
, is
any number
history
white power and
can
distinguish among four different levels
types
of
We
or
.
black powerlessness
South Africa
of
are
, ,
in
however
for
large
the inequalities
Many reasons
given
systemic terms
writ
48
of
this study
are
often characterised
demographic nature can
understood
injustices
oversimplification be
an
is
and then
Racial inequalities and systemic injustices
These inequalities
theme
third quarter
fewer than 500 000 were white
Racial inequality and social this
living
the first half
.
,
of
to
1996
during
households with
ie
.4
10
million members in
28
the
lower standards
traumatic experiences
relative poverty
from
substantial wealth
substantially
no
the
of of
20th
regressed
R1 800
century
the
underestimate
many Afrikaners who had progressed
of
mistake
to
a
be
,
would however
,
It
.
increased sharply
racial and class of
of
income and per capita income
the
unequal power struggles
and
,
,
economic in
ideological power and the ensuing
political military
,
distribution
of
;
groups the
racial inequalities
the share
South
African history
;
ii
different population
in
racial inequalities
in
i
:
inequalities
391
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
entrepreneurial
economic
,
the distribution
in
iii
racial inequalities
,
3:
of
PART
and
of
see tables
10
of
and income
per cent 70
the
per cent
the population
they
,
10
and
.7
.2
income
per cent
can
of
about
(
the
of
:
income
by
20
Share
.
per cent
of
10 7
Table
population
they constantly received more than
,
only about
.
while whites constituted
years
the income and while Africans constituted
received
of
and whites
We
)
Africans
the 20th century 20
70
years
total
the
income remained
total
,
during these
of
: of
follows
as
during this period population
70
the
relative share
each
of
share
remarkably constant during the first simplify
of
the four population groups
70
the
income
of
each
percentage
of
share
of
the
.
and
distribution
of
.4 ./
the
percentage
population
in
Racial inequalities
10
Both
black elite
a
the rise
class structure that has emerged among blacks and
,
highly differentiated
of
iv
the
;
educational opportunities and
population group White
African
75
1925
Coloured
27
1946
19 , 5
3 6 8,
;
9
:
. ).
be
.
share
income
1995 rands
the
.
deceptive
of
the
in
will
struggle
large inequalities
period the
The very
in
10 7
.
10 2
whites since 1970
for
in
is
the
,
it
is
by
groups
These
shift
in
table
race
.8 .
of
income
total
49
that
of
of
of
,
an
vis
-à -
vis
of
and
equally remarkable
improvement
meaningful
10
given
whites
of
of
see tables
,
capita
in
that
the total
per cent and their share
of
5
whites their share
and result from
Africans
total income
,
12 ,
per cent
the total population
their share
and
(
,
9
to
per cent 51
, of
per
.
In
5
,
76
to
cent
the case
. . .)
vis
of -à -
1995
per are
to
Africans
share
Although
10 4 2
in
section
Estimates
Whiteford and Van
relative bargaining power during the liberation
vis
of
Africans
table
.
per cent
relative bargaining power
discussed
Lipton 1986
.21 the
,
7
from
shifts are significant
This shift
392
per cent to 18
from
in
(
the
opposed
declined
35
per cent 71
income
1917
table
percentage
per cent to
, 5
19
from
population
table
1996
70
1970
increased from
to
From
1999
:
Seventer
7 , 9
9 9
Whiteford and McGrath 1994
:
Source
;
1996
.
1991
5 1
1980
51 , 59 ,
35 29 , 9, 7 25
1970
:
1960
, SEGREGATION , AND
THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM
Estimated per capita personal incomes relative to that of whites , 1917 - 95
race group
)
2061
849
2829
671
5417
389
3568
3828
1815
6006
799
5684
6630
2246
7986
6623
8821
2931
6931
16793
4678
times whites per capita
11 . 13 .2 11 .0 5
.
6 . 4
4 .6
1917 1936
14 12 . 3 6
.
6 .1
1946
.
1960
.
of
as a
50
is
).
and
,
,
,
of
the racial inequalities discussed
racism
, .
the
and ideological power
.
Cape was
not
to
indirectly
and racial inequality
, the
,
But the
colony
During
the
undoubtedly
,
colonialism
directly and
above
of
,
are
both
political economic
Dutch
political military economic
a
for
be
,
period
percentage
ensuing unequal power struggles
contributed most
of
in
distribution
systemic
given
expressed
the table
the distribution
income distribution
of
the
can
that have
inequalities
.
-
middle part
ideological power and
Many reasons
of
(
in
.4 .2
10
Racial inequalities
non white groups
the
capita income
see the
of
per capita income during the 20th century become clear when
white per capita income
factors
table
6
:
Berg and Bhorat 1999
of
per
distribution
der
:
Source
Van
5 0
1995
7 4
. 5.2
1980
.11 8
1970
the
8
.
9 1
.
7 6
.
8 9
income was higher than that
races
4 5
other
of
20 .0
:
of
Racial disparity ratios number
8 . 1
100
1995
6 . 8
100
1980
2
1970
5
100
4
100
1960
100
1946
9013
white level
19 . 1
1936
cent
17 15 .3 9
100
100
472
13 8 .5 .5
16 ( .6 .22 . .3 15 0
capita personal incomes
1917
842
)
689
22 . 1
34
Relative
per
1995
23 .1
34655
17 23 . .0 1
1970
48 . . 20 . 25
1960
3
1048
4238
of
3185
3068
per
2151
22
13773 18820
32
1936
1
075
1946
1980
in
Average
Africans
Asians
Coloureds
9369
1917
by
constant 1995 rands
in
capita income
(
Per
Whites
2
Table 10 . 8 :
APARTHEID
Holland 393
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND
Trekboere
was used
of was
the 18th
in
and
its
to
garrison
's
Khoikhoi
the
promote
to
In in
now controlled
company
,
to
subjugate
company
the doctrine
reckless manner the
.
commando
with
accordance
the 17th century
official commando –
century
the an
as
used
government granted
by
commercial interests
narrow
In
,
its
.
extraordinary powers and privileges power mercantilism the VOC used
the
VOC . The Dutch
of the
colony
a
a
but
APARTHEID
3
-
PART
dispossess
,
the 18th century
,
of
Britain was not only the leading industrial country but also one
.
on
the feudal and tribally
on
,
themiddle
by
,
of In
of
expansionist
the lucrative
The exploitation
organisations
South Africa
to
ZAR
gold the
the history
of
a
in
.
,
large mining corporations with predominantly foreign shareholders dominant role
solve
of
the
.
in
was discovered
economic
,
and partly
the large
– ie
and
racial
policy was
colonial
exploitative
trade problems
new
system
Those
Africa
South
in
a
of
.
an
their land
intensified rivalry between
gold
of
the introduction
Britain
to
Britain when
capitalist corporations played
in
to
.
type
the result
chronic economic and balance
ore necessitated
century
19th
the western world
to
opportunities offered
legitimise the emerging
aggressive
an
industrial countries
large part
's
.
the
This was partly
who
the Zulu
unfree proletariat
of
imperialism
into
.
transformed
British
oriented social
of
to
and labour repression
the last decades
each
humiliating racist ideology was formulated
settlers
of
capitalism
British
into
of
predominantly
century
turn
, of
the 19th
all
and African population groups But the real
to
of
of
decades
were forced
them
by
on
,
The power shift caused
bloody wars and dispossessed
a
defeated
In
the country and
the British colonial onslaught were the Xhosa and
while many
its
Khoisan
,
the Afrikaner
in
were
every corner
institutions
of
of
victims
population
economic
and
of
.
–
groups
-
was imprinted
had devastating effects
colonialism orders
political
of
great variety
from
strongest
the
the 19th century British colonial power
its In
in
manifestations
Weltanschauung its
the world
of
its
military powers
its
the end
of
of
British colony
at
When the Cape became
a
.
and subjugate the Khoisan
94
in
,
the Transvaal were 1909
,
Westminster
of
Act
turning Africans into the
for
-
the
to
‘
'
notables
in
a
formula
on
several
co
of
,
-
led
This
.
1907
mining industry
Boer War and subordinated
and find
,
elite
in
a
white
influential mining and
the gold
of
In
.
order
the period after
perpetuate socio political stability
,
the
of
Anglo
wage earning proletariat the Afrikaner
opted into
3
British rule
gold mining industry
-
a
behalf
to
the British government fought
African tribes
the
serve the interests
to
.
manufacturing corporations
behalf
on
the request and the
1890 was introduced
of
the repressive and exploitative legislation To
Almost
at
all
.
the 20th century
all
and
with
disenfranchised blacks Expansionist imperialism
,
,
-
of
,
;
it
to
in
.
large profits
.
labour laws After mainly American
and
Africa and also made very large
South
disinvest after the Rubicon
to
until they decided
'
in
–
numerous foreign
1985
as
British colonialism
and
was initiated
elected people but
,
a
divinely
by
1948
by
of
the wronged victims
after
group threatened
a
in
the decades
,
uncivilised African majority Many Afrikaners envied the wealth
English and were aware
,
the fact that the latter had
become wealthy
by
.
the allegedly
of
as
extremely
.
of
'
made
Afrikaners who portrayed themselves not only
of
wages paid
-
by
,
of
1960
The power shift that occurred
the
the
from
gold
foreign corporations low
in
the hands
exploiting the Verwoerdian
financial institutions became involved profits under apartheid
of
years after the discovery
the 20th century multinational corporations
unrest
also had
the gold mines During the third quarter
in
)
(
of
migrant workers
blacks
of
In
.
the first
power between
detriment
to
only benefited whites
and foreign shareholders who profited hugely
the Sharpeville
of
.
realise that the unequal distribution
mining and manufacturing
based
blacks
economic power was mainly concentrated local and foreign
racially
socio economic
increased
the
to
not
hegemony
repressive and discriminatory
but also
perpetuated
and
international dimension
also
the
and
Both these measures were exploitative
60
a
,
an
important and
is
It
inequalities between whites
speech
During
the 20th century
and both
.
not only
and
were
Darwinism
.
at
and repressive
black
of
of
official policy
became the
of
the
in
first half
labour patterns were institutionalised
white
Social
time when Cape liberalism was eclipsed
English establishment
segregation
ideologies
racist
the
exceptions
few
and racial capitalism
.
the
segregation
of
terms
in
legitimised
practical purposes
,
white political domination
–
for
–
,
South Africa which
,
system
a
of
Union
of
of
constitution created
the
THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
.
numerous
state
–
, and
police
black while
Christian values
of
on
enacted
Afrikaners during
third
about
quarter
protest
fairly rapid the
and bringing
black
of
in
,
one hand
suppressing
a
the
on
the
regime succeeded
the
embourgeoisement
of
the mid 1970s
the democratic
perpetuate
discriminatory and authoritarian measures
,
.
,
the apartheid
-
its
at
disposal
1960s
Africa into
,
the western world With repressive
the
and
a
security laws and turned South
to
,
government
claiming that their policy was based
until
.
protest movements
black
,
authoritarian
exploiting blacks
from
policy
in
,
powerlessness
with apartheid
,
counteract
benefit
of
a
accordance
their turn
additional repressive and discriminatory laws was
plethora
the
To
enacted
in
,
Consequently
this
to
regarded
them
NP
of
many
as
.
,
exploiting indigenous people Once the Afrikaners had gained political power
20th
395
SEGREGATION
AND APARTHEID
.
The comprehensive and rigid manner
which oppressive
in
other
.
century on
.
,
COLONIALISM
3:
the
PART
,
repressive and discriminatory measures were implemented during the third
some
, , of
. .)
9 6
. the
of
on
the
'
to
its
'
of
.
to
to
20
+
–
NP
of
to
a
and human rights
government also made
.
own authority and control Even
the glaring inequalities
apartheid
to
shift took place from whites
of
its
,
a
make
and more specifically
atrocities
the
all
sorts
meaningfulpower of
,
blacks
strategic
.4 ). 5
the "
a
,
–
10
(
of
1994
per cent
apartheid regime
effect undermined
result
a
,
,
and
as
before the elections blacks
time when
was responsible for
in
concessions that
blacks
discriminatory labour
This constituted
.
1980s
meet black
concessions
of
early
combating the liberation struggle
in
violations
at
is
It
its
securocracy
of
these was the abolition
1970s and
see table
ironic that
levers
total onslaught
alleged
belated attempts
series
economic power shift that enabled the upper enormous progress
the
. to
a
.
the late
of
most important in
legislation
the Botha government made
In
,
of
, the
Perhaps
counteract
protest against apartheid
grievances
retain
blacks despite
grip
but even this could not stop the internal and external
against South Africa
groundswell
the 1970s
1970s onwards the balance
the
total strategy
first half
whites
from
regime
the apartheid
to
to
by a
launched
It
.
power
and
the early
from
shift slowly but surely
desperate attempts
“
started
9 5
(
sections
the liberation struggle intensified
power
the inequalities between whites and
shift took place during
important paradigm
of As
.8
see table
;
blacks considerably An
century increased
the 20th
10
of
quarter
were
and
entrepreneurial
,
economic
,
the distribution
of
.4 .3
10
Racial inequalities
in
.
removed
during
the
instrument for enriching people and
land surface was reserved
this land was communal property
,
controlled
the
small elite owned private property
Bantustans
52
's
South Africa
by for
.
dependent and subservient labour force
.
a
,
,
.
to a
powerful
groups
in
tribal chiefs Only
into
per cent
most
a
African occupation
.
13
1936
them
, ,
,
in
deliberately turning
396
were far fewer
for impoverishing and proletarianising indigenous
of
,
also
them
not
whites
indigenous population
of
the land
colonial period was not only
whites but Although
those available
of
extended
indigenous people were
,
The seizure
to
far inferior
and usually
Although
opportunities the opportunities allocated
of
deprived
all
.
entrepreneurial development of
and
their disposal
reasonable opportunities for social economic
to
deprive indigenous groups
ways to
which whites used the political and economic power
the variety
of
is
South African history
at
of
the
most tragic features
of
in
One
of
educational opportunities
THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND
.
leasehold was announced for urban Africans For most
in
)
to
99 -
,
in
to
as
of
and
,
deprived
white the
55
capitalist class
with
the
on
Africans
.
on
the restrictions placed
especially
whites
the
skilled
,
and
than
see
accumulate human capital
(
,
section
,
which the government was responsible
social injustice
education
,
Governments worldwide spend about half their social budgets
on
.
very crude form
for
,
of
inequality
of
boils down
a
This kind to
.3 .3 ).
10
these indigenous population groups
to
,
professional and entrepreneurial activities further limited the opportunities
of
,
,
of
Asians
and
blacks
for
limited
legislation and practices coloureds
more limited for blacks than
in
more
result that opportunities
the opportunities for accumulating
for
also
the four
far
,
far
,
Consequently
,
Discriminatory
welfare and education
,
health
,
the
improve
accepted
world
South Africa per capita social spending
.5 ).
(
table
capital were
of
the
almost completely
social and intellectual development were 10
for
an
,
from
statutory population groups was very unequal
participation
to
conducting business
the
In
.
their populations
human
forms
this legislation
century governments throughout
the 20th
for whites
destroy
.
a
develop
responsibility for social spending
of
result
political
white
the
,
1980
to
During
to
and
before
insatiable
legally accumulate capital and entrepreneurial skills outside
,
Bantustans
were
,
Africans to
,
areas
opportunity
almost
in
-
As
additional laws that prohibited Africans
attempt
of
and squatter farming
to
In
1913
an
Act
mining
gold
the
supply these two white sectors
African labour
.
share cropping
Land
the
order
cheap
of
authorities passed
volume
of
the
required
,
farmers displayed
.
demand for cheap African labour
climatic
this promising version
was deliberately destroyed
industry and modernising white
maize
of
.
Unfortunately
’.
‘
the maize triangle
agricultural entrepreneurship
with
for
large quantities
keeping their production costs
a
,
of
conditions
same
entrepreneurship
their production methods were well adapted
in
low
relatively
By
family instead
of
The peasant and tenant farmers produced
.
Africans
wage labour
the
petty
of
form
the second half
the
promising
very
Natal
the Transorangia
all
tenant farming
of
in
the Cape and
by
a
period represented
of
an
African peasantry
in
of
century and
using
and propertyless
.54
The rise 19th
year
1980
citizenship rights
few
the
of
proletariat with
them
the 20th century
disenfranchised
a
population was
almost the entire African
as
late
of
inflation
53
effects
.
against the impoverishing
of
.
property that could protect
own the kind
own
per cent
of
not
of
therefore
exceptions
opportunity
other tangible property More than
or
,
Africans
did
,
farms their own dwellings
a
90
;
propertyless they were almost completely deprived
few
(with
were
the
Bantustans
the
of
outside
As
living
Africans
APARTHEID
397
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND
.
–
,
of
to
the
at .
to
turn
of , a
it
easy
to
will not
.
in
far behind that be
It
.
African schools
so
,
,
African education has fallen
of
the
,
of
on
learning
culture
inferiority has been established
vicious circle
.
virtuous circle
very
to
,
of
the
African
discrimination
in
in
of
on on
of .
,
as
will
,
inferior training
education
make full
and
use
the productivity
of of
position
to
a
their inadequate
,
result
of
a
As
.
low
It
.
is
many Africans
the accumulation
in
.
But owing
,
opportunities
and
1994 many lucrative job opportunities have
professional training many Africans are not these new
groups The
African education
to
Africans
able
been
other population
Since the abolition
of
political transition
become available
of of
system
immeasurable
to
,
1979 and
education
,
capital
human
African
the services sector
Africans have not
spending
levels
low
education
same extent
.
the is
inferiority
of
the relative
levels the
these jobs
the
effect
of
compete
their
created since 1970 have been
to
for
,
but because
low
of
Most job opportunities
take decades before the educational backlog
.
eliminated
98
characteristics
,
of
a
among blacks
emerged
the African community until the
class differentiation This was the result
of
lack
of
1960s was
that has
class structure
black elite
the most remarkable its
One
rise
of
and
of
the
.4 .4
The highly differentiated
.
10
is
,
the
(
neglect
1976
whites and Asians
of
,
After
generations
of
in
classes
that
since
African schools the inadequate training a
of
large sizes
of
to
the
African education remains far inferior
education
to
the spending
and the absence
3
on
as
gap
of
the
narrowing
African teachers
a
,
on
of
it
quality
into
white population
whites for the first time Van der Berg and Bhorat
of
Despite owing
the fact that the
).
:
1999
times larger than
African
17
In
1992
was more than
surpassed that
despite
As
.
African population
the 1950s
total spending
white education
,
.
education was less than half that
1982
,
As
taxation
4 5
on
African education recently
white education
was pegged
in
.
The new
the
greatly extended the reach
,
expenditure
African
Africa
South
the mission schools
from
system
but remained significantly inferior
,
of
level
world
unequally divided among the
was transferred
bantu education
noted earlier
In
the developed
the
education
primary education
economic
growth
proper
when
the apartheid period
of
In
1953 African
department
especially
was very
education
in
different racial groups
century
20th
was
This
.
,
on
spending
however
training
important determinant
an
became
half
in
scholastic and professional
of
especially true during the second
capital formation
human
.
for
important
of -
this is decisively
and
APARTHEID
3
job
PART
the oppressive
had closed
blacks
and used the Group Areas Act
The social stratification among
professional
and
entrepreneurship
to
own property
and
opportunities
for
, .
Both
these
the Group Areas Act but showed stumbling
statutory
Asian
blocks
.
in
overcoming
of
among members
their two
'
effective networking rights
urban areas succeeded
,
dominant religious groups Africans with permanent residence
in
result
‘
a
. of
as
largely
their
more normal
particular have been extremely successful over the past
in
entrepreneurs
and
had
and accumulation were therefore more lucrative
exceptional ingenuity
in
,
as
jobs
groups were also negatively affected
,
Asians
and
,
skilled
by
perform
years
urban elite
Coloureds and Asians were always allowed
.
profile
succeeded
the rich chieftainship class
from
coloureds
leaders
a
Apart
small professional class emerged before 1960
opted and corrupted
.
.
accumulating considerable wealth
these African an
Some
drive African business co
or
.
.
of
/
CM
by
and the NAD
the most
The only wealthy Africans were
people out central business districts collaborating Bantustan leaders and chiefs who were the
access
40
of
,
accumulative activities
APARTHEID
segregationist , and
a
state
,
'
The
colonial
to
.
policies
apartheid
accordance with
in
off
measures implemented
, AND
SEGREGATION
to
,
THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM
from
including organised crime covert entrepreneurship illegal under apartheid laws They also began and other activities regarded
.
,
-
As
as
several
leaders
attempt
ensure
states
a
‘
the apartheid
further
15
1991 and
by
1975
illegal
and
African households increased a
per cent from
per cent
, of
top
20
of
the
urban areas
.
in
of
.
of
–
no
the restrictions
to
38
given
At
or
.
in
per cent
the
class
in
years have been
of
past
,
groups over
highly differentiated 30
black population
a
.
a
of
black elite and the emergence
the
structure
in
The rise
1996
the
1991
up
to
a
impressive
option
emerged
build business empires through dubious
The income
to
an
.56
activities
but
African entrepreneurs
the
57
structures
had
them
and often corrupt business ventures
lucrative
new generation
-
of
,
same time
by
rich
elite
build
to
structures
from
the
Many African political representatives and bureaucrats their powerful positions links with Bantustan government
African rural
Many
the
NP government allocated lucrative
Ample opportunities were therefore created for the emergence used
successful
of
.
sector
to
the
and bureaucratic
the new
in
the corporate
emerged
of
of
independent
Africans
and
in
“
political
to
,
the support
with
Bantustans became
'
was abolished
the 1970s and 1980s when
'.
entrepreneurs
‘
shacklords and semi skilled and skilled
, of
.
discriminatory legislation
success
’
their capacity
This process gathered momentum
labourers
favours
as
accumulate
in
to
'
as
,
with
an
the 1960s onwards
399
, SEGREGATION , AND
of formal
result
informal power shifts
and
The NP government 's reform
policies were mostly
allocation ofmore power and privileges
leadership core
for the
three black
,
sharply
the
of
income
.
These trends
the inequality
1995
in
,
result
a
to
,
time when
the
the
the
.
58
As
income
in
the rise
black households declined
were strongest among Africans
and the transition
1990
in
,
.
in
of
black households occurred
cent
the
,
to
of
Unfortunately
1994
Bantustans
the tricameral parliament
1981
of
per
60
30
to
democracy
per cent
poorest
1979
from
granted
the liberation movements
,
majoritarian the 20
of
to a
1984 the unbanning
'
'
independence
Wiehahn and Riekert legislation
of
euphemism
a
groups
The best examples are the
top
blacks .
to
.
population
to
whites
from
the
, the
a
last resort
APARTHEID
of
COLONIALISM
at
:
in
3
the
PART
of
.60
-
to
a
's
-
of
an
of
While
of
gives greater
.
a
increase
But what
concern
inequality
the
the sharp
matter
class based one
and black has decreased
white
in
it
,
remains
between
income has
within
three black
.
population groups
is
concern
1974
income
the three black
distribution
skewed
race based
each
61
for
cause
since
from
a
skewed distribution
considerably
elite within
Africa
,
of
,
the
years
30
over the past
the rise
that South
is
population groups shifted
(
59
.7 ).
4
.2 .3
and
important result
of
An
sections
2
of
of
distribution income within African population group was considerably larger than the inequality within each the other three population groups see
.
,
to
,
of
it
is
be
can
violently
.
constantly
extensive
colonial
used
and often
in
–
is
,
that
their
foreign
)
,
political power their
however
Africa
To
has lost their trust New Europes were
(
,
South
is
becomes
'
the
or
,
if
, all
restore
government
of
.
a
in
or
, ,
–
beyond dispute
white governments
undemocratically acquired
400
people
normally
state violence
government
white
contentious matter that has not been addressed sufficiently
.
and
its
governments
in
a
is
will
colonial historiography What authorities
But when
the use
John Locke the
acts against the the colonial
theory
and
them
political
use
use state violence
can
people
of
According
by
not trusted
is
.
it
if
illegitimate
western
legitimate government
to
,
controversial
what extent
political
and order and counteract insurrection
law
ilegitimate and opposed
justify the extraordinary
a
.
a
that
Colonial authorities
,
maintain
attempted
and economic violence
is
,
accepted
constantly
them
exploit
it
governments
oppress
socially
‘
,
and
political supremacy violent
dominate indigenous people politically
.
economically
to
methods were used
and white
colonialism
In
During the periods
military
over the past 350 years has been exceptionally violent
history
of
Africa
's
South
to
.5
10
Violence and criminality
OF COLONIALISM
their control over labour patterns to
and
of indigenous
perpetuate the exploitation
by
military power ,
, SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
surprisingly ,
. Not
violent measures regularly
social
provoked
the
injustice enforced and maintained
people
institutionalise and the
THE LEGACY
).
.
a
of
is a
.
,
,
it
is
of
,
-
one
from
to
in
risk
from
are
often
for
of
inequality
Crime
segregation
May
2000
:
in
quoted
crime
of
at
–
but racial
,
high levels
property
crime
)' (
[
from
of
the
largely insulated whites
as by
(
in
high levels
ten
their partners
extreme levels
black townships have been high for years
one
women
on
,
to
conflict both contributed
assault
.. .
and the political
She also claims that
are
“
and money
.
,
shelter
poor
relationships because they depend
abusive
victims
and many women
of
,
.
in
pre
quoted
1995
opposed
the wealthy are
Debbie Budlender
to
personal crime According
in
poverty
group reported
,
.
While
largely black
–
,
crime poor people
,
of
,
very poor
the
as
those
'
of
crime perceptions
'
“
in
to
.
a
for
for of
a
be
to
the
the mentality
'
half
the highest income category
levels
are
especially
children during their
the most important crime committed against them
food
31
's
,
survey
of
),
Budlender 2000
trapped
black children
62
to
moral neglect
perpetuate
and
.
to
another
countrywide
a
and
poverty
violence
poorer children
of
the
to
from
part
explored
and especially
the physical neglect
school years that helps
In
poverty and criminality
syndrome
which children
spiritual psychological
generation
of
for
's is
to
the durability
extent
Apart
, it.
the
exposed
Although whites
violence many them have also mutually reinforcing The interaction between
hidden history that has yet
One reason criminality
We
350 years
nurturing not only
criminality
systemic
violence and the subcultures
Africa
South
subculture
-
systemic
been
the social and
almost
responsible
of
become contaminated
it .
by
have been mostly responsible
harm
period
of
violence has
poverty but also
,
subculture
of
that systemic
in
say
can
indigenous people over
of
of
This systemic violence has caused irreparable cultural structures
21 -
:
systemic violence see Lötter 1997
of
institutionalised
(
one
or
of
is
is
.
It
oppressed indigenous groups fierce resistance and counterviolence from against this background that we should understand that South Africa history
-
report that post apartheid
experiencing some
of .
a
the World in
by as in
,
of
South
result
South
Medical Research Africa enjoys
the highest rates
of
death
the world
crime but
SA
and
result
(
5
injury
the
is
in
of
trauma
per cent calculated
of
dubious distinction
violent crime
South Africa occur
of
all
of
Not
all
a
WHO
al
May
).
Council 1993
global figure
the leading cause
is
Africa crime
deaths
).
Organisation
et
Health
compared
to
,
trauma
per cent
(
than
has among the highest rates
of
More
Africa 16
South
of
).
134
the
violence and 401
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
of
levels
,
(
6
in
2000 increased
to
According
254
:
(
violent crime
women 21 ,
May 2000
African
with
by
in
rapes
,
crimes
income
the lowest
).
42
of
those
,
(
,
reported crime was violent compared with per cent
Britain
.
in
,
per cent
6
recorded
per cent assault and rape
violent in
to
of
per
95
of for of
the culture
reported
cent
the United States and
in
15
,
per cent while per cent
victim
Security Studies 32
the Institute
and
higher proportion
much
brackets reported falling accounting
between
ISS )
).
A
respectively
18
increasing
6
crimes
,
to them
all
serious
forms
. According
in the world
crime rose dramatically between 1990 and 1994 with
of
almost
all
crime found anywhere
by
3
of
PART
The ISS believes that
will not decline
violence and criminality
the next ten
during
the apartheid
regime ended
it
to
to
poverty and coercive labour
.
the
by
the
for those who
violence and criminality
organised
in
to
become involved
,
time
an
organisations involved
had already been marginalised and criminalised patterns
criminal
and
in
large scale
attempts
and state
that period created the opportunity
The lawlessness
were
By
of on
.
struggle
the struggle
the 1970s onwards that subversive
from
activities were organised
especially during the
inclination towards criminality was initially
was only when
intensified
and coloureds
state violence and the resistance
,
.
it -
While
organised
less well organised suppress
Africans
a
well
comparatively
criminal behaviour has become deeply
and
the
apartheid
.
years
It
of
46
ingrained among impoverished
community poverty
chronic
63
The inclination towards violent
integral part
.
both systemic violence and the syndrome
is
criminality
subculture
-
that
-
understand
of of
should
by
of
We
the
(
).
years 2000
this subculture had become thoroughly
402
of
as
.
,
violent history
realise that that
it
to
,
,
in
's
is
it
,
important
will
the
subservient position When
.
a
the colonial authority and
,
1799
the
and
San
Trekboere and
1803 After this
.
of
The violent clashes between
bloody Khoisan Rebellion
the
Khoikhoi
–
resistance
Trekboer commandos were the
century
communities
in
small outcast of
18th
both
violent punishment became unbearable
lived
ferocious
.
colony
, .
to
to
keep slaves
the
the
break the
Khoisan culminated
During
in the
to
of
the
to
expansion
.
areas
increasingly used
Africa
colonisation
the nature
Although
them
many slaves became drosters who mountainous
them
,
slavery
and apartheid
regarded
the strongest terms and although
in
or
of
slave owners used violence
conditions
get
Dutch
segregation
in
period
South
of
During
of
take generations
criminality should
eradicate in
deeply embedded the
probably
so
both are
made
to
every effort should
denounced
rid
phenomena should
colonialism
be
these
of
of
the ugliest legacies
two
be
Systemic violence and the subculture
be
of
.
entrenched
AND APARTHEID
Khoisan had been further humiliated
two decades
,
see
many
’
,
to
and
.
the
.
of
on
-
of
to
, .
Based 150
for
in
almost
the
years
-
.
Boer War During
,
1946
,
1914
the
.
During the last quarter
practical purposes this was
a
,
struggle against apartheid
,
all
of
,
of
,
, 4
and
experienced
.
it
1922
,
the –
1920
For
violent
's
of
an
Africa
South
Afrikaner Rebellion
the
protracted
think that South African society was less violent during the
wrong
first three
to
,
,
would however
be
which systemic violence turned into open political violence
white regime and the oppressed
of
criminalise labour
. ).
of
1906
It
between
place
integral part
.
the
-
level war
resistance
to
's
state
in
the
the
the
and
1913
century South Africa
20th
white settler
century smaller skirmishes took place
20th
including the Bambatha Rebellion violent strikes
mid
From the
companies
century ended with the Anglo
17th
of
the
colonial history since the
and
1857
9 5
The bloody wars that formed
first three quarters
in
in
violent one that remained
.4 , 8 .5 ,
sections
frontier wars that
the hands
started
Xhosa
The
and servants laws the repressive
and masters
,
was
now
and
white farmers and the
proletarianisation
system
episode
mining
of
behalf
6
see
labour
masters and servants laws
a
pillars
twin
of
killing
the cattle
of
relations
enacted on
–
groups
(
the British onslaught during
century onwards the Cape government
19th
low
bloody and violent wars
series
-
affected
they sought their salvation
the British
defeat not only the different African tribes but
of
badly
were
in
two Boer republics by
also
the
used
so
superior military power
and imperialism
colonialism
,
century
19th
a
long
'
During their
of
.3 ).
section
6
(
violence and criminality
to
underclass inclined
by
,
and
SEGREGATION
,
became
them
.
labour regulations their resistance was completely broken an
of
's
Caledon
the
war , and after
C OLONIALISM
for
THE LEGACY OF
quarters
by
,
Cape Colony open warfare had already been replaced
of
the the
groups changed drastically
In
nature
.
violence against the indigenous population
place
,
white government put
the
the dispersed groups had been defeated in
all
,
1910
in
when
strong and centralised
a
and
contrary
,
On the
-
.
the 20th century
institutionalised
the northern provinces cheap
and docile African
'
economic freedom and independence 1948
In
laws that became more subtle and
assumed power
.
NP
plethora
for
.
after the
Africans
in
comprehensive
a
violent onslaught
was institutionalised
Africans
insatiable demand
of
the seemingly
in
,
labour
given
the
,
But
similar measures were adopted
opposed this onslaught
on
Africans vehemently
process
.
destroy the economic independence
and
This
to
.
1913
in
Act
of
continued when the Land
the independent peasantry
destroy
of
1909
to
1894
–
enacted
in
-
violence when the Glen Grey Act and several anti squatting measures were
the 1960s the heroic
403
see
. . .)
its
,
. a
or
,
white urban areas
.
by
In
.
to
an
-
of
migrant
.
find temporary the
in
they could
with
often entered
urban to
pass laws and sent back
,
under
areas only
urban
-
if
the
by
to
. .
and
desperate poverty
prosecuted
Government officials were well aware that most unemployed forcibly removed and would
the urban areas would
from
prepared
to
illegally
,
either legally
or
African migrants who were
,
could work
(
-
.
the cities
Millions were
the Bantustans
return
to
, ,
in
Africans
“
tribal
driven
areas illegally
designed
Africans could obtain permanent
small percentage
which was not easily obtained
jobs Many
sector
),
Impoverished permission
unfree labour patterns
urban areas
in
residential rights
the manufacturing
institutional
the
of
only
system
a
Under this
1950s
when Verwoerd
be
far
more violent and exploitative
for employment
system
the
Africans were exposed
degrading
unhealthy working
dangerous and
wages
low
but also
this proletariat became
of
to
became
compounds
violence
were exposed
they
where
,
the
the gold mines
which millions
violence
ultra
land and
proletariat During
exploitable
century many members
extraordinarily
and
,
on
migrant workers living conditions
institutionalised
reduced
20th
in
years
conditions
further the
by 75
first
being
systemic
in
by
the African population was not only deprived
independence
economic
of
9 5 2
large part
degraded the
onslaught was finally defeated
this
of
A
section
African peasantry
to
resistance of
(
the
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3:
of
PART
accept
lower
even
a
of
.
.
job
of
,
a
living
from
,
its
of
a
).
6
25 –
:
1993
in
trained
the as
be
to
of
liberation before education
Africa after Soweto
South
al
et
(
4
make
African youths who were responsible for the
Many urban youths left
freedom fighters see Bonner
40
opted
at
a
’
to
‘ It
.
urban
.
1980s
discriminatory
stabilising the urban situation was aimed promote gang culture and tradition violent
uprising and for the campaign
Soweto
many
to
Bantu education
was these
strong
migrants Many African
influx control but
,
crime While
.
opportunities were blocked
criminality
that
urban African youths rose and their
advancement
eventual effect was
vicious
the
.
of
educational levels
of
in
, the
.
measures
ironic
into
urban areas were also criminalised
their case this was not the result
As
In
youths with residential rights
to
.
inclination towards criminality was not restricted
result
The inevitable
is
lawlessness and criminality
,
,
violence
influx control
Africans were drawn
It
this inhumane situation was that millions
of
-
criminalised many migrant workers
inadvertently
circle
and strictly enforced
systemic violence that deliberately
situation
a
,
the other created
the one hand
of ,
the
Bantustans
of
or
measures
on in
conditions
and deteriorating socio economic
Act
the Land on
effect
The combined
of
.
wages and poorer working conditions
THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
of
20
.
of
as
list
or
victim
should
human rights
as
,
the TRC
,
of
this
To
).
2
,
ch
' :
‘
to
.
to
its 18
(
of
,
1960 but throughout
–
the
white employers and
both
system
see section
'(
the
'
by
–
a
1970s and 1980s
and
of
the
regime
'
white corporate
in
white business establishment became involved
a
white political establishment and
of
both
part
the apartheid the
racial capitalism
,
survive
1990s
of
in
crisis
as
1980s and early
the
all
the
of
a
was also
their struggle
In
downturn
we can argue that the crisis
to
1990
)
-
+
‘
',
survival struggle
.
vol
not only after
the
If
. . ). 9 5 3
structural
approach
also take into account the corrupt wheeling and dealing between
we
the private and public sectors
(+
rights
human
000 persons who had fallen
black employees were criminalised
predominantly
part
in
the
economy was
of
a
at
time when
large
TRC
The TRC defined
human rights
very strictly during
When influx controlwas applied
sector
The
possible
individualistic and legalistic
ross violations
non
from
violent history
Africa
1974
1994
rather narrow
TRC 1998
systemic violence
levels
picture
violations
May
years
.
South
in
'
names
human rights
or
structural
as
well
of
.
In
a
list
added those who fell victim
's
to
gross violations
the violation
accordance with
nonetheless published
complete
of
of
human
1960
mainly
rights
investigate
systemic violence
March
-g
,
not
and did
period
unprecedented
the gross
of
'
gross violations
of
,
of
committed during
extent
and
the
,
nature
also the violent reaction
by
to
establishing
1
1994
the causes
be
.
political violence escalated
was burdened with the task
sense
securocrats
the struggle
when
During the almost
as
and
it
and with
,
1976
its
NP
the to
from
government
5
,
intensified during the Soweto uprising
phase
new
a
a
violent history entered
an 10
's
Africa
South
sorts
of
on
in
of
'
left
,
we
the
past 350 years
the final episode
the violent nature are
be
)
regarded
.
of
over
as
94
'
the
. , .
can
–
#
'(
's
1984
during the period
corruption
white plunder When reflecting
history
Africa
structural
section
optive domination
long drama
9 4
in
indicated
-
co
‘
As
criminal and corrupt activities
the
South
with the disturbing did
major moral
of
‘,
'
their humanity
culture
violence
social
only
be be be
to
to
the
could thus
.. .
violent struggle itself The struggle
could
]
struggle
assumed
[
not
and
opposition be
for the
the discourse
democracy in
,
rooted
violence could
'.
a
underpinned
of
,
the
in
process
political
because
by
be
generated
very nature
. of
Therefore
its
state
1993 that the struggle
by
in
Africa was
,
South
irrational and senseless
to
As
.
on
Taylor observed
of
apartheid
said
that seriously affected the core
harm
,
justice
in
Vivian
.
:
(
1997
white people
apartheid
Lötter observes
).
harm
whites
, a
to
blacks but also 36
on
conclusion that systemic violence and criminality left their ugly marks not only
She makes the important point
405
3:
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
that
the
struggle
victims can yet
nor
perpetrators
of
morally high ground
the
',
the the
the
.
this reason neither on
of
take
both the perpetrators and the
dehumanised
violence and
issue
ignore
structural and political roots
. attempt
a
are
of
the
in
,
.
,
of
the
to
its
which
the
instigating the violence
fully clarified
total strategy used
’
to
and criminality With
the
and the
police
,
desperate
extent
zenith
'
.
a a
in
mainly involved
space for lawlessness
protect
to
created
it,
counteract
total onslaught
the
last quarter
This reached
The
role
been
'
of
a
violent character
The
a
)
(
remains
in
.
1994
controversial issue that has not yet
problem
.
1990
from
predominantly white security forces played
that
which the ANC and the
involved
.
the negotiations
makes
basis
).
violence
to
Freedom
(
Inkatha
has
187
in
’
black
IFP were centrally
during
it
,
of
and
of
:
(
’
Party
its
:
,
the
on -
of
black
'
was
1993
that the
and structural
political inequalities
political violence during
)
unfortunate
the 20th century
lot
aspect
violence That
capitalism
the crisis
more complex the
An
political violence
part
is
apartheid and
social economic
of
by
of
legacy
the
both the victims and the agents
reinforced
reality
physical psychological
a
violence has had
a
is
and
on
impact
of
level
sustained
painful
is
The
‘
She reaches the following conclusion
illegitimate political
an
its
like apartheid
violence For
to
victims afford
,
PART
in
the opportunities were created for already sizeable criminal elements black community wreak havoc with their lawlessness and violent gang
them
and divided not only along racial lines but also
of ,
to
such
African
segregation
,
,
the South
for
This tendency
colonialism
South
,
fractured
and
and
society
African
is
,
and
the struggles against
,
.
,
apartheid
on
.
large sections
population both black and white After centuries
of
behaviour has become internalised
the
sides
ideological justification
easy
of
find
to
anti social manner and
both
moral religious
,
to
find all kinds
violent and criminal activities
-
in
act
an
ideological justifications
for
great divide ample opportunities
gave people
of
the resistance
to
and
in
.
activities The struggle
it
to
,
system
moral and attitudinal
406
criminality
a
the
one hand
on
.
only being intensified but also perpetuated
,
this way crime violence and
,
In
the other
mutually
. . ,
section
2 2 4
we
in
saw
As
the black community during the
.
pauperisation
that
it
and
is
violence
exists today between crime and violence
,
not
poverty
are
and the process
of
reinforcing dynamic
colonialism
.
extended
especially
on
long period
of
became deeply institutionalised
of
the most disconcerting aspects in
One
of
.
ones
THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
Endnotes
of
is
.
in
it
,
be
,
to
of
became
to
include
Shortly after
an
them
was the first
.
1970
African affairs and another shortly 1995 roughly covers the crisis phase
of
,
South
in
as
is
of
. of .
for
before some
,
ie
the workforce
several reasons The census
unified South Africa
to
.
if of
a
.
20
up
(
–
95 ,
in
ie
of
as
a
,
part territories once again important paradigm shift took place before 1994 The period from 1970
The implications
per cent
Survey
and the 1995 October Household
these
classified
contribution
valuable
agriculture
subsistence
1970
difficult
very
have been much more serious
the Bantustans
,
all
was the last that included
')
'
‘
in
possible for
't
)
it
wasn
to
of
for
and criminality would
1995
Bhorat and Hodge chose this period independent
hidden
the people and families involved
the informal sector and
in
a
living
sectors
economy cannot
these sectors makes
in
to
as
was the case
this
poverty
unemployment (
at
,
in in
the informal and subsistence
the income earned
the living standards
'
Although there much undoubtedly
crisis dimensions during the last
and attained
in
,
.
employed
1970
of
definition
1994
1995
unemployment
.
of '
to
formally
make
Stellenbosch has
apartheid
employment
The extent
per cent
1
to
,
,
a
of
25
years
major challenge
)
(
of
19 1
1970 this figure had risen uncertainty about the extent and
the University
the labour force was outside the formal sector
measure Although those involved
4
BER
per cent
in
3
Research
49 ,
Economic
estimated that while
presented
in
.
, of
2
The Bureau
people
of
of job
a
formal sector
) terms. The
working age who cannot find jobs the economy irrespective they actively the whether have been includes
searching for
' or 'broad ' ( or expanded
‘ narrowed
in
of
'
broad definition
all
Unemployment is often measured
1
In
.
5
,
76
.
( or
million Africans
formal
,
only one
1970
of
formally
larger percentage
the
in
employed in
,
5 1
only
16
of 15 , 5
the
,
a
the African
become
an
,
1970 the above figures nonetheless
has
in
15
,
8
,
) of
in 32
of
of
59
,
of
12 ,
or
)
70
of
)
(
-
of
.
in
African
par
problem
per cent
of
24
the
GDP was financed
to
by 31
,
13 5
During this period
inflow was registered
in
investment contributed significantly
net foreign
of
,
2
.
foreign
8
return
of
compared with
,
18
an
per cent
174
).
1996
:
Meara
'
(O
Britain
investment
a
1974 the average American corporation received
South African
in
on
investment
late
as
).
:
estimated that
per cent return
1976
.
to
1945
its as
's
economic growth
A
years after World War
(
is
34 2
.
( or
in
dramatically that unemployment
FDI Smit 1991
its
the total African population
1970
years
the
While
three Africans was employed 1995
per cent
workforce
employed
million were
Although
per cent
4
30
In
6
years from
It
per cent
per cent
1995 was younger than
South Africa
7
only
the
1970
.
demonstrate
on
one
.
in
population
the
While
1995
was thus employed
excellence
In
4 3 a
of
)
in
six
sector
Africans were unemployed
African population was
the formal sector total African population in
,
was employed
per cent
per cent were unemployed
the total and Africans constituted
1995 the
million Africans
5 3
million
70
constituted
,
almost
per cent
per cent
workforce
total but Africans
non Africans
in
of
the employed
46
million
African population was
( or
,
,
in
than
less
only 517 000
1995
,
While no
5
.
apartheid
407
until 1994 the annual growth
.
)
(
1980
:
for
per cent
02
,
the
and SAF 1996
could not
University
Stellenbosch told
alone economically
a
from
179
).
to
96
of
payments
be
;
179
the
:
1995
Africa
of
run
(
60
only
74
:
,
it
90
–
balance
from
they were
.
would
the
it
,
, if
.
is
In
It
is
. -
of
of
to
compared
is
very capital intensive South African economy developed countries with similar levels per capita income also higher than the capital intensity developing countries general the capital intensity more like Latin American countries than newly industrialised Asian
,
Kaplinsky
to
13
of of
per
,
5 to
;
necessary
According
hampered
import rose
total factor productivity declined
professors
cabinet committee that South
capital
foreign
rose from 176 Kaplinsky 1995 during apartheid should also blamed
Kaplinsky of
a
,
group
net inflows
gross domestic investment was financed
capacity
system
1972
In
.
in
:
1987
told that
1994
1990
educational
(
,
to
1970
year Mohr 1994
When
social and large balance
to
foreign investment mostly FDI was equal
import was severely
industrial countries
productivity
in
11
a 12
From
new
The inadequate
decline
Mohr
See
capacity
's
For
100
).
=
.
constraints
cent
its
Africa
50 – 2
10
).
foreign investment
13
(
of
per
,
2 5
GDP
the
political
by to
deficits because they were financed
cent
also increased
1946 and 1974 South Africa could afford to
During this period the annual inflow
South
environment
go
payments
economic
African balance of payments
the South
total
to
of ).
of
instability . Between
earnings
export
by
vulnerability
from
international
the
gold
per cent in 1969 to only 24 , 3 per cent in 1990 .
of
declined in
64 , 8
(
change
The
of
by the fact that the contribution
by
export earnings
per cent, while the
1 7
at 1
oscillated between
rate
is illustrated
‘
This
,
was only
rate
11 and 15 per cent in 1974 – 92 .
to
inflation
APARTHEID
it
1974
8 From
9
, SEGREGATION , AND
COLONIALISM
.
:
to
3
50 – 2
PART
of
.
to
This surplus was mainly used
,
by
in
by
the deeply
wages paid
the South
large surplus
the
towards
to
low
of
80 in
,
extraction
a
.
of
harsh
banking and
per cent
stimulated
Lipton
to
the emergence
strong tendency
and the extremely
1970s According for
.
408
one
was
of
African workers
until the early
development path has been
these conglomerates
to
repressive labour system
of
institutionalised
.
The growth
a
firms displayed
policy
protection
,
.
These
capital intensity
African majority
the 1970s
.
-
in
on
it
In
the
JSE
.
By
the
of .
1983
the gold mines
a
of for
.
unnecessary
,
To
15
of in
the shares listed
a
and mechanisation unskilled exceptionally low levels The cheapness and easy
was estimated that seven companies controlled
finance
industry
its
discipline
restricting competition the government encouraged mining and manufacturing and firms
value
group
large
The gold mining
become significantly more capital intensive until the beginning create employment opportunities the Pact government started 1920s
small group
of
and
a
,
the other
it
of
the one hand
the African labour force made
large monopolistic
in
,
electrification
keep their wages
on
African workers at
to
manageability
of
the threat
used
workers and
be
–
,
of , its
labour force divided between
and highly paid skilled white workers paid
South Africa over
the past century gold mining was characterised
relatively high capital intensity and
unskilled and poorly
terms
).
182
:
1995
quarters
compared
explained
3
these countries
on
first three
of
(
the 30
the 14
During
Kaplinsky
years
capital intensity has been higher
This can partly
to
.
of
-
in
South Africa
the higher economic growth rate past
in
years the growth
a
Over the past
30
.
countries
middle income countries than
African from
the
capital accumulation and for
THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
. As the employers of large
expanding the conglomerates
,
numbers of white and black
of
of
54
,
–
).
: in
–
by
(
by
,
).
By )
,
-
for
,
, 5
,
to
466
27
to
10
of
).
(
of
,
to
to
in
on
,
levels at
,
.
to
,
tax
-
-
in
capital intensive natural at
low
prices through the
of
sectors
-
in
).
– 5
of
the to
.
on
average
Hofmeyr
and semi skilled
after
)
elite
1979 Hofmeyr
1994
(
in
a
small African
Africans :
of
-
skilled
in
.
,
of
in
per
year
of (
3
cent
the manufacturing sector
a
is
,
,
a in
investors
The state corporations
the non primary
the occupational ladder
to
at
the
,
the
1974
gold
,
Spinola
and Mozambique
in
led
1975
the labour turmoil by
to
Portugal
Angola
,
be
'
état
per cent from
416
attributed
in
increased
largely
of
by
industry
and
mines
1974
1976
and
To
.
in
per
unskilled labour were
thereafter continued
to
from
,
per cent
48
to
,
African migrants the nominal wages
of
in
79
.
in
recruiting foreign migrant workers The component per cent from 1973 cent 1978 to
by
almost
high
to
capital write offs
wages
d
:
serious problems
foreign migrants declined
increased
at
to
its
)
in
to
8
, (
3
,
at
for
,
, , 2
3
79 3
,
1
,
– 9
,
up in
than
the 1970s After the coup
recruit more South
kept
concessions were granted
Africans
average
the mining
38
of
more
subsequent independence
experienced
white urban areas
year while those whites actually dropped during African wages however deceptive From 1975
.
beginning the
354
This dramatic increase should
of
.
1995
African
51 ).
Mohr 1994 in
job
the advance
;
–
213
the
the Bantustans and seek
rate was
discrimination was first relaxed and finally abolished
Capital intensity
from
of
a
in
on
concludes that the increase
198
move back
unskilled African workers
Johannesburg dropped
from
:
–
The increase
the real wages
resulted
1999
per cent
of
,
1985
the
agriculture
sector less dependent
comparative advantages
the real wages
,
,
by
rose
same period
.
the
economy
1990
2 9
to
1975
contrast
the modern sector
were supplied with further capital
Hodge
by
-
(
see Bhorat and
In
18
resource beneficiation IDC
system
the exchange
the same time large
built
had been
from
manufacturing and
modern
while businesses were allowed accelerated
which
were the
followed
order ensure that imported capital goods would stimulate capital accumulation interest rates were kept
To
.
At
to
,
To
.
aim
in
.
a
cheap
level
per cent
social engineering which deliberately increase the capital intensity
choice but
this
attain
per worker
142 per cent from
per cent
marginalise Africans
make
no
then have
during the 1960s and 1970s relatively
168
that Africans should become unemployed
employment there
very low
large
and
comprehensive
to
attempt
was
that they would
remain
tables
Vorster and Botha an
the
.
The idea
30 8
, :
(
under
R1 000
1995 the capital labour ratio
to
(
.
)
97 4
for to
,
continued
.
He implemented
labour
from
352
measures
economy
and
)
(
–
,
1
40 1
,
1999
Verwoerd implemented
economy
for the economy
mining
3
,
,
9
151
for electricity
ratio
the greatest capital deepening
1970
29 3 to
from
242
1986
the South African economy increased
the service sector was modest From
increased from
19
to
(
) of
,
to
.
in
(
construction
712
labour
mining 416 per cent and agriculture per cent and manufacturing 160 157
primary sectors
increase
Lipton
see
the overall capital
The sectors that experienced
1995
to
in
constant 1990 rands
1970
17
cheap African labour
Bhorat and Hodge
capital
apartheid and the possibility
-
high levels
According
large amounts
accumulate
due course created contradictions that undermined
employing 16
realised was that their ability
government
of
in
the
workers these conglomerates gained huge power to influence the government 's economic and labour policies in their favour. What neither these conglomerates nor
keep
409
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
11
,
7 to a
of .
, 7
14
).
as
of
to
we
.4 . 3
as in
The decline on
by
19
–
,
of
apartheid
activities
.
in
was
very negative effect in
labour
in
Kaplinsky
(
have been created
by a on
those
labour 1995
).
the sums invested
the late 1970s and the 1980s had been invested
in
.
embarked in
government
If
the
NP
,
.
time In
apartheid
at a
,
to in
in
by
in
,
7
a
10
In
in
-
a
these
1972
activities
These increases were not driven
economically unviable
activities many additional jobs would
,
in
2
,
50
of
is
42
.
in to
.)
,
up
by
,
410
that were industries
shore clearly
the
for
. in
–
to
.
its
lie
at
in
1
of
,
in
,
's
.
31 ,
of
per
10 in 3
6
). to
63 )
–
the
). ( -
of
to
the dying years
invest
.
,
,
intensive
such
from
NP
'
“
.
in
per cent
NP
intensive
'
‘
strategic
per
low
capital heavy investment certain government drastically increased
SASOL MOSSGAS and ARMSCOR
attempt
investments
other
discuss
strategic political and ideological considerations economic logic but government when the was domestically and internationally under siege desperate
But
education
the
quite possible that investment
by is
It
.
the
-
economy
intensive activities was crowded out During the 1980s the intensive sectors investments
labour
-
of
in
investment
section
labour intensive activities undoubtedly had
the job creating ability
levels
the same extent
declined
the prevailing political climate
of
the consequence
the from
the services sector
intensive activities
labour
and clothing
in
footwear
-
, ,
,
leather
Kaplinsky argues that the underinvestment
1990
movement
during apartheid
the capital stock
which private sector capitalists were reluctant in
– 79
:
(
on
African education
Kaplinsky
furniture
363
from
the shift from
from
necessary
benefit
to
them
.
to
,
textiles
to
According
for
.
, :
)
to
is
for
in
capita spending
the
1970
producer services
capital accumulation among Africans due
human
GDP
per cent
whose share increased
skilled jobs
Africans without
was not possible
of
level
low
deep
The share
per cent
from
shift also implied
that this
population groups Bhorat and Hodge 1999 the
very
A
in
35
of
social services
sector
of
to
,
it
to
and skills
sharp
share
business services
(
,
to
18 5
the primary
the large percentage
the
,
18 ,
,
in
of
of
its
GDP
services
An
owing
22
in
,
,
and
.
,
by 2,
per cent
demand
the services sector
unskilled jobs
1995
This
1995
and
sector was compensated
per cent per cent Bhorat and Hodge 1999 359 important reason why Africans could not benefit more primary
cent
per cent
The share this group per cent GDP 1970 1995 technology significant component information
,
.
is
in
:
,
9
,
of
( 21
final
cent
share
financial
services increased from This shift was mainly driven
1970
the 1970s
from
The largest group
1995
transport communication
the service sector
the primary
this sector increased
sector
per cent
7 5
to
early
remaining gold reserves mine While agriculture
in
57
to
1970
in
per
,
30 4
the services
in
rise
The decline
1995
from
.
to
gold
only
to
declined
only
secondary sector remained almost stable declining cent
the
.
's
.
it
1970
,
in
, ,
3
18
was
per cent
increased
4 3
its
of
then declined
the price
levels and have become very expensive per cent
The
mainly because output
1995
from
industry
1980 onwards South Africa
from
the
in
of
but
1980
the rise
to
mining
the
stimulus
mines
of
,
per cent
attributed
decline
The share
1970
GDP declining
share
to
that
in
21 7
be to
1970 can
1995
in
per cent
.
20
The primary sector saw
,
,
also declined
in
by
37
per cent from gold
mining industry declined especially
–
unskilled workers
of foreign
The scarcity
mining industry mechanisation production workers and operatives
increased
of
of
employment
towards
.
unionisation
wages were perhaps
,
leap
in
unprecedented
amid increased
sharp increase
ie
migrant workers and
per
of inflation
pace with the rate
the
3:
PART
For many decades Africans were prohibited
by
acquiring artisanal
from
,
23
law
THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
Infrastructure
the
,
in
in
67
the life
years
to
,
51
63
years
to
40
of
;
of
the
from
the 1990s the
from
from
. .)
,
Virus
mutates
virus which
into AIDS
leaves
Acquired
(
illnesses and eventually
a
fig
Africans
and
1 4
:
Asians
to
to
an
of
.
73
to
and
;
to
43
;
:
secondary
to
sufferers
the late 1930s years
Sadie 1991 for the Human Immunodeficiency
the acronym open
from
61 years years 62 years
from
3 – 6
Sadie 1989
is
HIV
,
,
modern medicine
,
to
of .
of
; of
years 27
whites rose
coloureds
(
68
years
19
2
.
to 3
per cent
the various population groups From
life expectancy
to
Asians increased
1
of
from
by
3
per cent and that
from 22
points
better diets started reduce the mortality rates coloureds and Africans 1950s onwards Improved medicines and diets also led increase expectancies
in
,
4 8
to
in
per cent
points
percentage
percentage
;
at 9
only
that public health methods the availability
show
1972
.
of
;
from
GDP
of
Statistics
of
per cent
whites decreased
coloureds remained
point
2
that
percentage
.
.
, . )
from
by by
at
90
188
the
the informal sector was highly
that high level until 1989
per cent that
of
to
;
per cent
the African
Africans over this period increased
The share per cent
:
(
and remained
69 of
,
24 25
1980
1995
budget increased
The defence
The political
militated not only against and coloured townships but also
opportunities
needed job
Kaplinsky
policing was poor
services and other micro enterprises Consequently
–
of
creation
26
highly
of
against the development
in
manufacturing
and gangsterism
the struggle
2 4
of
development
constrained
townships
these
and disruptions caused
uncertainty
African and coloured
While criminality
, .
-
day
by
order
in
the
were
of
the
,
townships was poor and sometimes non existent
in
.
,
in
,
their own corporations
launch
to
allowed
.
in
as
,
or
managerial skills jobs financial these fields were reserved for whites Moreover Africans could not own property white urban areas and were also not
,
to
on
, ,
of
the
condoms based and the high
society
,
South
disadvantage
Africa
's
,
.
a
be
Ironically
in
social norms that allow men
sexual partners
with regard
).
,
21
by
contract
per cent
to
,
14 3
per cent
2015
the labour force remaining
years
households
and
2
African
per cent
of
.
14
skilled workers from by
;
,
18 3
of
projected
with the overall size
47 ,
per cent
of
4
,
1996
81 ,
almost static for the next
per cent among
of
;
non AIDS scenario
-
compared
to a
.
,
cent
skilled workers are projected
and among unskilled workers from to
per
to a
,
,
to
25 4
per cent The total labour force
,
,
peak
is
(
per cent
12 1
from
per cent
27 6
increase
rates among highly
HIV prevalence
2015
7 2
2000
to
/
to
29
to
allowing
HIV AIDS BER 2001
From
In
migrant labour
,
,
(
;
of
to
numbers
use
women
developmental edge over other African countries may
30
apartheid
in
;
(v )
large
have
to
resistance
low
( iv )
;
the virus
cultural and social norms the status prevalence of violence against women and particular
and other sexually transmitted
good transport infrastructure and high mobility
vi ) of
iii
of (;
for
the
and extensive poverty
rapid spread
epidemics
other
family and communal life due
disrupted
)
( ii )
;
diseases
of
the prevalence
i()
These are
:
28
).
Immune Deficiency Syndrome
coloured
.
a
$ 2
consumption per
,
per capita consumption household
,
:
criteria
or
.
1 6
,
25
Themost common
are
31
of
a
households spent less than was R1 800 month This implies that the daily expenditure million Africans and million coloureds was less day
411
: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
PART
3
capita income , per capita food 2000
According
32
,
expenditure
(Leibbrandt
and so on
and Leibbrandt
: 6 ). to Statistics
Africa (2000 ),
South
,
per cent of African households ,
3 99
J
in
,
al , 54,
an
it
of ( or
Of
60
').
94 ,
‘
7
,
of
).
5
:
;
in
poverty
J
(
in
poverty
in
in
per cent are living
, 1
,
69
(
(
41 et
of
if of by
of
the
ie
,
99 or
in
in
per
)
of
,
ie
54 3
, , 7
26
per
,
individuals to
include
seen
.. .
to
was
satisfy
a
of
by
fragmentation
crowded homes
.. .
is
inability
Poverty
as
described
time
on
were organised
,
to
time
from
be
not
could
of
famine occurred
,
but they
terms
and the different
the indigenous population
lives
communal basis and although
the Khoisan
,
modern
of
the living standards in
-
the
5
:
'(
period
colonial
people did
these
the multiple deprivation and the humiliation associated with poverty
not experience
give plausible
a
in
the
, .
a
livelihood
indirectly into becoming
them
after
powerful and effective and
economic
impoverished
an
'
coercing
thus
'
,
independence
of
)
to
because land deprivation proved depriving Africans their traditional
be
(
ie
by
-
,
gold
for
of
instrument
study
explanations for the
widespread and deep rooted poverty among Africans and coloured people military and legalmeans from 1890 More correctly land was seized discovery
of
of
ignored
in
be
are
,
try
,
.
this
especially when we
-
as
such
from
still largely unresolved
They are however issues that cannot to
by
colonial intruders
European historiography
Europe
the land
the seizure
in
and ideological issues involved
moral
,
The cultural
, .
the modern world
indigenous people
37
per
households
table
per cent are living
,
al ,
SSA 2000
.. . . ..
to
of
living
food insecurity
.. .
etc
2000
.
a
no
a
et
of
standard
poor The social and economic
in
;
4 2
,
a
or
,
minimum
African tribes had been meagre
36
1996
command sufficient resources
, ).
pre
,
of In
35
the
Market
poverty line
less
per cent are living
characterised
the community
from
the family
poverty
entire communities
socially acceptable alienation
households
with
). May
to
,
households
only
education
households with
compare
per cent
almost
education
million lived
the Bureau
below
R1 000
May
5
fig
:
According
34
or
,
to
of
those with secondary
May 2000
those with
only primary education
those with
of
,
,
in
)
of
and
May
cent
month were African and coloured
less
of
poverty
;
33
According
and
per cent coloured
(
38 2
1991
50 8
calculated
(
MLL
per cent
we
percentage
poverty cent the total population were living all the households with monthly expenditure
cent were African spending R1 000
1995
May
the total population
,
,
.
in
's
Their estimate was that
coloureds
somewhat conservative
and Whiteford 1994 estimate income below the Minimum Living Level
Research
poverty
the
This estimate
McGrath
of in
per cent
;
of
al
of
et
that
per cent
,
.
whites lived
of
in
1996
Africans
is
1
per cent
This implies
3
:
in
poverty
per cent
50
fig ).
,
Asians and
2000
60
to
them
of
of
according
, . , 7
in
in
all
21 , 4 per cent of coloured households , and 41 , 4 per cent of households were living poverty poverty are even higher 1996 May contend that levels
and
own
land
and humiliation
,
exploitation
to
granted legal rights
,
' .
“
and
violent oppression
proletariat that they neither had the capacity different lifestyle This was also the case with the ex
,
ie
the coloureds
(
The freedom
of
1838
.
adopt
slavery was abolished
.
and demoralised
in
slaves when
liberated
of
-
impoverished
nor the inclination
4 1 2
after decades
a
such
an
-
they were already
the Khoisan were
to
in
1828
,
When
,
38
easily manageable and exploitable proletariat
the
THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID 1841 , the first of a long series ofmasters
. In
Khoisan and ex - slaves ) was short -lived
and servants ordinances and laws was adopted .
implement
to
act
50
.
years
,
its
it
-
(
by
Kurien 1978
'
poverty
quoted
,
acquisition
)
..
intensified
black
(
its
of
,
racial capitalism
).
in
Africa
wealth
but
was markedly
costs and benefits
South Africa we can regard
In
)
white
from
always proceeds unevenly
capitalism
South
“
:
68 ). [
.
the carcass left over
of
the
1993
(
and poverty
(
inequality
skewing
case the
racial axis Here
a
along
increased
took
.
African
the South
as
in
African circles Bundy development
',
to
40
entrepreneurship
According
,
of
to
purpose was
Although
Africans
the act and wipe out share cropping and squatter farming destroy the African peasantry and with the promising petty
] (
the
all
provisions
prohibited share
also
it
and squatter farming
cropping
in
by
depriving Africans of much of their land, the
39 Besides
)
in
10
.8 ).
.
in
(
to 20
. . ).
(
'.
“
for
'
a
space
discomfort
created
.
see section
whites
These the
in
competition
especially
blacks and seriously
harmed
job
in
job
in
grades
Indian wages 1989 Van der Berg
.
(
per cent lower
grades
1989
in
,
,
of
per cent lower
in
.
21 ,
Coloured wages for similar
of
such
the United
the United States fell
the
in
as
developed country
the labour force
in
of
educational spending during percentage the whites the four
in
highly
of
a
compare
by
.
)
privileged
been
per cent
42
,
,
top .
similar
40
+
The poorest
but not
,
1996
next
40
the
per
to
.
the
. ).
10 4
(
of
the poorest
additional socio
economic stricter
4
the Bantustans
by
the poorest were restricted
and suppression
-
vulnerable
They were powerless and
,
.
exploitation
to
systemic
no
to
to
in
1975
from
of
)
.
of in
in
in
1996
to
many
,
1986
R9 120
their disposal
were extremely
of
the population
at
reserve sustenance
.
Until
.
shocks
1970
R5000
from
income
,
them
of
thirds
declined
while the annual household
per cent African households table relatively were uneducated and unskilled with almost
unorganised After generations two
African population
became poorer
also
60
as
property and
the
of
Almost
of
all
same extent
the poorest
1996
R11000
coloured households
no
cent
of
per cent declined from
in
less than R2 400
of
per cent
,
1975
to
of
African households
in
( 50
In
of
,
50
per cent categories two whites South Africa fell those two categories per cent terms 1996 prices the annualmean household income the poorest
20
45
1985
in
While
whites
5
,
skilled categories with those
46
and only
becomes evident when we
apartheid
States
in
,
in
in
1976
which whites have
to
extent
table
1989
and
of
The
:
and Bhorat 1999
1976
those
10 1 6
43
only
per cent lower
per cent lower
were
44
per cent lower
but
,
were
15
1976
per cent lower than
33 37 8
,
43
.
their dignity African wages were
from
petty apartheid
protect whites against black
more convenient living
They nonetheless
urban areas
in
create
to
but
,
labour market
commission
for
measures were not introduced
the Wiehahn
and
-
the discriminatory measures became known to
the recommendations
of
accepted
Many
per cent declined
1979 when the government
in
was abolished
as
legislation
R1 001
R2 231
9 5 3
40
20
the next
;
(
Most discriminatory labour
1995 rands
per cent declined from
10 4
of
of
of
the next
R3 075
per cent declined from
1995 rands tables
in
1991
of
R3 528
R1671
from
the poorest
and the income
1991
in
in
;
in
R1 643 1975
1991 the income
;
to
R3 42
707
but the income
1975
R586
in
in
1975
Africans increased
,
1946
1975
to
from
of
per capita income to
The
to
41
).
Bundy
13
PART
COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
3:
influx control measures . Living conditions droughts , overpopulation , and decades 47
The mean household income
by
per cent
40
1975 to
from
and by a further
of white
16
This group s mean household income declined
10 4 )
( at
1975 to less than R30 000 in 1996
prices
1996
households declined
per cent
'
. .
( table
1991 ,
of
cultivation .
the poorest 40 per cent
of
as a result
in those areas deteriorated
of predatory
. ) Although
1991 to 1996
from
almost R63 000 in
from
the percentage
decline
income of the poorest 40 per cent of Africans and the poorest 40 per
in the household
cent of whites wasmore or less the same , the household income of the poorest 40 per cent of white households was in 1996 still 12 times higher than that of the poorest 40 per cent of Africans ( table
in South Africa are deeply South
the institutions and
Racist ideologies and racially discriminatory institutions capitalist production
1993
:
(
'
the social relations
of
(
per
NP
of
.
9
at
,
to
6 8
of
from
times higher
,
,
,
in
14 6
per capita income
These racial disparities
10 8
. ).
table
of
the
the
. ).
1946
per capita income
and
Moreover
of
to
This
.
10 a 4
at
of
time when
Africans
part
see bottom
(
patterns
economic
.
of
power
per cent
income earned
in
(
in
received almost
the Bantustans comprising
of
)
the chiefs and the landowner class
the population
50
cent
of
per
13
a
small elite
of
.
-
political
coloureds and Asians which remarkably improved their
,
of
to
economic position
1984 also represented
a
,
the
of in
11 5
(
20
of of
,
to
of
table
tricameral parliament
ill -
Africans increased
income clearly reflect the uneven
the advantage
shift
In
52
1970
1970
four population groups during the 20th century
socio
1950
Africans
times higher than that
Africans
conceived
'
51
The
per cent
years
levels But this improvement was mainly
white
per cent declined sharply
the distribution
development
1995 the per capita income
per cent
13 5
.
to
80
poorer
than that
in
the top
whites was
of
of
the
restricted
of
the
,
of
8
6
,
per cent
1970
From
about
25 in
Africans remained
only per cent cent white per capita income but declined resulted from increased exploitation Africans during the first
government
in
income increased
household
table
1996
income
that
income has changed
of
the per capita
Their share
table
. ).
per cent
share
of
.
the Asians
80
20
of of
of
the lower
per cent declined
10 7
1970
per cent increased sharply
group whose in
1970
1917 until 1946
From
the 80
,
,
of
whites the income population
substantially
African households declined
the top
income
,
,
2 5
since
per cent
per cent
of (
50
case
are
substantially from
while
The only other
.
period
1996
in
.4 ).
10
the to
1975
from
the poorest
to 4 5
of
).
The income
In
49
– 8
to
the creation
of
of
.
's
of
.
alone uprooted
by
cut back
,
easily
let
be
will not
They
colonial conquest
were central 77
of ... inequality
the very high levels
history
modern capitalist economy was profoundly shaped
Africa timing
in
.
embedded
its
48 Bundy claims that
. .
10 4 )
.
44
1910 could
be
in
-
).
)
( all
white
the advantages attached
to
(
would not have been possible and the power relations
on
property
without white political domination and racial capitalism which those systems were based
R1 000
almost exclusively
,
,
accumulation
and with
it
of
5
skewed
worth
inflation BER
the population
of
Such
'
.
property
per cent
private property
per cent a
owned
the top
2000 owing
of all
,
the early 1980s 88
In
54
sold for more than R100 000
property to
other tangible in
or
farm
,
house
,
a
Property
-
53
.
those territories
,
,
(
rise
an
of
of
in
business
.
government One
was the legal and illegal
entrepreneurship
were responsible
these activities
NP
intersected with legitimate
the corporate sector and the the
.
. All
and
of
of
African
the most important areas
the
other
.
criminal enterprises
empires that enjoyed the support
taxi industry
with the informal sector
the 1990s
sophisticated
of
,
African
elite
from
1998
:
;
.
(
Asian 29 ,
by
Marais
10 4
per cent table
per cent
per cent
of
60
of
the top
20
of
and that
per cent and more than
35
households increased
coloured
the two periods
,
in
cent
as
).
on
,
of
'
, 70 , in
[
a
).
of
a
78 ).
:
to
of
,
of
,
is a
or
in
:
'(
'(
of
matter
). not participate
:
to
in
1992
employ
is
to
anyone
for our
The desire
the
.
,
become inactive and
say
in
easy
political motives
for
,
'
It s
!
for
the police
peace
4
).
196
of
to
by
Taylor 1993
:
by
to
fear
violence
,
to
be
governed
quoted
'(
process
out acts
the physical violence
2
‘
Political violence and crime sleep under one blanket carry
having
lose any sense
Thokoza branch had this
so
the ANC
the hands
of
201
's :
,
Dume Nkosi secretary general
1990
and Ramphele have
-
,
Thompson
of
by
'(
quoted
least
majority
find themselves
minds and values at
's
not
1994
the process
,
survival and
children
that they witness and experience great concern
,
's
of
be a
as
matter
The impact
Fund Wilson
socialised into vandalism on
.
right and wrong
poor
urban
19
,
)
black
0
,
,
all
to
-
,
and unemployable
that children may
adopt violent measures
people
1994
solidify between
unionised skilled and semi skilled black workers and
report for the United Nations Children
criminals
will
inequality
new axis
relative contribution
and 1991
1975
of
'
that
a
77
1993
inequality
per cent between
(
of
to
per cent
within population groups
the inequality
and Whiteford
in
75
from
coloureds and whites was
its
SSA 2000
(
88 ) of
Africans
far the biggest contributor
unskilled unemployed written
African household income
' .
McGrath
Bundy already warned
minority
63
of
in
,
respectively
, :
by to
] is
1991
In a
for
,
a
,
55
0
0
, ,
and
According
60
the pay
inequality
).
Gini coefficient
increased
62
the level
18
:
1995 the 57
In
59
(
1994
61
vast increase
in
has resulted
, of a
of
on
'
,
to
decreasing incomes McGrath and Whiteford the interplay rising unemployment drought result and the one hand and rising incomes upwardly mobile professionals skilled workers and entrepreneurs the other hand
of
58
–
7
households 106 According
#
by
10
+
and
the top
per cent
per
The income
40
of
early 1970s
10
In
56
due course
compared
for
of
the 20th
also underdeveloped when
were
developing countries
37
from
and from
in
it
in
greater part
production capital land non labour factors government transfers was exceptionally low during the century The informal sector and the entrepreneurial activities
Africans
.
income
entrepreneurship
-
of
55
)
The
THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID
15
PART
4
An incomplete transformation : what's to be done ?
Chapter 11
Working towards
social
a
democratic version of democratic capitalism
II .
The apparent dysfunctionality of South Africa 's
, South
political domination to a with serious political, social,
white
from
democracy
and economic
problems . The new governing elite is struggling by
is
its
,
in
bureaucratic incapacity in
deracialising the
has left
a
apartheid
worse legacy than
section
in
of
redirection
The four poverty
traps
which the poor
spending
Increased
social spending
to
inequality
and augmented
whites
from
blacks
is
into
not doing nearly
alleviate poverty
ability
of
powerlessness to
address these problems effectively
Its or
is
the seeming inability
.
government
to
What complicates matters new
government
new
taken
.
to
it
, ,
enough
becomes apparent that the
social are
by
apartheid have reproduced
laudable but when the structural dynamics surrounding the poor are
account
state
widespread poverty and social
.2 .
.
and
exposed have been discussed the
matters
During the past eight years the social distortions and
.
,
are
consolidate
.
chapters
and perpetuated
services and
alleviate
to
apartheid
destructive dynamics introduced poverty
the
to
failure
from
1994
in
was realised
threatened
2
indicated
authority
,
inherited
faced
make meaningful progress to
and
,
deprivation
As
state
is
and exert
10
system
system
2
economic
Africa
new democracy
its
the inability
of of
The viability
the the
multiracial democratic
in
the
representative
, .
the transition
after
on
years
capitalism
to
Eight
democratic
of
of neo -liberal
version
the
implement
is no
It
the
20
during the chronic stagflation
.
over the past eight years
4
crisis experienced
and
. 4 ).
sections
in
accumulation
have trapped the
left the government with
therefore hardly surprising that poverty has worsened The
sector and
4
see
,
of
ignore their terrible plight
and
(
to
a
in
choice but
systemic
transition
.2
exclusion
situation
the negotiated
4
poor
.
global partners Thus the terms
its is
elite compromises with the corporate
of
constrained
its
clearly
by
comprehensive programmes for alleviating poverty and redistributing wealth
19
PART
4:
years
TRANSFORMATION : WHAT ' S
AN INCOMPLETE
from
has also not been resolved
to 1994
1974
and this has also complicated matters
the necessary
to
degree
government (see section
new
,
.
's
of
.
system
,
century
of
symbiotic
of
its
general racist
focused
-
's
politico economic
the many dramatic events
the equally important
system
political
the
the economic
in
,
changes
in
has largely
South Africa
in
on
the changes
system
Until
(
and especially
African
labour
for more than
century
mining and agriculture
the system
had
on
-
.
to
very big profits
–
make
),
especially
place that enabled
–
thrived
,
natural resources
foreign
in
system
)
of
to
of
black
conspicuously
cheap
,
docile
,
be
to
1970s black labour ceased
,
the
in
.
character
,
When
local and
the fact that the economic
the exploitation
colonial
both
labour
most vigorously
grew
labour patterns were
(
the white employer class
Owing
predatory
1974 when
–
to
not incidental that colonial and racial capitalism 1934
African
.
and especially
)
black
was based
a
exploitable
a
and
in
docile
colonial and racial capitalism (
the availability
system
of
economic
of
the
.
its
.
the
1970s
is
the
exploitative
and
relationship with the political arena have largely been neglected
on
of
class and the white economic
, 9 ).
accentuated
early
racial
and
close
A
a
colonial
.
for
almost
The system
and
the
-
.
zenith
To
in
democratic
and
420
of
we
version
the current politico economic
reached
place
benign
been
of
of
our
not
important
Consequently
and
It of
,
a
for
.
the
of
's.
as
compare
in
of
democratic
arena
from
task
8
ch
see
-
(
1970
are aware
government
only the new
these changes have
appropriateness
system
The literature since
All
its
's is
had
.
.
politico economic
new
both the political and economic components
The racist character
can
believe we have ample
liberal capitalist version
existed between the white political
relationship
character
not
the
politico
reconstruction and development
white political domination
been
not
South Africa
when apartheid
1970
was one
capitalism
class
.
30
a
in
,
of
that
1970s
years
necessary
It
with
it
capitalism
also
also
after 1994
judging
economic systems have changed
and
and evaluate
but
Although
we nonetheless
the
,
-
ways over the past understand
such
political
Africa
South
settlement
the appropriateness
situation
introduced
period
a
are a
enormity
liberal economic policy but
capitalism
short
negotiated
extended colonialism
reason for questioning neo
too
of
democratic
or
,
after centuries
the
as
of
,
well
as
and
capitalism
the
be
economic dispensation
social and economic policies
of
's
the new
and economic problems eight
should reconsider the appropriateness
,
government
argued that eight years
this
we
on
of
political transition
liberal capitalist version
, social ,
these political
far
the
years after
only
of
the severity
Given
It
,
. 2 . 3 ).
to
10
for the
DONE ?
BE
TO
and easily
its
. its
to
.
,
-
,
of for
of
,
of
.
of
of
a
, .
to
,
in
',
,
sector
the tertiary
sector
to
substantial share
GDP rose
while the financial
1998
system
).
54
Cling 2001
:
see
(
developing country
of .
a
in
of
the
the corporate
,
in
an
.
a
,
of
-
3
a
per cent
way that has
,
-
the
of
member the
if
Rich
English corporate
new
a
of
as
South
in
introducing many a
powerful and
political sector We have
political influence
.
and
neo
the
labelled the growing ideological and
of
-
with both the
virtues
forged
and have also the
sector
initiative
of
affiliates have taken
private
the alleged
developing country such the
a
even for
old
its
prescriptive relationship
a
as
and ANC governments
,
the changes
the
and
The AAC
for myth making
,
NP
South Africa was
convincing not only the Afrikaner controlled corporate
in
its
also the
in
.
integrated
finance explains
and
strong propensity
liberal and globalised approach Africa
financial and tertiary
first world orientation
,
but
free market economy
-
,
.
With
sector has succeeded sector
industrial
oligopolistic
the English controlled corporate sector has become overtly liberal
capitalist and globally oriented North
the mining
,
all
,
1960
sector
Africa has
.
in
in 6
,
50
per cent
is
Thirdly
the modern
the economy The contribution
unusually sophisticated
of
As
. far
'
industry
indirect controls over
and moving their primary listings
the economy have been artificially the excessive
mergers
through
influence
that South
notion
these changes
The alliance between
from
given
have
64 ,
of
of
character which belies a
is
. 2 .2 ). ,
,
the
.
,
changes
services
reorganise the corporate sector
other companies
globalisation
lately
for to
A
,
shareholdings
offshore
further enhanced
many other developing
weaker than those
increased their size and
have
and
sectors
dramatically
result the labour absorptive capacity
second defensive strategy has been
result
the
10
see
(
section
minority
the economy
of
,
African economy
other companies
As
the modern sector
substantially
have
black labour has declined sharply
increasing black unemployment
These
changes
These
and methods
At
its
first world
the
the employment
Corporations
taken
.
,
to
.
In
geared
countries
solve
years
substituting capital
the process technology has been modernised
same time
takeovers
over the past
production methods
increased the capital intensity
the South
–
,
it
,
has changed
production
liberation
almost desperate attempts
steps
several defensive
labour
the mounting
–
caused
accumulation crisis the corporate sector has
First
of
-
response
it .
stagflation to
's
,
and the state
exploitable black labour
by
of
20
years
the 1970s
from
30
of
the non availability
,
To
coincided with
colonial
and farming sectors
accumulation crisis for the corporate
complicate matters further
CAPITALISM
pillars of
the
exploitable black labour
In
onwards created
-
The
non availability an
.
plundering
struggle
of
the white employer class lost one
by
,
exploitable
VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC
SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC
A
corporate sector 421
TRANSFORMATION : WHAT ' S
INCOMPLETE
Mhone
is
it
so
of
.'
a
the
30
as
of of
,
-
,
of
-
the
.
–
,
a
-
of
,
a
of a
,
elite agreed
-
undisturbed indication
,
past eight
modern sector thoroughly the ANC
turn
how
to
over
that
the
detach itself the
the
per
of
inclination
expected
the
the local corporate elite and
its
an
by is
-
co
-
.
422
opted
became
black population
we might have
labour force The fact
, a
partners
cent
capitalist enclavity
first world capitalist enclave
government has been
–
).
constituency
years the corporate sector has continued into
governing
to
the black
elite
the trend towards first world
's
the
capitalist
representative
governing
new
sanctioned
,
's
the ANC
counteract
large part
effectively
world
predominantly African
black
.
from
a
government
to
loyal part
a
are
the
first
system
When the new
Given that the poorer
of .
capitalist enclavity
into
several elite compromises with the
reached
global partners
,
these compromises
junior partner the
white controlled enclave
.
its
sector and
of
to
corporate
when
it
‘
'
systemically trapped
chapter
,
we indicated
4
is
effectively controlled
it
.
elite
which
capitalism
the introduction
in
As
democracy
still
both
2000
colonial
enclave has coincided with
has been made irrelevant
-
:
of
The transformation
black consumer market
as
.
a
(
black poverty
years
the black labour force
has been adopted
racist character see
of
a
in
sea
has retained
–
bourgeoisie and petit bourgeoisie
past
Although the black elite
by
,
corporate operations and profitability new system
a
to
large part
the lumpenproletariat
whole
liberal first world capitalist
the black labour market and
the consumer market
on
,
a
from
sustainable
Africa has become
South
the population
neo
60
,
of
the process part
of
is
disengaging itself
building
changed over
has been
colonial and racial capitalism
enclave that
ie
system
is
,
of
a
one
economic
the detriment
it
the
As
result
think tanks
Americanisation
,
even more deeply entrenched
government
and prioritising the interests
-
In
.
dual
Anglo
is
system
global provide the latter with strategic
these
to
',
partnerships
class
now
whose legitimacy
)
(
both local
since
The regular summits
-
the
of
capitalist
,
.
sector the more
opportunities for prescribing their policy agenda the
the dual influence
of
. -
leaders
the time being and
and business
least
South
.
the local corporate for
at
unquestioned
Consequently
This has significantly enhanced
highly favourable politico economic
–
in
embedded
a
the power and wealth
from
global corporatism
,
of
-
corporate and global Anglo Americanisation
to
over the
years
a
been
past
of
Africa has
exposed
world
a
-
or
the British American
from
Anglo American
)
from
the
the local corporate sector , but also
10
of
pressure
from
'
government s acceptance
new
neo - liberal and globally oriented approach has not only resulted
-
a
African society . But the
South
(
of
of
DONE ?
BE
of not only the South African economy, but also
the Anglo - Americanisation the modern part
TO
-
AN
In
4:
the to
PART
global
SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC
that has replaced white
and colonial and racial capitalism
to
the a
.
a
of
the
the
an
of
as
,
a
,
)
white policy
.
of
of
,
1970 poverty
is
2002
. are
/
were
through
exclusion a
–
/
systemic
system
worse than
population
the old system
through
politico economic
systemically and
is
system
in
of
majority
was the
society
impoverished
the new
as
The common denominator between
of
.
old
its
that
part
the new
in
is
pauperised
individual members
, of
,
.
that
the
in
neglect While
increasingly
dysfunctionality
is
systemic
and
the in
exploitation
. ,
systemic
)
the
is
while
of
about
systemically and undeservedly
lumpenproletariat
black
the black and white upper class
-
,
enriched
population
the
unconcerned
while the mainly
of
cent
the
)
of
,
of
per
the old and the new systems
on
comprehensive
individual members the upper population profit handsomely from
system
-
50
as
,
or
,
-
is
is
-
(
(c
In
(c
one third
white elite were about that
improvement
strongly favour the mainly
system
part which militates against
individual members
undeservedly
the
priority What
unequal power relations between the two parts
economic activity
seem
politico
new
upliftment
omprising
Ironically
the
that
economic part
Africa
South
ominous systemic
regard poverty alleviation
economic
corporate
economic
omprising
system
the
of
politico
mainstream
seems unable
effectively addressing the predicament
the new politico economic
classes
of
the population
-
socio
geared
matters
or
of
of
economic
of of
.
government
or
system
to
economic
new
–
the black labour market and
problems facing
economic
political nor
the
.
Neither
our
from
Capitalist
.
to
in
is
character
half
the
stop this tendency
this sense that the socio
complicates
again
from
the
,
large part
eight years after the political transition have attained
poorest
per cent
the black population
the black consumer market while the new
unprepared
80 the
-
,
from
dysfunctional
per cent
place
perspective
more than
also
in
.
the
60
at
least the poorer
a
. is
detaching itself
of
of
system
enclavity
It
is
current
The
junior
politico economic
this new
old politico economic system
people who comprised
perspective
part
whether
latter very much
was highly dysfunctional certainly from
black
population
governing elite in which
elite and the black
ask
forged
the
the
.
–
of
is
It
to
majority
democratic
the entire South African population
beyond dispute that 1970
1870
of
serves the needs
system
of
of African elite democracy
a system
senior partner and
and dependent partner We need
domination
symbiotic relationship has been
new
A
between the mainly white corporate the former is very much
as
described
enclavity .“
capitalist
cum
be
can best
the
, that
capitalism
political
liberal capitalist version
is a
CAPITALISM
-
The politico -economic system
VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC
of of
A
and
marked
1970 and probably also
more deeply institutionalised
423
4
:
AN INCOMPLETE
of
:
.
or
-
the post apartheid
intact
un
‘
remains
space
.
'
‘
given the required
.
in
a
on
into
restrictions
the the
enhanced
possible
as
rapidly
lifting
by
South
be -
-
fully and
role
towards post apartheid can
be
pivotal
economic growth potential
capitalism
of
global
such
well disposed
,
's
,
of
in
a
-
–
will
as
-
.
capital and goods
high economic growth rate will unlock the labour absorptive -
capacity
of
's
by A
movement
which played
the modern sector
system
the
global economy will enhance economic growth
and the country
integrating
benign
sector
neo liberalism
benign
democratisation
South Africa
realised
the free market economy
The international community
Africa
can
-
Integration into
reappraise
high growth potential that was strangled
full potential
policy
a
via
the
and freedom
if
',
and
essential
therefore
the white controlled modern
restructured
social policy programmes
all
its
,
if
by
period
the
into
growth potential
high economic
but
Eight years
global
identify the following five
can
The South African economy had apartheid
sector and
.
It
.
.
on
South Africa has
a
i
which they rest We
its
the
economic nor
has delivered the promised outcomes
premises
its
neither
is
-
,
period
government was
the new
corporate
be
post apartheid
of
several contentious premises
is
and was based
from
its
,
partners
on
formulated under strong pressure
ii
DONE ?
BE
to
economic and social policy approach
The
TO
Questioning the premises on which the corporate and governing elite 's neo - liberal policy approach are based
11 .2 .
iii
: WHAT'S
TRANSFORMATION
as
PART
a
be
policy
of
labour absorptive capacity
of
will
resolve the problems
realised through
can
-
the
,
unlocked which
,
will to
opportunities
economy
the
and globalisation
neo liberalism
modern sector
of
growth potential
-
of
the high
be
If
.
the economy
the
create enough additional job
structural unemployment and
.
underemployment
social crisis inherited
from
to
.
trickle
informal
or
'
a
large enough
third
and resolve the
,
alleviate poverty
,
gap
poor
free market and
the
-
income
apartheid
sector
to
a
competitive
,
narrow
first world
the
'
trickle down
'
will
will generate
.
world periphery
modern
or
from
the
'
down effect
424
achieved
with the global economy the
integration
rate
via
a
high economic growth
growth rate
,
of
high economic
to
A
iv
The benefits
,
of
the
on
the
which they
.
's
the
to
,
have reason
premises
Those
were highly
approach
following
defining
three
divided
,
white controlled modern sector and
a
,
-
and
it
development
economic
is
,
unequal power relations unfree into
black
and
the black as
lumpenproletariat because they are regarded
,
-
,
a
first world capitalist
modern
labour market and the irrelevant
the enclave
's
from
of
years
to
detaching itself
-
over the past
30
;
,
is
income socio
,
the distribution
of
in
-
;
non formal sector
economic power and property and opportunities that
it
. we
further
:
after 350 years
deeply institutionalised inequalities
emergence
as
of
,
to
,
,
past eight years
of
;
,
-
a
, .
is do
in
's
for
social crisis
account
and uneven socio
mainly white owned
underdeveloped the
,
and
the South African economy
labour patterns
the
of
neo liberalism
-
of
,
its
•
its
growth
economic policies and
not take into
dualistic character
enclave
-
.
. to
All
nothing but corporate myths and wishful thinking
and did
characteristics
power and
financial interests
responsible for these premises and the government unrealistic
global partners
term
-
based
the free
economic growth rate and
the social crisis over
's
as
are
South Africa
these
themanagerial
enhance their position
economic
relatively low
reject the new government
all
, or
the
,
intensification
five
under South African
corporate sector and
the
of
we consider
regard
neo
of
of a
,
the
as
the panacea
If
globalisation
reject
not apply
and promote their sectional and short
incorrectly
the economy
the naïve optimism
protect their vested interests
five premises
put
global partners about the benefits
by its
.
.
of
sector and
Or
growth
,
privilege
false
five have their roots
are propagated
.
order
to
in
are either
structural
-
All
All five
,
of
,
All five
the corporate
market
high rate
and
free market capitalism
hindsight we have good reason
With the benefit circumstances
and
entrusted
to
globalisation
be
liberalism
the RDP should
apartheid
and
restructuring
'
envisaged
by
,
task
colonialism
and the least
economy and
dualistic character
fundamentally
of
the
anomalies after centuries differently
term
its
the long
most effective
the South African
‘
of in
,
least
at
resolving
restructuring
of
method
high economic growth rate
the
.
a
painful
–
Achieving
elite
market led
growth
economic
premises
entrusted
-
economy should
CAPITALISM
to
of
VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC
be
restructuring
The
v
the
SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC
A
'
and
downtrodden
and
,
efficient
unskilled
, ,
the other neglected messy
,
,
:
the two worlds
smart professional
, ,
oriented
,
globally
characteristics overlap and accentuate
economy one modern
;
character
these the
three
of
All
of
.
operation and profitability
425
4:
AN INCOMPLETE
thriving
on
crime and violence .
worlds', and Africa is
en
route to
'
that will be exported
daily
and contagious diseases
,
the first -world
to
's
to
.
is
as
as
at
-
is It
.
did
government
.
to
It
.
of
not
economy during the
the South African
disinvestment
12
the need be
facts but
per
to -
high
,
on
convince
as
as
even
the
to
its an
and South
unbridled free market These predictions
and the period
outflow
the
the
also underestimated
the
the
of
global partners
the damage done
struggle
liberation
effects
of
take account
virtues
of
alleged
of
sector and
was predicted
it
year and
.
the corporate
high
not nearly
would experience sustainable
,
of
per cent
growth
economic
apartheid had been thrown
These predictions were clearly not based
year
based
neo liberalism
early 1990s
constitutional democracy more than
high
refute each
off
it
is
,
in
-
the shackles
of
on
growth claimed
of
growth potential
term
the
long
policy
,
a
economic growth
necessary
Africa
South
a
soon
Africa became
about
of
of
-
medium
as
's
,
as
time that
the premise
the
in
choose the appropriate
which the current policy approach
and the appropriateness
the protagonists
policy , and
South Africa
shift
paradigm
on
socio -economic
to
.2 ./
South Africa
the urgently needed
a
of 11
Questioning potential
a
which the only interaction between
the third -world periphery
from
capitalism
the five premises
the
in
of crime , violence ,
level
bring about
to
of democratic
version
of of
situation
for
attempt
an
minds of those who make
cent
a
.
enclave In
these
.
worlds'will be at the
the ‘ two
and economic
destroyed what beneficial interaction might have previously
existed between them South
, political
complicate matters
To
DONE ?
BE
TO
over the past 30 years have increased the distance between
developments
‘two
'S
TRANSFORMATION : WHAT
6
PART
highly skilled and professional people during
,
at
at
+
of as It
These sorts
the its
of
.
as
,
of
,
.
serious
quickly rectified We must consider the fact that
global capitalism
was consolidated
than
South Africa
always
the 1990s
–
stricter
the
conditions were considerably
is
South Africa in
country such
as
developing
1970s when these funds were originally invested
426
of
far more
.
or
internal growth
also
well
capital made the constraints
in
power
The outflow
."
when
that these
technology and networking
-
the
,
conditional and
capital but also because
opportunities for international trade
a
the Rich North
of
by
easily
( or
of
the loss
,
payments
setbacks cannot
FDI
loans be
of
balance
. 's
foreign
Africa
on
access
to
South
in
of
the
of
foreign entrepreneurship
restricted
2002
1980s and early 1990s seriously harmed the
South African economy not only because loss
R150 billion
,
previous FDI during
current prices
in
)
prices
R50 billion
of
The outflow
the
of
.
1990s
1960s and
SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC
skilled and professional
even greater constraints on economic growth than
,
apartheid
. Despite
still constrained by the poor education the new government
long time
come The shortage
economic
growth
continue
.
growth potential
skilled personnel needed
sustain
high
transitional period
during the
estimated 250 000 skilled and professional people
an
,
the
so
a
– 12
of per
,
,
-
have
to
face
the inhumane
social and moral decay
which half liberal
-
neo
period
for
developmental policy economic
activity
and
strongly disadvantaged In
-
in
to
it
-
of
the
,
trends towards
Anglo
enclavity benefited the bourgeoisie both trends
,
and capitalist
systemic
order
first world capitalist
the lumpenproletariat
the early 1990s the protagonists
growth
and neo
liberalism
-
Americanisation
and
enable the
Anglo Americanisation
the economy into
the ideological
free market
.
Although
sector
was designed
a
the modern
process
a
,
proceed with
of
.
enclave
high economic growth
of
sector
transform
realise that although the campaign for
not lead to
corporate
now
to
approach
,
we did
.
turning around the tendency towards capitalist enclavity With the benefit hindsight
of
integrating the peripheral sector into the mainstream
and
.
an
the post apartheid is
What South Africa has needed since 1994
interventionist
-
was
of
developmental policy
for
ever
,
history
As
the economy
. If .
of
a
of
that
market approach was misguided
Africa
South
argued
a
free
in
the
3
and
the
,
led
-
government
unlock
growth
high growth potential
's
time
a
there was
chapters
in
in
indicated
protagonists
it
the
1990s
,
the early
4
In
.
population has been trapped
economic policy would
to
is
as
this
per cent to
will
12
–
6
rate
Policy makers
other and more direct remedies
,
soon
of
is
.
,
it
20
to
As
in
conditions
unemployment poverty
growth
for
and search
,
,
in
10
problems
simply not possible
years
a
to
present
.
's
South Africa
Africa
as
best
4
at
or
per cent
-
3
of
an
possible
and
longer
harsh reality
of
6
,
be
in
to
over the next
rate
for
will
panacea
for no
it
,
accepted the
the Poor South and
higher growth
a
as
our location
average rate
inadequate savings capital and skilled labour
.
attain
year predicted
and scale down estimates
of
's
growth potential
cent Given the constraints
well
per cent
demands that economic and social
realism
their naïve optimism
-
Africa
of
.
A
sense
policy makers abandon South
of
of
. year
a
2 7
,
per cent
growth rate
the economic
the early 1990s economic growth since 1994 has only averaged
in
confidently
the
Africa 's
South
country Instead
as
constrain
to
spending
increased
was seriously aggravated
rate
the 1990s when
's
of blacks during on education , low
'
will
in
productivity to
is
“
it
of
the shackles
from
a
apartheid
the economy has been freed
for
of capital. Although
the lack
left
imposed
including imaginative
–
a
-
entrepreneurship
labour
CAPITALISM
to
of
The lack
VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC
of
A
warned
427
TRANSFORMATION : WHAT 'S
AN INCOMPLETE
'crowd
that increased government investment would not only sector , but also undermine macroeconomic stability
to finance
and fiscal balance
way. Larger government investment
ment, and
also have helped
could
,
. But
24
the
would have required higher taxes than
non - inflationary
in
'
gap between the
accomplish
to
per cent
invest
private
goals
these
GDP agreed
when
sector and core ANC leaders reached their elite compromises
the corporate
a
of
by
of
in
an
,
of
of
the
of
of
the
to
Rich
being destabilised
of
and
,
weigh the benefits and risks
strategic and differentiated
It
of
).
:
2000
2
ch
Rupert
would have
globalisation
approach
to
a
to
,
the
opening
economy
as
Given
.
the
,
.
,
However the
's
opt the ANC
to
core
capitalism
,
democratic
the sovereignty
from
struggle the
-
co
it
its to
in
in
it to
is
'
power
formulate
and
.
independent socio economic policy government was pressurised
global capitalism
with
lofty
into aligning
promises that
the economy with
benign system
of
The new
government
-
implement
an
thus depriving the new
liberal capitalist version
of
into pursuing
was
quickly
prevent
the liberation
extraordinary power
the
leadership
order
global partners and
partially understandable
of
corporate sector used
Alliance during
the ANC
its
box
the ANC
a
to
socialist orientation perceived need
global capitalism
redistributive social policy once
in
a
implementing
comprehensively
,
into the framework
as
force the ANC
of
necessary
of
possible
1990s the corporate sector and
the early to
considered
it
,
in
Unfortunately
28
risk
unenviable
.
its
up
global corporatism
adopt
them
see
by
carefully and
very
the 20th century
capital and global currency speculation
for South Africa
been advisable
end
and technology
the investments
exposed
,
the erratic global movement being exploited
,
.
but this simultaneously
North
on
they were dependent
great deal during
the Rich North had
Poor South found themselves
the
to
:
position
their power Moreover
of
developing countries
at
significantly consolidated
South
,
.
-
1994
(
By
.
20
those
the multinational corporations
the
government
But the new
should have realised that the global economy had changed years
for the
1994 onwards
from
engage with global capitalism
global
from
,
,
was certainly necessary re
African economy
to
it
,
global economy
sanctions disinvestment and isolation
,
After almost two decades
system
the economy
of
will enhance the growth potential
benign
'
premise that integration with
of
.2 .2
Questioning
the
the
11
.
early 1990s
capitalism
4
a
bridge the still growing
to
was important
it
it was nevertheless
‘crowded
could have
capitalist enclave and the lumpenproletariat
the
. Although
government investment programme in
a
out the private
of
possible
stability
macroeconomic
to maintain
DONE ?
BE
TO
in
4:
on
PART
global
in
be
great and
. a
is
are
alive
to
,
fit
,
in
so
South
should
-
in
about the
deeply
so
its
is
the global
from
their new masters
Rich
the
in
in
becoming dependent
and shrewd
the Poor
Africa
corporations
these
on
of
those
2001
capitalism
propaganda
the Poor South can only benefit
in
entrenched that countries at
the
.
and especially
these countries
the price
the rand
Global
relentless
with which countries
-
to
of
global capitalism
the fact that the power vested
game
the global village
game Despite
play the global
,
bombarded
decline
for those who are not independent
ruthless and cruel system
benefits
charity
CAPITALISM
peaceful democratisation
.
is
have shown that there
and the spectacular
1998
in
But the Asian crises
no
of
would richly reward South Africa for
corporatism
enough
VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC
of
SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC
A
).
:
'(
of
.
of
(
the
of
to
accelerate their
,
to
the
of
.
's
of
east
compared
it
which
exports
it
a
to
which
exports
the newly
to
cannot
dichotomy
to
Africa
be
in
countries
Africa
south
the Rich North
capital in
,
It
has developed
.
,
countries
in
countries
South
.
industrialised
the
in
,
a
-
developed
products
South Africa traditionally
semi manufactured goods and imports
make the economy function
manufactured
best interests
is a
-
As
its
.
to
nor the
versions
Both
South Africa
developing country
mainly intermediary goods and
Asia which have major comparative to
that they export labour intensive manufactured products
-
in
104
thereby augmenting
spread their corporate risk
trade barriers was
exports raw materials and
advantages
2001
new politico economic system
controversial issue
relations with
growth
,
,
Whether dropping
goods needed
South African
capital movements
enabled individual corporations
own internationalisation and the
to
improved economic
liberalisation have however
its
the opening
uncertain benefits have been largely ignored
trade has
dysfunctionality
some foreign and local up
,
the
-
risks linked
the
liberalisation
highly
the warnings
past eight years neither the liberalisation
of
the
Over
its
and
]
economy
regarding
.. .
economists
Pierre Cling
Jean
to
According
of
.
North
large
is
compared
even
,
to
and
South
it
,
.
on
to
the point where
Tariffs
an
continue
has
and Trade
with countries wage levels
are
India
-
and
China
be
to
-
,
such
From
for export Instead
the General Agreement
South Africa cannot
as
with low labour costs
Cling –
).
(
GATT
According
to
exceeded the targets demanded
by
Africa has committed itself
reducing tariffs
therefore
clothing
textiles and
subsidise these and other labour intensive products
its
industries such
-
labour intensive
if
,
view
problem
.
would rather have been advisable
protecting
as
employment point
it
will solve the unemployment
of
unlikely that increased exports
inability
to
-
.
labour intensive manufactured products
It
exports
is
's
surrounding South Africa
its
increase the share
of
The biggest problem
its
.?
foreign markets nearby
429
inferior education
inflationary effect Cling 2001
,
)
voluntarily
long
term
-
the country
's
in
of
confidence
the
African
South
the early 1990s the corporate sector promised
ANC leaders
precondition for
large inflow
financial liberalisation
was
the
.
by
.5 ).
4
(
underestimate
of
levels
crime
and
the government and corporate it
,
about attracting foreign investment
of
conditions the new
the negative
violence
impact
potential
sector were really serious far
.
If
social crisis and the high investors
and macroeconomic
should have done
more
to
FDI
fiscal
on
to
create
.
conducive
see section
South African
Perhaps the biggest misjudgement
government and the corporate sector was the
.
,
the disinvestment
FDI
Although
the elite compromises between core ANC leaders
sector was to
be
that would
all
of
almost
and the corporate
the
.
portfolio capital has increased
The purpose
of
capitalist enclave
oriented
,
-
globally
corporations since 1994 has outstripped
foreign
,
-
, 'to
‘
a
first world
foreign financial markets This has intensified
to
of
inflow
escape
to
and individuals
trend towards
term
,
-
short term
.
of
FDI This promise has not materialised Financial liberalisation has however enabled many corporations both
portfolio capital and long
a
that South Africa
lack
a
's .
In
growth potential
a
corporations also demonstrates
internationalisation
,
Africa
South
from
of
overhasty
This
.
enclave
are
amounts
These
these corporations and individuals have increased the global orientation
capitalist
SA
of ,
,
a
capital
,
disinvesting
and
huge amount
country
the
than
of
FDI
move
for
especially
AAC Old Mutual
.
out
the
to
individuals
,
larger than
At
.
,
the
(
such
wealth
.
considerably
African
strong
informal sector
corporations
has enabled
‘
and thus South
wealthy
In
well
as
as
-
Breweries
have
fewer advantages
even
including
as
The former
globalised corporations
the large
of
of .
of
.
trade
will
).
:
(
South African economy
of
the
of
the liberalisation
and
the same time
114
capital flows has produced
The liberalisation sectors
sharply
higher than goods have
manufactured
the declining rand
result
capital goods have also increased
of
of
but mainly
as
,
increased
countries
Exports
a
other developing
,
of
and
South African workers wage costs per unit produced
imports
all
lower productivity
DONE ?
BE
in
those
given
TO
are
,
similar . This is because levels
TRANSFORMATION : WHAT ' S
INCOMPLETE
AN
-
:
the
4
a
PART
alleviate
African
-
The large scale integration
sophisticated
with the blessing
of
to
in
.
'
is
it
a
of
'.
South
this
financial institutions the new
government
-
-
and
by
1
modern
with global financial institutions 430
disinvest
take risks
prominent
of
Africa
's
South
perhaps
too
businessmen
attitudes
who have opted
and their hesitation
displayed
'
mirror
per cent
South Africa
to
confidence
too
country
the in
lack
of
since then has only amounted
hardly surprising that FDI year Foreign investors GDP
,
capital since 1994 to
Given the large outflow
of .
poverty and stabilise society
SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC
be
on
,
to
to
be
,
,
]
of
of
to
,
-
).
's
far
the
are
the 17
;
in
of of
,
of
as
no
be
.
.
's
of
to
least some corporations them
by
Africa
possible intervention
and from
natural
colonial and racial
that has enabled
'
‘
master plan
at
since the early 1990s
,
if,
its
corporations
plundering both South Africa
detach
the new
which the corporate sector played
central role
so
the systemic
for
victims
of
the detriment
the
of
to
,
but once again
a
exploitation
the
being
If
spectacularly
some
regarded
this has indeed been their secret strategy they have succeeded
.
government
South
from
longer
labour force during the period
clever
lumpenproletariat
-
themselves
a
followed
as
It
seems
economy
in
have
.
capitalism
black
2002 than they were
move their main listings offshore are among those
which accumulated their wealth resources and
and can
,
capitalism
by
that have won permission
emphasis
Many corporations and individuals
African economy Ironically
South
the
non formal sector
author
the
the
complete
global
into
the
more
to
fully part
of
’
escaped
‘
have
by
to
.. . of :
its
,
more serious
,
the informal sector
are
or
:
(
,
's
2000
marginalisation
1994 and far
in
than
openness
the formal sector begins
.
in
in
irrelevant
economic problems are
more developed
effective
process
Essentially
The capitalist enclavity and global orientation
1994
resorting
opportunities
far
Africa
openness
own quite independent
which now becomes economically
South
growth
investment
-
of
by
,
In
.
momentum
powerful
and
the same token the marginalisation
the context
of
-
a
have
probably
the South African
formal sector
the non
accentuates the enclavity and non formal sector
winds
the chill
without requiring the growth
of
inclusive and integrating
the
exposing the vulnerable and
As
of
,
innovation
and
blamed
corporations but
The real culprits
escape the internal barriers
external markets for investment funds demand
rand should not
Guy Mhone argues
.
able
is
economy
economy
.
their own advantage
to
openness the modern sector
introduction to
the
of
global capitalism
With
of
government into
relatively powerless South African forces
individuals
.
‘
who pressurised
those
value
economy
South African the
openness
undue
the
of
or
the unlawful
irregular actions
'
on
The chronic problems surrounding
the
financial manipulation and speculation
in
CAPITALISM
which corporations and individuals can
in
to
participate
systemic situation
a
(
has created
VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC
of the
A
many
economic growth
will unlock
the
rate
of
high
modern sector
the best example
of
1996
is
The GEAR strategy
of
-
the labour absorptive capacity
a
Questioning the premise that
of
.2 .3
11
.
years
the naïve optimism
about the
431
1
,
2001 more than
have been destroyed
including the agricultural sector since
1996
,
to
the modern
The important question
4 3 2
is
.
to
the
.
of
for
,
in
(
,
to
)
no
,
of
(
.
the modern
to
the
of
the cost
over the
the
past eight
continuing trend towards
sector
to
the
at
the
by by
mature and
retain
small and shrinking demand
informal sector and the failure
,
the
in
sectors had been
sector
.
-
of
the poorly educated
the
economy
capitalist enclave a
capacity
in
of
).
15
low
1970
a
in
the modern sector
labour absorptive
-
considerably reduced
capitalism its
of
colonial
tertiary
productivity
to
2000
13 –
Mhone
the
:
result
The structural transformation system
longer
export more labour intensive products This latter
of
by
to
consumers
of
the see
(
African workforce
is
largely
inability
increase
the premature and disproportion
secondary
-
its the for
manufacturing sector
than
when the black
and was
of
and
labour absorptive capacity was caused industrial production
that the
off
in
-a
be
,
the
economy
The inability
see
route towards capitalist enclavity before
the
.
capitalist enclavity
remembered
sectors has been strongly stimulated
up
opening
sector
has become associated
bsorptive capacity
develop
to
.
years
This tendency
and secondary
by
primary
years
the primary and secondary
capacities
-
fully developed
sector
the
apartheid
attributed
of
of
the tertiary
the labour absorptive
10
in
heyday
en
of
the economy should
ate expansion
the tertiary
the 1970s
in
of
the
in
it
as
had been
these losses
the capital intensity
the modern sector was triggered
Mhone contends that the poor labour sector
It
.
.
an
should
labour force became less docile and cheap exploitable
the
Although this
stagflation
the South African Reserve Bank
be
2001
mainly
1994 was
formal sector employment growth
It
the capital intensity
:
the 1970 and 1980s
') of (
in
smaller
of
to
.2 .3 ).
change
growing
production that was responsible
last
the
22 ).
considerably
in
to
economic
in
a
with
growth
that
job opportunities
increase
According
10
.2 .1
given rate
.2 .2
10
of ;
‘a
sections
10
decline
the structural shift
the primary sector and
in
a
,
modern sector and
loss
the
the sharp increase
to
attributed mainly
;
be
factor undoubtedly contributed
must
1974
from
economic growth during the period
[
of
low
unemployment during the two decades result
supposition
the
of
was built
strategy
GEAR
The
that fewer jobs would have been lost
at
is
have happened
quite possible that
opportunities would have been created What might
job
new
fact been achieved
in
's
if
–
any
target had
on
few
growth
in
very
GEAR
–
years
if
how many new job opportunities would have been created during the past
of
,
sector
not nearly
job opportunities supposed
million
million jobs
growth was
as
by
additional
of
economic growth
from
2002
has a
created
of
,
. Instead
2001 . This rate
1 3
achieved
the
of 6 per cent could be attained by
rate
if an
be unlocked
six is
large labour -absorptive capacity that would
DONE?
BE
TO
be
TRANSFORMATION : WHAT 'S
: AN INCOMPLETE
in
4
.
PART
time when the African
the the
As
.
a
, on
a
at
,
are
of 34
are by
is
if
increase
poor labour
The
do –
different in
labour
the
and high
-
job
creating capacity
-
the
fully
of
,
supply
the inadequate demand
not
of
unemployment problem
greater constraint
of
million people clearly are
7
to
6
for
for
the
create jobs
. of
will
that higher levels
a
education
of
,
impact
employers obsessed with first world efficiency far
by
,
,
is
the African
also true that the domestic
government spokespersons
labour inhibits growth
capital intensity
undoubtedly true that
circles Although the inadequate
government
sluggish economy
not caused
South Africans
.
is
It
is .
it
as
as
education
a
in
of
categories
1970
economy will certainly improve with higher levels as
-
of
levels
indicates that the complexities appreciated
at
,
,
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.
and
,
on
spending
claim
to
But
the
increases significantly
.
of
as
would not have been
high
per cent
equipped with better skills unemployment
of
workforce were better schooled
education
currently employed
against
the fact that most unemployed
unskilled and therefore unemployable
absorptive capacity
the poor education
10 2
;
,
incorrect policies but
FDI
,
of in
the economy
table
.1
the
of
. of ).
of
the total African population
on
often said
education under
tendency towards capitalist enclavity
government circles that unemployment by
figure
additional
sector for which many
African labour and the legacy
formal sector 2
in
per
or
13
;
.
2 1
cent
in
It
table
the supply
and
reduced the
time when
inadequate
their
of
effect
.
the modern
is
in
(
increase
because
sector
the tertiary
as
Africans
The combined
that only see
is
sharp
thrived
agriculture
has significantly
the primary sector
faster rate
the
trend towards capitalist enclavity
have not qualified
apartheid
300
the primary
jobs that have been created have been
Africans
African labour
a
in
labour
mainly
is
),
employment
for labour
demand
.
the
African
mining
in
that
the
year
other population groups While colonial capitalism
of
than
exploiting
000 workers
has reduced
trends have increased the supply
of
demographic
enclavity
000
of
towards capitalist
CAPITALISM
relatively high rate , and
at a
–
potential workforce has increased trend
200
particular has grown
in
by
population group
VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC
in
SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC
A
the
of
in
confronted rate
can
in
unabated
(
the
in
post
with the awful attained
a
growth
full swing during the
as
higher economic
six
the
.
of
currently
the
4 3 3
government
past
and the concomitant decline
the modern sector were
is
,
even
new
when
the economy Although
be
predicament that
The
far
formal sector
1995
potential African labour
these tendencies have continued
a
.
period
if
of
-
apartheid
apartheid
more serious over
per cent
towards capitalist enclavity
labour absorptive capacity last decades
it
the modern
of
the tendency
that almost
or
force cannot find jobs
has become 55
estimated
in
.
years
is
),
per cent were unemployed It
46
While unemployment among Africans was already serious
in
.
economy
the
'
in
so
of
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to
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.
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.
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.
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spin
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at
.
noted that
in
the predominantly
black
,
,
ruthless employer class
in
' the
exploitation
the informal sector are
in
of are
positive
abject poverty contagious diseases and
'
of
have
should however
occurring
workers
the
will
the
believe that
thriving informal sector
employment
by
exceptionally vulnerable
to
many
The size
a
'
."
the
‘
30
“
of
,
of
sector
those job opportunities
informal sector Under conditions
,
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and that
’
. ‘
formerly fully
million Unfortunately
several
the modern
informal
-
or
of
rate
self exploitation
violent criminality
casualisation
the
casual sector
depressed
informal sector
quality
the formal sector
years are not available
estimated
chronically
levels
workers
does not protect people against the often
a
the
on
'
only increase
'
‘
.
-
in
the past
higher economic growth
off effect
and unorganised
employment opportunities created
the additional
this sector
informal sector
benefits and
the
,
of
a
into casual and
without
the agricultural sector
in
in
workforce
all kinds
'
.
,
,
ie
' in
on
sector over
than
and
the peripheral and
is
informal
is
is
,
exploitation statistics
the
the third
labour legislation has strengthened
new
that the new labour legislation
Hard
content
casualisation
peripheralisation
workers especially
inhuman
first
have been shifted
have been turned
even more
ironic that
the
is
It
.
tendencies towards
ironic
former working class
past eight years many women
process
-
under apartheid
per
-
of
. the
Over
and are often badly exploited
employed
because
full time employment These workers are rightless
of
security
–
contract labourers
,4
the first world capitalist enclave
time many male workers
the same
say
some
be
At
to
formal
large numbers
informal sector
world informal sector the
of,
.
of
-
-
the marginalisation
from
case
as is
job
in more
the strong trend towards first world capitalist enclavity
of
The flip side
rate
job destroying growth
“
be
fact
declining labour absorptive capacity
'–
growth
growth the
that an economic
of
countries
in
world
but may
DONE ?
BE
will probably not result
it
will not only mean “ jobless
year
a
It is quite possible
–
cent
,
investment
–
opportunities .
foreign
’
of greater
TO
-
result
TRANSFORMATION : WHAT ' S
AN INCOMPLETE
-
4:
the
PART
this
of
is
's
demographic
and
this
's
Africa
complex
political
,
underemployment
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in
'
South are
labour
In
‘
. -
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and
the
–
unfree
'
can
cultural
and
self exploitation
,
,
.
economic dimensions
434
sector
unemployment
phenomena with social
unfree labour
of
.
the informal
most recent versions
economy
the
structural unemployment
identify
of
the
We
,
dualistic
as
sector
–
underemployment
the multiplicity
black people were subjected during South Africa
history
colonial
in
extended
millions
this book
,
which
main themes
of
the
,
patterns
of
One
to
."
sector
and
for
a
,
as
a
of job
of
of
to
on
,
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narrow
of
.
generate
gap
and
a
will
income
control
,
if
any
life
grip
the terrible
,
the
to
-
'
. .
'
trickle down effect
has
for methods
search
, in
those caught
Questioning the premise that high economic growth
11 2 4
at
If
.
to
,
of
,
30
the total labour force
long structural unemployment over which they have little
enough
the creation
solve the unemployment problem
to
restore the dignity and humanity
version
.
,
for
to
sensitive
the
huge pauperisation effect
dehumanising effects and
its
of we
If
.
least
Instead
the creation
less sensitive
years with
unable
search
sensitive
percentage
of
to
be
at
the
unemployed
elite
a
as
are the
past
,
The unemployment rate increased during each
and
the
for the unemployed
extravagant wealth and luxury
should
and
,
-
opportunities
will be more
that
the private sector
for
labour intensive development programmes democratic capitalism
of
on
economic growth
the workforce
the government should launch comprehensive
,
remedy for unemployment
part
in
'
‘
casualise
to
high economic
probably not create jobs but destroy them
and
concentrating exclusively
or humane
this complex malady
effective
a
peripheralise
best further
not
high and
of
will
a
'
,
achieved
, however, not realistic
single remedy
probably
,
is
rate
it
growth
more one that will
is
,
what
on
It is
CAPITALISM
through
.
concentrate almost exclusively and
.
growth
economic
a
of
’
sustainable rates
solve these problems
to
be
government hopes
The new
VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC
or
SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC
A
large
alleviate
the
of
for
.
as
on
of
of
a
-
great that
declining
.2 .1
2
section
;
capitalist enclave has reached years
to the
to
that
modern first world a
the
the
the
–
is
realise
of
in
It
a
in
the
30
of
growth
table
. ).
2 1
lively debate over whether preference should
and won
the
growth day
At ”.
latter
,
the
lobbied aggressively
for
'
sector
distribution through
' or '
growth through distribution
.
a
the
In
corporate
between
has become
the population over the past
early 1990s there was
to
;
.
2 2
be
given
important
see
portion
figure
the
mechanism
that higher economic
so
and the third world periphery
-
enclave
poorest half
is
the
figuratively
the income generated
the main
(
both literally and
poor
–
reach
The advocates
more unlikely that meaningful part
.
–
as
the
will
even
secondary
high economic growth rates
argued earlier
of
–
’
income
is
,
additional
'
is
additional jobs
create
distance
unlikely
it
will
it
.
if
poor But
the
of
of
is
, -
'
creation
transmitting the additional income created
income
the acronym by
'
regard
naïve optimism
high economic growth rate
redistribution
position job
,
is
as
approach
trickle down
-
indicated
its
the GEAR strategy
importance
'
also the best example
trickle down effect
'
.
poor
spontaneous
1996
by
the
about
strategy
In
the
GEAR
The
of
poverty
The that
435
TRANSFORMATION
:
WHAT ' S
DONE ?
BE
TO
available
‘
Its
a
-
'
informal sector
?
to
the impoverished
led
in
the
of
is
of
.
to
in
did
collection
-
to
2003 the minister
improved
surplus
But there power
distribution tax
on
the
to
the
economic enable
.
This would
'
large part
result
the
,
,
,
a
rate
of
mainly
2001
from
not
and contagious
alleviate poverty
“
to
use
–
’
at
his disposal
chose each time
it
;
the
of
In
' .
surplus
depends
three budget years
a
but
a
have
each
to
a
use the growth surplus
’
to
finance
higher
the economy would increase
guarantee that this would happen
society
those trapped
,
2 2
capacity
a
no
minister
the lives
could achieve
“
tax
of
,
the
we
.
see section
(
growth
difference
If
diseases
make
This redistributive effect has however
growing unemployment violent criminality
of
vicious circle
to
been large enough
place through the national
taken
of
.
past eight years
of ) .
budget over
income has
of as
the
A
of
.
redistribution programme relatively large transfer
is
‘
mechanism
for transferring
available
comprehensive and government
a
The only other
wealthy modern sector is
from
'
income
the
-
'
trickle down effects what other mechanism
and
optimism
will have positive employment
'
and that
.
high rate
' is
it
If
achieved
the
indeed unlikely that
it
will
economic growth
-
three counts
.
was unfounded
of
trickle down effects
creating and
, be
on
all
positive
its
economy , and
job
stage the corporate sector was optimistic about the growth potential
of
INCOMPLETE
AN
4:
-
PART
reimburse relatively
has been forged over
a
thinking
a
. . , The
be a
(
,
)
population
population
)
the the
per cent
of
,
50
(c
omprising
of
-
of
socio economic power property and
(
of
South African society What complicates matters
democratic transition
.
very worrying feature the
a
is
and the middle and lower subclasses
is
not
the elite essential but impoverished majority the see
opportunities between the upper class comprising one third
436
2 2 2
.
Before this can happen
).
The highly unequal distribution
that
implement
, ,
.
the
favour
white taxpayers to
is
rate
finance will agree
of
in
shift in
attained
sector and predominantly
will
extremely
4
3
and
via the budget
11 .
economic power shift 11 .
sections
an
an is
also
ideological paradigm
see National
ideological cement that binds the two
comprehensive poverty alleviation programme only
,
not possible
higher economic growth
that the minister
comprehensive
(
the
of the
is of
. 24
at
on
.3 ).
3
poor
GDP
that redistribution
the corporate
new
past decade between the old
of
unlikely
it
makes
unlikely
of
-
strong anti tax lobby
is
,
even
if
-
up
stepped
it
groups holds
elite
long
section
this coalition insists that total state
per cent
as
table
;
2001
behalf
of
Treasury
pegged
programme
redistribution
elite
As
should
a
revenue
be
white elite and the new black
If
'
distributive coalition
in
.
indicated the
not surprising
These decisions were
As
.12
wealthy taxpayers
and other developments
since
then
have not
in
to
,
is
the most
deep
seated
-
a
is
South African economy
in
economy
ANC 1994
conclusion
:
'(
based
on
).
a
,
.
-
growth
economic
the South African
the
of
as
,
author
that
new
the lumpenproletariat
such requires fundamental restructuring
emphasis
's
;
75
and
crisis
that market
restructuring
1994
in
The RDP claimed
and without
poor
remain
led
the premise
“
.2 .5
Questioning
will
population
It
11
the
of
poorer half
effective way elia
the fact that the white
monopoly over political and economic power promote sectional interests the expense blacks the unequal power relations its
on
in
of
,
-
the
to
up
-
-
,
.
is
the
do
,
the
of
’
‘
foreign
of ‘
of
'
economic
is
by
,
aimed
“
support
a
of
as
integrated
black
timely and
the new
economic important
government
careful not
to
be
,
so
,
however
privileged minority and
in
Empowerment
see
(
Black
of
of
the
implementing the recommendations
the government should
at
'
entitlement
their
to
blacks
only limited success over the
regarded
in
In
).
as
as
well
of
of
empowerment
black
national
be
'
;
Black 2002
a
owned
restructuring does not resolve
the plea
,
should
)
strategy
to
,
empowerment
ie
-
's
.
.
Consequently
document that deserves the enthusiastic
commission
state
opposes the
strongly
which
This policy has achieved
for
2001
certain
way that the participation
jobs
skilled
BEECom
(
empowerment
new government
foreign investment and
form
policy
‘a
’
eight years
add
and the unequal distribution
such
in
,
to
'
,
the economy
will increase
Commission
this
privatising
not
South African
instead
entrepreneurial and highly
BEECom
among the most
.
-
'
‘
them
government
the
restructuring
policy
structural crisis
power but augments Second
COSATU
a
deep seated
–
'
‘
to
privatisation
's .
government
they
the RDP First
attract much needed
-
to
in
restructuring
But according
past
;
the
to
.
'
'
order
restructuring
However
envisaged
technology
property
fact that the distribution
.
in
over the past eight years
has committed itself
the
the
the world
fundamental restructuring
assets
strong tendencies
economic power
South Africa
in
,
,
,
and
and wealth
We can identify three approaches economy
the
commanding heights
income opportunities property unequal
and
further concentration on
a
and
';
of
hands
the
towards capital intensity
capitalism
of
the South African version
in
inherent
of
at
of
to
its
minority had used its
'
that includes representatives
distributive coalition
structural
the bourgeois elite
economic power shift
its
-
.
Without
of
third world periphery
the
meaningful
any
the capitalist enclave and the lumpenproletariat relegated an
in
operating
distribution struggle between
the
in
at
-
least not
poor
CAPITALISM
the
- economic bargaining power of
improved the socio way
VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC the
SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC
A
this
restrict
doing neglect the more urgent 437
TRANSFORMATION : WHAT ' S TO
INCOMPLETE
economic empowerment and upliftment of the impoverished majority . If empowerment only involves transferring wealth
of black entrepreneurs , the objective
‘ entitlement of large ( see section 11.5 . 3 ) .
of
black
of
,
corporations
the
If
.
as
far
,
the modern
.
or
's
be in
in
,
the
.
government
unequal
,
left intact and that the capitalist enclavity
-
-
oriented
and that
of
,
is
,
the new
the
is
not
the core
effect agreed that
world
-
first
by
uncritically
in
'.
'
This
one
that
it
a
stationary
nutshell
be
of
.
This
of
about the desirability
than
a
a
free
expedient and less
local and global market forces
government
the
the
if
it
South Africa
the
as
‘
should
-
in
a
’
be
grain
,
economic
the economy
the market wisdom
in
so
moving tanker
economic power and property would system
sector and
fast growing economy was expressed
that was accepted
the new
itself
’
.
common wisdom
duly penalised
–
of
that economic
entrenched
and contrast sharply
are
The huge power
big corporations and their global partners
institutionalised structurally
,
claim
.
in
domestic
lies
and global markets are neutral
,
and influence
of
forces operating
its
the free market propaganda
The main flaw
in
of
.
perpetuated
the
by
doing
be
the
is
it
so
will
market propaganda
distribution
to
‘
those who
act against
do
to
advisable
turn
would
The
take place through market forces while
complemented
usually
is
wisdom
easier
ie
led
-
that
'
maxim
restructuring
of
the
have agreed that
were
misguided
the corporate
restructuring
,
restructuring
the
market
'
has
has enhanced
government committed
in
to
seem
are
’
It
seems
.
if
They
to
the
to
system
economy was growing rapidly The
438
not the
anything
opportunities
neutral forces operating
supposedly
’
market
‘ .
be
entrusted
would
RDP
either inadequate
the new
by
'
to
‘
of
'
the
which
government have tacitly agreed that
skewed
certainly
is
and enabled many corporations
African
restructuring
RDP has clearly been neglected
But
The
the economy
fundamental restructuring
free
.
unskilled black labour thereby continuing the
from
and especially
These three forms
painful
enclave
,
further
detach themselves
sector
'
-
globally oriented
destruction
by
deep seated structural crisis
the
. This
trend
envisaged
. (
of
power
restructuring
this
the trend towards
government has created
the new the
‘fundamental
trade by
and
of
capitalist
first -world
and
encouraged
have
that
aggravated
oriented
of capital
liberalisation
the empowerment and
to
so
a
will not be
of the existing small
the continuation
is
in
globally
job
establishing
conditions
of ‘restructuring '
form
small number
a
numbers of small black business people and farmers
)
The third
to
unemployed
social transformation
Instead of promoting the further enrichment
elite , the government ought to give preference
black
and
it
.
achieved
of
DONE !
BE
to
AN
it
:
in
4
the
PART
deeply
with the socio
CAPITALISM
.
economic powerlessness and dispossession of the lumpenproletariat
to
in
it
boils down
reshape the
to
and myopic interests
.
the
the desired direction
most powerful economic players
African
-
certainly
from
fact become
in
the point
of
but has
unrestructured
more distorted and dysfunctional
of
fundamentally
The South African economy
',
remained
‘
not only
past eight years
.
unimpeded over
the
wonder that the strong tendency towards capitalist enclavity has
continued
even
South
way that serves their sectional selfish
therefore
has
The
will ‘restructure ' the
,
a
and move
no
in
economy
run
cheque
blank
a
giving
the long
in
to
economy
of the idea that market forces
,
acceptance
is
VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC
It
SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC
A
the
view
.
impoverished majority
is
shift towards social democracy
paradigm
a
3
11 .
Why
the
de -
.
to
is
the its
If
13
,
to
of to
of ,
,
CE ).
of )
.
is
in
As
–
order
from the apartheid
of
the neo liberal and
-
acceptance
the
The
initiative
liberal capitalist
this ideology
,
of
the
-
.
British American world
the alleged virtues
be
,
South Africa
concessions wrung
the strategic the
to
a
by
new
longer
in
of
no
would
it
,
it
by
,
and that
to
ANC leaders
the
became apparent that the
Although the ANC leaders were late converts
.
approach
was challenged
sector and key international institutions took
of
in
convincing
in
globalised economic ideology prevalent domestic
BA
( the
One
the
financial support for
political power
the corporate sector was
corporate
a
( CE )
,
in
be
,
.
to
the ANC
It
.
to
's to
the
transfer
all
reject
make certain strategic concessions
the liberation movement
by
from
first prize
two decades
based
take political and economic control
core was obliged
least
attain
regime
say
the United States and Britain
the late 1980s
defeated militarily
:
at
to
the leadership
its
to
simultaneously
dominated
and
ANC
of of
on
.
its
When
apartheid regime could not
possible
period
solving
the Cold War ended unexpectedly
ideological
ended
world power
strategy
.
15
constellation change
Union
struggle suddenly
liberation
towards the social democratic
most momentous period
the
the ANC
of
,
and the Soviet
liberal capitalist
shift they would have
paradigm
governing
weltanschauung
social democratic ideology
years have perhaps been
the core leadership
1989
from
which the present policy approach
of
history
the
the
of
initiate such
the premises
The last
in
description
for
contribute meaningfully
can
of
for
ANC leaders were five
a
-
's
appendix
change
shift
most pressing problems over a
of
continental Europe
sac
the South African problem and
has
decisive paradigm
to
(
see
nature
British American world
the
African
South
the present cul
that problem
a
of
We are convinced that
ideology
of
thinking about
about possible solutions ideology
out
step
the
change
its
elite
indispensable
of
,
first to
A
necessary
they
439
,
is
it
for all
.
to
in
the
of
as if
.
of
CE
of
so
healing
embark
the influential a
be is –
and a
be
persuaded
to
period
on
the
a
approach
social democratic
and
symbiotic
: even
it
economy
,
effectively
if
the business world and may
be
.
powerful The South
the
or
are
economy
in
of
not suggest that the ANC has any real
issues
Hyslop
1999
:
economic
in
taking chances that would involve
(
.
Current signs capitalists
huge adult
change
approach
to
ANC government
its
difficult for
to
will
the
).
14
with
the
.
10
efficiently
.
it
an
CE
.
It
of -
'.
It
require
new government should
against the grain
antagonising
structural change
be
Although
it
-
1
confrontation 440
afraid
on
commitment
440
in
as
of
,
of
all
of
a
.
is
a
the
the
-
it
of
will
post apartheid
or do is
like
so
would
to
intervene
to
unable
do
will
to
state
that the
Freund claims correctly that
the status quo within
be
African
of
the
forces
years
right
will therefore
-
over the past
less
countries
liberal business sector with which the government has forged
relationship
even
are indeed
of
,
this would
and
social democratic approach
that
government could
new
route
merits
go
social democratic
of
.
.
If
the
an
reconstruction
version
Being
centre
quickly
The first prerequisite
become thoroughly convinced adapted
easily
to
liberal capitalist
in
campaign
left
or
from
something that cannot happen education
of
lost their normal meaning
of
have
a
To
change gear
whites
the ideological spectrum
revive the true meaning
to
necessary
and almost
that
Iron Curtain
the social democratic approach
of '
right
seems
capitalism
liberal
knowledge
little
have
unanimous and
such
behind
of
in
and
terms
–
the true nature
.
'
terms
is
-
Africans
South
judged
left
wing when
wall
Washington
countries Many South Africans
of
a
-
in
it
of
understanding
,
behind
living
indeed
this day
and core ANC leaders
both white and black elite circles that
the London
it
of
can
trapped
Britain
sector has succeeded
This ideology enjoys
liberal capitalism
the South African population call
corporate
Afrikaner controlled corporations
support
widespread
controlled
.
alleged virtues
colonial extension
-
convincing
years the English
of
the
20
Over the past
neo
distributed
the powerful English
1910
in
Africa was decolonised
South
oriented business sector remains
or
unequally
-
Although
We
Africa
South
as
and opportunities are
not
.
they
part
may
countries
are
,
which economic power property as
first world
dualistic and developing country such
a
appropriate for
in it
this ideological approach
rub Whatever the merits
and powerful
developed
they believed
of
's
.
But there
highly
DONE ?
BE
TO
if
over the past eight years as
-
along
this approach
to
WHAT ' S
:
.
have clung
TRANSFORMATION
be ,
INCOMPLETE
AN
4:
the
PART
SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC
economic policy and economic systems,
.
, to
the
,
.
to
to
.
the
on
social
This would imply
countries
of :
.
CE
to
,
be
replace
a
the
of
-
end the
the word
sense
to
in
,
to the
in
social democracy
human beings and their relationship
;
with society
well
-
a
;
of
social justice
-
;
the post apartheid economy
civil
developed
restoring
society
social democratic
a
bureaucracy
in
the relevance
its
the role the state and
of
iii
sound social relations and the importance
iv
ii i
and
vision
new
with
liberalism
-
neo
capitalism
find
but also
truly developmental policy based
of
ideology
socio economic
not
only
population
towards ending systemic exclusion would the
first
Africa
South step
of
A
democratise
and luxury
highest priority
economic development
the poorest half
of
exclusion
on
a
new ideological approach
the government
's
ought
were
extravagant wealth
be
it
elite also live to
black
exploited and live under such appalling
who
of
,
so
a
the new
indeed unacceptable
ugly remnants
whites remains largely intact and when
time when the wealth
Against this background systemic
black people
long should still be doomed
a
members
of at
humiliated for conditions
of
large percentage
a
that such
of
and end poverty and destitution
,
racial capitalism
deracialise the economy, get
to
rid
order
in
is
transformation
of
complemented by an equally momentous socio -economic
urgently
in
be
should
–
poverty . The momentous political transformation
relieve
– to
CAPITALISM
something meaningful
must do
it
It
drastic
even
OF DEMOCRATIC
VERSION
of
A
and
all
by of
,
of is
the
we take
into
population
)
is
and
the
of
But
per cent
of
they have
legally
if
state
is
.
)
',
its
(
.
17
rights
the poorest half
these social rights #
must take
available resources
social
whether the
households
state
to
of
.
,
far
these
not
and social rights
that the
as
of
,
is
It
to
realise
per cent
of
20
obliged
debatable
within as
each
(
and
.
is
other measures
This
but unfortunately
economic
prescribes
the necessary degree
concerned the
account that
to
progressive realisation
.
achieve
the constitution
rights
of
second generation
legislative
top
,
of
-
human
reasonable
constitutionally
the new constitution the human rights
generation
Although
population
political
the
formally acknowledged and protected
concerned
not been realised
Following
apartheid
and
as a
first far
necessarily true
adoption
are now
of
especially true
racism
of
South African
the
South Africans
its
of
the
,
and
as
every
.
)
the
of
dignity and humanity
the white minority during transformation
social welfare
the
is
80
than
defines
unfortunate position that the dignity and humanity per cent population were not sufficiently acknowledged in
A
.3 .1 more
vision
new
South Africa
( or
what constitutes
11
V
;
system
441
TRANSFORMATION : WHAT ' S
of the national income ,
receive more than 70 per cent
cent ofhouseholds ( #50 per cent of income , there
wealthy part
then
as
the centrepiece
of
-
of
freedom
in
be
,
will
continuously
are
therefore seek
to
will
programme we were inspired
,
of
freedoms
be
.
from
These
They
want
ignorance
by
.
fear
from
,
freedom
freedom
will
of
-
a
people centred
of
to
,
of )
the
to
of
' the s
to
us on
not
each
political
only
what this government
which our attention
the
[
individual must
human dignity
create
dignity
human
of
.
,
of
to
from
the
speak
the goals
deprivation
and freedom
RDP
of
of
it
.. .
the
by
.. .
,
.. .
pursuit
the centrepiece
When we elaborated
we
commitment
from
the guarantee
achieve the focal point
4
freedom
suppression
constitute part
restore
This requires that
government
hunger
from
fundamental
42
the freedom
fundamental objective
liberty binds
from
the in
a
to
is
social order freedom
guarantees the political liberties and the human rights
Our definition
My
of
freedom
an
is
the
the new
of
the
help establish
individual will truly mean the
.
a
all
of
freedom
representative
the new
of
poor and destitute would
South African
freedoms society
it
,
speech
be
the
of
freedom
our citizens
and every
.
.
of
,
first
social policy
manner that
instructed
will
entrenched rights which
individual We must construct that people centred society such
If
.
-
to
during
of
the
on
social rights
single most important challenge
which
and unconstrained
the ANC and the corporate sector
interpret
the
:
's
government
social rights
president Nelson Mandela declared that the restoration
,
dignity
constitutionality
realise
to
is
1994
Constitutional Court
the
in
parliament
obliged
,
24
On
May
Our
a
brave enough
the government
human
is
compromises agreed
this
.
hopefully
rests
elevated above party politics
truly
his
the elite
large about
be
by
Constitutional Court
the
at
educate the public
huge responsibility
by
a
,
case
have
democratic
the new
modern and people centred constitution
to
the
indeed
to
claim
of
.
,
We
.
system
restoring social
from
of
and can endanger the stability and viability
justice
This
is
-
the government
the poor
will not readily
for poverty alleviation
resources
prevents
to
prepared
to
,
its
-
It
of
.
a
to
greater mobilisation
affairs
and especially
of
,
Unfortunately the population
of
.1 ).
ought
they
amid contagious
If
and violence
,
and
the
communities
mobilise more resources for restoring the dignity and humanity agree
the
humanity
be
disrupted
dignity
to
,
diseases and amid criminality
unsavoury state
cent of
2
;
.2
(
figure
,
abject poverty
in
table
really concerned about in
South Africans
living
those
made available
can
are
If
,
or
available
,
than 3 5 per
can be no doubt that the necessary resources
be
national
and the poorest 40 per
population ) less
the
DONE ?
BE
TO
are
INCOMPLETE
AN
2
4:
see
PART
focused
the hope
).
's
,
?
order
enable bring
to to on
–
's
are
in
in
and on
respect
and
is
better South Africa
It
their fellow
view
.
racial
conferences are urgently needed
in
in
racism
Durban
related
intolerances held
,
conference against
to
kinds
,
–
and
every
.
themselves
of
black and white elites
is
these
Africans
white South African any residual racial class and group prejudices
rid
the
the
Or
?
the
confront those who still covertly harbour racist convictions important that
of
are
: influence
It
.
–
building
and especially
of
,
,
if
South
,
/
herself
But
positively
.
sine qua non
xenophobia
September 2001
hearts
).
which
were sceptical about the world
discrimination
our minds
about tolerance
of
him
-
Many whites
in
the
in
way
important that every South African should cleanse
open
social
,
, . in
(
therefore
a
compatriots
will
Durban
Mission 2001
NGO Forum
fundamental change is
A
appreciation
live
in
communities
This
fellow
This transformation within ourselves
to
the first and vital step we
is
through education and consciousness
can
attitudes
,
only
not
follows
Changes
us
happen
for
will
transformation
Africa
South
held
racism
of
.
our minds and hearts
we
in
exists
based
the humanity
on
conference
the
the attitudinal changes required
2001 described
Racism
forum
view
and the
Africans
South
a
The NGO
their
. if
.
compatriots
change
of
drastically
to
prepared
progress
as
.
We cannot make
ultimately
embedded
to
unfortunate history
at
or
class prejudices that are deeply
/
racial and
acknowledge the
This indifference towards the poor
their dignity and humanity
of
continuing violation
both the white
.
,
.
of
poverty
the poor those
civilised society
and black elites towards the poor and their unwillingness
structural nature
are prepared
to
provide
are both the
of
to
Africans
the unsympathetic attitude
discussed
from
Whoever
?
to
be
-
all ,
for
life
create
and
blamed
in
we
its
is
it
be
people centred society
to
.1 .1
3
section
to
basic social rights needed
a
15
to
a
to
create
a
is
,
it
severe resistance
encountered
predominantly white corporate sector
better
a
to
provide
better
Has the government lost
blamed
really disconcerting that not enough South
work together
provide
president Thabo Mbeki
despite
and those with large vested interests
government
In
or
,
and
releasing the funds needed
has
is
goal
the
.
Who
mainly white taxpayers
culprit
3
people centred society
this noble
to
commitment
together
join
CAPITALISM
that the ANC government has failed
-
a
to
create
the contrary
to
claim
:
eight years later
The harsh reality dismally
1994b
–
all (
Mandela
goodwill could
of
all
South Africans
for
life
that
VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC
to
SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC
A
equally
their reductionist 443
,
in
on a
,
laying the foundation
a
.
them
recalcitrant towards the new
in
Mandela nonetheless succeeded
as
.
's
more
in
]
-
.. .
lt
.. .[
an
accommodating attitude towards even
these
history Unfortunately
for
's
South Africa
the
were
successful
.
stage
and became
,
weakness
the world
-
).
6
–
's
a
very sensitive
also the basis
effective role
presidency He was remarkably
Mandela
the
are
building
Nation
Nation building and reconciliation
in
of
:
(
1994
5
to
'
ANC
our country
apartheid
South Africa up
a
]
new
[
build
crisis
the
is
to
central
'
that
many whites regarded Mandela
of
is
.
a
which
to
on
is
.
-
,
single community
ensure that our country takes
government
the
.
is
do to
into
spheres during
sign
the majority
not have the cross cutting interests needed
massive divisions and inequalities left behind
hallmarks
rights
the human
century
still divided into seemingly irreconcilable groups These groups
The RDP acknowledges
economy
and after
After
of
plundering
society a
does not constitute
,
and violations
cement them
which
.
factors largely beyond their control
and group
not share the same values and
the basis
that the
.
is
's
conflict
group
systemic exploitation population
population
do
centuries
should acknowledge
and
sound social relations and social justice
Africa
South
of
,
Currently
the result
of
for
of
the poor
new vision
A
.3 .2
11
terrible plight
of
,
poor with empathy and compassion
Africans But what population the should regard
South
a
is
towards privileged part that the
in
the
above
and their class prejudices , and
responsibility
their patriotic all
accept
necessary
,
possessive individualism
DONE ?
BE
TO
of
, their
materialism
'S
TRANSFORMATION : WHAT
of all
INCOMPLETE
by
4 : AN
PART
new
.
population
the behaviour
,
,
. ).
, 5
:
vol
a
to
1998
investigate
to
racial capitalism
-
now have
be
-
society building
cheap and docile black labour
--
for
white employers
the
of of
see
of
,
the task
difficult Other opportunities
a
and
4 6
(
(
its
history
of
insatiable need
TRC
decision not
for educating whites about the devastating effects
social structures
444
mandate
large section
of
now far more
on
on
and
South Africa
and ignored
the laws that together constituted
this unforgivable
of
the
devised
were part
apartheid
of
and reconciliation
is
crucially important aspect
that not
make whites
narrowly
see section
. 's
Because
of of
racial capitalism
).
par
48
,
system 1
ch
of
The TRC explicitly decided
exploitation
all
systemic
final phase
mandate
of
the important dimension
of
interpreted
too
committed during
the atrocities
rights
human
investigation helped the
Although the TRC
's
1994
TRC was saddled
to
uncovering the truth about gross violations
commission unfortunately
the
the
,
of
facilitating reconciliation
its
aware
process
.
1960
of
from
to
with the task
a
part
of of
a
As
.
society
the black
SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC
A
It has become customary
VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC
refer
to
Africa as
to South
CAPITALISM
of two
country
a
one rich and white , and the other poor and black . Although there is still merit in focusing attention on racial divisions , the class division has
nations '
–
become more relevant because of the important distributive shifts that have is sharply divided between
. to
.
to
,
,
to
–
a
or
–
a
to
,
property and
,
,
would
preconditions
undeniable a
humane
for
of
as
,
income power
of
,
-
system
the
,
historical vacuum
a
to
accept
address poverty
the conditions under which the poorer
half
social democratic
becomes
far
programme
this
power that has
extended colonial history the argument
more comprehensive redistribution
in
we have done
in
But
of
still compelling
as
redistribution programme and for better
account the unequal racial distribution
's
to
is
the need
if,
a
in
live
government
the ANC
.
alleviation
South Africa
characterised
liberal capitalist
. to
have
more comprehensive
into
between the
gap
,
we take
we consider
is
funded poverty
face
human
,
of
.
to
redistribution
society building
if
.
for
a
the population
and
important
social democratic approach
and interventionist approach
and inequality Even
power
for deepening our
bridge the
economic growth and the maintenance
social democratic
has
sharp contrast
In
is
's
to
problems a
a
will
growth
The strongest argument for compelling
argument
all
is
It
of
income
an
its
in
own
credibility
a
, :
To
. in to
,
and
for
enjoy
not only wishful thinking but puts the cart before
Africa
democratic capitalism
,
right that ought
the social preconditions
rather dangerous way
South
sustainable
a
,
,
,
is a
value
for giving
certainly give preference
of
South Africa
base
such sharp
property and opportunities
income power
that economic
think
opportunities
of
not possible on
prosperous
more equal distribution
create
and
upper and lower classes approach
This
,
,
.
But
a
of
greater social justice
nascent democracy
book
and destitution
between the upper and lower classes also
horse
class
income power property and opportunities more equally
instrumental value
the
and
, of
in
the distribution
very high priority
capitalism
of
.
capitalism
democratic
property
the upper
destabilise South African society
to
a
the sake
deprivation
opportunities
–
system
Distributing
. ; figure
2 2
which has deepened even further over the past eight years
of
–
has the potential
a
deep class division
kinds
of the
to
while the lower class experiences
the hands
in
concentrated
all
-
and socio economic power
almost
and
of
physical and human -
–
because
class of about one third
mainly black lower class of about two thirds ( table
and a
. 1) . Almost all property
inequalities
' two -nation ' country
is a
- racial upper
non
a
population ,
a
are
it
2
years . South Africa
30
,
over the past
occurred
favour
more
plea
retributive justice
.
not
for
justice
a
restitutive
is
plea
for
A
.
convincing
The latter
445
in
of
blacks
very unfortunate one
people should ensure that our interdependent
,
future
one
as
We
of ,
–
and the same destiny
.
,
share the same future
is
But we
two sides
a
The link between white wealth and black poverty was
still are
and
a
the same structural coin
and poverty were
Wealth
–
of
poverty
. . .
linked
of
long colonial history the wealth
the predominantly white group was structurally
is
It
of
.
well
the economic the
's
Africans in
of
-
each
South
the different groups to
of
other groups During South Africa
.
being
expect
can
inextricably linked
–
-
is
of
society
and always has been
blacks
accept the notion prevalent
But we
acknowledge that the economic well being
– help to restore
humanity
and
South Africans
organic whole
an
is
to CE
countries that society
dignity
of
social structures and
perhaps expecting too much
will
- and probably
can
DONE ?
BE
TO
to
the disrupted
the former
to
, while
destructive
'S
TRANSFORMATION : WHAT
.
will be
INCOMPLETE
the
4 : AN
PART
democratic
social justice and
post apartheid
South
-
play
in
has
role the state
to
the
of
vision
new
A
.3 .3
11
.
mutual respect
Africa
be
to
).
in
-
in
lead
to
will
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PART
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to
,
in
1999 making
18
160
its
in
of
of
6
that
Africa While
.
's
GDP per capita was
wealthiest countries
non economic costs
and
).
:
Africa
per cent
34
1966
which growth occurs
not
quality
and with the growing
in
,
(
in
Henderson South
growth
of
‘
the conditions
,
production
the
growth
economic
its
without sufficiently looking the content composition the kind things we should wish at
justified
There
regarded
do
emphasis usually put
its
339
?
.. .
is
becoming increasingly
Munby 1966
DONE
BE
infectious
on
Paul Streeten claims that
exerts
:
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in
activity
economic
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head
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TRANSFORMATION : WHAT ' S
INCOMPLETE
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40 ).
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-
4
per
PART
different
is
liberal policies this
neo
government
the
highly likely
will persist
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dogmatically with
possibility
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CAPITALISM
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VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC
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process and through
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South Africa
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Africa Many decisions currently
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53 ).
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critical needs
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most important
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needs are
453
are
human beings notions about the relationships between individuals
;
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government and what
,
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defines the
and can
These decisions
responsible for affordable
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's
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what defines
country
two world
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of
.
the transitional process
discourse
a
our social welfare
discourse
new a
-
define
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place since 1994
social democratic approach
and
due to the
systemically neglected owing
-
a
evaluation
new
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to
ought
plea for
in
for
plea
a
In
the last resort
exploited
at that time.
system
the politico economic system a
dysfunctionality
a
black population
of
fifths of
three
, of
the
dysfunctionality of the politico -economic
, about three
the
was systemically
the
is
population
the black
the apartheid period
on
a
.
of
quarters
. During
social welfare
and our
reflect
to
or
general interest
open discourse that allowed us
an
not have
did
or
democratic process and
it
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Africa
South
This , of course, was also the
.
using
are
in
apartheid
in
nation
a
a
as
is
is not the size of
problem
at
problem
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how
- economic
affairs . It
state of
'
our GDP , but
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DONE ?
BE
TO
is
'
quite possible that South Africa s real socio
WHAT ' S
, of
of view , this
social welfare point
a
:
in
From
TRANSFORMATION
–
AN INCOMPLETE
on
4:
the
PART
our
SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC
A
case exceptionally
OF DEMOCRATIC
VERSION
– especially when they involve the interests
so
powerful and spoilt bourgeois elite
one hand , and those
on the
lumpenproletariat on the other . But
cannot shy away from
.
them
the
and neglected
CAPITALISM
of
the
of the powerless
democratic government
a
-
are based
will
if
which know
be possible
value judgements
whether they are made
hidden and sectional power groups such
under pressure from
terms
the
of
,
social values
the
then
it
only
helpful
as
whether the trade offs
because on
-
,
these trade offs are made
rights
or
democratic state were always explicit about
however
in
,
would
be
),
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the few
.
property rights
of
the
all
and
of
social
and between the
to
between social justice and economic growth
the
–
-
( or
a
–
,
ie
The government will have to make desired desired from social perspective democratic trade offs between equality and efficiency
corporate
and the people
old
,
this
desperately
so
.
be
to
debate
enough
and the new
South Africa
white
on let
both
old
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that the intellectual elites
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the level which we the
' at
–
Africa
not nearly
ought
endlessly
-
in
the
on is a
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.
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of
new South
government
which the
the
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discourse
in
down
values that define our social
of
the
.
it
need Can
discourse
black intellectual elite should
new
not taking place be
is
discourse
the
intellectual elite and the what the soul
the
,
ours
extremely vigorous
be
to
welfare ought
a
society such
a
In
.
sector
have
discourse
?
values
of ,
a
.4
is
11
Why another power shift necessary this time towards social democratic system democratic
the
all
paradigm
,
but insufficient
,
a
is
necessary
a
forces against
the previous section we argued that
social democratic ideology
in
and empower the government and
effective countervailing
as
.
system
system
order
,
democratic
act
of
the
,
.
crisis The most important challenge facing South
In
to
South African version
step
its
effective policy
structural power shift
with the corporate
sector and
to
an
government and
its
or
implementing
comprehensive relationship
the
of ,
incapable
because
the
sine qua non for this urgently needed socio economic
-
global partners
a
the government
is
empower
lines
.
agenda along those
meaningless
A
bureaucracy would still
shift without the necessary empowerment
its
state would
in
democratic
be be
ideological paradigm
of
.
right direction
An
in
shift towards
a
powerful capitalist
1994
bring about yet another structural power shift
our embryonic
the bureaucracy
the
is
at
deepen
this stage
to
to
Africa
is
capitalism
democratic
in
Eight years after the political transition
of
capitalism
455
prescribing
in
rules
of
the
DONE ?
the hands
to
The government now needs
power
concentration
BE
TO
of
‘
new South Africa
in
this excessive
sector has succeeded
'.
game
economic
suspend
The corporate
of
.
transformation the
TRANSFORMATION : WHAT 'S
: AN INCOMPLETE
the
4
in
PART
the corporate
.
sector
the democratic
to
structural power
or
equivalent transfer
the
to
political power
of
of
,
was not accompanied
the transfer
an
,
cases
economic
state
:
majority
both
in
,
that
by
Africa arguing
ominous parallel between Zimbabwe and South
an
draws
Colin Stoneman
in
monopoly
,
to
, of .
of
,
(
in
,
too
(
too the as
a
, of
,
with
the corporate sector
),
of
sophisticated
and
too
,
)
,
,
an
,
-
stability and legitimacy
.
,
transformation
of
term
-
cannot guarantee the long
socio economic
the past 350 years
South
Africa
's
,
,
sorely needed
the
of
neglect and maladministration
exploitation
cannot bring about
African elite democracy cum first world cannot rectify the repression social
system
This
.
,
system
is
-
enclavity
destruction
It
compared
and too dominant
Our politico economic
capitalist
too modern
controlled
constrained
itself when
the managerial elite
developed
too
system
too weak
too uncertain
liberal capitalist
.
,
globalised
strong
it
.
hesitant and
(
is
too
ANC
the
the capitalist part controlled which
system
of
too
causing
ever more repressive
The democratic part is
core
making
-
's
leadership
the black majority
constraints against redistribution
politico economic
new
by
the
underdeveloped
because the survival
hopes
emphasis
capitalism
democratic
,
by
version
Africa
South
of
We describe
author
's
1998
government
, of
Simon
new
and that white
).
the
: 91 ;
disillusion with
range
a
and the imposition
experience
closing
of
white economic power meant
and
of the
's
Zimbabwe
relevance
power
political power largely intact
of
of
the
lies
economic interests should survive the loss Herein
of
a
that blacks did not gain
the
ensuring
have been immediately redirected
of
–
most international pressure seems
to
in
–
(p
]
to
of
When the whites indicated willingness surrender their monopoly olitical power from 1979 Zimbabwe and from 1990 South Africa
and
new
4 5 6
together with the SACP
the
of
of
are
century
late 19th century
,
the
of
20th
deeply
the British parliament
the second half
for
and
the ANC
of
).
10
.
8
see
section
the 20th
hoped that the Soviet Union would
)
century the ANC
blacks
(
of
salvation
(
“
‘
'
looked towards the imperial mother country the
the
in
the missionary tradition to
trained
ranks
During the first half
In
leaders
history
in
many ANC
's
this organisation
confidence
.
and lack
,
rooted
in
The hesitation
of
.
democracy
.3 ).
Since the early 1990s core ANC
's
a
,
to
,
is ,
.
's
its
in
too
of , is
-
,
4
(
;
to
shift
the
,
10 6
per cent total income enable
see table
democratic
to
appropriately
patriotism
to
of
.
change
sincerity
and
would
a
be
be
an
lack
made
a
orchestrate
, ,
sector
attempt
of
the corporate
such
the
Whether the
,
strong enough
goals by
's
promised
.
it
proposed
to
are
to
Should
a
.
at
policy approach
should the government decide
's
its
uncertain
their disposal
African economy into
globally
oriented
of
that the trend towards turning the modern sector
the
first world capitalist enclave
-
quite possible
a
South
is
It
.
20
serious indictment
achieve what
global partners Africa
with
and would not achieve the government
.
'
ideological gear
such
defence because the policy approach
South
of
'
global crisis
is
for
corporate sector and
that
the
direction
corporate
it
, ,
hollow
defence may
to
,
policy
the
a
comprehensive
a
line
be
of
first
embark
all
in
a
)
oppose this change
on
.
,
start implementing
,
's
a
is
89
total
with
truly developmental state
impractical and costly
'
It
a
to
,
.
and
per cent
the ANC government were
and
global partners will
trustworthiness
its
Its
–
.
to
the to
elite democracy
bring about the necessary redistribution
corporate sector has failed dismally
‘
Our dual politico economic
organisational ideological and propaganda power
be
be
will
of -
–
,
approach
programme and its
(
,
expect that
The corporate sector would
unable and
additional job opportunities
power
if
to
,
is
It
and
and
and opportunities
reasonable
economic
and
power
create enough job
enough control over the capitalist enclave
social democratic
This
with only
needs another
gain
income property
redistribution
unable
the middle classes
from
economic resources
redirect
create
(
is
income
to
.2 ).
2
government
population
alleviate poverty
doing too little
Africa
South
sector
sections
the lower classes
to
)
income
all
to
,
;
enough
transfer
despite
dysfunctional because the African
it
unassertive
and
liberal capitalist version
the white controlled capitalist enclave
and unable
also
is
system
is
of
opportunities
Africa the
bonanza
dysfunctional because
serve
rescue
and natural resources
democratic capitalism
unwilling
to
to
own human
Africa
South
wait
, ,
Africa
come
serious systemic dilemma
privileged position
.2 ).
and wealthiest country
South
South Africa faces
4
)
,
to
most
developed
countries
however
inclinations
group
a
regard foreign
a
ANC should
and suspend
path
.
rely
section
see
mature
high growth
of
of (
as on
government aid
a
the
As
country
foreign
the or
crucially important for the ANC
its
and poverty
(
and relieve unemployment
on
strategy that will place the South Africa economy
only
the
as
American world
-
liberal British
neo
-
collaborative relationship with
CAPITALISM
the local corporate sector into accepting
the
pressurised
leaders have been
section
3
by see
apartheid (
liberate blacks from
for
VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC
SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC
A
457
it
policy
for
If
for
to
at
another
acknowledge the beginning
will
case
regain
is
sectors
,
is
this
the
corporate
government
elected
of
.
the
If
.
of
global apartheid
what Thabo
it
no
apartheid
from
the
Africa
South
prospects
the domestic and foreign
implement
to
needs
the web
we will have
Then
a
support
helpless captive
sovereignty
is
it
',
slim
.
very
of
the
become
a
only
to
global apartheid
highly unlikely that the democratically
political
entity
that South Africa was liberated
1990s with
the
regarded
longer possible
of
awful truth
of
the
dependent and powerless
referred
be
power shift must
DONE ?
BE
TO
global corporatism
“
Mbeki himself has
the grip
from
as
a
has indeed become
point where
in
disengage
to
government
to
of
proceeded
to
has already
'S
TRANSFORMATION : WHAT
the
INCOMPLETE
as
4 : AN
PART
the
social upliftment and
the corporate sector may
counter
are
policy will
stake when these
at
is
such
more
of
also
a
.
What
eggs
'.
goose that lays the golden
‘
could
redistribution policy with the argument that
comprehensive
neo
that the
the basis for increasing the
a
economy
the
It
of
capacity
be
defence
oriented approach has provided
liberal and globally
kill the
of
line
The second
productive
of
.
poverty alleviation
kinds
458
of
-
of
ill
.
'.
It
.
may argue
. ,
4 2
the corporate
dubious ways
Africa But more
is
first elite that 50
that could only propose
‘
of
into
consequence
almost
a
system
the It
entered
stone
.
cast
-
,
South
.
of
accepting agreements that
not
sector
to
in
power
can
-
,
and that
,
are
a
-
'
,
.
a
to
is
'
to
an
are
section
The momentous
economic problems The agreement
-
socio
date
that the elite
sacrosanct
in
–
all
time
economic policy and South Africa
afford
unspecified future
.
.
1993
's
an
'
to
in
per cent solution
November
We can
acknowledge that these agreements
nine years since the ANC and the corporate compromise was
the urgency
bloody revolution
into
the people
the
dead
extraordinary
to
of
the
at
irrespective
their importance
to
.
in
an
is
its
)
the corporate sector ought
,
importantly
compromise
detail
-
interests
live
important argument but one that
.
used
from
opt hesitant ANC leaders
term
-
long
co
,
the
Africa
of
in
were not
be to
of
it
and the ANC
Aswe argued
challenged
or
–
coerce
,
convince
This
global partners
its
with
(
sector
be
.
they are therefore inviolable
But when we consider
sector may claim
,
concluded between
that these compromises saved South
and should
-
on
the
,
to
poverty the problem the long run wewill all
take
twist the trade off over
poor have
defence the corporate
third line
compromises
in
of ‘,
a
As
postponing the solution As Keynes observed
interests
inclined
all the more pressing
their predicament becomes
addressing
inclined
vested
under which
sector
in
.
to
short term
conditions
inhuman
The corporate
and therefore
-
favour
take place
the future its
in
time
view
of
myopic
ought
of
the majority
the
-
of
defensive arguments are raised the terms which the trade off between privileged minority and the long term interests the short term interests
of
-
,
global corporatism
sector and
to
system
decisions have
over the past eight
its
of
-
'
,
.
a
in
it
,
co
of
be
.
is
an
to
When
independent stand
should
further power shift not only
interaction with the domestic corporate
careful
sector
the
the corporate
from be
'
,
sector
does the
things
.
the proper affairs
the private
liberating itself it
the corporate
the many
for
it
its
“
:
accomplish
succeeds
proper corporate
The market
‘
to
stated
of
in
terminated
the
empower
sector
but also
to
a
interference
,
government
its
Africa needs
take
fulfil
in
the government
of
If
enough space
interfere unduly
in
South
to
not
no
the opportunity
given
undue influence and prescriptions turn
be
,
this should
operation between
way imply that the corporate to
be
,
sector
the
also
the government
structural stranglehold
and
and pedantic
enough
economic
free market
and with
Should
that should
economists
in
its
corporate
given
).
119
:
'(
must
based
ideological
Arthur Okun has correctly
be
.. .
1975
].
well
As
sector should not
sector
suspended
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the capital market
to
emerging entrepreneurial class access
should
far
'
investment that could have
private sector investments
in
crowding
relieving
the additional advantage
be
intensive public
without
and
important
in
in
unemployment and poverty
,
of
savings and investment policy
a
countered
in
be
far
without
cannot
to
financial
redirecting investment
. But
To
sector ,
stability
compromise macroeconomic
to
–
the trend towards enclavity
CAPITALISM
for
government must be careful not
VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC
in
SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC
A
highly
.
skilled and professional labour
465
TRANSFORMATION : WHAT 'S
capital - intensive
consider the appointment
of
induce both labour and capital
to
towards capital intensity is
conglomerates . The government should therefore few
,
,
,
extended colonialism
it
,
in
vulnerable countries
and
embarked
in
of
the great risks involved
the
developing
liberalisation
government
favour
Poor South
such
are
inherent
exploitable
entity
without the necessary
'
'
opened
Africa
devaluation
problem
an
a
,
ie
-
which South Africa became
foreign exchange market was
its
nature
up
in
'
'
system
in
2001
is
the end
international
when
of
at
of
the
the rand
the
harmful
South
The government should consider the possibility that the dramatic systemic
global
the Rich North
global financial and currency markets that in
's
erratic swings
will
.
not
properly consider
distorted power structures
the
control institutional
and
overhasty
the
of
globalisation
.
the international flow
capital and trade When
did
the
also
counteract the strong tendency towards capitalist enclavity
incomplete without reconsidering the policy
capitalism
If
African
the South
and with
,
to
economic power property
of
ised during the period
be
continue
remain fundamentally unrestructured
inequalities
Attempts
allowed
is
economic sectors
of
will
unacceptable
a
to
economy
comprehensive
a
.
multitude
of
between
formulate
corporations that control economic activity
in
collusion
of large
the rise
to
the oligopolistic nature of the corporate sector.
policy for counteracting
.
reverse these trends
to
linked
also
to
rewards and
how
or
The tendency
investigate
to
in
can be used
commission
a
,
penalties
important issue that the government needs
a
an
be
should
on in
This is such
labour - intensive
less
in
.
counteracted
and
the modern sector to
in
it
more
become
the production processes
DONE ?
to
of
The strong tendency
BE
TO
in
: AN INCOMPLETE
so
4
as
PART
,
,
property
The two
to
a
distributive shifts
20th century
were induced
.
'
will not
possible
the mainly
the previous
distributive coalition
is
new
in
behalf
'
a
such that
be
it
,
capitalist elite and
of
'
forged between the old
early 1990s remains intact
be
not occur
Afrikaners and the black elite respectively
.
4
66
We have
of
the
third politically induced distributive shift should therefore
opportunities
.
of
.
economic growth
black lower classes The additional power shift discussed subsection
and
will probably
distributive shift
on
effect
elite
the
'
political
‘
new
a
the
led a
for
.1 .4
favour
incomplete without
the impoverished lower classes
and fourth quarters
distributive coalition in
by
If
the third
political power shifts
the strong
that
through market
that took place
to
classes
-
spontaneously
redistributing income
3
section
in
in
the rich middle
explained
to
economic transformation would
comprehensive policy from
restore social justice be
socio
in
agenda
distributive shift
-
for
.35
Effecting
a
An 11 .
.
circumspection and differentiation
forged
OF DEMOCRATIC
VERSION
the governing elite and representatives
poverty
and unemployment problems . The economic be
and interdependently
governing
and should
enthusiastically
occur
supported
elite
-
' –
If
as
as
,
in
.
,
can
the
-
of
-
to
of
is
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.
-
,
the
the
to
+ 2
per
major
of
a
–
of
view
to
– in
of
9
of
be be
of
a
to on
on
.
1994
-
a
socio economic
–
from
especially
and
the delivery
of
a
will have
social and
.
it
,
a
to
in
of
,
held
captive
structural unemployment and abject poverty
the
and
to
those
terms
of
,
systems
social justice
the
in
–
to
restore
and property
In
, ie
(
implementing measures
make
capitalist enclave intact and
and extravagant wealth
exploitative
developed but
The government will have
leaving
will
efficiency and equality that
not only
'
-
(
).
1975
undeserved
off
Trade
‘
efficiency
between
the
a
off
-
Big
approach
social democratic
).
formidable grip
of if
is
a
–
is
,
victimised
of
were
the
by
(
,
and equality
)
of
,
largely
rich
who
to
-
to the
between
with
also
very negative affect
developing countries
ie
in
-
trade
GDP
fiscal point
purely
zero sum trade
Okun
it
new
GDP that can
November 1993
per cent
and
the impoverished majority
the
as
re -
to
especially
off
, is
according
the percentage
government spending
the government accepts
evaluate
the budget and
social democratic
embark
on
in
the
,
or
.
is ,
It
.
a
As
economic services
will
property
highly doubtful whether the implementation
The strict control over had
and
through
fiscal policy was justifiable
conservative
social spending
have
however
the
are serious about
income
government
elite compromise
from
conditions
we
ever
measures
reform
persuaded
the restriction
2002
economic
inevitable
of
–
be
can
not realistic
corporations put together
larger transfer
.
in
achievement
soon
a
to
–
the
,
at
and property
the budget
perspective
richer and
even
their employees
of
to
of all
it
.
of
to
agreed
that
the initiative
the government
strict
will probably become
socio
abolished Lowering the budget deficit
such
economic
trickle down
higher growth doesmaterialise
corporate image building
a
in
social justice
take place
–
for
,
the
are used
redistributive approach
cent
rates
strong enough
improving the living conditions
Consequently
through land reform
taxed
rich
social programmes alleviating the dismal
lumpenproletariat
to
enclave
limited
and their families
restoration
generate
.
even
succeed
waiting for higher
the population
the the
poorer Although many corporations have social programmes
they are often
think that
point
–
capitalist
or
the poor
If
of
in
the poorer half
mainly
have
is
,
of
to
the capitalist enclave the
in
effect
–
growth
no
in
A
unemployment there
case
of .
to
long necessary degree shift cannot take place place As current ideological orientation and policy approach remain distributive
in
the
the new
of
empowerment
.
by
simultaneously
of civil society concerned with
population and the distributive shift should
,
impoverished part
the
of
between
CAPITALISM
the
SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC
A
467
the
;
.
2 2
the see
)
;
of
table
an
to
,
'
of
democratisation
educate
Those
who
the
true nature
of
in
of in a
white
taxation
(
or
programme South
of
accompanied
a
should
by
were
whites about
and their responsibility
the heavy
against their
place An increase
.
and racial capitalism programmes
will have
the impoverished
of
to
and property reform
them
The danger
when the exploitative systems
African
towards the impoverished and victimised
are opposed
principle
to
political domination
to
if
during the long period
compensate
against
in
on
be
injustices committed
be
grave
their shoulders
in
the
for
social responsibility resting
a
.
real one
whites remain unconvinced
The
the growth
harm
that higher taxation and additional property reform measures
will
task
of
the capitalist enclave
greater
large
of
difficult
.
the
economy and a
’
-
'
over tax
with
larger distributive shift
is
additional resources for
and employment capacity
adult education
dualistic
wealthy taxpayers
a
-
the
strong anti tax culture
will present the government
government can
disruptive effect
a
of
and
of
the
danger that
African economy
the South
a
)
(
enough
)
the
property and as
political democracy of
new
–
's
.
a
and property
highly modern and developed capitalist enclave and
both white and black
,
and small be to
its
programmes related
entitlement
Africa
South
broadly based
capacity
undeveloped periphery
.
unspecified
. tax
a
economy with
majority
,
to
all
postponed up
ignored
,
,
,
by
a
'
The limited
history
that
important that property should not only
small black elite
–
be
to
is ,
It
.
Zimbabwe
from
is
to
be
-
in to
learnt
rights
entitlement
ancestors
large
remedy the dismal remnants
enhance the transfer
however crucially
deepened
the relatively
black economic empowerment
land reform
to
,
business development
majority
the
accordance with well structured
,
housing
education
‘
entitlement
or
cannot
class
the government should speed
Consequently
mobilising
of
.
,
apartheid
wealth
–
and
property –
and
.
'
of
‘
colonialism
should
create
,
,
programmes The lesson
reform
transferred
redistribution
The
additional measures
improve the
proprietor
propertyless classes
and
distribution
blacks
problem
and transfer productive property and assets from
and privileged
small
disadvantaged property
address the poverty
'
complemented
be
relatively
.
income
poorest
to
of
majority
disadvantaged
the
of
2
by
have
will neither
income
employment and educational opportunities
to
income and
the large income and property gaps
narrow
will
income
468
the richest
between
.1 ).
3 3
,
per cent
place through
2
a
larger transfer
nor sufficiently
date
gap
the
alarming
per cent
,
72
households receiving only (
to
to
receiving
(
households
narrow
DONE ?
BE
TO
of income should take
transfer
be
40 20
per cent
But
of
larger
alleviate poverty
per cent
figure
,a
and
trade -off
new
budget
TRANSFORMATION : WHAT ' S
AN INCOMPLETE
to
this
4:
of of
PART
additional taxation and
.
of
an
set
on
,
be
,
.
to
it
,
to
on
It
.
or
the plans
If
-
.
present
ought
is
along with
to
,
ie
)
-
(
spending
one possibility
at
be
, of
,
is
in
delivery
the
to
the
)
HIV AIDS
health services and particularly
high priority
.
be
those affected ought
and especially
/
diseases
Improved to
.
the
poor
meaningful difference (
indeed make
a
will
a
in
urban areas with some free water and electricity
it
,
,
of
'
on
the
all as
for
as
is
of for
system
will
resources
the people who qualify
.
causing havoc among
poverty
transferring
social spending
per cent
is
-
the
of
problem
including improvements
the poor Widely spread contagious
food security
possible and benefits those
social assistance are not receiving assistance
for
are
lives
of by
in
. on
it
,
that almost
fully implemented
can
complexity
the amount budgeted 50
in
for
and housing
supply every household
of be
to
-
inexcusable
effective
and
precautions
necessary
the existing social security
,
,
,
an
increase
qualify
on
improvement
welfare health
take
the most effective methods in
An
.
poor
the
decide
.
difficult
to
it
most Given
the poor
more comprehensive redistribution
should
spending
ensure that redistributive
rooted out
rooting out crime and violence
Therefore
positive distributive effect
poverty alleviation programmes
that should
Ironically the poor are the main
and criminal system
government embarks
who need
redistribution
‘
a
have
paying handsomely for
are
, .
.
the
–
of
an –
versions
crime violence and
serious crimes are successfully
crime and corruption
criminality and violence
oddly
If
judicial
means
per cent
‘
are
,
punished
improved
10
.
and
that fewer than
many criminals These
will
towards the
elite
present day South Africa that income
of
Given
prosecuted
victims
the black
excuse
.
of
the harsh reality
being wrongly and unlawfully redistributed corruption
the
the last resort not
some members
new black
lifestyles are often based for
.
this can
the
ry . majority
part
is
But
of
attitudes
debt
in
should however
many members
and that their extravagant in
indifferent impoverished
with
show
,
of
is
still rather fragile
high levels
It
elite were
would also
greater compassion
the impoverished black majority
that the economic position
acknowledged elite
the black
of
behalf
on
to take the initiative
poor
,
if
of
predicament
'
majority
impoverished
the
distributive coalition
new
a
organisations ought
black elite
important precedent
of the still
sake
huge
a
It
make sacrifices for the
of blacks . Prominent
realise that they too have
should
of ,
to
-
undeserved
.
system
enrichment is largely
– whose
.
responsibility
often
capitalist
It
artificial, and
of the
only
be
important that the new black elite
also
forging
proper functioning
to
It is
, and
stability
, not
the perspective
from
be
of the legitimacy ,
areas
these
be narrowed
to
democratic perspective but also
a
the
social justice and
a
essential for these gaps
It is
an
.
cannot be left unattended from
CAPITALISM
should realise that the growing inequalities in
reform
of
property
VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC
for
SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC
A
469
50
( or
of
at
to
–
of
in
is
of
by
.
a
a
The
impoverished
majority the
of
is
What South Africans cannot afford
of
of a
in
or
better future
the
to
the heavy
dramatically improved
few
.
is
also fallacious
BIG
supply
the conspicuous consumption
of
a
coexistence
system
absence
and
the wealthy
fractured
the
social welfare and social insurance safety net
,
4
of
41 , a
an
is
,
and
argument that South Africa cannot afford the
with
expedient excuse
the
poverty and destitution
morally
will become dependent
are already morally
.
of
burden
the foreseeable
programme
of
Most poor people
middle class
in
23
. ).
programme
the feasibility
least the poorest half
sector
BIG
argue that the poor
to
;
such
a
morally degraded
a
-
an
as
of
)
.
fallacious by
is
questionable
households
many unemployed people
formal
The argument that
slim
DONE ?
BE
the government ought
1996
month
The prospects the
TO
programme
term
R100 per capita
and thus wage income
very
is
future
urgent short
table
per cent
R1 000
than
by
finding jobs
(
the population
was less
10 3
of
basic income grant
-
consider
)
population
BIG
of
seriously
monthly expenditure
see
to
the
Given that per cent
TRANSFORMATION : WHAT ' S
INCOMPLETE
AN
the
4:
(
PART
and the destitution
.
the many
a
of
is
in
in
to
of
per
,
3 5
is
–
,
.
in
is
-
in
.
of
for
a
inclined
highly
romanticise for
been
to
in
to
of
control
ideological
the ANC Alliance and the ANC
's
of
determine the
in
.
-
in
was
16
1970
,
GDP
it
per cent
in
was
of
GDI
30
investment
)
of
places the elite
).
NEC
(
Whereas gross domestic
representation
powerful position
both the caucus
(
national executive committee
fundamentally different
first world countries
of
to
extraordinarily
a
is a
.
an
in
4
It
.
in
.
as
of
exiles may have
parliamentary
orientation and decisions
470
first world
consumption patterns
and
Consequently
those adopted
The proportional system
ANC
cent
capitalist enclavity
to
,
production
these
long period
towards first world
Poor South with developmental problems that require policy approach
the
less than
may have been difficult first world them reality typical developing country the harsh that South Africa the
the developed appreciate
exiled
the trend
of
developed countries some
issues
the informal sector during the negotiations some ANC leaders
'
exposed
the population
-
favoured
the
doubtful whether
economic
address
South Africa
had been
the
to
already
Having being
who
those
the Rich North
this expenditure
believe that
to
–
countries
of
3
especially some
, of
of
large part
a
total spending and reason
such
the poorer half
Consumer spending
,
2
developing and dualistic country
We have
to
countries
and insight needed
wisdom
growth
economic
the business leaders serving
, it '
from
they possess
meet the challenges
Most
'.
in
highly developed the
are
council
how
South Africa
of
on
'
international business leaders and development
5
of
at
of
in
The International Investment Council was established 2000 the initiative president Thabo Mbeki distinguished draw upon the wisdom and insights to
1
Endnotes
SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC
.
, ;
. an
as
,
(
the
it
South
.
private wealth
Latin America
and
,
of
case
's
Africa
of
.
to
of
to the
40
per cent
Africa Before
South
liberalise the movement
per cent
in
to
is
by
,
,
–
in
and commitment
the fact that 17
to
of
in
Asia
Financial Mail Thomas 2002
65 job
.
of
,
the case
are
claiming that
also benefit
.
–
a
,
,
has
,
by
.
will
are
cent There
.
per
18
South African factories
retrench large numbers
of
indications that financial institutions
also
staff over the
years
.
next five
goods produced
in
,
the volume
by
years
per cent but employment has slumped
,
by
increased
of
.
is
towards mechanisation
over the past
in
in
,
to 2
– 6
in
volume and quality Consequently they have swung strikingly illustrated This trend the fact that
,
,
match global prices
strongly
26 10
have
to
to
a
1 2
,
(
the
),
manufacturing have losses per cent year per cent year accelerated from 1992 1997 2001 global competition South African companies Given their increasing exposure to
According
in
per cent
50
:
,
:
in
,
in
).
12
to
if
,
only
compared
will
moved offshore But these corporations
corporate pressure
should have taken note
kept outside Africa 3
is
their investment
government gave
it
capital
semi
and
comparative
main
complex industrial products transport goods South Africa demonstrates
which they say
their main listings
inevitably reduce
the new
an
'.
Its
.
and intermediary
economic
.
(
),
and
in
petrol
finance expansion
African economy
will
of
an
to
products
These corporations have justified their internationalisation easier for them
49 –
,
,
to
of
generate
anticipation
founded
-
a
well
,
to 109
–
:
in
as
are
,
of
chiefs
,
of
under the rule
manipulation
other
are
political
as
:
in
,
of
. in
In
labour that seems
growing joblessness and absence
to
of
is a
to
or
to
of
economies
forced
live
our country thus
,
the main urban
is
to
the working class that
of
to
is
this section
relationship
of
to
of
.
a
parasitic type
of
a
-
informal self employment
It
who are seeking
light
and vulnerable growing phenomenon informal settlements there shacklords forms extortion against the unemployed and vulnerable workers place potential areas employment retain live closer a
all the
who carry out
susceptible
to
.
In
therefore highly
They constitute the reserve army
the
the former bantustans they
.
economic opportunities patronage
'
in
of
in
be
to
areas
permanently reserved
of
a
the former Bantustan
is
In
in
the
, ‘
of
employment Central Committee the SACP the peripheral sector largely described the following terms The unemployed concentrated the periphery our urban areas informal settlements well
of
publication
are
8
,
of ,
related
those
Cling 2001
economic
products that are most dynamic global trade such information technology machinery and transport equipment see
specialisation
absence
FDI equal
“
going
in
in
energy
the high
achieve
's
are
inflow
growthmanship and globalisation
the idea that they are
rather than
equipment capital goods
9
in
(
GDS and
South Africa main exports are mining and agricultural manufactured products the metal and wood subsectors disadvantages
10
Schrire 1992
of
–
levels
and increased only
trade liberalisation and other market liberalisation
,
hope
94
–
in
of
in
of
27
of
in
of )
14
in A
by
off
-
in
1995 that
represents
1980
Smit
1994 2002 low
the protagonists
certainly good but
are
GDP
GDP since 1994 cannot expect
Krugman observed
take 7
GDP
growth rate predicted
measures
per cent
country with such
).
per cent
1
only
s127
a
6
to
:
SARB 2002
only
per cent
16
to
about
to
slightly
averaged
GDS
average
of
domestic dropped
CAPITALISM
and has increased only marginally since then Gross per cent GDP the 1960s and 1970s
1993
(
savings
VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC
,
of
GDP
cent
an
per
A
471
and
other forms
social ills
society
'
criminality
to
of
being highly vulnerable
DONE ?
BE
TO
of
TRANSFORMATION : WHAT ' S
INCOMPLETE
all
4 : AN
PART
as
) is
an
in
,
of
of -
in
(
-
low
sector
labour and
child
the human being
economic
the non formal sector household and communal 21
indomitable odds against survival
are
:
).
2000
'(
in
the face
the non formal
the use
-
in
,
collapse
the
infrastructure
returns
the widespread depreciation
of
.. .
asset and
work
of
and
The self exploitation for
the long hours
in
women
follows
of :“
puts this
reflected
The net effect these reimbursements that the predominantly white taxpayers paying more than R60 billion less February taxes from March 2000 until a
.
This amount would have made
28
substantial difference
relief
poverty
to
2003
1
in
is
of
12
as
Mhone
in
11
(
).
SACP 2002
.
measures
that
than
CE
in
as
those
Africa
South
be
).
in
.1
A
appendix
spending
in
of
table
the same level
to
increased
of
GDP should
does however imply higher levels
more progressive approach may less marked English oriented business circles Afrikaner and black business circles than
,
.
‘ -
and may therefore
poverty
to
have been exposed
In
contrast
both the Afrikaner and the black communities
towards
is
of
of
.. .
of
to
,
develop
of
,
and the rapid
and women
increase
,
children
in
,
of
knowledge
culture and language and
are
,
also includes access
not
safety and
and rising employment the abject and population the the high levels crime and
of
of
).
'(
's
This entails
the citizen
Given high
the widespread abuse
time
commitment
to
,
to
enjoy one
one Mbeki 2002b worsening poverty the poorest half violence
caring society
these
to
of
every person
and freedom
identity
heart
includes the critical right
also
's .It
It
to
banish ignorance
the
.. .
important feature
a
.. .
of
want
from
.
freedom
decided
the
by
of
the ANC over
as
1997 and 2000
At
ie
(
took the view
the
policy position
security and the inviolability to
committee
achieve people centred development and build
only
the
policy
valid and correct
has been the stability
the 51st national conference
The national executive
the ANC
An 's)
of
:‘
conferences remain
our
on
as
December 2002
that the essential pillars
its
held
in
,
to
ANC
be
,
In
15
.
comprehensive poverty alleviation programme August 2002 Mbeki commented follows
more sympathetic
a
-
with the English speaking community
globalisation
towards
less inclined
be
black businesses
,
Afrikaner and
are
in
a
towards
'.
change
to
The resistance in
be
a
(
at
present
14
percentage
see
.
It
countries
, of
as
spending
does not imply that social
democratic approach
the social
,
13
The acceptance
472
's
.
in
's do a
)
'I
a
of of
leadership
' .
to
kind
future
behaviour
in
a
to
:
',
in
be
,
ie
(
a
it
is
to
situation
project
proper exercise
take pride
rising
the people
worsening poverty order
in
, by
,
as
.
to
-
of
,
is
in
)
us
should
communicating
the people
not think that of
do
not think any one Mbeki 2002b
it
To
I
,
that
least three events have enabled
the corporate sector
further consolidate
its
; do
2002
proven
Mbeki declared
to
At
16
(
Mtshali
and horrible
terrible
create something
communicate
the
Mtshali
).
is
really
I
And
‘
added
:
He
that does not exist and then
which
rapidly deteriorating
and crippling economic recession to
,
,
gloom
our country
KwaZulu Natal
November 2002 Responding
particularly brilliant leadership
.'
is
it
of
sense
Dr
(
situation
unemployment inflation not think
Lionel Mtshali premier
Provinces NCOP in
that
by
(
) of
,
concern
the
National Council
of
speech
a
to
response
to
infection rates these remarks rather puzzling Mbeki unwillingness acknowledge the severity and worsening nature poverty was again evident his
HIV
the the
NP
the
.
vis
-à its
25
of
to
vis
of
.
25
's
of
to
,
-à -
‘
close
not only
in
,
,
.
tow
,
in
in
of
on
'.
”
as
of
a
as
ill
“
as
at
.
of
oriented
,
,
The
African
South
the other 630
income see World Bank (
its
.
-
of
,
4
-
Africa
Saharan
per cent
Africa while
sub Saharan cent
sub
,
of 45
1 1
,
of
that 89
of
a
,
of
of
).
:
per but received only population million receives
receive
63 per
good
variety
a
bless
a
-
a
growth
1
to
is
it
'(
their duty We
has become
'
,
of
per
42
,
or
.
in
of
the income
in
of
a
:
).
,
I
,
,
10
1
Even
invoked
state
)
(
a
If
'
:
modern may
to the
]
this
2000
:
of
interests
.[
a
particular interests
general
has
all ’ of ( ..
of
[
the
they were
capitalist class
class effectively able
.
9 )
if
as
capitalist class are represented
,
Moreover
.
hold entire states and societies hostage
as
who
the are
investors
,
of
the
.. .
The disciplinary power
interests
the
.. .
and endangering the popular legitimacy
of
”
.. .
.. .
.. .
capital strike
state
the
investors
"
as
follows
of
to
state sector
business confidence
effect they may subject the
economic activity
the democratic
to a “
“
of
the democratic
hold
Mark Rupert describes the power or
.
of
the corporate sector
,
.
invest there
prioritising
]
itself with social
moral philosophy
branch
feel neglectful
1964
cent
Africa
South
conditions
the incumbent government
of
in
a
of
to
, . It
in
'(
a
it
in
vis be
-à -
maintain
depressing levels
effect
.
's
an
se is on
to
is
a
,
in
it
must also concern
Africa with
underestimated
In
to
not
of
to
decline
we
.
'
:
, a
as
of 37
should
vis
’
'
fails
fare
645 million people
South
income
world
per cent
capitalist sector state
much
. ).
15 in
;
1999
The ability and inclination hostage
primary
itself with something more than
Phelps 1965
the latter territory receive only
figure
least
economic
2 1
of
46
2000b
population
million people
income and
million
add
sense become
becomes the more
word
-
world income
richest
must
loses specific meaning
Sub Saharan Africa has
per cent
employment
social priorities
,
causes and the more
cent
likely
which
social welfare
economic growth
James Tobin warns that economic growth
and the better
word
policy
primarily
the hidden and indirect costs
which economists have been
in
other
of
is
an In
words
.
priorities
economist such
component
are interested
Economics must concern
output and
need more study
income
)
:
social priorities
area
per capita
also convinced that economists should justify economic growth
merely maximum This
increase
of
is
reflection
sovereignty
such precarious suppositions that
the adoption
then
as
,
1967
'(
to
on
.. .
of
terms
seems
based per
all
be
and intangible and
society
Hansen
of
18
Alvin
.. .
years has
use
35 – 7
are
all
If aim
policy
welfare
placed
taken into account
identify
growth
economic
if
in
social welfare
prove that
the tangible
growth
,
the new government
the tendency
'
an
easy
to
is
improvement
the least emphasis should
19
to
in
Mishan claims that
with
0
This
and concluding several elite compromises
that have significantly diminished
Ezra
it
ANC leadership core
it
with
20
opportunity
golden
During the legitimacy
but especially the ANC government Thirdly and perhaps most importantly corporate sector succeeded taking the hesitant and the early 1990s
inexperienced
78
over the past
further diminish the sovereignty
NP
with
sector
global partners
its
relationship
the corporate sector
and global corporatism
corporate
the South African
given
17
global capitalism
a
The rise
the beleaguered
the power and influence
enhanced
of
.
state
liberal capitalism
sell
to
considerably
sector
CAPITALISM
years the state over the past regime the NP government crisis
the apartheid
enabled the corporate
vis
and privilege
of
20
years
’
of power
position last
VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC
vis
SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC
A
473
said in February
to
of
.
it
in
a
,
of
.
'
in
of to
If
it
.
,
to
is
.
to
its
in
the best example
internal agricultural
on
vis
-
It
can
of
on
if it
,
,
as
,
.
to
statistics the
,
is
per
,
Moreover
20
the next
per cent
per cent
3 1
. , of 3. 2 ).
tables
2002
).
:
'(
ibid
20
of
SSA
of of
,
and that
2000
1995
2000
.
–
025
than
20
of
),
2000
the
cent the population declined per cent 2000 that the next
(
in
20
per
to
R1
that the poorest in
in
R628
,
in
R626
,
`
to
of
as the
.
R336
SSA these figures indicate population were even poorer 2002 than
these latest
of
.
in
of
R181
R181 R336 -
in
-
–
1995
less than
-
R392 R803
1995
the poorest
to
from
1995
to
R200 R393
1995 to
from
in
less than R200 in
from
(
in
R1 103
the monthly per capita income
that
severe than reflected
households declined from less 2000 prices and that the next
in
R660
2000
more
even
According
per cent
-
from
's
of
20
of
the poorest
GEAR NEPAD
failure
figures showing
released new
this book
in
in
households
Africa
SSA
panacea for South
unemployment and poverty problems
28
,
it
was presented
the poor since 1994
less than R620
of
1995
to
monthly income
for
press
in
to
panacea
the position by the earlier figures used deterioration
it
is
of
.
's
to
Africa
,
as
going
before
in
Perhaps
Africa
unemployment and poverty problems Following
According
Africa global apartheid
own interests with little concern for the
spends huge amounts
When GEAR was announced
is 23
system
upliftment Another deficiency NEPAD that the same neo liberal principles and the same naïve optimism the GEAR
mean little
now presented
Shortly
the
while Africa primarily exports agricultural products NEPAD fails the need restructure global economic relations
the
's
Africa
political
trapped
-
on
.
strategy
474
of
in
vis -à
,
, to
based
is
doomed
cent
promote
the last
income between the Rich North and
the Rich North
of
is
position
convince the Rich North
R660
and
the fact that the Rich North
subsidies
formula for the
realise that
ideological power that has
the impoverished and powerless
interests this
the distribution
of
The Rich North
in
dependency is
of
situation
NEPAD should
decisively important but the unequal distribution
corporate economic
,
military
is
the Poor South that
a
,
not the inequality
nothing but
long
empower
majorities
their impoverished
behalf
NEPAD turns out
.
‘
resort
Africa
Africa The architects
'
recolonisation
if
tragic
of
would
for
be
themselves and exert their sovereignty
be
of
African countries
interest
term
only
enables democratic governments
the
'
movement ) is centre left ( 1999 : 96 ). Although this has not been explicitly acknowledged , NEPAD
22
(as liberation in
in
right , and [ the ] ANC
centre
be
[ ideologically )
in
movement and the ANC
a liberation
is
'we must distinguish government . . . The ANC
1999 that
'
ANC as
the
[ in government ]
MP,
ANC
an
:
between
,
to
Turok
BE DONE !
TO
is ,
Ben
TRANSFORMATION : WHAT ' S
a
INCOMPLETE
of
Prof
21
AN
in
:
50
4
a
PART
the
Appendix
The history
of democratic
the liberal capitalist British - American (BA ) world , and social democratic continental European ( CE) countries
capitalism
have adapted
to the
the
ince decolonisation
British
in
,
of
and the collapse
in
, most countries of democratic capitalism .
the Soviet Union
dual politico -economic
system
the
by
on
of
.
is , as
–
It
,
of
as
(
.
BA
,
.
,
in
9
–
an
a
, it
( or
to
electorate
the elite group
given
and
authority
,
and
in
by
of
election
elite groups
which
to
made responsible
During
citizens
elections
the
.
are elected
).
,
147
:
which citizens jointly
periodic an
via
achieved
be
by .
.
its
of
(
1996
authority
transfer
to
,
in
power Third citizens
Offe
of
to
the
have
,
is
terms
the state
certain period
.
a
rule the country for
see
they
Second
and property
“
This
chooses among different political parties that gains the most votes
state
linked
are
political power and legitimacy
or
parliaments with legal authority
by
's
. ’
rulers
citizens
power wielded
for ,
by
democracy
the state
in
,
by
the
if
,
be
,
institutions
transfer
's
)
the electorate
those
including South
create state authority
possible misuse
is
representative
however
democratic capitalism
of
a
,
;
,
'
system
the procedures
version
their freedom
social services provided
government and
of
'
create
consequently
and
We call
countries
these
the immense
law against the state
the
by on
protected depend
order
countries
better served
First they help
.
in
maintaining
well
model
democratic capitalism
system
threatened
to
In to
three ways
social democracy
Poor South
far
to
be
A
.
–
adopt the social democratic
any country with
continental European
suits the developmental needs
made that
their developmental needswould
are potentially
in
model really
the ideology
imitating the
are
and legitimised
of
Soviet Union
)
the
countries
strong case can
were
the state
)
,
of
the developing
debatable whether this
Africa
(
-
,
based
previously part
countries
and legitimised
on
countries
Most
world based
and the version prevalent
liberal capitalism
of
)
CE
ideology (
American
of
prevalent in
BA
It is , however , necessary to distinguish among different versions of democratic capitalism . For our purposes it is sufficient to distinguish between the version
477
,
.
. the
'
welfare
society
those members
risk
states accept responsibility
all modern
of .
of
rise
at
in
, the of
living
households
for
in
to
which
for
only the legal framework that makes capitalism system
needed
maintain
just
healthy
and
,
welfare
,
not
or
,
,
is
–
.
and
century
the 20th
to
.
the
,
but also
of
–
particularly
Therefore
creating and maintaining
possible
miniature
minimum standard
economic independence
,
poor
and often
,
eroded
provide social security
becoming
a
and
became necessary
it
an
to
'
of
the
,
the to
state
individuals and
industrialisation and urbanisation
modern labour market extent that
of
, of
a
However the processes
such
security
,
as
to
before 1800
economies Extended
isolated subsistence
degree
considerable
the
),
,
ie
(
framework
paternalistic families established welfare communities offered their members
one that gives law
-
a
economies
modern
evolution
legal order
the
of
is
of
to
Before the rise
households often practised
and contract rights
including corporations
promote their own interests within
and
capitalist economic systems
difficult
long and
security
the legal system
for preventing social chaos
indispensable
western world after
,
of
in
,
referred
formarket oriented
individuals and private organisations freedom
are
for
them
freedom
a
the
in
created
which
protected against the
These laws and traditions include property
power
state
terms
or
.
created
which provide the foundation
While
and
citizens
the
law
of
the rule
power
state
economic opportunity
of which
terms
in
,
potential misuse
are
of
The laws and traditions
are
APPENDIX
.
productive society
,
system
,
,
for
,
‘
' as
the
all
'
social rights
of
a
'
fair trade
).
,
and welfare
crystallised over time into what
we
the
of
,
478
total social
losers
regarded
'
and
for
bringing about the
which often
provide be
to
in
order
–
power
The tripartite link between citizens and the political economic components
of
the
in
,
of
responsible for countering
59
the 248
–
:
]
1983
minority
other
capitalism
democratic
economic
'
'
of
is
'
rights
every
social rights
can therefore not
responsible
Marshall
of
.
,
,
.
Property rights
responsibility
assumed
no
of
, a
In
to
.
system
taxing the winners
1949
(
al
et
,
basic
morally
this argument
had assumed
state
to
,
the for
,
as
a
is
to
, –
in
between the property
Held
certain
human being
The democratic state
Marshall
(
claim
first half
the small propertied class
century
20th
greed and the abuse
social rights
in
off
.
absolute
liberal
the
rights
,
its
he
/
according
capitalism
with basic
property
undeniable
excessive individualism emerge
fully
citizens with social rights According
by
is ,
reason than that
s
individual has
an
for providing
centuries
has since the early
state
all
the democratic
state
a
in
Just
state
and that the state was responsible for
.
century
20th
responsibility for protecting
the
modern civilised
This responsibility was only recognised
them
.
the
providing
that every person
1949
certain social rights
to
was entitled
claimed
in
TH Marshall
can
for
to
.
in
a
all
of
.
in
in
,
its
)
in
the
.
,
,
.
different patterns We
can
.
models
the history
of
CE
BA
'
the by to
in
of
vis
,
.
,
all
a
(
is
and the welfare
capitalism
and
is
is
It
can
–
at As
.
of
maintained
democratic early
an
1914 during
,
1870
to
from
,
to
1950 coinciding with two world wars
representative democracy
,
the early
;
of ,
and the Great Depression
the
,
employment stability under
1973
,
1950
to
from
the Cold War the expansion
of
high economic growth
the welfare
Bretton Woods
the first period
the system
state
and the end
the
,
global capitalism Cold War
democratic capitalism
.?
the welfare
rise
the
and retreat
which has witnessed
of ,
1973
of of
and
the period since
'
rate and
, of ,
;
,
forms
;
the period
of
or
,
the welfare state
state and exchange
‘
1914
the rise
comprising the first phase
iv
periods
of
,
of
iii
age
society
result
: from
political revolutions the golden
also
are
instability
emergence
in
repackaged
-
of of
ii
the period
crisis
of
-
à
or
of ‘
'-
or
'
democracy
laissez faire capitalism
global capitalism
phase
and hence
periods during the past 130 years when
systemic
of
i
the period
power
sound balance
in
of
since 1870
subject
power
large
power
repackaging
the total system
The four successive
During
society
the
welfare sectors become too great
also identify important differences among the
capitalism
state
characterised the
‘
is
vis -
.
to
that
a
so
challenge
institutionalised
were
system
change
but
vis the other two sectors
the detriment
four systemic
'
–
great
'
can
identify
three components state
too
,
the
with
redefining institutions
We
and
fixed
capitalist sector also with negative consequences faced
The welfare
and the welfare state
our dynamic world
democratic
the
the
vis
-
à
happen that the power
power
, of
the
become
can
of
,
organisational
balance
continuously
terms
century see Marshall
',
not
ideological
and
citizens
,
,
capitalism In
democratic
technological
disturb
state
20th
capitalism
continuous change and adaptation capitalist sector
welfare
.'
the
the west The
1983
of
'
'
system
of
the
third quarter
The relationship between democracy total
the
.
gradual rise
triumphed
).
1949
]
Held
(
et
al
to
flourish during
,
of
democracy
which certain basic social rights are provided began
has
19th century
(
has witnessed
is
.
by
in
the
after World War
the
20th
During
all
.
century
rise
The 18th
equal legal rights
and the legal system
1800
capitalism
note that
countries over equal political rights for
western the
1918
In
citizens
-
struggle
western countries
of
took place
for
the
.
since then created
space in
all
citizens This
respectively
and 20th centuries
struggle was largely won
CAPITALISM
interesting for
19th
the to
18th
century witnessed long struggles
-
this occurred
,
during the
system
state
It
democratic capitalist welfare
1
call
,
the
THE HISTORY OF DEMOCRATIC
was strictly 479
to
.
lower classes gained representation
to
.
of
a
to
,
democracy started
in
BA
in
low
.
1 3
relatively
and exchange rate
After World War
representative
played
countries
political
.
of
system
a
accepted
consensus
the two world wars
1
the gold standard
,
abolition
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to
to
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1950
by
1914
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growth owing
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the outbreak
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-
important role
laissez faire capitalism
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The parliaments
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power
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classes Except for Germany
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APPENDIX
which the
establish welfare systems for the
and because
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THE HISTORY OF DEMOCRATIC
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1973
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1950
high and sustained
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1950
,
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,
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the third period
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During
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as
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by
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prediction that democratic capitalism
's
Schumpeter
central
different solution
competing ideologies offered the
Nazism
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,
as
political and economic systems
the depressing social and economic problems
interesting example
,
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. the
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time when serious doubts existed about the
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each
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president
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appropriateness
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in
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Deal
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ideological currents
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-
,
democracy capitalism
Franklin Roosevelt launched his view
remained
That country only began
).
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1929
of
‘
'
mix
of
Great Depression
laissez faire capitalism
– 33
,
In
the United States
table
A
of cyclical unemployment (
problem
new
deal with stagnant economic conditions and the
to
see
infrastructural facilities
CAPITALISM
481
APPENDIX
found the correct ‘mix ’, and had at long last found
of
was that
and monetary
482
the
of
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(
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Another remarkable characteristic
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for compensating not only for cyclical instability
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for
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OF DEMOCRATIC
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democratic
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CE
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in
countries
democracy
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industrialised countries with
multinational corporations
trade union movement than
statism
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at
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supported
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is
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financial markets
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capitalism
communication
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electronic revolution
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's
victory and the freeing
-
Right
New
and anti- statism
president Ronald Reagan
States and prime minister Margaret Thatcher
of
during the terms
zenith
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ideological swing
an
of
reached
Right ,
The ensuing ideological battle was won by the New
the
its
which engineered
.
of
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CAPITALISM
by
THE HISTORY
countries 483
,
,
a
BA
to
cent
to
12
,
to
to
7
more
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1999
GDP
1910
1950
1930
1980
1970
1992
Av
1890
1890
countries was
GDP averaged
spending
Government percentage
:
Table
.T
cent
GDP
countries but considerably
total government spending
A
of
total government spending
countries tend
From
countries see table
percentage
CE
,
as
1999 social spending
the ascendant
percentage
higher than
points
a
percentage
as
government spending
emphasise
during the systemic periods when
even
the social democratic ideology has been
while
),
ascendant
in
in
liberal capitalist ideology
emphasise
tend
during systemic periods when the liberal
even
capitalist ideology has been
larger more active
countries consistently
the
social democratic ideology
state
CE
.
interventionist role (
.
and more
CE
The former consistently gave the democratic
so
did
APPENDIX
1999
30 1
,,
7
25
, , 33 4 41 ,
33 0
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44 8
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BA
of
in
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.
36
,
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:
;
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of
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and
to
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the state
is
1980
;
1992
Dyson
).
,
's
right
– 12
is
.
in
the
countries
sector
questions the latter
countries Harrop
These countries
many sectors
9
BA see
as
annoyance
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France
ability
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,
state
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By
As
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14
,
67 2 29
:
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the state
and
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contrast
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Economic
societies that regard state building and
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3
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32 37 7 8
34 43
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46 ,
60 9
9 36
4 2
,
‘
the state
way
often even hostile towards
484
state
oecd
oecd 2001
and welfare sectors
worlds According
are
table
tables land
and regard state intervention
.
as
to
'
as
legitimate
stateless
regarded
, 7, 8
,
of
countries
state authority
legitimacy
intervene
the public
both
these two
the bureaucratic capacity
defer
1992
,
other European
economy
33 37
29 29 ,
35 0
;
size
Cusack
are not incidental but linked
state and the market and
December 1997
in
countries
Report Washington
World Development
of
The differences
9
,
,
,
( 62 )
Outlook
,
14 3
World Bank 1997
in
:
Source
countries
12 1
France
, 37 , 7
,
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7 1
6 5
US
42 8
, ,
4
22 32 4 0
, , 29 21 ,
14 0
12 24 2 7
, 15 0,
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10 4
, ,
, ,
Sweden
9 0
Germany
-
UK
Liberal capitalist countries
THE HISTORY OF DEMOCRATIC
,
to
.
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of of as
to
of
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public issues should In
.
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thing
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conceptualise the
Britain was neatly
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:
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Smith
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2
.
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in
to
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this hinders the tendency
demand During
.
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protect the property
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innate wisdom
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Smith
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market oriented
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According
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and their
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society
instance
citizens
The
when Thatcher famously declared
encapsulated
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the British people
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materialism
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countries contrasts sharply with the role
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Britain
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David Marquand
reduced
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state
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and
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France maintains
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approach
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entity
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whole
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responsibility
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countries have very
CE and BA
CE
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beings
,
of
Not surprisingly ,
CAPITALISM
quarter
485
century
20th
liberals claimed that should governments
the economic
,
of
-
the
APPENDIX
they would not eliminate unemployment
CE
on
be
of of
to
all
in
,
.
its
CE
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At
.
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rights
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all citizens
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countries and only
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property
BA
to
the propertied
promoting
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;
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.
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government should constrain
was originally unacceptable world
,
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Britain
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of
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to
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accepted paternalistic responsibilities
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introduction
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.13
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David
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86
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THE HISTORY OF DEMOCRATIC
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Thatcher and Reagan
487
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reality
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The large
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gap
APPENDIX
Several economists have argued convincingly that competitive markets are
.
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49 )
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488
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balanced statement
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1992
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THE HISTORY OF DEMOCRATIC
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17
of
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73
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CAPITALISM
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,
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economic growth rates were high prices exchange rates and societies were 489
APPENDIX
employment was maintained
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, BA
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23 In
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style free market
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54
:
1992
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The United
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490
buy
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.21 22
While
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Consequently
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THE HISTORY OF DEMOCRATIC
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21
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see Maddison
domestic laissez faire and
1949 382
social expenditure 24 6
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Africa
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491
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welfare
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# 7
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spending on defence (primarily
American
its
APPENDIX
the
sector only
as
of
view
society was accepted
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9
organic
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492
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THE HISTORY OF DEMOCRATIC The first ( limited ) social legislation was enacted
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Germany would seriously propose abolishing the welfare state This
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1975 1996
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wealth
per cent
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this
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net result unequally
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of
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1994
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1994b
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its
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.
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Washington
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on
.
of
, D .
.
empowerment and security Washington
.
,
.
,
opportunity
.
-.
514
nine
.
Selected world development indicators
oration
the
Press
.
20006
.
Attacking poverty
.
2000a
1983 The emergence organised labour
University
Washington
1997
Yudelman
legacy
Washington
-
report
report
slavery and
Witwatersrand
-
World development
:
:
World development
.
.
Johannesburg
.
.
teenth century Cape Colony World Bank 1996
the chains
.
eds
).
C
N
,
and Crais
,
Worden
(
:
.
Oxford Blackwell
Index
(AMWU )
,
,
40
346
,
,
,
– 7
,
,
95 –
, ,
– 8
,
31
,
–
,
,
68
,
– 7
, )
, (
95 – 7
,
,
53 ,
, ,
–
32 78
,
70
, 45 ,
20
,
,
,
5
,
441
,
,
,
,
20
-
– 16 119 , – 43
40
,
,
330
439
,
345
,
of
Commerce
Department
BAD
)
403
426
,
1906
– 6
375
(
,
122
,
)
payments
,
227
305
Administration 321
124
320
Indians
Chambers
Bambata Rebellion Bantu
225
,
309
,
of
(
, , , , 52
6
, 95 -
,
348
–
346
,
,
29
18
,
-6
)
84
,
270
82 , (
,
,
79
312
264
256
419
330
399 see also
balance
312
,
-
,
77
,
ARMSCOR
of
-4
)
(
of
-6
,
,
73 ,
137
ANC
8
-
,
53
,
–
,
124
ASSOCOM
487
229
225
122
282
182
403
460
1851
arms deals
Asians
,
,
,
,
,
223
/
AAC
108
305
,
,
220
262
the world
, , 70 ,
,
99 45 –
– 2
103
Law
Association
African National Congress
281
166
,
,
,
,
– 4
,
259
Convention
Americanisation
global 458
apartheid
– 3
,
61
107
300
267
HIV AIDS
All African
446
106
251
371 406
apprenticeship
372
tribal 228 243 see
, , ,
,
305
,
subsistence
AIDS
159
65
–
259
–
,
155
,
239
444
Apprentice
Agricultural Marketing Act 1937 agriculture
, ,
352
–
– – 24 5
,
70
68 –
, ,
298
466
394
4 85 – 5
,
80
–
276
157 229
,
387
264
,
258
134
333
67
102
421 430
–
8
1892
101
267 297
202 219
72
241
190
–
184
– 1
173
– 4
, - , 9 , 15 , – – 5 52 5 , , , ,
Afrikaners
369
403
1914
63
,
Afrikaner Rebellion
297
AAC
352
Anti Squatting Act apartheid
Afrikaner establishment
–
,
, 63
-9 ,
83
-
1
,
80
3
394
30
,
307
344
–
297 302
,
Angola 256
–
,
314
-
Nationalism
Christian
)
(
AB
– 6
,
266
,
,
243
Afrikaner
-
, ,
Boer War
317
302
122
70 15 ,
Anglo
114
-
,
,
54
)
(
70
,
-2
111
Afrikaner Broederbond
102
283
280
Corporation
,
,
Afrikaans 351
314
ANCYL
Anglo American 72 – 6
282
Afrikaanse Handelsinstituut AHI
,
,
–
League
Youth
100
250
–
Workers Union
443
,
Mine
277
465 African
policy
economic 110
86
,
)
447
(
,
304
428 439
,
,
136
310
,
,
120
422
456
450
, 18 ,
,
47
445
78
action
371
13 ,
affirmative
of
, 2
Abolition of Passes and Co -ordination Documents Act , 1952 318
406
Index
326
517
INDEX
17
,
,
, 8
50
–
31
189
,
,
,
8
–
,
180
,
,
,
,
,
–
132
,
3
–
,
,
)
– 8
–
)
(
11
,
,
,
,
–
,
85 , 8, ,
62 ,
–
56
–
,
,
91
70
, 51 , 18 , ,
-8
,
38
, 11 ,
,
–
,
,
,
,
428 431 460
,
– 7
445
479
466
,
477
,
,
435
91
– 4
,
,
426
-
,
-
industrial
social
468
441
,
91
,
101
4
-
303
,
,
182
441
,
, –
,
,
80
,
274
405 420
,
,
253
,
394
128
,
372
,
,
57 – 8
239
41 ,
63
121
32 , 85
477 484
114
–
,
423 439
,
,
297
,
,
,
463
, -
-
,
,
-
444
350
271
,
204
,
194
345 9
,
-6
228
– 1
,
110
15 11 , ,
395
,
460
252 51 ,
446
,
240
40
188
liberal
–
1
350
–
)
(
,
312
BPC
223
,
Boipatong massacre
–
Boer Republics 219
20
– 4
,
349
,
,
243 424
463
,
,
332
– 3
)
(
-
,
455
racial 281
–
419
453
,
336
's
black protest
309
483 490
Labour Relations Regulation Act
BLAS
137
298
270
244
democratic global
121
114
253
478
60 ,
)
(
BEECom
225
,
,
406
corporate
Commission
Convention
203
,
,
, ,
330
Labour Act 1964 322
Black People
110 18 –
-
)
(
capitalism
198
black
black local authorities
376
labour ratio
98 –
–
BCM
334
1953
181
172
23
)
(
capital
437
518
Cape Corps
173
Cape Regiment 172
350
51
Act
1809
188
108
see elite
1953
226
Proclamation
183
351
Black Empowerment
Black
Africa BSA
Coenraad
Caledon
340
335
BCP
32
South
128
and
Business
,
1952
Consciousness Movement
Black Education
Black
,
447
apartheid
-
,
Programme
consciousness
black elite
116
1937
316
Act
Passes
,
Black Community
349
BER
(
Research
productivity
business
,
Act
Amendment
316
of
,
Laws
,
)
Native
Black Building Workers Act 1951
Black
385
467
,
bureaucracy
348
Buys
Black Abolition
black
220
54
264
122
278
– 4
204
,
Economic
6
350
(
Black
304
300
479 481
,
191
–
116
15
Billiton
395
382
Lionel
Steve
391
– 2
,
270
104
1820
,
budget deficit
224
– 1
,
,
Biko
427
,
settlers
Bureau
Beaumont Commission Bernstein
-
,
,
, 246 ,
231
,
,
,
137
300
422
451
for
167
,
)
,
9
223
British
137
11
–
,
, 78 – 9
133
312
– 1
-
274
375
470
-
Basuthos
339
394
158 BIG
of
Hottentots
-
Bastaard
EmploymentAct
329
,
,
404
249
310
Bretton Woods system
Basic Income Grant
326
,
-
petit
,
400
270 120
422
223
Basic Conditions
321
–
319 321
Afrikaner black
225
,
– 4
340
,
338
,
,
,
,
,
396
,
386
,
82
,
78
75 – 6
,
tribe
383
(
Baralong
375
,
,
348
71
13 ,
Bantustans
203
– 2
1970
193
,
Laws Amendment Act
bourgeoisie
33
323
Bantu Laws Amendment
327
309
, –9,
1964
Constitution
,
,
Act
,
Act
1971
Bantu Homelands
73 – 4
Botha
334
,
Commission
Botha General Louis
347
, , 36 ,
Bantu Education
304
345
33 39
Act, 1951
border industries
,
Bantu Authority
Bantu
(BAAB )
Board
340, 352
,
, 332,
8
321 –4 , 326
P W
Bantu Affairs Administration
,
Darwinism
Social
,
,
,
12
79
)
– 9
, , , 8,
87 –
,
2
-
,
, , , ,
11
–
,
,
72 – 5 40
,
-4
,
, ,
– 4
, ,
– 4
– 9
,
,
– 5
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
, 3
-8
–
317
7
346
,
,
,
12
111
-
108
1952
,
99 –
,
,
88 – 9
27
,
101
101
,
,
95
,
88
,
490
,
movement
481
-6
,
477
– 1
,
405 459
83 -4
,
17
16 –
,
10
70 ,
,
400
83 398
Act
)
1936
,
Trust and Land
(
Economic Policy DEP
87 278 – 8
,
Bantu Education
,
Development
79
125
( DP )
108
–
,
)
(
Trade Unions
,
,
, 9
395
Department
,
87
,
democracy
Department
103
82
,
79
,
348
Democratic Party
African
301
327
decolonisation
,
,
CPSA
303 404
-
,
)
(
Africa
297
79 72
decentralisation
democratic
327
South
COSATU
South
255
122
,
,
252
–
, ,
De
Beers
,
De
Beer Zach
social 419
,
,
of
,
– 3
Congress
254
of
compounds
324
282 321
,
,
348
,
281
commuter migrancy
121
386
of
28
483
Communist Party 346
,
,
43
– 2
-4
469
,
333
349
309 330 347 349 481
,
communism
82 – 3
199
(
332
of
communications
,
,
,
Crossroads
4
402
, 68 , ,
,
,
113
430
,
,
_
426
274
,
227
,
223
– 4
208
,
192
,
–
394
–
,
,
,
,
399 406
,
,
306
90
386
–
,
,
273
377
,
,
8
-
266
373
,
,
242
172
469
191 220 225
271
Defiance Campaign
,
164
153
463
Trade Unions
-
)
crime
25
F
J
Col FPH
-6
342
,
– 5
,
,
251
70
commandos
-
,
, )
– 3
, ,
-
54
98
,
37
,
Cresswell
De Klerk
402
399
136
20
-
,
,
,
5
,
384
273
,
,
332
Sir
(
,
-6
25
20 ,
,
15
-
-
–
,
, 73 ,
6
, 4
–
,
247
323
,
, ,
338
171
245
313
487
-
185
,
-4
colour prejudice
185
,
14
a
,
,
,
183
219
402
colour bar 273
coloureds
403
394
–
14
158
Dutch
179 210
134
,
384
,
298
453
446
371 406
,
15
,
14 –
, ,
242
393
171
159
British
-
,
5
3
-
107
116
405
violent 402
9
)
colonialism
Democratic South
Craddock
99
95
Africa
for
Conference
(
CODESA
10
482
114 394
280
,
,
445
,
132
436
,
-
,
120
,
, 64 , ,
6
,
52
32 31 –
–
400
398
120
405 448
Non European
of
Council
CNETU
228
,
,
171
109
224
,
201
246
class differentials 134
5
-
, ,
– 2
corruption
F W
,
Chinese labour
371
482
global 459
Shaka
401
439
464
corporatism
4
44
child abuse
110
,
,
,
399 see
425
462
-9
– 2
,
456
, ,
246
,
122
– 2
,
421
399
396
,
– 8
,
eg
257
244 248 251
,
, 385
under names
341
282
347
284
,
–8
,
8
,
67
202 207
, ,
, ,
199
,
-
,
,
– 3
, , 12
59
270 277
263 277 also
134
118
,
Chamber of Mines
chiefs
100
72
28
(CDE ) 260
corporate sector Corpo – 6
for Development and Enterprise
Centre
–
Corn Laws British
403
,
- 1, 385 ,
200
342
Business Movement CBM
(
–7
95
, 1856
cattle killing
441
333
Court 442
Consultative
191, 193 , 226
theft
1996
Constitutional
, 229 , 242 , 245
166
311
45 – 6
constitution
200 , 230
137
,
,
207 , 230 , 385
farming
119
437 461
,
cattle 6 , 163 – 7, 169 – 70 , 181 , 192 , 198 , 204 ,
disease
114 352
,
242
,
, Lord
Carnavon
20
INDEX
519
,
384
– 5
81 ,
–
– 5
,
465
,
,
Federation
346
,
300
,
.
)
(
,
)
8
16
,
,
,
–
,
3
,
,
, 97 ,
32
-4
120
-
,
,
86
113
,
,
,
)
(
,
,
305
433
71 ,
,
122
14
– 18
,
-6
374
FOSCOR
434
,
,
,
-
306
120
430
investment 310
1948 299 300
96 – 7
82
426
foreign
477
,
,
15
117
,
334
,
, /s
election
482
FDI
investment
343 375
114
Werner
113
387
direct
-
Dr
,
Eiselein
109
, foreign
,
,
forced removals
79
Eglin Colin
225 227
,
firearms 222
,
-
,
90
89 ,
,
389
383
Unions
Trade
342
–
,
80
–
,
–
,
, , 47 ,
, 8
251
305
Mfengu
fiscal policy 199
430 433 451 468
427
–
374
466
374
–
– 5
,
392 397
95
89 ,
51 , -
,
349
,
334
52 , , 35 ,
,
27
13
education
464
– 8
457
–
420
138
FCI
Industries
see
Fingos
( 39 SA , )
economy
(
EDPs
338
313
also land ownership
South African
FOSATU
)
economic
programmes
(
development
–
Federated Chamber
314
see
481
of
fascism
159
61
farms
279
–
,
195
of
)
DRC
(
,
,
Church
190
John
,
180
264 385 394 Dutch Reformed
Fairbairn
,
–
172
1946
156
153
, 6,
, ,
15
204
,
, ,
–
169
,
–
,
163
– 5
60
Dutch East India Company 159
202
,
193
70 11
Benjamin
Fagan Commission 331
,
-
391 – 4
, 265 ,
259
Sir
’
,
Urban
1959
5
334
,
432
– 30
,
429
,
,
54
, 58 60 , ,
, 47 ,
195
,
,
386
,
,
, -
25
, , 21
3 –
,
,
119
117
454
University Education Act
Extension
,
9
115
390
401
,
333
,
,
,
283
,
75
– 6
,
racial
32
124 –
exports
386
371
114
395
of
,
,
387
,
– 43
390
395
-
personal
385
drought D
333
404
discrimination 386
383
exploitation
384
122
117
115
,
221
discrimination laws
disease
385
8
expenditure
Dingiswayo
395
,
,
–
Dingane 207
exchange controls
122
275
271 343
, ,
Data
ESCOM
301
77
Dimension
English establishment 54
Dr Nic
,
Diedericks
261
, 15,
,
9
228
diamonds
242
INDEX
437
344
387
,
,
,
,
, ,
,
,
,
,
,
,
-
269 275
380
57 , , , – , 64 68 , , – 72 8 9, , 74 , ,
, -7 54 , ,
– 5
116
,
483 485
-
60
)
FMF
347 442
,
1955
,
Charter
121
438
1
,
20
,
,
462 480
(
,
60
424
198
,
Freedom
, ,
18
, ,
98
-
,
137
104
421
84 – 5
,
,
47
1998
459
251
330
free trade 180
117
,
335
1892
101
240
Free Market Foundation 75
,
,
,
463
201
,
Employment Equity Act
520
459
,
190
1833
,
-2
,
,
employment
443 455
436
114
Act
,
Emancipation
31
133
3
,
446
186
,
,
137
, , 84 ,
,
– 9
,
,
468
economy
free market
80
400
,
398
-
392
,
,
– 8
,
441 466
– 8
126
332
,
,
132
133
,
elitism
247 251
245
306
Franchise and Ballot Act
244
120
205
480
478
– 7
white
,
,
422 438
282
,
344
78
38
, ,
,
black
331
,
60 ,
,
224
199
278
461 483
195
Afrikaner 38
,
elite
38
electricity
franchise
125
,
4
28
-
3
1994
,
1953 347
INDEX
Huguenots
155
,
,
,
– 7
,
,
, ,
89
– 9 2
,
,
349
,
,
,
32
–
–
6
,
45
,
,
'
69
1979
,
(
– 5
Commission
)
(
ILC
– 6
89
)
(
ISP
Industrial Strategy Project
,
,
Legislation
Industrial
196
5
–
,
,
IDC
343
Industrial Revolution 251
345
)
Industrial Conciliation Act
,
,
1956
-2
Act
336 – 7
277
Industrial Conciliation
,
22
–
,
–
201 203 205
249
,
1924
,
,
– 3
271
341
)
-4
273
Industrial Conciliation Act
335
224
, ,
4
,
490
79
,
, ,
,
-
,
62
93
–
)
,
,
334
,
38 – 9
96
-
(
IM
,
,
,
,
,
483
387
,
328
,
,
199
373
442
Industrial and Commercial Workers Union (
,
– 3
,
,
)
(
GNU
7
-
386
,
326
340
,
76 – – 32 8,
340
,
376
397
,
,
13
,
,
104
12 –
,
inflation
96
87
,
Gumede James 282
188
117
training
,
development
399
– 9
,
334
,
,
37
324
115
industry
,
Group Areas Act
338
– 5
– 7
72 – 3
unity
227
-4
Griquas 223
313
273
210
278
219
George
,
/s
,
,
,
,
– 7
,
, 305 ,
,
280
394
320
312
187
332
280
,
,
,
,
,
72
,
,
242
,
of
,
,
185
210
106
104
,
, –
275
470
117
400
Industrial Development Corporation
national
109
,
,
98
– 5
7
–
,
,
12
,
– 3
,
,
,
– 9
,
206
103
,
99
,
79
government
Great Trek
51
480
275
Mikhail
Gorbachev
224
219
377 386
345
270 274
gold standard
210
468
461
383
Independent Movement
ICU
268
190
1950
, -4,
32
,
324
Indian
395
276
3
–
51 ,
gold price
69
–
338
,
328
260
,
, , , ,
206
mining industry 246
114
428
239
133
labour
385
British
income personal 452 457
193 183
Amendment Act
,
,
,
258
,
421 424
,
,
,
–
, , 68 , ,
15
154
242
230
202
,
,
19
123
Robert
Godlonton
197 72
,
38
194
globalisation 118
British
– 4
386
254
,
251
246
immigration
,
,
–
2
,
435
imperialism
,
E
1894
,
,
,
Lord
,
334
203
444
,
-
,
,
114
23
,
112
,
,
,
431
242 12
,
110
72
William
Sir
,
,
449
436
-
–
, 6,
,
,
430
,
428
403
Grey
331
452
124
405 441
396
Immorality
Glen Grey Act
gold
319 326
human development index human rights
459
,
Gladstone
gold
,
468
183
467 480 484 489 491
450
Glenelg
8
335
,
and
375
275
,
,
123
, ,
–
421
Tariffs
75
,
housing
-
,
,
-
8
,
200
181
429
120
,
115
17 , ,
116
32 , - , , 82 4 , 97 , ,
)
-6
,
105
382
451 GEAR
1809
,
on
(
Trade
378
197
– 5
, ,
– 5
General Agreement
GDP
Hottentot Proclamation
221 385 394 403
,
202
181 191
9 , ,
wars
frontier
172
113
196
Revolution
French
GATT
Hottentot Corps
404
27
fighters
freedom
,
,
449
,
434
,
– 9
378
,
,
– 3
,
,
,
13
372
,
4045
,
378
,
376
241
,
,
72
,
70
373
,
,
–
352
informal sector
,
,
313
346
382 451 469
69
300
,
280
,
278
,
255 267
,
2
,
influx control
–
270
,
,
,
249
,
247
B
, M
J
469
76
,
28 ,
,
Heunis Chris
/
199 324
298
44
,
– 7
274
HIV AIDS
113
General
,
Hertzog
,
,
health
44
27 – 8
483
465
521
,
,
,
– 20
316
,
317 323 323
,
,
,
, ,
,
, ,
5
,
,
,
386 246
, ,
,
, ,
,
281
,
6
,
– 4
,
396
– 7
228
,
31
, –
251
,
,
384
183 205
-
,
,
,
– 7
-
222 278
4
,
181
202
269
–
219
6
,
193
– 1
10
,
–
,
264
231
268
,
,
68 , 4
-
6 – 9
190
254
228
266
154
,
ownership 208
155
305
Landsdowne
Commission
224
and order
Liberal
Party
478
280
277 280
,
1943
,
400
,
law
– 5
-
9
467
,
,
– 7
land reform
,
,
10
–
,
,
-
industry
64
,
73
156 –
manufacturing
209
260
,
263
,
,
340
186
246
,
2
–
,
,
, 9
–
,
219
490
335
239 256
,
–
228
,
,
farm
522
128
, – 36 5 , ,
21
444
189
242 32 31
costs
180
1981
342
7
,
Land Bank
402
,
–
6
,
431
, ,
343
278
1936
187
224
,
-6 -
,
2
,
,
137
,
Land Act
land
building industry
397
– 4
397 403
,
,
,
1913
248 258
, ,
173
1803
Kruger Paul 243
labour
– 4
,
395
269 403
20
, ,
, , 166
,
-
6
-
201
333
,
,
Land Act
,
,
181
198 – 9
,
,
198
– 9
,
– 8
183
1799
10 4
–
,
41
, ,
,
, ,
337
,
329
,
171
253
–
270
Godfrey
Lagden
403
394
Khoisan Rebellion
179
,
195
73
192
, ,
161
–
,
384
-
,
224
190
5
,
– 8
184
– 9
158
,
154
,
,
,
,
, –
,
,
20 ,
260
130
–
,
248
434
Sir
385
,
,
,
224 227
402
,
Khoisan
9
–
,
,
90
-
, – 8
,
,
-
,
316
200 204
– 9
,
,
,
73
–
, ,
394
330
163
156
Khoikhoi
251
373
Labour Relations Amendment Act
,
154
,
348
4
-
,
–
,
, 9
-
248
241 251
119
225 17
,
199
6
,
72
11
-
6
,
,
197
229 244
Labour Relations Act
Kgosana Philip
,
,
8
,
20
,
–
,
77
,
70
, ,
,
,
,
– 3
,
337
,
,
,
71 , 90 ,
-
,
,
191
,
Derek
183
209
198
246
3345
labour relations 245
100 102
84
,
Keys
20
119 –
,
– 8
see
,
,
2
-
303
Labour Party
agreement
Park
163
113 192
198
348 95
Kempton
7
–
,
,
,
, 31
,
,
,
-
270
, ,
196
, ,
,
–
1
10
-
laws
( LP )
Ahmed
195
181
225
187
– 4
,
Kathrada
188
399
433
-
10
, ,
166
403
River Settlement
328
231
208
JRC
1
200
,
Kat
Bill
318
387
also slavery
242
278
381 420 transport
labour
Employment
278
382
465
-
, ,
, ,
,
269 330
372
Kaffir
62
,
-
, 61
,
239
wage Commission
119
189
256
, -
,
,
63 ,
,
,
,
253
328
388
Justice and Reconciliation
375
229
)
–
241
324
318
(
41
335
300
,
– 9
, ,
278
13
– 6
reservation
268
,
,
424
452 457 465 468
,
435
12 –
job
,
432
,
,
-
–
186
– 7
398
377
,
,
328
,
325
,
creation
supply
183
116
,
job
slave
Willem
254 256
345
437
– 156 7
,
Jan
Jansen
282
404
246
107
426
DDT
– 6
,
,
– 3
,
83
81 ,
)
(
,
,
9
,
, 18
skilled 335
Jabavu
395
323
231
semi skilled
228
258
326
railways
–
226
375
343
210
255
305 315
303
242
41
195
345
251
246
277
182
338
276
-
,
ivory
241
328 mine quotas
343
,
, 77 ,
54
iron and steel ISCOR
260
487
460
– 6
,
116
investment
IMF
4
96 – 7
International Monetary Fund 105
228
406
IFP )
(
Party
Inkatha Freedom
12
migrant
69 ,
,
25 465
infrastructure
– , , -2, 13 – , 3 , , , 66
INDEX
3
,
41 ,
-
,
,
, ,
,
,
,
,
,
– 5
90
–
– 60
8
–
89
)
(
99 –
(
, 70 , , ,
, -4
, 57 , , ,
– 7
–
– 8
,
)
(
of
-2 )
(
,
– 7
1995
86
,
123
mines 302 256
283 347 278 352 4
272
–
,
,
1927
,
–
,
276
,
African
,
gold
,
,
460
Act
, nationalisation
256
,
– 1
,
443 458
,
,
,
136
306
,
403
Native Administration Act 347
Piet 301
, ,
, ,
)
(
240 250 303
313
,
Act 1911 269 12
52
3
,
1913
,
,
– 3
,
,
– 8
-
273
,
269
Native Land Act
NAD
284
399
Native Labour Regulation
254
,
– 6
,
1911
,
–
245
272
347
,
316
263 18
,
255
5
-
242
Mines and Works
Native Affairs Department
226
,
2
–
,
,
201 204
Act 3
,
108
South African Students
National Unity and Reconciliation
281
Milner Alfred
,
249
374
350
Afrikaner 220
mfecane 208 221 Mfengu
247
353
,
108
)
(
,
262
190
– 3
,
,
,
188
375
252
135
298
Mineworkers NUM
NUSAS
nationalism
,
28
,
, Dr
74
Meyer
1856
241 254
37
,
–
Mbeki
,
348
1982 341
399
395
National Union
,
MDM
,
and Servants Act
Mbeki Govan
106
272
of
,
,
387
316
126
media
)
(
,
207
, , 96 – , ( 6 , , NP ) , 15 , , , 53
,
,
– 20 ,
13
387
311 450
mechanisation
270
100
341
Mass Democratic Movement
Thabo
100
267
116
,
136
, 79 , 86 , 88 ,
109
National Party
National Union
194 201 225
NEC
National Manpower Commission
349
Masters
NEF
national executive committee
Marketing Act 1937 263 Marxism
Forum
63
397
27
,
–
industry
208
461
69 – 70 ,
manufacturing
112
284
,
9
–
,
,
247
,
,
442 444
Trevor
251
172
259
,
)
Natal Native Code 1891
72 – 3
,
,
317
,
31 ,
–
,
— 3
Nelson
,
,
Manuel
305 310
244
298
311 348
,
,
,
policy
National Economic
242
,
Sir
,
,
,
Mandela
197
229
276
226
456
Moshweshe 223
Natalia Peregrine
262
DF
Malan
MERG
(
-
,
88
,
69 , 257
223
,
208
202
194
122
103
207
312
189
10
, -
,
,
202 225
172
Macro Economic Research Group
maize
70
,
172
–
204 334
,
66 – 7
,
51
12
missionaries
Natal colony
Maitland
1992
Moravian Missionary Society
Stock Exchange
London
Understanding
monetary
London Missionary Society
244
)
210
230 239
,
208
locations
of
Minutes
138
258
108
96
133
,
,
103
-4
,
, , 75 ,
, 27 9
,
,
1892
,
Act
1926
387
–
400
396
mining
183 209 300 341 391 478 Location
Act
Amendment
living level MLL
,
112 , 7, ,
, 80 , , 85 , ,
77
346
439 450
living standards
and Works
,
–
4
, 6
–
, 379
376
–
,
374
342
,
,
333
–
-
, 6,
– 3
352
421
Mines
minimum
,
liberation movement 306
404
12 , , 67 , 71 , ,
before education
134
283
272
80
,
–
liberation
251
395
6
50
349
206
203 – 4 ,
liberalism
,
INDEX
207
,
– 7
,
,
4
-
– 8
, ,
,
– 3
2
,
–
,
,
,
,
62
,
,
4
-
,
,
52
,
,
– 3
,
–
,
,
,
-
,
,
,
,
,
,
4
-
,
6
-
52
37
,
–
,
8
-
,
30
40 – 7
, ,
1
15
-
,
30
25
,
-
,
457 469
,
,
,
,
,
171
447
9
,
,
477
124
445
,
,
,
-4
,
,
439
,
,
,
283
400
-4
247
387
128
,
,
,
125
,
,
,
– 7
,
,
,
,
,
,
123
482
102
245
384
104
479
,
86 8
34 8
-
,
9
,
57 -
,
102
480
,
,
,
306
437
,
391 396
239 41
-
60
,
,
,
20
197
,
,
– 6
,
,
,
466
384
437
– 8
-
9
-
, 3
105
,
, , , 62 89 ,
,
240
353
,
,
,
191
447
-8
,
,
330
9
corporate sector
– 3
,
432 482
,
,
322
,
– 4
,
,
116
437
430
public sector 242
123
187 209
,
,
20
,
77
–
,
,
72
398
119 375
– 6
339
,
325
,
– 9
,
,
–
422
, ,
, ,
– 7
376
419
447
,
194
,
of
225
228
260
-4
Africans
,
323 325
,
1967
Mixed Marriages Act 1950
334
proletarianisation
,
,
petit
– 5
186
Prohibition bourgeoisie
,
John
see
,
228
– 7
Dr
,
,
,
,
,
,
397
Physical Planning Act
524
privatisation productivity
African 204 210 251 257
petit bourgeoisie Philip
– 18
404
348
, , ,
352
260
317
306
,
8
,
white
press freedom
254
206
204
271 277
,
269
,
267
192
, ,
186
395
200
14 35 - – 8 15 ,
,
463
– 3
51
)
347
–
,
6
305
-
PAC
social
199
, ,
pass system
,
Cape
Pedi 223
,
301
352
parliament
386
-
199
19
320
, 5
–
,
-
Pan Africanist Congress
(
69
272
133
371
400
21
–
133
299
,
308
456
Pact government
,
19 -
political
,
)
,
OAU
391
200
466
,
198
,
192
306
,
,
of
African Unity
190
(
,
204
,
50
1828
192
187 – 8
Ordinance
,
49
1828
121 124
437
466
353 437 456
economic
Ordinance
peasants
– 7
,
199
–
482
477
,
351
chiefs
386
334
352
449
400
38 – 9
,
– 8
,
black
461
– 3
,
307
Organisation
32
28
of ,
balance
122 430
441
-6
,
375
382
393
– 6
,
– 8
,
71 ,
oil
455
104
,
8
20
,
,
72
)
(
power
391
OPEC
,
19 –
,
4
83 –
NEM
115
Old Mutual
137
-
,
– 7
490
–
,
486
3
–
482
480
Model
325
91 401
436
307
276
380
1950
109
430
Economic
104
266
379
Nongqawuse Normative
101
,
80 ,
3
190
,
138
200
Right
New
14
11 98 -
,
poverty
132
374
Act
,
's
161 268 328
,
Development
105
Population Registration
465
)
(
NEPAD
272
452
81 - 4
482
for Africa
Partnership
,
– 3
157 433
,
–
7
South Africa
,
,
460
Europe
,
135
– 8
,
, , ,
,
,
96
83
, ,
,
81
18
121
457
101
486
New Left 349 New
38
452
–
441
,
,
,
– 3
116
50
–
482
114
– 3
,
419
– 7
103
39
-
, , ,
neo liberalism
268
386
population
227 18
,
223
Ndebele
189 203
266
333
,
302
10
poor whites
481
nazism
,
255 313
,
Poor Laws British
(
)
(
Acts
,
206
,
337
– 9
Native Urban Areas
,
1932
395
,
3
polygamy
Native Service Contracts Act
349
,
police state
326
277
209
43
–
,
)
261
386
,
,
,
251
325
)
315
,
,
282
police
282
-2
native reserves 248
,
, ,
254
(
Council NRC
, ox- drawn
plough
1952 317
8
Native Representative
,
Native Laws Amendment
–
Act
INDEX
,
,
Shoshangane
,
400
2
–
225
,
7
–
– 16
,
395
,
,
, , ,
, , ,
, 4,
– 8
,
– 9
308
,
, -2,
,
, of
1951
,
,
,
– 8
395
258
smallpox
60
–
,
208 259
167
,
156
221
– 9
,
, , , , 39
, 63 , – 8 ,
88
-
153
201
225
402
6
195
165
326
-
clearance
,
-3
,
slum
385
348
34 91 – 5
, , 11 ,
,
207
Joe
186 85
99
Slovo
192
223
,
slavery
,
,
-
6
165
Walter
182
,
,
,
–
,
,
,
321 347
Theophilus
9
,
Separate Amenities Act 1953
242 251
300
,
,
, ,
306
,
,
)
1936
Sizulu
Cecil John
Act
348
477 481
, ,
,
(
Act
335
Rhodes
321
Voters
469
207 221
farming
sheep
282
of
,
of
Blacks Native
Retief Piet
267
398
,
462
,
,
193
Shepstone
Representation
Reserve Bank
246
,
17
Shaka
Sharpeville
189 203
258
Reservation
351
-
466
115
-
,
109
remittance labour
278
,
,
,
276
4
, ,
,
378
37 – 8
services
9
,
,
89 ,
,
106
– 8
,
180
301
346
226
service sector
461
– 3
425
,
, -4 ,
-
,
9
,
16
–
,
,
87
,
,
1832
,
Act
333
250
297
335
444
445 457
,
121 436
1
,
,
,
redistribution
,
371 85
,
,
reconciliation
Reform
Programme 123
442 444 446 448
– 8
437
108
,
)
(
103
246
282
Separate Representation
and Development
RDP
280
316
separate development
107
Reconstruction
208
-
230
429
,
,
–
122
103 483
,
Reaganomics
,
,
,
,
,
, 8
Seme Pixley
– 31 ,
352
119
,
Lord
,
Selbourne
13
253
Ronald
477
-
376
,
312
States
Reagan
315
371 406
,
rates
274
United
112
313
406
462 466
rand value
300
311 313 353
–
,
249
1922
,
,
, 77 ,
54
–
, ,
253
1947
racial
segregation
443
6
,
307
1852 222
352
13
–
,
,
security
security forces
441 443
Durban 2001
344
Commission
Sauer
303
Rand Revolt
– 9
,
SA
, , ,
, ,
58
,
, ,
– 4
297 302
256
,
154
221
–
,
209
88
Cyril
53 – 4
,
47
, 45 ,
201
– 3
391
– 8
,
350
430
122
,
,
– 8
,
,
,
,
-
,
197
Conference
Ramaphosa
SASOL
252
,
– 7
,
334
40
39
4
, ,
,
20
248
,
240
Breweries
Sand River Convention
254
194
– 2
170
478
396
274
194
395
310
,
– 53
,
-4
380
397 447
136
,
240
relations
Racism
348
,
race policy
281
78
public sector
375
200
154
speech
Rubicon rule
protest movement
racism
Island
281
348
77
own
see also land
ership
race
Robben
law
-
,
478
307
of
property rights
486
347
1959
Rivonia
1930
,
of
Self Government Act
Bantu
330
267
Riotous Assemblies Act
Afrikaner 231 Promotion
258
230
,
,
,
449
rinderpest
,
,
451 467
–
,
427
8
,
257 423
228
,
African
133
,
68 ,
57 78
138
, ,
proletariat
Riekert Commission
75 ,
231 , 264 – 72
Afrikaners
72 ,
INDEX
385
525
278
,
– 3
)
(
188
,
72
,
,
,
,
, -
,
50
,
–
–
,
346
,
,
,
.
5
-
,
–
,
,
,
17
96 – 7
87 ,
-9
,
6
–
townships
319 331
– 4
,
,
33
–
,
,
106
40 –
1
1956
325
2
,
,
,
280
482
330
– 3
,
,
387
executive council
96 – 7
378
(
TEC
)
341
271
203
352
-3
335
137
,
333 337 340
, , ,
75 ,
-
,
69 , , ,
trade unions
,
350
– 2
,
,
– 8
10
,
,
Commission
transitional 307
1976
Tomlinson
black
1976
79
'
alternative
,
,
,
312
,
,
,
-4
100
84
439 477
348
uprising
483 485
,
no
is
there
,
SASO
housing 331 Soweto
429
– 6
Soweto
103
260
107 115
thatcherism
-
Soviet Union
228
)
African Student Organisation
(
South
224
,
432
1
Reserve Bank
421
350
Theron Commission
African
350
Act
Terrorism
,
,
,
,
270
273
South
436
,
(
)
(
260
304
323 397
Thatcher Margaret
249
259
134
352
274
South African Railways
209
,
tenant farmers
“
,
SAP
375
116
487
,
,
TELKOM
textile industry
,
,
)
(
254 261
South African Native Trust 282
272
228
482
324
,
246
South African Native Affairs Commission
South African Party
1950
346
,
,
technology
terrorism
SANAC
326
, 209
206
72
68 ,
SAF
Foundation
– 14
113
)
African
South
,
,
81
-
40 ,
taxation
-
51
)
(
456 461
349
,
,
,
312
SACP
,
114
,
103 112
,
Party
1954
77
)
SACOB
80
,
,
84
Business
(
African Communist
of
South
54
African Chamber
,
,
Racial Affairs
467
South
Act
Communism
– 2
314
403
)
(
SAAU
274 277
350
487
,
SABRA
260
Amendment
,
Bureau
210
,
Agricultural Union
African
380
268
1922
of
Suppression
254
350 378
supply and demand
191
194
43
,
– 6
,
,
185
122
339
337
,
,
,
1973
sugar farming
481
181
)
278
– 3
70
–
,
– 5
,
,
Durban
9
,
246 249
307
Witwatersrand
of
,
469
317
(
South
441 451
– 7
Henry
,
Somerset
315
280
,
,
,
,
,
,
106
Lord Charles
African
strikes
91
Somerset
South
-
,
50
–
,
– 8
,
419 467
397
-
,
489
6
,
socialism
37
,
27
,
484
85 – 6
,
478
Andries
Stockenström
389
SOES
steel 344
469 480 484 490 social welfare
state owned enterprises
– 3
384
313
2
social spending
249
247
64 ,
347
,
Sobukwe Robert
231
335
, 69 , ,
275
,
,
,
272
–
270
9
,
Smuts General Jan
stallardism
223
,
,
197
,
181
,
Harry
68
,
Smith
81 , –
Sir
INDEX
Congress
Transvaal African
282
Col Frederick
,
5
Stallard
26
255
, ,
264
, ,
73
385
–
181
– 5
,
-
,
163
220
402
400
332
,
310
,
247
,
,
tricameral parliament 352
,
– 7
156 204
78
198
, ,
,
,
4
394
154
192
– 3
14
Trekboere 183
230
1850
,
403
, ,
30
332
–
327
,
–
323
321 348
,
Treason Trial 1956
,
,
Squatters Ordinance
254
, -
1887
229
9 , ,
266
,
262
205
,
,
Squatters Law
, 78 ,
, ,
-
257
60 76
squatters
61
– 5
404
INDEX 62 – 5 , 81,
,
Voortrekkers
,
330
B
,
16
-
,
-
,
,
,
– 8
,
– 3
,
,
,
,
204
,
–
202
,
– 3
221
223
,
207
242
,
155
,
222
-4
)
ZAR
394
1877
,
Zulus
of ,
,
30
annexation
242
– 9
,
,
404
307
190
,
,
181
394
282
,
– 8
347
226 – 1
300
,
,
325
75
,
,
,
385
223 456
–
245
70 – 1
, ,
3
321
-
,
17
-
316
Hendrik
,
,
72
,
6
-
,
121 460 487
Zuid Afrikaansche Republiek
,
of
,
,
Verwoerd
,
– 8
,
,
-2 105
167 169
207 220
Zimbabwe
1902
,
– 1
,
,
,
,
– 8
,
3
–
87
,
–
60
,
– 2
,
83 ,
198
(
-6
154
Peace
,
, ,
6
, ,
, ,
, ,
,
,
,
59
38
–
,
– 4
,
-4
44
44 ,
192
,
Jan
,
374
, , 155 , –
Xhosa
Xuma
223
Vereeniging
332
401
-
Venda
330
383
Bank
A
Riebeeck
256
242
9
164
,
– 6
155
,
,
164
,
Van
159
-6
,
– 6
385
169
,
Plettenberg Governor
247
195
farming
264
Van
245
394
400
,
313
wool exports
,
,
172
Adriaan
Willem
387
,
)
,
300
317
–
(
ULPP
15
,
,
75 – 6
72
,
80
–
, ,
,
Stel
,
der
Van
155
487
490
,
)
(
,
68 ,
)
UF
75 – 6
,
Stel Simon
242
373
unemployment
World Van der
404
348
485
478
341
wine farming
abuse
278
373 404
,
350
women
Labour Preference Policy
318
,
,
,
336
90
of
1960
331
395
159
334
255
(
Urban Foundation
),
of
, 28 ,
6
264 283
Witwatersrand
Act
Unlawful Organisations
1881
114
Wiehahn commission
Christian Movement UCM
Act
188
whites employment
321
Human Rights
Universal Declaration
urbanisation
478
,
,
300
-
,
276
487
,
United States economy
Urban
,
-
,
,
consensus
state
wheat 270
Urban Areas
ZAR
Westminster Act 1909
452
) ( UP )
(
Liberation
welfare
Development Programme
United Nations
University
272
10
306
United Nations
United Party
1925
West Indies
352
UNDP
Act
490
387
,
465 482
328
320
376
273
2
430
318 345
270
,
339
115
276
242
196
,
262
113
,
260
349
,
83
253
75
246
,
90
,
333
,
(
)
, ,
342
85
Front UDF
340
244
Washington water
395
Democratic
- 9,
325
190
Wages
,
,
50
–
,
-
,
245 247
,
307
182
490
War
239
of
253 United
Africa
South
,
– 7
,
180
121 ,
243
, Britain
unemployment Union
, 482 – 3, 486
467
, 426 ,
207 – 8 219 – 26
166
45 ,
427 , 432 – 6 , 449 ,
41
, 457 ,
452
,
,
169
119
273 , 275 , 311 , 324 , 343 , 352 , 372 – 83 , 390 – 1 , 421, 424
,
73
,
119 ,
113 ,
101,
,
–
wages
103
15
J
,
96 ,
400 –6
265
–
89 ,
165
,
193
– 1
Vorster , B
137
372
71 , 78 ,
64 ,
,
,
42 – 3
,
228
4 , 13 – 14 , 25 , 28 , 30 - 1,
unemployment
,
(
( TRC )
371 - 2 , 405 , 444
Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK ) underemployment
28
469 Commission
Bishop Desmond
4
–
124 – 32 ,
, 25,
violence
1
,
98
, , 70 ,
Tutu
,
, 435 – 7
424
Truth and Reconciliation 66 – 7 ,
84
67
effect
12
'
- down 107 – 8,
40 80
' trickle
394
527
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
3
9015 05997 7648
THE UNIVERSITY
OF MICHIGAN
DATE DUE
O 1 0 2004 DEC
-----
ENTO
Barcode Inside
The HF Group Indiana Plant TG
082567
1
2
87 00
/23 / 2007
In
major study , Professor Sampie Terreblanche , a leading Afrikaner academic , provides a systematic account of inequality in South Africa from 1652 to the this
present day . In
a
detailed reinterpretation of South African history , he traces the exploitation
of indigenous people by dominant settler groups to the end of apartheid in 1994 . colonialism Extending his theme country
's
contemporary
to
transition to democracy is
a
the advent of European
from
, he argues that , while this significant development , a parallel socio South
Africa
transformation has not yet taken place , and that many of the deep seated inequalities that developed under colonialism , segregation , and apartheid
economic
are being perpetuated
in
the ' new South Africa '.
major reason for this is the inappropriate social and economic policies adopted by the new government , agreed to during informal economic negotiations in the early 1990s between the corporate sector and the ANC during which the latter A
was pressurised into adopting
a
conservative version
of free market
and glob
.
oriented capitalism
Promises by the corporate sector that high rates of economic growth would create jobs and alleviate poverty have not materialised . The author points out that almost half of the South African population - mostly blacks - are living in 'abject poverty ' ,
fact worsened since 1994 .
,
it
.
-
of
,
to
ruthless pursuit own interests society He also criticises the new black
and its apparent indifference
the plight
of
,
policy
.
,
of
broader South African
elite for its crass materialism
has relinquished
make decisions about socio economic
He criticises the corporate sector for
the detriment
redistributive ideals
situation where
its
power
into
a
manoeuvred to
its
of
d
to
allowing itself sovereign much
be
He sharply criticises the ANC government for abandoning
its
in
to
has
its
and their situation
the
.
poor
,
a
2
.
creating
-
KMM
REVIEW PUBLISHIN
LP
UNIVERSITY
OF
-
86914 022
-
ISBN
1
,
,
to
play more active role social democracy that will allow the state jobs alleviating poverty and providing social welfare
in
a
.
is
it
a
'
'
if
is
unjust and unsustainable and that The author warns that the present order perpetuated He advocates shift towards second struggle may result
NATAL PRESS