A History of Inequality in South Africa 1652-2002 1869140222, 9781869140229

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GRAD

HN

801 .Z9 S6 T47

2002

History of

thequality I in South Africa

1652 - 2002

Sampie Terreblanche

.

ARIES IBRARY

MICHE

INTER

6

LIB

THE

UN

VIVERSIA

A

of inequality South Africa ,

history in

1652 – 2002

Sampie Terreblanche

UNIVERSITY OF NATAL PRESS PIETERMARITZBURG

KMM

REVIEW PUBLISHING

HN

801 : 79

Jointly published by University of Natal Press Scottsville 3209

T47 2002

South Africa E

-mail : books @ nu . ac . za

: www .unpress .co .za

Website

.

56

X01

Private Bag

Publishing Company

Review

PO Box

Pty

KMM

Ltd

and

782114

Sandton 2146

writing

from

,

retrieval

the publishers

-2 Villiers and Louis

van

Schaik

Anthony Cuerden Table

Bay

from

Robben

thanked for their funding assistance

Interpak

Books

,

Printed and bound

Island 1851

,

Bowler

:

by

by

Shahn Irwin and Olive Hendricks

Cover design Cover art

de

Riaan

towards the research

Pietermaritzburg

or

including system

,

be

mechanical

storage

or

information

or

,

by

in

any means electronic any

reproduced

.

,

-

by

-

by

Layout

is

permission

this publication may

86914 022

Edited

USAID

recording

T W

1

:

ISBN

or

any form

photocopying

without prior

No part or

in

transmitted

reserved

.

All rights

of

2002 AIPA

by

©

South Africa

!

42346022 1

/ 19 / 03

In

memory

of the late Professor

Bax Nomvete

INSTITUTE FOR POLICY ANALYSIS AND ECONOMIC INTEGRATION (AIPA )

their problems

and

of

wide

spectrum

economic efficiency and growth with equity

offer thoroughly examined and developed solutions

will

increasingly

play

a

AIPA

regional

address the pressing issues surrounding South Africa

.

economic growth and the economic democratisation

of

imperative

term to

the immediate

long

is

,

role

the medium

to

While

in

.

to

African countries

,

in

the promotion

to

issues relating

to

-

inter disciplinary economic policy analysis and research

,

undertake high level non partisan

of

objective

-

.

entity

research

,

1992

economic

-

July

in

to

established

independent , non - profit-making

an

is

is

Its

AIPA

on a

AFRICA

Contents

*.

Figures and tables Abbreviations About the author Acknowledgements

exploitation

systemic

From

,

perspective

1 1

A new

. 1. 3 1 .4

The special relationship

The

.

1 5

The nature

, land , and

between power

shifts

labour

co

structural unemployment

to

successive systemic periods the power

w w w

exclusion

difficult challenge

slavery through exploitation six

From

of

1 2

and a

to systemic

South African history

öĒ

:

in

1

in

Chapter

.

-

POWER , LAND , AND LABOUR

PART 1 :

South African history

Endnotes

and attempts

,

of

exploitation

to

)



(

build

-

social structures and abject poverty building non racial South Africa

-

disrupted

a

The dynamics

apartheid

of

of

.1

Legislation aimed

2

The legacy

2

systemic

racial society

non

.3 2.2

a

:

2

The legacy

at

:

'

2002

1990

Chapter

'

THE TRANSITION AND THE NEW SOUTH AFRICA

2

PART

and the three accumulation the

century

The economic views and ideologies Endnotes

sector

,

,

the 20th

of

.

of

strategies 3 3

white supremacy

corporate

democratic movement

51

on the

The corporate sector

.

The economic attitudes and ideologies

of

to

:

economic issues

.1

the informal negotiations

3

Prelude

3 2

Chapter

3

Endnotes

Chapter

of the African political establishment

: The hegemony

4

.

The informal negotiations

4 1

the

since 1993 between the corporate sector and

black elite

and

the

of

ANC

a

)

for –6

(

a

accumulation

new

accumulation

(

1997

2002

of

)

new

and privatisation



for

search

a

)

6

(

led

-

the

of

uncover

the Truth and Reconciliation

its

truth about systemic exploitation

,

to

a

rise

of

The

Commission

unwillingness the

inability

AAC

globalisation

or

:

The

.

4 6

increased

search 1993

,

.5

4

The sixth phase strategy

1994



AAC

led

phase

fifth

interlude

-

a

temporary

strategy and the GEAR strategy

.

for

-

of

pre election elite compromise

the

.

4 4

The

Alliance

4 7

accumulation

new

Reconstruction and Development Programme as

.3

4

The

AAC led search

-

the

,

strategy and

of

.2

4

The fourth phase

the

ANC

tendency towards elitism

and

-

self enrichment Endnotes

,

)

+



power constellation

1800

and land deprivation

153

of

the

,

158

)

1834

Khoikhoi

,

the

(

the

and Khoisan

Trekboere during the 18th century the frontier

163

and the changing nature 168

serf relationship

of

ideological orientation

the Trekboere

in

-

the 18th century

vi

the Cape

advent

a

and

new

179

1890

)

1800

+

(+

British colonialism of

period

of

173

the

:

The systemic

British colonialism at

.1

6

Chapter

6

Endnotes

170

power constellation 179

of

.

nature

,

the

by

with

The power constellation the master

1652



the

-

.

5 4

.5

5

enserfment

Cape economy and

at

slavery

in

role

Trekboer partnerships

5 6

parallel labour patterns 156

master slave relationship

The

knechts

1717

of

.

5 3

The

until

and imported

as

,

.

5 2

Imported slaves

153

at

,

1652

(



East India Company

The Dutch the Cape

Dutch colonialism the

:

5

The systemic period

of

:

(

.

5 1

Chapter

151

)

,

COLONIALISM SEGREGATION AND APARTHEID 1652 1994

3

PART

the

to

in

the

1808

to

slave trade

)

the

of

in

of

183

1828

abolition

the

,

and

Sixth Frontier

40

191

Masters and servants laws proletarianisation

and the growth

of

)

1820

,

of

) the British settlers

-

its

aftermath

,

.

status

1809

188

The expansionism

War and

Khoisan

1838

(

.4

6

slavery

6 5

their subservient

the suspension

From

of

(

abolition

the

legal enserfment

of

.3

6

From the

(

.

6 2

194

,

at in

the

of

the

204

the 19th century

Natal during

in

African peasantry

an

of

The rise

the Cape Colony during

201

second half

of

.8

6

second half

the Cape

racial domination

African peasantry

an

rise

The

of of

system

movement and the justification

the humanitarian

of

failure

a

The

of

.6 .7

6

6

racial capitalism

207

Endnotes

210

the 19th century

of

the

of

in

224

of

century

19th

in

among Afrikaners

222

deepening

class

the Tansorangia 228

1910

)



(

the

African tenantry and

differentiation 1850

Africans

,

rise

until the end an

of

.

7 4

The

Transorangia

of

raiding and the indenturing Slave Tan Slave

and

Transorangia

the

power constellations

semi independent

-

Afrikaners

the

of

its

by

The establishment

219

causes

in

(

.2 7.1 7

.

219

1900

The Great Trek and

vulnerable 7 3

the two Boer republics

)

:

1850



The systemic period

7

Chapter

232 British imperialism

the late

the



241

1910

)

24

:

(

and the rise



-

Cape liberalism

1910

entrenchment 247

of

of

1948

alliance between

South Africa and state building

)



(#

.

The decline

and

the

'(

of

The Union

1890

conquest

,

wars

white power and racial segregation

8 4

in

)

(



a

of

power constellation

239

of

.

239

)

imperialism

gold and maize

1880

the English

early 20th century



British

and the

1948

new

of

and

,

.2

8

19th

8 3

1890

The institutionalisation

+

.1

8

establishment

+

political and economic hegemony

of

The systemic period

of

:

Chapter

8

Endnotes

racist ideologies 251

Vi

of

Afrikaners

,

and

and 264

)

'

'

it

33 )

in

, 275

until

in

the first half

1948

weakness

,

its

the 20th century

:

of

.

8 9

ineffectiveness

1933

281

and ideological orientation

,

protest

Black

behalf 272

The English establishment regains political hegemony and maintains

on

labour policy

civilised

1924

political

1924



+

(

1870

Pact government and

of

its

of

260

the

The

10

in

three northern provinces

(

the

.

.7

8

Africans

1913 and the proletarianisation

The proletarianisation

.8

of

of

The Land Act

8

Africans 256

poor white Afrikaners

.

growing numbers

1913

economic ramifications

8

Cape and Natal , and

the Eastern

in

)

(



the

proletarianisation

1890

8 6

of

The assault on the peasantry



.

8 5

285

Endnotes

Afrikaner Christian

)

:

94



African history

South

Nationalism

298 a

.3

297

racist ideology new

power 302

,

a

to

the

,

and discriminatory

legislation

,

and influx control

,

labour repression

)

312

,

– of 90

)

333

second half

343

of

black protest

the



radicalisation

with special

apartheid

'

manufacturing

in

growing

1948

(

the black labour market

corporations and

of

to

system

the

.

9 8

The

settlement

)

apartheid system –

(

.

9 6

9 7

State

transition

306

The apartheid

.

and

the survival crisis

negotiated

94



(

.5

9

The

reference

Endnotes

353

historical perspective

371

,

371

372

.3

Poverty and deprivation

382

Racial inequalities and systemic injustices

391

.2

10

Unemployment and underemployment

.4

in

the pre 1994 period

-

segregation and apartheid

,

colonialism

10 10

The legacy

of

:

The legacy

of

346

10

the 20th century

Chapter

.1

of

white supremacy

struggle

liberation

86

of

.4

9

The intensification

1948

10

the

constellation

1974

297

and the hardening

The NP government and the institutionalisation

9

the

,

rise

shifts

of

of

.2

9

The

of

.1

9

Three major paradigm

1948

in

Afrikaner establishment

of

the political hegemony (

:

of

The systemic period

9

Chapter

viii

10

. 5 Violence

and criminality

400

Endnotes

PART

4:

407

AN

INCOMPLETE TRANSFORMATION : WHAT ' S

TO

BE DONE

?

Chapter 11 : Working towards democratic 11

.1

social democratic version

a

of

capitalism

419

'

The apparent dysfunctionality of South Africa s version

of

neo - liberal democratic capitalism

a

the

and

424

of

socio

,

is

necessary

democratic

necessary

this time towards

capitalism

455

460

economic transformation

470

Endnotes

APPENDIX

)

Endnotes

in

and

,

)

world

CE countries

(

European

BA

-

British American

(

democratic capitalism

in

475

of

The history

439

social

-

agenda

system

for

.5

An

democratic

shift towards social democracy

a

.3

another power shift

paradigm

is

11

Why

4

Why

11

which

governing

neo liberal policy approach are based

11 .

's

elite

on

419 corporate

-

11. 2

Questioning the premises

the liberal capitalist

social democratic

continental 477 491

REFERENCES

495

INDEX

515

Figures and tables

Table

2 1

.

2 2

Labour supply ,

employment

unemployment

in

of the

The share

formal sector, and

the

in

, 1995 , and

1970

2001

31

poorest 40 per cent of households and

the three other quintiles of total income

as

African wages

1975

from

class society

,

stratified

percentage

,

1975

1991 ,

2001

2001

white wages

,

the

highly

Africa

changes

of

South

's

.

2 1

.1

Table

8

Figure

2001 , and

a

, and

1996

in

to

.

Table

262

373

1995

of

in

the

and

various population

total population

381 population

group

,

Monthly household expenditure

by

.3

10

groups Table

of

The share

1970

( % )

.2

Table

10

unemployment

,

Labour supply formal sector employment and

,

.1

Table

10

-

1911 1990

383

of

GDP

in

(

a

as

in

)

by

race group

393 a

countries

as

and

CE

SA

-

,

Government spending

1917

in

whites

392

group

95

population

of

to

)

)

(

by

.

that

.8

relative

percentage

on

-



(

390

1985

10 7

of

the enire population

per capita personal incomes

income

389

various South African

10

the

on

whites 1949

Estimated

.1

Table

States

non whites

Share

A

Table

United

whites

of

The skills composition

388

of

on

spending

population groups versus that

Table

1996

93

constant

(

-6

1996

and social spending

of

)

.

10 6

percentage

income

prices

Estimated real per capita social spending 1990 rands

Table

and the main household

of

.5

10

Table

income class

,

and 1991

per income class

per household

in

changes

in

1975

91

Percentage –

.

Table

10 4

1996

484

Abbreviations

AAC

All African

AAC

Anglo American Corporation

AB

Afrikaner Broederbond

АНІ

Afrikaanse Handelsinstituut (Afrikaans commercial institute )

AMWU

African

ANC

ANCYL

African National Congress African National Congress

ARMSCOR

Armaments Corporation

Convention

Mine Workers Union Youth

League

ASSOCOM

Association of Chambers of Commerce

BA

British -American

BAAB

Bantu

Affairs Administration Board

Bantu Affairs Department black consciousness movement

BCP BEECom

Black Community Programme Black Empowerment Commission

BEIC

British East India Company

BER

Bureau for Economic Research

BIG

basic income grant

BLA

black local authority

BPC

Black People

BSA

Business South Africa

CBM

Consultative Business Movement

CDE

Centre

CE

continental Europe

CM

Chamber

CNETU

Council

CODESA

Convention for

COSATU

Congress

CPSA DEP

Communist Party department

DP

Democratic Party

DRC

Dutch Reformed Church

EDP

economic development programme

for

BAD BCM

's Convention

Development and Enterprise

of of

Mines

a

Democratic South Africa South

Africa

economic policy

of

of

South African Trade Unions

of

of

Non European Trade Unions

the ANC

ESCOM

FCI

Electricity Supply Commission Federated Chamber

of Industries

FDI FMF

Free

FOSATU

Federation

GATT GDFI

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

GDI

gross domestic investment

GDP GDS GEAR G /NP

gross domestic product

foreign direct investment

Market Foundation of South African Trade Unions

gross domestic

gross domestic

fixed investment

savings

Growth , Employment ,

and Redistribution

Strategy

Gesuiwerde (Purified ) National Party

of national

GNU

government

ICU

Industrial and Commercial Workers ' Union

IDC

Industrial Development Corporation

IFP

Inkatha

ILC

Industrial Legislation Commission

IM

Independent Movement

IMF

International Monetary Fund

ISCOR

Iron and Steel Corporation

ISP

Industrial Strategy Project

ISS

Institute

JRC

Justice and Reconciliation Committee

Freedom

unity

Party

of Security Studies

way

LP

Labour Party

MDM

Mass Democratic Movement

MERG

Macro -Economic

MK

Research Group

Umkhonto we Sizwe (armed wing

of the ANC )

MLL

minimum

NAD

Native Affairs Department

NEC NEF

national executive committee

NEM

Normative Economic Model

NEPAD

New

NGO

non - governmental organisation

NIEP NP

National Institute for Economic

NRC

Native Representative

NUM

National Union of Mineworkers

NUSAS

National Union of South African Students

xii

living level

National Economic Partnership

Forum

for Africa

's Development Policy

National Party

Council

OAU

Organisation of African Unity

OECD

Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development

OFS

Orange Free State

OPEC

Organisation

PAC

Pan - Africanist Congress

PFP

Progressive Federal Party

RDP

Reconstruction and Development Programme

SAAU

South African

SABC

South African Broadcasting Corporation

SABRA

South African

SACOB

South African Chamber

SACP

South African Communist Party

SACTU

South African Congress

SADC

Southern African Development Community

SADF

South African Defence Force

SAF

South Africa Foundation

SANAC SAP

South African Native Affairs Commission

SASO

South African Students Organisation

SNCC

Student

SOE

state -owned

SSA

Statistics South Africa

SSC

state security

TEC

transitional executive council

South

of Petroleum Exporting Countries

Agricultural Union of Racial Affairs

Bureau

of Business of Trade Unions

African Party

Non - Violent Coordinating Committee enterprise

council

TRC

Truth

TRIPS

Trade Related Intellectual Property

TUCSA

and Reconciliation Commission

Trade Union Council

Rights

of South Africa

UCM

University Christian Movement

UDF

United Democratic Front

UF

Urban Foundation

ULPP

Urban Labour Preference

UN

United Nations

UNDP

United Nations Development Programme

UP

United Party

VOC

Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie (Dutch

WHO

World Health

WTO

World Trade Organisation Zuid -Afrikaansche Republiek (later known as

ZAR

Policy

East India Company )

Organisation

the

Transvaal )

xiii

About the author

-

.

of

as

a

).

. at

. several

United States

,

the

on

and lectured

economic policy issues

.

He

,

economic history the history

of

.

eight books mainly

,

has also

.

in

political situation

married and has five children

,

He

.

South and southern Africa

is

,

mainly

the

,

numerous scholarly journals and books and written extensively on

to

from

Stellenbosch

official visits on

published

for local and international newspapers

xiv

the South African

and the Soviet Union

economic thought and South African contributed

the

politics

the University

,

He has

He

.

Belgium

,

,

Britain

to

of

the

as

of

party

2001 received honourary colours

has also been

the

South Africa

and economic adviser

has attended numerous international conferences

foreign universities

member

Britain with Thabo Mbeki and

He

'

council

1976

and state president

to

and

African

1973

From

of

.

a

Arts

representative

the South

Stals award for economics from in

and

longer active

emeritus professor

served

democracy

founding member

of

Academy for Science

transition

the former

was among Afrikaner academics in

meetings

at

inquiry into matters concerning

in

of

received

and

vice chair

he

1985

prime minister

,

In

he

,

Democratic Party but

is

was

a

discuss

the no

to

he

90

1989

-

In

other ANC leaders

of Stellenbosch

, of

.

1979

held numerous clandestine

the students

board

1980s Professor Terreblanche

the late

1992

1968

of

,

In

economic advisory board

From

, and

in

the last five years

the Theron commission

the coloured community

who

on

of

a

member

most

(

he served

1987

to

Broadcasting Corporation was

of economics

professor

to

1972

the University

at

's

Africa

South

spent most of his academic career

he has

the

From

of

one

is

to

distinguished scholars . Educated

Harvard University , university , becoming economics in 1996 .

he

Terreblanche

to

I

(Sampie )

Solomon

in

Drof

inequality

have attempted

work

South Africa

from

1652

to

of

eight years

, –I

of

product

in

systematic account

-

of

this book

the

In la

Acknowledgements

provide

until the present

.

day

,

,

it

it

of

the

period Despite

forms

.

inequality have been

. for

Cape Town

,

in

AIPA

.

2000

truly democratic and more

a

for

Africa

therefore dedicate this book

to

-

.

period

I

I

enthusiasm

the post apartheid

July

in

executive director until his death

in

many years

established the African

)

he

1992

Policy Analysis and Economic Integration

equitable society

Professor Bax

the late

for

from

(

In

.

other African organisations

his

its

came

the United Nations Economic Commission

was greatly inspired



's

to

am

I

Lula

Prof Philip

persist with

read earlier versions

of

this book

the

my ideological and economic

)

TRC was compromised

(

Commission

because

of

's

I

and Reconciliation

conviction that the work

the

of

.

.

His advice was invaluable

share Professor Mahmood Mamdani

Truth

and

both

.

to

,

executive director

,

publisher

manuscript and encouraged me approach

very grateful

their financial support and encouragement

-

,

Moeletsi Mbeki the

AIPA

of

,

research director

for

who succeeded Bax

as

.

AIPA research project

co

,

Black

its

Gebreyesus



This book

an

memory is

his

.

(

,

the post apartheid

South African economist who

by

)

Institute

(

and

for

leading role

UNECA

and was

originally

highly respected in

,

a

played

blacks

-

, of

an

inclusive democracy

for this book

idea

Nomvete

for

and some entrenched more deeply than ever before

a

The

period

unequal socio economic outcomes

and

characteristics

long

power was entirely

when

,

perpetuated

1994

devastating consequences

with

,

transition

to

our

defining

;

's

1910

Unfortunately unequal power relations have remained

,

,

This trend continued during ),

).

to

.

central role during South Africa

of

whites

shaped and reshaped

-

monopolised

deals mainly

2002

1910

from

-

(

and apartheid

by

segregation

1652

so

,

1652

and

and ideological power that

our society and has

Unequal power structures played from

however

to

so

deeply embedded

such unfortunate ways from

colonial period

long

a

in

has become

income opportunities

political economic

to

unequal distribution

in

with

of

the

that has marked South Africa

old

property

for

It

of

deals with the highly unequal distribution

the XV

which it was constituted

,

,

.

book could not Ina Kruger

,

and

this

of

the University

Inge Kotze

.

final word

his willingness

.

the ideological spectrum

thanks

publish

to

appreciate the

Villiers to

and Riaan

greatly de

,

Schaik

,

van

proper English

Natal Press

the Free State

A

,

of

and

My daughter

.

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Dr

an of

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of

the University

xvi

born

Edwin Hees Louis

Afrikaans English

from

a

and retyped the manuscript

.I

who patiently

Afrikaner

thanks

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special word

owe

efforts

economics

at

the department

patience

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this project

supplying me with facilities without which

typed

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the research material she tirelessly

have been written

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on

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gratitude

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worked

for

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many years

very grateful for

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.

Stellenbosch

I am

debt which

.

Christelle also deserves

my

am

understanding during sentme

a

defects and shortcomings

my wife

to

thanks

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word

the

A

sincere

I owe

Colin and Margaret

my responsibility

entirely

of

final product

are

pleased to acknowledge . Needless to

which the human

in

me by

to

the Legums

and

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been

in

Moeletsi , Mahmood ,

the

To

in

for almost 350 years .

say

.

a

appreciate the advice and support given

also

Legum

in

country

I

to

of blacks had been grossly violated

rights

I

34 years – especially not

only

deals made

the TRC 's investigation should not have

believe

of

restricted

We both

of the political

the course

to

1990s .

early

in

of

in

all

way

turn

my

Glenn Cowley

yet another book

Part

1

Power, land, and labour

Chapter

1

burden knowledge

the Past

the safest emancipation

we are convinced that knowledge

)

in

)

49

:

(

94 )

!

:

(

.

its

of

to

a

's

in

,

,

and

even

tempestuous history Like Lord our burdensome

past

can

were finally

of

a

irrespective

hopefully with

of



English their

as

take stock

system

both

(

whites

-

liberty

all

a

Consequently

'

white political

, '

maintain

have been

proper democratic

some white South Africans

to

)

.

defeated

to

-

-

,

and Afrikaans speaking

political orientation

history

1994 but has

sectional

outdated

and the introduction by

1994

the misguided attempts

and thoroughly

one wishes

sense

1652

from

, .

election

at

With

will

that burden

from

of

the

emancipate

that

.

this country

way

black South Africans

,

from

of

interpretations us

,

Africans

South

stretching

's

liberated white

a

,

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system

extended colonialism

,

the chains

one must have

has not only liberated

1994

past

are convinced that

,

from

Acton

of

transition

Africa

if

Like Colin Bundy we

contemporary South Africa

political

adulatory

a

,

.

future

1996

difficult challenge

help remember South

to

an

attempt

of

understand The

perspective and

of

its

inform

is

A

.1

1

This book

how

to

than

Jacques Depelchin

new

1993

Africa will depend more plotted how the future is

on

is

remembered

on

,

that history

South

in

A

'

the past

the

South

reflect

to

history

Colin Bundy

radical transformation

by

arena shaped

conjuncture

on

constraints and the possibilities created

its

by of

sense

not

in

but

),

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in

act

a

;

have

to

essential

is

it

understand the present a

.

Africa

celebrated phrase

their own choice they

,

Accordingly

to

of

circumstance

past

runs

June 1895

,

(



People make their own history

Cambridge

,

inaugural lecture

(

Lord Acton

a

of

obstacle and

a

been

,

an

the

Past

!

is

'If

has

From systemic exploitation to systemic exclusion

open

,

so

.

of

a

at

in

-

in

to

a

,

of

,

the

to

the

of

in

, ‘

on

re

be

to

,

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, ]

whites

practices that

will

today

devastation

they

whom

inherited

a

inherited

the most developed

.

-

.'

;

,

sharp

and high

and particularly

Africans

-

these

the population

opportunities

problems much more pressing

mainly black South Africans

their receiving end

and

,

,

income property

of ,

50

of

-

.

is

per cent

a

in

1994

of On

it

the one hand

,

.

On

did not

political

as

an

to

it

blood

inclusive democracy

government that assumed power

the distribution

it

to

)

,

of

,

an

to

of

exploitative

(

few

foreshortened

has been widely regarded

,

loss

of

;

in

it

,

at

of

.

,

of as

-

many

the millions who engineered

or

of ,

almost

democratically

.

apartheid

from

the abject poverty

of

fact that at

the future rests

moral culpability for the

crime and violence What makes

are

is

awareness

these

Africa with modern physical and institutional infrastructure inherited major socio economic problems including high levels

unemployment inequalities

victims

Hein Marais has noted

the complex

lived reality

legacy

,

in it

,

the other

vision

should

segregation

a

.

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rather contradictory

economy

that they

the

)

transition

occur without friction miracle

alia

colonialism

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show

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savoured

or

the

inter

prepared

the

7

:

Although

who

,

'

.

and

2001

'(

achieved

the

,

of

the past

their authorship

to

admit

South Africans

every aspect

penetrated

also

unfortunately

of

administrated

levels

But

economy

South Africans have been

Africans should

.

perspectives

, of

(

)

white

,

respects

epoch without

least

the problems they have bequeathed

government

elected

old

.

a

,

.

's

they should

implies

This

most black

of

,

.

insoluble nature

one

ugly shadow

fully compensate

,

Africa

past

at

exploitation

South

or

(

as

's

.

systemic

and that

systems White

cast

the new

position

acknowledge explicitly that they have benefited and apartheid

will

the end

an

to

,

a

the

the South African

in

of

to

probably not

,

of ,

examine South

from

whites

totally new

the old

global economy whites black victims

especially

history

We cannot build

given the vulnerability are

,

Although

oppression

.

a

clear understanding

come

least

companions

challenge We are

one

new

them

trustworthy

the country this

Of course

and apartheid and the

South Africans

but

to

of

,

over the new for

long time

them

long and

their past they cannot expect

-

at up

.

look

most

segregation

evaluate

1994

and many have taken

epoch and the beginning

and enthusiasm

legitimise those forms

accept

Since

future

have had the opportunity perspective

,

of

colonialism

common

a

building

not critically to

if

of

the

victims

colonialism

arguments used

do

whites

,

However

the

of

acknowledge the evils fallaciousness

conviction

such

for white South Africans

easy

travelled for

they

which



false trails

the phantoms they pursued with

has not been

on

- of

as possible

of

mind

re

a

POWER , LAND , AND LABOUR

1:

the

PART

of

,

be

nation

honest about

of

character

.

socio

our

dual political economic systems

and racial capitalism

have played

in

central role

systemic

groups

of

a

very long

creating these

to

,

white political domination

of

the

a

It

South Africa that whites should

acknowledge

also honestly

not

in

be

in

precondition

western countries against indigenous population

problems and

economic

indeed

-

They should

and

-

and

them

the

by

period

bravado

racism

power related transgressions committed over by

of

building and reconciliation the multitude

should

.

sense

exploited and victimised

have been

will

social responsibility towards those who is

history

the

people who have

them

largely the unresolved

White indignation

disguised

or

unwarranted arrogance

. or

rejected

domination and apartheid

white

the

of as

remnants

problems ,

these

social injustices inherent

complain when they are characterised

to

inclined

the

to acknowledge

prepared

of

is

no

be

and

character of

the systemic

as

Anyone who truly understands

SYSTEMIC EXCLUSION

TO

,

SYSTEMIC EXPLOITATION

FROM

say that they

do

segregation

and apartheid

part

an

to

'

of

are

to

)

and

greed

and

realise

,

,

to to

willingness of

a

as

and symbolically

or

(d

.

white South Africans ought

these

power

that they

make substantial

open commitment

to

'

short sightedness

their

indirectly

much

with

obsession

-

from

irectly

as

whites

from

'(b

'

by

is

consequences



materially

social justice

.

of

restoration

racial

,

of

different ethnic

5

and plunder Each

intergroup

,

,

,

,

conflict violence warfare

unsavoury tale the

over the past 350 years

of

history

an

's

South Africa

labour is

and

,

,

The special relationship between power land

.

.2

,

individualism

ugly

effectively addressed without



be

reductionist

1

only

privileges but also

entrenched

sacrifices

not

its

of

-

problems have resulted

cannot

and

colonialism

systemic

these benefits with

claim

In

whites

means

as

in

accumulated

and

them

benefits

that these

greedy self righteousness but decline any responsibility

for the evil

of

-

of to

realise

their parents and

belong

colonialism

for

roadly

the

, .

of

rather hypocritical

those

to

It

.

they were largely

because

is

',

'

extended period

But what these whites

contaminated

exploitation

their hands and fail

are

usually adamant that the large scale benefits

the

their

Those who are not prepared

of

alone

.

them

not understand the

and accept responsibility

white domination

that accumulated

grandparents during

the effects

,

,

,

.

of

colonialism

in

)

defined

residues

,

's

apartheid

blamed

However they clearly

collective responsibility for what has happened acknowledge the evils

be

)

and can therefore not

white domination and apartheid

,

of

,

themselves did nothing wrong

systemic character

are inclined

and

especially younger people

(

Many whites

for

.

problems and causing such widespread social injustice

POWER , LAND , AND LABOUR

reducing slaves

the

. in a

;

surface water

,

-à -

vis

vis

of

land

indigenous people

and

them

the indigenous population groups

and cattle

different forms

to

,

,

and thirdly

,

so

mainly three ways firstly

,

by

depriving indigenous people

by

,

secondly

in

indigenous people

cost

creating political and economic power structures that put

privileged and entrenched position

A

)

conquerors and therefore

a

is



.

colonial Europe

erstwhile

in

,

the post colonial period

of ;

mostly

the

of

,

)

at

mostly

The colonial powers and white colonists did

by

that

the settlers from

1974

the victors

groups mostly the losers

. :

enrich themselves

the first

European

,

position

least

were mostly

of

until

were again to

is

(

the descendants

(

local whites

closely linked

the

second pattern



,

conflicts

and the indigenous population

at

group

the seeming muddle

during the long period

the colonial masters

one

If

-

and imperialism

colonialism

in

patterns

certain

that

to

of

clearest patterns

the

wars

and

.

South Africa during in

one can distinguish

,

past 350 years

group conflicts

in

considers the multitude of One

itself by plundering the others

groups tried to enrich

in

and /or language

of

1:

,

PART

. to

of

do

. .

of

of

the

of the

a

In

.

the

in

understanding

and

of

,

economic

is

to

an

(

,

political

.

.

particularly

modern history has been shaped

and

,

,

serfdom

there was

a

land

than

,

valuable



.

land and labour Because labour was

other

indicated above the colonial authorities and

,

As

labour

is

a

becomes This

, 's

,

production factor

force black labourers into slavery

.

of

it

the more valuable

and therefore potentially more

continuing tendency

to



a

by

by

are also central

economics that the scarcer

other factors

forms

of

,

's

-

While this study emphasises the history

special relationship between power

repressed

that

unfree

history

broader discussions

from

power domination

important for the argument that South Africa

scarcer

recognition

of

axiomatic to

divorced

the social

history

unfree black labour over the past 350 years

,

is

It

relation

land deprivation

Africa has been

this

).

1994

'(

and

3

.. .

cannot

polity

in

)

and

unfolding drama

history mainly from

modern

convinced that much

also guided

be

Africa

unfree labour the histories

ideological

,

:

;

to

of

we

,

of

,

culture

them

South are

'.

South

ideology

modern

:



,

labour

in

]

[

of

Like

labour

black

Africa

like Worden and Crais

and economic history

of

we are

land

neglected

unequal power relations and unfree labour patterns

,

of

the perspective

explore South

the perspective

unfree black labour But irrespective

,

is

;

This study sets out endeavour

of

of

the other two should not

,

the perspective

better than

firstly the perspective

secondly

deprivation and thirdly chosen

the late 20th century no

-

following three perspectives

white political and economic domination which one

until

17th

be

to

one

the mid

from

South African history can

examine

of

so

do

Any attempt from

history

modern the re -

's

South Africa

, .

unfree and exploitable labour These three threads have run ominously through

of

or

,

an

an

of

acquire

their

of

more

in

a

several examples

their land

the

.

to

many

In

a

,

discrete

,

or

-

single

unfree

the

deliberate attempt

and impoverishment thereby increasing the

,

,

,

ie

(

,

)

in

an

to



'

to

is



,

, of

for

,

or

).

32

of –

18

-

At

.

.

from

the

.

This happened

the occupation

the

in

million



from

45

-

The sharp decline

to

century onwards land gradually

75

,

west

,

Europe

ie

western

into tenant farmers

the 11th

and

their manorial estates

(

in

serfs

the population

from

:

(

of of

in

they had enough military power

-

-

feudalism

.

scarce factor

.

the

century

the

, of say , all

increase

transformed

but

which people

available agricultural land While labour was the scarce factor became

)

or

by

the

as

a

-

of

as

, .

the

of

word

led

gradually

eighth until the tenth

then

Although the feudal lords were not

force the peasants into serfdom

,

)

a

sharp

available

1970

terms

political framework

century onwards peasants cum

the Elbe were

because

to

in

the strict sense

in

of

12th

exist

can

the enslavement

the eighth century onwards

become serfs within

feudal privileges

into

wage labourers

unfree labour

Domar refers

,

landowners the

forms

to

,

other

Europe was sparsely populated

that stage

enough land

tenant farmers

to

to

were forced

serfs

hypothesis

from

agricultural

these elements

example

on

peasantry

either

the

European

as

the

,

. If, )

-

illustrate

some form

working landowner class

non

any two

three

enslaved

the landowning class are politically entrenched

,

,

to

his

be To

slaves

and

Domar

peasants cannot remain free reduced

be

ie

, (

but never

property rights

of

the

according

then

simultaneously

free peasants

would

privileged elite would

relevant

three elements

or

. , If

free land

-

,

account

those not belonging

we take

custom

property

land was freely available and that

free wage labourers but would

unfree labour

economy

of

,

,

as

employed

(

the

of

population

long

power

in

.

the hypothesis that

privileged group

the

rights are maintained

wage labourers

as

be

rest

no

,

A

of

people

members

all to

to an

the

willingly work

From

people

British economist Evsay Domar has formulated

owners whose property

will

into

unfree black labour

agricultural economy

and

of

perhaps the best

promote their proletarianisation

not

to

depriving indigenous

property class depriving indigenous

supply

blacks

landowning class

the white

is

of

.

1913

acquire

economic

more and more land was captured

of

a

required unfree black labour The Land Act

subjugate

of

was only possible

as

continuous one

,

cases

it

but

by for

.

The choice

decision

land

strong inclination

use unfree black labour was not

to

labour class

their land than

.

,

there was

for the white landowning class



rationale

landowning

of

and relatively easily conquered

for hegemony

effectively Given that land was abundant a

to

control

it

it

the

necessary labour and

struggle

the white master

view

deprive indigenous people

to

was easier

,

class

point

EXCLUSION

of

over land and labour. From

SYSTEMIC

the relentless

in

of

the

white colonists were mostly the victors

TO

to

EXPLOITATION

FROM SYSTEMIC

of -

to

-

re

an

as

its

,

.

vis

-à -

part

the reason for

of is

of

in

:

's

in

.

the serfs

the Elbe

that

the

of

of

as

.

his

it .

to

.?

in

of

events

vis

explains why the

And the weakness east

full

military power The

the 14th century

Death

hypothesis

determinism

governments

state

state governments

hypothesis remains applicable

of

to

,

end

did not apply after the Black

the feudal lords and

was not reimposed

turning peasants into

economic

political

on

in

the Elbe

and

to

the vis

-à -

vis

why

introduce too much political

,

west

hypothesis

hypothesis

the decades after the Black Death

strong

the final instance the

peasantry

apparently

the landed aristocracy

of

of

realisation depends weakness

to

,

.

at

However despite

enslaved

universality for Domar

relatively high level

,

.

serfs

refute

present

widely available landowners succeed

is

when land

a

can claim

the

in

peasants being

the political bargaining power

that time demonstrates

at

One

labour According

fact the fact that serfdom

independent tenant farmers

the relatively

wants

not want

does

his formula

into

Europe

western

and

In

,

intervention

he

by

is

economic necessity

this because

century again

14th

or

of

this should have resulted

puzzled

mid

acute scarcity

and the fact that this did not happen seems

Domar

in

free land and

its

,

hypothesis

Black Death

in

's

Domar serfs

oversupply

an

created

during

an

's population

Europe

the

POWER , LAND , AND LABOUR

1:

,

PART

Europe

.

another 500 years

We cannot properly interpret the special relationship between power

South

of

, not

if

of

not

It

subservient labour

the white master class has

Africa

's

the nature and course

of

,

,

.

on

the Khoisan and the Africans into

the

would

.

of

become landowners

force The political economic and military power determined

the

,

land

they did

for

turn

white colonists

power

indigenous people

a

to

have the power

the powerlessness to

have been possible

for

-à -

colonial masters

vis

vis

in

and labour

South African history without focusing

history

almost

350

the newly

European colonists became empowered

landowning class Land was relatively easily occupied owing military

of

.

colonial

intruders an

slaves

In

importing

,

colonies including South Africa

.

by

the European

this demand was originally met

the

almost insatiable

,

all

unfree labour

and

.

the

the

the

poor

indigenous peoples With free land available

colonial landowners developed In

,

the new

.

for

in

abundance

of

capacity

epidemiological condition

demand

,

privileged

superior

a

century onwards

the New

as

countries white

16th

the colonisation

.

from

hypothesis the

countries

or

colonised

European

,

World

by

's

Robert Shell has applied Domar

to

unemployment

structural

to

through exploitation

all of

slavery

In

.3

1

From

to

.

years

South

Africa the



(

-

,

A

.

of

,

the

in

in a

of

free

).

1838

free black

a

by

,

or

available

of

in

their

English

and

accordance

in

-

,

turning indigenous



succeeded

designing with the support

of in

methods

new

,



's

authority

abundantly

Afrikaans

both

)

with Domar

)

the a

, of

class

white

and

depriving indigenous people

speaking and later the British mining companies hypothesis

this class

1

of

:

ch

not

1828

replaced

land was still

the landowning

their

century when

the

Consequently

landowners

19th

slavery

and

unfree labour were stage free

that

the

century

of

.

serfdom

accessed relatively easily

,

could

land

be

-

wage earning class

class

(

forms

these

(

abolished

. At

,

respectively

at

-

British

the

resisted

the 17th century but

18th

the end

by

When

merged into

see Shell 1994a

of

no

longer available

not

pastoral farmer

Trekboer

colonialism

available

emerged only

re

an

-

class

Dutch

land became

almost completely

wage earning

was

years

met

especially

free white wage earning class

it

of

.

abundance

disappeared

land

Although the Khoisan

the firepower

50

the

first

emerged during

century onwards was

18th

was too powerful Interestingly

commandos

when

).

, (

enslavement ferociously

EXCLUSION

TO SYSTEMIC

reducing many indigenous people

lyfeienskap

serfdom

to



Khoisan

the early

from

this manner but also

in

only

labour

unfree

as

demand

by

for

FROM SYSTEMIC EXPLOITATION

British colonial

people into unfree wage

.

labourers

,

into new

to

,

patterns

ex

new

of

Xhosa

people

(

to

coloured

of

,

to

force not

only

of

is

time diamonds

African

labour necessitated

existing methods but also the design

great

The mines

'

.

these new methods

firmly institutionalised

were

forcing blacks

not

only

additional methods

the

of

docile

the

perhaps the most

of

.

1886

,

of

for

refinement

and

wars coincided

but also the adoption

labour history By

,

,

in

in

's

South Africa

into unfree labour had already been

cheap

British

difficult

quite

These

enserfment and slavery

Khoisan

1867 and gold

.

,

of in

momentous event

demand

1853

be

black labour into unfree labour shortly

.

the abolition

discovered

1834

serfs but also the newly conquered

unfree labour This transformation after

This proved

slavery and serfdom

white landowning class

-

slaves and

from

became necessary

)

ex

by

methods

the

with the abolition

it

.

in

of

requiring three bloody frontier wars

settler

mainly British settlers and



control over additional black labour defeat the Xhosa the Eastern Cape gain

system

for

occupation

of

To

.

land

new

into the emerging by

capitalism

integrated

to

completely

already been

had

of

,

defeated and almost open

Khoisan

the

the

were abolished

serfdom

up

and

for

When slavery

By

.

the late 19th and early 20th centuries

that time almost

class took place

the in

in

an

and the white property

all

labour

important structural change

,

,

relationship between land

view

,

economic point

of

From

an

.

control and repression

agricultural land

: POWER , LAND ,

the

all

,

it

,

(

in

compete

the white population drastically changed

for

,

)

choice but

mainly

white

This proletarianisation

.

-e

of

bywoners

arning proletariat

against the black wage part

with

1880

the South African

jobs

large

a

armblankes

from

of

proletariat

great numbers

(

became squatters

either

no

)

,

Afrikaner

and

class

agricultural units that were economically

These small landowners went bankrupt

1940

the white landowning

a

were farming

mining revolution

the

or

a

sizeable percentage

(

.

until

initiated

to

)

(

mainly Afrikaners

unviable

.

economic modernisation

became apparent that

during the

become landowners On the contrary

on

of

the white elite

by

of

members period

consequently , it was no longer possible for

of

;

had been occupied

AND LABOUR

)

1

to

PART

labour

-

the

of of

of

white

.

multitude

labour

,

1909

a

Westminster

at

keeping blacks subjugated

aimed

as a

the

-

1960s

economic

and

of

,

until

1910

the Act

parliament enacted

the white controlled South African from

political

white wage earning class was part by

.

Because

between the free white and

same jobs dominated

elite whose political rights were entrenched

laws

the first three

-

unfree black proletariat developments

the intense competition

formally free

unfree black wage earning

major political ramifications During

the 20th century

of

quarters

had

the

This situation

the for

.

class

parallel with

an

-

in

white wage earning class existed

18th century

a

beginning

the

For the first time since

of

the

.

market

west

power between the

These shifts brought about profound

income

inclusive democracy

in

an

the introduction

of

,

of

part and parcel

the South African labour situation and the distribution

and opportunities culminating

-

, .

white regime

of

.

as

-

the

.

the

balance

crisis that

of

,

it,

,

in

in

struggle

the liberation

the white regime was

and accumulation

mid 1970s onwards

from

in

in

intensification changes

to

black occurred

struggle intensified

early 1990s Although

until 1994 important shifts

of

and

white

capitulation

the

place

its

led

remained

in

ultimately

the

,

serious survival legitimation

a

into

state

discriminatory measures

and

support

,

thrown

countries began

African

was strong enough

the liberation

1976

to

and numerous foreign

of

the

,

Soweto uprising



-

former colonial powers

counteract black protests against these repressive But when after

South

to

the white controlled the

supported

years

in

by

the

than

,

For more

60

.

subservient labour force

10

South

Africa

has

liberating

since

1970

experienced

from

in

1974

centuries

socio

of

,

by

black labour

from

of

the process

was reluctantly dismantled

economic

-

,

subjugation

supremacy

and discrimination

the political systems

'

.

onwards Parallel

white



and

to

colonialism

repression

institutionalised and maintained



-

the labour market

proletarianism

,

elaborate system

of

The

of

.

1994

FROM SYSTEMIC EXPLOITATION

processes that have plunged

the majority

EXCLUSION

SYSTEMIC

TO

of Africans

into

different kind of

a

economic bondage marked by structural unemployment and abject poverty

of the

brief summary follows

.

South Africa since 1652

patriarchal households

initially owned by the Dutch – became part

to 20

, with

of

.

.3 ).

of

,

did

as

law

.

by

to

a

for

as the

.2 ). )

1841 1974

request

of

)

1841

of

It

.

6

of

(

and Africans –

a

of

'

the

masters and servants laws pass coloureds and Africans

by

,

in

and slaves

in

system

of .

.3 ).

)

– 28

or

(

7

as

.4 , 6 .2 , 5

,

:

at

designed

system

the

anti squatter and anti vagrancy laws and the The social and family structures

,

-

these included

of

settlements

-

them

;

their economic independence

land deprivation

coloured

see section

agricultural sector

proletarianising

.

abolition

of

,

frontier wars

means

the request

was also

of

,

aimed

depriving

deliberately

25

formerly Khoisan

by

was enacted

laws and measures

1828

1809

the

,

settlers

It

British

6

of

the

or

all

black labour repression

Cape colonial authority introduced this

.

The

50

.

by

It

by of

was abolished

cheap and docile contract workers

inboeke

compulsory

inboekelingskap was applied

Proclamation

coloureds

minor

This was

at

a

(

employment

1809

'

labour

missionaries

and

Caledon Proclamation

the

forced

version

Khoisan

(

direct

of

A

almost

inboekelinge

prescribed

labour

not exist

patriarchal heads

The

these

sections

indentured

of

in

the Cape

first

age

see

compulsory serfdom

humanitarian

. .

of

system

to

's

Caledon

of

system

1 3 4

at

direct forced labour

treated

the

of

a

. .

1 3 3

Khoisan

lyfeienskap

serfdom

until they were emancipated

system

and

the two Boer

market for inboekelinge

households also

lingskap applicable

This

the house

of

or

Voortrekker

Lord

children

Voortrekkers

(

Trekboer

system

Khoisan

).

and

,

an

adapted form

of

This was

also

system

the 19th century

The inboekelinge were not slaves

children

of

)

(

the households

in

children

republics

This was

the Cape Colony during the 18th century

in

of

Trekboere

in

. .

1 3 2

African

and

inboekelingskap

The indentureship holds

.

(

see

male head

subservient position

1838

in

sections

direct forced labour

5 3

Slavery was abolished

.

permanent minor children

in

power and the slaves

a

position

unassailable

of

in

an

households . These households were organised patriarchally

of white of

India Company . But in time small groups – up

East

the

them

a

of

most

in

, and

Slaves were imported

in

mainly

in

(

Slavery

the

..

1 3 1

eight unfree labour patterns manifested in

at

A

.

coloureds

POWER , LAND , AND LABOUR

1:

and Africans

killing episode ,

by pestilences , the Xhosa cattle

severely disrupted

were also

and tribal wars . The Native

Land Act

Africans could not practise sharecropping or or public land . After 1948 members captured

areas were

of an African proletariat

laws were abolished

was an indirect coercive

in

)

',

of

. in

on

,

in

the

in

-

,

8

of

)

the 19th century

workers

against

,

and therefore cheaper black

,

(

Afrikaner

black

between

and

Discriminatory

labour promotion

,

categories

them

of

certain

increase

.

.

,

the latter tended

respect

repression

labour

blacks While the former decreased the to

white employers

measures were imposed

of

to

.

of

of

,

than they did

. ).

the end

from

and mainly

to



distinguish

in

of

1972

1979

discriminatory measures applicable costs

per cent less

mines

the gold

)

to

white

of

necessary

1870

until the

socio economic conditions

the already proletarianised

from

to

workers

(+

competition

protect

agricultural

9 4

in

. , 8 .6 ,

and

indirect

the principle that migrant workers

Discriminatory measures institutionalised

onwards

is

In

'.



section

8 4

see 20

(

. .

1 3 6

1911

system

real terms migrant workers

1960 and

recruit

at

,

.

,

the

drastic deterioration

per cent less

on a

of in

1970s despite

,

their areas

Mines

countries

This principle was maintained

origin

subsistence base

reserves

comprehensive

wage because they had

subsistence

a

be

paid less than

much

collaborating tribal chiefs neighbouring

from

Act

migrant labour and

the

also allowed the chamber

foreign migrant workers

contract labour and was based

access

years the Chamber

maintaining

and

exceptionally low wage rates This was

overpopulated

60

and

The Glen Grey

to

.

For

ampong systems and corrupting

large numbers

the native reserves

share croppers

Successive white supremacist governments

enforced

land

1913 deprived Africans

institutionalising )

(k

in

a

compound

1972

.

them

the land they had traditioinally occupied

key role

to turn

migrant

docile

an

of

and Native Land Act

1894

earned

1986

proletarianise and impoverish Africans

independence

therefore their economic

designed

and

of

depriving

could

. , sections 6 . 5 7 . 4 ,

'

much larger scale

1894

cheap

in

on

measures

system

played

. The

system

influx control in

a system

-

was based

by

mining industry



the native reserves

in

gold

the

for

labour

a

still living

:

into

second version of black labour repression

Africans

This

white rural

. . 1 ).

(

A

white farms

9 4

of

..

1 3 5

in

as

and

1974 , and

of contract labour ( see

system

to

8 .5 ,

the

This

on

on

that

the white agricultural sector by means of stricter pass

in

masters and servants

of

squatter farming

and influx control measures , and an efficient labour bureau

law

It

of 1913 stipulated

of

PART

SYSTEMIC EXPLOITATION

(mainly Afrikaner ) workers . After

additional discriminatory measures were introduced

.

for

the

. ) .

' or '

in

,

,

to

of

a

,

in

, an

.

in

)

(

formal

the

as

be

,

1974 onwards

the informal sector

job

the

ineligible 1960

In

for

.

The

.

the

,

foreign direct

the formal sector

have made them

,

African entrants

struggle

of

in

in

from

in

a

caused

underemployment

of

reduction

,

all

,

and

Africans

to

per cent

in

eighth unfree labour

tertiary sector which has grown significantly since

of

the

mainly

many Africans

education

as

'

of

. ).

a

(

This was

9 4

in

of

Africans

especially

of

of )

(

of

,

economy and growing levels

in

the Bantustans provided

labour unrest during the liberation

capital outflows

unemployment

50

the principle that

subsistence base

regarded

the economy

growing levels

2001 about

blacks

due

,

capital intensity and even

low

areas

see section

of

,

,

worsening poverty

employment

system

blacks

investment FDI

levels

even cheaper

was also based

of

pattern applicable

to

.

the informal sector This

the increasing

supply cheap and docile

the economy since 1960 and their growing underemployment can

of

. .

1 3 8

unemployment

to

of

labour

those

system

single

and

labour was also introduced

labour repression

indirect enforced contract labour

Stagflation

a

:



in

via

make this kind

labourers and their families with

sector

control measures

without compromising efforts

entrepreneurs

conditions

was

system

,

of

.

the appalling

The growing

9 5

the

this

industrial decentralisation and commuter

migrant

stricter influx

,

.

keep South Africa white

despite

the

in

The purpose

Afrikaner

course This version

migrant labour for the

system

the

to

emerging

of

.

sex living quarters

1952

apartheid period

labour bureaux bantu administration boards

To

(

),

pass laws dompas

Verwoerd

areas

urban

in

manufacturing industries

Bantustans

the manufacturing industries

comprehensive

a

introduced

designed

native reserves

(

of

of

'

1952 Verwoerd

Dr Hendrik

laws

the native

and

system

was institutionalised during

system

' .

by

urban areas This

In

black labour repression

Africans still living

social

and

and apartheid regimes Labour

sections

see

and docile migrant labourers

cheap

labour

1979

in

employment

of

A

. .

1 3 7

version

more comprehensive political

the segregationist

discrimination was abolished

enhance and entrench

to

.7 , 8 .8 ,

discrimination introduced

of

multitude of

a

of direct labour coercion of blacks,

a system

(

by

and should be judged as part

1948

8

their privileged position . This was

impoverished and

on

unemployed white

third

of

position

the socio -economic

improve

to

,

scholastic

1948 discriminatory measures were



imposed

-service training . Before

in

wage negotiations , and

an

skilled , and

, unionisation ,

)

opportunities , remuneration

EXCLUSION

SYSTEMIC

TO

86

FROM

market could not find jobs 13

POWER , LAND , AND LABOUR

.4

situation

they

the population

privileges

beyond

it is

longer systemically still systematically

system

the new

structural

of

, because

character

the poverty

democratic

).

4

ch

six

(

see

The

1

most

from

capitalism

of

,

excluded

Although

per cent

50

exploited the poorer

compulsory

a

.

unemployed the

of

the

the

unemployment and poverty has control

population . This

black

the

major reason for

of

of

cent

a

systemic periods

successive

in

per

60

of

of

of employment is

no

formal sector. This lack

are

in the

are

1:

of

PART

African

South

,

on

of

's

of

).

9

of

a



5

ch

the ways

of

different forms

unfree

which power

mobilised maintained

,

has been

forces deprived

in

to

them

economic

and

,



to

white

on

,

is

.

in

different periods

the following

periods

systemic

South

in

it

-

,

between

political

concentrate

white controlled power

distinguish

can

apartheid

with the structuring

concerned

six

, of

.

necessary

legitimised and institutionalised

We

The country

labour requires

how these structuring

their land and reduced

labour Consequently and especially

and

,

,

indigenous people

modern

and

unfree black

.

imperialism

but more specifically with

domination

segregation

the

power and authority have manifested themselves

how

colonialism

power

, .

the part

the history

explore

,

forces

-

of

of

,

colonialisation

successive systemic periods This book

of

in

thorough exploration

black servants and employees

is

Any endeavour

discussed

testifies

white masters

social and economic history

(

will

of of

periods

the

in

1994

)



(

1652

during

another 100

the class

unequal distribution

has been one

of

Africa

that

and

indeed argue that

to

South

one hand

power between

3

can

We

.

other

history

on

and employers

the

highly unequal distribution

the

be

to

,

for 250 years and labour repression and discrimination

slavery and serfdom

,

The fact that the South African economy was sustained

of

for by

history

semi independent regarded

by

British

,

feudal and traditional patterns

'

of by

'

long 19th century

and economic patterns introduced

British destroyed the mercantilistic

as

feudal

this

).

during

,

,

be

.

But

institutionalised the

imperialism

century

-

by

a

18th

5

ch

,

of

racial capitalism

The legal political

,

1910

).



and British

see

(

of iv

The systems

colonialism

(

ii

Trekboere created

the

own power and labour relations

the Dutch colonial system

1795

most

Dutch colonialism

was not fully independent and must therefore

subsystem

and

its

,

with

and

17th

During this period

1795

feudal subsystem part

the

of

half

institutionalised

the

second

).

1652



(

during

of

The mercantilistic and feudal system the

i

:

African history

the the

East India Company , the Afrikaners , the Khoisan , and the Africans

,

.

to

,

,

to

of

).

.

8



in

.

a

,

in

to

,

in in

the

(+

NP )

(

During the last

it

a

),

.

it

of ,

of

.

94

_

its

the

racial

political

crisis developed

of

the rise

of

prelude

to

a

as

In

.

used

1990s Afrikaner

early

the

Unfortunately

a

new

system

democratic political

has been

parallel

successfully

socio economic

-

elite

-

African

years

-

politico economic to a

the

).

from

a

an

).

system

9

Over the past

4

practise

white political supremacy

and racial capitalism

.

ch by

see

institutionalised

(

-

controlled

transition

12

of

white political domination

democratic capitalism

system

see

have experienced

of

system

we

African political hegemony

still

won the general election

1974

rather dramatically ch

collapsed

the Cape

version

new

capitalism

a

of

racial

(

political hegemony

they were

).

institutionalise

Afrikaner political hegemony

and the profitability

The power

Cape

but

establishment

surrounding the legitimacy and sustainability

Since 1990

which they adapted

economic

(

to

the English a

by

did not drastically transform

and ideological power

of

illegal

creating relatively

intensify unfree labour patterns

to

its

political power

institutionalised

These two

1948

7

see

capitalism

the

to

the Orange River

-

Although the

NP

, it

of

succeeded

Afrikaner oriented National Party used

and

colonial authority ch

of

of

(

the

separate feudal system

1948

1890

the two republics were precarious the

20

chapters

then regarded

independent enough

between the

colonial and mineral political and economic

and the

as

of

republics north

constellations

v

imperialism

discussed

labour patterns that were

years

systemic period

6

will

with close ties with

distinguish

local English establishment

the

first half

ideological power was

and

necessary

19th century the Voortrekkers

independent

When

at

,

during British

systemic periods

During the

and

by

hegemony

economic

in

of

racial capitalism

1890

)

(

1795

and

be

colonialism

was not only

agricultural racial capitalism during British

colonial +

In

.

systemic period

power constellation

).

analysis

our systemic

gold

the 19th century including

end

local English establishment it

of

the hands

of

in

when political the

of

Britain

and economic system

the profitable exploitation

The new

1902

To

British had

more thoroughly institutionalised during

also

century

the 20th

mainly



(

-

Boer War 1899

the

a

British fought several wars

maintained but

iii

conducive

system



the

institutionalise Anglo

political

power constellation and

new

a

create

resources,

's mineral

.

capitalism

racial

and

more

and

of

imperialism

successfully exploit South Africa

aggressive

an

the

of

version

into

of

comprehensive

transformed

),

1886

,

was

colonialism

the

British

of diamonds ( in 1867 ) and gold ( in

in

the

that order . After the discovery

is

Dutch

vi

EXCLUSION

SYSTEMIC

TO

To

FROM SYSTEMIC EXPLOITATION

: POWER , LAND , AND LABOUR

transformation has not yet

place (see ch

taken

of the

part

for this is that the democratic

developed and powerful capitalist part was nevertheless

capitalism

most other countries , this

and post apartheid

of

interdependence 16

,

of

,

.

to

a

-

the

of

the

of

'

,

-

of



it

of



'



South

Africa

's

.

a

of

is

It

,

,

logics

they exert

with which

' It

large

.

at

.



'

must

rectify

also

the

.

relationship between

them

democratic capitalism

democracy and capitalism

and capitalism

,

democracy

Democracy

The strength

.

logics

of

by

complementary

the task

the conflicting

capitalism



the conflicting

the system

lose

only

depends

on

and sustainability

the

thus goes against

bring about reconciliations that

.

not denying

of the

emphasising

of

are

society

inequalities produced

,

we

While

the welfare

of

unacceptable

given

through merciless

capitalism

democratic

'

system

of

promote

based

but also the power try

,

reconcile not

to

dual

cunning

democratically elected government must

will

capitalism

which the strong skilful and property

less

of

in

of

democracy and capitalism the

property rights and

profit

and



and the weaker and

democratically elected government

themselves

equality before the

.

free market system

in

a

maximise efficiency

to

,

to

attempts

in

Capitalism

that protects

democracy

'



of

logic

of

'

logic

is

The

unequal freedoms and unequal rights upon which the

in

,

.

on

the principle



in

the capitalist system

self seeking inequality

The legal system

the distribution

.

in

is

inequalities

but maintains

based



.

based

democracy

joint interests

emphasises

is

,

,

and capitalism

first half

logic

The

on

loyalties capitalism

that reached

system

-

is

, :

is

western countries

and conflicting individual and group interests

opportunities

debate

post colonial

.

in

,

developed

contradictory while democracy

and common

both democracy

them

system

Hopefully

least prompt a

understanding

the

serious socio

colonial exploitation

dual politico economic

a

-

and capitalism

understand the true with

organisational development

,

20th century notably

owners win

to many

South Africa

maturity after centuries

competition

unclear

in

such

capitalism

Democratic

the grain

very late

at

years

350

an

contribute

and

country

of

on

to

will

interact

,

should

in

they

them

the desired power relations and interaction between

law

to

a

capitalist components

and

economic problems after almost

equality

.

to

Compared

Africa occurrred at

still unfamiliar

is

is important

it

democratic

and especially how

this book

is

The transition

giant leap forward

of

both the

system

'

of

meaning

.

equation

or

Africans. However ,

South

capitalism

under difficult socio -economic circumstances .

politico -economic

new

'

This

, and

a

important reason

compared to the highly

of the

South

in

. An

'

stage

transition

11 )

of democratic

and underdeveloped , when

still rather weak democratic

,

2

system

for

1

a

PART

the

cannot survive

SYSTEMIC EXPLOITATION

the material and /or monetary assistance

to

its in

is

of

law

to

of

the

-

( of es )

.

-

it

). development that took

-

periods

systemic

oriented

-

first five racist

on

of

to

notions

of

each

joint interests and

mainly capitalist component

of

'(

and

the

)

economic

state

.

,

,

to

the fact that

political component

each

of

(

: 1 -4

,

an

it

, off

off

-

of

-

and

and

plagues

unequal uneven and unjust This unfortunate

'

the

between

1975

creates

equality

unequal freedoms and the unequal distribution

the powerful

and therefore cannot

weak

part

-

to

remains

'

democratic

'

-

in

recently

politico

new

and

and deeply institutionalised

)

compared

more

which the

(

developed to

of

democratic capitalism

have

a

.

,

,

'

generates

efficiency necessarily

-

of

the

to

,

has

underdeveloped part

This

inconsistency and

and opportunities

system

that

and

well being

succeeds

trade

and

system

of

in

economic

against this background that we cannot afford

capitalist

of

'

]

social

that the socio economic

was insensitive

system

-

,

property

a

.

) is

be

attributed

a

.

be

,

.. .[

[ es ]

To

.. .

.

of

.. .[

us in

)

can

split level

profess

and

economic trade

social policy

show

thrived recklessly

is

our biggest socio

was extremely

shared justice while

part

democratic

material

the distribution

political

disparities

has

capitalism

the extent that the system

Africa during

politico economic

It

to

, an

]

Democratic

egalitarian

dimensions

South

economic

use

the

surveyed When only

of

This

dozens

in –

of (

capitalistic

and

levels need

both

generate

This book attempts

'

on

is

-

he /

democratic

And hence society faces

efficiency

1994

everyone

standards

equality and inequality sometimes smacks

inequalities

the

the unequal distribution

the prescriptions

the double

efficient economy But that pursuit

power

based

she pleases within

focus

of

is

[ es ] [

both

insincerity

system

too powerful

rights and privileges maintained and

inspected issues concerning

out

simultaneously

affairs

the two parts

prevent

: both

structure

are

welfare

1652

order

guaranteed freedom

).

as

that

capitalist level

place

of of

by

on as

property

is

A

on

is

and

his / (

the state

Arthur Okun describes

institutional

even

the democratic

follows

society

mixture

the equality

and

and assets

appendix

pursu

and capitalism

the other

power while capitalism

state

her assets

capitalism

based

and

of

property

see

that

,

by

Democracy supplied

'

'

the other

,

capitalism

.

is

relation

EXCLUSION

sense that the power each exerts needs

important that none

therefore

It

.

misuse

counteracted

or

curtailed

to

to

be

They also need one another in

of

.

SYSTEMIC

legal and bureaucratic support of

the

the

cannot survive without

of



without state

TO

in

FROM

address the huge inequalities and 17

: POWER , LAND , AND LABOUR

PART

1

periods . Although South Africa has belatedly

unable

of

,

.

many

of

legacy

dismal

on

the legacy

inappropriate

years

of

South

the post apartheid

-

the

of

majority

apartheid and earlier

colonial

policies

social and economic

of

,

on

the

. new

life

during the first eight

deteriorated

.

government These were agreed upon during informal negotiations )

would

the

determine free

a

It

.

Africa would have

South

-

of

'

'

liberal

and that post apartheid

new

was also decided that

capitalism

)

at

the

the ideology

the power

components

post apartheid period

of -

( or

,

economic policy

in

system

-

-

neo liberalism

capitalist

democratic and

'

economic

negotations determined

those

'

the

relations between

business leaders before the

).

see

The compromises reached

and

4

in

1994

ch

(

National Congress ANC (

key African

political transformation

politico

that

the

of

that the quality

show

of

we

exploitation and partly between

address

the post

injustices accumulated during the first five

and

period We blame this partly

the

capitalism

democratic

of

Africans has

during the first eight years

unfree labour

2

chapter

Consequently

system

.

,

,

,

and

inbalances

periods

systemic

version

dysfunctional

inequalities

In



apartheid period

of

,

capitalism

is ,

has maintained

to

Africa

' part

of

a system

of liberal

the

empowers the “ capitalist

which excessively

politico

a

is unfortunately

it

legitimised by the ideology

-

democratic

respects

,

capitalism

,

capitalism

introduced

of

of democratic

system

of

economic

a

systemic

South

during the five previous racially based

in

injustices that have accumulated

not surprising

that

the

of

in

form

the

the economy

the poorest half

situation

of

is

.

of

government and the modern sector

therefore

new

neglect

and systemic

exclusion

half

of

It

elected

systemic

the

democratically respectively

,

state

a

:

oppression

of

,

population has over the last eight years become entrapped

of

poorest

by

were such that

settlement

a

this

the

The terms

of .

market economy

establish what was

negotiating

stake

on

3

we focus as

to

chapter

at

.

system

the population became

well

partners were before

the

the

of

50

per cent

-

of

to

the systemic exclusion

show how

politico economic

what the ideological orientations

will

the ANC and business leaders

In

,

in

poorer

4

order

these informal negotiations

as

the prelude

our new

in

institutionalised

the

neglect

systemic

chapter of

and

detail

in

discussed

in

be

The elite compromises agreed upon

to

by

.

the population has deteriorated during the past eight years

18

greater detail

-

we summarise the apartheid regime dismal socio economic

.

discussed

In

blacks during five successive in

of

be

)

9



5

ch

(

3

the systemic exploitation

white political domination will

's

chapter

of

part

periods

10

In

.

negotiations began

legacy

a

for

by

at

,

as

,

,

of

to

the

a

the

on

.

a

'

of

: of

]

of

[

of

to

or

on the

,

nature the

of

,

,

,

labour land and of

factors



in

three

ideological

socio economic

-

and

is

power shift

The sixth

ideological

to

and ideological arguments used

emerging power constellation deep level

secondly

and thirdly the nature

,

of

military power

/

and

production methods and

).

in

or

to

.

in

of

changes

the value orientation

because

the first five power shifts

political

production

how

-

,

incomplete

Each

;

of

for example

);

be

new

transfer

power that

the very nature

,

-

legitimise

power shifts

more comprehensive transformation

acquired and used

changes

a

(

,

ie

power

can

those periods

each

political power and authority

legal and moral definitions capital

a

,

to

economic power

socio

social

concentrate

of

is

,

the second

(

,

:

another but

nature

in

or

it the

at

or

-

:

primarily with

.

is

firstly

levels

of

the

from

necessary

two kinds

our study involved not only the transfer one regime

ideology

and

South African history

beginning

deep level change

1990

'(

.. . in

Our concern

integrated

).

'a

transforms power

balanced

56

and

',

)

(p

power

change the present

).

of

six

Toffler distinguishes between

olitical

effective

systems were institutionalised

new

periods

systemic

power shifts that took place before Alvin

based

the power shifts

power constellations

the

during each

act

5

(

of

.

1 5

The nature how new

into

,

democratic capitalism

see section

explain

the

11 .

democracy

To

of

-

system

humane

capitalism

democratic

order

in

-

liberal version

neo

social

the overpowering corporate sector We also propose

economic transformation

socio

of

an

agenda

bureaucracy

on

'

to

forces

for

'

countervailing

plead

economic power shift aimed

another

government and

new

we

4

)

.

the

allowing

In part

(

government We also plead

new

EXCLUSION

SYSTEMIC

TO

the liberal capitalist approach adopted

replace

to

democratic approach

.

government

democratic

new

for

'

South Africa s

to

EXPLOITATION

SYSTEMIC

its

FROM

still

trans

.

early survival crisis

not serve

an

or

new

elite

and new

the interests new

system

the

has

of

system

the

the

new

politico economic

-

new

of

power constellation

of

do

and

,

,

to

of

the

a

. If

pyramid

,

this case

three sides

system

can

be

a

another does not only

stability and sustainability the

be

new

-

-

-

of

each

economic

socio

agreement between the

dysfunctional

the

to

the

a

society

,

in

the

thrown into

prove

.

threatened an

will

subgroups

be

all

power constellation

level

reasonable

the three sides

In

each

with

of

on

,

been established

political

one system

only completed when

of

pyramid but

is

Weberian

,

and

groups

power shift from

undermine the legitimacy

question

with

social fabric

of

.

A

and ideological side

three dimensional

three sided pyramid

:a

equivalent tetrahedron

system

a

regarded

a

Max Weber

as

.

formations have not yet taken place

POWER , LAND, AND LABOUR

The three power shifts brought about by Dutch the 17th century ) , British colonialism

.

power

All

described

were introduced

three

the

late 19th and early

three deep level changes

-

can indeed

( during the first half of the

(during

imperialism

by

)

century

be

century) , and British

19th

as

half of

second

(during the

colonialism

foreign powers

20th

of

1:

the nature

in

PART

representing power

the time All three introduced not only

,

British colonialism

and British imperialism

,

the

in

the the

).

(

,

it it

,

it

. of

,

and

the

in

did

legitimised

in

of

Although

power

the nature

the existing labour pattern

, ie



would

in

,

and the

,

;

however

the

,

circles while the doubtful governing

new

-

The socio economic transformation and has

the previous racially

the past eight years have largely seen

a

from

,

seated one

-

deep

,

.

that

institutionalised

predecessors

by

in

white

a

of

from

has been accepted

large black constituency

.

its

system its

The

political

addressed the social problems inherited

extended colonialism

.

the long preceding period

of

-

socio economic development that characterised

,

the unequal power relations unfree labour patterns and uneven

,

of

continuation

power

Africans has certainly changed

systemic periods Consequently

that this

1994

'

and

the past eight years has therefore not been

inadequately

the nature

last quarter

whites ideological orientation

are still prevalent

free market capitalism

by

but not

racism

South

of

level change

in

deep

This has not happened

orientation

of of

ideological

that began

still under way There were expectations

.

.

transformed

blacks



whites

to



from

.

is

shift

over the past eight years differs fundamentally

of

Similarly

the preceding period

-

of be

Orange Free State OFS

deep level change

white political and economic power

20

effectively control

ideologies

shift would bring about

based

new

,

the

the exploitative nature

the 20th century

ideology

really

-

not bring about

The sixth power

remnants

because

such

power

.

new

bringing about

the power constellations that

of

did

,

intensify

labour patterns

and

not

foreign intervention

largely perpetuated the social stratifications modes

a

'.

NP

production

therefore

Transvaal and

government

a

of

-

post 1948

could

in

'

African tribes

The Voortrekkers the

à -

constellations were not that powerful vis defeated

is

power This vis

the nature

not succeed

.

-

in

deep level changes

of

the three that were initiated internally

elite

by

.

contrast with the three power shifts introduced

were

differed

the preceding ones

from

did

In

fundamentally

,

Dutch colonialism

with

new modes

ideological orientations

new

,

new

of

social stratifications

new

legal and property systems and

therefore not surprising that the labour patterns introduced and maintained

is

by

It

,

production

new

.

power constellations but also

,

place

.

in

advanced than the ones

at

constellations that were considerably more powerful and technologically more

SYSTEMIC EXCLUSION

TO

take as our point of departure the dismal socio

1994 by the five racially based systemic

in

periods described earlier , the question arises the change towards

deep and how comprehensive

how

power constellation

a new

ought

be before the major

to

problems confronting the new South Africa can be effectively

will remain

ideological paradigm shift takes place towards

the capitalist part Only then

will

a

to

more

in

-

and power

shift

politico economic of

shift can

democratic

system

the whole South African

).

(

see

able

the

11

that

population

paradigm

serve the needs and aspirations

ch

capitalism

creating

will

play

the socio economic upliftment

-

,

in

effected we may succeed

such

a

.

If

the impoverished majority

,

of

constructive and interventionist role

,

,

of

bureaucracy

its

democratically elected government and active

part

democratic

' '

-à -

-

system

vis

politico economic

vis

but also until another structural shift empowers new

not only until

social democratic approach

a

the

an

. We

addressed

ineffective

'

1994

.

of

be

believe the political power shift

the

the new government

to

legacy

be

bequeathed

- economic

of

If we

EXPLOITATION

SYSTEMIC

a

FROM

Africans

South

other than white

,

to

is

denote

to

,

.

,

.

to

to

or

(

at

,

,

complete when the

more rigid

state

form

the

landed

support

serfdom

place until the second half

in

measure

of

Consequently



from

)

.

– 7

of .

in

the Elbe however the

of

far

even

of

in an

-

.

63

coloureds and Africans

laws

,

pass

a

,

laws

in

of

:

and

the

deliberate

. If

.

their military power

South

to

,

servile labour force

in

in

' is

that the colonial masters

imported slaves and more use

of

of

Africa made less use indigenous people into

resist attempts

labour systems we compare South African Europes new north and south America and

perhaps the most obvious difference

a

Australasia

with

remained

'

colonial history with that

unfree the

force blacks into

of

to

proletarianisation and impoverishment attempt

.

to

in

it it

,

where

into

Terreblanche 1980 comprised masters and servants

see

(

measures

Russia

turning

was

population

,

3

These

to

,

but also

This spread eastwards century

tenant

the Elbe not only succeeded

reimposing serfdom

the 19th

farming

sharp decline in

east

towards

a

caused

was

Consequently

France and Germany during the

their power East

of

Death

aristocracy

The peasant revolts

are testimony

serfdom

from

peasant farmers

that time

a

of

.

serfs

15th centuries

transition

Black

as

their status

their

serfdom

Elbe when the Black Death occurred

the

peasantry already had enough bargaining power and

and

from

)

the peasantry

of

)

emancipation

almost completed west

, -

)

(

transformation

14th

term

turn the clock back and but were not strong and united enough and did not receive the support from the then still poorly developed nation states The

development into economically independent tenant farmers

restore

the

serfdom

necessary

the

and

.

try

did

the Elbe the landed aristocracy

, of



the area west

reinstate

used

denote blacks other than coloureds and Indians

( or

In

2



African

'

black

'

The term

to

1

Endnotes

turn

.)

ch 6

22

greater

,

labour force would

But

.

probably have failed

military

and more centralised

Xhosas were defeated and deprived

the Xhosas

large parts

and economic state

system

their land

,

far

.

organised

unfree

of

better

with

of

meant that

Trekboere

British colonialism

and the support the

,

capacity

shoulders

to an

They would its

on

the introduction

them

,

have rested

the

of their land , and reducing

them

of

depriving

of defeating

see

(

had not become a British colony , the task

Africa

a

South

of

If

POWER , LAND , AND LABOUR

the

4

1:

of

PART

PART

2

The transition and the 'new South Africa ' (1990 – 2002 )

Chapter

2

The legacy of systemic exploitation , and attempts to build a non -racial society

.

The legacy of apartheid

50

.



,

,

,

,

.

in

(

,

)

, ). in

key roles

,

.

is

,

towards

nonetheless

local white establishments

the late 20th

centuries used their

,

to

to

or

be

-

world

economic and ideological power not only

,

and turn them into exploited workers

,

plunder indigenous people disrupt their social see part

(

to

,

but also

played

minimised

and

the mid 17th

monopoly over political military

wider sense

entrepreneurship

and the western

that the white colonial powers from

Africa also

South

initiative

dismissed

advance themselves

it

;

in

be

(

Africans

white South

ruled South Africa

,

isolation

and developed country However although

modern

developing this country should not beyond dispute

colonialism

from

a

the

are

,

and western

discrimination

strong educational and health

and capital accumulation

a

,

of

turning South Africa into the contribution

white

Africans

criminality and violence

-

judged

largely

repression

under colonialism

system

,

,

argued

perseverance

,

ingenuity

structures

victims

is

Africans and

economic problems inherited

the socio

sound legal is

and

Furthermore

that

main

domination should not

a

,

services

now

income property and

;

to

the detriment

strong economy modern infrastructure

it

a

gained

,

in

the distribution

it

say

,

violence and who

and white

and especially

;

the inequalities

who were criminalised during the long periods

Whites often

of

;

is

mostly blacks

.

at

crime and violence What makes

people are Africans more Africans than any others live

opportunities are mainly

and

income

their receiving end

in

abject poverty

;

in

unemployed

and high levels the fact that

distribution

it of is

are

who

pressing

inequalities

sharp

of

Africans

-

these problems

so

;

property and opportunities

Most

on

-

of

population

;

the

per cent

The most serious

the other

unemployment abject poverty among more than

these are high rates

of

of

,

one hand and major socio economic problems

it

economy in Africa on

).

a

: the most developed

power ,

to

.

contradictory legacy

government came

elected

the

democratically

a

3

inherited

,

1994

the

in

of

,

all

When

of of

2 1

25

PART

AND THE 'NEW

THE TRANSITION

2:

if we

Even

SOUTH AFRICA '

of

take the impressive benefits

Africa 's external

South

and

internal colonial history into account , we cannot avoid the conclusion that inequality , violence , and criminality

are not only

, but

also that they

serious problems that mainly affect black South Africans

realise

and acknowledge

will

that

exculpatory attitudes

26

many whites

help

's , be

.

in

,

.

to

'.

made

to

of

is

society

the past

A

will contribute towards

legacy

a

,

3

50

of to

of

be the

African

an

of

South

attempt

socio

Africa

South

new

blame

proper

blacks during the long period soften the often arrogant

of

to

the

.

a

-

of

will hopefully

to

colonialism

way that

the socio economic

the injustices meted out

of

extended

all

reconstruction

of

better understanding

in

.

colonial history

reconstruct and interpret

part

In

not be neglected

should

.

,

the repressive and exploitative nature

these

deplorable



the word

when

justifiable

for many

economic and developmental problems confronting 1994

of

of

will

per

and apartheid

know

denial

of

come

it

to

This kind



sense

of



in

People should realise that for decades the extended

,

,

Some even demand stop

the poorer

segregation

,

on

colonialism

.

unfounded allegations are going colonialism

the majority

-

predicament

-

.

many whites become indignant

to

is

of

blamed

the negative

is

the

on

'

underestimated

population

apartheid

and

socio economic conditions

Whenever the present socio economic the

the

.

blacks should not

segregation

1994

population cannot

of

, of

on

colonialism

systems

be

these



of

blamed exclusively

the poorer half

labour

summarises the dismal

10



Chapter

-

Although the misery and poverty

before

to

the

in

of

colonialism

socio economic conditions under which many South Africans lived

Therefore

in

or

is

long period

and various unfree and exploitative

5

ch

(

patterns institutionalised

see

,

was extremely unequally distributed

effects

or

to

them

In

.

and apartheid

9

of

periods

solve

humiliating effects

this part we distinguish between five systemic white colonial control during which political and economic power

,

segregation

and

South Africa

true nature and root causes

for any attempt

historical overview

a

3

Part

provides

precondition

temporary

.

ameliorate their negative

proper diagnosis

the

is

these problems

a

.

A

extended colonial history

incidental

and deeply rooted

of

,

are closely interlinked

them

of

of

All

.

nature

socio economic problems

these

-

of

.

None

cent

.

will

probably take generations

it

problems and that

these

,

to

easy

whites

apartheid were based

and

so

do

to

, segregation , to

be

resolve

not

for

it is important

of these problems

very long period by the power structures

a

which the systems of colonialism

Given this,

of

' over

-

'

have been shaped and created on

. All

indisputable structural or systemic character

an

).

have

it

, poverty ,



unemployment

and

THE LEGACY OF SYSTEMIC

Eight years have

.

democracy

passed since the transition from

EXPLOITATION

apartheid

This transition has been hailed worldwide as

inclusive

to an

political miracle .

a

It

the

in a

, its

of

in

the of

,

it

in

is

,

it

,

Ugly

taken place

.

yet

.

is

a

the

the extended period

from

that the precarious

socio

Africans and coloureds find

themselves has not improved during the post apartheid period

-

,

but has

in

really disturbing

which large numbers

in

economic situation

and discrimination

of

is

What

remain

rights

and human

place over the past eight years Unfortunately

exploitation

.

of

colonialism

composition

political

-

of

systemic

the hands

. of

,

taken

proud

corresponding socio economic transformation has not remnants

was before

political power was

firmly

now

view

Africans

All South Africans can transformations that have

,

,

population mainly controlled

1994

given

and

,

government

elected

be by

democratically

point

rights

2002 than

until

white hands

in

almost exclusively

concentrated

While

1990

in

began

.

political transformation

a

a

.

incomparably better country

an

is

South Africa

protected

of

political and human

are

constitutional democracy

South Africans

in

which the humanity and dignity From

racial dispensation

non

-

towards

a

the peaceful transition

of

must be credited

all

for

is largely former president Nelson Mandela and his reconciliatory attitude that

fact

health

education

's

Africa

,

elite

of be be

the blame must

be

.

must

of

This question

whose

and unemployed majority

.

white regimes

South

the

living

marginally

governing

new

-

their

is

it

surely

,

for

of

blame

the

be

little doubt that

even

living

the

devastated

the past should

socio economic

-

the

largely drawn from the impoverished

the

?

of

affairs

doubt that some

of

is

,

on

.

is

the shoulders

there can also

most

no

this deplorable state

in

tangible improvement

,

for

.

to

is

blame

squarely

,

bear

,

improve

of

a

to

expected

have

answered carefully However there

That said

It

.

has not been possible

dramatically

to



it

we accept that

conditions Unfortunately their situation has not improved

constituency

with

which the newly attained

of

not unreasonable

placed

living

the

rage

the impoverished majority within the first eight years

conditions

Who

up

of

-

to

Even

if

depends

destructive

on to

to

and even

specific economic constraints

given

dramatic improvement

undermining the social stability

system

democratic

and

growing frustration

.

of

social justice

should

expectations

blacks The fact that these expectations have not been realised

may well lead potential

concern

democracy unleashed pent

.

conditions

grave

in

restoration

matter

a

of

that the transition

of

a

remembered

and

a

very unfortunate

is

This

,

.

become more burdensome

an

1990

to

has increased

/1

)

housing

in

,

,

,

on

and

non interest government spending

-

per cent

welfare

of

,

8

from

50

Social spending

(

.

landscape

27

PART

THE TRANSITION

2:

of the social

Some

‘redirected

SOUTH AFRICA

non - interest spending

of 60 per cent of

average

AND THE NEW

previously allocated

spending

million more people have gained access more households

to

about

1, 3 million houses

than

supplied with telephone connections. More

to 2002 / 3 .

has also been

since 1994 , some

water , and

to clean

. More

electricity

whites

to

claims that ,

towards blacks . The government

/6

the period 1995

in

9

1 , 5 million

have

been

one million houses have been

than

5

.

on

in

so

'

,

in

a

is

,

.

the

or

of of

labour reforms and in

employment

in

the

The improvement

.

quantity and

these negative results are

by

November 1994 that on

of

of

.

of

as

as

a

led

into dysfunction

dramatic drop

.

houses

water affairs admitted

decline

spend more

RDP projects

,

The HIV AIDS pandemic has wreaked havoc

;

1

3

Lodge 1999

32 –

on

negative effect

:

190



:

Marais 2001

immeasurably

;

an

, see

(

of

to

to

of

to

to

a

to

led

's

of

of

off

section

a

violence and criminality are

such that the quality

, of

growing unemployment poor health

situation

conditions life

of

a

despite this redistributive

structural dynamics

in

But

.'

blacks

considerable

of

and increasing

poor represents

,

,

disrupted social structures

28

whites

the to

from

the national budget

the

income

,

effect

via

redistribution

social spending

of

Increased

on

. .4 ).

10 2

the

their lives

there

/

'

their spending

well

announcement

only

particularly among the poor and has had quality

them

only 800 000

areas Many

the government

departments could

reprioritising



urban

Many

projects had fallen

million

.

government

pay

'

,

health services

the consequence

Unfortunately

and telephone connections are cut

sector have

rural areas has

of

in

health services

from

from

that have been accomplished since

farmers subsidies

the agricultural

1 4

this sector

in

in

.

The removal

blacks quality

In

water provision

droughts

view

for

water

society

this hyperbolic claim

1999 the department

in

disrepair

its

of

.

poor quality

of

of

that many

,

,

,

be

-

the

bright things

the electricity

redefine the nature

to

of

,

economic point

the

such progress

society has certainly not been

African

,

of

.

time

every month because users cannot afford

built are

Mbeki

find examples elsewhere

some merit

South

,

1994

Many

view

socio

of

side

many

to

dark

a

*

from

and

power took place where

period

).

redefined

difficult

of of

a

be

it



short

legislative point

a

would

Although there might

4

:

(

in

was achieved

roads

accomplished then deputy president Thabo

negotiated transfer so

in

1998 that

world where 1998

there has also been infrastructural development

1994

been

age

that have reached about

introduced

been

in

.

Given what has claimed

mothers as well as children under

supplying rural communities with water

at

aimed

Since

children

a

million

to expectant

Food programmes have

seven

.

of

services are now given

the

built for people who had no formal shelter previously , and free medical

the

OF SYSTEMIC EXPLOITATION

was realised

of

We should

1994

to

,

. . ). for

,

.

of of for

1994 was

restoring

political

Rome was not decade

,

healed

a

a

systemic

,

true that

centuries cannot

far as

,

an

not only social and

social oppression

Although

of

.

As

,

-

as see

,

2 2 2

is

obvious class

be

a

,

have expected some visible progress towards

the poor during the first eight years

of

for

the greatest

opportunity

is

,

2 2

the

for

not unreasonable

social justice

greater

injustices to

,

day

a

in

,

is

it

certainly

and that the

stake

window

for blacks after centuries exploitation

economic

socio

after generations

of

justice

first time ever

gained

sharp

and extreme

the political transition

social justice

also

domination and economic

built

ultimately

.

opened

social

but

the

African population group

inequalities have now

Themomentous importance

,

that

it

exploitation

What

the past

of

stability

,

political

within

concerned

. ).

see table

(

character

is

the total population

one hand

distinctly racial character

of

experienced

is

in

now

is

inequality

Africa had

South

While

the other

the

destitution

and

South Africa the

poverty

luxury

section

on

and

on

contrast between extravagant wealth inequalities

(

renowned

.

are

government does not have

new

at

the world

this effectively as

to

do

.

countries

in

an the

bureaucratic capacity Few

,

difficult one Unfortunately the

enormously

serve the

sector and redirecting

blacks and especially the poor

, of

public spending towards serving the needs

it

The task

in

whites

.

of

interests

of

pauperising

also note that the South African public sector was shaped mainly

restructuring the public

legacy

.

than

and

the post

in

much

the

,

stronger

,

inherent

apartheid was much worse

in

segregation

momentum

of hindsight we now know that

the wisdom

it

colonialism

. With

and

period

,

apartheid

in

the

cent of the population has deteriorated considerably

50 per

in

poorer

is

THE LEGACY

democratic

, , it

of

,

the

's

of

economic

the poorer half

since

1994

has been

the population

Although

the

new

economic hegemony

).

(

the corporate sector

, .

political activity

system

of

an

,

excludes and

comprehensive

several elite compromises negotiated

has enjoyed political hegemony

the hands

of of

the

to

-

the possibility

excluded

the corporate sector

economic

of

still

in

is

government

new

4

mainstream

and

economic and social

powerful corporate sector forced

result

institutionalised that systemically from

systemic exploitation

government

new

see

and

poverty and unemployment

ch

As

.

between the ANC

a

Africa that

redistributive measures

remnants

of

South

nature

the poor

neo liberal and globally oriented economic policy

'

'

new

on

the

government into accepting for the

is

will argue that

the

a

We

the inadequacy

of

,

on

.

policies

to

2

firstly

concentrate

more correctly the nature

secondly

identify the reasons for this deterioration the

to

or , is

necessary

attempt

determine why the conditions

of

.

have not improved

part

an

focus

In

The main

of

.

rule

29

is



the

of

If

to

.

It

, .

on

the it

by

,

of

.

of

it

of

.

movement which

, the

on

To

the

policy

negotiation

the informal

'

orientations brought

chapter

,

.

focus

appreciate

3

will

social policies in

and

,

on

economic

the late 1980s

from

sector and the democratic

.

of

. to

of

apartheid have the potential

This potential has indeed been realised

larger extent than anticipated

much

Over the past eight years the distortions

reproduce poverty and perpetuate continue inequality The poverty traps set apartheid remain important explanation to

apartheid

further

an

:

'(

in

2000

-

have

since 1994

,

in

which

,

,

the socio economic

pauperisation despite

increased social

;

power property

,

distribution

,

institutionalised inequalities

sluggish economy

of

unemployment

a

rising levels

:

government They are

the

deeply

their

in

and

for

the population

in

ii i

high

the

by

responsible

spending

30

the

poorest two thirds

of

situation

May

South Africa

least four poverty traps inherent

of .

of

We can identify

poverty

).

emphasis

at

's

;

263 author

been

) of

persistence and the worsening (

for

the

.

by

dynamics

case that many

a

-

become self perpetuating

’.

the distortions and dynamics introduced

convincing

and

provide

and inequality

poverty

to

these studies

causes by

May most

research undertaken during the last

a

the

of

to

According

,

of

the previous century

body



considerable

of

of

disrupted social structures and abject

on

a

to

.2

2

Julian May refers

of

that guarantees

both parties

The dynamics poverty

decade

poor

.

by



table

has not

South Africans

these compromises

proposals and ideological

introduced

life

legal framework

to

of

significance

to

.

of on

4

In to

elite compromises

creating

the informal negotiations

onwards between the corporate led

also

.

successful

we focus

enough

Although

living conditions and quality

the human rights and dignity

chapter

cure the illness

their social structures during

racial South Africa

non

we

has been remarkably

not

understand

the legislation

brief overview

a

build

improving

in

succeeded

to

government

the new

from

heal the psychological and physical

blacks and

a

we provide the

.

2 3

section

we want

But this

a

be

millions

racist exploitation

centuries

in

it

would take

of

wounds inflicted

In

what

establish

to

necessary

this situation

inherited

the

establish whether the elite

white and black

both

correctly diagnosed

on

,

it

must

alia

is

society

African

try

will inter

to

,

that section

structural dynamics inherent poverty

and violent criminality

,

South

unemployment

-

In

groups

structural dynamics underpinning

-

apartheid

on

SOUTH AFRICA '

of

.

,

inequality

in

,

poverty

we focus

2 2

all in

.

section

In

the

THE TRANSITION AND THE ' NEW

2:

we

PART

of

;

of

;

on

ill -

the

,

health

.

the other

unemployment

sluggish

a

and rising levels

:

.2 ./

The first poverty trap high

and

in

pauperisation

chronic

population and

criminality

violence

on

the one hand and the process

2

of

mutually reinforcing dynamics

per cent

of

poorest

the syndrome

and

,

poverty among

50

the

social structures

of

and fragmented

community the

poorest half

population

disrupted

iv

black elite and

and

of

iii

the

and opportunities between the white

EXPLOITATION

the

THE LEGACY OF SYSTEMIC

to

,

8 6

)

,

to

in a

,

6 8

of

give

the four

to

1995 has increased

about

per cent

in

is

.1 ),

per

little doubt that African 55

10

in

as

(

there

1

to

from

is

it

.

in in

of

table

per cent

million 36

has increased for

groups

in

.

to

.

1995

in

, 8

4

million

/

population

8

,

of

to

breakdown

has

2001 This implies that

in

to

, 9

from

million

conservative

definition

2001 Although not possible the employment unemployment situation each

unemployment

of

.

According

the extended

unemployed

the

2001

at

,

4

, six

the

1995

labour force very year Table

and 2001

14

to

of

has increased

percentage

years from

.

,

,

1995

ccording

(a

in

4

the 45

added

1995

per cent

46

,

1995

in

,

unemployment

in

structural

and that

in

million

from

cent

are

-

13

,

supply

the labour

increased

2001

1970

the

to

.

1995

-

.1

2

work seekers

compares employment

estimates

the economy The Bureau

,

formal non agricultural sector since new

whom

least 500 000 jobs have been lost In

,

at

)

(

agricultural sector since 1994

least 250 000

million

BER has estimated that besides the 600 000 jobs lost

Economic Research the

the formal sector

13

's

were employed

million

total labour supply was of

Africa

South

in

In

1995

of

economy

*

,

Change

+ 7

58

( % – ) +

-5

260

+

,

41 3

2001

1975

8

, 12 , 3

(% – )

2001

,

8

.

estimates

the

indications that employment

in

are

,

there

+

2000

at

by

Although formal sector employment has declined 1995

+

500

)

-

(

-

)

+ 1

(

14

500

1995

45

,

36 1

6

13

840

4

8085

840

Change

2001 000

1995

.

Table

8585

903

, 2

(% )

figures

10 .1 are

:

Source

see

*

The 2001

543

20

Unemployment

9

Employment

Unemployment

925

445

425

Change

*

000

7

supply

,

in

000

)

000

(

2001

)

1995

(

1970

|

Labour

,

in

Labour supply employment the formal sector and unemployment 1970 1995 and 2001 ,

:

.1

Table

2

.

2001

least 500 000 since

informal sector has increased

31

in

,

is

, 2

on

in

a

)

arrest the downward spiral

during the

experienced

the high

of

to

20

,

the

years from

and still

growing

-

of ‘

the

in

a

due

per cent

improvement

year

the

2001 the average

-

the

mainly

',

capital intensity

.

economy

inclusive

economy into the

South Africa

's

facilitate the reintegration

an

that the transition towards

of

1994

5

of

optimism

would

situation

7

.

(

.

jobless growth

democracy

per cent

The economic growth

1990s was largely

high

1994

meaningful

it

unemployment and poverty

The

the

or

rate

only

many cases

week

employment

From

was not nearly high enough

,

to

1994

represented

this

,

average annual growth

1994

1 6

real terms and although

of

growth

since

and

gross domestic product GDP was only

of

of

annual rate

rate attained

uncertain

two days

important reason for the deterioration

moderate growth

of or



-

An

jobs for one

. Unfortunately ,

created

.

employment opportunities

these

involves only part time jobs

1974

jobs may have been

million

, but

not available

are

to

1

is

of

content

than

a

more

to

considerably

'

SOUTH AFRICA

during the same period . Hard statistics

quite substantially the

AND THE 'NEW

THE TRANSITION

2:



PART

,

but

a

,

R5

sustain

year since 1994

annual GDP growth rate

per cent

,

3 8

an

to

of

,

).

(

but

of

,

,

is

1994

.

1974

to

from



of

-

the

of

-

per cent

is

of

80

)

the gap between the

of

per cent

disturbing that the further

time

.

blacks has declined

a

blacks has occurred

at

is

It

.2 ).

2

the lower

60

,

per cent

and

of

see table

per cent

the poorer two

the poorer

.

households

25

60

per cent

income

increased quite

coloureds has declined further rate

,

poorer

and

richer income groups

per cent Consequently

of

the

of

top

the poorer 60

the

of

in

the income

income

of

income

the

when

unsatisfactory

people

per capita

(

20

top

the

(

the

per cent

of

the top

20

than that

households has become much greater increase

increase

per cent SARB 2002

years

black

population growth

of

to

of

income

the

of

much higher

fact that

of

25

per cent

of

.

While the income

mainly Africans

the population

partly due

20

income

dramatically over the past eight years thirds

786

the different population and income groups did not benefit

especially the richer

and

income

the

a

per capita

this increase

from

capita

R13

from

meaningful improvement over the annual decline

the

,

equally

per

1994

This represents

annual increase

in

7

,

per cent

Unfortunately

of

nonetheless represents

in

small annual increase

The

since

0 6

an

years

or

per cent over the

).

constant 1995 prices

(

six in

2001

,

in

R14 321

only slightly

of

GDP per capita has increased

0

an

least four times more

to

inflow

billion

.

5

of

needs

FDI

South Africa has received

at

an

.

realised

of

,

global economy and would greatly accelerate FDI was unfortunately not

The

whites has also declined over the past eight

32

the population

is

poorest half

of

the

income

of

the

The deterioration

of

.

years

THE LEGACY OF SYSTEMIC EXPLOITATION

,

16 6

(#

highly stratified class society

,

,

.

rigid

a

from

income

see table

and

40

.1 ).

.

2 2

,

to

political

profound

distribution

high

,

,

Changes

(% ) 1996

1975

2001

2001



1991

40 %

1975

-

2001

1996

– 6

1991

1975

91

total income



Share

( % )

Households

of

,

to

in

of

:

.

of

of

per cent The share the poorest households and the quintiles three other total income 1975 1991 1996 and 2001 and the changes from 1975 2001

2 2

Table

37 %

-

-3

%

11 %

-

-

27 %

, ,

3 3 %

,

3 4 %

,

3 8 %

,

-4

%

,

-0

1 %

,

3 %

-0

0 %

7 3 %

7 4 %

,

7 6 %

,

the 7 6 %

population

)

(

of

%

16 41 % 6, % -

60

)

5 2 %

%

the 150 population

,

of

Poorest (

per

growth

transformed

been

per

2

figure

a

racially divided society into

in

20

radical shifts have taken place

During this period South African society has

1975

of

,

transformation

and

total

per cent in 2001 ,

poor economic

unemployment

structural

,

3 3

per cent

9

)

years

than

of

population )

households

the

,

from

,

.

growing

inflation

has increased

After more

per cent

in

2001

population

top

25

the

cent

of

cent

in

while the share of total income of

1975 to only

in

70

the

per cent

5 2

of

,

from

The share of the

2

of the

poorest 40 per cent of households ( + 50 per cent income has declined

. .

10 4 )

10 3 and

72

.

( see also tables

(

.

2 2

of

table

in

a

demonstrated

+ 6 %

,

2 %

+ 2 %

+ 0 6 %

%

,

11

;

.

5 1

:

50

+

,

6

of

16

of

,

10 6

:

three subclasses

+

of

the population

middle lower class consisting

the

per cent

and

receiving

per cent

of

into

per cent

25

divided

receiving of

),

67

#

white

receiving only

be

),

is

per cent

of

15

a

;

, 6

per cent

per cent

petit bourgeois class consisting

, of

;

a

16

,

of

of

,

.

total income

to

is

white

total income However the lower class has per cent

white and

lower class consisting

per cent

upper lower class consisting

#

which

is

a

50

of

(

a

;

2

of

which

and

bourgeois elite consisting

total income

total income and

total population

+

( of

of

of 72 , 2

which

the population

(

16 6

2

17

per cent

per cent

of

per cent

, ),

, of

of

:

per cent

receiving

Whiteford

.

per cent black

table

income has solidified over the past eight

years into five clearly identifiable classes the population

+

,

1994

appendix

of

,

table

3 .1

1999

the distribution

in

The inequality

an

-0

+ 8 % + 0 2 %

,

,

8 %

0 %

,

71

Estimated and projected from McGrath and Whiteford

:

:

9 %

,

70

(

the

Van Seventer

,

0 , 1 %

17 , 2 % 72 2 %

100

Source

7 3

-

17 , 4 %

17 , 6 %

16 , 3 %

71

16 , % 6 %

81

the

of %

population

)

( 16 % 6, % 80 of %

61

33

,

lower lower class per cent

of

and

,

receiving only

1 3

;

total income

a

and

of

2

cent

the population

'

AFRICA

SOUTH

,

per cent

of

of

consisting

25

and receiving

population

per

AND THE 'NEW

THE TRANSITION

2:

+

the

PART

.

total income

radical changes

in

in

in

of

a

to

,

in

is

,

30

+

of

15

of

to

.

a

in

real

to

in

1975

.

42

it

was

the

and

the

,

in

inequalities

in

South

African

and slavery was abolished short period

the time both the Khoisan



albeit for

a

,

in

1808

At

.

In

).

(

)

5

,

22

( the

(

see

)

in

,

the

and the

and economically dependent and their

servitude Consequently they were

.

of

, ,

in

psychological position

to

as

or

economic

what

,

:

of

impoverished

-

a

in

socio

and Whiteford

,

the

of of

whites

spirits broken after their long period simply not

households

per cent lower than

was not the first

1994

the Khoisan and the slaves enjoyed

slaves were extremely

month Members

McGrath

institutionalised

history After the slave trade was suspended same legal rights and freedoms

MLL

power property and opportunities

racist prejudices blacks

living level

per capita income

was

1996

per cent

deeply

trap

MLL

of

than

belong

per person

indicate that

socio economic

The political liberation

, .

one

million

the population belong



poverty

second

persistence

in

million

the two

people

internationally recognised

the

R353

population

2001 slightly more

distribution

1838

+

the minimum

the

per cent we

50 25

line

per cent

.4

of 10 .3

is

section

In

in

in

is

( or

, of

1

).

20 –

:

The

. .2

less than

the poorest half

1975 and

2 2

(+

of

whose income terms

well below

poverty

income level

the lower lower class

1994

the

the poorest two subclasses

million people lived below

18

about

minimum

per cent

whites

people

households whose income 1996

million people

Africans are poor compared

of of )

Most

the

legacy

.

of

per cent

white Sixty per cent

.

are

lower class

in

the

bourgeois classes are white while only

2

third

income which

of

, .

One

of

erstwhile rigid racial distribution

and apartheid

colonialism

the income distribution South African highly society the stratified class has not been

of

cleared

years

40

of

its

society over the past

,

these

25

Despite

benefit

from

their

34

Pallo Jordan pointed out

,

,

,

as

,

in

of

rights and

and restored

recent article

human the

franchise

movement a

It

.

freedom

them

1994

,

the

.

law

has given

political transition

in

,

.

dignity However

alleviation and economic

of

,

legalistic emancipation

equality before the

Kat River

notmaterialise

,

largely

theory

poverty

people have also experienced

as

a

Many black

the required

Andries Stockenström

's

.

development programmes

did

section

.2 ),

see

(

scheme

and moral support Except 6

,

economic

for

to

.

, of

newly attained freedom and rights With the wisdom hindsight we now legalistic given know that the freedom them was too and lacked social

legal

THE LEGACY OF SYSTEMIC EXPLOITATION

of an

emancipation

oppressed people

ability to profit from

extract

from

a

opportunities are

not

is

;

enough

improvements

. He quoted

also necessary

in the

the following

speech made by the United States president Lyndon Johnson in

the 1960s :

since

, –

a

to

.

of

the

,

in

.1 ).

.2

in

in 22

+

on

,

few

a

in

.

the past

they

such

(

assets

their

cannot

take

younger people have

,

organisations

in

important reason

.

of

-

the population

should

be

years During

.

the past

30

sector have become less sensitive

events

of

this time employers

in

understood against the background the private

their

to

the

the poorer half

of

The economic powerlessness

they

non existent

of

communities are either poorly organised

An

.

that civil society or

the poor

finding formal jobs

is

powerlessness

of

)

(

and are still receiving much better schooling than their parents

have reasonable prospects

as

at

reserve funds

opportunities Although

Most own

.

in

than

,

of

own

isolated

government Their basic human

complementary

.

do

scarcity

assets they

except

They have

of .

absence a

the and

2

,

7 5

and

,

the

of

the

for do

not

of

advantage

services

)

.

infrastructural received

of

,

not even household goods

Because

million blacks the upper lower

and figure

no

exert pressure

few

no

disposal

million

two

information about their rights

needs remain largely unmet perhaps even more property

the



,

unorganised on

to

unable

are

the

They

.



instances

of

,

,

unskilled without formal jobs and deprived and opportunities

million blacks

the population are still relatively uneducated

so

poorest half

table

the distribution

of

Members

the

of

classmay have benefited only marginally

The

(

.

the middle lower and lower lower classes

see

,

has had hardly any effect

10

,

. -

and

While political

for attaining these

sufficient condition

economic power have mainly benefited the

bourgeois classes

has not

1994

in

remotely

theory

condition for social upliftment and

goals Eight years after the political transition changes socio

for

,

is

it

blacks

-

not

not

August 2001

26

,

of

a

a

is

it

(

as

a

,

empowerment

necessary

has been

poverty

Times

right and

into socio economic empowerment

translated

transformation eradicating

legal

and

result Sunday

of

up

not just equality

5

automatically

fact and

a

political

The

as

but equality

the ability

but opportunity

freedom

-

just legal equity but human ability

must have

).

not just

seek

.. .

our citizens

not enough just

2

We

to

.

All

opportunity

walk through the gates

the others and still

completely fair Thus

.

of

to

open the gates

compete with

years has

the starting line

all

free

justly believe that you have been

him

to

,

the race and then say you

bring

,

chains and liberate

who,

take a person

as a

by

been hobbled

not

do

him

is not enough . You

freedom

are

But

the

35

PART

AND THE 'NEW

THE TRANSITION

2:

Figure

SOUTH AFRICA '

'

.:

South Africa s highly stratified class society

2 1

, 2001 Population

of income

Distribution

in

millions 7 .5

72 %

of income

( 16 .6 %)

7 .5

The petit

bourgeoisie :

.

.

/

7 3%

The upper lower

class

12

(16 .6 % )

.

11 5

11 .

)

( 45

of

's

a

the African economic

has

live

It is

the population

.

and pauperised to

of ,

powerless

socio

-

.

From

a

the mainly white employer

economic bargaining power despite the

. ).

see section

4 4

-

1994

(

transition

sector

for cheap and docile

large part

after 1994

which half

their ineffective socio

of

dramatic

political

in

,

of

This trend continued

cruel irony that the poverty

largely caused

36

the

by

a

is

view

9 4

point

poor becamemore marginalised

(

class see section

accumulation

the modern

,

redundant

million

of

demand

onwards

1970

effect declared

the

of

insatiable

by ,

the erstwhile from

corporate sector

the capital intensity

. ).

in

,

the growth

African labour petered out labour force was

,

a

result firstly in

of

,

the economy When

.

of

,

crisis and secondly

as

the poor

,

, of

interests

25 %

The lower lower class

1 .3 %

)

5

(

The

;

(

lower

poor breadwinners mostly unemployed lumpen proletariat

.

75

class

The middle lower class

%

The very

( 16 .6 % )

17 2 %

)

:

25 %

The bourgeois elite

THE LEGACY OF SYSTEMIC EXPLOITATION

of

of

In

).

, :

the course

the

sidelined

commercialised

to

-

the public sector many non governmental

redesign

have either been

)

(

NGOs

May 2000 203 or

organisations

attempt

to

's

government

the

's

'(

quoted

in

still extremely weak

is

poverty

'

is

for

According to Lisa Bornstein , an important reason powerlessness the poor the fact that the new government institutional basis for addressing

the

of to

a

or

,

of the

's '

are

,



era

of

the

farming areas

nor what power has

.

poor

institutions

the poor were also enmeshed

in

December 2000

the rural the

that

of

as

as

. bad

.

into

:

2001 indications were that the

,

of

an

'(

1998

integrated sustained

the Group Areas Act Whether the government

local authorities

still

total on

, of ]

the

in

.

poor

opaque and disempowering

not

elections

responsible for delivering services

its

is

,

.

as

of

in

-

, -

to

found

of

poor

is

At

in

the urban

by

,

up

of

.. .[

to

-

are is

be

society both

tape

to

of

-

.

)

for

,

in

of ex

the

.

,

civil

and white dominated

the end red

in

.. .

).

and disinclined

Consequently

Bantustans

before the municipal

limitations imposed

the apartheid

most May concludes that

2001 president Thabo Mbeki announced

The situation

the

part

government and

deliver

not know where power

strategy had become enmeshed

transform

them

and when

traditional

facilitated the

This

institutions and processes

rural development programme

However

traditional African

the 1950s

-

do

, ”

.. .

120

,

in

the entrapping

especially

much

because institutional structures

Early

in

is a to

of

'

in



by

of

prevails

in

to

'

who needed

those

not entirely

engineering

bureaucracies

elite that was

with poverty

delivering welfare

inclined towards self enrichment and corruption

disempowered

The poor

paid

into

task

apartheid

authorities was implemented

structures and capacity

onslaught

this purpose the

poverty

concerned

was entrusted

were caught

African bureaucratic

institutional mayhem

offer

the 20th century

transformed

deliver services

terms

institutions

conversely

government

that the new

rural areas

especially

(

an

of

authorities were bureaucracy

them

Bantu

'

system

acknowledged

the rural population

to

to

of

the

.

authorities Many

creation

,

,

the

to

.

best part

and other services

and that

factor contributing towards the persistence

create effective new

own fault For

that getting institutions

development strategy

any

reform institutions

relief and

a

by

-

increasingly recognised

however

should

the funds

years has not been spent

the relevant departments

,

100

).

:

(

failure

It

institutional failure 1998

“ it

to

May

key element

a

is

According

major portion

is

has been spent belatedly right

few

poverty alleviation over the past

be

for

.

,

For example

of

disempowerment and pauperisation

the poor and towards their further

of

to

the neglect

,

for

of

disturbing contribution budgeted

,

of

in

.

of

detriment the poor The weakening the capacity the public sector especially that departments directly responsible the poor has made

the can

institutions that will deliver services 37

THE TRANSITION

2:

efficiently and respond

of

certain amount

a

areas

will

AND THE NEW

of the poor is still

to the needs

free electricity

. The

uncertain

supply of

and free water to every household

that, eight years after the political transition

, most

for

institutions ' partly responsible

urban

in

of millions of people . The

certainly improve the circumstances

‘ entrapping

AFRICA

SOUTH

fact is

local authorities are still

deteriorating conditions

in

PART

many

30

. , If ie



. of



of

of

of

,

to

the of

an

of

40

.

of job

of

.

,

,

and

to

). government

the new

the

to

20

to

the to

of

security

229

of :

new

poorest half

has

and opportunities the

population

.

property

government

annual economic growth rate

per

,

that

,

or

the

the

a

, in



)

has

of

is

.

)

the negative

5

that even

unaware

the population over the past eight

The fact

the

beginning

of

The tragic fact

opportunities

At

of

ncluding employment

per cent

the mainly wealthy whites

sufficient power

an

to

allocate

is

(i

failed dismally

chapter

4

addressed

two thirds

if

will

in

)

and mainly black

from

will

inequality was not

income

inability

aggressive

greater inequality

even

1990s

be

growth rate

been exposed

worsen

and Padayachee 1997

funds and other resources

be

years

of

to

the

the distribution

Michie

(

very poor

remains

income but

and lower

caused

claim

of

on

one can

The reasons for the unwillingness divert more

absence

recently

globalisation

the beginning

;

4

(

see

at

,

,

ch

of

however

globalisation

employment

the

-

of

sufficiently acknowledged

effects

40

20

(

)

it

the tendency

the 21st century

the

households

higher economic

the top

global capitalism

to

,

Unfortunately

per cent

unequal distribution

Africa has

South

of

.?

discipline

of

an top

the

that

The fact

elite

will not

further between

even

no

households

reduce



of

for

it

if

in

(

probably increase

elite

the unequal distribution

per cent and poorer

several years

policy

redistribution

black

new

global capitalism

alarming increase

white and black

the new

lasts

black households

socio economic and ideological power concentrated

Given the extraordinary the hands

less wealthy whites

in

-

,

income between

relentless

per cent

the framework

in

neo liberalism

intact we can expect

even

50

and the poorest

cement that unites the old white and

of

ideology

the detriment

the

ideological

elite

black

but especially

forged between

been

'

'

a

)

(

mainly Afrikaners

distributional coalition has

new

the old white and new

years



different income and population groups over the past over the past eight

the

of

political and economic power relations between

'

reshuffling



In

the

.

urban areas

cent

,

had been maintained over the past eight years the poor would still have

38

, the

of the

if

as

,

two different worlds the rich

rather

,

the

,

of

different country

modern sector in or

in

they are living

living

bargaining power property

have little influence over

:

if ,

they

a

.

and the poor

are as

is

.

economy

It

and opportunities

Since they are deprived

in

very little

benefited

rich

the Rich North and

In

.

-

of the

.

,

one rich

,

-

and

power relations

other

and the

,

'



the

,

the old white and new black elites

new

the one

of

of

of

two nations

of

on

.

redistributive

longer white and the other black Given the unequal distribution

.

no

is

pauperisation

these growth

the poorest half

behalf

their

reshuffling

the

to

,

.

country

coalition forged between

distributive

fiction Without aggressive

of

indeed

is

South Africa

them

market driven economic

situation

a

remain

in

trapped

poor However owing nation

is

the government

a

will

population

'

intervention

the poor

EXPLOITATION

bridges between

few

notion that the benefits to

the

down

'

will trickle

by

circumstances

with

,

Poor South

a

the

poor

in

the

THE LEGACY OF SYSTEMIC

'

entrapping mechanisms

owing million

people who have reached bourgeois status and the

15

to

the

,

7 5

in

.

of

in

,

, of of :

a

).

.. .

'

It s

of

of

Mbeki

-

and there are

,

a

serious structural

acknowledging that

from

impoverished

influential white business people

resistance higher

of

The stubborn

,

and blacks undeservedly

taxes

whites



undoubtedly

to

.

and apartheid

of ,

it

,

,

true

are

,

enriched

informs their reading

).

7

-

1

poor



especially

black people

white prejudice against blacks and

then

.

by

segregation

President

,

against blacks who

and

impediment White prejudice also prevents whites they have been undeservedly

be

.

is to

.. .

by

,

May 2001

white racism

,

many indications that they are

are –

these allegations about continued

especially

class and

June 2001

is

Guardian

,

]

Mail

'(

is

If

happening

colonial

people who are lazy basically dishonest thieves

carry this perception &

(

Many whites

.. .

corrupt

a

. of ..

very negative stereotype

social

workers domestic

farm

particular stereotype

everybody

facets

blacks regardless

of

,

'(



have

has many

millions

Independent

Sunday

claims that many whites

5

,

.

.

,

,

of

slavery endured

the power

their bondage

about the continuation

and apartheid power relations the exclusion

workers and miners

still playing

escape from

Racism

20

racism

psychological cultural and economic the virtual conditions

promoted

one common experience

is

of

there

is

poor

,

that

is

nation

opportunities

if

Duma Goubule claims that

million

lower class

racism

It .

'

the s

that deprive the poor

structures the

role that

the

million people

The remaining

either

can

impoverished

it

A

controversial issue

is

to

degraded

population

is

Africa

South

or

bourgeoisie

, of

members

solidifying

economic power between the

socio

and marginalised

impoverished

remain

to

doomed

what

1994

-

the unequal distribution

politico

white political is

in

institutionalised

in

domination and racial capitalism

of

the successor

to

capitalism

democratic

these two

the new

22 ,

.

to

Income distribution

to

system

come



of

economic

a

,

in

nations for

long time

perpetuate



,

powerful

place that will barring significant interventions

,

lower class

black



exclusively

the almost are

-

,

,

power property and opportunities between the non racial bourgeois elite and

and

that could have

39

.

4 2

(

disrupted

and

the

an

a

the pauperisation

the syndrome

social structures and

of

poverty trap

third

see sections

:

.2 .3

The

the black population

important part

.4 ).

'

of

large part

perpetuating

alleviation

4

responsible

entrapping mechanisms

'

attitudes are still for

implies that racist patterns

and poverty

of

the government to spend more on restitution

enabled

2

AFRICA

SOUTH

of

AND THE ' NEW

THE TRANSITION

2:

and

PART

chronic community poverty

of

demand

the

94 )

of

were far

dynamics

capitalist entrepreneurs

of

aggressive



(

1948

racial

cheap

and

of

insatiable

of

and

. the

more destructive During these two periods capitalism

and penetration

,

and apartheid the

1910

48 )

during segregation

exploitation

and British colonialism

Dutch

tribal organisations the range

and



family

damaged

(

severly

social structures

for

indigenous people Although the 258 years

on

very negative impact

.

of

South African history have had

a

-

The centuries long violent conflict and unequal power struggles that mark

proletarianisation repres

,



a

subculture

of

among poorer Africans and

was institutionalised

this way

this way

or

.

In

.

were undermined

by

poverty in

.

family and

distinct poverty mentality marked

,

of



coloureds And

soon

were disrupted the disciplinary and civilising effect

those traditional structures

syndrome

As

,

other social structures

damage

as

more psychological

even

a

but probably

indigenous people physically

,

discrimination not only impoverished

and

did

,

sion

The elaborate mechanisms

,

especially Africans

of ,

cultural and social life

.

docile labour showed little respect for the family

deviant

,

of

behaviour patterns was inculcated into those who became captives

this

per cent

poverty

coloured

a

by

1976

had become

people

A

among the poorer

concluded that

community

chronic

Coloured

the

.

commission



of



)

(

Theron

Concerning

of

institutionalised

1976

syndrome

Matters

into

the

subculture

Inquiry



Group –

Population

or

The Commission

40

of

.

syndrome

similar

40

a

an

.

It

by

in

as

-

will

policy has not yet emerged

.

such

the coloured population also applies

deviant

population

.

of

the African

to

syndrome

of

the poverty

The deviant

their lives

is

isolated aspect

it

not

;

self worth

of

social

is

coloureds and Africans who are indigent and powerless and have

-

sense

poverty has been broken

the Theron commission

the lower strata

or

no

behaviour

among

of of

behaviour

by

.

among the lower strata

of

given

of

the

a

educational rehabilitation Unfortunately The description

perpetuating

social upliftment and cultural and a

and

vicious circle

policy

comprehensive

important trap

anti social and deviant behaviour

an

effective

act

as

to

continue

trap until

, of

accompanied

,

poverty mentality

by

eight years this syndrome has acted

an

.

syndrome had also existed for generations among poorer Africans Over the past

THE LEGACY OF SYSTEMIC

of

.

, .

, to

the

for the

.

.

in

do

to

,

.

to

are

to

ward

a

off

of

the

.

.

Any attempt

to

the

for

determination

and their inability

its

and the power

socialisation within type

of

the

of

these

conditions created

see Theron

(

demands

1977

20th

of

South Africa

Terreblanche

and

of

of

,

to

exist

up

continues

processes the

it

.

a

,

measure

such

perpetuation and the mutually reinforcing

in

on

clear understanding

poverty

the unfavourable economic

to

to

unable

Africans

the economic system

).

paras

:

1976

22 .

that existed and

the other

and

Chronic community

the one hand

. 44 ;

because they

23 – 22

and

,

,

groups

are on

,

interaction between

During these

developed

situation

of

in

' of



be

without

and moral

their disruptive social environment

poverty among coloureds

explained

Apart

future

complexes

,

,

-

the to

cannot

to

,

;

is

,

an

early age anxiety

the broader South African

relations associated with

are various

there

coloured and African people during

overcome this must take account

rest

more favourable conditions

even under

century and earlier has had important implications

the extent

of

If

,

.

From

political events involving

term

poor families are exposed

from

physical and psychological stresses

explain

the long

particularly significant

negative self image take root while defensive traits

place

of

a

gained

,

,

of

-

to

regain lost ground

their relative

the limiting factors

their spiritual psychological

negative influences that they are unable

,

be

will continue

and

children

critical formative years children

mutually

improving household income and

neglect during their pre school years

The

maze

poverty has existed for generations

the physical neglect

on

becomes

only one

little would

factors that entrench this condition

later

.

poverty

Life

in

,

Chronic community

tension

adjustment

society

advanced

.

by

,

be

for instance

of

to

removed

rise

defensive

a

an

in

syndrome

the environment left unchanged

from

and gives

the

,

.

poverty

reinforcing impediments and restrictions were

this lack

deviant behaviour largely stems

Therefore

of

in

individual caught

of

,

poverty

,

of

a

of

,

and strains

society

social usefulness aggravates

,

of

stresses

sense

environment and often represents

restrictive

the

the

a

from

fatalism

constitues

and progressive society

advanced

the subculture

and

alienation

,

frustration

,

,

, of

of

depressing effects

an

the fact that

When set against the other materially successful half

financial means power and

also

,

in

material terms but

,

modern

Each

embracing

it

cultural poverty defined

,

in

backward subsociety

by

.

or

spiritual

occurs

in

,

the fact that

,

poor health

in

emotionally confused

so

is

intensified

a

a

represents

aspirations and

disabilities This lifestyle exists not only

of

network

few

have poor housing, have

the lower

People living under

broken homes , are

come from

it

,

these conditions are uneducated

these disabilities

.

of chronic community poverty

a state

are

constitutes

by

strata

of members of

a

their whole lives. Thus the total lifestyle

frequently

EXPLOITATION

capitalism

commission

health

dynamics between

the one hand and pauperisation

on

and

mutually reinforcing

'

,

,

,

criminality

violence

trap :

poverty

The fourth

SOUTH AFRICA

on

. .

2 2 4

AND THE 'NEW the

THE TRANSITION

2:

ill

PART

.

of

.

in

to a

is

for

'

to

)

freedom

[

a

[

by

the

Africa crime political violence

,

for

great divide

]'

the

so

of

of

to

of 14 ).

of

:

(

softness

The

South

'

a

community

1995

' '

the

of

, “

to

.

threat declined

global economy and

the

be

of

extension

not

.

,

The dynamics

discrimination

,

of

repression

the



South Africa

are

. new



violence

oppression

poverty the

crime

and

levels

in

rooted

and chronic community

of

,

are therefore

in

crime and violence The high

understood

of

but also

crime and

and deviant behaviour patterns that have become inculcated

among the poor and destitute during generations

political struggle

should

an

struggle mentality

The dynamics

as

.

black

community



'

as

the

of

virgin soil

,

extension

poverty mentality

the

large section

of

in an

as

into

South Africa

target

to

syndicates

violence

Africa

South

Shaw

weakening

the black

unbanning

long border created lucrative opportunities for international crime

a

's

Africa

the common perception the

integration

of as

,

structures

areas

According

politics prompted

the ANC and the liberalisation

confined

been

,

,

white

under apartheid

of

over

had

movement were

freedom

the

on

.

spilled

into

townships

,

violent crime that

rage and frustration

and apartheid were suddenly released

political liberalisation When restrictions

abolished

bottled

up

All the

-

South Africa

?



new



be

the

in

surprised that crime and violence have escalated

among those oppressed under colonialism

of

of In



spectacularly

only

sides

the opponents

South

of

(

both

extreme levels

).

:

(

We should not

by

the use

recent

7

1997

]

and

.. .[

been

personal aims has become endemic

on

closely linked

not

work

society prone

in

crimes while those engage

justified using violence against the state

and politics have and

.5 ,

,

were classified

,

as

of

era

apartheid offences

race domination

but

poor and black

that

claim

political conflict have produced

.. .

struggle

)

.

of

apartheid

not

of

of

crime During the

option

no

by

most South Africans and especially

and decades

the stringent

not meet crime

As many

1952



(

.4 ).

Violent

9

see section

Antoinette Louw and Mark Shaw correctly

inequality

a

is

,

,

,

they often had

.

people

legal employment areas

The apartheid

many African people

Verwoerd

,

for

in

phenomenon

in

the Bantustans could

for

potential migrant workers

urban

subculture

the violent methods used during

institutionalised

illegally

10

in

section

was themigrant labour system requirements

still experiencing high

indigenous people

dominate

to

and

ciminalise and indeed brutalise

to

practice that did most

indicate

resistance

from

and apartheid

colonialism

,

will

we

criminality has developed

violent history

to

violence

.

levels

exceptionally

As

of

South Africa

an

has

the other

also the

of serious deficiencies

.

.

.

protect the apartheid regime Police stations are also very unequally

,

created space for crime

the police

the

of

of , a

.

its

of

crime statistics in

forms forms

but that almost

crime While most

property

crime has declined

'

wealthy who are victims

personal crime

, ,

risk from

,

mainly black people

ie



mainly

the

',

at

-

,

are more

is

it

is

that

the

women

, of .

property

’.

and

The report distinguishes between

,

levels

',

', '

children

both violent crime

crime

May defines

crime

than

the concept

of

poverty

of

all

three categories

4 3

conceptualisation

to

far

more vulnerable

,

.

In

Poor people

his

are

.

and social fabric

of

is

June 2001

some

,

high

crime while poor people

wealthy people

2000

all

1994

,

from

to

reveal that

in

.10

a

moratorium

,

,

they

social fabric crime

important

in

profitable career

Although those issued

the first two categories have increased

and the elderly

to

.

5 )

all

violent crime are

that crime has become

' ."

violent crime in

citizens Levels

create

criminals are convicted

unreliable

unacceptably

allocate

rebuilding the criminal justice

and

have decreased and other increased

at

crime are

'

have

.

of

violent crime

and

entire pipeline

the

on

the

a

perception

inadequate

are

will

safety and

most fundamental goals namely

improve their quality and veracity

are still regarded

of

The government

government announced as

to

In

2000

a

small percentage

to

since only

,

owing

property

a

in

,

51

of

to

one

still rising

But what

public works

and

reforming its

:

attain

the skewed and

the departments

between

,

wants

to

it

if

more resources

and maintain stability and order for

crimes

.

in

interaction

1997

Shaw

the

4

ch

:

1995

main victims

by and

considerably

order

after liberation

multiple blockages causing delays along

Louw

(

Shaw

justice correctional services

characterised

system

will remain

poor

and

-

,

security

see

,

operation

co

The

(

system

see

.

inefficient

does

it

manner Until

addressing the

one capable

into

Eight years

reforming the criminal justice system satisfactory and efficient violent criminality

of

government has not succeeded

new

restore

such

,

long time

the

).

take

to

will

it

extent that

a

,

of

black townships but also undermined the legitimacy

spread to

only

to

.

not

orientation

of

their distorted

police services and

This skewed allocation

areas

urban

than

of

black

in

per cent

almost

1996

white areas and less

in

national police stations were based

In

.

,

of

per cent

to

distributed

.

wealthy and poor neighbourhoods

among white and black

efforts

75

engaged

the other nine were

15

;

the police was engaged

an

and investigation

crime detection

members

in

only one

of

apartheid

to

heyday

the

internal security During the

laws and maintaining

apartheid

implementing

but also with

in

of

multitude

combating crime

with

of

of

tasked

,

only

ten

not

in

also have their roots

EXPLOITATION

criminal justice system These deficiencies the apartheid period During apartheid the police were in

in

result

the

THE LEGACY OF SYSTEMIC

of

).

crime

which

,

ie



.

seen

crime

.

,

,

seldom

poor and for that

are

cushion

of

,

have fewer resources with

black

of

as

however

the predominant victims

the

,

,

of

who

,

Shaw

)

to

are almost exclusively

two writers most victims

these

also

victims are poor

poorer communities

the rich and powerful

they

:

effect only become clear when

of

by

least

According reasons

Louw and

to

According

the population

The seriousness

3

1998

into account that most criminals and their

poorest two thirds ( at

change

huge pauperisation

its

and

face

are

or poorer in

the crime problem

we take

not only about being poor, it is also about the risk

is

to

poor

'

AFRICA

SOUTH

'(

vulnerability thus: ‘ Poverty

ofbecoming

THE 'NEW

AND

of

THE TRANSITION

2:

the

PART

the cost

trapped anew

in

is

of

are

exploited

and

Every

.

cruel to

.

neglected

generation

from

often the victims

only their dignity but their ability

vicious circle

perpetuated

is

and crime which

abused

committed within

are

new

chronic community poverty often through

generation

,

is

generation

Children

crimes

Women

not

,

.

earn

that undermine

in

money

are

,

and are seldom

and violent crimes

these

reported

a

households

Most

.

even

violent crimes

thus disrupting their already tenuous

inflicted

of ,

further

fabric

the case

to

social

exposed

,

harm

is

during which bodily

the poor

of

of

The real vulnerability

of

.12

crime

to

.

by

or

poverty

higher

much

is

is

in

the

estimated that

a

It

great

South Africa

,

,

it

,

considered

ordinated

-

co

comprehensive

,

.

as

As long

the

exploitation and when

that urgent comprehensive redistributive measures aimed are essential

be

to

.

AIDS pandemic

a

be

.

,

) -

of by

its

systemic

There

affected

and

When poverty

infected

at

the

consequences

the population

the historical framework the poor

of

,

already

likely

of .'3



per cent

virus

the HIV

is

the vulnerability

poor

are

(

in

contextualised

the

of

percentage

citizens about

to

46 million

the poor are more

11

be

,

and

the result

further impoverished

of

pandemic

may

case

is

the

,

Whatever

be ,

about whether AIDS

into

new and appalling vicious

sexual promiscuity sexual violence AIDS and poverty

controversy

drawn

With the advent

of

into

health

of

.

being drawn

to

are

and poverty

a

,

more likely

is

a

is

,

health

,

of

/

they

areas

millions

HIV AIDS pandemic

circle

rural

violence

,

vicious circle

are

especially

this mutually

third element entering

the poor have only limited access

Because

in

,

services

dynamic

.

reinforcing

poor people

ill -

health

of

The

of

ill

.

gang activities

comes clear

alleviating poverty

and effective

poor health

vicious circle we cannot afford

to

the

This

is

the population

.



-

poorer half

poverty trap leading

.

,

already happening and

44

especially

and ominous

of

further pauperisation

important

the

remain

a

will

is of

and AIDS

an

,

for alleviating poverty and preventing AIDS are not implemented

policies

THE LEGACY OF SYSTEMIC

Legislation aimed at building

.3

2

EXPLOITATION

non -racial South Africa

a

'

In sharp contrast to the ANC government s inability to eradicate the legacy for

be

-

,

's

it a

do

is

, .

)

to

-

to

.

a

for

.

in

is

of

to

the is

, it

).

-

a

the

in

seeks

our

on

in

a

of

of

numerous mechanisms

or

but

to

easy

,

be

such

forgotten

be

not

society while ensuring Rights

the Rights

Commission

of

Promotion and Protection

Human

of

These include

a

transformation

.

of

of of

.

.

The

of

be

is

It

of

the

a

to

of

It

.

'

of

(

should

will not

a

,

interim

society

achievement

Cultural Religious and Linguistic Communities and Gender Equality

was

equal dignity and respect

accorded

individual rights

Commission

the heart

the establishment

also provides

for

a

,

order

the Constitution

and enforce the ongoing

Commission

the

Constitution

At

our deeply inegalitarian past

The Constitution

the protection

society

lies recognition that the purpose

of

the goal

of

monitor

racial

non

interim

that

than

for

.

overlooked

create

particular groups

membership

is

that that

will

beings

the context

in

society

by

be

of

.

human

regardless

simply

foreign affairs 2001

the constitutional court

seeks more

and democratic

of

which

the

to

(

,

to

as

of

groups

constitutional

not sufficient

not the

discrimination against people who are members

unfair discrimination

all

new

department

unfair discrimination

of

prohibition

equal application

of

of

disadvantaged

South Africa

requires instead the complete and

government

the new

avoid

to

only

society

the following comment

The prohibition not

the system

reform

of

in

constitution

same

,

of

or

-

re

the

confirmed

corrected

pathological individuals

education

intention

huge task

Development Community

Since racial inequality

follows

transformation

:

The

and exhort others

the Southern African

isolated aberrations that can

progressive

still has

the whites

beyond

2001 the government acknowledged the need for socio

upliftment

with

Although the

whites

: ‘

/

a

)

summit

,

or of

a

law

tamper

closely connected

racial society

non

and especially

racial prejudices

communiqué

economic set

of

rid In

to

(

herself

him

rectify skewed

and

is

to

reduce unemployment and alleviate poverty

dispute that every South African

non racial South

acknowledge that the government

to

.

important

poverty

alleviate

government has laid the legal foundations

SADC

create

a

be

,

so

.

a

-

gap

as

possible

which racial attitudes survive among privileged

in

the way

several laws aimed at

between black and white remains intact

the government fails

economic structures inability

will not

the vast wealth

is

long

doing

It

as

and

long as

as

commended

it has introduced

non racial society While the government should

it

for

laying the foundations

Africa

,

segregation and apartheid

to

,

colonialism

of

for

.

in

a

a

,

a

to

,

.

qualified For care

,

housing health

,

to

is

).

of

access

within

to

they are unable

have

support themselves

).

(

everyone

these

to

the right

each

of

,

of

realisation

)

,

,

to

for

at

expense

state

expressly

appropriate social assistance ibid

,

46

of

;

of

as

accommodation

of

social security including

also entrenches

if

to

,

access

.. .[

But the Constitution

and their dependants

or

:

to

of

of

medical

state

achieve the progressive

rights

and

shelter basic health care

The state must take reasonable legislative and other measures available resources

for

on

on

as

is

of

to

and water

14

-

care

its

expressly

,

,

rights

health

emergency

adequate

rights

these

from

:

the sections dealing with

food water and social security

of the

some

10

:

ibid

.. .(

to

in

their liberty

relation

access

;

;

educational rights

of

,

, 's

example

;

;

,

basic nutrition

access

people

sufficient food

refusal

result

,

the

right

reading material and medical treatment

duty

property

the right

of

;

),

;

against

children

services and social services

The state

is

practices

homes

to

the

right

of

treatment the right

persons deprived

health

development

sustainable

the arbitrary eviction

(

;

;

of ). in

or

on

a

prohibition of

or

secure

including reproductive health care

nutrition

sovereign

property that was dispossessed after 1913

the demolition

social security

not harmful

;

for

of or

adequate housing and

services

united

include

land tenure and restitution

past racially discriminatory laws

their homes

and build

the constitution

the

equitable redress

security

of

land

;

to

equitable access

improve the quality

rightful place

environment that

other measures that

and

law

the will

3

:

(

1996

based

each person

its

to

take

the foundations

have the environment protected through reasonable

to

;

-

legislative

an

;

Labour rights the right and

able

rights recognised

and social

well being

potential

nations RSA

to

The economic

of

in

the family

by

in

is

and democratic South Africa state

government

which

equally protected the

all

of

citizens and free

states

democratic

a

lay

;

,

a

of

life

represents

The preamble

society based

values social justice and fundamental human rights

the people and every citizen

1996

:

the past and establish

democratic and open society

of

(

in

108

South Africa

a

Heal the divisions

as

adopted

so

is

that the constitution

rights

human

Act

1996

to

the history

in

milestone

final constitution

of

of

The adoption

'

SOUTH AFRICA

THE NEW

)

'

: THE TRANSITION AND

of

2

the

PART

of . for

at

an

is

)

(

of

to

-

a

, or

,

,

in

of

,

,

serve

,

be

comprehensive

Unfortunately

.6 ).

4

,

such

hewers

wood

to

designed

system

education

and drawers

Current educational programmes include implementing measures

the

in

a

,

of

of

(

,

such

an

building

of

task

system

Africa

it

educational

Although

educational

capable

should

system

be

.

and dedication

,

creating

an

of

study

-

the

acknowledged thatmost

.

line with

Unfortunately

truly non racial and prosperous South

of

a

of

for

culture

substantial progress has been made underpinning

curriculum

culture

the departments different black population groups and

.

and lacking

a

,

and resourced

new

majority building

during apartheid were highly inferior poorly organised

in

Africans

)

for

especially

the

,

needs and training teachers

a

introducing

education that were institutionalised

lies ahead

favour

,

's

country

learning

and

,

teaching

in

'.

educational resources

redistribute

-

to

plight cannot

,

.

-

see section

promote

to

be the

-

.

.

55 up

4

of

.

of

of

of

programmes

apartheid was that would

who

relatively small

interests

requires well financed

alleviation

African population

careful not

of

an

A

of

also

been implemented

central component

water

of

This

the

affected the growth



-

poverty

programmes have not create

alone

these laws have

these laws have also

the population

an

well focused

and

should

as

.

legislation

the poorest half

yet

to

by

rectified

1998

and racism

labour and negatively

discrimination and repression

the detriment

clear plans

aspirant African petit bourgeois

The government

of

after centuries

apartheid

trade unions Unfortunately

employing

the economy

of

of

potential

of

the costs

increased

that

of

only

,

have jobs and are members

practice

Its

workplace they have benefited

level Although

basic

the legacy

address

to

undoubtedly helped

Act

.

jobs above

from

draw

(

people

achieving

the apartheid colour bar which excluded

the

.

for addressing the legacy

instrument

aimed

policy

any law

Employment Equity Act

The

which requires every

2000

also required

disadvantaged

and Prevention

implement measures

are

.

Ministers

Equality

of

inequality

a

.

government

eradicating inequality

groups

Act

2000

These measures include the repeal

perpetuates

black

the Promotion

to

of

minister and level equality

Act

for the historically

(

Unfair Discrimination

of is

this programme

to

Central

apartheid through

),

affirmative action and special protection

wide ranging

of

addressing the legacy

of

at

legislative programme aimed

government has pursued

new

of

past eight years

,

Over

the

the

THE LEGACY OF SYSTEMIC EXPLOITATION

still

PART

THE TRANSITION

2:

AND THE 'NEW

AFRICA

SOUTH

per

of

of

income

least R3 421 per white person

capita was

R895 per

fiscal incidence

.

at

net loss

net gain from

to a

,

due

of

a

African person and

whites

secondary

'

.

that

of

,

,

whites After the budget Africans

per cent

the

of

of of

per cent that 15 6

,

is

,

Berg and Bharoot have concluded that before the redistributive effect 1993 budget taken into account the per capita income Africans was only

10 , 3

Van

1

der

Endnotes

The redistributive

, it

who

.

).

,

18

black

to

white

little tax



the structural

from

or

those who pay

no

no

longer

to

(

taxpayers both white and black

is

the budget

,

effect

)

redistribution

of

of

:

(

of

Unfortunately effect the budget has increased considerably since 1993 1999 the redistribution income does not necessarily benefit those who need most The

but

from

are mainly

as

,

A

of

).

of

in its 15

not

savings

strategy

the GEAR

for

.) shifts

to

Gini

1995

this shows clearly

to

57

,

0

of

The in

, 0

, 0

74 67 .

to

73

55

,

0

,

If

,

and

these

Africans

from

in

for

of

).

87 – 8

1998 2002 –

in

:

(

0

,

from

2001

the pay

coloureds

from

increased

SSA

and

for the pay whites

1998 have continued

the rich have become much richer

coefficient

of

the pay

the

1995

:

a

.. .

to 14

per cent and

of

Gini

1998

in

81

,

from

to

in

83

,

coefficients

FDI are

fixed investment It is

)

(

on

of

the

.

so

(

.

for

,

to 0

70 in

,

and

respectively

2000

the

,

in

(

-

-

-

,

Alusaf

with what eventually materialised

1995

,

0

from

0

80

,

economy

and gross domestic

the initial projections

coefficient for total pay and total earnings 0

Columbus

annual average GDS and GDFI were

4 4

compared

2001

SARB

the rule after

a

In

be (

.

in

65

,

section

the same period

and

such

South African

savings GDS

Statistics South Africa the

to

According increased

2000

of

will

2000



1996

and 1980s

GDP respectively Bureau Economic Research database higher economic growth rate with such low levels achieve

investment

and

dependency

gross domestic 1995

From

to

(

).

GDFI

per cent possible

high

to

levels

low

,

,

of

The reasons

the

of

Iscor Coega and for

;

3

retooling

the 1970s

multi billion rand projects

given

on

these included

product

considerably smaller change

and labour saving investment continued

-

1994

African

be ] (

of -

22 ).

Capital intensive

0

the real gross domestic

than

-

in

formal sector employment growth

the South

the historical relationship between changes

economic growth has become associated with

rate

4

a

in

the 1990s left mark formal sector employment and growth

changes

in

Bank

in

the Reserve

on

According economy

to

2

.

black

Gini that

poor considerably poorer over the past

)

unfortunate with Hugo

or

enormously

rural African

difficult

The fact that

Party

complicates

.

is

a

).

ANC

rich and powerful

the Inkatha Freedom

the rural elite that obtained

its

long

Interview

'(

is

by

(

.

matters considerably

As

this rural elite mostly supports

which

vested interest the

considerable

in

traditional authorities

elite has attained

have

African

June 2001

as

these

1 – 7

reform

the South the

we have

in

that

[

statement

. '

's

in

Guardian

&

Mail

,

To

6

Young

Mbeki

deeply entrenched racial disparities We poverty that this country defined colour very

in

situation

therefore merit

,

]

society

a

There

is

5

.

eight years

power from

the

48

the



and poverty

.

powerlessness

of

is



in

for

remain trapped

by

regime remains powerful and even further empowered the new government politically expedient reasons the majority rural poor will

apartheid

THE LEGACY OF SYSTEMIC EXPLOITATION

and the general acceptance

( as

is

of

and

wealth

the

of

of

.

in

as a

.

is

'

are

.

).

).

2001

)

800 murders

1994

increased

)

(

of

)

February

in

or 24 26

,

(

result

the shortage

in

,

of the

affairs

including attempted rape

.

Common assaults

and assaults with intent

inflict grievous

per

251

2000

.

to

1994

from

220

from

Robbery with

100 000 from

1994

to

to

in

2000

,

per 100 000

624

circumstances increased

cases that

000

is

a –

of ,

9

(

000

that the suspect had

number reported

roughly

.

in



'

a 10

almost half were classified

The Economist

100

for the civil war

leaving 524

120 per 100 000

569 per 100 000

544

from

per



of

-

a

,

harm

aggravating

state

to

502

from

1994

to

bodily

1998

per cent

2000 Recorded rape

100 000

from

70

personnel

-

increased

000

1000

110 per

from

declined in

rate has

only

for this dismal

reason

to

49

per

to

203 000

professional and well equipped Themurder

or

.

The main

.

convictions

109

the police

being

criminality

sophisticated

replacement

million more were withdrawn

Of these

to

Half

reached court

(

.

disappeared

life

little

Given that

lost generation

new

implying that the evidence was insufficient

,



',

undetected

1998

:

'(

2 2

,

million crimes reported

a

Of as

the

’ of

,

Marais

quoted

into

crime has become

urban

with

anti social behaviour

in

to

suggests that

that never happened

become derailed by

Mike Nicol

destined



is

created that

people

and poor employment prospects

black matriculants cannot find jobs

of

thousands

the 1980s

of

agitated political consciousness

an

,

'

of

.

lost generation

the

inclined towards violence and other forms

to

the

of

in

is

a

a

.

,

in

Many members

education

10

.

of

70

'

their entrenched position

liberation struggle culture lawlessness grew the ranks organisations making they pursued strategy liberation when the country ungovernable Unfortunately that culture being expressed new South Africa violent crime and some townships have become permanently ungovernable result

11

of

income became much more per cent the population happening what Mbeki

of

30

,

-

the

a

the

During

based

, but due to

moot point

is

,

arrogance

on

is

whether

privileges 9

racism

rate in the 1990s

groups

distribution per cent and the lower that informs whites reading

top

is

),

claims

or it

8

Whether

’ among elite

coalition

neo liberalism

it

the

ideology

unequal between

growth

economic

of

'distributional

the strong

a high

the

The United States experienced

of

7

in

of

,

its

by

to

a



.'

on

,

6 6

( or

518 000

expected

by

2000

to

/

and exert huge pressure

million

people suffering to

200

is

158

of

The number in

.

to

from

2015

have

their already meagre

. . ).

10 2 4

poor

increase

by

,

15 1

to

per cent

The HIV AIDS pandemic

see also section

;

violence the

). 2015

.

by

projected the

is

on

06

, 1

BER 2001

(

resources

million

effects

their plight Louw and

that interpersonal

particular occurs most frequently among people structurally entrenched economic and racial

increase

,

),

-

2001 and devastating

to

of

)

a

by

means

about 2008 onwards

from

full blown AIDS

to

projected

levelling off

people

effects

63

, 18 ,

12

:

'(

1997

prevalence

is

to

inequalities

from

as

.. .[

colonial societies

the dual pressure

withstand

the

vulnerability may force process survival beginning

the desperate nature

-

over

subject

in

world

13

criminal activity

also quote well documented observations

Shaw

them

crimemakes

many cases heightened

the poor are criminalised

whereby

HIV

to

resort

to

victims

In

afterwards

recover

to

and

being victimised

The shock

eroding the means available

of

:

by

poor more vulnerable

of

follows



put the point

They

as

12

.

2000

49

Chapter

.

3 v

Prelude to the informal negotiations on economic issues

The economic attitudes and ideologies of the corporate sector

of

. :

a

to

-4

,

system

the

colonial

and

is

it

racist

links with

received

-

of

the

.

its

it

close

socialist oriented extent

of



,

in

of

, a

the

),

,

Africa

and the support

of

It

,

the

.

,

,

,

favoured to

the

from

economic

advocating

the

.

between

informal

negotiations between

democratic movement began

the late

the

1980s the

two parties could hardly have been greater Given

.

sector and

and

,

discussions

in

tentative

ideological

SACP

hostile

the economy The

the gold mining and other industries

gap

corporate

liberated South

the

When

communist bloc

the

nationalisation

and because

of

for

a

in

countries

nor

was however extremely

other hand was highly critical

South African dispensation

neither

South African dispensation

and state intervention

the South African Communist Party

system

hypocritically

,

of

,

blacks

(

the

of

,

democratic movement

the

socialism on

,

towards communism

character

of

,

of

the racist character

the human rights

sector was



.

violation

the corporate

of

overtly critical

,

domestic

Africans

Within this framework the

fact that

capitalist

recognised neither the democratic freedoms nor property

racial capitalism

this

40

protective framework

that period the

of

the

oriented western world despite

rights

,

,

economic systems

corporate sector operated within

great

African corporate sector and the

the South

respect

years there was

In

in

democratic movement

Whether this

of

between

that during those

.

distance

the Cold War

but not directly relevant

question

the

ideological

relevant

1990

of

.'

our argument What

interesting

until

1948

the

not

is

was coincidental

apartheid from

and

an

1989

is

until

1947

91 ,

Cold War and apartheid ran almost concurrently

-

from

the

Remarkably ,

or

. 1.

is

3

hardly surprising that both parties were initially mutually

mistrustful

,

reached

between

the two sides

we need

to

compromises eventually

,

elite

,

.

and suspicious However before discussing the informal negotiations and the

51

2:

their

examine

‘baggage ';

and ideological

records

track

AFRICA '

SOUTH

will we be

only then

..

3 1 1

corporate

middle class values and

sector

,

The

to

its

understand what was at stake during the negotiations .

-

able

AND THE ' NEW

THE TRANSITION

's

PART

unsympathetic

attitude

towards the poor

of

.

, In

. to

,

of

a

is

of

to

.

on

In

In

a

,

to

in

.

of

in

no

or

.

.

or

is

by be

the

religious for

children

been

occupy the lower

.

to

providence

the

personal

as

and early

of

19th

doctrine

superior

in

in

Spencer

's

colonies were regarded

Social

line with as

in

in

the

of

the late

inferior

The religious explanation -

, if

it

'

as

far

so

was mainly based

on

.

in

was unfair

they

God with blacks destined

,

ordained

claim

poverty Afrikaners

in

-

century

by

.



,

and that

religious undertone

as

a

trapped

by

's

in

be

of

lack

of

moral shortcomings

and

. the

of

poverty

the mid 20th century

society to

of

The ascription

prosperous

poor because they have not

the mid 20th

but also had

lower ranks

to

to

if

so

,

God

hierarchical social order

the

occupy

the

regarded

each

kind

chosen people

many Afrikaners

black poverty

racist considerations

the

poor individual

ascribed

often

peaking people

rather awkwardly

in

of

for

,

not unbecoming

that

typical

poverty and even extinction

Afrikaners that they were one explanation

the structural

intellectual history

the

Herbert

-s

,

implicit

while indigenous people

implicit

thus

adverse economic and social

prevalent

poverty

which regarded English



was also

to

also said

,

's

also

and therefore doomed

52

,

, are

is

;

or

social stratification

will

There

factors

control However

punishment visited

because they have been ordained

20th centuries was

God

moral

presented

The religious explanation

Darwinism

structural

biogenetic

to

,

-

a

of

poverty

poverty

world

religious

,

, of

levels

of

elected

the character

their racial status

The view

ethic

a

Anglo Saxon

their fathers people

sins

her

strong success

a

bourgeoisie with

explanation



/

,

and

poverty

/

blame

the

elite

as

must shoulder

South African his

white and even black

Protestant

the poor

poverty has not enjoyed much support among members

for

of

conditions over which they have little

shortcomings

a

,

individuals

recognising that individuals become enmeshed explanation

or

,

of

an

perspective that links poverty

alternative

given

flaws and shortcomings

and personality

impoverished

not

the white elite largely subscribed to

perspective which ascribes poverty

the rich and

were important because

,

members

or

of

given

assistance

large

is

,

,

.

The attitudes

black

to

's

,

case

black majority

whether white

the degree

South Africa

mainly white minority and

and

or

-

mainly

and

powerful towards the poor they determined

powerful

rich

of

,

powerless

,

,

poor

small

,

's

relatively

a

into

population was always divided

the

long colonial history

its

During South Africa

integrity

and place

high value

a

,

middle

from

the white elite often emphasise

the

of

any

,

deviant

and

behaviour that deviates

the importance

greater part

lazy and untrustworthy and

punishment

of

their poverty



the

For

, of

regarded poor blacks

deserved

of

these values

mainly blacks

for

most whites

felt that they actually

adhere

people

.

to

them

disapprove

the –

.

strongly

as

20th century

away the poverty

as

,

not appear

,

justify the privileged

to

and achievement

they often to

a

do

ie

middle class work ethic

Consequently

is used

and explain

Africa members

South

individual initiative who

,

people –

-

of

.

class norms virtue

classes

' of lower -class In

behaviour

the middle

of

of

position

ISSUES

popular in prosperous middle - class



world . This approach

the western

in

still is

– and

on

of the poor was

and tenacity

circles

THE INFORMAL NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC

TO

to

PRELUDE

their lack

a

or

– an 20 ) in

a

1934

of

)

1932 and

a

less

a

of



simply not possible

them

the

of

losers

in

biogenetic origin made

of

and that hereditary factors and other

'

,

certain

with

endowed



a

resolve

to

It

.

natural social order

moral

of

and

physical shortcomings

that members

explain the indifference

of

intellectual capacity

implicitly

were poor because they were

group

ethnic

explicitly

the is

racial

or

-

explanation assumed

or

.

to

or

poverty was often South Africa racial explanation closely linked the moral explanation Those favouring the biogenetic In

biogenetic

the

Afrikaners was only launched

Report had been published

Carnegie

However

.

119

:

1986

,

'

al

et

(

(

Beinart

impoverished

National Party formed

Purified Gesuiwerde

-

ideological issue

the upliftment

1930s after

It

.

by

Boer War that the

.3

strong drive

was only when large

the poor whites became

see Bundy the

for

among Afrikaners

the Afrikaners

regarded unsympathetically

the Anglo

in

social dislocation

of

of

,

to

-

and

Afrikaners were impoverished

, of in of

poverty

the

large section

English and Afrikaner middle class circles

numbers

in

poverty

of

both

Colin Bundy

the 19th century was either ignored

of

at

the

in

end

According

the

.

moral integrity and resolve

The

to



in

for

it

of

blacks

white

not

to

(

and

does

it

as

-

in

of

socio

adverse

20th century

fact that most

were deprived

,

political rights did not own property

terms

received very little support

did

1977

).

Terreblanche

,

poverty

middle class circles during the

)

see

(

this day

still exists

view

enjoy

of

political conditions

probably also black

what extent this

-

or

/

and

them

today

The approach that explains black economic

easy

which most blacks had

in

or

implicitly

is

The really important question

poverty

to

feel morally repentant about

whether explicitly

many whites made

the

the

,

racial prejudices

.

.

live

differently

-

not

it

put to

to

.

Or ,

many whites towards poverty black people during the 20th century without taking their strong and often hidden racial prejudices into account

educational and other

53

AND THE 'NEW

,

is

institutional conditions

and

and

not effectively

did

usually

control their

ignored

of

structural

self development

-

opportunities

'

AFRICA

SOUTH

.

THE TRANSITION

2:

for

PART

,

is

as

.

-

to

of

in

the size

and

,

by

is Its

.

used

.

on

of

mineral

for capital

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both

was

labour

of

labour

,

.

the repressive

public corporations that grew into huge concerns during

ESKOM

ISCOR

,

such

,

largest corporations

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started

as

)

unfree African

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large

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),

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have supported the

.

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resources

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the

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SACOB

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Business

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emergence

and

mega corporations with

white supremacist governments

century

of

a

efficiency

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unique characteristics

ideological and

the South African

Afrikaanse Handelsinstituut

54

,

a

of

interlocking

),

as

is

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,

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power

practices

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black poverty

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to

in

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groups has

strong

legitimise

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in

countries

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in

in

country

order

South Africa

to

is

capitalist oriented

sector

promoting the interests

,

,

language

and

not limited

this country

in

strong

in

sectors

functionality

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course all

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privileged position colour

alleged

a

.

of

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South Africans

,

and

,

power privileges

corporate

Africa

myth making and propagandising

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propensity

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is

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it

global corporatism

through the networks

.

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internationalised and have attained considerable additional bargaining

all its

.

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political

broader

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also

enormous bargaining

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,

sector intact

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the

to

its

overemphasised

generate propaganda

new

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should

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capacity

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power and

sector

transition towards

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of

to

white privilege

arena

corporate

keep the mainly white controlled corporate

and perpetuate

economic

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an

as

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African

greatest assets and that great care

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harm

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South in

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taken

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sector

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South African corporate

as

.



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corporate sector

African

South

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fully or partially

be

private corporations .

,

converted

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NP and were recently

a

of the

the governance

ISSUES

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TO

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PRELUDE

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55

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56

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1977 257

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57

sector during long periods

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SOUTH AFRICA '

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AND THE 'NEW

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NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC

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PRELUDE

59

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Africa was

South

to

or

system

a

.

economic

circumstances

these

In

empowered

marginalised and exploited

,

and systemically

)

small black elite were constantly the whites were constantly

a

.

groups other than whites

the 20th

xcept

(e

in

the population

Africa during

South

or

century was such that

system

place

first world country

-

Africa

and

among

the perception

or

all

The institutional framework

by

neglect and

market economic

free

the third

they were during segregation

the white and black elite that South

developed

Although those

is

'

exploited

'

.

today

exploited by the modern

or

exploited

still

century

the 20th

in

a

members with

they

of

,

apartheid

are

world sector cannot

it was recklessly as

greatest part

be

for

sector

because

by

the

extremely underdeveloped

AFRICA '

SOUTH

in

AND THE 'NEW

THE TRANSITION

2:

of

PART

the

fundamental restructuring

the

"

.

,

,

of

of

-

as

of

the anti state propaganda

apartheid

is

as

credibly

can

,

statism

this was

obsessed with rolling back

give the the mega corporations more

-

certainly hypocritical

misplaced and even

,

propaganda

to

It

far in

to

In

.

far

so

order

the

about the institutional

place before we

the FMF

to

role

realise that the

,

,

space and power

its

redefining

state and

its

the

But

in

.

certainly commendable

for the abolition

is

a

the FMF was responsible

system

in

of

free market capitalist

be

was never really concerned

and behavioural conditions that ought talk

important

is

;

.

and that

but these have been

with the supposedly negative role

do

more

had

to

to the

FMF

and

the economic sphere most blacks

so

state

and impoverished

it

apartheid

, of

propaganda

heights

place since 1990

taken

the political arena

remain marginalised

commanding

it

South African society

Important power shifts have mainly restricted

the

of

abolition

the

of

campaigned

credibility if

only attain

The FMF could

ISSUES

',

of the commanding heights ’. for

hands

THE INFORMAL NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC

TO

in

PRELUDE

,

the

.

.

,

as

by

,

'



all

South

for

of

interests

compensate

to

can

the

creating and maintaining

the in

concerned

,

are

well

as

property

as

,

.

spread

and

of

the nature

as

in

,

as

making the adaptations necessary economic order such but also changing and dynamic world Inter alia the state has responsibilities far

as a

in

racial capitalism

the

(

to

restructuring

.1 ).

see section

play

and

11

crucial role

as

its

)

-

is

It

an

.

,

in

the state must intervene

the system

human

beyond dispute that

enormous

from

a



it

in

a

in

is

-

degree

rules

social construct

or

is

,

of

to

a

inherited

are

Capitalism

supported and defined

has

Some

classical schools

neo

human

and

during

experiencing

natural construct and

civil society

in

not only has

and

making

especially

currently

continuously adapted

a

,

meantime

dysfunctionality inherent state

therefore

reasonable

a

,

the

In

.

Africans

be is

it

;

automatically

The

and

the economic system to

the

as



a

play before

to

the

embodiment

project

dangerous misconception

a

.

This

over almost five centuries

project that needs

operate

as

capitalism

nature

institutions and attitudes

role

the classical

a

laws

state

of

akin

such

play

to

a

regard modern

of

inclined to

(e

specially those

economists

developed

always

that which South Africa

is

such

crucial role

to

transformation

as

the state always has

capitalism

is

any capitalist country

,

In

.

destructive

the power

are

included

over

and

such

South

Africa

those groups that are

marginalised

reasonable

period

from –

',

underdeveloped

all

for ensuring that

consumermarkets as

,

country

a

economic activity

a

In

.

,

undeveloped

developing



mainstream

responsible

the economy not only



in

,

unemployed

factor markets

undeniably “

the state

is

but especially

of

concerning the competitiveness

in

.

formations closely connected with property The state also has responsibilities

into

61

'



in

of

).

;

,

,

far

on

a

or

South Africa

democratised

,

to

play

possible because the

the trustworthy

invisible hand

'

to

negotiations

the informal

organisation

'

'

as

-

rolled back

best left

free market

obsessed with the idea that the state should not

also

'

is

the economy

liberal

of

,

be

it

should

and erroneous

the free market

.

-

a

in

effect

'

trickle down

'

spontaneous

a

.1 .4

3

The myth

of

of

and that

system

was

important socio economic role

an

have

It

.

economic matters

system

this notion

and took

unrealistic

'

system

economic

to

economic

African

in

idea that the South

simplistic

the

their

Hertz 2001 Klein 2000

see

(

Thus the corporate sector adopted

marketeers

free

-

political power

economic but also

the

which the mega corporations usurp

in

'

'

society

the strata

these responsibilities

.

,

,

not only

not acknowledged

relatively stateless

a

quest for

All

economic activity

by

unfortunately

state are

the benefits

is

in

the

is also responsible for ensuring that

a

society share

'

in

. The state

stream

AFRICA

SOUTH

as

the main

AND THE NEW

all

THE TRANSITION

2:

of

PART

rapidly

growing

62

-

,

-

a

of

the

is

than

per cent

all

to

.

total income

all

of

20

70

,

,

almost

power

This

property and

while

Africans

were

,

,

.4 .1 ).

10

trade union and other basic human rights

underdeveloped as

(

culturally

of

,

relatively uneducated

,

economic

,

political

hands

unfree labour patterns see section

or

-

is

it

1974 was quite

whites constituted

1974

per cent

racial

70

of

to

and

of

Until

capital

well

as

.

1890

almost in

if

to

,

,

, ie ,

from

and

white

highly

opportunities

colonial

the fact that almost

concentrated

of

it

,

to

.10

or

'

,

).

system

Africans constituted

(

victims

of

the

whether

attributed

propertyless disenfranchised and also deprived

contrast

not

Another important determining

,

were

, )

ideological

human

)

(

and

and

but consistently received more

but received less than

huge discrepancy must physical

redistributive effect

the institutional character

so

,

,

the total population

By

total income

.

per cent

the total population

less

the creation

poor

Whether economic

power property

record

distributive record

the

future

ethnic groups

growth

will achieve

be

per cent

of

its

but

of

20

,

satisfactory only

concerned

is

capitalism

ways

the South African

its

-

.

labour intensive

lead

economic growth

as

the nature

far

factor would

As

be

(

among different classes and

of

and the distribution

/ of or

system

,

;

controversial this would depend inter alia economic

be

trickle down

on

results

it

of

the

,

foreseeable

in

least

-

growth automatically

the

then

beneficial

especially

the necessary power

given

spontaneously

other

, a'

,

immediately

will

sector

global capitalism

in

trickle down

should

framework

which

rate

'

and

that

the corporate

in

'



,

economic growth

,

jobs

space

and

'

high

has been



since the 1970s freedom

of

ideological arguments

the main

at

One

in

of

economy

being

PRELUDE TO THE INFORMAL NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC

in

the 1930s

in

of

annual growth rate

.

foreign investment

20

stagflation

of

.

1974 until 1994 South Africa experienced

During

,

,

docile and cheap

the

of

-

off

a

,

unfree

,

years from

large inflow

revolution

an

by

,

,

4 5

However African labour remained

until 1974

1934

per cent was maintained marked

industrial take

of

from

in

that ushered

years

a

.

and 1940s During the

mining

remarkable

20th

and docile African

cheap

an

century 40

the

of

,

early part

an

.

not coincide Given

availability

mining corporations achieved

labour the

growth and redistributive records during the

the did

century

the

Africa 's economic

South

ISSUES

outflow

,

the redistributive record

during this period was unimpressive

the

The per capita

reason

for this was that large scale structural unemployment had not yet

gradually until 1974

.

four main ethnic groups increased

in

trickle down

effect

a

of

market driven

-

rather than any

during this

occurred

'

(

statism

ever before

1974 than

shifts

-

interventions

and the distribution

political power shifts and political

'

,

but both were brought about )

(

. 8 ).

table

century

Two important distributional

by

10

income between whites and blacks was more unequal

at

whites increased

black population groups

of

those

the per capita income

,

rate than

of

.

higher

of

However

,

manifested itself

see

The only

-

all

income

of

.

economy

South African

growth record

of

contrast with

its

In

sharp

.

,

foreign capital and creeping poverty

Again

to

a

.

. NP its

,

of

,

-

income

colonial

,

1974

white

.

than

times higher

than that

negative effects

political power shifts

were



.8 ).

,

of it

in

,

capita

1934

11 5

see table

with both positive

.

per

10

1975

and

English speakers

to

, ) )

40

whites was

and

second distributive shift

place between 1974 and 1994

years from

of

the

of

.

that

(

to

times higher

the

1948 the per capita

marginalise most people other

capita income

or

as

,

It

.

in

of

,

.

continued

per

per cent

Yet during the

were

embourgeoisement

While

(

it

was

century

the then much higher

-

A

,

Africans

the

,

1946

1974

6,

of

,

While

in

and racial capitalism

14

in

per cent

was however

and perhaps too rapid

the third quarter

1930s

and farmers that were mainly

(

for

70

speakers

-

English

the spectacular

soldiers

spending policies

and

entrepreneurs

Afrikaners was less that

to

increased

-

's

Afrikaners

of

the

responsible

enlisted

the industrial sector

employment

pro Afrikaner

towards Afrikaner

favouritism

income

,

lucrative terms

government

50

on

employed

the early

from

jobs and good educational opportunities

many Afrikaners

2

during World War

in

,

Also

in

benefited Afrikaner workers

onwards because they had protected

the

their favour had not occurred

of

rate

This was

would not have been enriched

important political power shifts

growth

Afrikaners

.

,

but Afrikaners

favour

in

to

1974

,

The higher

1934

in

same extent

growth

of

high

,

period

if

of

The first took place from

of

.

economic growth

took

largely

63

all

in

(

of

a

of

the

cent

to 80

top

10 4

. ). the

to

20

The

considerably

of

(

per

the top

table

black

,

relatively uneducated

informal bargaining power

.

and were therefore

,

of

the

of

of

access

the

less

likely

to

,

propertyless

60

per cent and poorest

,

.

.

.

the

corporate

sector and

market will automatically case nothing but ideological

,

free

The deeply

institutionalised

power property and opportunities between and

the

high

level

of

blacks

,

the distribution

the

myth

's

propagated

in

Africa

, ,

carefully

majority

South

, is

the poor

of

a

that growth generated

of

in

and

the

'

trickle down

to

free marketeers

claim

by

these two distributive shifts proves that

of

political power shifts and political interventions the

by

decisive role played

and

. ).

(

of

,

per cent see

1974

economic growth

from

inequalities

by

a

,

to

.

per cent and the income

by

the income

per cent

Many more Africans became unemployed

deception

income

From

more than

without

and

10 4

of

per cent

, of

20

,

and increased

Africans

This last group remained

mostly disenfranchised

in

.

in

-

to

elites

to

20

the

gap between the top

mounting

ameliorate

the negative and positive distributive shifts was

population

the

the NP government

of

African households

black elite

regime These measures shifted

40

coloured households

20

by

of

per cent

Asians increased by

per cent

of

1994 the income

whites

to

,

of

the

by

and coloureds and the top

of

most Asians

power towards black

30

-

extra parliamentary

white

from

the liberation

.

.

measures implemented

The reform

the late 1970s and 1980s were desperate attempts

The

not

The unofficial strikes

bargaining power

legitimacy crisis surrounding the apartheid

64

1994

1970s and the intensification

onwards enhanced

1976

see table

parliamentary power

extra

the early 1970s

the early

groups considerably

benefit

from

positive distributive

by

in

shift

the

from

Afrikaners

and creeping poverty

stagflation

elites from

African workers

widen

albeit

) 60

2

.1 ).

10

whose income declined

per cent because the NP government could

,

towards black

net effect

almost

poorest and relatively unorganised

and the

, ) ,

35

+

by

of

-

situation

a

its

In

whose income declined

towards and financial support

favouritism

struggle

buffer themselves

given the declining economy and the changing political atmosphere

effect was brought about

in

Africans

( )

much higher level

-

1994

and

whites mainly Afrikaners

per cent

maintain

cent

enough

unemployment These groups were

(

1974

poverty

;

per cent from

per

60

the

poorest

of

40

mainly

creeping

organised

population

by

of

that were not powerful

to

)

groups

against the effects

from

and growing

rate

those vulnerable subgroups

or

all

(

unemployment impoverished

growth

The low

the

.

declined

per cent and unemployment increased

per cent see table

36

to

per cent

annual

per cent the per capita income

,

total population

15

economic

by

growth rate was less than

During this period the average

,

effects

(

both sets

.

of

responsible

AFRICA '

SOUTH

20

AND THE 'NEW

THE TRANSITION

2:

for

PART

structural

unemployment economic

THE INFORMAL NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC

TO

among Africans

particular ,

in

conditions under which

economic growth

institutional and socio not possible for a higher

create

simply

is

it

ISSUES

rate to have a spontaneously

beneficial distributive effect

.

favour of those socio -economic classes that have been marginalised

of 33 per cent

of 67 per cent have been

situation

a

50

beneficial

,

to

and

and South

,

propaganda onslaught with

and promote

interests

vested

at

South African society

large

, in

as

and poverty

to

for

a

,

the

power

the other side the

repression

secured

for

deprivation



and

,

coin

whites

inevitably caused

,

the same systemic

mostly

the two establishments

protect and promote their mutual interest

,

,

privileges and wealth

for

the

and mutually

operative

racist political and economic structures that

-

maintenance

of

hand

in

,

supportive relationships were often strained

white political and

,

these

come into being

of

had

-

Although

co

.

establishments

glove

and

in

beneficial partnerships

the white business establishment and successive

bureaucratic worked

serious legitimacy crisis

most serious accumulation crisis During the preceding

years several mutually

between

the 1980s and early

.

its

sector

white

century

,

when the apartheid regime experienced

the corporate

sector and successive

their closest a

They were perhaps

at

.

.

+

to

#

1990

close symbiotic

Those relationships were maintained

,

1990s

1890

governments

century

the 19th

,

at

the end

of

.2

3

,

The corporate sector white supremacy and the three accumulation strategies of the 20th century

supremacist

of

growth

these negotiations leaders

relationships were forged between the corporate

100

per cent

.

At

.

the general interests

After the mineral revolution

from

The upper

high economic

corporate myth

of

to

:

in

entrench

of

irrespective

mind

and the

result from

between

sector subjected ANC leaders

one purpose

only

.

sustainable

system

a

The distance

African reality could hardly have been greater the corporate

beneficial

the informal negotiations

to

the

political transformation

vigorously

Africa '.

liberal dogma about the

sector took the neo

liberal capitalist economic

the

of

33 a

2

top in

figure

corporate

.

propagated

after

it

rate

any

per cent and poorer

employment and redistributive effects that would growth

have

its

alleged merits

South

-

this

'

a

'

trickle down

,

Despite

effect

see

per cent between the

anything but certain

of

is

this

all

but

experience

in

(

might

- will

intervention

'new

growth rate alone – ie ,

favour of the poorer half of the population

-

lower class (

17

the

redistributive effect

a

the

high economic

-

without

government

in

lower

.1 ) .

aggressive

unlikely that

and a

,

, it is highly

the

class

Consequently

perpetuated

The

, )

deeply institutionalised inequalities between an elite

in

of

PRELUDE

majority

.

blacks

65

the corporate

the

collaboration with

the to

)

of

satisfy

It



the

in

.

and

factually

repressive

redesigned

in

,



chapters

and periodically

corporate sector

and remains



in

As

we indicate

-

.2 ).

designed

were



-

its

new

system

labour The denial

relationship forged

9

in

.

in

and

labour measures introduced

the light

4

see

(

labour patterns

section

was especially

perpetuating

cheap and docile African

early 1990s with the democratic movement but was indefensible

on

long symbiotic

century

8

demand

was perhaps understandable

constructing

repressive

cost

evidence before the

gave

it

when

the

as

as

almost insatiable

well

almost

their

and

cost

to

or

's

denial about



1997

, of

its

racial capitalism

role for

its

in

of

partnership

the

unwillingness

relationships with successive white supremacist governments denial about

1994

).

on

.6

TRC

the

inability

in

a

state

(

,

.

1960

from

labour patterns while ignoring

of

's

was clearly one

mindset

simply not

The corporate

and concentrated only

exploitation

'

sector

is

century

the 20th



claim

to

,

"

).

8

of

7

This

or

of ,

,

2

on

1994

to

;

of

ch

and

had

beneficiary

,

of

about systemic

truth

'

section

see

The corporate –

,

:

the

decreasing effect uncover the

1974

from

they argued that business

more important repressive labour patterns (

completely

from

TRC

apartheid because

what had happened

discriminatory

of

in

some cases only

increasing effect

TRC

4

'



(

arguments mainly

Commission

collaborator with

paras

least not for the first three quarters

sector based and

vol

partner

4

at



true

a

doing business

not

and

see TRC 1998

system

its

the

victim

a

really been

sector who testified

the Truth and Reconciliation

claimed that their corporations had not benefited apartheid had raised the cost

'

AFRICA

SOUTH

of

the

hearings

the business

representatives

of

at

almost

1997

In

AND THE 'NEW

THE TRANSITION

all

2:

PART

close

successive white supremacist

and

the

mining industry

Mail

,

of

&

.

The

implementing

into

of

the supply

in

(

record

governments

mining industry

of

track

at

)

cheap migrant labour for the

government and the South

colonial

increasing

the 20th century

more specifically the Chamber

and

and United Party UP

segregationist measures aimed described the

the

that pressurised

SAP

(

African Party



)

CM

(

Mines



the 19th century and during the first half

was mainly the gold mining companies

of

it

the end

)

of

At

.

governments

and control over

Guardian recently

the following damning

from

the country

labour practices

March 2001

the

successive white

).

15



Africa almost

and been

,

,

hoard mineral rights

(9

conduct iniquitous

South

at

milked untold riches

to

)

governments

given free reign

66

It

.

supremacy

has

the impoverished majority been allowed

to

of

law

a

as

expense

unto itself

operated

[ by

mining industry

,

For many many years

in

the

:

terms

NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC

.

to

the CM

's

to

'.

,

its

).

4

,

to

of

of

in

[

,

to

:

4

not

as

'

flawed

and

'

to

African migrant

sidestep the African CM

's

vol

did 33 –

by

'(

low

of

).

the Chamber

the

AAC

and

are

of

themselves which

is

more acceptable

in

of

image

than the ugly

the

at

of

.

of

,

,

see

section

The

the

of

at

formula

from

liberation struggle

the

by

1978 until 1993

,

in

three phases from

for resolving the serious

the early 1970s onwards

.

find

and implemented

intensified

and attempts

This

of

as

creating the

in

attempts

a

NP

government

accumulation crisis that had developed crisis deepened

and

. ).

(

corporations see section

to

almost desperate

the

sector and

owned mining

.1 ).

or

attract foreign capital

third accumulation strategy was formulated

corporate

or

by

solving their labour problems

,

)

(

white mainly Afrikaner The

the century was

foreign

74 )



(

or

of

1952

colonial

the

segregationist

place during the heyday accumulation strategy was originally implemented and was the insistence

Verwoerdian

apartheid

during the first half

(

was aimed

political stability necessary second

.

of

insistence

The first

the day

3 2

at

; it

corporations

place

of

the

in

strategy

implemented

,

accumulation

can

the beginning

from

government

the corporate sector

at

,

least part

at

of

insistence

implemented

each

to

century

the 20th

the

distinguish among three broad accumulation strategies

implement

profitability We

3

's

accumulation strategies that would enhance the former

to

convince the latter

to

supremacist governments

white

symbiotic relationship

-

,

sector used

of

On several occasions the corporate

its

.

systemic exploitation

reality

in

nature

which

submission

submissions

The

of



to

'

,

vol

4

:

the AAC

most glaring failure was

gold

grapple with

1998

wages paid

the AAC

the

prominent private sector institutions twist the truth

how

an

create

to

order

and TRC

the submission

34

.

TRC 1998

of

a



'( ',

and noted that

prime examples

squarely

regrettable and not constructive

The TRC described

According

origins and

its

until 1972

wage issue

with

,

-

record

]

its

[

is

apartheid

the

conditions brutal

that the failure

conclusion

single word about the extraordinarily

misleading

compound

understanding the

the damning

The TRC was equally critical

workers

political economy

,

is

of

]

central

address

to

in

the its

in

of

,



It

'.

came

moral implications say

and referred

striking workers racist practices and meagre wages to

the



to

of

Mines

)

(

is

on

of

sub human

1998

and

was justifiably rather critical

TRC

report

the shameful history

mining industry apartheid

constructing racial capitalism

apartheid

significant formative impact

suppression

This deliberate

deplorable

these organisations

TRC

exploited and degraded

acknowledge their role

exploiting African workers both

even

.

to

disinclination

nor

acknowledge that

AAC

had been

TRC neither the

was prepared

The

African mine workers

ISSUES

CM

In their submissions to and testimonies before

Anglo American Corporation

,

THE INFORMAL

TO

the

PRELUDE

the

67

THE TRANSITION

AND THE NEW

SOUTH AFRICA

. We can

apartheid regime to suppress it became more relentless

among three further phases

interests

with

day

AAC

the

in

.

-4

.

, .5)

4 2

Foundation

),

and the South

Africa

.

six



implemented

instalments

the AAC accumulation strategy

by

.



Market

the Free

playing particularly prominent prescriptive roles We can

therefore call the third accumulation strategy 1978

business

associated

in

(

SAF

the

adopt policies that

,

the Urban Foundation

and

(

Foundation

from

the

of

the government

strategy

accumulation

third

a

search for

see section

the Centre for Development and Enterprise CDE

)

),

(

such

high growth path

( UF )

organisations

its

best serve

FMF

of

sector persuaded

as

would

economy

,

corporate

phases

six

In

all

's

placing South Africa

a

sector

on

did

upon by

corporate

strategy

third accumulation

a

the democratic movement , the ANC government, and the from 1993 until 2002 . These attempts also not succeed the

agreed

for

in the search

also distinguish

(

2:

to

PART

in

to

is

it

give

short overview

mining

corporations

An important

.

-

be more war the mining

gold

After the

of

of

General

and coercing

of

unifying the four

Act was

into becoming

. alliance a

firstly the exploitation

of

the



by

formulated

three pillars

of a

the Land

maize farms

,

mines

strategy

them

gold

a

for –

in



1913

Smuts the

Jan

accumulation needs

and

population

was based

alliance

destroying the economic independence

accumulation

'

gold and maize

be



.

,

1907

:

The segregationist

afterwards

,

the African

An

elite

the

'

deliberate

Shortly

of

.

1910

compliant and cheap labour force between

Afrikaner

This alliance provided the basis

on

large part

of

enacted with

the

British colonies

in

.

mining corporations

companies and the

strike

clearly understood

on

that

aim

demonstrated

mine workers he

during

elite

gold

the

the

,

when

Afrikaner

the

Transvaal

of

was forged between the mining

'

and maize

Afrikaner elite

and

the

the British

coerced into

remarkable rapprochement took place in

between

1907 onwards

from

a

,

Consequently

operation

-

earning proletariat with

co

the

wage

-

a

corporations informed the government that Africans could only

.

in

production

.

the profitable

create

the Transvaal that would

of

to

conducive

for

reason

Boer War was that the British colonial government wanted

Anglo

infrastructural and labour conditions

68

not recruit

could

to

CM

,

gold

the mines

in

work

to

enough cheap African labourers

)



the the

(

of

discovery

accumulation crisis because

chronic

a

the

years after

25

first

1907

strategy

48

.

all

In

the

.2 ./

The segregationist accumulation

experienced the

necessary

three

3

of

,

strategies since the early 20th century

a

To

demonstrate the strategic role played the corporate sector formulating and implementing the three successive main accumulation

THE INFORMAL NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC

state was finally consolidated

its

;

.

, in

first

the

of

a

(

see

and

,

1932

a

of

by

created

of

,

white

Africans

in

in

-

an

by

.

by

the detriment

gold was increased

Hertzog and Smuts

formed between

the same year

in

,

When the price

strikes

1933 the legitimacy

the

,

471

and the Pact victory

whites but

During

the Smuts government

in

coalition

:

'

1996

).

Meara

behalf 13

on

consensual order

1924

,

Act

Industrial Conciliation

all

.

The enactment

1910

speaking

two serious armed

violently contested

and several

of

(

workers

1922

English

greater degree

even

was

active participation

from

the new state was challenged

),

and

between

to

of

.

-

12

years the legitimacy

and black

O

to

policy making Blacks were excluded

1914

Africa

South

in It

,

compromise

excluded poorer whites

Afrikaner elite that

rebellions

stability

primary products

.

a

on

it

was based

;

an

and

political

the export

of

large part

a

establish such stability The political order created

to

,

was rather fragile

socio

-

easy

of



in

however not

,

the creation

,

and thirdly

secondly

ISSUES

its

native reserves

the

with

of

subsistence

workforce

in

controllable African

';

cheap and easily

an

TO

of

PRELUDE

,

and very lucrative conditions for accumulation

see to

areas

urban

in

-

jobs

(

semi skilled

sections

be

a

of an

in

as

the

threatened the stability

.

industrial sector

1948

of

growing militancy the

the

be

of

resistance

easily

NP

exploiting the economic uncertainties specially and the fears white voters (e

,

Afrikaner workers and farmers

all

controlled

a

,

vulnerable

general election

but

.

to

A

cycle

of

of

and unofficial strikes

still

in

too to

new

not

black trade union organisation

the

urban areas

make farming profitable

the urban areas could

.

in

,

profitability won

squatter settlements low

not only because

predicament

economic

traditionally

,

.

The maize farmers



as

the government was incapable

mining compounds

the ANC

solved

serious

A

'.

and maize

with

by

unexpectedly

growth

a

the

of a,

towns

in

migrant workers

in

maize was

African arrivals

The new

the ranks

migrated

of

also because the price

had

were

not

could

In

the

UP

of

gold

an

many African workers



important UP constituency

state and

alliance

favourable investment climate

a

restoring

the

crisis was threatening

,

accumulation

was confronted

and economic problems that

in

within

government

'

of ,

,

of

the parameters

2

after World War

social political

complex

as

in

of

Africans

employ

. ).

Immediately

in

thus enabling manufacturing industries

8 6

.3

8

increasing numbers

of

created

-

an

,

discriminatory measures

shanty

When World War

the Smuts government into relaxing influx control and other

sector pressurised

and

other

into

industrial take off the English oriented corporate

-

,

conditions conducive

industy

especially

diversify

2

.

economy

the

for

of

sectors

they began

result

that gold

realised to

As

reserves might become depleted

ore

mining corporations

, .

1930s the gold

,

early

a

In

the

.

created for themining industry

69

: THE TRANSITION AND THE

2

'NEW

AFRICA'

SOUTH

poorer Afrikaners ) that they might be swamped

)

– 86

by

for

of

(

a

to

,

.

far

a

of

a

in

(

)

to

of

of

of

to

its

NP

.

in

to

At

a

.

in

,

of

to

, to

all

.

,

'

,

of

,

.

manufacturing

.

not only

for

This was the

The other was

a

the

for

to

,

in

.' almost

5

of



view

remarkably

per

cent was

The relationship between

the

.

of

rate

century

point

of



began

government

's

new

,

and

overtly statist

favouritism

towards

benefit handsomely

towards the apartheid

and supportive

attitude

.

it

as

.

,

hostility

operative

-

co

increasingly

its

its

favour

public corporations But

accumulation strategy an

replaced

migrant labour

native reserves

additional discriminatory measures

and

by

new

in

in

-

, ;

the

Afrikaners

very

sector and the NP government was initially

corporate

the former was not

growth

of



maintained

the third quarter

policies

also

work

import substitution

the

of

in

An annual economic

.

successful

that

forcing millions

the principle

the white corporate

from

urban areas

accumulation strategy

the Verwoerdian

that

system

The new control mechanisms forced

subsistence

industrialisation based

English controlled

institutionalised

industries

reinvented

the mining industry but

This strategy was

70

to

,

this way Verwoerd

one cornerstone

strained

areas

These

introduced his stricter influx

subservient but also prepared

and

resistance

black

were appalling

reserves

urban

of

In

employment

of

.

work

coupled with the notion

policy

native



the

not only docile

wages

doing

.

look

.

low

1952 Verwoerd

on

to

them

and

in

,

Africans

be

conditions

to

,

stage

African

the increasingly militant ANC

African migrant workers

cheap

for in

supplied

laws

urbanisation

in

control and

and

In

,

aims were accomplished when

creating

control over

gain

suppress

in

of

native reserves

shanty towns trade unions

urban

and especially

policy was

the apartheid

so

the

more

white entrepreneurial

harsh and uncompromising

perpetuate black

',

outside

From

their

century



Africans

of a

for

The immediate purpose

the AHI

segregationist

black resistance and

he



breaking the cycle

another quarter

crisis

segregation with the

apartheid

perhaps owing

power relations that enabled whites exploitation

the

the

successful



resolved

replacing the policy

apartheid was in

,

of

view

character

The

and oppressive policy

comprehensive

point

by

strategy

accumulation

the English

conditions favourable

create

to

.

advancement

towards the

sensitive

government was put under pressure

The new

.

economic

accumulation

new

lesser extent the interests

farming community

the Afrikaner

formulate

remarkably

was

it

,

,

industry and

oriented industrial sector and

NP

the

expectations

themining

1952

government was

to a

Against

of

.

interests

all

the first tasks

strategy

strategy

Verwoerdian accumulation

of

One

9 2

of

The

..

3 2 2

African

by

. ).

( see section

urbanisation

( oorstroom )

its

PART

from

regime was

THE INFORMAL NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC

lucrative investment opport

so

of to

be

it

rands

on

),

South Africa

.

'

of

territory

's

on

'

in

white

making

of

as

a

all

,

so

do

to

to

Africans

South Africa

this policy

the Verwoerdian

to

. It .

,

stagflation

prolonged stagflation was the

government

's

determined

efforts

government

find

a

the

to

NP

inability

of

the

, ,

political crisis

credible

to

the

of

a

worldwide economic recession

economy into almost three decades

's

was

this day

of

leading

important reason

The

1970s

the Petroleum Exporting Countries

for

price

of

mid

the

the white

-

in

,

view

the

to

The economic crisis therefore became inextricably linked ie

it .

point

crisis has remained largely unresolved

An

.2 .1 , ).

10

(

of

.

increased

the

this strategy collapsed

liberation struggle and the apartheid

solution

at

was

risk

sinking

into

-

low

,

further

which

.

large part

destitution

and

the

one

and the

the black population a

into

per cent

of

60

,

rising unemployment

in

deteriorated

additional crisis also inextricably linked

of

an

of

least the poorest

social crisis gradually population

crisis

of

a

social

at

pauperisation

of

:

others

level

regime stagflation

'

and rising unemployment created

'

the accumulation and legitimacy crises deepened during

between the liberation movements and the apartheid

the

the

As

.

black disenfranchisement

war to

Verwoerd

express their political rights

to

of

this policy

Achilles heel

success from

1973 when the Organisation

see section

to

the

.

)

,

,

in

of

sector

plunging South Africa

suppress

credible

population should

black

per cent

the

oil ,

in

due course

remarkable

the

)

(



'(

NP

years

ensuing accumulation

and

could not supply

attempt

government spent billions

controlled corporate

OPEC

the middle 1970s

strategy

20

After

world

was this vulnerability

from

civil rights and welfare privileges

any

became

accumulation

triggered

a

.

,

per

70



it

,

viable

how

desperate

comprising

of

the

(

in

while forfeiting

long

the population were

cent

native reserves

Although the

growth

accumulation strategy was

his Bantustan policy According

1959

in

,

comprising

In

politically

accommodated announced

high economic

and

.

,

national question

of

to

the

(

incomplete and therefore vulnerable answer

successfully

the Verwoerdian as

economic success

its

Despite

investment

disinvestment strategy

)

its

liberation movement exploited

onwards via

,

.

,

the

that

external shocks Ironically

to

economy and vulnerable

foreign

economy dependent

African

South

13

,

made

also

substantially

contributed the

but

rate

.

entrepreneurship

to

for

foreign

corporations The large inflow

foreign

of

especially the availability

– and

cheap and docile African labour – also created

unities

ISSUES

the

The post -war accumulation strategy

the

TO

it

PRELUDE

This

black

abject and

poverty

crises that began

to

and social

)

legitimacy

,

The accumulation

( or

, .

dehumanising poverty

71

, ;

2

(

)

a

for

the

of

of

on

a

six

The on

,

.

W

P

of

of

by

.

AAC

the Wiehahn

labour laws and influx control respectively

,

,

and the Carlton and Good

Hope

.

and business leaders

by

of

,

to

1989 coincided with the second period

marked

),

phase

the policy

positive

'

of

implementation

the abolition

of

'



or

larger

the

.

and

phases

the investigations

the Heunis reform the

influx control

behalf

are

to

,

(

government

FW

coincided with

Klerk

's

1993

de

,

1989

from

,

third phase

to

urbanisation



(

,

,

,

in

of

six

.

,

's

's

of

,

an

for

by

i

1985

into

1985

from

leading role

briefly described below coincided with the first period

some government reforms

The second phase

The

globalisation

from

involving government

conferences

and SAF played

CDE

strategy

1978

from

accumulation

new

these the AAC and associated business

FMF

benefit

Riekert commissions

Botha

the search

government and was marked

followed

ii

the

accumulation

The first phase

and

iii

each

to

of

corporations planning

Botha

phases

1978

corporate sector but mainly

the entire

led search

.

onwards

1978

organisations such

2001

)

among

UF

strategy from

behalf

strategy

In

distinguish

can

as

We

AAC led accumulation

-

3 . .32

The

Marais

1

:

ch

Saul and Gelb 1981

see

political ch

and social dimensions were addressed simultaneously

economic

:

resolved

interlinked that they

,

were if

they could only

the so

20th century

be

the

last quarter



became organic

,

unravel during

SOUTH AFRICA '

AND THE NEW

of

the

THE TRANSITION

2:

ie

PART

a

by

on

political negotiations and was and

especially

to

first

the

to

economic matters that

led

corporate sector and representatives

1996

the democratic movement

elite compromise

of

of

or

unofficial negotiations between representatives

the on

transitional constitution

the

).

,

NEM

the corporate

of

on

the

the informal

agreement

Model

(

on

the Normative Economic

The fourth phase coincided with the formal

marked

government

of

,

and the agreement among the

and the IMF

by

iv

sector

,

, -

think tanks

NP

government and included the agreement transitional democratic publication private sector constitution the several economic scenarios

November

of

the

of

Growth

,

the

global

of

the introduction

of

the

exchange controls

,

by

).

strategy

privatisation policy the further relaxation

,

by

compromise

2002 was marked

,

,

's

72

1997

to

,

vi

government

from

GEAR

representatives

and

elite

formal negotiations

(

,

second

Employment and Redistribution The sixth phase

and was marked

(

that

the

capitalism

with the two years

coincided

the corporate sector

led

,

among the GNU

)

(

national unity GNU

to

government

1994

]

,

from

,

fifth phase

of

The

.

1993

THE INFORMAL NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC

the

NP

.

the

,

(

a

,

50

;

six to

)

growth

.

address

implication

The

of

or

of

that the best way

and

it

the

crisis

not

and also

this

the accumulation crisis remained unresolved

the

,

well but could

deteriorate

,

as

only remain unresolved

for

a

a

,

,

. – 85

)

(

's

In

.

mobilise the full This was the When

.

was established

'

counteract the total onslaught

power forged between

for

initiatives and –

reform

This

in

.

and the corporate sector

Botha

as

regarded

,

.

profitability

close partnership

to

Vorster was

in

to

.

-

of

1978

July 1997 this

the business sector

's

for

term

'

intended

people

the

'

of



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compact

a

,

the



the

place

total strategy

to

its

securocrats

was jointly responsible

putting

them

enforce the changes

short

Botha became prime minister

between the government and

In

business

extraordinary politicisation

'

,

P

an

beginning W

for restoring corporations

.

on

' '

business power

necessary

partnership

address

it

J

to

call



called

Vorster was unable

of

it

the

of

what

Mail

Financial

but

legitimacy crises started

and

interact with the corporate sector

to

,

not even prepared

finds itself

PW Botha government

the accumulation

of , B

the government

,

unfold

threefold

crisis has been resolved

to

:

. . .

3 2 3 1

in

the early 1970s

1994

from

the social crisis has become far more serious

The first phase the first period

prompted

and social crisis

of

and that

When

implemented

– it

,

legitimacy

to

not

resolving the

,

accumulation

the predicament that the legitimacy

other two have

strategy

1990s South Africa was confronted with

early

,

,

an

in

, in

,

later

ie



.

years

the

,

political crisis which was successfully

onwards While organic crisis

on

.

,

third phase agreement was reached

,

the

or

legitimacy

the ten

phases

far more serious one

During

1978

of it

a

not

force

not necessary

was

economic

as

(

social crisis would a

as

long

consensus was that

direct

tacit consensus was reached between the

direct resolution

sustained

new

the poorest

the way that best suited the corporate sector was

indirectly through

into

.

an an

the effect that

during any

ie ,

to

search

it

resolving

explicit

for

negotiation partners

ANC

with the

Remarkably

the continuing pauperisation

to

of

them

links

close

important role

the population was not proposed

during each

advisable

with

the

of

social crisis

and

other see sections

,

-

cent

the

,

per

of

resolution

on the

,

corporations

increasingly

close

new accumulation strategy continued

,

emerging black controlled government played

for

search

a

As the

GNU

the

from

,

one hand and the corporate sector

,

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PRELUDE

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corporate on

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74

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1979

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outsiders

9 5

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's

commission

Riekert

,

with the ideological

trade unions

sight was also made under strong

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rights

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recommendation

sector

urban

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property

1977

join registered

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move and work of

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in

.

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given the right

political accommodation was

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pressure from

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the Wiehahn and Riekert commissions

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Africans

means

labour and

abolished accorded not only with the corporate sector long campaign against these measures but also with the code

employment practices published

rights

market capitalism

the Wiehahn commission that

the labour market

fact

free

towards the ideological approach

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recommendations

government

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also

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them

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to

convince

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corporate

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the initiative

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of

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decades

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THE INFORMAL NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC

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75

the AAC - led search

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tricameral parliament the issue

became much more pressing

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legitimacy

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neglect

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1984

in

introduction

to

AAC proposals urbanised Africans were supposed

exercising their political rights

continue

rights

line with

serious shortcoming

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to

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acknowledging that this crisis was inextricably linked

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.16

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inclusion and exclusion When

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non racist

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was implemented market forces were accepted -

alleged

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as

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of

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, ’

as

the

on

as

differentiation among Africans For generations policy

of

in

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1952

using the legal ceiling

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in

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class compression

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1923

proposals

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final nail was hammered strategy

social

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accumulation

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of

strategy

the

1986

and

non deological -i

,

control was abolished Verwoerdian

in

economic policies

peripheries

positive urbanisation

of

government

market

the unemployed

minister

Gelb 1991

proposals

influx control represent one

's

NP

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abolition

the

Morris

left

and other forms

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accumulation strategy

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Faced with

PW Botha government

9

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1986



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classes that could buy their way

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PRELUDE

NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC

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and those that were not productive and industrious enough - or not employed



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as

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:8 ).

the 1980s the corporate

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1993

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of

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services

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example

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1987 the to

declared

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public sector investment

in

the decline

two thirds

the 1980s was partly

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investment

was the

it

,

driving force behind the economy and was responsible

of

,

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SASOL

,

ISCOR

,

,

ESKOM

in

especially

investment

,

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mainly English controlled private corporations During the 1970s public sector

'.

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18

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public corporations

accumulation

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's

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government

see Rix and Jardine

partial privatisation for

,

the security

the liberation movement

.

forces

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,

ignored both the legitimacy and social crises but also

considerably

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from

rural

urban areas

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,

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in

displaced

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late 1980s and early 1990s did

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accumulation

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1985

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August

controlled corporate sector

debt crisis after

serious external

volte face

against the background

-

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government

NP

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understood

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relationship

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corporations must

Fine

Ben

to

According

influx 77

an

inclusion

of

.

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order

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20

by

in

the

coloureds and

,

in

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market forces

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influx control was abolished

1986

forces

the cruel system

,

.

inclination

'

to

the relentless tyranny

Indians were included politically and economically somewhat awkward way When

heap

Those black people who had been

and vulnerable proletariat

impoverished

of

the basis

1984 the tricameral parliament was introduced

in

,

,

,

:

(

see Morris 1993

apartheid were now exposed

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on the

of '

to

reduced

supplying basic

powerful socio economic

that have been restructuring

ever since an

exclusion



crime among poor blacks

were unleashed

’ without

structural unemployment poverty and

on

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violent

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to

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welfare services. When apartheid

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SOUTH AFRICA '

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AND THE 'NEW

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16

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16

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squatter settlements

corporate sector the rest years after influx control has

78

long

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strategy

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94 )

,

sector realised

accumulation

on

.1 ).

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2

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1989

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the 1980s the corporate a

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At

per cent

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Klerk presidency

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to

population

the same forces have promoted

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in

per cent systemic exclusion the black population necessary employment necessary without the and the minimum welfare 60

trapped the poorest

free market

the urban squatter settlements While almost

years have elapsed since the abolition

The new

'

their lives deteriorated

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in

socio economic conditions

erstwhile Bantustans and

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migrant workers

for decades

black people were now swept into squatter settlements

psychologically

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1992

,

September

power sharing for five years

entrenched

1992 threatened

in

a

of

in

constituency that

in

26

Until

government

of

it

,

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accepted

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period

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DP

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of

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).

national unity

and

on

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vote system

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clauses

NP

on

sunset

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After several insurrections

process

this path

was adamant about

see Marais 2001

assured his white

-

)

called

negotiation

veto

in

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(

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to

-

constitution

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a

sign

embarked

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economic transformation

'.

would not

strategy

fundamental

become

had

wield political power

De Klerk regularly

political

71 ).

be

.

's

1992

socio

ability

of

September

of

'

the ANC

the

committed

that

politically incorporated

of

a

under which blacks should

radical agenda

system

,

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the liberation

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1990

it

ideological

,

of

convinced

new accumulation strategy

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in

).

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).



,

of a

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free marketeerism

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reaffirming

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,

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for

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the

formulating

minority

and

the NP became

restructuring

without

while

his speech

embodying

constitution

did

Although

Nelson Mandela

under

and the

Thatcher

,

of

to

deregulation

,

of

privatisation

non

negotiating

election

De Klerk accepted

the unbanning

announced

black people

accommodation

the proposals

in

which

in

of

many

organisations and the release government

the election

19

its

.

of



sector

1990

oriented

reform

one person one vote proposals

the British prime minister Margaret

he

February

AAC

DP

-

(

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,

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from

questionable

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the strongest possible terms After the election

local

(

'

-

), of

:

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majoritarian democracy

campaign

Party

.

a

decided

that election the NP conducted

relentless pressure

1988

announced

The Democratic

mainly Afrikaner

a

for

its

first executive meeting

August

oriented Independent

Afrikaans

(

,

and other

Nel

Christo

replaced Colin Eglin

financial support

considerable

IM

the

,

7

,



to

the PFP

with

Also

and immediately

1988

against the DP and condemned

campaign in

1989

August

387

the AAC

Federal Party PFP

The Star

1989

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in

,

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of

September

1996

seek unity with the mainly

April

in

.

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consisted

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former executive director

IM

,

or

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groups

quoted

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determination launched

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leader

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real nature

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chairman Zach

the

,

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power

identify how they

to

own power and

purpose

express

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define

to

challenging South African business people

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was launched with

to

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CBM

)

Business Movement

1988

ISSUES

of

crisis remained unresolved . In August

legitimacy

the

NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC

THE INFORMAL

TO

on

PRELUDE

enter into

79

SOUTH AFRICA

historical perspective. By 1990 the business

attempt

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.

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1993

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and claimed

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in

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of

and privilege

power

formulating

business friendly and would perpetuate

September 1990 SACOB published which

sector anxiously

the corporate

1994

various scenario building exercises aimed

economic strategy that would position

's

1990

were pampered

,

from

capitalism

the search for

to

During the five years participated

to

the virtues

them

Africans

socialist oriented option was

strategy

new

urbanised

to

convince

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attempt

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strategy

accumulation

new

sector

the AAC strategy during the first two phases

be

extension

The corporate

of ,

of

.20

liberation movement

negotiate with

political and

the

,

business establishments more inclined

resolve

which made the

an

communist peril less threatening may have made both

Africans

risk

a

1989

years

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Wall

Berlin

new

the

the 1980s

a

inconceivable

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Africans

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crisis

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accumulation

system

the end

at

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political

the

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factions

20 and even

,

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sector was

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to

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of of

should be judged

political dispensation

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negotiations with the liberation movement over

'

in

AND THE 'NEW

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system

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mid

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several business and research groups published

to

forge

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.

a

for

South Africa

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overarching

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(

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:

of

masters

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scenario planning was

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]

capital

result

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Patrick Bond summarises these exercises

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80

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the

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these

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government big business the ANC labour and organised community 21

the

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scenarios dealing with economic

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trickle down

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Mike Morris summarises

as

government expenditure

whole

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IMF

package

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5

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in

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.

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warn the democratic movement

or

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any increase

71 )

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the International Monetary Fund

neither individual proposals nor Bond 1999

and

effect was not even considered way

the

opportunities made

of

,

an

annual growth rate

comprehensive

1992

additional taxation

property

the

.

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programme

the corporations

follows

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state

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.

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large

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them

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political

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neo

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primarily

restoring economic

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factions demanded

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the

of

the need

;

free market economy

1990s

policy issues The

the

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1993

the early

; all

did

that

in

sustainable growth

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socio economic power

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into

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poverty

effect

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-

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impoverished constituency

alleviating poverty and redistributing

the only feasible way

growth

economic

need

as

,

economic benefits

for

the

the scenarios mentioned

spell out

democratically elected

new

social spending and the rapid alleviation

increasing

and

.

pressurised

its

to

government were

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macroeconomic populism

stagflation

,

after almost two decades

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the grave dangers

of

South African economy

emphasise the vulnerability

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these scenarios was

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57

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ridden scenarios became increasingly

ISSUES

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THE INFORMAL NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC

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increased

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increase represented

governments

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of

the debts

white supremacy

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government

the De Klerk government was guilty

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128

corporate sector that

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corporations

).

Marais 2001

:

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neo liberal approach

documents

South Africa should

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in

economic policies a

propagated

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structural interpretation

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for

of

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the early 1990s both the World Bank and the IMF published the

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least the poorest half

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sensitivity towards

that poverty was caused

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Mike Morris

accumulation

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resolve the accumulation

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tariffs

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deficit

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taxation

unions

be

)

fiscal constraint

ideological

the

argument that the

IMF

NEM the South African economy should

through

path

replaced

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growth

1993

democratic South Africa

the



According

accepted

popular

approach

movement should

democratic

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through redistribution

growth

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IMF

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published

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was heavily influenced

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by “

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.

free market and neo liberal dogma

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83

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poor

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down

high levels

could provide

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sector

economic growth

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1993

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population would

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trickle down effect

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per cent

NEM

1993

franchise rights

through

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through the alleged

poorest

the

March

as

, .

,

Business Day

human face

politically

accommodated

Derek Keys described the

finance

this strategy the interests

the

adjustment process

'(

-

side with

a

supply

the

of

'

-



The then minister

of

victims

an

economic

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be

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trickle

to

growth would

and , thirdly , avoiding

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policy because

aggressive redistribution

approach

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state intervention and

;

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by minimum the

free market capitalist system

AFRICA

SOUTH

of

AND THE 'NEW

THE TRANSITION

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PART

corporate

astonishing

8

:

8

;

1993

of

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3

organic crisis

).

Morris

South Africa

's

'

to

per cent solution

57 –



a

Gelb 1991

:

in

(

,

see Morris

of

on

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50

agreement was forged between the white political and corporate establishments

the democratic

the Freedom Charter

of

the country

set out

in

the economy

is

on

first statement

's

The ANC

in

movement :

1955

,

all

of

well

being

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of

. the

to

a

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whole

.

-

full blown socialism

nationalisation

,

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.

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its

,

as

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for this neglect

.

given

a

in

be

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liberation organisation

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soon

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the state

as

instrumentalist conception

.

and take over the South African state

:

maintained

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overthrow white domination

reasons

of

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a

be .

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controversial interpretations Because

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ANC was first and foremost

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the

of

's

,

,

Africa should

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.

of

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industry

ANC and other liberation organisations paid very little what the economic system and economic policy democratised

1990

attention

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interpreted

the introduction

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Firstly

the people

and trade shall

alliance with the SACP

they were

even

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the ownership

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of

Union and

.

the banks and monopoly

people

the ANC

84

to

be

transferred

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shall

the people

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South Africans

.

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restored

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,

our country

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wealth

's

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.

by

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business and mainstream

about schooling ANC leaders

both

,

, By

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to

-

Marais

the counsel

to

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1990

in

experts that

it

.

set

economic policy left

Africa may

level war between

regime According

the apartheid

South

cannot

which



low

.

economy



by

the

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. a

it

was still

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was

the black

country with the largest production capacity

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seriously harmed

and externally

,

both internally

even naïve

in

As regards

Africa

state led

highly constrained –

the ruling elite

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,

,

,

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economic resources and activities

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.

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Kwame

will

else

ANC believed that South

that the ANC was mistaken

said

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in

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and

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socio economic

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and that the economic deprivation

and the redirection

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be

could easily

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of

population

political kingdom

.

exceptionally rich country

solve

and inequality

the

the

first

ANC circles Secondly

in

resonated

ye

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,

unemployment poverty

to

would use the state

,

hands

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the

THE INFORMAL NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC

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.

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apartheid

these groups rejected being labelled

the liberation

itself for

liberation

92 )

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1990 created

as

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In

.

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national liberation was one

1993

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ing revolutionary

national political

,

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their ideology

were mixed

socialist

inconceivable without the overthrow

consciousness organisations Although socialist

and

was inseparable

Laurence Harris

1976

argued that the only road open

comprehensive left

of

reform

,

by to

a

inseparable

capitalism

liberation

accepted

struggle

article written

such in

:

(

regarded

Slovo believed

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liberation the

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armed

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South Africa

,

South

middle road

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South Africa

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as

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leader

in

, 's

Joe Slovo

one

344

economic thinking was strongly influenced

the ANC

entitled

Freedom

economic

).

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6

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2001 123

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the economy was still emphasised

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would

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was acknowledged

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DEP published

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restructuring



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economic

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22

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be

both cases

ANC policy

the ANC

1992

too high

Kentridge 1993

of

see

investment

Pittsburgh

to

document

new

the

regard

this

important shift

sector

in

's

ANC

(

of

the private

nationalisation would

on

discussion

the

1990

in

a

to

policy programmes

its

of

,

speaking

nationalisation

unbearable inefficiencies

the

and external pressure

-

December 1991

emphasised the role from

policy

nationalisation hanging over their heads

became visible when Mandela

that the cost

a

,

be

attract foreign

an

In

1993

able

that

financial markets Early

under severe internal

In

Damocles

views

our

furore

in



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Kentridge

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Africa would

: of 5 ).

the

that South

Johannesburg

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This statement caused

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'.

inconceivable

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modification

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change

statement

South Africa created

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fundamentally

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the

of

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the

,

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mines banks and monopoly industry

nationalisation and

remarkable

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realisation

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a

fundamental restructuring

genuine democratic

ANC

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South Africa

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Mandela

,

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Harris

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November

address the inequalities

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democracy

his release Nelson Mandela made

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86

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1990

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political power must

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11

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100

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expressed

route

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97 –

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.23

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Marais 2001

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124

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THE INFORMAL NEGOTIATIONS ON ECONOMIC

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National Economic

key economic issues and

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1994

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27

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46

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large

)

twentieth

building

in

century

SOUTH AFRICA ' the

of large - scale capital . State

interests

20

AND THE 'NEW

THE TRANSITION

2:

9 of .6 ).

PART

corporate

emphasise the and housing needs

PRELUDE

THE INFORMAL NEGOTIATIONS ON

TO

ECONOMIC

ISSUES

to

. ).

4 3 it

large countries and Marais

2001

:

;

12

:

1993

would not

enter external

).

– 8

Kentridge

in

difficult 10 –

would

protectionist barriers see

section

acknowledged that be

it

,

of

the growth

that

it

although

foresaw

heightened competition

Bond 1999

into the RDP of 1994 (

path

(

.

It

an

of

because

:

;

– 3

matured

export growth

accomplish this

of

markets

because 131

favoured to

easy

This plea eventually

65

.

IPS

The

be

27

elected

see

and makes a plea for a reconstruction accord before a democratic government was

93

Chapter

:

4

The hegemony of the African political establishment since 1993

4

.1

informal negotiations between the corporate

The

banking2 Despite

the secret

.

.

of

.

in

,

. the

of

a

of

all

stagflation

,

of of

attempts

new accumulation strategy the latter

the democratic movement what

system

a

economic

the stakes

hugely important

joint

prolonged

in

and

convince the core leaders

ideology

-

,

in

of

's

years

a

to

find

the

Africa

system

democratic South Africa

be .

economic

economic

future

country

years

20

.

.

unsuccessful After almost

was desperate

for

new

accumulation

described strategy

the fourth phase

After the

1994

of

can

as

1993

sector and the ANC agreed during the the

AAC

election

the

,

led search

a

informal negotiations

the corporate

.

which

be

on

The strategy

in

to

NP government

sector and the

to

had been

most developed

For almost

oriented

democratically elected

and the negotiations were strategically

the corporate sector

corporate

Africa

South

20

,

high

economic policy

the

capitalist

democratic movement

-

,

were extremely

informal negotiations were the

.

the early 1990s

nature

Given that South Africa was

the extraordinary nature

to

Owing

them

business sector and the

mutual suspicion between

the

not only the

At

stake was

the

between

In

morning

'

,

and

was

and dined from

wined

,

is

dispel

the

order

indispensable

the making

government but also

for

It

.'

,

,

of

industry

corporate sector and the socialist oriented

the

the

on

.

as

the formal negotiations were

clear understanding

day

to

in

the power shift essential

the

of

government

a

modern states

ought

former talks took

these informal negotiations there was nothing obscure about

in

all

nature

mining

the captains

sector and core ANC leaders

behind closed doors and could

ANC leaders were

of

till night

Kempton Park during

economic issues While

publicly scrutinised

the time that

by

alleged

the corporate

latter took place mainly the

not

at

therefore

be

in

,

public

of

,

informally

also negotiated place

representatives

1990s

the

the early

constitutional issues

on

negotiations

Parallel with

at

the

sector and the ANC

95

PART

AND THE 'NEW

THE TRANSITION

2:

corporate sector and the

SOUTH AFRICA '

government continued

new

negotiate over

to

improved accumulation strategy . We can also distinguish between sixth phase of the search for

an

fifth and

a

accumulation strategy (see sections 4 . 4 and

a new

. .

4 5)

The main

of every

characteristic

phase

of the AAC -led search for

a new

accumulation strategy was that the supreme goal of economic policy should be

socially

traditional priority

namely

accept the AAC

forced

ANC

uplift the impoverished

should be

's

to

to

the

-

effect persuaded

other objectives



ANC leaders

,

its

,

approach

move away

black majority

economically

and

of

.

from

sector

all

and that

a

-

,

.2

4

The fourth phase the AAC led search for new strategy pre accumulation and the election elite -

the

corporate

By convincing

,

to

to this .

subordinated

growth rate

or

high economic

a

in

attain

to

.



strategy

on

on

,

contains

TEC

and

following

a

of and

the government

the country

.. .[

and that

]

's

of

, of

high

fiscal

.. .[

structure

rather than rising taxes

It

in

]

all

a a

problems

economic management

tax

of

can share

package

financial restraints

competitive

be

's the

and

that increases future

which

.. .

]

in

, ]

(

the economic

maintaining

respect

policy will emphasise expenditure containment

96

SA

of

's

of

]

stability

the country

understanding

deficit would jeopardise given

investment

confidence

widespread

the importance

growth

of

(

is

.. .

There

international

]

unemployment and weak promote

policies must

economic

structural policies that address

,

and

SA

political

a

macroeconomic

will

resurgence

confidence and

economic

in

.

This

durable

require

adjustment during

strict monetary policy would have risked

social backlogs

redress

the objective

equitably

the burden

international

of

by

To

.. .

driven

the

easing

further undermining inflation

of [

An

.. .

the 1990s

of

:

passage

Monetary policy has carried much

a

,

the

IMF

policy

economic

The statement

economic

the

export oriented

the one the

to

.3

a

'

neo liberal

-

on

,



Before the TEC

secret protocol

economic policies agreed with

through growth

redistribution

council

help tide the country

November 1993

the other signed

-

to

a



Statement

committed itself

IMF

the corporate sector and NP government

on

the

In

.*

policy

from

in

payments difficulties

and ANC leaders

hand

loan

the

850 million

signed the loan agreement

hugely important

before the transitional executive

,

over balance

secret

a

accepted

of

)

(

TEC

This happened



.

elite compromise

a

1993 the corporate sector and core ANC leaders reached

$

In

compromise

to

a

in

of

the

of

of

,

'.

to

to is

if , .

in

to

by

been

,

.

the sharp

its

the

of

white

through systemic

'.

An

the accumulation

.

additional sacrifices

from

The joint TEC IMF statement shows clearly

adapt from

fiscal policy that

white taxpayers

that core ANC leaders

."

the ANC

redistributive approach

The to

corporations were lobbying

a

convince

capacity

wealth

or

to

at of

in

-

no for

to a

,

have

However

of

for

AAC and other

social problems and sought

,

would

competitive tax structure

corporate sector therefore categorically rejected

-

-

,

'

,

pleaded

tax

of

emphasising

a

the

any



.

.

the

to

in

of

-

taxation

taxation would have gone against the grain

would not demand

Although

income and property were not acknowledged

a

'





the Statement

for which

policy

.

a

of

.

at

in

'

Instead

and

which had largely accumulated



the population

to

strategy

in

increase

order

macroeconomic and fiscal

populism

macroeconomic

the distribution



the

in

exploitation

poorest half

government spending

Statement

population

1994

the

both

attain

increase taxes

fiscal balance and comprehensive redistribution

all

to

favoured

not

it

have

socio economic

and attract FDI the ANC

populism

,

one could

The

impoverished majority

comprehensive redistribution

the

the predicament

inequalities

to

,

excluded

addressing

increasing both

to

'



clearly

of

-

before the election

structurally

was preposterous

lower the government deficit

macroeconomic

was

growth

durable

contain expenditure

of

to

in

itself

propertyless

inequalities

bourgeois elite and

and

population

the

durable growth

entrenched

Statement

balance

from

of

power and property between

possible

benefit

.. .

the

we take into account the deeply

fiscal

is

economically powerless

can share equitably

the

half

in

all



and

writ large throughout the

'

promise

prevent the danger

growth would

The notion that What

,

and therefore unlikely

By agreeing

is

-

'

unemployed

,

socially

that

a

It

.

a

-

a

as

self evident

for South Africa

marginalised

which

euphemistically described

's

be

is

to

will

good

curtain raiser

social crisis

The

myth that economic

statement despite the fact that the poorer

that

like

also reads

,

the

’.

accepted

poor

good for the AAC

policy

.. .

be

a

corporate sector desperate

half years later

was trapped

the

population

The corporate sector

'

'

trickle down

of

'

-

-

social backlogs

committed

Business Day

structural unemployment and violent criminality

per cent

maintain

the restructuring

,

,

( 20

its

50

,



crisis

GEAR strategy announced two and

abject poverty

least

Trade and

sustain

economic policies reprinted

year long accumulation

of

for

responsible

1994

'

the

resolve

1993

).

24

March

difficult

important part

Statement reads like the wish list

The

as

Statement

TEC

an

will

industrial liberalisation economy

be

olitical stability would

socio

-p

manner

addressed

in

recognised that unless social needs

it

( also )

on

is

POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE

OF THE AFRICAN

are

THE HEGEMONY

must have 97

2

changed their strategic and ideological thinking

of making concessions

economic growth

.

its

,

to

its the

of

the

In

on

,

traditional commitment

'

-

for

By accepting the other problems

social problem

solve

to

its

the ANC relinquished

trickle down effect

sector

the panacea

indirectly

,

as

of

high rate

ANC leadership

addressed

growth rate and

the corporate

of

'



-

by

promised

super salesmen

the

accept

all

,

)

promised

inter alia

and abject poverty

only

would remain unresolved and would

the long run via the high economic

in

doing

sector

so

.

-

-

majority and

But

corporate

effect agreed that the severe social crisis

in

core

ANC leaders were

be

,

the severe pressure from

The

economic issues

.

in

a

to

constitutional settlement

neo liberal and export oriented approach

ever since

the shortest possible time by the

yield

to

prepared

make concessions

political settlement

a

reach

to

eagerness

their ascendancy

and have maintained

.

,

of

ensure

order to keep the

in

on track were winning the battle within

the new approach was

to

order

to

in

main thrust

mid

from

(

formal constitutional negotiations democratic alliance

important ways

in

the

1992 onwards . Those in favour

'

AFRICA

SOUTH

the

'NEW

: THE TRANSITION AND THE

PART

of

.

at

a

in

The

the

of

, the

In

.

to

address the

to

move down the

for

to

nine years

it

a

,

and globalisation

,

the poorer half

outward

competitive

became more and more difficult of

Bank

the ANC was committed

',

free marketeerism

,

it

to

of

the IMF and World

elite compromise

it

,

an

of

.

to

,

. ,

to

they were trapped

the statement

has become evident that once the ANC began

systemic inclusion

resolving the

not only for the ANC but also for the country

oriented economy macroeconomic balance

prescribed road

economic

crisis



to

road

of

the

the economic

the population from

half

,

,

proceeding down

this

agreed

that was really aimed

by

represented

-r

.

at

After agreeing

By

economic issues

corporate sector and the international

the domestic

establishment

since then

In

.

')

's

the ANC

implications were far eaching large

effect

long standing accumulation leaders agreed

the most decisive

cornerstone

it

's

in in

per cent solution

the formidable web financial

the first

South Africa

-

it

as

As

's

corporate sector soon

place

one

approach

the ANC

-



'(

ie

, a ‘

solution

regarded

that would exclude the poorest

system

50

policy and

post apartheid

of

a

edifice

put

the ANC

-

of

to

agreeing

,

ideological turning points

be

elite compromise should

This

as

.

directly

population through meaningful

98

would

the balance

side

a

that

of

of

system

democratic

'

'

rather than the

1994

which

in

democratic capitalism

capitalist

'

the

would

on

power

be

-c

liberal apitalist version

election

,

institutionalised after the democratic

of

would

be

-

with the powerful corporate sector that the politico economic

agreed be

they effectively

see

(

the statement

'

leaders agreed

,

's

When the ANC

to

.

poverty alleviation programmes

THE HEGEMONY

appendix ). The implications

of this

SINCE

would be more momentous than

decision

of the parties to the agreement could have anticipated ( see section 11 . 1 ) . During the formal and informal negotiations in the early 1990s , the ANC several other agreements

'

adopting

it

's

would

had misused parliamentary

democracy

'

which white governments

curtail

approach

redistributive

of

a

)

,

and

ANC

core

's

the

1992 the ANC accepted

shift

towards macroeconomic

of

the time

events

May

November

socialist

from

balance

'

November 1993

in

75

by

.

of at

of

a

of

in

it

the chain

the ideological orientation

policy document that revealed the first signs

entrenched

a “

leaders from

to

May 1992

would

per cent majority

the elite compromise

.

highlight the major shifts

in

situate

to

is

,

necessary

Other

not be faulted

These decisions can certainly

the momentous importance

Given

it

revoked

In

.

national assembly

only

be

the extent that they could

1993

and that property rights would

,

an

remain

be

(

important agreements were that the South African Reserve Bank SARB independent institution

new

was deemed necessary given the way

in

sovereignty

,

government

this

a

the

constitutional

system

to

democracy . Although

democracy, but

parliamentary

a

the

to

a

Africa would not become

South

that

relevant

,

. One important agreement was

country s future economic policies and system

the

NP , and corporate sector reached

to

1993

'.

any

POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT

OF THE AFRICAN

and

capitalist

and

,

constitutional negotiations collapsed and were formally

was

restricted

objective

to

for

of lt ]

.. .[

but

.. .[

-

.. .[

the

legal national

South Africa

mobilise large scale mass action

many organisational weaknesses

resource

does not command

it ]

of

of

the majority

]

to

,

The ANC has established itself

commands the support

enjoys the capacity

growing potential

a

and

a

)

,

and

powerful economic

a

violence

the

on

(

process

certain

as

support

.. .

regime it

]

NEC

and other military

state the of

vast

as

enjoy

-

.. .

-

strategic

made

the negotiation

counter revolutionary instability acts

organisation

and

'

at



-

,

'

of

continues

The counter revolutionary

apartheid

[

that stage

the

]

.. .[

and

term

clauses

national executive committee

regime still commands to

]

[

resources

long

strength

sunset

parties had

noted that

apartheid

forces

undermine the

:

'.

It

weaknesses

own

forces

the

both

's

that

concluded

The

balance

its

stock

after

November 1992 the ANC

'

of

took

national

the

.

In

concessions

agreed

unity

there

only weeks after the Bisho massacre

1992 ANC

forces could

by

of

NP

government and

government

the

September

September

of

-r

that counter

June

From

evolutionary

on

26

.

transition

On

a

was

real danger

June

in

suspended after the Boipatong massacre

.

1992

It

May

the

In

.

pragmatism

suffers

significant

PART

AND THE 'NEW

THE TRANSITION

2:

military and financial resources ;

is unable

it

AFRICA '

SOUTH

militarily defeat the counter

to

revolutionary movement or adequately defend the people .

best be changed through

order

-

forces

secure

to

qualitatively change

thorough

going democratic

-

forces

the transition

to

of

the balance

combat counter revolutionary

a

the same time uses phases

to

need

in

account

,

,

and

at

which takes

the

negotiation process combined with mass action and international pressure

in

a

' could

of forces

that the balance

added

into

It

',

'

on

to

,

be

to

to in

at

of

,

to

that the balance

'

of

the relative strength the early 1990s



in

to

claim

,

the Soviet Union

the wrong reasons

,

for

,

sector of

.

arises whether

of

the

the

The question

,

but

and the

strongly

,

the party responsible for apartheid

and was prepared

a

on

its

attention to

the first prize

most

),

as

it

by

.

(

ANC was focusing

while the ANC enjoyed of

legitimacy both internally and externally

moral high ground The political settlement regarded

as

written into the new constitution

,

the

most controversial issues was

),

be

,

the time the NP

of

on

One

should

veto

replacing white political supremacy

as

.

)

At

(

NP

.

the

by

white

the

100

often

(

had lost



globalism

favoured

take core ANC

ideological climate

Wall the implosion

Park the focus was

minority

its

requested

the

political issues and

corporate sector

a

a

the Berlin

representative democracy

whether

by

,

in

on

,

more correct

also because

galloping

At Kempton with

the

.

favoured

the differences

because the corporate

,

of

of the

emergence

mid

The former strongly

the ANC was too weak

'

of

fall

to

to

).

.

issues

terms

powers favoured the corporate sector not only because after the

the national

from

This enabled the corporate sector

would perhaps

the two parties

it

.

at

(

'

be

interpreted

economic

It

too strong

.

was

on

on

.

this happened because

adopted

economic issues among ANC leaders

economic policy and ideology

on

in

latter not

tow

1992a

the

part and

or

the

,

leaders

see ANC

the formal negotiations

informal negotiations ANC but

these measures may have

,

on

of

power

the

November 1992

1993 should at

the

of

to

balance

end

came

minimise the potential threat

of

of

settlement

The ideological shift 1992

order

be

a

negotiated

working committee

the fear

democratic government would need

However some

.

]

of

parcel

measures

democracy

future

[

range

18

a

wide

that time Consequently

the new in

of

the ANC leadership

important conclusion that adopt

forces was not static

balance

implode and become fragmented weighed heavily

that South Africa could the minds

that the

'

Although the NEC stressed

of

.

transformation

make

OF THE AFRICAN

.

,

that

to

in

order

segregationist

,

,

by

improve

sectors

and regularly

instituted

the colonial

of

benefited

the

These measures were part

profitability

and

see sections

capitalism

to

,

.

,

By the

,

or to

all

,

so

be

do

it

It

.

neo

liberal

order

to

-

, a

,

implemented

a

,

be

left intact and

in

; ')

should

normally granted

and third

be

could

also the power and

)

scored

an

issues

it

these

said

When the corporate sector

,

convincing the ANC

.

into global capitalism on

Africa

it

,

(

-

-

in

succeeded

South

of

of

;

ex

,

free marketeerism

genuinely liberal capitalist system

macroeconomic and export oriented policy should integrate

colonialism

Africa

South

sector and with



the

and

accumulation

African economy should

all

the

,

:

,

a

in

the freedom

corporate sector

met first

were

South

racial

machina that would solve

and unemployment

the corporate

ie

relations

all

granted

second

democracy

involvement with

the deus

inequality

(

property

;

democratised

the abject poverty

explicitly denying such involvement the

and even

preconditions

three

,

provided

own

itself

poverty

,

social problems

of

sector presented

of

corporate

ignoble

as

and apartheid

its

silent about

segregation

that had

the victims

majoritarian

political conditions conducive

economic and

remaining

transition

a

,

but

to

-

,

creation

and socio economic powerlessness only about

wealth

white conglomerates

and white political domination

of

capitalism

transformation

white beneficiaries through systemic in

in

the huge economic power concentrated

;

accumulated exploitation

hands

and

economic

undeservedly

destitution

it

-

informal negotiations

the

were not about racial

through racial capitalism

clean

,

's

that

the

process

leaders

but

propagandising and myth making enabled the

convince ANC

anything

were

;

capacity

hands

of

extraordinary

sector

to

corporate

the

for

While

its

. ).

and

turn

had opposed

9 4

.

8 6

apartheid governments

sector

that

claim

They were

.

the corporate in

behalf

,

on

adapted

the

(

.

a

sector until the 1970s

corporate

had opposed

it

not

that had strongly

of

white

racial capitalism

and especially

all

it

to

.

could

its

of

parcel

apartheid

protect poor Afrikaners against black

repressive labour and other segregationist measures and



The corporate sector

indeed claim

century But

a

unblemished

sector

it

on

.

could

discriminatory measures introduced than

itself

the corporate

by

in

capitalism

English controlled section

for more

democratic

the

had always strongly opposed apartheid because

-

its

had impeded the unfolding

competition

strengthened

economic matters

presenting

-

that

it

It

.

claimed



undeservedly



succeeded and racism

informal negotiations

the

attain this goal .

to

the formal negotiations

of

's

During

at

position

movement

order

in

1993

corporate sector and the international community also

political settlement considerably

a

wanted

economic and social issues

on

the

The fact that both

ESTABLISHMENT SINCE

it

concessions

strategic

POLITICAL

as

THE HEGEMONY

immensely 101

of

,

,

.

its

,



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the country

vice versa

political

the

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constitutional

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technical aspects Michie and Padayachee put

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greater knowledge

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local business interests

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Keynesian

to

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corporate sector

counter

Washington

,

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proposed

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progressive ideas and strategies

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(

of

1990 possess

by

so

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,

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new

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.. .

Klerk regime

negotiations

main opponents

,

institutions Western

102

set its

liberal ideas

, -

neo

a

simply did not have

the economic policy

to

resources available

the

capacity

institutional

beginning

on

at

did

:

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as -

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in

's of

power

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as

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.

theoretical

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of

African economy

sector was the latter and

its

towards the corporate

while the corporate

before

factor that tilted the balance

Another

this way the

South Africa

control

continued

may

.

-

-

first prize

political control

that

of

.

to

the necessary degree

even greater extent than

those

at

a

that

pressurised

it

,

on

NP

major player

was satisfied

necessary degree

Park into agreeing

is

the

ANC

first prize

its

sector got

especially

soon

it

.

the

's

to

, the

leaders

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ANC got

its



boxed

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the scenes

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agreement delayed also possible that the constitutional Kempton Park until the corporate sector was satisfied that had

in

at

.

matters issues

ANC

Kempton

at

'

in

boxed

participants

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as

believe that the corporate sector was directly and indirectly

Kempton Park

function

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,

or

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it

agreements reached

on

informal negotiations

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a

and

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at

agreements reached

issues

?

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issues Were

.

economic

political

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formal negotiations

not known what interaction took place between

at

,

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close

and

large

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to

accumulation

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globalism

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,

)

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sector was very much

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empires that straddled any number

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Marais

having built

,

avenues

myths and lies but were

them

the country

,

.

the

AAC had according

for expansion

a

to

.

especially

formulate

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unresolved

accept

1990s the corporate

the

corner Despite several attempts

crisis was still

to

,

of

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the beginning

poorer half

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but

leaders apparently had little choice

on

arguments were based

much conviction

so

with

for

-

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.

presented

reaching negative implications

in

the population

all far

important victory , with

'

SOUTH AFRICA

the

AND THE 'NEW

THE TRANSITION

2:

its

PART

De

ideas and policy

of MERG

came too late

to

slide into

'

on

,

ranks while

partners

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deeper level

,

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the Soviet Union

one

the other

.

of

global

on

for the implosion

world that were responsible hand and the rise

the communist bloc and western

in

)

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including ideological shifts

and

taking into account the

on

analysed

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to

ANC leaders have

power between the corporate sector

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unequal balance be

,

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)

.

10

alliance

and

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in



'

',

its

its

's

inciles

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experience

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the

in

exiles

', '

islanders

'

-

)

bargaining position

ANC

differences between the ANC and

power shifts

steady

1990s was the difference

SACP were over economic issues

and the

stop the ANC

1994

).

early

called

so

culture among the

relative weakness the

in

economic matters



:

the

(

for

Another reason

the sharpest

228

1997

-

liberalism

transition process

(February

and RDP

1993

9

in

(December 1993 )

's

recommendations

neo

POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE

OF THE AFRICAN

the

THE HEGEMONY

During the 1970s and early 1980s the ANC and the other South African

,

of

by

of

and growing the

for

liberation

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,

to

was

leave key economic and

of

whether this was justifiable

living standards

left

intact keenly

it

.

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so

the

)

it

.

reduced

the economy were in

the

a

especially 12

negotiaitons

ANC

in

the ANC

And without military –

the

, be for

the

to

.

at

at

.

it

role

,

,

Soviet Union may

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its

if

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would

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,

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the western world grew

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the 1970s onwards the countries

,

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in

.

the ANC

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by

solutions

the armed wing

was significantly

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in

at

.

of

,

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baselessly

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was not possible

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and



promised

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MK

irrespective

financial institutions unchanged from

or

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convince

, (

for

easier

and Washington

more intact than the white political sector and

to

far

economic matters

the end

between presidents

Reykjavik

apartheid regime militarily

bargaining power

business sector was therefore

1980s



's on

,

the ANC

informal talks

the

communist bloc

defeat

to

organisations victory

at the

from

the end

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may have resulted partly from exemplified the Chernobyl

financial support

in

The decline

disarray

support

financial and ideological

the agreement

from

Mikhail Gorbachev

.

of

partly

the reasons why Umkhonto we Sizwe

in

was

.

and

especially

This

and October 1987 respectively

1986

world conflicts

one

the

),

1986

Ronald Reagan and October

Soviet Union

the

,

of

'

April

rather sharply

,

breakdown

meltdown

,

."

of

1980s this support decreased the

many countries

the Soviet Union was the most important

(

support

as

of

in

liberation organisations received support from Among these countries the communist bloc

103

an

of

the

,

the

of

mixed capitalist

for

in

interventionist welfare

,

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-

in



to

led

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to

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.

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relatively small managerial elite

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73 )



,

neo liberalism

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." –

the Rich North

sector corporations

sector But with the rise

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private sector corporations

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the ideology

democratically

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and the corporate

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fairly equally between

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bargaining power

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power relations within

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the Bretton Woods period

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major shifts

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elected governments

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industrialised countries was distributed

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.

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.

countries

capitalism

financial markets

the world

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unprecedented

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world became interdependent

implosion

the revival

together with the remarkable



.

in

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last quarter

in

in

countries

These developments

called

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integrated

1980s

the opening

information technology

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capitalism

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system

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industrialised

goods and capital

progress made

world

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governments

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Soviet

).

(

socio democratic approach

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the western world

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on

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War

.

command economy

average

see appendix

system

power

,

per cent During the Cold

of

welfare state capitalism

the 20th century

achieving

age

in

In

a

golden

ideological consensus

remarkable

,

third quarter

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a

by

strong aversion

'

SOUTH AFRICA

the

a

merits

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accompanied

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5

growth

annual economic Union

experienced

countries

to

industrialised

economic terms

.

ideological

the

THE TRANSITION AND THE 'NEW

of

2:

and

PART

the

corporations which control not only

104

economic

financial

than

40

in

more

000

per cent are based and

ideological

in

95

which more than

,

countries

this power concentrated

,

industrialised

corporations

),

multinational

( the of

.

propaganda power With most

of

,

huge economic and financial resources but also formidable ideological and

power

of

of

Rich North

the

while that

has increased

of

.14

70

per cent

continental

the in

of

to

of

than

world income

the world population

populations

the poorer

, of

of -

the

in

,

share

)

15

that

the British American world

same time

per cent

of

the

At

.

(

stronger

is

This tendency

per cent

30

the

industrialised countries has increased relative

housing

-à -

Poor South top

The income

.

distributional effects

Europe

that

.

in

countries

1993

power shifts within and between countries have had important

of

These

of

the governments

the

concentrated in the Rich North has also increased dramatically

vis

POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE

OF THE AFRICAN

vis

THE HEGEMONY

the

to

necessary

is

,

these power shifts

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the implications

explain

To

of

.'

Poor South has declined sharply

(

of

the

the

as as

(

of

its

or

an to

as

in

of ,

'

in

in

In

).

a

capitalist game

,

the World Bank

and its

(

in

the

the Rich North

to

-

,

General

the

and other international organisations

),

the

corporate

sector

the

its

power

own

is

to

(

By

IMF

,

on

.

entrenching

16

of

.

power

of

in

functions

describes

this

the death

elite

the

managerial

continuously increasing

the Rich

of

Hertz

as

as

well

at

, :

to

her

those

global capitalism and its

.

multinational corporations

is

2001

According

powers

Noreena

her book The silent takeover

).

in

elected

(

democracy

governments

but especially

the

tending towards usurping

democratically



countries

the

all

in

,



the

Tariffs and Trade GATT

power the corporate sectors

of

of

]

sector

capitalist game within countries and By consolidating their own the Rich North and Poor South

also between

phenomenon

power

the Rich North supported

change the rules

assistance

continuously rewriting the rules

are

the hope

implementing neo liberal policies and freeing

of

the

)

United States

instruments

North

salesmen

of

the

governments

.

in

the

own advantage with

and

act

now

role

).

global capitalism

Agreement

diminishing

and keeping themselves

financial markets This enabled the corporate especially

19 – 38

et

state

both developed

corporations

of

86

;

by

of

the rise

-

mid 1970s onwards

From

Governments

national

for their

achieve

see also Strange 1996

the

(

:

Hertz 2001

game

their own

core prosperity

a

providing

of

to

,

rules

promoting the fortune

governments are playing

'

determining

insidiously

actors

state and

structural power until later

2000

[

the

countries

Lawton

actor

such

group

the

since the other actors accept the new

true basis

.

and developing

of of ,

(

;

,

Mytelka

1994

the

see Strange

not realise in

norms and

the

do

as

rules

actors

(

the

that actor

objectives without direct confrontation

actors such

rules that other actors

:

,

)

shape

thus enabling

follow

ability

al

civil society

is

,

)

the corporate sector

)

(

such

however

,

as

).

state

Structural power

group

or

wields directly against another actor

or

corporate

sector

power that one actor the

Relational power

is

the

.

distinguish between what Susan Strange calls relational and structural power

the expense

105

AND THE 'NEW

those

of

the

the expense

of

Rich North but

the

the

greater extent

even

to

.

at

.

the

's

in

if

on

.

,

or

an

ANC leaders

unrestructured 18

.

South Africa and

and Frankfurt What we also

succumb

in

,

Washington

not know

whether the

is

do

international partners

global to

but

to

in

both

in

-

-

and

opt

co

or

,

' ,

)

for

sector and

the

propaganda

post apartheid South Africa

the time

the

in as

it

,

a

its

to

'

and

it

on

',

on

future economic

(

the

in

'

of

economic

future

considerable

coerce

.

,

,

London

which

more correctly

leaders apparently had little choice

the corporate

York

to



as

's

the ANC

power

used

free marketeerism

its



the duress

of

the balance

capitalism

of

an

-

to

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only

Africa

South

convince

most appropriate

system

economic

was

the

South

what extent the corporate sector

AAC has

power

policy

economic

would wield

of

such

and even greater financial embrace

not

corporatisation

the

conglomerates

know

at

especially

't

,

don

as

we

Unfortunately

economic policies

South Africa was firmly institutionalised

'-

-



Anglo Americanisation

corporate sector and

tabula rasa

'–

of

that point the

a

be .

At

,

would

1994

the game



election

The same

economic matters

sector

in

the

before



inscribe

sector took the

global capitalism

the corporate

policies but also what the rules

New

the

framework

informal negotiations offered

power

of

balance

of

,

in

.

Africa and elsewhere

of

the the

Africa Given

new South

the Statement

the structural power

sector consolidated

1994

accumulation strategy

new

on

1993 they agreed

,

,

.

the corporate

in

the ANC When

system

the corporate

during the informal negotiations between

happened

could

rest

period 1978

it

search for

a

its

in

government

AAC and

the

. . ,

section

tow 3 2 in 3

in

indicated

sector

of

of

the local corporate

African government already began

South

NP

power

in

The increase

As

.

17

Poor South where those corporations have subsidiaries

all

elected nation states . This happens in in

of

the countries

SOUTH AFRICA '

an

of democratically

of the sovereignty

to

THE TRANSITION

2:

,

PART

the IMF World Bank

.

on

,

,

,

the ANC the corporate partners made use

an its

'

to

cleanse

'

to

,

.

of to

free market

onslaught

global

and convince

orientation

,

liberal

,

-

a

to

'

and upliftment

redistribution

exercise their joint power

neo

ANC

interventionism

local corporate sector and

the joint ideological

,

on

alternative In

no

was

that

it

-

necessary

ensure

of of

it

,

To

.

the

the game

dirigisme

erstwhile socialist and redistributive

approach

corporatism 106

its

of

'

oriented

,

on

accomplish this

there

socialism

to

it

or

programmes

,

populism

partners probably thought

important

large scale

macroeconomic

that



,

-

was very

government would not embark

the ANC

on

accept the neo liberal and globalised rules

so

the ANC

,

Forum

For the corporate sector

the World

put additional pressure

Economic to

investment banks and

GATT

,

,

,

ie

global capitalism



agents

of

corporate sector and the NP government deliberately mobilised the powerful

and globally

local and global

two rather doubtful

of

,

of

-

in

and

their rules

the

,

– if

orchestrated

, of

-

and

.'

capitalist game were not accepted

-

be

expected

uncertain terms

capital entrepreneurs

in

,

,

the large outflow

of

professional skills that could

ANC

no

the

the

On

subtle ways



of

sorts

and beneficial

fiscal restraint and neo liberal

from

other they warned

employment

of

,

effect that would ensue

.

-



high rates

'

trickle down

rate

extremely optimistic scenario

an

the

they presented

high economic growth

globalisation all

one hand

1993

of

British

liberal

free

or

the ideology

the

and Reaganomics

Thatcherism

see

(

choose

up

of

continental European

of

grounded

the

give

to

?

of

to

an

Why

had

probably that the South African corporate

sector and the American based global institutions are only familiar with

this

economic and

institutional

or

-

,

South

,

-

,

,

conditions

seduced

the

the

,

colonialism

ANC

right wing version despite segregation and apartheid socio

accepting

in

,

fact that after centuries

and either pressurised

into

with hyperbolic promises

of –

-

capitalism

the

-

of

right wing version

it

these questions

to

The answer

is

?

)

?

market capitalism

capitalism

the right

social democracy rather than on

American version appendix

the ideology

it

countries based

not opt for the social capitalism

of

on

,

it

did

why

socialism

the left

from

concerning economic systems

spectrum

did

ideological

ideological leap

it

.

,

of

the ANC make

the leadership

of

Why

November 1993 certain questions remain unanswered core

did

since the elite compromise

almost nine years have passed

If

Although

'

the

strategies . On

POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE

THE AFRICAN

or

OF

THE HEGEMONY

Africa were anything

but

-

as

of the

of

,

on

the

of

in

no

the

as

curve

'



Americanisation the hands

? a

economic power

of



-

the Anglo

of

' the

,

wisdom

steep forgetting

in

of

own socio economic powerlessness -

its

its

.

the AAC and neoclassical economists that unbridled

become richer and the powerful more

We

be

poorer and the powerless more powerless

?

to

in

of

But with

forget about the strong tendency

for the rich

poor

to

be

to it

Did get

the

,

powerful while

,

it the

” ?

'

free market capitalism

after agreeing

forget about

propaganda

power does not matter

concerned about

concentration

it

Did

20

it

conglomerates accepted

forget

economic issues

the “

'.

is

South Africa

Did

about

, :

1999

also reason

).

,

see

(

of

Bond

followed under their influence

had

hands

steep learning curve which key

about

involved boasted

was

1993

longer concerned

economic power

concentration

During the informal negotiations

16

ANC leaders

hindsight there

when

compromise

elite

the ANC was apparently

about the

conglomerates

business people

few

soon

'

1992



May

the ?

a

few

it

was

in

,

of

reached the leadership core

that

as

also astonishing

is

What

is

.

suitable for this version

of

in

to

would have expected key ANC leaders more knowledgeable about the the distribution deeply institutionalised and racially based inequalities

107

trickle down

'

be

'

.

In

's

23

several principles

It

:

1999

of

)

6



's ,

a

of

of

the

,

21

to

guidelines

,

as

ANC

the

document was to

.

the alliance

supply

overcoming

also identified

major

five

rectifying the unbearable conditions created

meet the basic needs

17

.

to

This included programmes

the

apartheid among blacks

economic

be

to

:

),

).

5



2

ch

13 ;

,

on

'(

.

integrating

ibid

promoting economic growth

perpetuate mass poverty and soon Thus the government was tasked with actively

growth

with

economic

,

existing inequalities

economic growth

the

guiding the

market towards reconstruction and development

,

would accentuate

The RDP stated that

leading and enabling role

and warned that policies concentrating purely

pro

80

a

.24

structural crisis

economy said

in

deep rooted

the

The fifth

,

fundamentally restructuring

democratic government must play and the

ANC 1994



(

see

:

RDP

-

a

experiencing

at

gramme was aimed

the

7

,

of

’,

neglected million people surviving below the MLL develop mainly society resources Africans democratise state and and

successfully implement

stifle

the ANC and

serve

The RDP base

and

at

policy programmes aimed

economy

MDM

5

Lodge

see on

apartheid

(

of



'

election

1994

that would

. ).

for the



manifesto

The RDP was based

human

the

by

-

reconstruction accord

the

document but

ease these the parties tacitly agreed that the latter would

published shortly before the election the legacy

with

associated

2

's

Alliance

contributed

1993 tensions developed between

as

ingredients

organisations

of a ‘

and

to

COSATU

,

COSATU

drafted

.22

particularly

including the ANC

judged

new

Many members

.

be

-

socio

was mainly

least



economic benchmarks against which the performance

democratic movement it

its

which envisaged the programme

NUM

democratically elected government would

the

)

(

,

,

Mineworkers

election

most powerful affiliate

),

set

of

a

COSATU

from

ANC Alliance

for the 1994

and particularly

(

,

National Union

of

the

virtually defunct manifesto

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(

a

as

.3

4

-

but

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at

high

maintained

The Reconstruction and Development Programme RDP



even

The Reconstruction and Development Programme temporary interlude 1994 the ANC Alliance

much vaunted

of

20

circumstances

such

-

would

as

economic

growth rate could

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how

per cent and the poorest



households and

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opportunities between

,

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per cent

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, property , and

AFRICA '

SOUTH

the

power

AND THE 'NEW

THE TRANSITION

in

2:

of

PART

reconstruction

and

social

108

of

comprehensively described part

South

African

society

RDP document was that

it

the

of

the main merits

all

One

of

.

development

clearly

and

the distortions and injustices that had become

during racial capitalism

and white

political

by

an

of

of

,

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it

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in

to

's

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.

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A

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.

to

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as

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's

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as

.

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of –

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reprioritising departmental budgets

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.

Blumenfeld

for funds

spend

RDP Fund

was

every department and offering



apply

to

According

white

,

the

.

of

According

to

to

alleviation

cut their budgets and

.

'

projects

keep

the

paper

needs

27

's

RDP oriented

major role

the

was one

poverty

the

approach

added goal The

increase taxes Given

,

basic

fiscal

macroeconomic balance

to

meeting

introduced

commitments

-

emphasis

order

re

implications

on

redistributive

The white paper

transformation

the ANC

and

dismal

properly implementing the RDP and its

in

was available

the line departments were

1993

fiscal discipline

of for

'

November

to

's

too

,

,

but

the government

within the parameters

commitment

space



fraud and

paper

the white

1994

document

real terms and avoid the need

constant

be

on

November

managing

the task

regarded

in

it

,

early

attaining RDP objectives

,

to

must

expenditure

-

bureaucratic

allegations

the elite compromise



new

of

by

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of

-

set

up

RDP Fund was

on

a

did

.

to a



,

the

original as

of

means

a

as

from

in

,

was dealt

blow

redistribution was dropped

government

the

not

’. 26

death

economy was reduced

fiscal

envisaged

state

'

also

of

of

prudence not

the ANC

what

developmental

evidence

RDP was published

significantly

departed

for

but

red tape

and development published

reconstruction

notion

the

in

fact

its

.

failure

the state

several projects

years after

In

Eight

detailed

broadly formulated important One

the probity and efficiency

,

to

.25

incompetence and excessive corruption

needed

Blumenfeld

and

but shortly after the ANC took power

was quickly undermined

administration

,

its

as

.

a

it

strategic role

truly developmental state

According

aims

main

poverty

not spell out

The RDP was perhaps

became evident that the capacity exist

important

deep divisions

the alleviation

it

it

.

of

up for as

a

assigned

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posited

list for too many people

wish

the

and

,

,

.

a

be

deficiencies was would

economy

attaining them

and ended

: 3 of ).

formed

-

of

programme

60

because

,

importance

however numerous problems were encountered

implementing the RDP While the

per cent

symbolic

the nation building and healing process after centuries

reconstruction

', and

is based

Blumenfeld 1997

in

'( Its

.

be

overemphasised

1993

president Nelson

in

mobilise more than

to

,

it

RDP helped

and conflict After the election in

quoted

behind the ANC alliance

created cannot



the .. . GNU

on which

-

its

of

the

consensus

cornerstone

socio economic policy

the 1994 election

the electorate

part

'the

own words –

centrepiece

In



's

election the RDP was

1994

it

domination . After the Mandela

POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE

OF THE AFRICAN

the

THE HEGEMONY

only

those departments with procedures and priorities that conformed with

back

28

them

).

1997

14

Office

from

:

the RDP

'(

of

those

away

,

scarce resources

to

taking

109

110

.

'

as

's

as

on

-

,

of

-

a

'.

cost

employment

further concentration

'.

'

of

at

the

of

African capitalism

South

who

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,

,

respect

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',

a

to

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a

in a

),

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as

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of

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(

that

system

systemic tendencies towards

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economic

power that the

restructuring the economy because

its

of

of

large conglomerates

,

is

.

from

formation

and the concentration

small corporate elite

government has refrained

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,

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tendency towards

)

a

and

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in

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deep seated

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foreign connections

with extended

accumulation

It

would

the

'

,

continue

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,

racially based inequality

, of of ie,

the



to

remain

African

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tendency

fundamentally

blacks

correctly

fundamentally

about

place during the 20th

and structural injustice

,

-

in

hands

compiled the RDP realised

apart

power

capitalism

indeed demonstrated

the power relations embedded

and the development

economic power

the RDP bringing

that had been

had

remained

tended towards capital intensity

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white political domination segregation

capitalism

it

as

as

,

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long

economic

the conviction that South

other than whites and would maintain

the poorest half

late

restructure

of

of

This version

the ANC

of

of

30

colonial and racial capitalism

towards systemic exploitation

tendency

was also

the economy was again

social democratic kind

'

or

'

a “

normal

by

of

.

apartheid

were

of

.

,

.

The idea

the

the ANC expressed

government has done almost nothing

'

'

was not

century and had been sustained

creation

to

.

the

,

in

the restructuring

fundamental restructuring was born

capitalism

restructure

the Statement

labour relations legislation

new

the private sector

in

relations

1994

however

,

.

Since then

introducing

people

this

.

of

'

endorsed

remnant

earlier

November 1993 When the RDP was accepted

election manifesto

from

be

it

,

its “

reference was made

early

played

the ANC that

the South African economy in

but

fundamentally

As indicated to

no

,

1992

policies

as

far

the need

concern about the monopolistic nature

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will within

deep seated structural crisis

government

new

increase state

and ideological problems

it

the

RDP

given

,

the

by

abandoned

expenditure

-

South African economy

within

accommodated

policy programme

of

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not

was finally the lack

,

as a

downgrading

this could

to

's

of

the RDP

purposes

of

the

as

fiscal

,

29

its

to

led

the failure

in

roles

commitment

ANC

Although administrative

.

taxes

by

set

the limits

mainly for electioneering

and used

was only implemented marginally

if

therefore seems

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the ANC accepted

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. It

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rhetorical level

1993

in

itself

,

RDP

a

on

ANC had committed

as

-

to

never reconcilable with the neo liberal macroeconomic policy

the RDP was the

proper implementation

or

but

the GEAR strategy

when

all

1996

RDP was abandoned



June

in

was announced

said that

'

of

sometimes

SOUTH AFRICA

in

is

' NEW

AND THE

a

THE TRANSITION

the

It

2:

,

PART

implies that market mechanisms cannot automatically

.1 ) .

]

the





closer and better than

the alleged racist alliance between apartheid and South African capitalism

all

a

33

the

by

of is

at



over

least

interests

's

unwillingness for

the

not

anti developmental -

within

is

response

blindingly obvious that

it

In

to

and

its

,

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important reason

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,

).

official

practical purposes the

poverty

.

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it

1998

the

the

for

ANC and COSATU

March

).

9

that

RDP still remains

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.

has become

that

for

)

,

'(

:

of

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asserting

The government

-

the

RDP



the



of

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sidetrack

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caught

16

, ).

in

:

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'

economic framework

1994

developmental budget 12

a

,

to

9



budget COSATU have

to

on

it

the economy

continuing tensions between possible

in

is

'(

of

its

publication

aims

two main

of

the

address

1995

the ANC Alliance

government has shunted

restructuring

Ben Fine has agreed

capital

-

Eight years after

logic

and economic

economic policy has been driven

state

large scale South African

policy framework

1999

what

What Lodge

economic matters the ANC by

.

years

evident acceptance

,

be

,

in

,

past

corporate sector

,

the

oriented

1998

that

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business though corporate

common sense

economic

diplomatic language

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20

in

saying

up

is

businessmen

to

perceive

(

,

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to

but rather through

taxation remains constrained

ever

government has

ANC

predecessors

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business than any

much through

the

an

.. .

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Lodge

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according

to

And

,

).

:

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probably

time

169

for

1997

'

was

to

2 3

"

socialist

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1997

racial

from

the corporate

of

the music

to

is

fact dancing now

of

,

in -

see section

'(

unrestructured

power holders and the old business elite

,

of

end

at

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rate

be

eight years after the ANC took

that the relationship between the new

argue

and

, 11

(

capacity

restructuring

fundamentally

in

.

sector Adam

al

et

,

the government

apart

government also

the power and wealth relations inherited

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of

Instead

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,

power the economy remains largely capitalism

that

. .)32

this

,

it

consequence

is

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The

of

.

economy

task

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11 .

complicated and painful

such

acknowledged

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accomplish the

1994

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the ANC



economy

discovered after

that

should

tasks

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did

it

's

,

the

the

of

restructure

to

of

.

actions

the

crisis were apparently

seated

high economic growth

the ANC

will

lack

a

from

market and

mitigation

In

sector





the

to

left

and

'

lobbied

1993

which the AAC and the

aggressively

the economy and solving the deep

restructuring



free marketeerism

sector had

see section

sector

so

the

?

-

corporate

corporate

'

ANC had accepted

that

After the symbiotic relationship

[

of

rest

the

the

forged between ANC leaders and after

essential

for

we

should

state

explain this volte face the

How

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1993

correct

racial capitalism

from to

deliberate intervention

is

by

deeply institutionalised problems inherited

'

structural crisis the

POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE

the

HEGEMONY OF THE AFRICAN

THE

the

: THE TRANSITION AND THE

2

ideological differences between COSATU and

a

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needs the RDP more than ever within

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board

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US

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rand

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Trevor Manuel R3 ,

negative reaction

of

1996

,

February



a

-

,

a

,

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initially provoked

in

The appointment

60

of

The fifth phase the AAC led search for new accumulation strategy and the GEAR strategy 1993

four months

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of

division

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instrument

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of

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,

the mass

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.

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the question arises

,

force into

ANC now probably

transformation

lofty

neglect the RDP must

112

the

of

,

to

,

,

' '

and the purpose

in

promises

such

an



,

.

34

.

the struggle

the living conditions

constituency in

divided

liberation

.

of

in

the new

has been sidelined

unifying

a

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,

of

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parameters

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implementation

from

live

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power

that the government has become trapped

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.

,

,

turn

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in

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utopian élan was

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election

was the only relevant detailed

freedom

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legitimise and perpetuate

the alliance

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people oriented ideology with which

The RDP was born

.4

a

to

RDP

philosophy and

Africa

South

policy

The RDP Office lingered

for the 1999

that the RDP

today only

is

the

,

carry

1996

election manifesto

the ANC declared

programme

4

March

fiscal space needed

policy programme but only

electioneering purposes

the ANC

which COSATU

that the RDP was never

show

-

,

campaign

government

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closed

as

rhetorically

seems

This

not allow

to

.

.

the RDP

option propagated

until Mandela

This compromise

for

of

for implementing integral part

be

of

an

party

seen

1994 the ANC had already

elite compromise with the corporate sector

a

had not been

them

a

,

.

by

entered into

severely

COSATU was mainly responsible for compiling the RDP

the base document was published early

but when

probably soon

difference between the ANC and COSATU should

historical perspective

when

will

the alliance

keep

to

irreconcilable ideological differences between

the seemingly

The points

hopes

and the

in

of

alliance intact However the unity

claim

have been strong enough

the struggle

be

of

in the trenches

its

forged

tested

hand

the SACP on the one

the other have become even more fundamental. Until now the loyalties

on

In

ANC

AFRICA '

SOUTH

NEW

a

PART

OF THE AFRICAN POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE 1993

conditions

foreign investment

Manuel would

soon

in

,

the on

).

,

However

in

worsen

the

exchange rate would continue

period there were other notable developments

intervening

South African

and Manuel specifically

to

(

even though

of the

initiative that would substantially change that assessment

new

a

announce

the new

conducive

the

create

government

– to

ability

the profitability

in

.

the

economy and

confidence



of foreign

a lack

of

pointing to

to

THE HEGEMONY

debate

a

all

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for

on

of

: the up

]

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is

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not realising that this

no

whose name

crime problems

The

saf

of

issue

better evidence was compiled South

Africa

's

to

There

of it

corporations

minimise the waste

is

.

,

and

poverty

social safety net for the

mechanical and efficiency

in

50

and extent

the structural nature and human tragedy

poverty

free

'(

in

order

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awareness

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shocking that

is

alleviation were

a

)

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moral and human considerations

,

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,

it



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origin

pleads for

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for

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be

per

cent

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50

at

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document that the

unemployment

an

'(

cautious about making

themselves

analyse the nature

1996

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should

of

have

no

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on

,

poverty line

determined

be

it



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efficient government

poor that should

as

,

welfare spending

and

,

an

appropriately

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Under the heading

supply

providing subsidised services

alleviate absolute poverty

to

so

document makes

resources

a

),

.

that social security

people can provide

no

.. .

markets

least

of

,

'

proposed

savings and

the

its

on

12

for

of

35

,

, it

the non interest government budget

disincentive effect

for

to

strictly

for curbs

and welfare spending

social security

warned the government that

involves

,

for

.

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as

to

about R100 billion and possible into the global

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commitments regarding health and housing spending these

new

brisk privatisation

-

to

Consequently

per cent

those who fall below

It

as

,

,

it

(

It

.

problematic

aim

'.



).

57

only

the

criticised

strongly and emotionally

and identified

which absorbed almost

should

and

absorb unemployed people into lower paid jobs

government spending

labour

violence

two tier labour market without prescribed minimum

The SAF document also pleaded

especially

generate

claimed could

integrate South Africa

pleaded for

order

in

wages

,

,

.

Its

's

as

vigorous campaign

havoc

strongly

most controversial proposals were

programme which

economic policy

labour and trade policies and rejected the RDP

fiscal investment

unattainable

economy

economic

that the

-

government

claimed

crime and other forms

rates

,

that this

might wreak

which

of

rising

emphasised

the SAF published

credible and comprehensive

a

not have

. It

warned

February

document entitled Growth

worded

government did

framework

extraordinarily sharp debate

-

aggressively

an

.

macroeconomic and employment policy

the South African economy

In

unemployment

to

levels

led

of

In

early 1996 the continued poor performance

and high

new

of

.

economic policy

extraordinarily

113

all

' it

that the corporate

implementing

position growth

its “

for not consistently

a

in

order

be

and globalisation

and

SAF was propagating to

the

is

more likely that

COSATU

The fact that core ANC leaders had already become

the AAC and the rest

for

. of

its

in

model details ideological proselytes

as

could also

in

capitalism

blame the ANC government

'

of

-

',

to

the elite compromise

of

extreme version

it

the alliance But

.

SACP within

free

sector

of

It

fiscal restraint

that the corporate

remind the ANC

.

market document after

of

could

November 1993

in

it

had entered into

itself

be

.

wanted



the SAF

free



had already committed



extremely liberal and

globalisation

of

the

systemic

why the SAF deemed

be

We have reason

sector was uncomfortable with the RDP and with the influence

an

the disrupted

Anglo Americanism



is

such

in

embodied

to

publish

and

ask

,

form

’,

marketeerism

to

even

.36

to

blatant

It

most

.

its

rooted

generations

from

vintage

end the SAF document

the core ANC leadership

which

resulting

but does not



under racial capitalism

beginning

necessary

violence may

and

and abject poverty

structures

exploitation

in

possibility that crime

class be

the

consider

From

'

in

representing the white property

organisation

social

AFRICA

SOUTH

about violence and criminality – as one might have expected from

concerned an

'NEW

AND THE

THE TRANSITION

to

:

an

2

to

PART

the corporate

sector was

successive governments

of

,

In

in

)

'

it

-

or

(

.38

.

investors

the

globalisation

,

of

-

,

. that

million

,

This would only materialise

it

.41

that

FDI

optimistic assessment

until 2000

Its

strategy

of

of

.

a

to

attract

by

).

a

at

(





foreign

strategy

1 3

the

growth

economic

accumulation

all

to

39

-

up

be

'

.

,

'.

an



114

created

framework

The GEAR

the trimmings

almost desperate attempt

additional jobs would

Devised

the neo liberal orthodoxies

Decorated with

The GEAR document contained

new

especially

40

aim

of

,

committed

Washington consensus

GEAR

providing the country

sustained

economy

the search for

macroeconomic

new

macroeconomic

oriented

reassure potential

the government was GEAR represents

integrated

that higher levels

outward

phase

was

well

-

competitive

represents the fifth

immediate

37

15

of

,

departure

to

requires

of

a

's

GEAR

point

finance announced

the strategy was aimed

and

completely

Anglo Americanism

Employment and Redistribution

economists

comprehensive

a

a

,

strategy entitled Growth

with

of

of

the ministry

institutional

and apartheid

colonialism

is

In

1996

free marketeerism

'

to

superimpose

the remnants

group

skewed

human development that make

of

and uneven levels

inappropriate

June

since the late 1970s The document also

ignores the unequal power relations

,

framework

been selling

had

, ‘

conspicuously

that

.

to

instalments

onto

approach

it

neo liberal and growthmanship

-

's

sector

,

,

.

50

largest corporations not enough the this document the SAF revealed more visibly than ever before the core elements the corporate apparently

of

to

's

.

a

in

public sector GEAR

approach

market forces

for

,

demand

both Growth

the

structural

nature

read against

of

appreciation

the

with

the Keynesian

as

aggregate

of

.

August

sharp

tariff reductions

,

led

few

the 43

all Growth for all

Growth

;

and

for

’,

in

,

imperatives and deservedly

By retreating

into the and

-

and deep seated inequalities

in

Growth

all

of

for

)

42 .

its

:

its

,

.

. are

differences between

which market forces reign

compilers

of

in

of

,

more

/

to

Thatcher lurch

the right

of

If

the

,

the role

of

of

the

the private

?

poorest half

and neglected

,

impoverished

,

the

that

it

will

to

who

does not remain marginalised

If

pressure groups

will

who

power

needed developmental state see

rolled back

reduced the

in

counter

?

will

-

urgently

.

.

to

is

be

it ?

'

will devise

Who

drastically

other well organised

the

'

and

’,

state has

population

of

-

Who

heights

to

?

'

commanding

restructure



's



fundamentally

the economy

in

role

state

sector

Reagan

thread through the GEAR document This begs several questions

be

a

runs like

the

.

The strong anti state orientation the

the

,

imperfect reality

from

Africa

South

the

1996

(

the

of

do

,

not see Nattrass

economic textbooks

GEAR lost contact with

its

. system

supreme rewarding those countries that obey fantasy world

Apart

Both GEAR and

and tone

worldwide capitalist economic

punishing those that

-

.

,

/

on

)

-

in

content

25 –

envisage

the Statement

Thatcherite

were the

concerns

economic policies

.44

openly

formulations there



,

the NEM

fiscal

Ideologically GEAR falls

1993

side neo classical paradigm

(

and

main

GEAR were already present

November



supply

and less aggressive

a

is

it

GEAR

,

, ,

squarely within

growth

FDI

and

the key elements

policies

economic the

on



Statement

all

of

Strictly speaking

careful

and poverty relief

payments inflation

balance

market

the need

stressed

and investor confidence While the document paid

redistribution

to

service

-

lip

and monetary discipline

for

,

, .

employment implications GEAR

beyond

the fact that those cuts had serious

of

in

,

despite

the

1994

the clothing textile and automobile component sectors that went under GATT

an

counteract the

to

measures

trade and industry had already announced

those demanded

as

.

in

means

rate adjustments

exchange

far

, of

department

stimulate exports

sharp

This was regarded

In

impact

early 1996

of

inflationary

rate

must

growth

by

to

in

the real exchange

opportunity

led

's

export

-

emphasis

GEAR decline

on

.

42

unemployment

additional jobs would

that employment levels are largely

their obsession little

the labour

reform

,

In

showed

and not

1993

be

all

GEAR

all

third

of

of

real wages

it .

by

(

Growth

approach would have

and

for

infrastructural expansion

line with that

determined

almost

the

via

created

in

be

,

market and moderate wages and

the

operate with initiatives

labour unions would

is

if

by )

the

said,

co if -

OF THE AFRICAN POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE

THE HEGEMONY

115

AND THE 'NEW

hosted by the BER

short interlude which ended when GEAR

,

'

space

needed

cent

pool available

poor areas see

).

1997 budget speech

his

promises

Manuel described

cabinet ministers

'.

'

as

deep transformation but

it

transformation

,

indeed amounts

to



it

and

et

Adam

cut back public spending

al ,

,

deficit

reduce the state

,

,

privatise state corporations make wages more flexible

According

to

:

188

by

In to

2001

2001

socio economic

spending and for adequate infrastructural development

Marais

drive down the

for

less than

per

1994

and spending

the redistributive

to

-

.

per cent

9

(

from

ceiling strictly limited the funding

the

government revenue

Overall GEAR limited tax based Along GDP with the successful efforts

the RDP

to

budget deficit

, the ‘

do

per cent

'

strategy s

the GEAR

fiscal

not allow

in

25

to

of

also

implications

in

of 1993 ,

Statement

the

of

policies

themselves

ANC leaders had

November 1993 , reaffirmed . As was

.

case with

which

to

tax

a

was announced and the neo - liberal approach already committed

RDP

accelerated

the

was

foundation

a

new

a

(

will

, the RDP

In reality

to underpin

2

delivery .'

provide

the key

),

cycle ), GEAR

claimed

.. . [By launching

economic requirements for achieving ( the RDP ] goals growth

, Manuel

1996

and unambiguously

set out clearly

to

revealing

is a

-

that GEAR ‘ simply seeks

October

in

1996

tax

. At a conference

exercise

of

1994 with the GEAR strategy

for

of

Comparing the RDP

SOUTH AFRICA '

in

THE TRANSITION

2:

in

PART

means free market

206

struggle

1997

).

:

'(

anti apartheid

-

the

transformation rather than the redistributive transformation popularised during

the

-



a

in

'

,

45

.

. an

as

effect the

-

trickle down

Consequently

Redistribution

.

and

,

.46 '

income

but also Employment

,

the higher rates were sustained over

trickle down

the

if

even

to

fact

,

that “

in

',

jobless growth

document

higher economic growth rates were attained this

or if

,

even

spending

investment would not only

,

deliver Growth

such

Moreover

poor

,

not only



be

spending

state

that the of

,

and

optimal

'

.

'

to

'

that increased private

higher growth but also create jobs

time they would not 116

that would create

crowd out private investment

rather dogmatically

The possibilities that

would

economic intervention

from

presented

investment GEAR

from system

an

in

refrain

result

unbridled capitalist

economic growth with the dubious argument that

inclined

would

high economic

sector had promised an



salvation

would bring about the necessary redistribution plan

oriented development

people

the

GEAR was

to

's

lead

to

claimed

be

impediment

economic

the corporate

the necessary adjustments

private to

climate would

task

concentrate for

to

and

conduct

private capital accumulation via

increase

The government

on

in

sharp

to

's

South Africa

growth rate that would

as

,

policy the latter

state



saw

while the former expected the

a

,

But the most important difference between the RDP and GEAR was that

were

not

even

which the plan was based

,

in

in

of

the

.2 ).

2

in

in

(

,

,

,

ie

its

-



convince the

need

a

for

of in

is

-

to

the

middle income

other

obvious

the

segregation

more

set

it

,

it



in

of

;

;

of

.



of

,

).

less

,

7 6

than

1

or

the

state

projected

(

of

review

7

department

of

,

year instead

of 21 ,

).

a

Real

GDP

;

finance budget

GDP

a

R8 4

or

of

(

15

per cent

year

by

a

,

In

per cent

per cent

projected

lone reversal investment billion

even

; 2. 1

4 2

of

per cent instead

the

1

7

,

of

(

3

not

per cent and real

of

,

see table

6

1 2

decline

continued

.

the

'

,

a

per

the

,

2 7

by

per cent

S

its

of

3

of

6

of

of

.

13 ( ,

,

department

Manufactured

year instead

of

(

;

per cent SARB 2000

cent

than

some R30 billion

Gross private savings averaged trade and industry

from

per cent instead

less

meet

targets has been attributed

by ,

GEAR strategy

-

the

its

of

).

economics database to

In

.)

amounted

imports

other targets were reached

of

)

instead

grew

by

per cent

2000

SOEs

to

FDI

,

or

a

per cent



-

owned enterprises

The failure

only

massive discrepancy

and imports tariffs

real terms again exceeding GEAR

per cent instead

,

sector investment grew

rate

the value

growing 1 8

at

grew

of

7

11 ,

only

by

government investment

of by

.

Employment shrank instead

GDP

year

GDP the inflation

per cent

,

.

The economy grew

per cent

per cent

per cent but this largely resulted

the real exchange rate None

remotely

targets

for itself has the period until 2000

in

,

7 6

per cent

the targets

less than

per cent a

, 2

18

,

of

projection

less than

8

grew

annual average

an

by

to to

exports

10

were reduced

private

terms

less than

to

budget deficit was reduced

was reduced

in

judged

in

strategy

The government reached three

failed the

GEAR

is

.49 If

the

of

.

48

comprehensive redistribution policy

colonialism

government

result

than

bargaining power

extraordinary new

the country

see table



) tax

of

à -

vis

tax

to

compared

South

comparable

also higher

income are

despite

rates

South Africa

history

'

structural power increase

be s

.

position

used

.

The corporate sector

its

it

cannot

countries

of

income

But South Africa

but this

revenue

corporate

and

income earners

of

individual

total

of

cent

than

not

were

that tax rates

claim

are higher

tax

per cent

15

top

distribution

and apartheid means that

not

in

.1 ) . .

tax

The

per

.

unequal

comparable countries

latter

These taxpayers

vis

Rates

than

on

of

the extremely

30

no

less

,

,

(

income countries

provide

the fact that white taxpayers

individual income

-

middle

light

the

pay higher taxes

especially

Africa

further

and

balance and sound fiscal policies

macroeconomic

in

understood

to

prepared

on

's be

should

see section

emphasis

GEAR

growing inequality

11

pauperisation

jobless growth

,

capital intensity

greater

the South African version

the tendencies towards greater economic concentration

of

,

ie



capitalism

(

of

nothing about the unhealthy structural tendencies

said

,

on

the simplifications

to

.47 Amid

considered

1993

it

all

OF THE AFRICAN POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE

THE HEGEMONY

117

of

non delivery

-

.

excuse

we might

all

When

the meantime

.

be

interests

It

and especially

of

the

,

poor delivery record

about the non delivery

inappropriate -

would indeed

.

to

that the

complain

the larger and globally oriented corporations and ungrateful for the corporate sector

,

,

is

fact that despite

the strategy protects white business privileges

strange

is

do

-

its

to

terms

more

even

poor performance This its

in

explained

nor

globally oriented

and

rather

support GEAR despite

, ,

is

sector continues

document

What

Africa

South

.

suited

GEAR

the

not acknowledge the

conventional neo liberal

of

not

to

fact that

,

the

approach

be

of

.

-

deficiencies

importantly

can only

explanations also

These

the

non delivery

to

,

in

have been

serious inherent

corporate

would

compensate for the human predicament

a

by

caused

a

fairness have

employment and income redistribution

also have been acknowledged and that alternativemeasures would

implemented

top

of

the

government official uses this kind expected that

completely unsatisfactory

a

the second explanation

,

term

was

it

While the Asian crisis was undoubtedly is

,

in

long

just indicative

of what was being aimed at. GEAR would ,

idea

of

deliver

setback

general

a

but

targets

,

crisis of 1998

– to the Asian

.

give

to

,

argued

director -general of finance

argument that the targets were not really

the

figures

SOUTH AFRICA '

in

, the

among others with

AND THE 'NEW

THE TRANSITION

2:

the

PART



that GEAR would

-

]

.

FDI was highly unrealistic

.

years the government to

sector

tailor

of

the corporate

its

and

sector

role the government

generating aggregate demand

(

,

the positive

,

but follows

under the influence

GEAR strategy grossly underestimated

,

|

International experience

of

again

will

it .

, .

,

-

-

its

with anti statism

could have played and should have played 18

measures that

unrealistic orientation towards global capitalism

in

the



obsession

to

shows that FDI does not precede economic growth Owing

52

a

package

the domestic economy and create jobs

large

a

the corporate

is

is

.

of

stimulate

required instead

With

African countries



reliance

investment

of

on

private

the poor ability

economic growth policy almost exclusively around globalisation and

FDI What

the

if

as

it

:

, 4).

seems

,

's

demand

faction

Thus

six

,

under pressure from

have

attract FDI and underestimated the

poor performance over the past a



's

,

But despite GEAR continues

domestic

clear that GEAR

2001

on

of is

FDI

it

the benefit attract

inadequate

hindsight and knowledge

the real interest rates

of

, of

impact

of

growth

'(

supported

level

of

than

the high

to

and

strategy was mainly designed

negative

inflow

of

demand downwards

51

's

,

consistent with

its

the

spectrum

also consistent with evidence that aggressively anti inflationary

undermined rather

to

ideological

and that private investment would follow

stabilisation packages GEAR

poor growth performance

economists across

(

is

.. .

It

reduce demand

GEAR

Nattrass

in

, of

the warnings

to

According

is

.

GEAR

the

not only

through

word

higher

1993

of

sense

POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE

)

Keynesian

, of

the

THE HEGEMONY OF THE AFRICAN

rates

is

,

the

of

,

and

is

the

in

which

growth

is

of

.

in

,

line

with productivity

we

.

the rand

on

devaluation

What

controlling

see

Nattrass

play

more

(

of

the

in

terms

-

in

built

to

It

.

to

the day

applied

,

of



that cannot

South African circumstances

the larger corporations

was designed

increase their net worth through

,

an

be

for labour market the new

however not

,

is

workers

from

often alleged

.

in

levels

the workplace inherited

retrench

of

high

as

of

of

difficult

and

,

the

semi skilled

the labour market should to

is

not

as

to

The alleged inflexibility

It

despite

important reason

the inequalities

apartheid

redress some

.

those

the legislation and regulations enacted

government

overemphasised

highly skilled and

-

,

.

those categories

since 1995

sharply

increased

An

have

is

unemployment

in

workers

of

.

only moderately

skilled workers have increased

structured

was supposed

strategy Although the wages

53

important cornerstone

the

of

wage flexibility within the collective bargaining system

that to

appropriately

of

moderate wage demands supported

acknowledged

by

should

a

.y be

,

poor performance

it

's

GEAR

the South African community

by

to

of

the rest

mitigation

commitment

of

of

and net worth

.54

end

be

free marketeerism

At

.

labour instead

the

COSATU

cost

and globalisation but without necessarily promoting the interests

liberalisation

inflexibility

playing

passed several

'

of the – in

version

a

of

in

of

under pressure from

cost

consistently and successfully

unskilled

But instead

of

countries

.

in

as

,

the

ANC government

the needs

Asian

state

a

).

,

was the case

the

stimulating domestic demand and strictly controlling

GEAR represents

fit

the legacy

manufactured exports has exceeded

have required

this would

labour laws that increased

In

social

7

: To

accomplish

increases

to

by

.

costs and increasing wages

active role

be

GEAR

export led growth strategy depends

an

is

caused

and

growth

model

the Asian

Although growth

that

interventionist role an

on

is

via

,

this has been

production 2001

based

exports

realise

should

,

that export markets are good

.

supposition

expectations

taxation

address poverty

stimulating domestic demand

Instead

generated

on

,

needed

apartheid

The strategy

).

:

(

desperately

of

spending which

unnecessarily sharp

The

ceiling

GEAR strategy

taxpayers have prevented substantial real increases

are

reimbursement

some tangible

primarily concerning itself

267

the rigid

deficit

to

of

the budget

1998

for

of

reduction

Luiz

see

yet

on

very high priority

with macroeconomic fundamentals and economic growth confusing means and ends

democracy

its

,

a

have been

the

should

and with

majority with In

benefits

providing the disadvantaged

.

,

consolidated

political transition

of

in

the throes

a

be

to

still

is

Africa

.

infrastructural investment but also redistribution programmes While South

119

AND THE 'NEW

THE TRANSITION

According

what they ought

, South

to be

labour

declining

laws have

November 2001 ) .

5

employers ' costs , and have

increased

- directly and indirectly

contributed

in

legislation was necessary

principle

to

the new

undoubtedly

-

unemployment. Although

to

address the legacy

apartheid

the



,

the detriment

,

.



geared towards promoting

like

its

actions

own

other sectors

of

its

by

affirmative action

,

be

interests

'

of

the lower class while

of

worker

to

(

or

sectional class

are often

socio

groups

these

the poor

the champion



black bourgeoisie

the

)

of

those

claims

COSATU

to

Although

the expense

the public sector has also been harmed

of

the efficiency

at

economic positions have been improved

Consequently

,

lower middle class

.

that

of

to

in

the

especially

of



from

of

mainly under pressure affirmative action has been driven too hard position improve emerging COSATU order the the black elite but

of

the

a

Africa does not compare negatively with other

developing countries (COSATU Newsletter ,

policy

are receiving

of GDP , and although productivity and skills development are not

percentage

All

, workers

the economist Mike Schusster

to

'

SOUTH AFRICA

,

2:

of

PART

the

,

,

's

-

a

to a

is

.

After

-

-

of

an

( or –

adequate

their absence

,

by

the

put the cart

capacity

state

and while

involved with the private 1994

government

the new

of

departments

in



'

,

level

conspicuous

.56

has

as

, a

.

a

certain

investors

state capacity

and

crisis

.

poverty

)

( or

-

promoting atmosphere This crisis was ignored

an to

strategy

-

of

accumulation

continuing neglect

during

each

of

for

the

the search

government

the new

is

the failure an

during the fifth phase

for

.

the public sector

more important reason

the social

strategy

not prioritising the development

-

of

,



are

,

in

foreign

investment friendly and growth

120

rife

of



create

these

of

a

the efficiency

are

in

corruption

huge mistake

a

55

.

to

presupposes

strategy

growth path

Implementing

one sense

than

equally important for

the government

accumulation

new

in

an

.

and

find

fundamentals are

higher economic

By implementing GEAR

more

Unfortunately

even

This

the governmental

because

fundamentals

climate and

-

in

place

sector and with potential

An

improve soon

.

the

-

)

economic

of

the horse

accumulation

made

its

of

a

socio

not

efficiency

and that

2001 were conducive

,

is

and

the other attempts

nepotism

conditions

point that sound macroeconomic

investment friendly

are certainly

strategy

sound macroeconomic fundamentals were

not particularly helpful

this

,

if

in

bureaucratic creating

protagonists claimed

stabilisation

and that growth would probably

we grant

place

before

but

GEAR

economic perspective

Even

case

strategy

They also claimed that macro

rather narrow

now

growth

implementation

FDI flows

increased

planning period

in

place

.

in

after five years

of

was not really

it

that

the end

at

In

2001



.

black community

the

first

THE HEGEMONY

POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE

OF THE AFRICAN

four attempts to find

accumulation strategy,

a new

from

1978

, and

1994

to

1993

is

again being ignored rather conspicuously by the GEAR strategy . In the present phase of South Africa tried not

only

to

's

, the government should

precarious transformation

create macroeconomic stability

, but also

have

to build and develop

in

, an

It

of

the

of to

. a

country

which most

per cent

concentrated

the large

to

the most important obstacle

conjunction

of

,

94

,

the World Bank

Council

it

to

– to

.

of

capitalism

that

continue with

in

the

of

in

1994

think

investment

since

on

If

57

.

1999

government had

the new

racial

and

Metropolitan

identified crime

interviewed growth

colonial

surveys undertaken

series

business sector

by

after centuries

'

a

created

,

after the

of

'

In

government that

advise the new

political transformation of

-

possible

the Greater Johannesburg

and

was indeed narrow

and crime and violence have become

short sighted

-

was equally

normal business

firms

global free marketeerism

poor

in

-

. be

would

be

atmosphere could

abjectly poor and deprived

It

endemic

with

the

the corporate sector

friendly

are

people

plight

of

minded and myopic investment

discipline

relentless

greater compassion about

a

but

is not

need now

as

Africans

the

society , including reconstructing the South African economy . What most South

1994

certainly have been lower

crime would

the

levels

and

,

,

programmes

of

-

comprehensive and well focused poverty alleviation and crime prevention

via

in

a

.

,

's

six

GEAR

after



,

of

:

(

far

the distribution

more serious see Luiz

achieve

and keep

neo liberal policy

higher

rate and

of

order

a

implement

,

economic systemic

population have been perpetuated

.

half

be

of its

of of

.



to

years

bigger

The high growth rates have not materialised

exclusion and neglect

create

the

in

,

intact

would

under pressure from the corporate sector

to

the

1993

of

.

system

poverty problem



in

,

the economic growth

the

faced with

global financial institutions

of

and

310

).

:

1998

The ANC agreed

remain

employment opportunities

and

unsatisfactory the unemployment problem

income more unequal and

would

oxymoron the economic growth

,

rate

is

,

announcement South Africa

growth path

-

the

sufficient

income

political transition

,

after

liberation struggle

sorely needed

neo

had been criminalised

whom

high economic

of

redistribution

many

an

years

,

a

spontaneous

Eight

is

a

and

,

and

time frame

reasonable

resolved

been

the economy with

dismal predicament They

a

and brutalised during apartheid

within

of

-

think that the poor



the population out

patient with vague promises that

thinking that

strategy and that this would

accumulation

the

to

were also wrong

legitimacy had

-



globalised

the poorest half

the

pull

crisis

kick start the modern sector of

to

liberal

after

a

and

democratisation

to

possible

be

would

the

sector and the government were wrong

The corporate

it

.

investment climate would have been far more attractive

121

PART

4

2

'NEW

: THE TRANSITION AND THE

AFRICA

SOUTH

'

The sixth phase of the AAC -led search for

.5

new

a

accumulation strategy : increased globalisation and privatisation ( 1997 - 2002)

,

(

to

these costs have since risen

than

more

We

by It

to

of

term

to

will

impact

.

62

.

The longer

a

of

60

.

fear that dividend outflows

payments

This

the sharp devaluation

)

vague

promises made

the corporate

.

sector and global institutions have not remotely materialised 122

59

,

of

2001 translates 89 )

:

R2 636 million

of

cause

a

as is

2001

foreign

of

,

the hyperbolic

.

)

and growing

quarter

(

of be

indeed worrying

if

all

,

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reason

the balance

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this capital outflow

and there

of

Achilles heel is

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the

,

the rand during 2001

of

is

's

large

SARB

major

.

in

offshore listings have burdened

the second

R34 076 million

regarded

61

outflow

for

,

to

annual figure can

increased

1999 the figures

doubtful whether

whole

.

into

1994

from

an

year

-

,

,

with

This

normal controls

– 88

payments

sector

The

promises that

Africa

South

While annual dividend payments averaged

dividend outflow

on

.

sa

to a

,

the

the AAC

5

the

of

of

FDI

accelerating

the South African balance

corporate

the country

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of

,

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the AAC the

from

government

the new

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,

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in

it is

the long term interests

FDI

mobilise

development has however diminished over large and important sections

the regulations

the strength

a

to

list overseas

their ability

owned

on

a

enhance

severe pressure

mainly

company

were allowed

became apparent that the

Beers contravened

as

would

this

private

Old

and

delist the giant De Beers Corporation

to

into

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it

therefore also allowed

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,

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government

conglomerates

De

it

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to

the London

Data

London

and

shift their main listings

. .

listing

shareholding between

overlapping

of

the AAC

in

,

Following

Dimension

.

.58

Mutual

the AAC

,

Billiton

are

's

London

permission

it

The corporations that have won

these issues

strategy

third accumulation

a

the search

regard

(

for

of

the

phase

R43 billion

can

interaction between the corporate sector and the government sixth

,

more

,

will rise

and some analysts believe they

defence

years was also

over

,

taken during this period

procure

,

foreign suppliers costing R30 billion

and

as the

decision

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government

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electricity

telecommunications

,

)

transport

).

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2004

restructure the four largest

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and the United States and the repeated

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United Kingdom

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been

shift their main listings

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the

by

in

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enterprises

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in

stock exchanges

further relax exchange controls

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by

permission given undertakings

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other privileges

them

the

and grant

government

on the ANC

corporate sector has continued

the

12

place pressure



to

GEAR was announced

to

In the six years since

The new

should have been aware from

1993

outset that the power structures

global capitalism were stacked against vulnerable developing countries such

undone

and especially

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'

to

accountable

them

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African economy

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for

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POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE

OF THE AFRICAN

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THE HEGEMONY

The ANC originally favoured nationalisation and strongly opposed

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or

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on

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essential the

to

state assets

is

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per cent

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argument for partial privatisation

economic empowerment

black

the

instrument

to

for

.

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,

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quarter

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state assets

given the

price that would make

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structures

that the government would probably

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power

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problem

foreign technology The

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a

by

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a

explicit role

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,



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state assets

.

no

restructuring

into

government

the new

1995

ANC has advanced several reasons for privatising

The state

role

government

.63

intention

to

,

role and

in

into three categories

classified Soes

July

Discussion paper

document entitled

in

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privatisation

De Klerk

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the RDP

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).

69

‘restructure ’ the South

aggravate the deep - seated

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period

structural crisis evident

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black people under

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124

the

as

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small group

systemically analyse South Africa

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.

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.6

4

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AFRICA

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: THE TRANSITION AND THE 'NEW

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1993

64

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OF THE AFRICAN POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE

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126

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POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE

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Commission

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SOUTH AFRICA

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128

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.

enthusiastically

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Latin America when

gross denial

life span

67

apartheid

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167

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THE HEGEMONY

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ARMSCOR during the 1980s when

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166

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130

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181

humanity

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2000

:

Abdullahi in

's

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.70

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crime against humanity before the notorious security regime was institutionalised during 1960s

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THE HEGEMONY

31

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183

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.7

the victims

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political domination

4

educate South

The unintended outcome has been

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of

,

113

1996

the following

132

great

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Ignatieff contends that

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South Africa

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only

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SOUTH AFRICA

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22

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table

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top

31

in

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1996

Whiteford and

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pace

income within African

African bourgeois elite capable

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process

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1993

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million

ESTABLISHMENT SINCE

19

18

POLITICAL

co

about

OF THE AFRICAN

5

THE HEGEMONY

-

the inability

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34

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for

has little capacity

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and

capacity

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tax

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restricted

employment

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whole

it .

population has been politically and constitutionally included

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of

government

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The highly successful political transition has meant that the

transform

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South African economy to

done

harm

black

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the

. the

to

,

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turn

sector

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',



sector

large black underclass testifies

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,

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,

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neo liberal and globally

South Africa

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SOUTH AFRICA

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black

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'.

perpetuate

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and

elite

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black

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to

1994

years and the development the plight

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.

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.

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social consciousness and generosity

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general election

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1934

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NP

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protest movement

1993

alleged character deficiencies

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poor Afrikaners

terms of

in

to

privilege

and

as

position of power

the

THE HEGEMONY OF THE AFRICAN POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE

35

their ‘own people '.

status

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laudable

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elitism

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)

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136

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president Nelson Mandela black

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Whatever the reasons

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.73

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THE HEGEMONY OF THE AFRICAN POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE

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terms

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of

free

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of

]

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its

of

the

of

.. .[

's

of

1996

240

elite but the economy could only sustain

of

November

emulate

who are

Employment

2001

elitism

mineral revolution the

have

labour movement have acquired legislative force

certain assertions about

during

embrace the global

members Marais contends that many

alliance with the ANC

three versions

capitalism

and has

the haute bourgeoisie

the trade union movement

which supply much

savings

in

in

by

,

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argument

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entrench

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stopped only long

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trade union power and

,

gains made

The protagonists

or

,

on

to

,

ways

questionable

174

not

financial gain The Labour Relations Act Employment

dramatic

COSATU

a

of

big bad world

Equity Act and Basic Conditions

these acts

1997

Peter Storey has reproached

Sunday Independent

also using

term

historical demands

no

,

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.

to

make

'( it

its

climb

however not only some members

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poverty

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sea

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black elite

lifestyle

old colonisers

the squandering

enough

pervades the new

royal titles quaint British country culture

of

glorification

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African progress is measured

South

in

of Hollywood

emulation

Bishop

which

elitist self -confidence

unashamedly

codes

by

5

yardstick

desired

1993

per cent

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million of

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,

population

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rate

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larger elite

to

including

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South

a

it

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its

.

the population

free

this argument implies

137

SOUTH AFRICA

of

the population in the upper

classes by further impoverishing the lower classes ( see figure

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black population group

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system

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138

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3

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.

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transition

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capitalism

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hegemony

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successful protest against the elitism and arrogance

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. 1) .

if



.

of

expansion

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2

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factors underpinning the economy, they may justify

structural slow

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If

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AND THE NEW

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THE TRANSITION

of

2:

to

PART

THE HEGEMONY

POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE

OF THE AFRICAN

1993

Endnotes Freund, the [ formal ] negotiation

'

process

[ also ]

has

businessmen

all of

the corporate sector

and

. to

.

It



follows

.

's

the ANC a

.

257

.

1993 that the

in

:

rich They

)

1997

of

a

kind

in

the ideological shift that took place late

a

,

It

.. .

confronted

'(

was clear

is

.

in as

:

'( .

was

on

for economic maneuver

room

:

1993

Keys

.. .

,



limited

1994 annual report the IMF described

as

its

In

5

would have tragically November

consensus building when

Forum

seriously

by

lots

very

to

with

took

Economic

the unpleasant reality that they were not taking over surplus cash spend black economic upliftment

with

-

country

Keys

and

of



economic CODESA

policy makers

also played

Waldmeir describes Keys

economic

the National

it

)

'[,

to

the launch

economic matters

the NEM

the process

formalised

of

He

follows

the early

bringing about unanimity between

of of on

of

in

as

he

agreed

members

,

a

important role

the

255

new accumulation strategy

NP

an

played

1997

TEC which had ANC leaders

government and the corporate sector convincing the ANC key role the merits role

'

on

:

to

by

of

in

deal was signed the third phase the search

economic growth

generating

jeopardise that

for the

be

done

the

4

1990s

Derek Keys

local and visiting

with

at

to

,

, .

3

Strictly speaking

invitations

with

a

the same message

they heard

While the

bombarded

dinner engagements

more powerful

delivered impromptu lectures market economics ANC Washington DC for familiarisation course the World Bank

biggest priority Nothing must

, ,

the side

whom

officials were sent Everywhere

parties

,

cocktail

issues the discussions were even more

leaders were

ANC

,

to

Waldmeir

conferences

,

2

According

economic

far

,

secretive

one of

been

Hyslop 1999 : 434 ) .

in

,

on

and the power brokers

case

of

the negotiations

on

In

of

the

discussions amongst power -brokers behind closed doors ' (quoted

).

to

he

According

1

most immediate its

-

.

i.e

to

]

eschewing

]

'( of

IMF

a

's

it

,

an

establish and safeguard



:

'

as

-

to

nurture compromises that would yield only temporarily believed

that the ANC

to

.

positions necessary

Defining the ANC

follows

institutional bedrock

of –

,

'

a



to

the

the country

by

).

:

without

1

– on

forced

political

which would create

see Slovo 1992

economy

[

inwardly based

forge

the negotiating process

'(

]

[



:

The

(

).

certain previously held positions

hampering real democratic advance

Marais continues

sunset clauses but

the

ANC had decided

major positive breakthrough

-

of

at



90

89 –

:

in

'(

least overshadowed

37

a

1992 that

in

from

the crisis 2001 important role engineering the

in

retreating

of

the possibility permanently

late



consensus

by

also acknowledged

an

Joe Slovo not only played

of

)

-

the socio economic features

or

/

.



-

-

a

socio economic programme that could weaken the structural foundations society two nation The political ideological project nation building for

"

for

meant

This

the time

political purposes became paramount and supplanted

7

of

's

]

(

political settlement

8

free trade

).



89

negotiating strategy was the need

the

broad advocacy

90

the ANC approach

Marais summarises

retreated from

at

6

:

1995

ideology has been

economic

its

government

new

.. .[



to

,

(

in

November 1993

to

imperil confidence interventionist regulations excessive fiscal and monetary spending and confiscatory strengthen market forces tax policies and but the most telling signal the commitment

policies

,

in

to

,

its

.

,

problems facing South Africa were confidence related Consequently the African government April 1994 voiced National Congress even before election

39

2:

AND THE 'NEW

THE TRANSITION

'

AFRICA

SOUTH the

PART

wrestle

free

.. .

,

).

its

to

a

of at a

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in

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.

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)

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quoted

1980s

Hyslop

.. [NP .[ ]

the a

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6

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)

regarded

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a

cannot the neo

corporations as

state

big

).

:

60

the

,

,

groups According

such

be as

groups

-

interest

(

,

necessarily

interest

However

concluding that that

social and economic bring about severe violations political According process 1985 this neo

equal and the

.

as

others

view

produce inequalities

groups

numerous

Held 1987

point

to

to

as

so

of )

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the democratic

Dahl and

by

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(

radically changed



equality and hence

of

this

which

idea that power was effectively

see Dahl 1956 his

1985

interests

'(

in

diverse

all

the cards but

1993

several books

wrote

and non cumulative and shared and bartered

treated

)

on

institutions



He propagated

modern corporate capitalism tends great resources and power

arbiter among



)

.. .

of

1956 and 1978

a

a

power groups

book published

was incorporated

was

Transformation

revolutionary

ensure

institutions

comprehensive democratic and capitalist system power was competitive way that equilibrium beneficial was created

society representing

pluralist view

by

it

.[ try

Between

-

disaggregated

but about

American political philosopher Robert Dahl

.

of

such

the

of

.

a

in

, in

the plurality

new

to

that

which

,

are

claimed

illuminating

and shape the terms

ruling group

new

he

subject

was defeated

government

not about superior force

and new alliances that could The ANC was not sweeping aside the

not involve the creation

be

of

,

a

,

by

)



in

:

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]

as a

state

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a

to

.. .[

(

[

itself

reversed

world wide diplomatic

and

new nation

social consent

The changing views

cannot

and the

and

the struggle against

military

allies and dependencies

the negotiations were

because

forge

but had

into the existing it

).

on

-

power

distributed

time

Chris

strike action

abandon

what appeared

,

so

surrender

struggle

broadest basis

of

Mike Morris

to

negotiating

could

the 1970s

called liberation movements its

of of

its to

12

According

state

1993

after the death

).

– 3

:

432

forced

COSATU

Soviet Union and support had disappeared and virtually

1999

political

as

it

favour

this kind

13

the centre

growing radicalisation

The

buttressed

the

to

support

follows

was strongly

of

11

Freund puts apartheid

the

from

impenetrable

Nov 1993 rapidly diminishing the alliance Hyslop verge quoted the dissolution 1999 433

in

)

to

ANC pressure

Umkhontu we Sizwe

a

:

,

a

, :

the relative weight

while

response

140

the ANC and increasingly

158



], ) [

Hani

trend

proclaimed

the SACP looked increasingly divided and irrelevant

when

the

the social and economic spheres

Freund the ANC moved dramatically

to

10

1998

left allies were poorly

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THE

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corporations wield disproportionate influence over the state , and therefore become a threat to democracy and jeopardise the ability of governments to govern business

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1977

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TRIPS

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between market and society

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leading towards major economic and political crisis

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structural

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1997

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widening successful and unsuccessful countries world disturbing contrasts the gap between rich and poor countries and between rich and between

141

'

AFRICA

SOUTH

or

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1994

:

state capacity

.

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income and

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the reasons for the apparent failure

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radicals and pragmatists

Black people

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of

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the RDP meant different things

ideological struggles

power

263

lists conceptual uncertainties

funding

crisis

and South Africa

distribution

Blumenfeld also outlines some

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to

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1998

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the RDP assumed

structural

For decades forces within the white

and oppressed



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commits itself

deep seated

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most unequal patterns

-

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the local economy

ANC 1994

unified

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continuous assessment and accountability

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75

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42

Harare

programmes

notes that the programme must

have been systematically exploited

25

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apartheid

states that the South African economy

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SACTU

.

and sustainable policy

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and the ANC held workshops

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process

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development reconstruction redistribution and reconciliation into

24 The RDP

26

the decision

Trade Unions

post apartheid South Africa

requires the democratisation

1

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Congress

June 1990 COSATU

the RDP requires

programme

now

that organisation

when

1990 onwards

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the South African

process based upon transparency and process reconstruction conditional

and

formation that brought

labour ally was confirmed

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growth

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dispersed

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neo classical school

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Democratic Movement was

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be

together

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173

the system

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1989

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scientific support

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The proposition

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the ANC

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AND THE 'NEW

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that has taken place has often been

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annual report

the ability

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21 ).

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black empowerment and the unbundling via

that

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239 policy should not break competition that

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became neither the paragon nor the mere sop power the transformatory demands that had brought the ANC had mutated revised

into something altogether different 30

of

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fiscal procedures the RDP became the programme

the capitalist classes

dramatically

31

promoting the

institutional relations systems and practices tailored

web

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guise

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pointless and counterproductive game reprioritisation that the RDP Fund and the

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1998

funds away

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29

government

within

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Marais states correctly that popular

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1996

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Nattrass has criticised hand and

deliver

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(

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very

of

27

that allowed

the RDP

observes that

of

1997

Stephen Gelb

as

implemented

capacity

projects were approved 18

a

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:5

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the

OF THE AFRICAN POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE 1993

THE HEGEMONY

per

in

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42

to

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30

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2000

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.

in

the line departments

This was certainly

truth

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that the scope

private sector

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self evident

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.

the case

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as

35

from

the 2000 2001 budget

the RDP had been successfully embedded

not

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personal taxes soared

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the contribution

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27

Companies contributions total tax revenue plummeted from cent 1976 per cent per cent 1990 and 1999 Over the same period mines

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crisis

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responsible for crowding prevent the new government from

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not surprising that the SAF document does not consider social upliftment

of

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36

financial markets

developing country

stimulate private investment and

.

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crowds

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AFRICA '

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AND THE 'NEW

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equivalent

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the year 2000

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This would have required

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rate

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of

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the year 2000

more far

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,

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African economy into the

attain this the GEAR document also emphasised

,



.

thus presupposes global economy

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These measures

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26

to

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GDP

government

brief

continued investor confidence and facilitate

finance

2000

the ANC

and public sector wage

private

adjustment

rate

economic growth

year

per cent

per cent

climate

epartment

projected

400 000 jobs

the exchange

private

both

expenditure

cut back

performance improved

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of

establish

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,

be

reached

financing

follows

accelerated

reform

for

in

and domestic

savings

summarised

should

tariff

check

inflationary impact

39

the ANC

it

,

1993

(

of

is

's

succinctly

expenditure

increases kept

per cent

Mbeki

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,

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38

thrust

consumption

GEAR

and

Although

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and the SACP

without any democratic consultation which went against the grain hallowed tradition democratic practice see Marais 2001 162 GEAR

was

committee endorsed GEAR COSATU sixth national congress government rescind but did not demand that As was the case with

Statement

the

and

the ANC Alliance before being

non negotiable

national executive rejected

the

:

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1996

COSATU be

policy approach

new

justice and prison systems This

somewhat secretive conditions

makers

decision

strong opposition from

Despite

the

declared

small number

under

to

.

released

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only shown

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The GEAR document was drawn

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as

as

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37

to

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,

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40

via

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criminality dealing with crime which will cure concludes that the only way pay immediate and tangible dividends improve the quality visibility and vigour

for

the need

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44

finrand

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exchange rate controls and the

.

highly optimistic projections were part

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addressed

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Asked whether GEAR

.

Stellenbosch

10

on

compiled the GEAR document

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the World

with

out

January 1995 when

financial markets with international financial markets co

André Roux

-

's

South Africa

,

1996

was taken

March 1995

gradual phasing

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This started the

integration

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41

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POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE

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relations

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The thinking behind Growth for The large informal sector acknowledged According

replied that

a

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42

character about certain

on

government document

1996

was ideologically neutral objective GEAR also claimed that there

ideological approach

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1993

,

(

to

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on

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1997 225



a

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1994 report

sector

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the GEAR document

associated with stronger equitable progress towards

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appendix

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7

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Michie

of

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Bank

the World

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Silva

Michie

both infrastructure

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and South Africa

experience

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employment creation

invited the media

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dogmatically that accelerated

stated

Mbeki

Thabo

1996

that public sector investments

crowd

et

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Fallon

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June

international

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46

the reforms which had already been carried out

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the

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policy scenarios historically unsuitable

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section

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inequality transforming the inherited patterns 1996 capital intensive and labour mainly parastatal sector was the The investment

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50

1996

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49

Adelzadeh

GEAR

towards the poor Although some success has been achieved

which they find themselves argued was entirely correct when

poverty traps

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this reprioritising strategy the increased nearly enough counteract the deterioration with

during

approach fundamental problem with The complex linkage between

in

spending

will deteriorate

careful

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48

The new

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1996

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the World

1996

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to

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51 While FDI worldwide

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AND THE 'NEW

THE TRANSITION

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1994 to 2000. During the same period

,

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nation

acknowledged that GEAR had delivered

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,

of

(

semi

and unskilled

-

90

).

Lewis

'

was

1997 focuses

Act

was

zenith 1996

which

and hiring and firing

.

,

the 1970 level

workers remuneration

conflict resolution

are

The real per

the 1970 level

the Labour Relations

of

Employment Act

1996

cent

:

a

in

the real remuneration

organise

59

,

than

distorted picture

the

1999 was about 280 per

,

to

in

/2

in

of .

-

(

40

per cent higher

at

low

for

these

These kinds

part and parcel

have been

of of

.

on in

the

on

increases

all

for

should

highly skilled worker was

' of

on

Basic Conditions

late and

1970 when the labour repressive system

in

).

and about

workers rights

capacity

may not even planning cycle The proposals

IDASA Budget Brief

see

The main regulatory reforms have been

focuses

term

government

and unskilled workers

1970 onwards provides

workers from exceptionally

,

broaden

2001 budget review many

per skilled worker was 110 per cent

The sharp

14

:

as

per

in

capita remuneration while real remuneration

54

the

order

government lack

right direction but too

since 1994

1970

2001

additional R7

economic growth and poverty alleviation

semi

The real remuneration

2001

level

much larger scale

programmes

cent higher than

the third

current medium

, of



's

but

a

an

projects

on

of

appreciable impact

government 53

,

,

Manuel

and

step

the end

spend

transport and communication and improve

acknowledged

of

by



Mbeki

government

South Africa had access to surplus resources

poor communities Given

especially those

completed

have

greater

The government planned

lower the cost

planning

infrastructure

projects

on

living

in

of

standards

initiative was

a new

infrastructure and maintenance projects

opportunities

to

access

taxation

are a

on the

billion

ceiling

but not

a more active and targeted industrial policy . The 2001 budget

showed that , for the first time, the new given

Mbeki

,

stability

consensus that

to

intervention

2001 ,

He called for

in

to

emerging

an

February

in

fiscal balance and macro



needed

articulated

and the Czech

,

economic growth

parliament

in

per

the

The

better working conditions

on

of

state

in

his

In

-

52

per cent of

2 5 –3

GDP in Argentina , Brazil and Mexico , 4 – 5 per cent in Hungary Republic , and 3 – 5 per cent in Malaysia ( see Lewis 2001 : iv ) .

.

from

to

of GDP

'

SOUTH AFRICA

too

2:

of its

PART

1998 seeks

.

encourage

to

The Skills Development Levy

of

.

action

firms

to

to

'

in

rights employed workers who and workers the workplace The Employment Equity Act seeks correct racial imbalances through affirmative provide

to

. to

encompassing

-

all

]

[

,

-

a

. ..

.

by

,

it

the market

more neo liberal strategy

popular

The anti state

attitude

New Right circles in

.

sentiments

-

-

the

in

:

"

American world

-

especially the British

277

signalling

).

1998

FDI follows

The government

through public investment

not possess

and hence adopted

'(

alternative

did

investment sources

– 8

state

it

)

(

that

be

,

of

is in

on

private investment

after 1994 realized

developmental

there

domestic

from

,

in

crowding

created for domestic

the economy and demonstrate

no

[ say



to

for

a

,

146

soon

must

The GEAR document reflects the anti state in

56

if

as

capacity

focus

confident it

is

that

it

should instead

However

better environment

and hence the impetus

is

,

growth

)

,

limited unless

be

.. .

fill

in

and

Luiz

.. .

by to

GEAR assumes that through conservative monetary and fiscal the state disengaging from the economy foreign investment will flow policies designed the vacuum But the success attract FDImay

policy and

a

55

According

, ‘ .

more worker training

these countries

the

of

is

,

in

of

the in

in

are

in

,

21 –

).

3

of

24

JSE to

of

to

-

)

if

has

a

to

the public

.

by

be

scrutinised

be

).

:

is

it

,

no

in

:

as

it

,

of

), ),

in

of of

75 70

-

(

outflows have

and dividend

,

draining the

export benefits have

,

fed

viewed

not

as

be

.

to

.

the

1996

apartheid

291

longer

,

.

via

in

issue

globalised the South African

the

first

economy global

.

of

the chill winds and violent mood swings

to

it

,

be

to

this

is

opened

on

has

not shown

that have

face

volte

South

a

.

'

).

to

government

any

welcomed but

'

it

keep their main listing

corporations

curb

not permit

said corporations would

He

This policy shift has

The

quickly

to

it

June 2001

' or ' 's

'.

too

and

view

six

for

It

a

's ,

.

)

The restructuring would

not

could

president Mandela

that privatisation was

entail the total sale

a

then

or

a

,

-a -

.

in

(

)

to

its

In

six

.

of

1996

the ANC

of

of

not

of



.

these proposals penetrate

the systemic

nature

of

TRC process

did

,

Marais the

opposed



.

other assets COSATU

,

,

of

;

has not met regularly

forum

);

ie

( to

'

key issue endangering

privatisation the partial sale others through securing strategic and the corporatisation commercialisation and outsourcing non

,



core functions

provides

discuss disagreements Since 1996 restructuring plans against labour

the trade union movement

the ANC

National Framework

1996

of

of

if

policy

side

February

the restructuring policy

the surprise

equity partners

According

either the

.

as

its

(

to

It

.

seems

some assets

with

privatisation policy has become

the details

fundamental

meet regularly

has proceeded

,

Alliance

NFA

to

on

,

of

side

each

on

and

government and labour signed

Restructuring Parastatals

representatives

,

per cent

the demise

listings offshore

‘ 21

to

a

,

(

to



that

however the government

declared

see

(

to

see

patriotism

Agreement

agree

can

shift their

result that the share

clear that the government would

patriotic

more

After intense discussions

wishes

the impact

government fifth

South African shareholders

move their main

Day

Business

too much and capitalism

the depression

convenient for De Beers

trade account Hence

-

be

take

acknowledgement

63

'

'

its

,

dividend inflows

unfortunately come too late

necessary

order

public

the real economy but have been repatriated instead leaving South Africa despite enhanced export competitiveness the weaker rand

expected

has

Marais 2001

activities

June 2001 Manuel made

Africa

firms firms

from

and income account dividend outflows can

corporations

other

(

to

. as

such

seems

off

no In

62

better

mid

Afrikaners increased

war diamonds

export earnings that buoyed

64

by the

in

of

;

be

matched

The service

through

perhaps unforeseen

Dimension Data the rules were amended

by

In

the case

to

60 61

for Afrikaner business

company

Lewis 2001

sixth

this perspective

1999 From

Given the controversy around private

per cent

of

59

been good

about

per cent

and administrative costs

,

per cent

abroad has had

firms controlled

in

35

capitalisation

maintained not only

mainly English controlled mega corporations

given

core operations

labour

skilled

.

-

about

(

(

of

the

and 58

shortage

The permission

a

re -

to

order

important aspects

large

of

/

and

establish

discipline

capital was rated second volatility and the rand third labour regulations fourth corruption The cost

itself

by

.

in

-

in

in

society

or

57

reinvent and

ensure that the necessary

by

.

to

which the state needs

sector but also

the capacity

economy without breaking down state and the efficiency the

well developed and well institutionalised Unfortunately this phase South Africa We are the transformation process

government remain not yet the case

involvement in

these countries

In

state capacity

back ’ state

the

'roll

tries to

1993

.

only

POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE

of

HEGEMONY OF THE AFRICAN

at

THE

147

SOUTH AFRICA ' the

-

.. .

.. .

]

(

.





,

NP

in

22

,

the

,

or

(

,

from

them

put the evidence

of

of

.

. .

3 2

.

of

-

of of of

to

the TRC

proper historical context Two business into the most blatant examples corporate myth making were the submissions and testimonies the Chamber already Mines and the AAC We have discussed their twisted version the truth a

is

of

which

,

of

be

their

in

to

are

a

the inability

the actions

look forwards rather than

of

is

.

.

inclined

were most

and apartheid

aware

historical perspective

Business people

deplorable

is

backwards But what

to

,

managerial elite

's

ask

to

perhaps too much

in

's

of

racial capitalism

when

1970

expect today

parents and grandparents would require

,



:

as

which sees

view

a

on

of

,

activity

the system

capital

,

most notably Afrikaner

although

did

the business community

entrepreneurial

from

.

black

whole benefited (

a

,

as

black workers and the destruction

of

One

,

this argument business

of

According

to

exploitation

some sections

follows

racial capitalism held that apartheid was beneficial integral part premised system was the an

business because

of

system

it

a

part of

white

)

for (

apartheid

of

then described the two dominant positions

as

It

we

the

at

by

).

of

To

.

exploitative

68

to

Fernández



to

.

our society has

how

the search

eternal

We need

it

truth

place

of

and lose interest

is

place

from

the history

changeful



varying

truth

hearings the recalcitrant attitude displayed business acknowledge thatmany members today managerial elite were not their

present positions before

section

its

serious

destiny

DP

a

to

,

its

NP

deserved

per cent

2

a its

less than

exonerated

of

to

or in

the PFP

per

and closely

.

to

be

.

While

from

double standards were

's

DP

.

in we

are

-

's

-

successor

support from

tell whether

,

the reality

DP

's



,

in

per to

where

and perhaps unintended

2

:

In

67

mitigation

got

in

lose faith

Armesto 1997

able

universal

outside

or

we have

to



:

in

time

know how

should

need

the

and utilising

creating

electoral support declined

increased

not deserve

it

We

embedded

to

66

He continues

for

bonanza

be

,

and

and the corporate sector

strange

1999 The TRC

of

NP

DP .

,

has had

the NP

1999 the

per cent did

more than

the

cent

business sector

the

a

to

for

in

1994

7

to

only

associated with

While

and the

10

NP

on

the

1994

in

-

effect

come

national

and

was delegitimised for

participation

sector

repressive labour patterns was condoned

as

,

under which the

the

of

the TRC

policies but the corporate

apartheid

blow

common

).

The skewed approach

cent

the

,

is of

with

ever noted publicly On ”

stand conflated

was

corporate South Africa whose rarely

"

:

interest

still

Individual

mainly the whites

2001 302

'(

65

in

,

corporate

,

the contrary

interest

case

TRC

moral and legal culpability

The evasion

the

social landscape

devastating

in a

complicity

reconciliation

most obviously

The

context that demonstrably

antagonisms

and

while collective amnesia

.

the name

in

condoned

of

,

remembrance was demanded was sanctioned

cleavages

,

inequalities

enjoyed

[ of

-

existing

reinforce

and ideological

-

broader socio economic

a

in

function

minority

)

oppression and the corresponding benefits that

if

AND THE 'NEW

of

THE TRANSITION

2:

in

PART

the

1

48

,

long

harm

alleged

victim

the

by

as to

-

term

of

cast more

(

profitability

as a

whole

is

in a

then business

the path

of of

's

,

placed obstacles as

),

-

pro business position

In

.

If

.. .

apartheid

).

'(

)

by

, ,

of



doing business eroded South Africa skills base and undermined productivity and growth apartheid was this view the impact economy

6

mining houses and the armaments industry benefited more than others para position mainly argued apartheid The other business claims that raised the costs

the

,

.

, off

'

let

to

. be

to

are

,

-

-

),

example

but also

to

Mandela

for

by

.

(

of

return

.

in

is

tax

When opportunities

charity

myth making and image building

)

an

at

'.

the Bandoeng

the United

1960

general assembly

countries

( a

accepted

Nations

with nine western

declaration

1965 the general assembly

resolution that colonialism

and

international peace and security but were also crimes

threatened

,

In

).

through charity

debt

(i

in

an

be



not only

kinds

end speedily

unanimously accepted apartheid

Rupert International

apartheid

charity

the government

from

in

African and Asian countries decided the Bandoeng conference ncluding apartheid was all manifestations evil that

brought

abstaining

and not

its

some

colonialism

should

for

to

of

29

patronage

the Black

them the hook rather cheaply government responsibility and should

system

for

all are

sorts

,

In

corporations

often misused not only

1955

that

of

,

through the normal

financed

claim

opportunities

schools and hospitals

given publicly they

to

amounted

off their

pay

a

has already

Building

businesses

,

was supported

corporations Mike

large

by

of

The opportunity given

to

69

Barlow

1993

first view was

COSATU

this book . The second view

of

the author

the different business organisations Rand and Anton and Johann Rupert

submissions

Rosholt

70

, and

Forum

to

the

Management

and 8 ). The

7

of the ANC , SACP,

the submissions

in

,

and articulated

In

supported

' (paras

or collaborator

,

as a partner

than

of

system

POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT SINCE

OF THE AFRICAN

all

THE HEGEMONY

of

20

40

of

cent

per cent 20

:

20

of

the poorest

40

of

income

the top

per

. ).

10 4

of

In

.

opportunism

probably

for special interest groups

.

to

of

entitlements

the public purse

loot likewise

is

for

a

that

selfish

state

,

in

:

per

agreed

upon

society

is

civil

countries

relatively

underdeveloped

post colonial elites

tend

to

peripheral

-

that because

,

in

).

18

:

'

the (

point

weak

of

(

looting

,

If

.

Nürnberger makes and economically

1997

than

power claims

necessary common

between adversaries

culture

exploiting the

When one party succeeds the other come naturally

see table

The origin



ten

times higher

follows

the top

1975 the income

of

as

as

as

put

years

,

as

as

among blacks

of

it

in

was

1996

past

the black poor and the unequal distribution

lies with successive governments

of . of

.

of

,

.

also

true

of

the rulers and their

scenario

is

,

-

of

are

to

the

this rather depressing

Africa

.

South

if

seems

rather than exposed Lack financial mismanagement and

for the self aggrandisement as

to in

-

post colonial elite

It

102

protected

bureaucratic inefficiency

scarce resources

:

1998

(

'

clienteles

illicit income

).

misallocation

of

Lucrative channels accountability leads

of

led

in

consolidate their power and their privileges the state apparatus The absence development effective democratic controls institutionalised corruption

the

74

the poorest

.

while the lower

poor

great among whites

it

Adam

per

per cent have become poorer But white

white households was five times higher

al

73

;

cent

et

is

also not

cent

top

the

30

among whites over

,

cent have become richer poor are not nearly

the

similar process has occurred

per

of

,

times higher than those

60

(

A

72

and

incomes

the

. .)

see table

was

1996

11

10 in 4

households

coloureds and Indians 15

of

the case

In

71

.

against humanity

49

PART

3

Colonialism , segregation , and apartheid ( 1652 – 1994 )

Chapter

5

The systemic period

( 1652 –

colonialism

.

1800 )

+

, the power

The Dutch East India Company

5 1

of Dutch

constellation at the Cape , and land deprivation

of the

,

,

to

.

,

).

in

.

of

most

centuries

,

and

the

by

to

luxury

in

,

vanity

was one

the and

of

in

.

,

almost 200 years

While the

their lifestyle

,

lasted

shipping and

,

be

of

their Calvinist austerity

it

commercial companies

overemphasised

became marked

with

the

18th

at

number

a

of

by

the largest and

and early

Typical

cannot easily

century

the VOC

one

Dutch

by

17th

uniting

of

.

in

.

of

the

Although

.

Cape stopovers

and was fraught with

the VOC and Holland

for

century

Dutch were originally known

corruption

Bay

Table

privileges and powers granted

The dominance

trade during the 17th

into

the 17th

India and Indonesia

enjoyed monopolistic

government

half

the

.

developed

for

,

it

time

1602

of

.

in

formed It

had been

extensive interests

eight months

was

3

1994

ch

(

Jaffe

Europeans

at

,

by

1

of

-

contacts

:

to

in

on

it

1500 and

fortified provision station

successful commercial companies

second

the South African coast between

including scurvy

undertakings

commercial

Dutch

and 400

six

the

,

voc

East took

but the

the 17th century

000 Portuguese

resources and people a

the

numerous dangers

that

during

regulate the benefits that sailors had long derived from

The voyage

VOC

600 Dutch

least

these pre settlement

established

VOC

to

to

1652

at

)

to

. In

-

large scale plundering

,

In

ships landed

One consequence

contest

significant portion

has been estimated that

English and French

Portuguese monopoly

BEIC

,

. in

moved

retain

of

It

1700s the British East India Company

the early

1602

latter managed

The

Angola and

and Dutch Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie

established

order

Congo

1600

established

1650

centuries, Portugal exported

19th

in

Mozambique

the

to

slaves to America , mainly from

million

5

a

than

)

more

the 16th

from

it



,

has been estimated that ,

important part of Portuguese trade

an

(

trading formed

(

.' Slave

,

the Portugese

by

century the trade route around the Cape was monopolised

16th

the

During the

153

,

He

to

90

of

,

,

or

, by

to

It

.

or

. to

to

both

,

a

in

1659

.

in

1660

he

or

'(

In

.

cattle

1657

Autshumao

Autshumao

told

their

from

)

the

Riebeeck

April

the

for

62 ),

van

Khoikhoi

of

the

.

to

)

grazing land was available

at

employees

Robben Island

Van

their cultural

disturb

'

,

of

the Goringkaikona tribe was banned

1652

independent farmers

broke out between the VOC and

brought back for peace negotiations

the Cape –

,

or

some

(

as

up

Riebeeck

Khoikhoi

originally applied this policy very

.

-

freeburghers

nothing

of

to

do

,

commander

After the war the Khoikhoi leader Harry the Strandloper

enough

of

, at

on

the

avoid costly wars

Jan

.

its

it

,

of

plunder

in

for

least 8000

.

,

war

little

them

a

Africa

first

and the San

southern

but after the company had released

contracts and set

the Cape was

The VOC originally depended

had lived

and socio economic stability

strictly

the white

who were

treat the Khoikhoi with respect and integrity

large part

sheep

for cattle The company was therefore anxious ordered

the VOC and white

collective name for two indigenous

in

.

-

The Khoisan

years before the Dutch arrived

Consequently

other

of .

Bay

Table

Khoikhoi who kept cattle and

hunter gatherers

military

the attitude

, is

.

This

the at

its

)

(

by

post

,

:

the Khoisan

different

during the 18th and 19th centuries

When the VOC established the

:

(

the

of

. even

,

ones

adopted

of

only

by

weaker

colonists during the Dutch period but remained pastoral farmers

their minds

interests

by

,

on

its

to

will

was not

This approach

the Cape

was justifiable for the stronger

its

.

violent means

enforce

clashed

it

)

or

group

groups

a

of

,

the notion that whenever the economic

country

military conflict

that justified

colonists and was deeply engraved

population groups

countries

inhabited

through plunder

(



)

gold

(

and the Dutch on

large inflow

of

the VOC

Trekboere

specific country could

enrichment was brought

methods

as

and exploitation

,

plunder

or (

Europe was that

This mercantilist mentality

rivals

was based

and was

orthodoxy

the economic

1880

of

it

could ensure

century

18th

had better trade routes and more ships for colonial exploitation

.

than

it

and

its

),

trade

if

only become rich

if

among the emerging nation states

1500

1996

1795

in

was dissolved

period

(

time

the

During the mercantilist

a

by

almost bankrupt

being

the reputation

time Kindleberger

rapidly during the second half

declined

it

of

).

214

also acquired

the most corrupt multinationals

It

one

time

of

most profitable companies of

AND APARTHEID

.

all

SEGREGATION

,

.

it

LONIALISM

3: C

its

PART

was

that

not

colonists and the

1

54

Riebeeck

diffencive oorlogh

We have won this country

welck a

ende

recorded

his

rechtvaerdigh

wij ook voornemens

just manner through

a

Van

in

,

toegevallen

?

'

intruder

,

,

,

is



'

too small who has the greater

't

,

the foreign

swaert gewonnen

behouden

the country

Ons dan haer lant door

'( '

waren

te

't

als met

diary

:

his

answer

the true owner in

:

right

or

:

Autshumao then asked

If

.

Khoikhoi

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF DUTCH COLONIALISM defensive war, and it

our intention

is

it.' Leipoldt

to keep

[ 1999 ]; author 's

1938

of a

of ,

'.

the

the

time the

in

the

indigenous the

as

'

due

exceptions

,

.

for

the scene was set

a

and with

,

in

abundance

,

own and exploit

to

class

it

owning

in

,

,

,

of

With land available

.

to

own land

colonists

also denied indigenous people the

colonial authorities and white governments right

and

depriving

land and surface water relatively easy With

inhabitants

Xhosa and

the fact that

system

army made the task

British

-

commando

1913 which

native reserves

an

well disciplined

area

those against

especially

were very bloody

guns horses the

introduced modern

total land

of

century

the Land Act

few

's

South Africa

these land wars

the 19th

in

of

per cent

Although some Zulu

This process culminated

colonial

250 years and sparked

for more than

that continued

of

aside only

8

set

.

many violent conflicts

beginning

,

land deprivation



process

seminal . This was

is

a

of

argument

-

's

Riebeeck

Van

the

translation ).

white land increasing

ever

the

and

,

at

disposal the VOC

monopoly

,

favouritism

,

long

,

as

could use legal and illegal moral and immoral measures

its the

representatives

as at

its

,

practical purposes the VOC and

company

all

For

-

its

.

the

a

.

corporal

business interests and entrench the

charter

unto itself Consequently

support

,

-

of

first successful

a

,

tariffs

matter the

that

privileges its

.

-

, of

on – in

such

for

dismissal without legal process

promote

terms

As

,

.

Cape

-

a

law

privileges given

to

,

so

punishment and

slavery to

,

corruption

it

patronage

With enormous power

mercantilist measures

and

one

received extraordinary

the

, all

adapted

company

as

a

of

the Dutch government

from

was

history

it

in

companies

share

trading

,

commercial property

colony but the colony

Dutch

-

The Cape was not

a

.

demand for unfree black labour

.

commercial interests were served

.

in

,

all

to

corn

the mercantile

terms

easy

and other

class

,

of

members

imported 250

on

land and financial support

extend

.

Thus

he

wished

.

he

the governor had the power

But

1731

.'

so

did

1705 and 435

in

in

farms given

freehold

supplying the VOC with meat

his favourite officials

his own way

,

freehold

260

of

,

to

in

the number

whomever

,

produce

to

,

them

also gave contracts to

He

50

's

privileges and favours

Huguenots and gave

1682

give land grants

for

sorts

ability

der Stel were both authorised

van

the Cape and each

governorship

increased from

of

besides

der Stel

to

freeburghers his

to

During Simon

Adriaan at

expand the agricultural sector van

to

Simon van der Stel and Willem

and

.

freeburghers

,

including the

agricultural favouritism

1705



the officials

system

In

governor himself were also benefiting from

)

's

fact that some

corrupt

.

not complain about the

Simon van der Stel

(

did

initially

from

of

who benefited

,

The freeburghers

155

prominent and wealthy burghers confront Willem Adriaan about

of

for

.

all

'

.'

he

,

,

by too

in

up

to

set

at

as

in to

too

,

,

wild

and

Khoikhoi

ongoing solved

.

be

an

).

14

its

:

,

importing slaves from

and

Europe

.



or

-

in

of

65

the settlement

never

colonial possessions

knechts

both black slaves and

parallel labour forces Contracted European wage first choice Company knechts originally employed free white population

the

time the at

.

for

five years

In

,

.

independent component

the

farmers

of

to

.

's

,

the

in

'(

in

the first

of

on

importing wage labourers years

and

Khoikhoi

had

labour problems should

those who were

sailors were hired out an

or

1950

favour

labour was the company knechts became

De Kock

how the company

white knechts were used

soldiers

their liberty

as

for

favour

Consequently

but

Jan van Riebeeck until 1717 there was

was between

,

in

The argument

of

at

the Cape

regarded

that the aborigines

's

the arrival

From

of

left undisturbed

1652

from

they were

the company could not enslave the

stipulated

law

subjugate

of

,

In

.12

because the Dutch be

any case

the drier Eastern

as

;

considered employing the Khoikhoi

expensive and

. .)

see section

the company

5 4

serfs

(

or

inboekelinge

The Voc had experienced labour problems

those

it

in

,

.

in

.

to

1721 the pastoral farmers started

uncontrollable

allowed

Slaves were

farming operations

the extensive

.

as

Cape

the Western

the Cape

1658 arrived

the VOC had been

In

the

Angola

from

of

.2

5

Northern Cape

debate

land and the

parallel

The slaves were almost exclusively used

tillage farmers

also not suited

should

became

.

of

slaves imported

174

independent farms

as

,

In

control the acquisition

only one year after nine employees

illegally

Khoikhoi

the

Cape Town

from

Imported slaves and imported knechts labour patterns until 1717

and

the

annual fees

The first group

156

a

to

Khoikhoi

further away

VOC

Adriaan

The permits issued for loan

of

As

."

payment

this

Cape Town and allowed

areas far from

Trekboere moved

the

increasingly difficult

minor

gave grazing permits

after the demographic collapse

increased rapidly

1713

farming Willem

tillage

1703 onwards

from

trade with the

and

paradoxical way

of

barter

the

farms

to

Trekboere

colonists

to

farms

-

.

,

launched pastoral farming when and loan

After

wealthy landed gentry around Cape Town

was the father

van der Stel

the privileges

and himself

.

While Simon

a

wheeling and dealing created

group

decided against the governor

the freeburghers

of

favour

in

and

of

,

and officials

officials

Amsterdam

in

revolt the authorities

to

freeburgher

arbitrarily



dispense

to

continued

did

he of

Only then

labour

a

shortage

the colony experienced

a

food and

van der Stel



Willem

.

of

an

overproduction

Adriaan

of

governorship

a

during

of

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3:

the

PART

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF DUTCH COLONIALISM Cape , entering into contracts with the land -owning class .

,

of

to

,

as

).

14



to

to

to

of

all

-

less free

white wage

-e

new

the

arning

when former Afrikaner small farmers Europe

of

policy

imported

the Cape

lazy

At

,

was said that the white knechts were unreliable

, .

importing slaves

to

give preference

at or

).

1986

13

Cameron

to

)

it

(

During the debate

become

further

failure

the

until 1717 when the council

with one opposing vote

decided

farms

knechts were

even

The dispute about using either free white labour from unresolved

5

all

This presaged

free

Willem

per cent

free wage earning

:

,

white proletariat Boucher

slaves remained

1703

in

to

.

.

century

,

of

in

10

:

(

to

,

.

of

the free population

the 19th

only

their numbers declined

1800

(

became

By

.

the century

South Africa until the emergence

the end

a

at

wage labour class

teachers

per cent

1

than

as

mainly

used

status

the knechts opted

their number had declined

1740

population During the rest

free

But when

of a

and

Cape Town almost

from

off their

cast

grant grazing permits and loan

in

,

Trekboere

become landowners

of

areas

in

colonists

for the knechts

easy

been estimated

as much as 50 per cent

the Cape Shell 1994a

der Stel started

van

by

Adriaan

order

in

wage labourers

was not

to

1703

far

Until

in

entire free population

it

of

free wage - earning knechts comprised

It has

66

1687 , the

the

that, in

.

a

,

.

At

.

policy decided

import

.

The first

.!

more slaves were imported

The second phase

By

This

39

to

final phase

the

slavery

time from

slaves

the

Indian

subcontinent

,

,

archipelago

the total

to

.

and price

1652 until 1808 about 63 000 slaves were imported

Indonesian

000

of

.

1838

roughly

then

marked economic expansion which sharply

of

demand

with

increased

had in

it

,

and

a

coincided for

)

1838 the

to

From

000

was finally abolished

this institution

increased

29

population was

.

,

lasted until 1808 when the British suspended the slave trade

the Cape from

Madagascar

,

even

.

,

Following this decision

freeburgher population

(

larger than

already

and was

that stage the slave population numbered

by

.

At

Europeans

to

at

Cape into three phases

the

,

about 2000

history

1652 until 1717 when the council

slaves rather than

the

68 Davenport

1986

of

phase lasted from

1808

that region

;

Cameron

:

slavery

in

,

Boucher

the

1838

of

the

We can divide

slave

in

This pattern was perpetuated

Cape into

a

-

in

turning the South Western

.

:

1991

and slave owners

)23

until slavery was abolished

labour

This was cheaper

the same time company

marketing slaves

(

colony with chattel slaves

in

as

corrupt officials joined forces

and

and

VOC

slavery

,

importing in

in

officials were involved

vis

à -

their independence

.

vis

and promoted

vested interest

a

independent class with

relatively

the

-

in

,

to

to

perform drunkenness and unwilling manual labour that stage the slave owning landowners the Western Cape had already developed into

inclined

and 157

PART

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3:

,

Mozambique most

1750

contributing about

with each region

had been

slaves

subcontinent .

imported

quarter

a

of the total. Until

Indonesia

from

the

and

Indian

For the next 30 years most slaves came from Madagascar

during the last 40 years most came

(Shell , in Eldredge

Mozambique

from

, and and

than

of

its



of

50

It

.

more

per cent

slave

the

dropped

onwards When

.

1800

slaves had been born

in

of

,

parcel

increased again from

,

1838

moment

per cent

the 1760s Although this percentage

1790s

in

slavery was abolished

which more than

in

)

the

in

50

per cent

reached

.

the

was born locally

population

abolished

of

point

slave populations that reproduced

few

70

,

ie

(

'

creolisation

of

slavery was

before

themselves

below

Cape were one

it

Slaves at

at

the

Morton 1994c ).

As part and

creolisation process

the

,

(

).

the colony ibid

was extensive

there

expected

to

,

.

males among both the freeburgher

.16

populations this was

be

Given the preponderance

of

,

miscegenation between slaves and whites and between slaves and the Khoisan Children

born

and

slave

white fathers and

from

the

' in

'



'

in

be

,

,

large

be

'

virtual enslavement

a

Khoisan

of

captured

)

(

small gradual

;

,

in

the inboekstelsel will dealt with Eldridge and Morton 1994c Morton

58

the 19th

the Cape was relatively small

.

slaves

at

of

chattel

the 16th

)

Africa

centuries

to

from

,

million slaves exported mainly to

the more than

1652 1834

-

-

the master slave relationship

the West Indies and the Americas from

number

economy and the ,

the Cape

(

in

)

of

slavery 12

to

of

.3

The role nature

Compared

1

in

.

-

.

,

in

. .

5 4

See Penn

via

.

(

as

,

was using mainly The

booked

labour pattern during the 18th

Eldridge and Morton 1994c

5

in

of -

-

of

the Khoisan population

in

in

,

like Bastaard Hottentot serfs section

in

in

Khoisan children could

also

unfolding coercive

illegality

greater detail

due

was decreed that not only

step

percentage

to

in

(“

,

or

when

a

the

In

of 25 .

1775

Hottentot children like slaves was

children

system

which was used

century using Bastaard the direction

their parents

in

of

system

-

until

serfdom

that

the Khoisan into unfree labour The inboekstelsel

legal labour

Bastaard Hottentot children but the age

booking

it

a

to

only became

labour

indentured

turn the majority

in

form

early

From

service

were called

century

18th

colonial subjects

inboekstelsel

the

the

of

,

a

beginning

the

of

.

masters This was course

new category

these children were illegally bound

18th century

other words

as

they became regarded

rapidly

so

Their numbers grew

of

.

-

Bastaard Hottentots

Khoikhoi unions

slave and

from

)

result The children born

a

a

freed

.

as

.

slave mothers were usually freed More than 1000 female slaves were also

the

They were used

labourers on wheat and wine farms servants and artisans

domestic

gentry

small landed maintain

and

a

period of

a

180 years

Cape , and

as

huge role

in

a

. Slave labour

enabled

a

Town

to

elite in and around Cape

mercantile

luxurious colonial lifestyle

a

the Western

in

Cape Town . Slaves played

in

building the Cape economy over

COLONIALISM

almost two centuries and live

,

as

for

mostly

PERIOD OF DUTCH

a

did

.

in

of the

The

.

South

in

on

labour history would have

VOC had not introduced chattel slavery

the Cape

Crais 1992

:

's

imagine what the country

the 20th century

labour patterns at

the

if ,

frontier

the

,

by

of

18

it

,

in

.

or

slaves a

They

proper

the wealthy landed

the one hand

and poorer white

,

on

in

the

.

up for

in

-

in

the

Western Cape and

frontier areas who could not afford slaves

to

in

in

of

1808

of

the

result

,

slaves

wine farming

a

of

the price

The lowering

As .

boom

for

the demand

1660

last three

the slave trade

.

a

to

The suspension

in

.

dollars



to

dollars

when more ships visited the Cape

sharp increase wine

100

the economic upsurge during

in

rix

350

led

British tariffs

a

coincided with

on

slaves increased

to

the 18th century

from

rix

).

.

Owing

-

an

of

adult male slave doubled

1750

in

dollars of

rix

more

was mainly

see Müller 1981a

The price

decades

the Western Cape

(

in

the other

slaves

society divided along racial

economic stratification between

socio

gentry and merchants farmers

,

,

.

also

a

to

in

of

but

Slaves were not only

exploit slave labour most profitably through

labour Slave labour not only created a

,

lines

position

the Dutch

smaller farmers

20

capital tied say

amount

colonists

.

as

,

but also

of

the

.

Because

a

the

division

slaves

and agricultural

domestic

Cape

more prosperous farmers who could afford

were also

on

of

the pastoral farmers

of

expensive

slaves owned

owned

the Western

in

the

of on

wheat and wine farms

Western Cape

200

slaves were privately

privately owned slaves were used for

too

workers

number

the company and throughout the remainder

period the great majority

Most

most

,

exceeded those

After 1692

of

.

the VOC

of

were owned

years after the provision station was established the

40

the first by

In

).

40 – 6

been

slavery

of

To

Africa one should

to

try

the enduring impact

Cape

Western

pastoral farmers and Khoisan

servants had ramifications that reached into the second half appreciate

as

. the

to

.

virtual enslavement

(

slave relationship

Slavery served

Although slavery was

history

the economic

exploiting human

of

-

the master

its

,

to

influences

children

presence

to

of

the frontier on

Bastaard Hottentots

extension

)

,

and captured Khoisan

originally not extended have important

system

first illegally but later legally

(

easily

-

of

model that

the cost

coercive and divided social

a

and creating

led

,

labour

at

advantages were achieved

These economic

of

.

17

beautiful and spacious Cape Dutch homesteads

in

THE SYSTEMIC

slaves

159

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

,

a

of

years before

slaves held

the

the total slave population

.

of

,

Cordeur

in

Cameron

in

;

6

:

the

of

slavery its

As

ten

result

slavery was more profitable

1992

(

, of

to

be

.

.

Crais

To

to

,

.

)

of

of in

.

at

in

or

his



the –

law

-

,

(

,

infrequently

the

by

,

of

any

intrusion

the

early South Africa by

the

‘,

resisted

great

the the

the distances

patriarchal families

affairs

family

on

to

,

when

by



century

the 18th

the head

commercial

'

. of



,

to

dominated

and

the legal space needed

Consequently

and

the frontier areas

more independent

The VOC

larger wine

areas became unmanageably

it

,

autonomous

slaves

this relationship

or

.

.

frontier declined dramatically

infant children

).

intervene

even

create

frontier in

.

's

became

During the second half

virtually

the

the

.

on

.

's

a

as

was always prepared

ability

and was extended

more authoritarian

Cape Town and

for the

13

,

where

the



even

structure was well established

it

,

18th century

patriarchs company

reinforced notions

assume full responsibility

masters threatened the good order

the 17th century

to

the

of

at

the end

family

between

Roman Dutch

,

'

:

Shell 1994a

during the

interests

slave owners and partly

The VOC only intervened

either slaves

This patriarchal family estates

attitude towards

the

applicable

Dutch law

on

of

(

behaviour

the

nature

owing

private matter left the disciplining

authority

the masters

7

see

slavery

ch

Cape

the Roman

slaves who were not only his property but also

of

the

challenged

are

head The development

their masters and never seriously interceded

the hands

authoritarian

patriarchal

usually male

from

which the master had

The VOC regarded

when

free land

as

by at

the Cape

to

in

behaviour

of

abundance

.

of

,

the

from

patriarchy

the VOC

from

focus

appreciate

the slaves were integrated Robert Shell describes

of

the Cape partly

to

necessary

violence on

is

it

,

which

manage and control slaves

based to

are

,

the Cape

ultimately

the

the

families

into at

Those strategies

authoritarian role typically played the patriarchal family partly resulted

at

reinstated

.

abolition

special strategies

family structure that developed

of

,

to

of

Cape

the Western

per cent

,

the time

slave societies

strategies used

160

After the British

slavery the number

15

its

to

30

from

of

,

years

but also

The exploitation



.

needed

was

wine

from

).

81

all

than

all

proportion

the

2

: In

the Eastern 1986

the the

its

last

at

enough

made

economy contracted

Cape

5

Eastern

the expansion

many slave owners during the last

Cape increased

Strangely

out

1708 . During this

in

pay higher prices for slaves

worst during this period

,

the

During

for

in

a

liability

abolition

of

only prepared

1825

.

British tariffs

at

slave labour was

became

large profits that could

increase their workload

to

tended

not

were

greatest contribution

of

wine farmers

Owing

to

.

Cape economy

its

slavery made perhaps

period

they had been

in

became three times more expensive than

30 –

3:

in

PART

family

gradually

OF DUTCH COLONIALISM

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD

at on

The slaves

it

Shell

see

.

The average

was therefore possible

James and Simons

,

near the homestead

slaves

but this

seldom

Dutch authorities stipulated

and that punishment

chained

,

or

whipped

grip

,

the

.

,

and cruel

17th

treatment

and

The

18th

relatively

low

the slave

one might have expected

demand

but owing

the

labour increased

61

1

,

would improve

this period

and therefore

,

in

1808

the

Cape

in

remaining slaves the

economic expansion

at

treatment

of

the

.

When the slave trade was suspended

the

,

speculators

may have discouraged careful and humane

masters

every

slave

by

,

during

system

and sold

violent

at

when slaves were imported

centuries

,

slave

relentless

for

Cape

be

on

the

occasion

by

nature

of

,

uncontrolled

slavery could

the slave

).

of

(

:

movement see Shell 1994a Although the chains slavery were mainly psychological subtle

in

of

firm

a

maintain

one

13

to

and for their inclination ch

,

population

it

,

fear

to

by

three

18th century and

the second half may partly account for the burghers

a

the

on

the first half

'

of

in

one

and

adult burgher

The fact that adult male slaves outnumbered

.

to

by

four

cruel

,

coercion could

family

's

This type

typical

be of

.

was more common



that psychological coercion

of

to

say

.



of

control

that

Although severe physical coercion was often used

and children

cause great distress

prices

'

.

They could complain about

the same punishment the husband and father meted out

perhaps more correct

males

or

'

.

The

Although the slaves

to

his

wife

limited

to

be

privately owned slaves should not should

of

happened

.

,

entirely without rights

internal

to

not

their

is

they were

,

were owned

treatment

domestic corrections

good behaviour and subordination

be

impose

to

all kinds

could use

ill -



discipline

of

patriarchal families should not

The slaves were the property and personal responsibility

he

.

,

master and

be

of

).

:

romanticised

that

slaves

to

slaves and

,

six

four

boast more than

The fact that slaves were members

fairly

Cape was

29

1989

mode

South

in

or

them

the American 20

farms could

varied between

accommodate

the Caribbean

remained

relatively small groups among small agricultural

to

slaveholding

in

of

handful

in

Only

a

.

units

in

was the case

large concentrations or

as

the fact that there were

were widely dispersed

Khoisan

slave owning households

(

by

,

plantations

in

slaves and indentured

.

promoted

feudalistic order

.

that chattel

The patriarchal structure

obedient

see section

status and power entrenched

of the

the 18th century

-

of

the Cape ensured

the

of the master - slave

the nature

no

at

The hierarchies

the end

of

institutional structure that subjugated the

of

Khoisan

395 – 9) . The autonomy

:

. ).

represented

of

majority

1994a

determined the

not

, but also

relationship

only

of

patriarchal family

it' (Shell

5 4

but only buttress

not ( and could not) interfere with family

state that would

at

governance

colonial

the

a

(

constituting

PART

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3:

sharply

, and

slaves were probably treated more harshly

then

ever before

than

also treated more humanely

imported slaves

,

than

of

.

.19

of

,

of

.20

as

.

's

.

of

. of

,

in

(

of

in

the

The fact that

.

Shell

in



slaves were

an

independent

the breeding ground for protest

-

as

development

of

,

and integrated with

was that slaves

away and became

mountains near Cape Town

or

common

who sought shelter

)

no

. of

the

the

.

see

were

control and discipline

agricultural units

in

'

drosters absconders (

a

.

so

,

:

;

-

.

5 5

and social oppression

Only two minor uprisings occurred

have served

What was more

Africa

serious slave uprisings during

easily suppressed

prevented

consciousness that could

South

and economic conditions

Lötter 1997

Cape

large number

households

movements

the

but both were

,

farmers

at

of

scattered among

slavery

different

but always effective modes

new

remarkable that there were

a

is

1808 and 1825



186 years

was exerted

unfree labour

economic exploitation

see also section

completely but social

of )31 .

in

which

it

,

although

.

,

; for

ch

,

the

When slavery and serfdom

we consider the strict and often cruel forms

over slaves

162

one

changing socio political

it

If

:

1994a

13

designed

as

described

political domination

slavery became less

ran

in

be

can

for placing the

the proprietary aspect disappeared

legal measures The history

new

justifiably

vehicle

century and replaced with other forms

domination over unfree labour remained ways and via

the most

relationships

legal aspect

21 –

,

labour repression

the 19th

the labour

employee

of

proprietary

social domination aspect more

were abolished early

it

,

-

at

the frontier became

or

the

white employer black

was still one

of

,

and

by

a

,

its

in

important

servitude

when

The social domination

ingredient

permanent

the 20th century

When the patriarchal family

personality

the slave was slowly broken

the patriarch

a

by

important characteristics Khoisan

desired

white masters became

Africa until

of

in

South

in

,

of

black slaves

pattern

pattern

slavery was perhaps

dominated the slave

Through this social domination the personality

down and reshaped

objects

of

patriarch

of

the most significant aspect

family

which the family

in

the way

the Cape only

of

.

property Within

regard the slaves

at

wrong

and

running households and rearing children

to

would

the

an

important role

be

It

played

social

and

Another unique

the Cape were domestic servants

female slaves in

.

female slaves Nearly

domestic acculturation

imported slaves

the Cape was the special treatmentmeted out

at

slavery

all

of

characteristic

those

than

at

was higher

and were therefore

slaves were reared within

The fact that these

patriarchal families implies that their level domination

slaves were regarded

Creole

as

slaves

Cape between imported slaves

to

more valuable and more trustworthy

at

.

locally born

,



'(

Creole

or

and Kreools

),

An important distinction was made

the

(Armstrong and Worden 1989 : 151 ) .

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF DUTCH COLONIALISM

the

.

,

,

15

). unfree as



the an

its

coloured

to

],

legacy

is

:



Although slavery

abolition was announced

'

of

a

was

,

1838



1652

pattern

conventional South African attitude

its

its its

long duration

-

:

(

its

[

when

the

in

,

.

into the 20th century

efficiency

414

1994a

institutionalised

races

Khoikhoi and Khoisan ,

Trekboer partnerships with the

.4

owners

momentum

).

:

'(

1927

was

energies

82

this day

5

to

in

of

hubris

element

1834

slavery

convenience

also believes that slavery

died

African

South African culture

labour that was perpetuated institution

check

,

its

,

period

the true gestation

could

historical literature The slave period

of

in

its

and

suppression

South

... Only

Britain

)

most powerful empire

near universal deployment

Macmillan

was difficult to stop

its

, slavery

South Africa

truly frightening aspect

The

Armstrong and

slavery at the Cape as follows :

its

the world

's

of

in

;

1994c

.

Shell characterises Once begun

and Morton

for

3)

Eldridge

(

1989 : ch

Worden

Penn , in

(see

of

in the Cedarberg

,

South Africa

abundance

the

in

-

words

)

's

(

the engine

-

the in

Shell

slavery and

the enslavement

,

whites the growing independence land

and the chronic scarcity

of

the

,

of

process was the superior military power

patriarchal families

in

During the almost 250 years

of

.

least some parts

the Cape colony

of

Africa

South

,

,

at

in

serfdom

in

was

slavery

convenient and unstoppable

,

how universal

demonstrates

been abolished

century

19th

of

after slavery and serfdom had officially

Transorangia

in

African tribes

servitude via

which the Voortrekkers extended this

of of

serfdom

in

in

,

and

the Khoisan

the

form

the 18th century to

of

inboekstelsel

placed

Trekboere

in

which

in

The way

the

enserfment by the Trekboere during the 18th century

system

,

a

of

,

legal

could hardly withstand resisted the Trekboere

foreign

the

economic structures

intruders

.

,

and

of

relationship between humans and

political

San

new

until the end

of

,

contrast the more mobile

the VOC introduced

the

that they

the arrival

power but also

the

new approach

to

constellation

The pastoral

were such

of

,

the Khoisan

,

.

environment

view

new

a

a

economy and

Khoikhoi By

completely

,

new the

a

not only

of

the point

From

of

.

suitable labour

the

,

it

was not based

land ownership

tribes

but these

63

1

these clans were loosely organised into chiefdoms

.

clans which grazed their cattle over large areas

,

or

;

however

or

Some

society was pastoral

small kinship groups

of

but

on

Khoikhoi

on

.

18th century

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

in

of

1659

to

to

).

its

1

Given

needed

a

clear

the governor had

mercantilist orthodoxy

but

to

with

-

accordance

its

,

no

livestock

.

of

a

-

to

mutual

friendly relations were

decade before the Khoikhoi became increasingly

supply the VOC with the type

in

of

for

give preference

the former During the 1670s the governor launched several official military

.

the vicinity

).



,

with good reason

or

to

, .

the country

barter

other But this situation changed drastically

the

164

. to

)

to

),

go

them

inland

the

,

the

by

.

now

created

put

Khoikhoi but alleged theft

the company

the disposal

of

was

counteract at

earlier

To

.

cattle

-

of

occupied

the commando system

years

also relaxed the to

,

land

,

Khoikhoi 20

by

of its

the

own purposes

on

not only trespassed



freeburghers

Khoikhoi

started

These concessions were immediately abused

disputes developed over the ownership cattle

some

1707

small annual rent

Cape Town

control over freeburghers and allowed

and barter with the The

a

( at

ever increasing distances from

.

's

company

at

freeburghers

of

1699

He

Stel



van

of .

,

Adriaan

issue free grazing permits and grant loan farms

the 18th century

by

governor Willem

The new

beginning (

company

.

concessions would bring

der

the

the

that such

freeburghers into conflict with each

at

apparently

with many

them

and

afraid

penetrate deeper into

and spoiled

the

der Stel

van



He was

(

.21

the

,

them

Khoikhoi

the

labour Although Simon

freeburghers



.

with the Khoikhoi

allow

and violently

VOC

the

not

would

and

der

Van

The Khoikhoi were not

to

,

he

was positively disposed towards favours

by

cattle

,

their land

1679

Town

wanted the cattle belonging

the company

freeburghers wanted

but

,

by

-

While

the freeburghers

99

,

economic and political structures

destroyed their socio subjugated

Cape

many more

and

,

Khoikhoi

the

der Stel

.

Stel conquered

Simon

troops

of

during the governorship in

followed

using garrison

of

,

offensives against the Khoikhoi

van

to

choice

relationship

interests between the company and another group



clash



maintain

and

needed

civilisation between the Dutch and a

build

resist

of

in

easy

.

reluctant

about

for

1989

(

to

gap

trust After the first Dutch Khoikhoi war maintained

equipped

ill -



was not

the huge

being

interest

procuring the cattle

,

,

it

.

refreshment station Due

problems to

in

these indigenous groups were

The VOC experienced

the Khoikhoi

their main

concerted way Elphick and Malherbe

a

the

onslaught

cattle

the

.

clans and tribes When the white

colonists arrived with horses and firepower acquire Khoikhoi

intertribal disputes and the

ch

social structure

the

but

the tribe

.

easily

this

the clan

it

disintegration

When

Their

family became impoverished through

it :

, .

disease

drought

,

,

theft

of or

families and individuals

or

which were not owned

cattle

to

by

existence centred

political

were fragile and vulnerable

Khoikhoi

the

led

on

and economic structures

. Consequently ,

single kingdom

a

by

, of

were not unified or organised into

of

3

a

PART

for the

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF DUTCH COLONIALISM conduct punitive expeditions against the Khoikhoi . At



,

In

.

for

of

the

its

,

In

.

at

(

,

Boucher

1

Many of

.

via

theft

the

dramatically

-

of

the Trekboere

the commando

more serious blow when

While hundreds

devastating

the South Western

it

;

of

immunity

on

had

Cape

effect

is

the

.

even

level

several

undertook

the first decade

In

.

Khoikhoi

heart



,

very

in

of

the

and

the

estimated that

Cape survived the

.

23

epidemic

in

one

ten

,

apparently had

virus

the virus

from a

Khoikhoi who

a

received

low

Europeans and slaves died

result

to

Khoikhoi

as

and partly

it

1713 the

Trekboere

the colonists increased

an

barter

),

trade

to

of

livestock holdings

fleet brought the smallpox

scarcely

on

,

the

In

.22

partly due

visiting

behalf

and even more cattle captured

were killed

century

regulations

Trekboere

commandos

of

Khoikhoi

the greater

).

30

; 4

:

:

in

expeditions against the Khoikhoi

a

From

by

of

,

71 –

1996

1701 onwards the newly composed

punitive

system

Keegan

the

the 1730s onwards the commandos

from

the

But

and controlled

the commandos became compulsory

1986

and menacing

symbol

the

for

.

the Trekboere

(

in

Cameron

a

to

,

and became

became purely civilian and had only the interests service

central

protect Khoikhoi interests against

to

tried

.

of

onslaught

17th

this

first commandos with civilian members

officials

VOC

company officials often

1739

commando

,

-

were commanded

play

the Trekboere and Voortrekkers

the 18th and 19th centuries

by

of

part

and Afrikaner warfare

self sufficiency

considerable

came

that

, At

Trekboer

was established

of

an

institution

in

role

in

1701 onwards freeburghers and Trekboere were also included

but from way

could serve

-

first , only members of the company 's garrison

a

to

of

order

in

the

freeburghers

and the capture and enslavement

,

to

).

ch

to

:

2

and

They acquired the

had accumulated

it

who

sheep

over

1713 small groups Khoikhoi sought disrupted and the protection



65

1

whose tribes had become impoverished

,

Khoikhoi of

the

conditions

farm

adapt

of

centuries

After the smallpox epidemic

from

desert

.

semi

-

in

climate and

knowledge

how

to

century the Trekboere had

18th

necessary

.

in

Worden 1994b

(

the settlers

,

a

harsh

the Khoisan



the

of

30

the

years

unknown environment while knowing little about in

an

first

18th

climax

women

century but

1803 when many Khoisan serving Trekboere joined forces

with those who were not controlled

During

and reached

a

,

in

1774

by

of

1799

to

open warfare

.

escalated rebellion

.

reciprocal mistrust and

and children

into

From

of

,

continuous guerrilla warfare

cattle raids and retaliation

point

one

operation and interdependence

Violent clashes occurred throughout the

cattle

From

of

.

complex

-

close

co

of

,

was one

of

relationship

and

the Trekboere

,

hatred

it

another

a

was

it

view

dynamic

,

Khoisan was changeable

and the

the 18th century between

in

The relationship that developed

Trekboere and either relinquished their remaining cattle became their partners

represents

them

Khoikhoi

unique mode

of

.

. the

.

.

no

to

retreat

the

that stage the

to

.24

-

as

in

wage labourers

This

tensions

,

.

.

for

decades

on

as

them

economic

,

the latter with

of

for

,

rebellion

1799

1803

had maintained

'

-

exploit

the improved

the Khoisan

who

This presented



warriors



from

the

good partnerships with

or

benefit

warriors

,

as

:

either maintain

their value

During

Khoikhoi

onwards

1770

the deteriorating security situation

as



from

deserted

a

'

the

revival

'

-

'

the

,

.

serfs

operation and trust with the Trekboere

co

in

;

in

,

at

in

).

them

of

of

them

the 1780s and 1790s the Trekboere opted

.

166

to

,

eagerness

devastating consequences relationship

Trekboere

tame Khoikhoi

of

their

tame

extended

more and more

had

using

economic

difficult choice because

opportunities

thousands

of

the

value

25

.

workers

labour

Khoikhoi in



'

tame

with

a

Trekboere

In

the

frontier increased

help

While

of

.

San

increased the scarcity

the

to

'



more aggressive

Khoikhoi

longer

meant that the Trekboere relied more heavily them fight the wild Khoikhoi and the even

the frontier

tame Khoikhoi

the

subjugating

to

situation

were

share their stock farming operations with

'

security

the

tame Khoikhoi At the same time the deteriorating

and on

Trekboere

or

in

(

between

on

kind

),

,

with wages paid

the interior

they

the process The Khoikhoi

became more interested

and

As

farming knowledge

enter into new relations with

'

Khoikhoi

conquering much

they deprived the

Trekboere were far less inclined the

Khoikhoi

Europeans

and security



,

or

,

east and north

them

part

take

7

for

,

the east and north

land proletarianising



:

( on

Khoikhoi

should

century the Trekboere

the 18th

in

to

the

In

colony

of

half

86

Ross 1993

the second

dependent

the

-

co

would probably not have succeeded see

Khoikhoi

the governor

Trekboere and the tame

,

on

operation between

farming territorial expansion

sheep and cattle

Cape colony

hostile Khoisan groups least 150

was

commando

of

.

on

a

major attack

for Khoikhoi serving

the general

When

After

and San

, ‘

it

also became obligatory

stipulated that for every 100 Europeans

Without the close

Khoikhoi

the

'

of

Trekboere against hostile

the commandos

in

serve

1774 for

in

deployed

to

Trekboere

1739

see

one direction only

to

the

,

the

Bushman War

colonialism

At

:

However the protective relationship did not work also protected

into

and entered

).

Elphick and Malherbe 1989

Khoikhoi

which the

(

the

The way

led

joint farming projects with

of

,

and knowledge

cattle

century

18th

voluntary

these

of

.

the

of

,

colonists took the land

the end

Some

as

until

endured

farming

extensive

.

partnerships

of

and knowledge

labour

this way the

In

colonists not only with land and cattle but also with

of

provided

a

Khoikhoi

.

and cattle farming

sheep

in

of

or

to their new

28

protectors

,

the

the

of

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3:

PART

their

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF DUTCH

'

' Khoisan

with wild

of the Graaff -Reinet district .

co

in

the

on

As

or

on

to

-

to

the

of

.

.

in

or

.

At to

not

could

strengthened

the

those servants

'

This

which often lasted

as

not known what the total number

.

is

from

the

farm

was sold they were

where

to

,

to

the



.

farm

move

captives were tied



When the

them

,

.

another

for

was not possible

Like serfs

.

the commando

together with the cattle

a

and

-

food

they

like slaves



for

or

as

be

an

be

uncertain

captive children

inboekelinge received

children were divided

of

captured

it

to

;

the new owner

1

.

to

slaves

and were therefore practically treated like slaves After

senior members

were enserfed

The

serfs

illegal market

,

the

,

raid

their workplace

sold

but

sold

.

but

wages

indeed

regarded

,

clothing

on

that they

.27

and some were no

existed

,

debt peons

,

to

unfortunately

Unlike slaves they could not

passed

parents

indebted

the

enserfed women were also commonly enserfed

Whether these people should

between

were often

this way

was

inboekelinge

commando

on

Trekboere

The

of

is

.

It

.

inboekelinge

they

'

,

lives Children born

register children

inboekelinge was only legalised

their foster

and became

by

of





servants

unnecessary

bondage

who became

either because the practice

'.

period

leave their households ownership

as

,

the children

From

Trekboere were also

already been enserfed

had

rearing

child

the children



which time thousands

serfs

otherwise economically dependent

entire

a

18

.

as

or

of

Khoisan children

's

,

of

end

was regarded

of

by

registration 1775

because

it

in

illegal

was

Only

few

this manner were actually registered

of

enserfed

years

costs

Khoikhoi serving

indentured

periods

called

so

,

of

-

the

children

carry

for

about 1721 onwards

started

This practice was justified with

years

to

the argument that the slave owners had

the

.

25

-

of

for periods



Bastaard Hottentots

frontier

work

farmers also

and Khoikhoi women

slave men

of

.

the

indenture

offspring

not

more land became

and not suited

solve their labour problems

To

farms

, those

labour They could not use slaves

for

,

more

they needed

the frontier because they were too expensive

large cattle

ie

which the peculiar

of

to

-

the Trekboere

to

was shaped

,

on

available



the violent clashes

created the context

servant relationship

the master

and

reacted with more violent attacks and

Newton King

and the Khoisan

and the

and bound more

'

violence

,

' wild ' Khoisan

.26

Trekboere

of

.

between

1986

in

the Trekboere

cattle raids According

,

control

This dramatically

.

children

of

the

under

as inboekelinge , the –

' Khoisan

"captive

they

: 108 – 9 ; Elphick

appropriated more land and cattle

the Trekboere

-

As

Together

‘tame ' Khoikhoi

-operative relationships between Trekboere ( see Newton - King, in Cameron Malherbe 1986 : 33 – 5 ). the

.

-

caused havoc in large parts ended

Xhosa

and

-

ranks

so

joined

to

‘masters ' and

COLONIALISM

67

PART

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3:

Given that prisoners of war

by merciful victors

ancient world were reprieved

in the

slaves , the

and turned into

death

from

Trekboere were also inclined to

arguments

in

in

'



of

.

'

,



in

as

.

,

the

of

a

, be

.

.

serfs

(

on

It

the

to



.

:

Shell 1994a

was

serfdom

).

of

labour exploitation 13

of

be

household

more successfully acculturated

see

(

of .

In

).

:

38

in to to

to

a

was even

violently

.

become drosters

close

measure

It

still enjoyed

a

serfs were bound

of

Khoisan

in

the

,

the

-

at

who to

tribes

Cape

was mainly

Trekboere who were inclined towards landlopery

being apprehended

All as

ran the risk

of

wild

’,

tame

this

.

Predictably the Trekboere were strongly opposed

to

the service

,

at

San

much easier for them

whether

and potential stock thieves should they stray from their prescribed

'

vagabonds

and

'

Khoisan men

The fact that Khoisan

' or '

in

, ).

(

vagabondage

chattel slaves

of

made

Khoisan men



the frontier

,

to

independence

Khoikhoi it

In

of

.

their enslavement

proximity

168

ensure that they could

The power constellation the frontier and the changing nature the master serf relationship

contrast with the imported

resisted

.“

the

1828

view

bind

captives

the

through

serfs morally

long after Khoisan

form

of

in

Ordinance

children

point

the

From

widely used pattern

adapted 50

by

officially abolished

an

inboekstelselbecame

which was maintained

.5

because they could

),

the

In

this way

5

household

integrate the children

called huisboorlingen

-

so

more advantageous

was necessary

and dangerous circumstances

the uncertain to

trusted

in

psychologically and physically

were repersonalised



.

Trekboer patriarch

man hunting was

capture Khoisan

and social domination

acculturation

the

domestic

which

Within these patriarchal households

lesser extent their mothers

it

to a

and

women

were often

well

accident that the Trekboere preferred lesser extent

Khoikhoi

regarded

and flocks some

participated

could solve their labour problems



a

added reasons

,

of

the

to

is

children process

of -



and

no

the captives

It

that

An

colonial herds for

San attacks

.

were their property

on

the chief victims

Khoikhoi

These

Tame

San

and

fact tame Khoikhoi men

with the white Trekboere

higher status than

of

people

themselves

capturing women

as

partnership

the commandos were

of

who farmed

as in

.

of

children Most members

slave raids and

in

only whites were involved

Shell 1994a

raids

retaliation

for the sole purpose

raids were conducted

(

capturing women and children

Not

.

the century commando

in

Later

the early 18th century

were only taken prisoner when caught

children

see

Khoisan

killed for that reason

and

,

,

their parents often deliberately

capture children

to

cynical because the wars were explicitly conducted

were dubious and

'

These

-

orphans

ch

of

that they were taking care

.

the

justify the enserfment of captives on the grounds of war , and with the argument

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF DUTCH

than



.28

ships visiting Cape Town

,

in

The demand for meat rose sharply which made cattle farming

additional land and labour brought the Trekboere

into

for Trekboer occupation This also brought the Trekboere into

.

,

.

to

to

did

the –

of

as

in

as

'

his

,

by

of 5



163

).

This

.

1992

:

Mostert

of

of see

a

to

to

(

the Voortrekkers

the second half

,

heemraden

in

ie

the appointment

an

.

by

the the

domain

using his status

authority over the frontier district only

was responsible

their

(

.

exert

Trekboere

regard

developed the mentality

of

could

indirect manner

in

.

a

regarded

European enlightment

for

The VOC

its

18th century entirely passed

20th

the

on

,

in

their frontier districts

It

the

of

Isolated

until well into

century

exercise

protect themselves

exercised power and discipline

this way the Trekboere

the

the colonial authorities

from

large cattle farm

reckless independence that became characteristic mentality lived

see

delegate

regard themselves

their disposal far

,

Isolated and

of

.

In

means

at

,

any

he

,

sjambok

.

,

of

.

,

to

,

and used

Town the patriarch and

not formally

.

to

their survival they began

sovereign unit over which gun

assumed many

As the patriarchal frontier farmers came

authority

not

this stage

the colonists the frontier settlers simply began

and promote their interests Cape

this period that

).



28

:

,

of

on

as

of

its

of

government Although the voc

irrelevant

government

own

used

but also Xhosa children were captured and indentured

powers

own forms

the VOC

raids

commando

the frontier the Dutch colonists gradually

responsibilities

their

of

as

important part

Elphick and Malherbe 1989

any

labour the Trekboere was

control

gain

35

only San children

an



'

manhunting became

Isolated

necessary

more aggressively than before

system

commando

and acquire

their grazing land

It

,

land

new

the

,

over the

in

conflict with the

.

part

Xhosa who regarded the Zuurveld

the

to

the Eastern Cape

the

rivers

and Fish

and opened the

At

the Sunday

the area between

,

's

-

Zuurveld

eastern boundary

(

.

,

made the Great Fish River the colony

San

Van Plettenberg

Governor

1778

To

with the Xhosa

even

Cape and

the Eastern

in

Khoikhoi

the

Northern Cape and

In

conflict with

sharp

Trekboere

.

The

This further

in

demand

the Eastern

move east

.

for

increased

encouraged

in

economic revival after

an

of

in

number

the

see

them

.

100

1986

:

,

in

Cameron

,

marked increase

Cape more profitable

as

than

11 )

the

no

.

-

: 96 ;

to

1770 due

harm

weaker position

capital invested

noted earlier the Cape colony experienced a

As

who personified

Newton King

Guelke 1989

on the frontier

legal protection and were also not regarded

,

as

,

as

slaves

far

The serfs were also

slaves because they enjoyed

a

Cape

the South Western

valuable

punishment

more violent and associated with more bodily in

far

was undoubtedly

being

, their

captured

exceptionally cruel . The master - serf relationship

was usually

in

. When ‘ vagabonds ' were

(

duties , however menial

COLONIALISM

169

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

of

,

to

in

the

.

a

a

of

the

at

,

to

.. .

of

stratification

lower ranks

the

to

of

).

the

,

the important props

,

earlier

labourers alienating the

.

farming partners

of By as

.

noted

Khoikhoi

tame

'

As

raids

'

of

to

to

,

of

or

as

The

power

.

frontier was gradually eroded

-

19th

out

the

in

revisionist

( or

historiography

a

racial capitalism

the support

of

on

century

with

of ,

of

the system

racist

century grew

20th

liberal school

British settlers

.

the

in

mid

the

the 18th

whether

the frontier traditions

extension

by

)

institutionalised and legitimised

an

racist ideology

structuralist school regards

)

While

a

.

Trekboere

as

-

century

the

it

the attitudes

of

ideologies prevalent among white South Africans

of

African historiography

is

South

the Trekboere

(

in

controversial issue

Colonial Office

instrument

during

the

equal military

of

the

'

on

exploit

The ideological orientation century

20th

their

the fighting but received smaller

captured

this way one

in

Khoikhoi

of

,

and

most

of

.

them

the cultural and

30

a

1996

)' (

(

on

]

(

'



rather than treating

'

reflection

the frontier

gradually opted

the

Keegan

and subjugating indigenous peoples

the cattle and children

the Trekboere

.6

of

dispossessing

Khoikhoi warriors were relegated

proportions

the 18th

and the chief instrument

an

the

.. .

the frontier burghers

commandos They were obliged

tame

commandos According

:

interest

Tame

5

and Attmore

exert any meaningful authority

of

cohesion

among colonists

of

Marks

single most important symbol

commando also became both

A

Trapido

political and

the VOC towards the end

in

commandos became

170

power

of

This vacuum was filled

blames

The

over land and indigenous

.

frontier

the to

capacity

.

further reduced

by

its

,

the financial decline

century

structure

(

frontier districts

see

separate constellation

entity

collective

in

for

asserting authority

co

commandos

the

).



any case

common

kind

dispense

2

1980 351

– in

economic subsystem

a

,

people and constituted

:

Trekboere into

was the vehicle

commando

therefore the means

and

or

,

.

the patriarchal

ordinated

organising the

tasked with

these three positions and

of

patronage The incumbents

social

of

to

.

with considerable power

Trekboer

In

one

were

and landdrosten

these three formal positions endowed

do

,

commandos Appointment

,

responsible for apointing veldcornetten

turn

the

The heemraden

-

.

'

interests

They were therefore sympathetic

,

the Trekboere

and independence

the

from

on the frontier – regarded as

of

representatives

latters

and were – especially

farmers

of

the

The heemraden and landdrosten were appointed

of wealthier

ranks

(chief

landdrosten

and

a

administrators ).

disputes )

local

settle

to

to

appointed

officials

in

3:

.

PART

the

The revisionist school acknowledges

in

,

miscegenation

18th

evident in

especially

,

and

the

in

as

is

that

of

the same time

by

mixed marriages

positions

is

a

highly stratified

drawn between white and black

,

.

frontier districts

South Western

of

What complicated matters

At

no

line could

frequency

COLONIALISM

power and privilege and blacks

and dependency

sharp

from the high

positions

.

powerlessness

in

,

society with whites

century

in

the frontier during the Dutch period created

be

Cape and

of

at

the patriarchal economic order that had developed

that

of

PERIOD OF DUTCH the

THE SYSTEMIC

the 18th century the division

the end

between white patriarchal power and privileges and black powerlessness and

due course

,

,

of

power

'

,

ie

-

also undeniable that

be

interests against those

/

her group

used

.

,

.

than

in

(

racial terms

Class

ancestry

legal

.. .

in

;

than race and persons

cultural rather

and

non European ancestry but

Europeans

persons who were perceptibly

1996

:

on

laid

racial

'

on

disabilities were increasingly

not imposed

at

;

and people were not defined

distinctions were more permeable

5

).

were

:

aversion was directed

used

Explicitly

18th

-

,

physiological traits

racial ideology

the

(

terminology was seldom

the Cape

at

not constitute

did

of

but

a

),

century

,

pervasive colour prejudice was clearly present

,

A

revisionist historian Timothy Keegan claims

A

'

,

took place along colour ethnic and racial lines

struggle

24 –

that power could

in



it

who were less powerful

racial

white hegemony was

the

an

drive

his

protect and promote

explicit awareness

for

the

-

so

.

a

cut that

mercantilist orthodoxy

is

powerful

to

by

the

originally inspired

clear

Although

undeniable

by

differences

is

dependency had become

-

of

:

system

new

which

entire

part

labour

Khoisan those

.

the 1820s onwards

blacks

in

as

from

the

all

to

-

To

labourers

to

the former slaves and

on

population but was also easily imposed to

applied

legitimise this new unfree labour pattern

.

of

During this period

enter the colony

did

19th century

-

the mid

not

believes that as

Like

Keegan

he

racial exclusiveness

control was developed that was not only Africans who began

began

on

British colonialism

29

.

racist ideology only emerged

in

a

of

the 18th

century

,

of

cut ideology

-

clear

).

Dutch period

'(

1994a 409

had

in

the slave period

a

of

and parcel

the end

attitudes

racial ideology before British colonialism

.

articulated

-

well

the Cape

at

exist

at

Robert Ross believes that

industrial period

racial and ethnic

remains whether the racial attitudes

crystallised into

already

the

the

first outlines in

the

the pre

of

racial attitudes

colonial identities were deeply etched The question

a

of

,

Africa He argues that

can deny

that some historians

amazed

and even the existence

a

and

South

Shell

.

of

importance

hand

is

On the other

the Cape

171

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

during the 1830s

well - integrated racist ideology

a

: ch 3 ;

1993

Crais

; Keegan

1992

not

Khoisan were enserfed power relations were

the

in

a

in

by

's

to

of this

,

Inter alia

units against the Trekboer

rebellion

during World War

and again

,

It

.

the VOC

Bastaard Hottentots and Khoisan

was revived 30

Cape

.

in

of

the Eastern

during the 1970s under apartheid 172

a

their terms

of

endure

in

longer

stations also became

the Cape Regiment

regiment was deployed with other British 1799

at



).

17



The mission

.

renamed

Society

-

of

',

the British

it



or

,

1806

century

the living and working

.

In

.

1793

Hottentot Corps

escape

The missionaries were

employment The second development was the establishment the Cape Corps

19th

1

could

the

by

the

.2 ).

an

6

for

the

.

who

early

Khoisan

improvement no

for Khoisan

sanctuaries

see section

(

the

the

of

Khoisan

and

the

Trekboer hegemony

the London Missionary

several mission stations among

conditions

.

the

, an



.

and

wring

These attempts prompted

1989 309

During the 1790s

chief campaigners

economic revival

that enabled some Khoisan

occurred

Moravian Missionary Society

the

the Trekboere became very

rebel against

Schutte

the

started

company

– to

its

to

In

.

'– 70 ;



:

1986

to

wild

their growing servitude

become

a

be the

.

.

to

of

'





in

Cameron

amid

their Khoisan servants

1790 two developments

established to

demonstrate

and

Dutch colonists

.

In

(

,

Boucher

tame

This tendency was

their hostility towards

1790s when they tried

both

1778

despite this defiant attitude

more labour power out Khoisan

officials

:

the

.

in

vulnerable

But

districts

'

in

the frontier

their independence

consolidate

the company and

from

Cape Patriot movement administration

small loss for the

the corrupt officials and landed

between

Cape tried

67

in

distancing themselves even stronger

elite

and social interaction minimal The patriarchal landowners

Western

the South

at

in

relationship

run

were the real

revolt against Willem Adriaan

,

gentry was strained

the

at

1707

in

profit After

great personal

,

, .

der Stel

in

.

,

-

illegal mercantile activities

They believed the colony should

company but

century was rather

18th

skewed power relations Senior company officials

these

who were often involved

the Cape

the Khoisan

and poverty

The social stratification among whites during

peculiar and reflected

position

.

powerlessness

in

position

of

and the slaves and the majority

of

,

power and privilege

of

,

.

Although not

clearly such that both the VOC and the white colonists were

the

denied that

a

can nonetheless

had

-

well articulated racist ideology be

,

the 18th century

a

the

argument that

of

Dutch period

from

;

white domination over black slaves and Khoisan serfs existed during

system

van

1996

6

not crystallised during the

(Ross

1840s

we accept

if

Even

articulated

.6 ).

also section

and

the British

see

colony were subjected -

it

3:

all

PART

of

.

If

in

.

to

)

.2 ).

6

it

of

in

a

all

which

Khoisan

Their culture had been the

farmers

-

as

of

language

and

co

, .

for

almost

.

'

.

The arrival

On

at

,

'

a

people was

and

.

,

during the first

somewhat but they remained

,

unfree labour force until well into –

1989

35

Elphick and Malherbe

the contrary

-

a

of

-

the

,

the

and

servile labour force deteriorated

their position improved part



of

it

it

of

(

the

in

a

.

by

.

,

at

,

30

or

,

ever

religion

:

see

in

century

relationship

wild Khoisan Many Khoisan had

not bring relief

the agricultural sector

(

20th

became

as

did

Thereafter

Khoisan

the

between

stake

Their survival

British rule their status

.

further

least

the

at

even

the relationship

and impoverished

,

three decades

place

had been humiliated

.

of

of

British colonialism

1809

legal

new

as

.

them

their numbers had declined

used

century they had been exploited

18th

All

The

-

a

)

culture the

in

-

had gone

bloody wars against

become inboekelinge

and equality

Their social structures had disintegrated

with

For the entire

1803

see section

between the Trekboere

and their independence

fighters

of

in

.

of

interaction

replaced

the

wage earning proletariat with the status

the

,

co

.

Trekboere and

,

of

a

defeated people

destroyed and

turning point

for the Afrikaners

a

.

latter were

servitude

and

enmity

century

completely

Proclamation

Khoikhoi For

tame

became members

After

was

1803

War

attempt

desperate

the

the frontier

When peace was arranged

(

Trekboere and

relationship



1799

new state

of

the

The rebellion

the

of

whole Khoisan population

was based

Khoisan

The

this promise when

the Caledon

a

the form

"

.3

,

of

reneged

a

(

in

instruments

view

Trekboer

Cape Town

they were promised freedom on

period

Batavian

British colonial authority

Khoisan

point

which

situation

the

a

another

of

during

from

system

from

total chaos

into

reassert their independence

the to

Khoisan

descended

an

was

1803

,



1799

have

years

of

probably

20

period had lasted another

would

serfs

and the labour patterns

without renewed military support

was unsustainable Dutch

that

.

frontier

the

-

on

domination

clearly

1799 – 1803 showed

43 )

of

war

This

PERIOD OF DUTCH COLONIALISM on the

THE SYSTEMIC

'

hidden

a

and

refreshment station that could

.

capital

.

and German

regarded

as

be

the seven United Provinces

The VOC can

The company

of

,

,

Flemish

of

Holland

per cent

of

40

30

century between

and vegetables was highly necessary

.

by

enjoyed the support and protection

,

3

The VOC was formed with Dutch

Netherlands dominated

18th

the Northern

one

of

meat

,

supply ships with fresh water

until the

these circumstances

,

In

16th

branded

33 ).

:

'(

.

all

It is

2

the

estimated that from

can

Augsburg

from

as

Portuguese colonialism

Jaffe 1994

sailors did not return

German capital

be

'

Consequently

.

and Nurnberg

German colonialism

financed

by

The Portuguese armadas were mainly

'

1

Endnotes

the first

173

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3:

PART

. It was a real ' octopus ' with trade , and colonialism .

multinationals the slave 4

tentacles

The VOC made huge profits during the first

international trade , piracy ,

in

years of the

80

.

century

17th

These

profits were not only the result of lucrative commercial opportunities in the east, but also of plundering on the open seas in accordance with the economic philosophy of

. During ships

the Eighty Years War the VOC plundered

'top

the

( 1618 - 48 ),

of

mercantilism

Years

War

silver fleet and the company

as

the

17th

of

).

as

as

that

50

in

48 )

(

in

of

well

the

is

estimated

might have

-

The total Khoisan population

000

Elphick and

century

17th

(

,

Elphick 1985

the mid

in

Cape

Western

it

.

the

population was but

Khoisan

).

4 – 7

the spice trade

been

.

200 000

of

but

1828

to

,

few

:

of

50

Ordinance

The right

, 3).

1994a

(

in

Khoisan

Kok registered land with own land was only

Adam

,

Shell

Cape Town by

the

to

only one Griqua

centuries

,

and 18th

the VOC authorities given

or

,

as In

:

1989

high

the Portuguese

asionto

the South

in

Khoikhoi lived Malherbe

big

how

;

uncertain

-

-

.

of

is

It

on

'(



In

5

profitable slave trade 6

– 1648 ) and the Thirty

the Spanish

profit vyand became rich through wins the enemy possessed England going 1660 Holland 16000 sea vessels against the 4000 During Thirty and the 600 France the Years War 1618 the VOC succeeded taking over both the monopoly

7

(1588

could make use

the

.

opportunity

to

VOC pasture

,

;

Schutte

2

:

ch

a

,

(

at

a

,

powerful

months

an

loan farms could exploit

of

of

holders

area

which time the farmer was supposed

to

12

about 6000 acres for

the

,

a

,

small annual fee

at

for ).

6

ch

:

return

of

In

11

1731

, -

the free settler population

in

of

). 7

per cent

together with prosperous small mercantile elite into bourgeoisie Cape and influential colonial the see Crais 1992

land

square

8

to

share

of

his

/

freehold land and

about

2

's

individual

mere

developed

1989

the power

.

de

equivalent

facto land allocation

an

ch

(

: a

gentry

This landed

-

10

Guelke 1989

see

in

,



a

settler

,

9

received kilometres including both land

how much the VOC could contribute

the Dutch republic

and wealth Each

the merchant

of

-

tradition

being merchants themselves and steeped

were perfectly aware

of

8

The Dutch statesmen

it

[

).

86

:

a

'(

to

).

:

on

labour

,

;

,

by

the

.

inheritance

not

only

a

's

individual free person of

an

of

expectations

at

,

,

).

25

:

phase

first

later serfs

,

.

Families relied

labour force Family in

temporary

wage labour was

,

settlement

39

In

'(

of

years

and serfs were the primary

'(

of

,

first

30

,

the

the Cape households

a

slaves

never died out remained

a

it

to

.

to

in

,

stupid

life and was nearly always rewarded with farm but also way life 1994a

174

of

the



far

of

then

, ,

century

1993

became possible and even

supplemented that with slaves and

,

it

while



:‘

as

their own labour

and

paying proposition

the

require

employ the Khoikhoi 1653 Van Riebeeck lazy stinking people Jaffe 1994

dull

follows Except the economy

in

it

13

not important

make

colonial settlement

subject the Khoikhoi

the 18th century when

Trekboere

the

described the Khoikhoi

a

for

early

too great

in

farmswas

changed

This situation obligatory

nineteenth

first decade

discovered that the force necessary

work

Shell puts

During

:

as .

it

follows

as

them

to

)

Europeans

on

12

renew the lease

Ross puts

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF DUTCH COLONIALISM Council of Policy was

The

In 1713 there were 1 794 slaves and 1699 Europeans at the Cape numbered

Europeans by

861

29

Europeans 14952 .

and the

26268 (Müller 1981a :

to

In

,

. In

1795 the slaves

still outnumbered

slaves

1806

52 – 3

153 ).

)

and Khoisan serfs

,

slaves

to

it

,

.

to

the going wage rate

slaves was extremely

flexible and on

of

work

at

-

of

]

before 1795

the supply

good profits

their wages the for free labour fell and

immigrants willing

[



.

states that

of

.

,

obtain white

and provided

,

as

became difficult

Müller

slave women

.

as

soon

slavery was well established

owners

slave women

when the slave trade was abolished and the price

to

As

they wished

slave labour was cheap

of

.

and

in

female slaves

,

'

sharply

increased



1652 until 1808

-

as

their property which they could use

From

white men

between

slavery

the

chief

the lodge were the bastard

their masters households and the latter regarded the bodies

in

lived

at

few

Miscegenation

fathers

continued during the whole period

living

children

the

Most

This became the settlements

of

white

lodge

slave

the Cape

(

of

offspring

large proportion

a

,

brothel and

white women

as

's

slaves were housed

of

company

a

century when there were very

17th

17

and

Miscegenation between white men and slave women was quite common during the

in

16

,

16839

of

15

,

at the Cape

body

officials .

and senior company

of the governor

consisted

-making

the highest decision

.

14

43 ).

:

-

,

,

they attained

a

of

developed

the white patriarchal family

.

of

-

an

.

of

cases where these slaves were marketed



In

.

136

sell house born slaves because this was

to

-

the Cape

-

see Armstrong and Warden 1989

female slave and the male members

This

intimate was frontier patriarchal families between captured female serfs and white male members the family see Shell 1994a

,

cattle

and humiliated

the

all )

(

Cape

leading

consumed large numbers

Khoikhoi chiefs

to

colony for their livelihood

of

on

By



,

the

Western

had triggered the processes

was the Company which

subordinated

but not

,

Khoikhoi

:

,

dependence

.

this new

1700 many

totally dependent

The Company not the settlers

It

security

.

and

Khoikhoi had become partially

follows

or

Malherbe put

as

and

it

Elphick

assimilated

of

'

Elphick

(

'

for

impoverished Khoikhoi

and

Malherbe

emphasis

1

's

;

at

employment

author

).

providing

:

1989

18

in

.

,

its

legal systems and instigated the expansion the colony into Only pastures stage freeburghers Khoikhoi the last did the role become decisive

Khoikhoi into -

21

).

13

ch

(

of

in

perpetuated

:

relationship

in

Town

hiring out their slaves and could earn

as a

between

of as

the

per cent higher than those imported slaves relationship intimate often sexual nature

many cases

of

Cape Town one third

prices

dishonourable

the 18th

at

in to

of

Cape

per cent of

the first half

(

their investment

3

1795 only

in

1

.

In

:

from

the

,

of

in

53 ).

in

.

to

the growing role

-

on

a

and

regarded 50

19

the 19th century due

Urban slave owners profited

large return

000

the company

The urban slaves increased

Many slave owners were not prepared

In

20

'(

-

of

.

economy

the average prices being

privately owned slaves were used

and semi skilled workers

beginning

1981a

the Cape were owned

century about one quarter unskilled

quite

level

of

17000 slaves

low

resulted

the VOC never exceeded

by

owned

The slaves

demand

,

.

by

at a

relatively

at

18

maintained

increases

to

adjust

to

supply

to

'

to

'.

,

Whenever shortages labour occurred the colonists exerted pressure import ability the authorities more slaves Up the end the 18th century elastic

75

PART

3:

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

22 During the eight years

until 1708 the colonists ' cattle increased

1700

from

and their flocks of sheep

3 700 to 8 800

5400

from

from

(Elphick and Malherbe

to 35 000

1989 : 21 ) . 18th century many Khoisan were killed in land , cattle , and raids and by the epidemics of 1715 and 1767 . The fact that the Khoisan population shrank from an estimated 200 000 in 1650 to fewer than 20000 in 1800 is

23 During the rest of the slave

the wars and the epidemiological disasters had been

devastating

24 In 1798 Khoikhoi each .

18 – 22

'white ' farms

on

).

, if not as

Some were treated by the Trekboere

subordinates. But at that time their independence 25

86

- 9).

In

clashes between

some

, then

equals

cattle and 23 sheep

at least as respected

was under threat (see Ross 1993 :

Great Commando and the Khoisan between

the

were killed and 669 captured

Khoisan

2 504

of five

an average

still owned

1786

frontier

alone . The real toll was probably far higher , for these figures do not take account

It

.. .

'

).

.

(

up

'

,

-

is

It

)

.

(

]

).

of

:

233

fewer

than

30 a

in

of

,

,

in

.)

to

10

,

of

of

an

an

,

-K

nearly

Veldwagmeesters

listing only the number

average

year

year during the last three decades

),

(

variety

of

.. .

to

coloured but rather

a

called

'

a

yet become functional within the

incorporate forced the whites steadily decreasing remuneration No rigid

-

so

'

white and

for

exchange

'

in

.. .

existed between

not

during the Dutch period

all

had

by

'

Stereotypes

yet

no

).

racial ideology

because the economy had not

as

war

of

or

higher see

88

disguised

.. .

captives

from

average

There was

:

as

follows

workers

frontier districts

Warden and Crais 1994

.. .

either secular

to

: of

the century

or

it

(

first half

Ross puts

line

the

000 people

the total number

serfs was

their numbers because

of

of to

Newton

ing

in

killed

Guelke 1989

Khoisan

almost

However

household

force

mention the taking

'(



exact assessment

omitted

.. . in

28



Bushmen

an

to

make

the total labour

Foreign ships visiting Cape Town increased

colony

Fred

capturing indigenous

near Cape Town

from

(

proportion

sometimes

29

ch

:

in

,

significant

the

understood

Eldridge and Morton 1994c According Newton King explicitly krijgsgevangenen the records made called sometimes

impossible

see

at

)

.

were captured

indigenous people who became inboekelinge captives

be

of

's an

(h

.

-

women and children

Morton

area

Transvaal According

argued

that became inboekelinge

slave raids aimed

90 a

mainly

than

can

a

that the peculiar violence

emphasis

uisboorlingen

and

that there emerged

colony

resistance

author

until 1869

1731

from

the Northern

in

Zoutpansberg

fewer

of

into the

Khoikhoi

both

African interior can best

in

were held

children

no

-

Morton contends that

106

;

:

,

in

-

-

(

1986

was not only home born children

It

27

Cameron

the South

in

master servant relations

Newton King

this long history

– 7

the context

30

within

of

is

of

that

it

sporadic but ferocious resistance to the expansion

expansion

from

frontier communities the

disturbed

these

from

Newton

be

Cape met with fierce and bitter resistance

him

San . . . It was

long process of European

6

of the

hinterland

of the

stage

far

: ‘ Every

Thus she states

26

of

109) .

:

in Cameron 1986

to

King,

sorties by individual farmers and their associates (see

to

the many unreported

,

1797

and

the Graaff -Reinet

on



how

(see Elphick and Malherbe 1989 :

a

of

an indication

status

in

no

,

.. .

.. .

)

[

.. .

176

,

on

many different criteria and variations based means congruent one with Consequently social life was still open and socialmobility both

another

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF DUTCH

,

of ,

and continued

.

Khoisan

the

a

in

in

). by

the

's

small numbers

The

British against

Elphick and Malherbe

see

(

– 3

the

to

,

;

90

74

the 72 ,

all

in

in

of

,

the rebellion the British

for the first time

intervened

to

1994b

'(

considerable success

).

with

.. .

were resisting colonial advances

from

Xhosa chiefs who 10

overthrow

the rebels made common cause with

the

During

decisive manner

.

to

but aimed

stem

settler society

:

the first time



the Trekboere

,

of

rebellion was not simply intended

the Khoisan

in a

For

,

Worden

expansion

'

’.

early 19th century

1851

that

from

).

-

territorial

emphasis

frontier wars fought

Frontier War

end of the

the Cape Colony

43

According

within

except the Eighth

to

:

1989

35

the

Xhosas

society

direction radically different

author

British offer alternative employment opportunities

Khoisan Regiment participated

31

develop

to

a

,

(

1993

by :

as

whole

took



,

end

it

the

South Africa

. .. At the

fully possible

the way was theoretically open

This regiment was expanded to

30

,

which

century

in

and

in

eighteenth

', still

for

'

directions and with little concerns for race

COLONIALISM

177

Chapter

6

v

of British 1890 )

The systemic period

(

colonialism

6

.1

British colonialism

1800 –

the advent of

and

a

power

new

constellation at the Cape

,

period

.

in

to

ceded the

a

Africans Over

.

and

population

115 years

Britain

's

its

of

'

slaves

wide variety

on

was imprinted

British colonialism

each

until

1795

from

of

in

South Africa lasted

and legal systems culture and ideologies were deeply

patriarchal

feudal

,

displacing

,

this country

in

embedded

the

.

19th

,

,

century

country and

Khoisan

political

economic

the

prevent

Cape changed hands control once again during

, ,

whites

,



groups

long

,

corner

every

order

.

direct colonial involvement

During this

,

.

1910

during

satellite

This transitional period ended when the Dutch

on

's

Britain

the Dutch were

1806

the Cape

lucrative

1814

in

Britain

the ‘

Cape

to

Batavian

until

1803

from

French

1795 and 1814

Between

,

times

of

the

three

doing

from

so

French

;

the

Napoleonic wars and Britain assumed control

of

, .

The Netherlands had become

in

India

with

trade

its

took over the Cape colony in 1795 in order to safeguard

Britain

communal

and

global empire

,

to

,

,

its

pioneer the first industrial revolution

it

order

needed

to

Britain was the leading industrial break

down mercantilism

and

the the

Britain accomplished this important alleged merits

of

doctrines

the

Smith

of

Adam

's

of

.

merchant monopolists

the strength

own

see Keegan

century

century

led

It

.

,

,

: to

promote (

a

in

and

at

:

production labour land

the 19th

.

the

transition

and

of

3

in

monopoly

of

18th

on

the

the legal

introduction

to

ch

;

:

the world

disruptive

moral

around

way calculated

the centre

power

new

).

as

power

Worden and Crais 1994

the beginning

of

end

and

At country

its

economic interests 1996

the three key factors

redefined these factors

formidable

In

.

Britain

largely revolving

a

redefinition

economic capital

of

,

and bitter conflicts

this

exceptionally

also

of

was not only traumatic but

constellation long

the arrival

of

,

domestic perspective

a

From

of

.

systems and attitudes

179

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

, self -regulating markets , atomistic

economic liberalism

hardly visualise

redistribution

and notions

embracing power

and



,

to

,

.

to

varying degrees

and affected

Britain tried

sectional interests amid sharp conflicts

and cultural interests

Afrikaners and those

,

,

speak

domestic

of

settlers

'

and British

of

instalments

different periods and

the economic political

between

in

occurred

.

at –

own

its

It

the same time

different groups promote

,

at

groupings

did not affect different

and

so

immediately

the Cape

at

,

,

which power race relations and labour patterns were structured This did not happen

.

of

to

private property

revolutionised the way

British colonialism

-

The

them

of

all

-

to

individual self interest were completely foreign

their

in

centred

coercive

organised

.

economies

still communally

to

indigenous people were

And

the patriarchal

their labour force directly

they controlled

because

mercantilism

;

.

means

market

labour

obsolete ideas

was incomprehensible

by

landowners

and

of

idea

's new

Britain

the views reigning among the different groupings at

on

The

sharper contrast than that between

a

officials were still ruled a

.

VOC

, of

the

economic approach Cape

the

.

One can

, and

individualism

rights .

property

the

of

sanctity

by

3:

,

PART

in

,

Britain

in

is

it

, of ,

the its Pax



the

in

of

to

also

of

,

but

extended colonial world

the see

approach

this

to



distinguish 1795 until

transferred

to



is

it

would

from

be

.

During the first

whether the colony

latter

useful

long 19th

phase was hesitant

,

the

them

in

certain

,

Consequently

colonialism

's

not

yet of

was

British

Africa during the

,

in

. ).

South

',

it



.

180

ideas

labour markets allowing

the class and racial superiority

and the power relations that shaped

among four phases Britain

Ricardian

the industrial bourgeoisie

but also

understand labour patterns

century

1814

gentry

6 6

To

section

elite

not only

landed

These events consolidated not

its

governing

of

entrenched

bourgeois ideologies

levels

.

subsistence

in

at

be

to

determined

only the political and economic power

This constitutional

of

favoured

Britain during the

(

industrial bourgeoisie who

in

the

international free trade and merciless competition wages

in

. by

from

parliament

imperialism

and

old



1832

Act

the Reform

and

,

the emerging

events

power

Britain

euphemistically

rather

most momentous

of

shifted the balance

reform

colonialism

.

the

events

the

Perhaps one

century was the adoption

19th

and economic policies and

British

what was called

not

British

The nature

in

.

Britannica

century when

in

the world

in

dominated

events

was continuously shaped

a

British empire during

domestic

South Africa

of

overtly racist character

colonialism

aggressive military

its

especially

of

-

colonialism

British

on

concentrate only

to

enough

of

understand the unfolding

-

To

.

indigenous people

OF BRITISH COLONIALISM

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD

by fears that the Dutch colonists would stage an uprising . Eager to relieve the labour problems of the white colonists - especially after Britain had

of to

.

, –

.



52 by ),

of

(

of

in

is

of

as

:

by

the

of

property rights

(

see

Le Cordeur

1840 until about 1890 and large numbers

.

unfree labour

.

events took place during this period

Two important 1854 the Cape

1872 responsible government

,

and



parliament

In

and turned into

of



from

the Xhosa was finally broken

representative

the

the Eastern Cape

in

arose

their

.3 ). colonialism

in

was granted

economic

to

,

,

the Afrikaners

,

of

British

initially

colonial authorities turned

deprived also

goals were

6

see also section

,

and

at

of

a

.

the British

and slavery

the

of

and

These

this phase

whites against Xhosa encroachment

were proletarianised

a

-

the fierce resistance

political

1994

abolish

driven

the Cape

chattel slavery

Serious controversies

During the third phase

Xhosa

be

of

.

to

at

and

campaign

respectively During

Afrikaners

of

of

;

ch 6

:

1986

the

,

,

. ).

-

,

a

,

Britain

in

well

the

between the British and the Afrikaners over the registration

Cameron

in

to

.

1838

serfdom

.

compliant labour force and the protection

deliberate

and Crais

in

The abolition

The Xhosa were

colonial economy

Worden

.

1828 and

of

.

sour

of

movement

friendly relations between

was

colonialism

the Khoisan

in

accomplished

Their

the most important event during the

view

as

of

evangelical humanitarian enserfment

:

British

as

phase

second

.5 ( ).

ideological point

of

an

From

resolved

6

see also section

;

45

into the

them

unfree wage labourers see Mostert 1992

1847

the four bloody

process

;

integrating

12

at

proletarianisation aimed

the Xhosa set off

on

military and economic assault

ch

But what

1853

but

them

bolster their own status

1818

All

their land and cattle favour from labour point view that

is

.

all

an

much more important

,

the

settlers

of

thoroughly defeated and deprived

Harry Smith

important cause

from

All

of

regarded

the Cape

military officers who

problems could

to

military campaigns

frontier wars fought against the Xhosa British

last one

until 1840

1814

Peninsula War against Napoleon

be

military aggression

6 2

;

7

ch

its

1814 until 1852 were senior

as

and used

from

and economic presence

people who thought can

,

military means

in

'

,

of

colonialism

Charles Somerset and

were typical military

ordered

see also section

the

's

in

especially Lord

British

military

from

Britain

Cradock

the

British troops

.

in

:

governors

served

had

the

in

'

(

During the second phase

British

which allowed the

1812 Both these events resonated through the first

the century Freund 1989

that country consolidated

1809

Earl

protect the Trekboere

13

the

.

to

of

march against the Xhosa

half

order

Cape against Xhosa encroachment

Eastern

ten

Also

governor

third British

Hottentot Proclamation

legally indentured

in

Khoisan

1808



issued

slave trade

,

the

Caledon

,

abolished

be

influenced

181

PART

3:

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

which enabled white settlers – both English and Afrikaans -speaking – to play the colony . But what is perhaps more important

racial

capitalism

almost completely

through

-

British

.

it

it

as

economically

the British

.

to

order as

in

and

,

by

,

tribes that were not yet controlled

conquer

well

pattern

part

the 20th century

to

of

before and

black miners

of

To

solve the problem

the inadequate

African workers

the

of

for

,

measures were implemented that created the

and exploitation

greater

on

so

did

Victorian optimism

It

in

the late 19th century with

.

heyday

of

the

characteristic

imperialist exploitation of

an

arrogance

profit

two

.

the employment

Britain legitimised

182

in

black mineworkers

its

of

supply

yield

.

enough

recruiting the required numbers

a

low

to

wages

for of

at

-

Boer War



-

.

Boer republics The gold mining companies experienced problems after the Anglo

Britain

To

for

.

to

the subcontinent

,

socially

,

politically

accomplish this several imperial wars were waged African

which mineral

became necessary

,

South Africa

-

whole

was overtaken

it

profitably

mineral wealth

the

of

control

corporations

South Africa lured large British

in

exploit the

To

discoveries

This phase

lost international markets the period

also

.

in

,

as

Germany industrial production and Germany and the United States This was

in

the

of

a

British economy it

by

relative contraction

.5 ).

was far more

aggressive and exploitative than the forms that had preceded coincided with

colonialism

to

which

6

;

1910

expansionism

-

until

1890

7

ch

:

(

about

from

imperialist

see also section

the

into

Crais 1992

see

Africa

South

the

an

fourth phase



,

)

the next 150 years but also for

,

century

-

its

black wage earning proletariat

social and economic systems that prevailed

the 20th

was transformed

the Cape colony

of

-

for the labour patterns

,

the end

During

a

of

.

a

until

of

the

racist political

and

labour The British propagated

the population

white master and land owning class and

was decisive not only

from

their civilisation and liberal utilitarianism

with evangelical zeal The restructuring into

wrenched

away

direct British domination

and unfree

of (

their ideas about the superiority

1840

from

.

perform useful

to

them

the ideology

of

slavery and serfdom

'

'

'

by

forcing

civilisation

the

to In

this way unfree labour patterns

was replaced

'

and saved for

a

white

with the colonial state

onwards with the racist idea that Africans could only barbarism

on

as

evangelical humanitarianism

system

were abolished,

of

legitimise the emerging

based

which former slaves and serfs

.

were maintained despite the abolition To

-

-

labour repression

Xhosa were subjected

of

and large numbers

operation

,

forms

close

of

designing new

of

-

land owning class succeeded

slavery and serfdom

capitalism

be

. When

system

of

repressive labour

of agricultural

system

a

co

establishing

in

in

succeeded

Cape )

in the Eastern

in

is that the white property class ( and especially the settlers

, .

governing

in

in

important role

an

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH

.

to

in

of

)

'

.

to

is

It

of

.

of

the

in

the

,

see Legassick

(

century

-

a

and even Afrikaners

The new British

succeed

This was only achieved

the 1803

Jansens

His

.

Khoisan and improve their labour conditions 1806

,

reoccupied the Cape

British

in

the

the

When

to

in

colonial authority

,

.

unfulfilled

to

grant land

between

.

,

not

the relationship

in

.

did

the

but

in

of

1803

1809

1828

Dutch governor Lieutenant General Jan Willem

to

in

.

,

a

its its

major appropriator

the Khoisan

,

1799



of

of

Rebellion peace

restore new

(

of

.

a

'

'

#

by

.

Africa without

South

their subservient status

Trekboere and the Khoisan was very tense the to

not possible

).

:

After the Khoisan

remained

trade and credit

237

the abolition

by

was

the Khoisan and Xhosa

from

the legal enserfment

From

.2

in

Harris 1975

promises

century

19th

the mercantile class

economy

colonial system that developed during that

exploitative

6

of

considering the role

control

-

constellation

sector

of

the

every

in

explain

and through

over political and

influence

It -

,

extensive interests

in

obtained

surplus extracted

free trade

century Under British

highly influential mercantile class with strong financial

the Cape

power

period

British immigration and British

.

at

economic events

tried

).

of

.

into

exploiting

the formal monopolies

the 19th

London This class exerted considerable

in

interests

4

ch

:

.

This initiated

class was augmented a

,

grew

This period

1948

and made large profits from

that lasted until the last quarter

capital and

in

Cape Town

1890

labour During British colonialism

merchant

can therefore

merchants developed

'

the

rule

We

.

a

privileges

the Dutch period were abolished

imperialism

the

will

1988

class

British

for importing slaves and exporting meat This class was

monopolistic

Khoisan

1910

,

by

(

colonial rule

which was responsible protected

8

a

Under Dutch

Bundy

see

,

to

of

to

(

)

Union

after

New

This constellation was perpetuated

of

the

by

,

in

chapter

outbreak

being established not only

systemic period that stretched from

discussed

slave and

and the

South Africa

local English establishment

identify be

the rest

in

but

1886

power constellation

new

Social

a

British race was superior others rule over people lesser breed The

.

Cape colony

to

led

of

Imperialism

birthright

South Africa

in

gold

a

discovery

a

had

of

it

but also that

of

the

which claimed not only that

Darwinism

of

and ideologies , and in terms

of segregationist policies

the basis

COLONIALISM

Afrikaners were still very bitter and vengeful about the Khoisan rebellion

,

of

and pleaded

their

of

poor living

judicial status

these conflicting demands the new British governor

,

To

meet

the Khoisan

denounced for

strongly

the

something about the great scarcity

same time the missionaries

.

improved

do

authorities

to

the new

employment conditions be

to

and

the

.

labour

At

put pressure

on

',

and

183

the proclamation

sought

of

1808

.

in

the slave trade

serving Afrikaners

of

.

to

of

and controlling the Khoisan labour supply

be

mobilising

irreconcilable

The end result

were immobilised

shortage

resolve the labour

intensified

the suspension

Cape government

new

.

the jurisdiction

by

,

On the other

, and

law

through measures for

two aims proved

These

the proclamation was that Khoisan legally

indentured

contract

and Crais 1994

Worden

;

1989

9

_

(

Freund

334

time

:

see

servants

,

while those who were not were forced into the labour market for

and

workers

the first



of

under the rule

them

their misuse and maltreatment by including

at ending

was aimed

1809 . On the

: for

, it

' in

as

one hand

his infamous 'Hottentot Proclamation

issued

the

,

Caledon



Earl

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3:

to

PART

of

.. .

of to

those who were inboekelinge

).

:

The

and ignored those

worse

those who farmed

177

that

three

partnership with

and those who were not controlled

legislation effectively controlled

access

Khoisan mission stations while the Khoisan were also excluded

from

this

.

first eight years

eight

if

of

the age In

years from

land

apprentice



to

,

ten

In

.

for

1812 Cradock granted Afrikaner farmers the right

Caledon

's

the legal web created

'

new

into

to

,

.

proclamation Moreover

drawn

they had maintained the child

way the inboekstelsel was perpetuated

.*

were now

the



Trekboere

by

,

-

,

even

with new

them

1980

by

Trekboere



of

century Khoisan

categories

far of

,

,

.

Butwhat was

,

.

Atmore

state support they needed

extra

provisions that harmed their interests late 18th

and

instead

colonial authorities the supplied

is

Marks

and the

local officials

opportunities

Therefore

in

-

(

the

, of

King

Newton

extensive

was that

all

to

of

colonists accepted

power

in

the

increased

legal instruments

its

keep

servants

the proclamation

labour distribution

of

in

the sphere

of

proclamation

1

residence

farmers

control their

)

and veldcornetten

(

landdrosten

placing labourmatters under the jurisdiction

84

their

.

.

-

's

than

for dispensing patronage

during

of

of If

or

'.

they needed

curtailed the movement

before An important side effect

gave their masters

gave local officials

children

in

be a

of

a

,

.

'

at

on

therefore became easier

legal means

but also

ownership

Khoisan

out the terms for

permission

proclamation not only seriously

,

it

duly served

one

from

their farms

more strictly

the

Landrost

That implied that they could not change their places

Caledon

Khoisan

to

their masters stating that they had

without the farmers Khoisan

the Fiscal

the

abode

abode

other employers after completing their contracts

of

.

contracts

change their place

from

record

fixed place



passes from

certificate

drawn

'

move

allowed

It

to

wanted

,

another without

be

[

district

,

they should not

and that

a

]

also laid down that every Khoisan must have

to

It

.

terms

that master servant and the authorities each had

so

triplicate

to

,

The Caledon Proclamation required that labour contracts

up

)

introduction

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH

-

The missionaries

Dr Johannes Theodorus

especially

COLONIALISM

Kemp

van der

and

'

1

82

of

:

).

the

, .

proclamation cut both ways

's

measures



.

,

and

during the Dutch period

between masters and slaves and masters

.

new

measures

.

a

stipulated

a

of of

century

the Great Trek

These

labour

.

the 18th

).

during

sustained

recovery

of

2

ch

to a

led

:

the

diversification

An

the Cape colony into the dynamic

.

of

1806

in

the 1830s patriarchal reconstruct the order and

Worden and Crais 1994

Empire stimulated

their political

impact

which they had become accustomed occupation

state

.

19th

its

of

and especially

British

during the protracted

of

– to

).

' as

'

the

of an

contention

important cause

and the incorporation

the British

violation

during the

its

of

,

Cape economy

the state

13

:

(

to to

The second British

and the British

in

Mason

,

(

see

main bones

the north wanted

in

,

the labour patterns

system

role

were undoubtedly

Those who trekked

century

the

conflicting views

of

Afrikaners

clashes between

relations

of

.

This was one

intervention

sphere

household

ch

an

private

their

'

in

paternalism

the public

strictly

on

now

accordance with legal regulations see Shell 1994a

cosmology

that the right

exclusively public matter that should happen

The Dutch colonists experienced

for

or

to

as

it

British authority

the

of

matter The

household

in

private

-

new

the

,

punishment was

in

power authority

,

of

state

new

law

dismay was that the

public matter While turned master servant relationship into patriarchal master regarded punish slaves his right servants

misconduct

In

.

at

's

a

legal status

' '

the

servants was regarded

as



the relationship

circuit

their legal rights

diminution

that had developed

a

a

of

the VOC

new

legal control over their Khoisan

and unfamiliar conception

Under the patriarchal order

000 charges

of

to

.

,

improve

that Caledon

The real reason for the Afrikaners new

completely

proclamation and Cradock

effectively strengthening white masters

introduced

equality

assemble the

to

,

in

1986

the

's

least

difficult

Cameron

and whites feared that this implied

.

what they called the

whites charged with violence against

,

Caledon

to

however

Cordeur

Whites originally did not realise

and

by

of

,

It

. Le

In

.

of 62

.

(

see

was

court with dismay Both measures tried

defiance

by

F

The missionaries hoped that

eight

the end only

Afrikaners responded

servants

circuit court

against their masters was

charges

laid against whites

servants were convicted

Khoisan

white farmers

instructed the new

.

and

Afrikaners

to

unacceptable

witnesses

Cradock

servants

idea that Khoisan servants could rightfully claim lay

'. law

the

be

the time Sir

,

at The

to



Black Circuit

would

Khoi

treatment

these charges Whites were outraged

investigate

before

alleged

J

on

1811 the governor

, ill -

concentrated

the

James Reid – were infuriated by Caledon s proclamation . In their campaign to improve the living and labour conditions of the Khoisan , they now

important 185

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

the repressive

Although the maltreatment

-

1980

to

:

,

in

-

;

see

.

improve

the to

in

increase the capacity

mission

,

Lord Charles Somerset who was

with sanctuary

them

vain of

least

to

at

or

Khoisan

themissionaries tried

1820

,

the

until

1810

.

to

provide

economic progress was positively disposed towards the demands Afrikaners and therefore less inclined consider the complaints

86

. of

Dr

.

in

as

as

if

on

of

regarded free markets

moral responsibility and

self as

individual

a

much

They regarded free markets not only

a

a

reaction

for

's

Smith

as

was

the 18th

as the

It

,

Methodists

of

the

the end

.

development

well

81 – 4 ). Britain

ideology

Adam

and

the colonial

the landed gentry

the industrial revolution

The humanitarians

Christian civilisation

the Khoisan

as in

:

such

He

they were caught

as

the

churches

1820

their right

,

. the

for

condition

he

was initiated

industrial age

free markets

1986

of

-

established

at

vagrancy

at

with

antagonised

Cameron

'.

triumph

reason

,

by

of

the new

of

necessary

main

John

for the oppression

by

,

in

Cordeur

the non

interest and

the Cape

of

.

the process

the disruptions brought about

product

arrived

The passes severely restricted

charged

Evangelical humanitarianism century

the humanitarian

as

.

see

(

could

slaves and Khoisan serfs

when

Philip blamed the poor conditions

the Cape

Somerset

labour

be

of

Khoisan

and they

.

,

system

them

at

without

system

In

of

movement

Missionary Society as

the pass

exploitation

effective champion

an

gained

the London

identified

of

to

,

about the continued maltreatment

The Khoisan Philip

of

,

in

missionaries

Le

of

of

conditions

interested

to

still private household matters Newton King Marks and Atmore

)

the decade from

stations

1

settle labour

these were

43 – 50

1989

Khoisan

7

the

In

ch

Elphick and Malherbe

if

way

:

usual

as

,

the

in

disputes

's

contractual conditions

patriarchal farmers were still inclined

servants was forbidden

's

a

,

contract workers

(

's

proclamation

.

by

Caledon

regulated

for Khoisan labour almost the entire

Khoisan labour force was employed under created

highly

which inboekelingskap

.

demand

the sharp increase

raids

Cradock

and

of

the form

workers

,

a

.

to

Owing

continue

over Khoisan

proclamation

legal framework

in

and peonage could

Caledon

Khoisan labour commando

Caledon

in

regulations created

apprenticeship

labour

formal employment increased

in

of

increased demand

and immigrants . The

circumstances

control

and

Khoisan

against the Khoisan were continued

previously been . The

growing scarcity

's

.

the

.

satisfy

To

sharply

The number

Cape wines entering

it had

these

In

slaves

proclamation made the employment almost obligatory

amid

in

existing

of

price

the

1808

for

slave trade

on

of British capital

to an inflow

of

of

abolition tripled

the

British period also led

new

third of what

in 1813 to one



Britain was reduced

the duty

of

the economy occurred when

in

.

upswing

of

3:

in

PART

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH COLONIALISM gratifying , but also as morally gratifying

economically

humanitarians , people who enjoyed the freedom

.

According

the

to

enter labour markets

to

without direct physical compulsion would also be much more productive

who were coerced

those

evangelical

labour . By advancing

into

humanitarians

served

the

this argument the

of

interests

than

the

of

elites

new

Britain , who were concerned about the economic results

industrialising

giving workers greater economic humanitarianism

against serfdom

.

freedom

joined

economic liberalism

and

,

and slavery

hands

campaign

the

in

thought that the abolition

was naïvely

it

of

During the optimistic years when

of

these

feudal institutions would have positive moral and economic results .

,

to

's

,

at

.

'

' a

them

labour problems

of ,

,

to

en

for

the Great

1

).

50

their private

7

103



1996

-

to

frontier districts reacted

were important reasons

see Keegan

source

which labour

in

farmers

in

-

and often only

patriarchal order in

a

,

of

valuable

which they had

unjustified British interference

Ordinance

the north

.

most of

a

on

the idea

to

of

It

'.

at

'

to

,

of

allow

and intensified the scarcity settlers The ordinance deprived

subservient labour force

as

a

Cape Khoisan

enough

farmers

:

the

and they

proclamation

and immediately

the Eastern

British

their

what they regarded

to

to

of .

the Cape

but near

resolving

private matter Afrikaner

1830s

carry passes

and

of

grip

.

of

Trek

of

the

.

their firm

effects

all

masse and established peasant

employers

-

50

to

Afrikaners

labour Still imbued with

These

abolished

large scale disruptions

become accustomed and also relations were

the

legally equal

them

effect recalled Caledon

crime

and

Instead

(

for

led

both

of

to

Afrikaners

domain

longer required

pastoral farms

farms

the Cape

made

In

.

-

deserted

Ordinance

angrily

and

It

vagrancy

communities beyond the control

labour

Khoisan

large scale

plunder white

at

a

no the

on

restrictions

colour

radically changed labour patterns

employees

the

Cape with

improve the conditions

in

.

of

resulted

the

,

50

other free persons

particular they were

In

.

1828 was adopted

could legally own land Ordinance 1809

free market economy

.?

Ordinance

whites

While

the moral and religious development that

market

of

free

discriminatory

integrating

from

global British

and

Town

free labour markets the mercantile elite was interested

would result from

Hottentots

in

humanitarians were interested economic gains

a

at

in

This close

.

.

elite

with

close alliance

the

networks

Cape

operation was not coincidental

50

mercantile

succeeded

forging

-

and

development

and Christian

exploiting the powerful humanitarian

co

London

,

in

.

enslaved

Philip was skilful

moral

markets would enhance

the s

the

idea that free labour

Smith s economic

in

of the humanitarian

of

and

not only the productivity but also

in

liberalism

'

Adam

of

of

John Philip was an enthusiastic supporter

87

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND

the

to



to

at

;

the

for

-

of

in

,

of

,

as

of .

of

as

in

a

, 81 4 ). the

of

to

:

.

19th

1841 and

Servants Act passed

It

.

was

even

more

the

-

50

of

was short lived

.8

The

of

established

by -

and

Cape

to

)

the

the

West

and

the the

in

British colonial

industrial capitalism

significance

of

Proclamation

the British colonies

of

lessened

in

,

)

system

a

's

Caledon

in

the British parliament

Cape colonial matter slavery was

Cape The emergence

50

in

Proclamation

of

in

of

role

terms

much more important role

mercantile

1808

(

of

Khoisan

(

the

of

slavery

of

the

trade

slave

the

the

of

at

.

I

early

Andries Stockenström

Ordinance

.

in

, a

ie

(

)

local

West Indies than

88

easy

1838

the abolition

serfdom

matter Slavery played decline

by

, the

's

to

,

the initiative

the

(

slavery

a

was

the

1809

a

.10

of

resulted

While

well

for the

The ideological and economic forces that played

1833

violent

needed

1828

)

in

abolition 1828 also

their

Kat River settlement by

to

the Masters

the suspension

of

.3

Khoisan

The

1856

From

6

by

comprehensively parliament

frontier

the

decades

the framework

the Masters and Servants Proclamation

. -

by

away

taken

the

,

the eastern

Khoisan had

social upliftment was inconceivable

at

the Khoisan

granted

wounds

,

.

of

this direction was the

The freedom

too

,

-i

To

.

in

,

only attempt

on

an

active policy

that legal

little improvement

the Khoisan

But

new

different lifestyle

moral and material upliftment

viable farming opportunities

liberalism

adopt

of

,

to

century

in

on

programme

their

thoroughly unfounded

1986

jobs with

heal

and

erstwhile serfs into morally

moral deprivation

exploitation and humiliation

comprehensive access

and

the

were also too

naïve optimism

Cameron

their previous

wages

labour conditions and oppression

Cordeur

nor the inclination

stay

to

majority opted

develop

individuals proved

economic

the opportunity

impoverished

black

take advantage

in

102

their situation

neither

other

two groups

self mage

,

-

of ; Le

94

:

Ross 1993

that

the true sense

the Khoisan

a

sufficient

economically responsible

In

see and

be

.

alone would

freedom

the

humanitarian movement

The

Khoisan

racial divide

to

.

this entrenched

demoralised and had too negative legal freedom

and

be

,

,

powerless Given

powerful

evangelical

the

into

of

and

the Cape was divided

a

rich

,

the population

to

By

.

,

then

an

the word

agricultural proletariat

at

and they were already

late

take

bring about

independence had already been

economic

,

destroyed

white

,

certainly came

stage their social structures and

one

far

.

It

humanitarian movement

promised

colony

the liberty

the Khoisan

,

improvements

economic

inhabitant of

every

was however too legalistic

in

the moral and

market

and

law

It

the best

to

their labour

equality before the

.

)

(

except slaves

grant

50 was to

to

of Ordinance

The purpose

(

APARTHEID

3

by a

PART

Indies

THE SYSTEMIC

PERIOD OF BRITISH COLONIALISM

for the British economy . This also reduced the influence

West

strong

anti

both evangelical and business circles

The

's

a

of

a

an

it –

in

the

at

.

of

in

the abolition

In

.

of

it

of it ,

.

imbued with

see Keegan

ideology

replace slavery with

of

Britain

,

to

,

This

line with the ideological

a

material progress wanted

industrialised bourgeoisie

Consequently

civilising mission

(

brought the mission movement

and

due course the

Christian morality

in

on

appeal

and

supposed

the alleged humanism

The

it .

as

inhumane because

British establishmentmovement

its

in

than

on

to

of

In

pro

-

an

of a

,

on

the trappings

the emerging industrial bourgeoisie

.

in

.

:

to

slavery

who often misused

slave owners

82 )

in

labour the

the Poor

alleged

1

stressed

of

the abolition

Britain self confidently

Britain the

.

via

labour was achieved

In

,

for

income and subsistence

-

'

free

The liberals

in

1834

'

supply

of

their employers

.

in

necessary

on

workers

Laws

British

that avoided direct physical coercion but still ensured the dependence

of

system

and

power towards the

important role

in

a

(

78 –

:

liberalism

the early

The frequent and intense insurrections

became more nationalist rhetoric put emphasis greater became inclined the

1996

British

the

198

and

British imperialism

sense

).

of

mission movement took

orientation

lobby

the Cape

tilted the balance

The evangelical humanitarians regarded

emphasis

slavery

slavery

Indies during the 1820s also played

gave too much power

Britain

.

Indian

1832

but because

conquests with

-

of

,

Act

slavery Watson 1990

shift

from

tacit alliance between the pro slavery lobby

but the Reform

the West

far

the slave trade

other legitimated

empire

of

the West

industrialists and abolitionists

new

abolished

the

)

of

of

'(

1996

parliament was decisive for the abolition cabinet

French

the

79

moral idealism and mission influence

in

.

in

:

a

of

,

the new

1820s there was

a

than any

cause that more

evolving ruling order and provided

The loss

Britain

,

."

the

Keegan

and

role when Britain abolished

had become uneconomic

trade

was

to

.

in



a

According

opportunity

their values and their liberties

republicanism

American

These considerations played

1807

not because

abolitionism

of

to

pretensions

slave trade

19th century created

assert the alleged superiority

against the

revolutionaries

belligerent attitude towards both France and the

first decade

for the British

which

of

United States during

circumstances

of

the

had adopted

that Britain

that lucrative

the

and the United States created

slavery movement could develop

fact

the 18th

slave and trade relations with



in

Britain

the

1996

The dramatic changes Indies

of

American colonies deprived Britain

13

's

Keegan

to

big

a

).

(

trade

of

the loss

see

century

of

the Americas during the second half

4

,

the West Indies . While Britain had

in

the

the slave trade

in

:

stake

vested interest

a

ch

slave - owners with

of British

London

in

89

PART

3

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND

APARTHEID

' free ' labour force encouraged

higher productivity

of a

of wages , but still

‘driven ' indirectly

to work by the incentive

the labour market by poverty and / or

to

hunger . In South Africa the necessary supply of ' free ' labour was accomplished the 1840s onwards – ie , after the abolition of serfdom

from

depriving

the former

serfs

and slavery

former slaves of their access

and

- by

land, by

to

'



but

choice

enter

the

and

.

that forced

and

-

white controlled

them

the

conditions

created

where they had

market

free

to

deliberately

white employers

on

government

legally

to

Africans were formally

laws Although coloureds

servants

,

by adopting masters

)

and

no

,

(

tribes

and

deliberately and systematically proletarianising the Xhosa and other African

labour

unfavourable labour

into

.

contracts

at

of

of

in

.

is

.

in



'

an

the for

for all

all

right

the

in

,

former slaves Worden

(

discipline

of

of of

for inculcating notions

Worden and

when the indentureship

system



1841

.

income

14

.

of

in

.

of

-

the

curtailed when

In

,

,

,

their freedom

often

any way They were

other means

slaves was indeed short lived

emancipation

choice were seriously

or

former slaves were not compensated

final

But what

is

unjustified intervention

and

.

the Khoisan

Crais 1992

:

it

their slaves

that slave

(

.

It

of

of

in

most serious

was estimated

,

in

as

of

in

the for

of

. – the as

market value

was done remained

their private patriarchal order

the case

the

freedom

which

generations

proletariat without land capital

'

of

fall

)

to

up

four fifths

of

a

as



is

that

years after their

190

'.

,

',

'

-

punish their

3

.'

of 62 )

The

gradually

practical purposes the

No provision was made for

slavery

slavery and the way

the British authorities

set free

continued cultivation

classes should

For

Slaves were

apprenticeship

.

an

freedom

Afrikaners regarded this

was abolished

freedom

extension

controversial among Afrikaners

forgotten

any

5

ch

:

The abolition

owners lost

until

1833

The only break with the past was the removal

former slave holders

Crais 1994

a

their

society

the

-

.

and self control

the virtual absence

Emancipation Act

the

of

of

to

for

preparing slaves the

of

period was



'

apprenticeship

state

anti

.

this institution

make temporary provision

the soil and the good order

into the relationship

slavery

,

1

on

of

four years

the

elite and especially John

but the act provided

1834

to

of

period

the forefront

12

discussion

The British parliament passed

December

of

Fairbairn

the Cape

Commercial Advertiser The most striking

African

social condemnation

set free

at

.

in

the South



or

moral

Those

of

of

,

characteristic

the

or

editor

Fairbairn

the West Indies

Cape were the mercantile

's

drive

of

slavery

at

than their counterparts

the movement against slavery

in

less significant role

of

a

1828 played

was passed

50

who were prominent when Ordinance

The missionaries

only three

movement and

freedom

Masters and Servants Ordinance

in

,

as

;

as

',

by

'

vagrancy

viewed

The only difference was see

1991

:

(

Malherbe

,

)

.

.

in

,

.

's

15

.

at the



the

cattle

the traditional policy

abandon

rigid boundary between blacks and whites His

new

policy

of of

increased

of

20

.

the

Zuurveld

Xhosas out

000

,

,

in

decided

the Cape

Eastern Cape The attempt

Xhosaland and

to

Somerset

drive

to

predecessor

in

position

to

7

).

ch

– he

was governor

Somerset

.

a

maintaining

They

and economic landscape

faced was the uncertain

serious overcrowding

1817

In

.

raiding

Somerset to

led

Zuurveld

Charles

Sunday and Fish rivers

's

,

Cradock

the

Africa

three bloody frontier wars were

in

30

:

in

the first problems

the area between

by

Lord

1826

of

One

until

South

between the British colonial forces and the Xhosa

Cameron 1986

1814

From

political

Africa

South

years after their arrival

their insistence

at

Nash

,

see



fought

time

capitalist progress and imperialist expansionism

notion

that drastically redefined

During the first

19th

of

a

them

the

that would

profoundly influence labour patterns and power relations brought with

40 in

first half

group

Cape

the Eastern

, of

event

population

new



(

settlers arrived

in

completely

a

,

adding

,

of

5000 British

the

group

1820

of

first

aftermath

of

the

6

1820

settlers and the Sixth

its

).

Frontier War and

century

(

still

the British

This was perhaps the most portentious

-

the

the Cape parliament enabled

poorly paid wage labourers

now

farmers

.

a

and

period

considerable

slavery

subservient labour they

property

their

COLONIALISM

4

'



'

were

slaves

for

'.



slavery

The expansionism

.4



23

that the

In

slaves

The masters and servants acts passed

perpetuate

to



them

to

their former

illegal

abolition

retain their former slaves

as

regarded

6 5)

of

. . After

was issued (see section Western Cape tried

PERIOD OF BRITISH the

THE SYSTEMIC

Le

see

;

settlement

most important

free sea passage and land grants

to

,

Britain and

.

eastern frontier The settlers

and were lured

to

colony

's

to

.

16

,

000 arrived

in

The first group

of

,

request along these lines and

relieve unemployment the

defence

on

:

a

dual purpose

on

British

the 5

a

a

as

a

of

).

5

white

barrier between the Xhosa and the

,

offered

free press

establish

of

cheap form a

a

This project had

were

until the next year

They soon clashed with Somerset over several issues

being their attempt

supply

settlers

the Cape

to

.

1820

000 British

act

government granted

a

sent

The British

the need for

.

20

.

Afrikaners

the boundary

to

colonial side

the

Somerset

of

This war convinced

84 –

1986

to

,

and caused havoc the war lasted

in

Cameron

,

Cordeur

in

the Eastern

Cape

:

1819

In

.

with some chiefs while excluding others had failed the Fifth Frontier War erupted when 10000 Xhosas invaded (

concluding treaties dismally

the Cape

191

.

But

the great demand

wool

the

or in

four

latter

British

from

to

.



.

of

of

the permanence

labour and

for

series

Africans that lasted

more

than

150

.18

to

specifically

1828 began

a

.

unfree labour patterns Ordinance

of

is

another striking example

49

an

the Eastern

for the purpose The fact

unfree and pass carrying labour force three days before

Khoisan serfdom was abolished pass laws applying years

farmers

Ordinance

.

employ Xhosas provided they took out passes

that Xhosas became

of

The former empowered

British settlers

in

50

,

Bourke issued

rather cynically

49

the

would create serious

-

,

realised

-

to

Cape

in

,

,

-

To

three days before Ordinance

Afrikaners

General Richard

labour problems not only for Afrikaner farmers but also for pre empt these problems

become slave

the

settlers could therefore use only

it

the

in

join

then acting governor

issue Ordinance

to

.

,

decided

1828

not allowed

for

hunger

almost insatiable

would

they

The British

, .



'

the San and Xhosa

Khoisan serfs When Bourke

that

he

,

manhunting

The settlers were fear

50

additional land and labour probably out

holders

an

farming created

sheep

.

The profitability

of

of

?

."

textile mills

large profits owing

to

make

sheep farmers

;

.

)

,

to

began

difficult

extremely

an

failed After

years many settlers became either merchants

five

years

closely knit tillage settlement

for

previously the Zuurveld

(

Albany

creating

or

's

idea

a

Cape government

a

promise that they could become landed gentry within

few

the

with the

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3

of

PART

.

192

the

is

it

a

20

Xhosa

conflict between

at

). and

the

the Xhosa had numbers and

18th

century the Boer commandos

any meaningful military

support

from

the

the late

a

.

.

and wagons

,

,

,

on

no

apparatus

longer count

king

the 1830s onwards Although the Trekboere were

with horses guns

disciplined military could

from

from

6

:

(

in

British and the Xhosa equipped

Cape between the Trekboere

century differed greatly

the 18th

In

of

the end

the Eastern

single

there was

;

the Khoisan

ch

than

a

in

more effectively

crops

manner that they could

unifying loyalty among the different clans see Mostert 1992 The confrontation

planted

like the Khoikhoi not united under such

cattle

. , 19

they also

Khoikhoi

,

of

the

,

,

far

or

resist white intrusion

the case

although

chieftaincies were organised

The Xhosa

had moved southwards along

a

,

Xhosa existence

Although the Xhosa were their clans

As

in

about 500

from

were the focal point

Nguni peoples who

.

seaboard

of

the eastern

the

AD

were the southern wing

three

and 1853

1834

examine the difference between these two groups of

to

necessary

understand

,

bloody wars between the British and the Xhosa between

course with the

graze their cattle

To

inevitable collision

.

to

an

them

-

the

Xhosa moving westwards

on

'

their profitable sheep farming put

acquire more land and labour for

to

eastward expansion

The British settlers

colonial

21

.

in

to

of

,

.

in

at

For

1831 and

,

'. on

see Keegan

the

1996

:

'

Albany farmers incipient prosperity

(

In

1834 war erupted

December

In

boundary

,

the

In

violence

the

his

Zulu

47

,

(

into

launched incursions into Xhosaland destroying kraals

Xhosas were starving

frontier shattering

, . of

's

by

driven

Shaka and

.

to

violence meant escalating

.

1833 many

Its

.

of

,

a

).



unleashed

burning fields and pushing Xhosa across the

cattle

for

.

'

,

')

the

('

crushing

Natal was

southern

,

state

,

capturing

in

's

.

.

the the

of of

,

to

.

This was aggravated

,

,

colonial

1833 the

the

had become highly unstable The the Sunday River and their land east

result the Xhosa increased their cattle raids into Albany

British settlers responding

see

remarkably

inroads into the living patterns

1820s when the Mfengu tribe the mfecane

in a

As

.

impis

the settler community

on

in

he

.

to

In

’.

,

to

embracing 7000 square

. D ’

,

Urban

completely

now

allocated large farms

prominent

the Eastern Cape and the mercantile elite

Cape Town This created lucrative opportunities

.

he

a



D

'

,

in

of

members

the settler bourgeoisie

rivers

the

land speculation

While

.

taken

Kei

with

Kei River and proclaimed

Queen Adelaide

the

abandon

accordance

to

the Keiskamma and

Urban was persuaded the

was

could implement these

by

between

the Province

of

of

miles

by

establishment

tow

of

a

of

boundary further east

set

When

was very strong

total expulsion

the

in

.

,

he

policy

in

,

policy

favour

1838

more conciliatory policy

the chiefs But before

instructions war broke out During the war the treaty policy

1834

for

with

introduce

to

treaties

to

he

frontier based

was instructed

on

,

and

from

evangelical humanitarianism

.

the influence

,

London

of

appointed

Urban was governor

'

Benjamin

D

Sir

).

136

in

had progressed

of

the

of

end

besmirch

Albany

been deprived

two

disposition

civilised people

of

,

by

.

as a

1996

result their remaining land became overpopulated

Xhosaland

this

become

settlers

making

1834 the situation

Xhosa had already the

to

1830s the British

economic terms largely Xhosa But

the

see also Keegan

and the

the Xhosa

thieving

laziness

:

;

,

:

their

and general inability

777 828

the early

alleged

of in

By

1992

Cape Town

most effective instruments

the detriment

to

,

untrustworthiness Mostert

of

for

The main purpose

capitalist activities and

settlers

Town

case against the Xhosa

settlers

72

people

by

indigenous

one

the settlers

justify

to

major themes were

themerits

out

legitimising the expansion

editor

'

The settler press turned

1831 the Graham

colonial authorities

the

be

of

London

in

colonial office

convince

to

newspaper was

the

Robert Godlonton

promoting

4

with

established

the British settlers

In

Journal was

warfare

as

the sectional interests

was impossible

it

enormously influential role

an

played

of

The settler newspapers

open

in

conquer the Xhosa

to

Trekboere

for

support,

authorities in Cape Town . Without such

the

OF BRITISH COLONIALISM

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD

193

117

as at

,

of

in

of

.

by

D

of

the ’

to

,

for

at

.



Urban

British

that the

were totally



from

point

the

Africa

's

South

of

one

history

the

see

(

as

regarded

. ).

,

Masters and servants laws proletarianisation growth racial capitalism

and the

,

section

also

The

9 3

race relations

in

;

in

see

760

;

, 8



:

776

land

194

this

a

of

period

a

in



,

most formative one

racial

)

( or

of of a

.

the

on

designed repressive pattern

settler

black labour South

's .

Many historians regard

based system

clear cut racist

of

the newly

crystallisation

in

but also

racially the

legitimise not only

repressive

unfree black labour But perhaps most

period also witnessed the

,

to

this

new

and powerful

which not only controlled

but also consolidated their status

based

shaping

new

,

the

at

settler capitalism

,

capitalism

Cape

saw

as

of

events

importantly ideology



.

colonial elite

both agricultural and mercantile

the emergence

the English

and

the colonial state became actively involved

This period also

system

the British settlers

a

the

economic and

new

missionary movement

labour pattern

political

of of

At

.

the instigation





years

in

by

ideologically

supported

the formulation

to

which

labour policies over the next newspapers

led

,

the Cape

at

took place

the stormy 1830s remarkable attitudinal and ideological changes

50

end

,

the

of

At

of

.5

6

1992



the Cape this war can

most decisive turning points Mostert

aftermath

be

Africans

negative

Urban

now claimed

unless they

furious

fundamentally changed the relationship

at

of .

the settler bourgeoisie

its

-

to

Christianity

The Sixth Frontier War and

and

racial attitudes

mainly Methodist

conquered

whites

the

, 5



in

converted

them

together with the reversal

of

not

Cape Town were

attractive opportunities

profundly changed

missionaries

be

the

of

.

,

the settlement

on

decision

1834

the British

Both

's

,

them

hand

and embittered





decision deprived

Xhosa offensive

Xhosa could

the latter

the Cape

mercantile elite

and the

devastating

Some

that the Xhosa had

This decision shocked

community

state

to

.

he

.

The new secretary

grabbing and land speculation already promised

between

see also

John Philip and Andries

had concluded

of

's

Xhosa

the white

Cape

the Eastern

in

to

of

all

sections

because Glenelg

view

143

reached London

invading the colony and ordered

.

'



Queen Adelaide back

Urban that

D

informed

ample justification

the

Lord Glenelg

the new policy

opposed

for

strongly

,

Stockenström

settlers

1835

it

'

's

total expulsion

'

policy

Urban

serious protest from the humanitarians

almost

1996

D

of

When news provoked

he

the

Keegan



:

Crais 1992

of 21 ) D ’ .

"

'(

quoted

arrived

in

official

and irreclaimable savages

treacherous

settlers

them

Xhosa when

pronouncements

;

described

towards

:

,

the

in

Cape

pacifically inclined

by

’Urban was ‘most he

D

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3:

PART

Africa

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH COLONIALISM and colonial hegemonic order was created that lasted –

-

of the

by the

of by

,

in

The opportunities for

stations were rather limited

in an

slaves

that

in

.

and

. –

in

),

(

was

were owned

.

After emancipation the Eastern

1

labour crisis

in

Cape Amid

them

living

slavery

When

almost 6000 slaves

a

the Western

.

whites

found

by

.

of

control

for

slaves

became drosters deserters

.

to

the

Cape After the

the former serfs

Cape farmers who had paid high prices

many drifted back

the

This economic revival

or

,

all

of

15

the

-

at

,

Eastern

of

.

. of

the settlers

the Eastern

their previous jobs

the Kat River settlement per cent

of

in

'

'

up

of

of

of –

evacuated

for both

.

in

in

the

on

.

at in

-

in

land

the land was already occupied

peasant communities beyond abolished

the

the higher

the Eastern Cape the situation was very different Many Khoisan

sanctuary

the

the

for

to

by

,

,

.



.

,

:

of (

an

of

,

in

,

all

,

because almost

especially

towns and mission

in

lifestyle

alternative

value

the ivory trade

the

of

Cape remained

full

the Cape Together with

Cape Town

majority

frontier wars and

less than the

economic prosperity

and slavery

serfdom

the Western

In

increase

economic

.

period

created serious labour problems

abolition

of

,

(

-

the

to

,

and

Cape and the mercantile elite

Eastern

area

capital

lucrative land speculation led



of

.

and

wool

policies that would

slavery marked the beginning

volume

exports

the

1992 797 805

of

investment Voortrekkers

see Mostert

slave holders although

increased

high levels

of

)

slaves

sharply

paid

to a

,

that lasted

the return

civilisation and economic

until the 1860s The money spent

the compensation

western

was replaced almost completely

,

abolition

the

now

Khoisan labour With this new

discipline for the sake

Benthamite liberal utilitarianism

boom

to

the implementation

prosperity evangelical humanitarianism

Civilisation

the opening and

discipline Xhosa

and

This idea was

an

to

to

addition

state imposed

Ironically

newspapers

well





the missionaries

-

on

successfully control emphasis

elite and

civilisation

)

for

system

'

'

Urban

and

and several

Christianity

land speculators and wool farmers

to

Xhosaland



basically meant

the settler

in

as

grasped

for their conversion



– by

eagerly

precondition

a

.

the Xhosa

Afrikaans

coloureds and

Fairbairn now regarded the enforced

and

events

militarists

John Philip and John Fairbairn

changed their perceptions about

Philip

Even

British

the most effective spokespersons for

atmosphere

tense

the Xhosa

whites

and mercantile elite

its

.

the

missionaries

take root among

the agricultural

movement

the humanitarian

Xhosa

this

In

23

missionaries

endangered

and

six

-

,

and English speakers

return

experiences

were traumatic

having being deserted

African subcontinent began

South

‘D

Kei River

and

and

A

the

to

up

feeling

.

settlers

of

annexed territory

Frontier War

Sixth

all

of the

The violence

than a century . 22

more

– for

the

with some modifications

the

racial

a

as

history, when

95

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

,

the

of

be in

,

)

(

of

blacks were labour

black

labour

.

In

of

. the

or

launching

’,

'

wandering poor

a

peasant society and created

the

)

the gentry parliament

a

by of

repressive

several countries

(

the

of

.

'

from

enacted

and

the western

world

an

is

the

command

the the ? 40

or

, only

social

30

in

latter

political institutions

of

the

to

lasted

South Africa

for

this system

important

higher

see Trapido

(

.

the

introduced

other countries by

in

there

the working population was able

country

fact that

which this process

of

The only

of

,

However

in

of

a

section

in

).

France owing

the repressive labour system and those

labour repression

to

1966

wages and was incorporated into social 310

system

In

Moore

industrial revolution

rights during the early phases

property

).

see

(

Revolution

in

A

similar

,

there were granted

years before

in

decisive role

Germany and Russia but not

1840 onwards

:

employers

1841 until 1974

,

133 years

dislocation and proletarianisation caused

196

white

impressive edifice

industrialisation

relatively early date

difference between

1971

.

.

,

on

to

to

which

.

a

in

developed

from

been

and therefore

deliberate proletarianisation

. of

of

Britain

French

of

in

at

in

This reservoir played

peasants

employer

cheap labour

a

of

destroyed the structure

became

state

maintaining their workers contractual conditions

cornerstones

the early phases

bound

already

had

of

force

proletarianisation

state

they

laws became apparent

labour

Britain the enclosure movement

reservoir

:

(

of

in

the

the side

Barrington Moore clearly describes the causal role

case

,

,

.

,



to

,

,

ie

it

,

of

very much

enter into contracts with

repression was built and maintained

systems

Although these laws

their contracts and the

the

the two

a

).

support

servants laws and

and

1994

6

of

for

but

alternative

state

The slightest breach

punish their employees

black

forced

on

Masters

could

in

who enjoyed

and imposed

subjectively determined

1974

masters and servants

the

or an

proletarianised

former slaves

masters and servants laws that

books until

the duration

potential

the

where

not have

in

nature

be

situations

may

Worden and Crais

offence

series

labour relations

of

The repressive

indeed



:

the

on

important player

right

the

employers

to

employees

criminal

people who

their employers

and resistance

South African statute

employers

deprived

did

104

was the first

ordinance

remained

an

employees became

race –

the Khoisan

including

contract

defiance

,

disobedience

Ross 1993

This

breach

into

of

;

15

13 –

'

contract

'

crimes

by

severe sanctions

applied



an

The ordinance bound workers

of

.

24

and Xhosas

for

to

lead

Cape

idle and vagabondising life

not

and



hypocritical liberal tradition at inclined

of class

the

typical of the

to

in



was written

ordinance

the language

of 1841. Although

Ordinance

the

issue the Masters and Servants

to



authorities

convincing the colonial

in

of

influential British settler elite succeeded

a

, the

for

Cape

the

3:

a

PART

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH

incorporation

. The fact

was extremely slow was Britain

COLONIALISM

that it was an industrial

by

',



of

-c



(

or

in

of

if

(

.

place when

as

as

,

in

in

as

,

.

terms

Thus

of

understood

the structural

.

systems

sophisticated

of

for

responsible

was

The

labour repression were

of

phases

its

-

/

to

in

well

the power structures

the different

and maintained

introduced

Africa

South

South Africa

and

white empowerment and black proletarianisation

which

in

power context

of

interdependence

had

contract

and industrial revolutions occurred

this country should

in

labour repression

agricultural

,

,

mining

the successive

terms

breaches

the same extent

labour repression

explained

South Africa

of

longevity can only

see

conspicuously racial character

in

In

.

, be

These characteristics

labour tenants

other industrialised countries

criminal offence

of

a

as

were not regarded

were

the repressive measures were very harsh

in

,

were applied relentlessly

its

of

.

eventually

then

),

not originally

from

ropping

independent

labour repression

be

:

several unique characteristics Apart

rural

white rentier landlords were

wage labourers and

into

The system

3

1983

protracted

that stage economically relatively

turned

22 –

Meara

result

the Cape and

rent paying and share

the

,

at

universally

'

O



African peasants almost

,

capitalist farms while

into

).

transformed

and

first a

both the large and small estates

government

the Union

as

class struggle

,

subsequently

assault

a

legislative

of

labour repression applied mainly

by

a

system

of

process

of

By

means

.

to

Africans

the

of South Africa ,

In the case

of

pioneer may explain this .

of



.25

plundering that lasted until the 1970s

the

, in

in

of

.26

,

as

,

'.

, .

as

possible

the chiefs

colonial authorities Smith as

the

Kei rivers

of as

Fish and Keiskamma rivers

a

frontier policy

.

white magistrates

new

and

27

This began

His

.

the

of

to

be

the

destroy the power

undo as

his

,

by

and direct rule

.

British Kaffraria

the

,

in

.

,

-

do

.

to

thoroughly

,

the crown colony annexation

land between

ably

Victoria East and the area between the Keiskamma

of

of

immediately annexed district

re

the control and discipline the

and subject them

and

appointment Smith declared that

Xhosa society

first task

Given

please the settler farmers

what Lord Glenelg

restructure

his

a

considered to

end

he

To

outspoken purpose was

this

to



the Cape

Cape

British government could hardly

the

After

less suitable person

to

was going

to

he

have appointed

direct

nor

the colony

did

towards indigenous people

This was

of

blatant racism

eagerness

governor

so

military aggression

,

his arrogance

the Eastern

contrast with the past

Xhosa neither

Harry Smith was appointed

in

,

the

).



of

behalf

time

This

to

Sir

.

In

1847

Keiskamma River

7

1846

public case was made

Britain

allowed the settlers

the

Xhosa War

(

the area east

of

Sir

the Seventh

Peregrine Maitland

on

encroach

cause no

on

Cape

of to

,

the then governor

,

racial attitudes among whites during the early 1840s

Amid the hardening

197

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

a

of

, .

.

on

the

by –

,

in

of

.

,

is

,

.

by

in

.

in

in

in

,

(

in

,

,

employed

,

,

.

,

in

Kat

settlements

unacceptable and some

(

many Khoisan the Masters

create the

to

,

an

creating

view

The

the 1840s the

in

of ,

the

,

of

under

coloureds

of

.

they wanted

'

by

,

ie

.

sanctuary

labour

and Servants

rural workers

and inhabitants

the

Kat River

,

legislative council tabled the Squatters Ordinance

in

. the

of

)

80

per cent

have been

the

1841

Shortly after

1

it

by

they were giving

who could

Ordinance

98

From

adequate

the farmers point

Kat River and other smaller ones were

situation because Xhosa

proletarianising

of

such

inflow

abolishing

labour and capital

the productive land

capital Consequently

-

as

River Settlement

an

conditions for such

inflow

owned much

, of

by

profit

an

to

stood

settlers

,

British

settlement

capital land and labour and

colony unless ensured

who already

Kat River

the

.

the Eastern

the

former

Cape The productive wool farming

activities required the proper combination capital would not enter

of

for

among land

the interaction

emerging capitalist economy

colonists less secure

the abolition

of

example

Cape where land

80 ).

of

:

typical

settler farmers

of

a

is

278



and Crais 1994

The agitation

small peasant

of

,

,

complicated the labour problems Worden

Cape had been

Eastern

Eastern

Ever since

1850

independent peasant communities which the colonists considerably Crais

slaves and Xhosas established

serfs

European

the Cape legislative

living

Khoisan

areas

The Khoisan

, ,

In

was more plentiful and the control

.

communities outside white control

of

those

1803

that until then they had

squatters ordinance

of

against

measures

1799

the whites

the

a

enact

the farming community

1828

the

an

on

so

intention

of

agitating

side

the

rebellion

Frontier War was triggered to

in

declared

Ordinance

much more important

frontier wars

the Eighth

for 50 of

's

the

all

in

participation

1851

the colonial

frontier war What made the

a

.

of

Khoisan Rebellion

council

first time since

the Eastern Cape participated

in

the Khoisan fought

For the

important turning point

of

by

of

the 19th century

the

146

The Eighth Frontier War was also

history

them

for free enterprise and

the

(

1992

the war effort For

victory

in

Crais

see

resounding

).

prosperity

The settler farmers profited amply

British government

wars was

both

:

of

the money spent

outcome

the

.

settler farmers and their supporting press from

white farms Both the

Frontier Wars were enthusiastically sanctioned

and Eighth

Seventh

while thousands

and cattle

.

work

their land

contracted wage earners

on

to

no

choice but

destroying crops

,

,

.

large portions

Xhosa were deprived had

the bloodiest , longest , and ugliest of

Some 16000 Xhosa died during the war After the war the

of

.

and capturing cattle

– 3 ) was

British tactics involved burning huts

the frontier wars

as

all

The Eighth Frontier War ( 1850

to

3:

of

PART

1850

and other

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH COLONIALISM

settlements

of

former serfs and slaves managed

and many

the



– in

proletarianisation

coloured

confiscated

After

,

Cape

Eastern

their

war was

31

process

settlement

.30

,

Kat River

including the

of

This resistance was the

to

resist their total proletarianisation

when the Khoisan revolt was suppressed

however

1851

for some time and with 29

how

success

settlements

of

the

former serfs and slaves and the Khoisan Rebellion

of

,

broken

small peasant societies outside

.

demonstrated

1830s and 1840s

,

control

reasonable

in

by

The creation

the

and Somerset East -

.28

revolted

white

of Albany , Fort Beaufort ,

the districts

in

its

,

it

;

a

on

's

to

'

in

of

-

as

its

).

:

(

the

the Cape

,

he

.

from

represented

the

of

?



curtail the

chieftainship

of

their authority

and power

.

in

the structures

barbarian

to

his way

33

He went out

directly

their

of

them

'.



by

intervening

of

.

-

'

of

'

,

by

209

1854 until 1861 Although perhaps

social and material basis

the

those

Britain

He

started public works programmes for employing Xhosas with the purpose

of

and

the chiefs

attendant

the elites

dissolution

see Keegan 1996

for civilisation

them

undermining

and

better than anybody else He explicitly believed that

liberalism

customs and save

implied that

colonial ties through economic

only direct rule over non European people could authority

had

self rule was regarded

rid

’32

Janus face

,

goodwill

British governor

and sophisticated

the

did



-

and mutual

George Grey was governor

able

the contrary

the maintenance

of

Sir

with

compatible

interdependence

most

colonies

colonies

government

not involve

on

colonial bonds with perfectly

self rule

;

by

of

The idea

its

.

colonies

from

responsible

policy

free trade

colonial policy inter alia

Britain should disengage itself partially financial burdens

of

The triumph

free trade

granting

Corn Laws and embarked

at

of

international

implications for Britain

important

the

policy

British parliament abolished

of

1846

's .

In

the

.

accelerated

inculcating

-

the

, . 34

-

, .

'

by

be

-



elected

males

and

Almost immediately

political power

a

Afrikaans

,

.

colony

it

,

both English

-

of

'

the new constitution

pass

the

a

the Cape

century

colour blind franchise

to

on

the

of

19th

the

their newly attained

the

political power



-

dominant white minority

capture

children

year and owned property with

colour blindness

'

.

the

a

earned R100

Despite the

R50

the Xhosa into cheap for

.

to

for

he as

in

1854 based

projects

treating Xhosas

mid

-

a

liberalism

two chamber parliament were

colour who

used

draw

to

colonial elite

hospitals specifically

parliament

His road building

educational institutions

in

to



enabled

them

effort yet made

established

Victorian

,

rental value speaking

well

the

irrespective

of

houses

actually

time

representative

of

Both

a

gained

ethic

in

a

line with

of

In

,

Xhosa chiefs

as

the same

of

.

labour

work

the most systematic

At

represented

western

infamous

199

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

had

'

a

,

as

'

a

, .

an

,

of

a

of

at

to

's

a

it

in

'.

Grey

way

by 36

to

restructure

all

, ,

, all a

, the

in sea

,

their cattle

east

and

.

the prophecy being fulfilled

the

13

destroying stock and In

into

whirlwind

their cattle

of

1857

.

the

,

crops the fateful day came without

two Xhosa girls

Xhosas killed the

on

18

,

all

a

as

that

great herds After months

in

to

be

them

lure the

politics

system

Xhosaland

February

white men and unbelievers

restored

London that

told

.

in

prophesied

the sun would rise and set again would

He

the roots

'

the situation

in

reaction

Nongqawuse and Nombanda would sweep

Kaffir

their best interests

in

be

struck

godsend

if

desperate

month

.

to

believed

The consequences

the war the oppressive new

break down Xhosa society and

to

a

In

which

to

he

main purpose was

the

never

Sir George Grey

most favourable opportunity

destroy

bovine

Europe with

of

,

to

Xhosas into wage labour and

the

,

at

the

5

.

in

Xhosaland was

form

from

Xhosaland

cattle

situation

1854

same time that

western

000 head

Xhosa society Grey regarded the situation

.

in

-

.

;

and the death

act

the Xhosa had previously

wrought

the destruction

of

, far -

oppressive policies

reaching

policies

precisely

of

his

struck their cattle

introduced

vagrancy

the Eighth Frontier War

introduced

been

bulls The disease which

Friesian

encountered

Xhosaland

lung sickness had

a

, of

shipment

occurred

as

pneumonia known

were

also served

and

three years after the destruction caused

greater tragedy

even

severity

of

breach

or

long called for

by

which the settler elite

Only

out

stood

five - year labour

to

for desertion

In

The

severe punishments

,

s

stipulated

tied employees

.

contract .

and

, which

1856

its

contracts

of

Servants Act

and

for

Masters

a

3:

act

PART



40

in

the Xhosa people

to

,

ie



to

achieve



of

and successive

charges relating

and sentenced

their

transportation

?

a

to

large number to

on

bring

to “

,

of

British

to )

five year

-

and enforced long term

(

',

Kaffirland

Kaffir Employment Bill -

of

prevent the disgorging

the

Robben Island

1857 the Cape parliament introduced

'

000

great ultimate good would

opportunity

killing

. -

.

social structure

the

.

on

,

of

40 37

).

30

,

's

.

'

.

of

,

ie

In

-

the missionaries

They were found guilty cattle

their

was that prospects for the colony were

ever before Grey also used

incarceration

What

reaction was that

The settlers reaction

behaviour during the period

and

only 37000 remained

years had been struggling and the

and destroyed

000 left their homes and entered the

;

to

:

chiefs

chiefs before the courts

200

At

.

of

the

1222

cattle

cattle were slaughtered

find work

come about Grey

it

had suddenly

better than

1992

the previous

destroy the power

from

least

people

Mostert

see

governments

flow

of

destitute

(

Kaffraria

starvation

of

as

Xhosas died colony

Xhosa adult men killed their

estimated that 400 000 head

of

.

corn

per cent

is

It

85

about

all

-

,

months during which the cattle killing prophecies swept across Xhosaland

. These

or

of of

as

.

also

individual land

trust and

Fingoes



tribe that

the cattle

.38

in

and did not participate schemes

new

system

racial domination

at

a

justification

,

the humanitarian movement and the of

6

.6

The failure

Grey

's

-

from

labourers

episode

')

.

farmers

who benefited

-k

was mainly the Mfengu

entered into alliances with the government

killing

in

earlier experiments

illing

(“

for African

tenure

the cattle

It

enabled

push forward

to

Grey

British Kaffraria

in

created

be

to

,

The vacuum

the contracts

equal number entering the colony unregistered by

end

what the terms

1857 nearly 30000 Xhosas had registered

with perhaps

the colony

employed

relief had

a

of

.

the

be

would in

By

over where they were

an

say

were drawn up by magistrates , while the destitute , desperate

contracts

no

Xhosa work - seekers

on

,

compulsory contracts of indentureship

PERIOD OF BRITISH COLONIALISM

of for

THE SYSTEMIC

the

Cape

It

.

in

,

,

.

for

,

The Masters

the

and

of

a

to

to

system

racial

former slaves and

the

a

it

,

the abolitionists

by

the the

was still mentally

,

he

of

a

, “

by

was

). state

it

Given that

why could

it

settlers

of

the

movement that had played

?

of

colonial

the issue

and slavery unable

serfdom

the British

address

to

why was

a

in

why

1

must

question

,

the

century

is

at the

to

.

and support

of

and militarism

of

the

abolition

fundamental question

was legally freed

mind

racially

Cape immediately after

19th

The Negro

the British

1982

answer Stepan

in

of

operation

role

half

:

slave

but

evangelical humanitarianism

expansionism

years

African history that

South

of

in

1833

's

to

morally and physically

crucial

of

the

of

was being lost

:

Emancipation Act

such

create

Nancy Stepan

the first

'(

racism

failure

this

many repressive measures

against slavery was being won

,

of

.

of

racism

a

as

According

slavery

the battle

attempt

enough

13

for only

that applied not only

labour economy was introduced

history

war against

slavery

which individual

Paradoxically

lasted

colonial authority

the great riddles

of

the

abolition

first



a

in

by

,

of



despotism

.

one

based repressive

a

was

serfdom

Xhosas

of

, It

remains

,

1841

Cape

the

to

serfs but also

the

and open society

rights were valued

and racial capitalism

domination

-

corruption

and legal equality

Britain

transforming the feudal Cape

.

,

by

introduced

co

civil

freedom

Servants Ordinance

Any

marked

both

and Khoisan

and for only three years for the former slaves

Khoisan

that just

purpose

post Enlightenment

and

pivotal role

chattel slavery

-

a

into

individual

about

century

19th

integrity

, of ,

period

in

the early

and serfdom freedom



of

society

the abolition

profoundly instrumental

a

had served

-

at

and

the Cape

movement played

in

The evangelical humanitarian

stem

the

had the full

not prevent the

201

,

,

to its

of

,

a

,

South

if

the

of

to

of

in

a

to

a

).

7

ch

by

in

:

;

8

in

.

in

of

of

as

. ,

of

They corrupted

.

'

and were convenient

).



of

:

shallowness

60

',

divide and rule

(

evangelical

humanitarianism

also

moral naïvely

described

the

Xhosa

fundamental

as

assimilated into

a

the scene was

',

treacherous and irreclaimable savages

Urban

set

When



.

civilisation

D

optimistic about the ease with which the Xhosa would

were

both

naïve

re

The missionaries

develop

be

to

enough

for

progress

.

and economic

be

would

alone

the

being too closely associated with British liberalism on

it

British colonialism

.

and

Xhosaland after the Sixth

agents

early 19th century Both ideologies were based

and Christian

when

Queen Adelaide

imperialpenetration

see Jaffe 1994

belief that legal freedoms responsibility

those

the

Cape Town

2

-

'

as

of

from

the province

rather dubious role

and

racist

only

and land speculation

of

a

especially

,

probably stemmed 18th

mercantile elite

-

the annexation

domination

superficiality

the late

also

in

to

but

the

the former The

Frontier War when not

opportunities for land grabbing

played

which Afrikaners

destroy

neither the humanitarians nor their

the

Eastern Cape

reversed



after

and especially the frontline troops c onsciously the chiefs used policies instruments

agricultural

based

had any vested interests

after the Sixth

the missionaries

Frontier War

the British

racially

new

government

triumphal progress

stop the

of

Lord Glenelg

the

of in

were deprived

become

see also Crais 1992

and slavery

;

elite

,

,

the mercantile

situation changed drastically

,

8

but failed

,

vested interest

, ,

serfdom

British settlers

their attempts

accident that the humanitarian movement helped

British settler capitalism

Moreover

,

126

ch

in

:

1996

feudalism

closest ally



liberal

based

.

to

be

to a



of

racially

liberal

emerging white capitalist class

institutionalising

of

a

Cape had

202

avoided

all ,

no

(

perhaps

of

is

see Keegan

the remnants

western

racial capitalism

been

into

they had not been supported



and

if

's

in

,

Africa

capitalism It

have

been turned

less successful

settlers had been

and the colonial authorities

The

could

historical

development could have been more humane and less exploitative

the British

system

easily

serving the interests

utilitarianism

gentry

1990

the

had not

humanitarianism

Africa

1840

from

not much point

believe that 150 years

attempt

1850s became

and

in

'.

there

London

the

in

to

of

in

Although

to



Africa

South

reason

so

,

there

is



speculation

the 1840s

of

,

-

settler capitalism

claim

tawdry

shallow

humanitarian thought

Society was the very seed bed

justify racially based

out

1820s and 1830s

the

in

).

:

(

While

127

infected with racial sentiment

in

turned

is

the

1996

'

Missionary

The

prevent the institutionalisation

1840 onwards prompts Keegan

from

,



deceptive thing

to

Cape

the end liberal humanitarianism

in

,

that

at

racial domination

labour

unfree

if

of

the humanitarian movement

Xhosa

?

of

to

'

settlers land grabs and the reduction inability

the

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3:

PART

by

,

by

-

, :

.

on

)

In

39

)

,

to

an

the

,

in

in

'

in

in

,

the

say

,

.

,

movement in

at

all

1840 onwards

same entrepreneurial

.

-

in

,

it

valued more highly than liberty

was only

small

As

1990

5

Watson

of its

on



of

,

between

two ideals

the liberals had valued

.) . ..

property rights

anti slavery

,

classical liberalism

'(

property more highly than liberty

weakness

:

and that

the

the rights

soon

as

,

For Watson

of

oppose the steady diminution

human rights

-

ideology

liberalism

the

Africa

of

South

the Janus face

of

of

the

century

on

the

failure

of

19th

the conflict within

freedom

playing field

faire Britain

a

in

.

of



movement lies

laissez

From

with

systematic and comprehensive

coherent movement

human

decade

Watson blames

develop

unfree labour

Britain

force

and Crais blame the racist ideology that emerged

Worden

coloureds and Africans

that

repressive labour system

to

to

'.

a

or

inability

order

and the labour market was still

the Cape was imbued

the middle

the

the same time when the working class

of

in

the Cape

1834 the

abolished

surprised that the humanitarian

exactly

,

earlier

40

at

As noted liberalism

but level

industrial bourgeoisie

a

as

spirit

the

the settler bourgeoisie

a

to

Britain was subjected

in

at

the Cape

then

-

of

labour

free

'

to

'.



was defeated

century

the 16th

sell their

be

One should perhaps not

unfree

'

'.

for

to

in

of

.

in

(

of

the industrialising bourgeoisie

was

From

.

its

is

a

(

by

class capitalism

.

and employees

Act was passed

gentry capitalism

bourgeois and laissez faire capitalism

system

Queen Elizabeth

The

was all but

century

the first Reform

when

repressive

and women

-

all for

employers

was relatively easily

the 19th

Because trade union rights were still denied

market

1992

Britain were superficial

Britain

system

system

by

was

able bodied men

see Crais

).

, an

was

roots

1832

archaic

British parliament controlled Poor Laws enacted

and especially

22

until

a

1

practice

,

in

,

it

was

until World War which

because

the contrary

capitalism

British

ch

:

at

;

humane

the 1840s onwards

from

whether humanitarism

institutionalised

system

on

economic

Cape

the

ideas settler

the

(

to

in



in

,

An

7

ch

;

interesting question

defeated

The new

legitimise the new racially oriented labour

and economic policies implemented

Mostert 1992

of

'

of

on

Sir

by

order

colonial authorities

the

aftermath

liberal utilitarianism

into

indigenous people

were not only propagated

and racism

but were also accepted

George Grey

into disciplined and

them

transformed

I

of

liberal utilitarianism

bourgeoisie

was

the racial inferiority

notions

force

and the

the obverse

the Sixth Frontier War and

by

.

crucible

that evangelical humanitarianism based

of

in

was

It

useful labour

prolonged domination the

need

moral development

culture were replaced

into western

optimism

Humanitarians

.

of

Africans

for

the

and

indigenous people

of

about the potential assimilability

culture

COLONIALISM

its

latter and their primitive “

of

evaluation

in

the

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH

step towards

property was enslaving the 203

PART

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3:

indigenous population groups

order

in

boost the wealth of the white property

to

class .

of

of

the

the

'

in

.

,

of

'

:

' ?

.

in

,

a

so

at

,

,

in

,

of

it

.

and

its

in

order

see Legassick

colonialism

in

-

the replacement to

Cape

the eastern

1993

.4 ).

8

to

.

on

of '

after

Kei River were

cattle

fight

their privileged position

à

that they should help

the

were

,

the war

)

000 head

the

of

in

of

'

total expulsion

vis -

.

wage labour

,

to

in

his

them

was

Xhosa the Mfengu quickly adapted

22

,

settlers with

The idea

condition that they

not participate

who did

wage labour

seek

the colonial side

who brought with

near Grahamstown

policy

In

,

and 16000

and supply

of

the

Xhosa

all Africans

The Mfengu

.

resettled



D

.

.



',

liberated

their employment

Urban announced

Frontier War not

were expelled

the 1820s onwards

on

of

49

provided

1828

took out passes When the Sixth

from

(

6

Ordinance

an

the colony

Africans entered

vis

capitalist colonial expansionism

own

:

-

section

for

of

,

68 ;



see also

and the

The rise African peasantry the Cape Colony during the second half of the 19th century

.7

329

and

the general conclusion that the

draw

century Victorian

19th

race

with utilitarian and racist ideologies

liberal humanitarianism mid

was the British

of

.

the aggression

Britain and among British settlers legitimise

the 18th century

of

also

not result

did

(

but

have taken

movement was not only the result

the humanitarian

weakness

him

for the hierarchies

We can

of

failure

societies

Africa

South

the British colonial authority after

-

, of

African

race

of

of

conquest

responsible

were

the frontier

He believes

evangelical humanitarianism

not the Boers who

according

Trekboere

in

the failure

capitalism

racial

more adamant that racism

institutionalised

42

of

but was systematically

even

but

liberalism

believes that the colonial state

on

is

Keegan

failure

the same time invented

also

could

from

He then asks What was

to

capitalism

the attitudes and practices

from

Crais

by

in

,

!

.“

black peasant road

337

and

institutionalising

Without this intervention

the antithesis

.

1993

:

in

Legassick

freedom

).

spoke

decisive role

a

(

played

not

transition

itself The racial forms of

contradictory discourse

of

one part

rooted

liberalism

century Cape were

19th

this world which quoted

much

-

in

the

its

in

,

grew

of

out

domination

was not

the ambiguous nature

of

but

liberalism

capitalism

of

racial

to

slavery

,

Keegan take this argument further. For Crais

and

of

Crais

western ideas and western modes

204

traders

their ranks During the Seventh and Eighth

.

commercialisation

independent and

.

the

gave way

market Their close contact with missionaries in

hastened

the

tillage farming

for

Their communal organisations and pastoralism

to

.

production

with

the

,

to

.

at

no

.

in

the in

in

.

it

40

.

mode

western

of

of

production

on

communally

;

with individual land

and peasants

small scale

,

,

independent

-

';

the



proprietors and who either paid their

halves

relatively

living

commercial

44

farmed

of

a

into

and sold their own produce squatter peasants

farming as

by

them

mainly absentee

from

or

Africans had the combined effect

and

an

of

rise



or

the

repressive

African peasantry with

landowners were responsible

Africans Until

.

white

of

an in

(

in



if

. ).

50

years

halting this process mainly because

for

1890

the

succeed

in

did

not

60

proletarianisation

ongoing offensive against the peasantisation offensive

for

, of

Consequently

,

apprehension

the

The peasantisation

with their almost insatiable demand

African labour viewed

,

and bonded

.

cheap

slowly

,

farmers

important and

for

Many white

.

labour practices

more

and

an

humiliations and impoverishment caused



escaped

therefore

was

the Cape

Africans became landowners and

by

and

section

of

significant number

,

independent farmers

same period

the

Africans meant that

a

the



This also happened

.

in

Transorangia

century

19th

7 4

development

the see

)

promising

half

the second

of

Natal during

relatively independent African peasantry

(

The rise

a

of

.

farmers

years the African

:

,

who

tenure

Over the next

that time individual peasants who farmed

but produced

cash

would help facilitate

Colin Bundy distinguishes among three different

by

of

peasants

in

lease

villages enabled

the 19th century the parallel and interrelated

and proletarianisation

land leased

the Cape

,

half

and western labour patterns

owned land

'

.

in

to

Christianity

detribalising Africans and integrating kinds

system

Cape expanded but never numbered more than 2000

Eastern

the second

peasantisation

farmers was

the Cape parliament The scheme was supported

of

1996

During

money economy

62 ).

the

in

Rich

Africans

:

see

(

vote

qualified franchise

Sir George Grey and the missionaries who thought

peasantry

the communal

small freeholding African

land and house plots

freehold

a

to

qualify for

the conversion

on

by

.

acres

of

to

the introduction

of

by

owners

peasantisation

this

down and was replaced

class

ten

.

to

Two

1853

of

The development closely linked

From the 1850s

the market a

for

of

and production

economically

among the Mfengu

not only

developed

Through

Africans broke

wage labourers

a

but also among the Xhosa

longer formed

and was

,

peasantry

as

resist employment

onwards different forms organisation

land ownership



enough

system

of

independent

African peasantry developed that

,

communal

the

to

of

part

an

Through these events

land grants

Cape government and were

43

rewarded

loyal

remained

.

generously

Mfengu

of

Frontier Wars

of of a

the

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH COLONIALISM

this

coalition 205

PART

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3:

the influential

between

liberal mercantile

favour of peasantisation

After

(see

of

the discovery

fortunes started

Bundy

,

gold

1988 :

legislation that

in

forced them

join

to

a

3

was

in

).

of New

, peasants '

Liberalism

the early 1990s onwards

by white landowners , the mercantile resulted

ch

and the advent

decline . From

to

elite and the missionaries

combined offensive

a

elite , and the gold

mining industry

due course destroyed the African peasant class and

in

wage -earning proletariat . 45

Both the traders and the missionaries (ie , the champions of Cape liberalism

in

of

for

of

it

, 9



of a

of

, .

' .



-

a

new

approach

).

48

48

peasantry

land and

the mercantile

this period was squatter peasants

white owned land

labour tenants

,

crown

134

by

was opposed

-

form

of

(

:

Bundy 1988

results

general anti squatter

1892 when gold mining necessitated

in

in

legislation

on

on

unalienated

idle squatters

as

,

206

such

a

.

,

,

,

to

on to

living

onwards

1872

by

from

These laws did not always have the desired

act directed against Africans

The most common

Africans were

cheap wage labourers

increasing demands for labour

ever

by on

.

,

as

,

thousands

Although white farmers were agitating very strongly for

proletarianisation

and

squatter farming

enacting hut taxes pass laws and vagrancy laws thus forcing

elite and only enacted

of

of

modernisation

'

'

meet settler farmers

the labour market

to

:

( as

-

;

to

the other

responsible government

,

best

to

its

did

communal land

enter the labour market

enjoying

The Cape assembly

the Cape

speakers

-

on

-

and forced

vote

farmers and small scale commercial farming

absentee

Africans with individual land tenure proletarianised

influence

-

from

peasantisation

on

land leased

promoted

956

double barrelled and contradictory one On the

,

,

one hand

it

detribalisation was always

1992

buffer against the demands

1990 the process

to

1860

from

to

,

who

both Afrikaners and English

a

30

the

In

years

break

the

qualified

parliament supplied the mercantile class with the settler farmers

could never

effective method

into the sphere to

.47

this

them

Those peasants

accept

.

and drawing

Africans

economy

regarded

Mostert

see

an

in

,

detribalising

they

the

missionaries strongly favoured

both the traders and

because

turn

Xhosa society and tried their best peasantisation

and

in

,

The missionaries

they had

,

.

.46

detribalisation

due course

peasantisation

western

of

.

of In

6



).

by

means

polygamy

through

were usually

Peasants

for cash increased

.

prices for their products

understand the role

1220

As their need

accordance

Cape Town built lucrative

relationships with Africans

white traders

depressed

elite

a

exploited

By penetrating African culture

goods the mercantile

speculation

and

labour through kinship units

,

and selling

by

trade

of

customary rules

with certain

buying

the products

of

the

distribution

breaking down the communal ownership of land and

in

in

vested interest

a

of

had

)

policy

,

and

to

.

of

,

,

pattern

in

which white farmers remained

cultivation

. the gold mines made

proletarianisation

companies

discovered that tribal

,

of

propertied

'

controlled

Christian

progressive the

mining

The

to

to

prefer

its

revised

.

class

at

in

,

while

important ideological shift took place

from

than

the greater

cattle farming and hunting

class the

of

,

Consequently

.

of

African

assimilation through modernisation and segregation

retribalisation

and increased

,

away

new

the

-

for this was

reason

,

century

oxen

families

extended

liberal mercantile

modern class

of

peasantisation

than the

Consequently

a

19th

to

the

end

of

.

African peasants

,

were

'

proletarianisation

the use

and also made

more convenient collaborating class an

chiefs and headmen

same time a

the

.

peasantisation

stimulated

proletarianisation and peasantisation

mercantile

the

At

it

for

the basis

buy ploughs

increased demand for cheap and bound African labour necessary

the

use

By it

to

cultivation

African farmers

the

convictions about the congruence

to

their

An important

gold

him

for

of

discovery

colonial cultivator

cultivation more successfully

several maize producing areas

the

pre

).

of

a

.

did

family labour available in

labour

African squatter tenants became involved After

...was

pastoralism

income

-

of

cash

landlords and became involved

rentier

-drawn

other purposes

than

pastoralism

from

their white counterparts developed

:

'

peasants often shifted

the

well

earn

as

,

to

Africans

using the plough

supply

reliance

drawing ploughs rather as

;

for it

necessary

pastoralism

from

decreased Africans

for

of

animals

ox

the ox - drawn plough

According

on

plough shifted the balance subsistence

1988

95

the Africans

)' (

arming

,

[f

peasant

of

innovation : the

basic technological bridge from

by

the

undoubtedly

was strongly promoted by

as

'the adoption

plough . Bundy contends that

to

survival .

peasantisation

important technological

an

' paid

,

of

introduction

to

From

' economic

of

1870 onwards the process

allow Xhosa

to

so - called “kaffir farmers

to

the latters

to

to

to

the years of economic

were more prepared

squat on their farms. The rent these

white farmers was vital

the

farmers

, during

that

in

families

ironic

49

, white

depression and despair

It is

on

rent tenants , or share - croppers.

PERIOD OF BRITISH COLONIALISM

a

THE SYSTEMIC

at

1838 Dingane gave

in

the strength

the Zulus under Dingane

of

.

and the defeat

of

-

Port Natal and

Voortrekker leader Piet Retief immediately before

Retief and his commando were murdered concessions

February



the

Shaka and Dingane

settled

,

concessions

Natal during the

and hunters

On

land

to

received land grants from

British traders

In

an

of

small number

.

1824

African peasantry the 19th century

of

of

The rise second half a

.8 In

6

.So

proletarianisation

these

land

the Voortrekker

207

area south

into

Tugela

The British

separate British colony

a

1842 and turned

in

annexed this republic

in

in

established

.

of Natalia was

republic

APARTHEID the

, SEGREGATION , AND

of

COLONIALISM

it

:

the

3

,

PART

the

)

of

from

to

in

the the

of

as

result

,

abundance as

wage Africans their labour problems

by

tried

solve

to

,

.

Voortrekkers

The

.

1843 While land was available experienced problems recruiting

000

in

they

underpopulated

Tugela

Dingane the African population increased

in

to

in

1838

Voortrekkers labourers

50

.

mfecane After the defeat

area south

a

ie

(

the area was substantially

of

,

in

the late 1830s

10000

,

6000 Voortrekkers occupied Natal

When

the

.

1845

the

on

on

the

by

51

).

to

,

by by

or

to

occupied

and

of

Natal

's

million acres

3

,

.

By

.

of

1970



just less than 175 000 acres

in

6



rentiers

,

of

of

to 5

more

land owned

acres

.

one

,

,

but

'

'

supreme chief

as

to

their own

their own people was

system

first

.

until

was ignored 1910

,

who

government by

British

This stipulation

Natal

that

The key

of

colony

,

in

English speaking whites

-

the

territorial segregation

system

.

colour blind

location

,

British

Shepstone

the

,

's

grandiose

-

be

Natal became

laws should

to

,

54

.

a

,

of

implement

Shepstone

a

to

the last resort

Natal

skilful

'.

'

(

,

its

and

and

indirect rule

called

called

the

as

a

African control similar

colonial Africa

in

convinced to

method

He was

,

a

Shepstone

African reserves

officials made responsible not

subordinate

1845

in

,

million

acres were set aside

in

of

)

as

the to

208

the

steadily and reached

African chiefs preferably not traditional rulers

government scheme

the mainly

land

South Africa

Theophilus

lieutenant governor

stipulated that

of

of

million

white magistrates

When

the

of .

2

by

'



or

but

brought British settlers

had

absentee proprietors

the British would later apply apprentices

).

:

.

to

in

12

of

than

use

million

Natal

million acres remained unalienated crown land

paternalist and improvised was

over the

and trekked

various mission stations More mission stations were active

any other part

locations

annexed

African population had increased

sizeable portion

Natal than More

the

5

.

1870 some

was granted

area

that which

that stage

53 A

African squatters

total

Natal

from

The white population increased

the hands

in

whites were

By

.

250 000

than

After Natalia was

and Scottish settlers were brought

000 English

1820

in

1870

.52

in

18000

some

scheme similar

Cape

Eastern

167

(

50 to



of a

terms

harvest and eat what others have

the Transvaal and Orange Free State OFS

By

,

in

In

1849

African villages enabled

to

about 4000 Voortrekkers withdrew

in

British

Drakensberg

raiding African



(“

(

Bundy 1988

planted

'

quoted

guidance

to

through God

Voortrekkers

barter

Military attacks

their subsistence

')

for

produce

either

or

Voortrekkers depended

the

's .

Natalia

on

.

in

'

'



children supposedly captured during legitimate commando skirmishes with the Zulu and other African tribes During their four years

'

apprenticing

practised

THE SYSTEMIC

on

,

to

to

,

of of

and

(e

productivity

specially

in

.

Natal

-

proletarianisation

.

to

resistance

,

It

'.

of

was only

the Natal parliament that the

state

when finally

labouring for white employers For most

.

alternatives

government

the 19th century white commercial farmers complained

labour and

unjustified

'

shortage



bitterly about the severe

the

of

the second half

to

responsible

commercial farmers gained control

limit African

interests

The commercial farmers were unsuccessful until 1893

granted

to

when Natal was

pay

rentier class and missions stations strongly



.

this strategy

the

)

(

,

However the absentee farmers

farming

living

implement anti squatting and other

overcoming African

of

aimed

state

apparatus

or

measures

use

at the

to

attempted

this period white commercial

19th

white

after

African peasant farmers were able

taxes and rent without endangering their economic independence

Throughout

the

their modest

to

.

of

drawn plough

Africans

from

),

the

levels

-

of

introduction

ox

satisfactory

half

of

the second

surplus was extracted

large

by

Natal during

to

relatively

in

.

a

the power relations

standards and

to

obey

Africans became landowners

landowners and the colonial government But owing

of

to

required

were

Large

locations

.

's

,

but

the

African

of

A

Shepstone

land

large scale

allow

-

to

their economic

into successful peasant farmers

Given

,

mission

small number

.

developed

and

in

,

farming

also

on

.

were

religious prescriptions

began

all

of

,

to

crown land

unalienated

reduce

extract rent from

to

their farms and

on

')



content

,

.

Kaffir farming

or

for maintaining

Africans

farmers were quite

The absentee

of

the in

.

a

of

).

6



:

exploiting different forms

peasants

opposed

economic

Natal between Africans who

Attractive farming opportunities were also available

century

to

of on

continued

154

these

lineage mode

on

(

open

become

.

for a

system

and Atmore 1980

With

degree

squatters

numbers

to

.

of

high

,

independence

options

the

the locations

mission stations

attained

struggle

a

Africans

by in

,

,

(

the number

squatting

Africans

Marks

second half

were prepared

land and farming and white commercial farmers who tried

of

to

access

and

their economic independence

maintain to

tried

see Slater

1840 until 1893

From

cash

white farms This was because there were

their typical Zulu in

independence through production

earn

pay

.

,

crown land

available

Africans

subsistence

,

farms

opportunities

on

sufficient alternative means

on

labour tenants

of

is

or

of

.

,

that only small numbers

labourers

absentee

Natal during

characteristics

the remarkable

19th century

wage

obliged

pay these expenses

to

necessary One

and other fees They therefore needed

excise duties

taxes

All Africans were

electoral rights

obtained

,

hut

racist policies . Although Africans could

blatantly

to

few

,

own land very

COLONIALISM

the

segregation and implemented

PERIOD OF BRITISH

competition

209

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND

they experienced

important way

:

mission stations

the

for .

to

on

on

,

of

,

crown land

possible

their own land

the

to

become peasant farmers either

white farms

farms

absentee

characterised

by

in

;

56

,

(

).

Natal

showed great progress

,

in

Marks

considerably

.

diversification

Peasant

sensitivity

and

to

,

intensified

see Slater

African

1986

improved

by

production

sell their produce

to

opportunities

al

in

;

Beinert

onwards

1860

et

from

,

on

from

commercial farmers

import indentured Indian

Mozambique

1870 until 1893 the African peasantry

From

to

the decision

Richardson

9

168

brought

also



:

and Atmore 1980

experienced

the sugar plantations

migrant labourers were

as

by

of

clearly illustrated

work

to

labourers

labour problem

in

most

is

in

The seriousness

Natal

the

.

ss

,

locations landlords

make

on

on

Africans

or

all

,

could

wage tenants

enough

and

result that large

it

of

Natal Africans

access land easily

half peas

the second

in

the proletarianisation

Cape

in

in an

Africans became wage labourers

numbers almost

differed

were parallel processes , with

of Africans

antisation

Natal

Cape and

century . In the Eastern

the 19th

In

1980

.

The Eastern

of

African peasants (see Slater , in Marks and Atmore

from

or

158 – 9)

APARTHEID

, ,

3

at

PART

.

it

market opportunities During this period white commercial farmers found compete

to



not impossible

if

difficult

-

increasingly

African

with

'

in

other forms

to

1910 Although the

the same extent

of

large numbers

of

land

became

them

in

access

of

.

to

,

in

.

to

.

,

colonial

the

period 1893

peasants

the

the Eastern

6



).

183

:

see

(

Bundy 1988

constitution

, of

Natal

's

benefit some

proletarianised during this period but not Cape

of ‘

the in

locations and the retention

of

of

the

order

the economic independence

to

in

to

. to

continued

there Under the new

these two developments

The absentee

the Witwatersrand

Natal gained decisive influence

African peasants was sharply attacked existence

responsible government

as

the

in

shift their investments

farmers

government Owing

granting

labour situation fundamentally

profitable opportunities

new

commercial

1886 and

to

landlords started exploit the

gold

1893 changed to

Natal

in

to

The discovery

of

.

agriculturists

to

as

so

them

bad treatment had travelling

travel

without

pass

.

wages

being arrested

to

.

low

a

and run the risk

confuse

to

complain about

not

1820 onwards

for

the nearest magistrate

Afrikaners

,

the Trekboere

or

Khoisan who wished

210

refer

of

2

can

settlers who arrived from

as

we

to

now

with the British

to

1

From

on

Endnotes

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH COLONIALISM Khoisan outside the borders could not enter the colony without running the risk of

'



was issued

by



: of

a

:

of (or

3543 Newton

.

-

experienced

,

public

the

servant

the

not bring about the expected moral

'

of

intolerable intrusion

the master

1838 Afrikaners again

in

slavery was abolished

changed

'

of

1828 again

best part

the

of

of

Afrikaner patriarchs

did

an

as

the unfree labour

;

of

.

The rest

Elphick and Malherbe 1989 )

( :

very high percentage

into the private domain

state

Proclamation

.

,

1994

7

of

legal subservience

50

an

these measures

on

a

Worden and Crais

figure implies that

This ch see

a

in

the British

and when

settler

'(

as

their slave counterparts

and Atmore 1980

of

,

the 1810s Khoisan workers

ideological confusion among Afrikaners that lasted for

relationship

British state into their

patriarchal domain of

.

'

private

'

kind

32000 slaves

century When

19th

in

.

of

).

in

Marks

The intrusion caused

the 18th

in

as

as

were trapped

that

virtual

the Cape colony showed that almost 27000 Khoisan were

contract workers

force consisted

King

in

is

)

.

18

registered

the claim

firmly enchained

The 1820 census

Khoisan

of

There

of

century

-

).

when Proclamation

slavery

validity

plunder

,

procuring children

them





',

who

by

of

'



1809 until 1828

for

might sell

legal system had become the victims serfdom many respects that was even worse than the inboekstelsel

farms were

5

bent

Malherbe 1991

most Khoisan

6



from

apprenticeship

50

years from

deeds

16 on

quoted

fraud

prepare

persons

from

: 81 - 4 ).

1986

savage parents

:

as

',

well

'(

or



a

the

In

almost

as

'



for

depredation 4

to

children

paltry bribe

protect them

in

Bosjesnien

to

1917 Lord Charles Somerset saw

In

20

3

fit

being arrested as vagrants (Le Cordeur , in Cameron

When the abolition

and slavery

serfdom

among former serfs and slaves humanitarian idealism evaporated and was replaced drive new disciplinary measures directed the former serfs (

by

-

,

all

an

,

his

in

of



to

'

,

). had been policy

see Keegan

to

a

of

new

1996

:

as

the Xhosa

part

former slaves and serfs

89



which

:

land from

547

(

,

1992

it

in

,

ie



It

. .

but

at

. .

6 6

.

6 5

.

Slavery

the Cape was

four year transitional period

-

in

,

December 1834

and

1833

1838

,

in

1807

but the abolition

only took

.

1808

concerned

with the materialistic and pragmatic

interests

of

was

only

-r

its

sections

slavery

government abolished the slave trade

the Cape

eaching implications for labour

a

to

1

on

to

abolish

far

.

1

December

discussed

in

-

be

in

will

abolished

until

in

in

The British

Fairbairn

be

10

South Africa

was allowed 11

Mostert

was abolished

volte face and

The British parliament decided supposed

12

Fairbairn

entrenched

)

-

9

The reasons for this dramatic patterns

effect

Philip

John

28

proletarianise coloured people 116

1829

only lasted until 1851 when

law

persuading the then acting governor

1828 on

pass Ordinance

,

.

serfdom

This settlement was established expelled

by

.

Khoisan

see

equal civil rights persons Their greatest accomplishment was the

give

and slaves

50

,

Richard Bourke

to

formal termination

Pringle

Thomas

(

Khoikhoi of

,

',

the

son

strong humanitarian case for

'

that would

ie

and unchallengeable law

cause

, in -

Commercial Advertiser put forward

liberals

. ).

for his humanitarian

and Andries Stockenström

colour

8

also section

ally

the utilitarian

6 5

82 ; the

editor

at

for

a



75

of

,

Fairbairn

strong

a

found

a

:

1996

Philip

in

to

Keegan

the economic results desired

attain

see

and slaves

to

7

by

,

reawakening

the

211

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

.

the Cape

His main

of the anti - slavery argument

defence

of labour and

allocation of both

a better

argued in favour of adequately

,

in

,

in 2

,

3 5

in

.

compensation

The main

-

an

,

'

'

in

in

in

of

South Africa

forms

new

and the

of -

by

of

,

them

labour

odysseys

as

).



trapped

90

,

86

:

slavery

the frontier wars between

the greatest human

slavery was

the British and the Xhosa

and endeavours

the

Mostert

history

'(

of

1996

but

would

the slaves themselves

the United States when

in

Noël Mostert describes

of '

,

.

Depelchin

abolitionist movement rather

the latter

the abolition

set slaves free

(

in

.

did

-

not

the case

The same happened

Consequently

servility and poverty two

.

'

an

'

1863

United States

product

one

In

,

slavery was abolished

compensated

abolished

xvii xviii

of

6

;

85 –

of

an

:

,

the

important

Cameron 1986

.

1840

wool ).

:

and

While

of

Cape

Eastern

wool

158

.

49

1996

50

Keegan

in

90

to in

4



the

By

annual average

(

at

9

farmers

000 kilograms

1860

about Ordinances

their

created the opportunity for mainly British 1996

104

6 .)

Keegan

(

-

cattle

which outnumbered the human

,

economic unit was bound

up

an

,

affected the tribal economy social customs and

the Nguni family

as

tap

of

one



least two

The security

1840

£984 000

unfree African labour

the possession to

,

at

by to

source

49

Afrikaner

,

system

Bundy

of

legal

the new

.

to

population

-

in

.

deprived mainly

subservient Khoisan labour Ordinance settlers

1855

something hypocritical

in

million kilograms In

,

,

£73 000 and

1822

in

and

1855

of

50

at

exports were valued

According

in

in

in

9000 kilograms

from

8

increased

million kilograms

Ordinance

into

).

wool

was also

the victims

and played

1825

Cordeur

had become the most important colonial export

There

brought him

the press

.

Le

see

governor

London

(

recall

in

5 5

, ,

1832

freedom

12

's

The export

ch

of :

1992

as

-

's

high handedness gathered

Somerset

in

role

Mostert

suppress

Thomas Pringle and John Fairbairn Several

sharp conflict with

governor

attempts

to

's

Lord Charles Somerset

of

).

-

:

1992

18

The mainly Afrikaner

.

to

-

. of

to

Depelchin

emancipationist

have been

19

This

London

dependent

them

and English speaking merchants

Afrikaans

were both

per on

-

the level

-

in 14

compensation

made

paid

Cape Town

According than

15

because

collect their money

slave owners were also not satisfied with

beneficiaries

collect their money

to

-

,

and slave owners had

The money was

.

.

000 slaves

merchants with British connections

16

British government had awarded to

38

the

£1 ,

the

that

great discontent among slave owners

caused

17

to

-

for

cent government stock

Meltzer

them

).

was announced

compensation

in

million

indebted

.

Cape Town

7

:

September 1835

it

In

13

-

and Crais 1994

Worden

the mercantile class

slave owners were heavily

the

to

and industriousness into slaves before abolition

slave owners was important ch

of for

because many

compensating

of

of

inculcate habits Compensation

diligence

and how

at the Cape . Consequently , he slave -owners , and the need to

abolish slavery without disrupting the labour situation strongly

labour and

of slave - owners ,

to

motivation

a better

capital . His main concerns were the property rights

it

through

economic growth

(

at

was purely economic . He believed that abolition would promote

be

entrepreneurial classes

in

3:

:

PART

212

an

of

around the cattle kraal Cattle intricately

.

semi circle -

a

in

family were grouped

,

17 ).

:

(

-

with milk based products which were more easily stored than agricultural products 1988 Life literally revolved around their cattle since the huts extended and

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH indissolubly bound the material

egalitarian

as

,

. At

of ,

at

).

of

century

the 18th

.

to

in

.

of

as

white and

between

them

the Boers and the

(

to

so

).

390

:

(

1992

introduction

;

:

1994

detailed exposition

of

a

.

would have come



of

;

for

racial divide and Crais

9

ch

section

See also

it

..

].

life that integration into

6 6

:

7

;

ch

21 .

:

ch

:

1992

Trekboere

[



:

their own way

their posterity would have been unaware Keegan 1996 See Crais 1992 Worden

,

22

upon

intrusion

naturally

Mostert

the end

,

close

of

(

so

),

the Boers

Without overseas of

)

were discernible

the Eastern Cape

the

would have resolved their own contest along lines that already the end the 18th century Xhosa society was familiar

at

probably

Xhosas

its

As Noël Mostert

puts

the end

clashes with other tribes

whites and Xhosas

between

way

in

well under

was

this day

the Xhosa tribes

at

racial integration

to

of

Khoikhoi



A

process

some

the Cape the

among small groups

had developed

-

close

of

operation

co

century

18th

-

– 23

Xhosa would probably have remained unconquered

who had allied themselves with

well

but practised

not arrived

had

--

the zenith

15

:

their military power

of

-

British

at

the

If

21

(

.

,

balanced diets African societies were not entirely redistributive economy see Thompson 1990

,

.

healthy and lived

generally

-

They were

tools

and cattle

farmers cultivated

, ,

,

and made iron

sheep

a

.

Besides owning

were

units

on

mixed farming

They practised

tribes

thousand people

hunting the abundant game and gathering indigenous plants sorghum

the lobola

to

a

,

40

000

and other African few

the Xhosa



,

Khoikhoi

into centralised chieftains ranging from

as

large

they sealed marriage bonds through

).

1992

contrast with the San and

organised

the

6

Mostert

.

In

, because

the future

:

(

system 20

see

represented

also

of their lives . Cattle were

parts

and sacred

ancestral spirits , linking the living with the dead . Cattle

to the

ch

of sacrifice

medium

COLONIALISM

this new by law

all

,

-

race free

).

38

:

in

' . '

in

a

. -

an

, ‘

'(

from

as

The main

.

the

1930s

)

from

that created the legal shield

(

the second and third phases

the fourth phase

.

description

for

Trapido 1971

of

and exploitation

of :

third

labour repression

(

the

of

intensifying the repression

of

a

beneficiaries

The Glen Grey Act

of of

of

in

.

.

description for

a

.

)

of

for

and section

9 5

.

and

labour repression

as

by

to

of

-

74

sections

black labour repression

8 6

See

persist with labour repression

phases

, 8.5

).

industry

1970s made possible

the mid

labour repression was

This second phase



the mining

with this phase

to

until 1948

(

and the fourth

1913 played important roles

,

Act

and exploitation associated

was perpetuated

diamonds and gold

English magnates and stockholders

of

1894 and the Land

The second phase

/

this phase were British

it .

implement

to

)

power

in

olitical

implemented after the discovery

by

the

a

in

.

of

in

unfree labour South Africa four successive and overlapping labour repression Each phase was implemented another modernising community the white with vested interest labour repression well

group (p

apparently

that

masters

and severe poverty that have

-

resulted

19

1838

But since

Bundy 1975

race domination

of

of

'

brown

ascribes the large scale social dislocation



25

black

Trapido

310

over the abolition

peak

both masters and servants

servants

consolidated rather than weakened

phases

bitterness

freed slaves reached

or

,

all

and almost

feelings

1841 and 1856 were colour blind and fair

of

spelled out the obligations

were white

for

paid

Voortrekkers was murdered

of

Natal Afrikaners

and the compensation

The masters and servants laws they

large group

a

1838

of

's

slavery

Zulu impis

.

the first half

Dingaan 24

of

During

in

23

.

hegemonic order

213

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

Harry Smith was

was closely involved

Despite his dramatic threats and

use

21) .

).

of

where

disloyal during the

. . In

.

)

of

50

of

to

in

of

10

;

ch

of

.

of

.

by

,

).

of

,

the uncompetitive terms upon which

advanced society

enyon

the

,

technological

'

a

an

policy towards the Xhosa has drawn of



see

point

in

3



Benyon makes the interesting

in

Afrikaans

-

Xhosa

philosophical

(

's

In

.

settlers

Grey

his

).

'

the in

colonisation

for the detribalised

(B

163 and

be

)

:

at

the long run

'

a

:

of

operated

labour pattern

is

effect the new

elite

-

white

co

-

speaking

It

to

-

162

– 4

:

1986

1986

historians who stress the more negative aspects

the Xhosa through

).



them

representative parliament 14

:

(

,

23 ;

by '

,

:

,

in

identity

the European

"

-

,

are now

to

-

so

's

past there

English

he

On

.

,

,

:

in

'

,

35

The

Cameron

and

employing

had completely replaced evangelical humanitarianism

governor admitted

Cameron

the establishment among them

deliberate attempt

new

'

a

of

by

be

utilised

utilitarianism

the

by

', , ,

' by

and the creation

underdevelopment



the

:

in

,

88 ;



-

to

his

,

of

by

(

mind

Grey urged that the Xhosa should

was quite benevolent and significant

Legassick 1993 329 Crais 1992 200 that while Grey called assimilationist

the

of

,

,

of

:

(

.

as

'(

on

Benyon

the 19th

the Xhosa

missions connected with industrial schools

quoted

68 ;

34

1994

assimilation

philanthropical works were

identity that could

praise

Ross

built schools and hospitals Legassick 1993

the other

and civilisation

'

'

to

Christianity

Although his governorship the Xhosa

racial

Sir George Grey On the

of

In

33



and Crais

policy

public works

seemingly

Worden and Crais 1994

and personified

useful labour

see Warden

beyond our boundary

orientation

Crais

break down the tribal customs and structure

into

accordance with

them

175

Janus faced

'

wanted

for the Xhosa

raised

Ordinance

the colonial state

Warden and Crais who describe the middle decades

force them

to

down

1992

enormously

he

A

one hand

the preparedness

also

)

-

coined

term

century

but

not

Cape

10

102

:

1993

see Crais

slavery

the

239

the Eastern

reinforce and extend the newly designed methods

to

implement measures oppression

determination

'

the farmers

and the abolition

1828

Plots

became

inhabitants

1996

nullify the effect

to

only demonstrated

32

see Keegan

The long struggle between white employers and coloureds

.

31

proletarianised and dispersed through the colony

2

of

the Kat River Settlementwas decimated and many

its

£1

-

to

settlement was opened

to

those considered

be

all

of

the

.

a

the

land

war was confiscated and white land grabbing fetching less than £20 before 1851 were changing hands for 000 and more process

in

in

,

in

.

;

to

the urban centres

free and skilled labour force

the Kat River Settlement

In

due course

several

important bifurcation occurred

labour force increasing numbers moved

they became

coloureds remained

accordance with the prescriptions

,

:

masters and servants laws But

the majority

century

the 19th

proletarianised and unfree labour coloured

Kirk

see

9

and Atmore 1980

Squatter Ordinance

,

to withdraw

in

convinced

During the second half

30

and fear throughout the colony , and (

revolt of 1851 led the legislative council

hysteria

to

the

Smith failed dismally to impose

of

1992 : ch

The Khoisan

Marks

.

Queen Adelaide

the Xhosa . His actions were the direct cause of the Eighth Frontier War ( see

on

Mostert 28

of

of force , Harry

up

order

29

proclaiming the Province

in

ch

27

commander during the Sixth Frontier War , and

's military

’Urban

D

of

26

its

3:

an

PART

ironic

new

that the

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH COLONIALISM

to

see Crais 1992

204

his

accomplish

Mostert

1992

:

traditional Xhosa society

break

the opportunity

to

of 1857 gave

(

to

:

purpose

tragedy

;

-killing

If

1828 , and perhaps even more so .

– 6

in

labour that was as bonded as before The cattle

and slavery.

abolition of serfdom

the Cape for 20 years , they would have had access him

those who left had remained

36

of the

1836 because

:

Voortrekkers left the Cape in

that

'

show

this

a

of

).

5



of

of 75

in in

.

-

era

.. . of

historical and Crais

of a

.. .

Capitalism

in

state

labour



]

]

colonial black

[

.. .

the

.. .

in

the making

Africa But the

capitalist

hand with

of

the 20th

backward

,

on

of the

for in

of

the hierarchies

race rather

white colonists rather than weaken

he

).

; 3



292

the to

,

,

undermining African customs started land After the Eighth Frontier War Grey proclamation return for annual payment

.

an

of

in

Mfengu

1996

my emphasis

.

policy

than

on

harden

of

to

'

's

isolated

African societies was usually dependent

their communal ownership to

spawned

attitudes

the hegemony

imperial power

the

the white supremacist state

survival against harsh conditions and hostile

of (

)

went hand

coercion

:

strengthen

of

to

,

(

-

,

a

of

road

.

a

peasant

black

state

.

up

(

25

a

the

Worden

)’ (

a

crucial role settler

The origins

particularly

Sir George Grey

gave individual plots

a

,

in

of

.. .

it

as

,

lie

:

follows

British

:

(

. .

6 7

of

',

it

it

,

,

in

the

of

with

gold

that

connective

173

The permanent conquest of of

.

it

and

them

The

kind

played



:

not

non racial

).

in

which massive

frontiers where Boers struggled indigenes British influence tended

break

of

of

in

of

'

:

)

, .. .

century

as

did it

puts

exercise As part

South Africa

much

in

's

as

could have taken

1992

'(

42

after the discovery

The colonial state

the Eastern Cape

in

road

development

dissolve

established

white farmers and economic development followed

repressive

Keegan

emphasis

follows

Africa

South

supported



in

colonial order [

of

author

1853

unfree labour and perhaps more

Cape constitutes beginnings colonialism

the

the industrial

was also about power and

but

modern racist ideologies

slavery

uniting

;

Crais puts

ending

it

,

6

:

1994

23

developments

of

emergence

forms

new

the British

was enormously Janus faced

[

tissue

bonded labour and

ended

the emergence

era

the the

historical

that

freedom

1834

).

witnessed

tragically

was about human

system

similar role

Worden and Crais

did

era

of

also

, ,

franchise

saw

.

control

41

slavery

The very

(

.

to

in

in

).

colonial state and the liberal ideology that informed The ending

to

of

to

of

).

in

(

.

of

Laws

Britain

the per

about

racial capitalism

and the system

According

1996

per cent

parallel between the

remarkable

played

the Poor

Keegan

the working class

The Land Act 1913

1993 330

:

,

Legassick

(

by as

Africa

about

)

1840 until 1990

the repeal

Britain

the 19th century

in

in

Britain

from

See also section

the cost

a

One can draw

:

in

themselves

at

:

classes

).

Africa

Crais quoted

40

162

– 6

'(

,

the population

1986

upper

the

empower

to

)

of

South

Cameron

enabled

class capitalism South

in

;

90

system



38 39

Benyon

This cent

,

Benyon under severe pressure Cameron 1986 164 Mfengu quickly peasant developed The into successful farmers

population

43

phenomenon

supernatural route total belief the attainment better usually associated with the rapid disintegration traditional

society

288

studies among

of

.

a

the

Pacific

western

claims that recent

Benyon

A

,

whites

in a

in

the future

in

the a





,

millenarianism

mystery why the Xhosa killed their sacred cattle

against

their wrath

anthropologists

world

remained

is

demonstrate

it

For western people

or

37

).

1178

215

PART

3

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

1858 permitted

of

( Keegan

Africans (mainly Mfengu ) : 1454 - 7; Bundy 1988 : 44 - 60 ) .

1996

The three different kinds

44

of peasants

buy crown land at £l

to

acre

an

, but

not only an economic division

constituted

also a social and cultural one . The

).

co

the mercantile

-

: ' It

follows

difficult

(

the

at

and

separate the

,

of

of

of

).

of to

.

30 to

.

of

).



Britain

1892 was led

until

ordinance

to

as law

:

a

110

affected

the

,

of

their

and ploughs more 101

).



95

:

different

their crops emerged

oxen

of

to

see Bundy 1988

the ideological conviction

,

section

could

buy more

way

a

such in

in

members

selling part

of

almost

all

were organised

their strict control over the living standards

8 .4

in

of

-k

to

,

involvement

of )

possibilities

could accumulate capital

the New

Imperialism

;

-

:

of

,

(

of

for

290

for

important reason

).

— 3

1996

:

Keegan

An

segregation

,

of

retribalisation and increased proletarianisation Africans became the basis the social and economic policies racial capitalism South Africa during the first half the 20th century see Bundy 1988 134 140

of

about the justification

1873

26

a

(

the

easily than their white counterparts indicate

squatter

ones

for

command

As soon

.

-

families

As we will

Bundy 1988 general squatting see

of

,

– 1

partially detribalised

given



African peasants

and from

that adversely

recession

(

of

that their heads could

extended

the 1860s

The period

the previous

1851

even

cultivation

the tabling

when

as

families

(

Khoisan Rebellion

aspects

the 1880s

the

.

of

1850

a

elite opposing

reason for themercantile

Extended

'-

'

its

Britain severely affected the Cape

the experience

Xhosa

capitalist countries but especially that

the advanced

of

One

in

The decline

up

to

in

.

Britain

of

1896

the economies

great depression

the Ciskeian

white farmers

Serious droughts were experienced

experienced

was limited

,

to

Xhosa

for

prosperous

the

opportunities for the

white and missionary farms and expanded

the Transkeian

as

,

1860 until the 1890s was not

from

years had been

the detribalisation

create

peasantisation

, it

of

.

to

during the 1860s and 1870s and

illing

the chiefs and

of

a

on

squat

of

to



for

-

the Xhosa

most

in

Robben Island

The general policy

also the rationale behind the drive later also

point after the cattle

high

George Grey rounded

.

them

Sir

:

on

,

when

become landowners While the process Mfengu east the Great Fish River until 1860

48

elite

with earlier settler conquests and economic

in

incarcerated

49

see

the

as

in

of

1857

Africans was Mfengu and

50

.

its

operation between

'( of

episode

in

the time

their white counterparts

than

. ). close

the

promoting peasantisation

Marks and Atmore 1980 249 The onslaught against Xhosa tribalism reached

expansion

47

in

in

to

's

,

producing maize

peasants which had begun

orientated

51

the saddest

missionary frontier from that European merchants and trader Christianity creating the market process the free trade hastened the

and

216

one

history because African peasants were

the

46

missionaries

and Natal

the Transorangia

was undoubtedly

Act

8 6

.

and

Trapido describes expansion

Africa

more successful

8 5

sections

destroy the peasantry

at

considerably

South

in

developments

order

the African peasantry

of

of

1913 was passed

The destruction

high point when the Land

of

7 – 13

The offensive against the African peasantry reached

45

to

Bundy 1988 :

first of the three categories was culturally ‘more traditional and more receptive to western culture ( see

' less

and the third

is

traditional ' ,

this withdrawal was that the Voortrekkers were experiencing

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH COLONIALISM as had

to them

the Eastern

in

case in

(

in

thousands

his

the

faction wars between

,

Cethwayo

supporters

and

Mbuyazi

.

of

),

a

1856

in

When Mbuyazi was defeated

of

the sons

's

in

African population was result Mpande ingane successor (D

of

increase

of the

:

The

52

sharp

supporters

been

).



experienced London Davenport 1991 100

farms allocated

the

mainly mercantile and financial groups Cape Town and problems obtaining titles for several farms see no



,

Cape land speculators

of titles of

Cape. And , as had also

in the Eastern

,

been the case

the registration

the

same delays over

the

fled across the

a

.

)

In

In

.

in

.

:

, ).

share cropping

State

,

(

.

, 25

for

,

of

,

it

workers

for

and resulted

in

to

about 100 000 the

outnumber the

2

).

– 6

:

(

in

at

the

.

1875

continued until 1911 –

a

least

Indian immigration

sizeable Indian population one that would eventually white population Natal Davenport 1991 105

of

that

was also made

,

.

10000

in

,

of

The

Provision

their contracts

after 1872 and the population rose from

end

another five years

provided

including the flogging

.

, .

to

absenteeism

system

At the

Natal was inevitable that The Natal legislature took special

put right certain alleged abuses

the century

law

at

.

to

India Since men transported

Indians who had completed

serving

to

100

or

,

returning

wages

agreed minimum

of

-

on

in

they were given the option

for

to

in

1872

accelerated the

Free

). freedom

allocating land

by

He

locations per cent 1882 almost

the Eastern Cape the introduction food production see Bundy

sharp increase

five year contracts

excessive pay deductions

creation

among

prevailed

among whites

the designated

(

in

.

the case

permanent Indian population would emerge

and

of

-

of

).

:

of

As was

women should accompany every

steps

law

in

in

in

:

of

their contracts

obtaining their

a

from

African the Cape

the Transvaal and Orange

the late 1860s led

Indians were brought end

customary

outside the locations see Bundy 1988 170

lived

controlling

168

move and live

mission stations

Natal

in

to

prevalent

the plough 170

the situation

claim

_ 4

of

as

In

55

was not

56

Africans

the locations and

contrast

1988

Africans

on

of

1851 two thirds lived

absentee landlords

whites who laid

over

taken

(

Dutch

persuaded large numbers

system

to

and Roman

Bundy 1988

dual legal

in

,

Africans

several groups

:

(

in

Natal

Shepstone also imposed

a

54

land and politics

1893 the small and well organised

of

were the most influential

small

-

Until

relatively

Company owned

to

.

acres

to a

million

.

a

nearly

the hands

The Natal Land and Colonisation

60

landlords

in

Natal property was concentrated

absentee

law

group

see

of

large portion

of

A

53

.

Tugela into Natal

17

Chapter

7

the

by

arrival

to

it

in

-

into

of

of of

.

Union

of

-

the

a

to

gold

wage earning

of

30

of

with white farmers

considerable

legal

and

in



South Africa

especially

the

labour history

.

important element

of

-

in

.

its

in

,

used

struggle between Afrikaners and Africans

northern provinces

in

, of

sector

the Boer

producing

break African resistance

an

The protracted

corporate

collaboration

's

administrative power

Africans

subjugate

.

emerging

useful

of

difficult

especially after the discovery

state

during a

to

so

it

mould Africans

years after the establishment

when the new

the

extending

the Transorangia

African tenant farmers

,

,

1910

to

the

period

is

and

in

South Africa

a

in

over

not

turn Africans

struggle

provinces were only reduced

the northern

the

resisted these attempts

.

for the emerging markets

,

foodstuffs

success

and

of

the

,

relations

difficult

to

A

.

labour force Africans vehemently

and the relative

proletariat

of

.

,

.

Voortrekkers

the Transorangia were the political and economic weakness

Africans

the

the

of

'

, -

to

an

It

a

a

to in

by

various means

republics

way

The Voortrekkers did

protracted

took place

The main reasons why Afrikaners found in

property

the Cape before

their land but found

20th century

well into the

manageable

resistance against

,

to

large parts

which Afrikaner farmers tried and

deliberate attempt

docile and subservient labour force

1850

act

depriving the different African tribes

of

of

.

a

into from

Afrikaner population

and used

remarkable degree

serious problems

Transorangia

owned

prevailed

that

They succeeded

experience

was

states the labour patterns

new

patriarchal feudal order British

regarded

a

in

their

be

can

in

to

recreate

Trek

their own states north

particular against new British definitions

which land and labour were The Great Trek

Great



,

and

in

British colonialism

the

large part

.

the Cape became known

be

.

emigration

at

River This

trek parties and established

of

of

series

as

the Orange

in

Eastern Cape

Afrikaner frontier farmers left the

and 1840 about 15000

1834

as

Between

causes

of

The Great Trek and

7 1

a

.

its

The systemic period of the two Boer republics ( 1850 – 1900 )

219

PART

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3:

During the process ofmodernisation initiated by the mineral revolution and the commercialisation of agriculture , many Africans as well as Afrikaners

the

in

Boer republics became proletarianised . While the struggle between Afrikaners

,

.

by

of

of

the

in

.

. to

,

.

the

-

in in

existence

more

escaping the British sphere by



in

an

desperate

of

Trek

a

Great

as

the

of

regard

of

-

-

,

can

were deprived

Afrikaners

Cape

,

British

.?

Cape Town gave preference

requests

by

.

abolition

title deeds

title deeds

the

.

labour and land

loan

and

the

new

liberal

, of

's

apply

to

,

easy access

was Cradock

Trek

had

now

their

The liberal

economic

influenced

for for

Farmers

Great

of

Afrikaners

colonialism

to

by

British

to

1813

.

in

We

the

deprived

British

from

English

more land than they could

.

for

make way

use

owned

to

for

,

whom

years were forced

far

of

,

speaking claimants some

it

,

,

land surveyed and had worked

220

the British

Often Afrikaner farmers who had submitted land claims had had the

.

settlers

in

officials

indigenous

when

When the mercantile class

Great Trek were undoubtedly

for

about

Another important reason farm

particularly

After the arrival

many ways

.

to

of

,

,

reforms brought

life

and land speculators

The main causes

system

way

considerable period they were closely followed

traders

humanitarianism

British settlers

perpetuate their traditional mode

the

.

,

financiers

a

influence for

1830s

rebellion not only against

of

,

to

operate

Although they succeeded

of

by

distant venues

the

maintain their hunter trader raider pastoralist

income

Afrikaners

especially

a

kind

Town started establishing trading centres attempt

-

,

in

to

life was endangered

important source

process

.

for

Afrikaners

in

of

opportunities

larger

frontier districts

raiding

-

.

people were not prepared way

the

the

trading they turned

From

and the courts

Trekboere became accustomed

co

people

latter did

wealth through barter and trade with indigenous

they accumulated

to

which

18th century

than

'

the

Great Trek represented

British colonial authority but also against During

Economic

broke down during

this alliance

thus

remarkable alliance developed

of

of

Consequently

elite groups

and British

the Xhosa

1820s

the

in

respect

of

it

,

Afrikaner

the

?

,

While

.

between

in

all .

at

authority

and

that

claim

administration

the 1820s was symbolic

-

colonial

the

disempowerment

would

is often

It

important role

more

wrong

The anglicisation

in

not

played

of be

ideological and political ones but play any role

Afrikaner nationalism

the rise

probably

labour considerations

and

British domination

from

a

freedom

important event

an

as

projected

quest

a

19th

contest

a

.'

Afrikaner historiography .

in

a

as

major theme in

interpreted

a

of

form

African proletariat

an

a

The Great Trek is

the

of

the labour arena between an Afrikaner and

it took

is

the 20th century

to

of

the first 40 years

for

in

, during

a

century

largely indecisive during the second half of the

remained

the

and Africans

,

:

1986

the

,

to

for

Cameron

in

(

,

,

,

to

.?

1830s

particular racial an

The fact that they trekked into

the Great Trek

.

out

on

set

often asked whether the Voortrekkers subscribed

ideology when they

the

of

during a

a

.•

to

many Afrikaner

The economic position

trek

districts deteriorated dramatically

the Eastern

in

rather dubious perhaps even treacherous role

,

To

).

Du Bruyn

losses during

aggravate matters after the war the British settlers and especially

encouraging Afrikaners

It is

compensate them

none was forthcoming

but

Grahams Town Journal played in

Farmers were

.

to

expeditions

farmers

frontier farmers

use their own horses and equipment during punitive expeditions

They expected the colonial government

129

Sixth Frontier

.

on

inflicted heavy losses

5

(



1834

required

these

and particularly

frontier conflicts with the Xhosa

),

War

the

The

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF THE TWO BOER REPUBLICS

argue that they were not necessarily

ideology

the great animosity

and

their predicament

The

doubt that

high point among British settlers

War were also prevalent

Afrikaner

in

after the Sixth Frontier

There can therefore

no

.

the bitterness and racial hatred that reached

affected

those who had experienced

be

well

as

,

as

serfdom

great losses during the Sixth Frontier War

by

in

sensitivity

a

of

the

abolition

.

;

.

that had developed

Afrikaners who trekked were those who had been most negatively and slavery

An

Frontier War

.

and lacking

develop among

their ingrained racial assumptions to

unjustified

challenged

,

practices

as

in

which the evangelists

the 18th century

The former regarded the

.

between Afrikaners and the humanitarian evangelists way

of

the end

did

by of

the Trekboere had probably

three decades after the Sixth

Great Trek was

racist

circles

the

in

the

settlers during the two

important reason for

an

argue that such or

.6

section

conscious racial ideology we

a

into

6

in

,

British

used

we argue that the racial attitudes

not crystallised however

sometimes

to

is

.

section

5 6

In

make treaties

to

unknown interior populated with Africans with whom they were prepared



. the

of

the

of

the

west

the a

unleashing

of

Sothos

,

involved

This

)

(

South

half

exactly the same by

.

Eastern Cape

mainly

power struggle

the second at

in

for

the east coast

other group conflicts

of

on

the case

tribes

people

the

these wars were also

economic considerations

.10

by

triggered

in

As

.

Drakensberg

African

')

or

',

-

scene

Zulus under Dingiswayo and Shaka consolidating their empire genocidal attack

of

,

British settlers arrived

in

the

time when

and indirectly

both directly

Transorangia up

century The mfecane erupted high

.

19th

in

between Afrikaners and Africans

hammering

eastern and northern parts the

These transformations the

.

Africa

total war

caused large scale movements set

Trek

the on

Great

a



the Great Trek

the 1820s and 1830s that transformed

later South

in

smash

the

Both the mfecane and in

meaning

important role the

an

also played

difagane

in

The mfecane

(

or

.

Eastern Cape

221

claim

that

seriously

the disrupted

the

for

it

.

tribes

by

some

This made

as

in

the Transorangia

of

pt

-o

to

Voortrekkers

arrived

-

,

Voortrekkers co

the

when

disrupted

establishing themselves

re

many African tribes and that many were still busy

occupy

to

Voortrekkers

easy

labour tenants

."

.

the

perhaps more accurate

is

It

those areas

that made itmuch easier

Natal

and in southern

of the Drakensberg

west

a vacuum

it

is often said that the mfecane created

for

of

,

On

.

,

in

,

the

of

a

central

remained



)

ZAR

state

in

,

the Vaal River but the

(

in

resistance

Britain recognised

of

by

,

and

establishing

lack

a

as

as

-

well

the

Republiek

the Zuid Afrikaansche

internal strife

to

vulnerable due

-

.

This state

of

north

different Voortrekker factions only succeeded 1860

conflicts between

1852

of

a

of

Voortrekker

republic

but

the British

the Sand River Convention

Most

the north

the

a

,

At

.

2

African tribes

of .

-

,

in

state formation were disrupted

contrary

objectives

great variety

establishing Boer republics

accumulating elite groups the intervention independence

group

integrated

of

their attempts

well

several factions with

were interested

at

Voortrekkers

of

they consisted

single

a

The Voortrekkers were not

the

in

.

7 2

The establishment Afrikaners semi independent power and vulnerable constellations the Transorangia

-

It

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3

to

PART

economic and public

.

financial viability

of

frontier districts

the Cape

serious conflict among Voortrekkers

,

conduct military campaigns against Africans

),

landowners

stable

political

,

tribes could

7

Voortrekkers

enabled the

reassert themselves

The Voortrekkers

the tribes and offered

.

against the stronger African kingdoms

earlier the

,

noted

to

this

.

these

treaties with some

of

negotiate

and

land

to

,

Africans

weakened the

the Voortrekkers was the

As

which they deprived

. of of 4). 14 .

ease with

occupy land before to

(l

'

the more remarkable accomplishments

,

of

see section

mfecane had disrupted many tribes

222

resisted the

arger and more prosperous

Their recalcitrant attitude (

'.



the

notables

Voortrekker republics considerably

tried

and continuously

The radical group also supplied African tribes with guns much

the dismay

relative

they

not prepared

They were

who needed the protection and patronage

of

to

.

institutions

Afrikaner notables



drive

of

accumulative

One

of

acquiring forced African labour

,

nor

this tradition

group were neither

this

of

in

state formation

.

caused

a

interested

Because members in

some Afrikaner circles

.

in

between Boer and Brit over labour and land issues strengthened

The conflict

to

century

at

-

18th

.

the

of

the end

Voortrekkers moved northwards with

perpetuating the anti statist tradition that had developed in

of

the intention

group

,

of

A

,

smaller more radical

protect

them

The Voortrekkers encountered two

THE SYSTEMIC

PERIOD OF THE TWO BOER REPUBLICS

powerful African kingdoms: the Ndebele kingdom Natal . Well - organised

by

the

.

by

to

in

-

.'

to

.

,

.

the a

in

of

, to the

,

in

the

way and received

.

Moshweshe After several wars

Britain resumed responsibility

present

(

,

70

,

,

of

poor that

). by of

9



,

,

landdrosten the

were reinstated

the ZAR was

the financial

heemraden

in

system

of

.

The hierarchy

commando

million

-

198

:

1988

the 19th century the existence

,

the

, of

and

state

so

,

Bundy

(

of

of

was

conflicts between accumulating elite groups and the new

whites

claimed

however

despite

and graze white owned land until the

the 20th century

the second half

and

,

,

to

coercive capacity

occupy

?

African population

till ,

's

.

The ZAR

But

set

in

.'

to

the ZAR after the flight

increase rapidly

its

-à -

vis

vis

its

African population

its

of

of

by

enhancing

its

In

in a

of

be the

friendly

were

After independence

of

1

the

end

veldcornetten

back

given

and that the new

state

area

million morgen for African occupation

the first decade

weaknesses

Barolong tribe

Basothos

many Africans continued

threatened

the British

white population

for themselves

For most

was

that stage the British

satellite

peaceful conditions prevailing

the Ndebele allowed

morgen

trustworthy

and

this territory

.

)

in

1868

The relatively

small size

At

Griqua

16

OFS and

day Lesotho

1854

the area had been secured

wars with the Basothos the

the

in

its

OFS government treated

aside only

a

of ; in

.

in

that their interests

emerging capitalist interests

between

but

the Bloemfontein Convention

Boer government would

assistance

1848

not attempt control Harry Sir Smith annexed

British Orange River Sovereignty

the Voortrekkers convinced

the OFS did

the area

at

it

the

African tribes calling

),



.

to

,

,

The Voortrekkers

The

challenge

the strongest

powerful and well armed kingdom

Transvaal

eastern

the

the

British traders and missionaries

provided

Voortrekker land claims they established north

the

temporarily

ruled only

'

to

them

Pedi under their king Shoshangane that ruled over much

effectively ruled

Voortrekkers demands was strengthened

given

arms and ammunition

their vassals

Transvaal acknowledged

the

that they had been

Pedi claimed

resist

tribes

had never been

Venda

the

to

Their capacity

liberated

Ndebele

from

s

.

,

Ndebele while

living

tribes

claims The the

'

Voortrekkers

tribes

them

by

to

pay tribute

the African

African

,

,

ie

(

,

. all

who were now obliged

Not

have liberated

Consequently they regarded those

oppression

and the Drakensberg

Kalahari desert

for

claimed

to

Voortrekkers

and

.

Limpopo rivers and between

the Vaal

the area between

as

the

their Transvaal empire

the

from

in

Ndebele had been

,

expelled

. After

both cases before 1840

in

the

the Zulus –

driving the Ndebele into today ' s Zimbabwe , and

in

'

defeating

Voortrekker

armed

it

commandos succeeded

and heavily

in

in

all

kingdom

Zulu

Transvaal , and the

in the

Afrikaner

223

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

the

the apportionment

and were therefore

,

labour were concerned

of

burgher

land and

strategic positions

to

powerful positions

far

were

– the

an

Afrikaner

the new

in

pivotal officials

of

It was mainly the veldcornetten

who

African

and social stratification

in accumulation

as

-

state

.

century , these institutions played

the 18th

in

in

important role societies

the Cape

in

as

. As

republics

in

3:

PART

a

,

of

'

of

of

its

.

20

.

.'

state

of of

the relationship

private matter centred

not

between

in

the Cape

in

the case

the 18th

the patriarchal

on

a

As was

did

state

in

to

and black tenants

both republics

in



the

the burghers

.

of

,

the salaries

acquiring

patronage

and

intervene effectively

labour relations became

household

OFS

.

white landowners century

extent

power

coercive

outside the ZAR

for corruption the



the

have

lesser

funds

among the the poor administrative and financial position

to

and

a

the ZAR

21

elite

.

Afrikaner

Owing

lack

Another method

based

civil

poorly developed financial

improved dramatically after the discovery

opportunities

it

and with

Because

land

companies

financial position

to

,

gold

to

to

's

The ZAR

sell land

paid

in

administrators were often

revenue was

and

,

worsened matters considerably

system

its

collecting the revenue needed

military expeditions

administration and

of

raiding and the indenturing Africans the Transorangia until the end century the 19th of

7

.3

Slave

in

of

of

The ZAR was incapable

for

.18

enrich themselves and their close friends

see

by

-

of (

of

San

Batswana

,

,

Khoikhoi

population

,

an

')

racial mix took

intimate

group emerged

The Griqua groups were familiar

forcibly

numbers

of

;

large

they

dominated

African

their

children and

perpetuate the labour

loyal black

former serfs and slaves

23

The Great Trek involved about

As

soon

equal as

take large numbers

).

, .

ie

whites and blacks

to

of

the Trek (

of

on

them

.

servants with

doing this was

18th and early

an

was

of

Trek

to

of

the Great

which Afrikaners had become accustomed during the One way

224

Khoisan and

.

the main purposes

19th centuries

number

enslaved

them

22

,

as

inboekelinge

of

One patterns

to

women

and

Bastaard

European

,

a

new

Griqua

with Dutch culture and economic activity

African neighbours

,

on

'

or

tame

section

.

missionaries

the

of

the

(

,

this miscegenation the

christened

Khoikhoi Oorlams

some

land occupied

the Orange River

as

the

Out

by

.

Boers

the

of

the area north

place between and

criminals

Orange River and settled

of

In

.

Batswana

the

,

Hottentots

labour were common 18th century

century groups

the 18th

escaped slaves and convicted

migrated across

indentured

end



During the last two decades

into

of at

on

Trekboer frontier

,

.4 ).

5

practices

and turning Khoisan the

Slave raiding

the

, they

had moved beyond British authority

Voortrekkers

started slave raiding

.

24

African children

for

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF THE TWO BOER REPUBLICS

the

by

of

in

,



or



)

(

in

or

of

,

see

(

in

in

in

recreating the feudal and

the

the Cape

speaking

-

in

bourgeois democracy and

a

kind

,

a

that

from

British colonial authorities closely with both English and Afrikaans

18th

,

establishing

century

the two Boer

radically

differed in

,

the 19th century

of

the

elites

by

of

.



working

in

succeeded

-

Transvaal and none

and legal framework

the Voortrekkers succeeded

patriarchal order

capitalist

system

on

them

to

The to

.

.

to

Although

their land and forced

was still possible for Africans

,

part

too undeveloped

to

in

of

the Transorangia

labourers

contract

to

them

it

,

to

Voortrekkers deprived Africans

of

pay wages

of

burghers

Africans

progressive enough

the two Boer republics were also to

the

enable

of

similar proletarianisation

financial systems

tribute

contractual wage labour under masters and

,

bring about

the proletarianisation

or

and

the two Boer republics were not strong

laws

a

servants

Africans

on

and

the Cape was based

in

coloureds

labour system

,

While

of

.

the agricultural sector the

in

after the

the area under Afrikaner control

of

the second half

While

the Cape

to

olitical economic

,

-p

in

republics

Shortly

and

9

:

socio

slavery

).

437

settle

that



its

Thompson 1978b The

of

in

or

The society was promptly expelled from

members was allowed

were orphans

Society alleged that the Voortrekkers were

.

doing both

Africans the

the London Missionary

convention

sold

.

ammunition should not

and

justify

1852 stipulated

slave raiding to

firearms

be

in

the Transvaal should not engage

other legal

the Voortrekkers

The Sand River Convention in

.

26

was not convincing

any

,

The attempt

obtained

to

'.

gifts

of

Africans

from

as

]

were given

inboek

this practice with the humanitarian argument that the children

that

in

to

'

a

of

could indenture

,

orphans who

voluntary manner

burghers

system

Cape government when slavery was

Transvaal burghers

(

,

child orphan

,

apprenticeship

the

.

Apprentice Law or

its

Under

and

1812

children

method for establishing whether this

25

1834

in

abolished

Cradock

training

their

with food

them

the

)

perpetuation

veldcornet

the service

provide for

,

This was simply

in

.

by

created

to

the latter had

and

some useful occupation But there was ever happened

remain

They were also responsible no

.

and clothing

.

,

shelter

of

masters until the age

25

.

landdrost

or

captured children

was not legal unless the apprentices had been registered The children were compelled

and

Apprentice

of

.

The employment

by

the OFS

passed

a

session

the



in

(

.

Law

in

These laws also applied

Lydenburg

in

In

1851 the Transvaal Volksraad

’,

provided for native apprenticeship

1840 the Natal Volksraad

the

pay

maintain their traditional 225

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

.

The ZAR government enacted several anti - squatter and masters

were the only labourers they could effectively

be

,

.

to

up

an

a

of

of

.

the to

In

.

of

upper

children

.

in

the the

at

the

was

of

such

sons

illegal slave raiding

in

in

the

as

group

slave

it

Delagoa Bay only began

During the 1830s and 1840s

.28

of

the

.

Delagoa Bay for the

(

of

in

end

that Shaka took part

evidence

to

order

capture

legal way Although the

presumably

,

1852 Voortrekkers

was not

taken

seriously

by

in

apprenticed

African communities

.

on

up

Sand River Convention

their raids

of

.

Transvaal

prohibited slave raiding and trading

convention

their

said that this triggered

sometimes

death

'

who could

children

From

from

Griquas who participated

period following be

In

the

the eastern and northern

dramatically stepped

is

,

's

and

passed

eastern and northern

the

Mozambique

the radical Voortrekker the

)

Coenraad Buys

of

mainly members

after Shaka

the



.

of

the 1820s

children

slaves through

of

raiding The increased export end

It

.

.

however

,

Natal There

in

mfecane

American markets is

and

live

the maltreatment

very profitable slave trade

a

1820s the Portugese ran

theZAR

1866

embarrass the ZAR government

developments

to

Transvaal were linked

Voortrekkers were

their independence

children

in

and continued

Slave raiding and the capturing

Brazilian

by

-

allegations

no

,

continued unabated

new

a

.

,

despite

and other

the government would play the role

while

to

,

role

But

guardian

direct threat

,

guardianship

law

which

law

missionaries

Britain that

people with destitute

required the

new

control

they enacted several anti slavery laws

,

Consequently

as

slave raiding and trading

in

involved

the Cape and

the feudal and

many burghers inboekelinge

the accusations

saw

in

humanitarian groups

in

The Boer

a

republics

in

19th century must

of

of

the two Boer republics

permanent

on a

( inboekelingskap )

against the background

.

of

)

(

patriarchal order

half

second

not justified

although

understood

in

two Boer republics

the

inevitability of slave raiding and indentureship the

the

become wage - earning labourers

to

,

. The

basis

not prepared

were not forcibly proletarianised

to

they were also

Africans

27

and servants laws , but as long as

in

independence

For

3:

it

PART

,

in

,

(

white

supply

large

'

the

,

of

a

capacity

burghers 1850s

major source to

burgher circles

for

in

Transvaal

ivory and children during its as

smuggling

district

.

it

',

226

became known

who had

slave raid see Eldredge

of

northernmost

and 1860s While the Zoutpansberg was known

ivory

of



'

,

cattle and

of

the

actively participated

114



:

1994c

Zoutpansberg

,

In

Morton

the

and

the

Eldredge

in

the task

were the veldcornetten

21 ).

of

distributing the captives after

as



.

were also actively involved a

two republics



in

.

It

the widely dispersed Voortrekkers was not only the poorer Voortrekkers who were involved slave raiding The notables and even the presidents the

8

burghers

in

of

,

).

ch

, :

,

to

encouraging

from

the

a

of

.

in

trade

form

, .

as

burghers nor Africans regarded barter

These

.

of

Slave

of

to

pay

by

1851

means

but neither

slaves

,

in

of

African children

prohibited trading

barter The Sand River Convention



.

to

in

,

or

the Apprentice Law

the acquisition

often

tribute

were not inclined

of

on

embargo

the

discipline tribes that

to

of

important aspects

the

order

of

to a

terror

were

collect children

their payment

the burghers

-

of

order

the burghers

weapon

African tribes Some

terms with the burghers

tribes

operate with

co

to

other

.

of

was the absence

an

One of

.29

their tributes

as

raiding was also used were not prepared

had the effect

The fact that burghers claimed tribute from

as

were

were then given

children

also prohibited Cape

Africans

friendly

on

which

slave raids

in

involved

earlier

noted

for slave raiding between on

smaller tribes



created

1994c

the Transvaal after the Ndebele had been driven out also

in

possibilities

white and black

as

,

.

exchange for captured children

tribes that remained

to

Morton

and

which

)

children

obtain firearms and gunpowder

to

the smaller tribes

, or black

Eldredge

selling firearms

from

of

some

ivory

River Convention

The Sand

merchants

Boeyens

,

(

smugglers

in

see

of “ Zwart Ivoor ’ (black

numbers

the

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF THE TWO BOER REPUBLICS

They were members

in

nothing wrong

's

the farmer

30

white farmer and farm

.

a

saw to

squat

on

rights

in

such

service

to

kind

children

)

captive

as

in

receiving compensation

( or

giving their own children

.

money Africans probably

the absence

,

was marked

of

by

of

pastoral communities organised along patriarchal lines whose economic life

, as

in

,

'

of

the “

,

'

tame

.

on

commando

as

is

the number

commando

33

on

,

Boer War

).

22

claimed

; of

the Anglo

burghers

306

It ,

militia

- .

the

of

enslavement and that

Fransjohan Pretorius

of

an

quarter

in

element participated

According

to

.)

indispensable part

the number inboekelinge must have been 1991 a

(

a

their farms Like

African inboekelinge were used

(

of

agterryers were about them

labourers

fascinating that commandos were used once again

significant inboekeling auxiliaries

and

farming and

Afrikaner landowners who needed

white empowerment and black

inboekelinge again formed

repersonalised

the 1870s stock



It

.

of

as

instruments

were

on

,

18th century

against other Africans

many

Until

of

,

and mobile

is

in

the

,

loyal

they



which

hunting remained the principal activities

agterryers

were indentured

centuries inboekelinge were

19th

.

families

in

Afrikaner culture and religion

to

adapted

that

, .3'

as or

and early

into patriarchal

Khoikhoi

south Ndebele

:

in

'

the

18th

integrated

permanent

After their defeat

the ZAR

the Cape during

in

As

apprentices

Ndxundza

,

large numbers

inboekelinge

.32

,

1883

were registered

them

of

because not

of

all

,

or

to

is

It

determine how many children and women were captured during commando raids purchased from African and Griqua suppliers

difficult

227

PART

AND APARTHEID

,

of an

African tenantry , and the deepening of class differentiation among Afrikaners in the Transorangia ( 1850 - 1910 )

,

independence

white owned

Owner tenant

land

to

,

the agricultural economies

:

in

first the state

both

coercive policy against Africans

both republics retained their feudal

in

.

.

-

in

east

the influence

including the smuggling

of of

.

Owing

to

,

34

,

as a

-

,

in

mercantile activities

the north

practise their traditional

self sufficient

,

they were active

over the Tswanas

and the Pedi

continued

areas

agricultural methods and remained

white owned farms

authority

to

in

these

exert

the north

in

,

The tribes living

tenants its

difficult

the west the Vendas and Tsongas

to

The ZAR found

quite

it

on

their tribal land and

on

,

tillage farming

,

the Transorangia

with white farmers remaining pastoralists while Africans practised

character

traders

when the

.

implement

two factors

a

be

attributed

in

,

second

were only proletarianised

to

in

-

Boer republics was too weak

to

of

.

the 1850s onwards can

And

capitalist farmers and

proletarianisation did not occur

scale

the

Colony during the same

the Cape

the Transorangia

1913 was implemented

The fact that large from

not

in

proletariat

-

Most Africans

Land Act

this feudal relationship was

servant relationship between

the master

the wage earning African period

However

considerable

.

as

exploitative

at

-

.

African tenantry

exploitative

wealth

accumulate

-

of

the

one that enabled the larger landlords cost

was nonetheless

,

in

,

until the 1920s the owner tenant relationship

unproletarianised an

republics remained

the Transorangia

and complex

.

relationships between Afrikaners and Africans were varied Although Africans

their

in

to a

high level

subservient

inboekelinge the

as

tenant farmers

indentured

. It was ,

them

-

areas

Africans maintained

as

or

own

of

great majority

from

reduce Africans

who became

those

from

.

labour force

them

tribute

in

Apart

for

however , much more difficult

claimed

to

large part of their land , but also

a

the Transorangia

in

a

depriving Africans

in

as

succeeded

.

not only

The Voortrekkers

of

The rise

-

.4

of

SEGREGATION

.

on

7

COLONIALISM

3:

.35

ivory and children

of

in

it

taxes were

the territory

.

in

in

In

.

to

's

in

Britain

steady supply

was restored

to

them

the

forcing

,

independence

by

by

land inter alia

Pedi autonomy

British

migrant labour The

.

had secured

destroying

of

Zar

's

the

achieved

from

a

they

,

,

.

were satisfied that 228

or

alienating Africans generally 1881

the authority

wanted more migrant labour for the Kimberley

believed this could

pay taxes When

terms

1877 only £3000

Africans living

It

mines

African tribes

administration was still

,

the ZAR because

taxes payable

700 000

than

1877 the latter

be

more

in

and

by

diamond

from

.

annexed

exert over

it

collected

the tribute

all

claimed

collect

all

to

weak

to

it

too

When Britain annexed the ZAR

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF THE TWO BOER REPUBLICS

its

.

,

.

of of

:

,

to

,

in

of see

)

(

by

by the

as

by

(

a

a

on

,

.

of

bywoners

.

37

and

on

, a

to

for –

remained

pastoralists

until

they

as

not

but also the necessary labour

seeking

wage labour had been available

white

to

avoid

to

independent enough

.

,

.

wage labourers

If

Africans were still

as

,

As

.

become maize

comparative disadvantage

-

at a

,

soon

using family members to

by

in

the 18th century

who might have been inclined

their own land were

as

a

,

its

al

it

,

a

,

in

et

on

or see

-

big landlords and

They were mainly cattle farmers and hunters and

,

to

a

the

.

-

both large and small

.

on

employment

days

offer wage tenants

Afrikaner ranks

the necessary knowledge and capital

stage

to

.

the

on

of ,

At

that

smaller

and

certain number

The rivalry between

produce maize profitably

labourers white landowners only lacked

work

tradition that had begun early

African tenants began producers

the larger landlords

Both

The landlords were also able

the 19th century

were continuing

a

).

5

.

of

the crops

and were strict about

one hand and the smaller landowners

Afrikaner landowners

laws

serious labour problems They

the sharecroppers

the other caused bitterness and animosity

the end

rent

While absentee landlords easily attracted

convince their tenants

wage tenants

companies

the other

-

'). –

34

:

1978

better terms than the smaller ones land

larger group

sharecropping contracts offered

than the

in

to

tried

decisive role

The squatting opportunities offered

of

,

as

a

landowners

the

African families farming

few

small landowners encountered

half

their

and

,

halves

supervised the activities

obtaining

1986

1910

large scale squatting

'

‘ the



or

see

(

Trapido

squatter families

year

1850

white squatters

enter into partnerships with

former were mostly more attractive

closely

Beinart

feudal

their farms the smaller farmers favoured anti squatting

on

)

(

sharecroppers

to

and preferred

labour and

retained

from

the one hand

encouraged

the notables

on

. .)

8 7

36

While

paying tenants

the latter

years

(

bywoners

small landowners and landless

two Boer

the

Remarkably

on

'



notables

and

important ways which deepened the the competition between

in

.

-

small group

a

polarising

section

that

smaller landowners for African labour played

and

of

larger

of

the

tenant relationship changed class stratification among Afrikaners landlord

annexation

,

dynamic

.

,

quite

In

but

static

Areas

white farms

shortage

Trapido

over

this political economy the situation was

60

of

).

not

land

(

Anglo Boer War

Despite the primitive nature

339

farmed

,

by

surplus

-

the

until after

the British

therefore not surprising

is

It

.

of

capital

authority

the political economy

industry

was much

collect more taxes

could

,

mining

could exert

during

Africans who squatted

the gold

from

character

on

more efficiently and

republics was characterised scarcity

the ZAR

burghers increased considerably

did the number

Apart

now

a

occupied

From

of

by

African tribes

the

so

predecessor

by the British during this period

.

better than

far

its

public administration developed

229

PART

3

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

maize farmers

, it

century

in the 19th

poor Afrikaner farmers . 38 In the years after gold

land was increasingly

for the

concentrated

hands of Afrikaner ‘notables ' and in those of mining and land companies . this tendency intensified , many of the poorer farmers lost their farms, and

the

-à -

decade after gold was discovered

to in

on

.

,

,

-

white commandos

Many

attempted

. .) or ,

,

by

the

1907

43

.

position

-

in

to

Anglo

Boer

pursue

of

in

the

high commissioner

In

as

British role

'.

to

of

notables



reconciliation with

South Africa the

of

Lord Selbourne

the

rent

power

to

Henry Cambell Bannerman rose

critical

the

their bywoners

of

Party

This party was sharply sent

step

than the smaller

of

rid

In

.

Liberal

first

enter into share cropping contracts with their

paying squatter tenants offering them better contracts many cases the landlords also got landowners could the

squatter

,

As

a

or

from

one bound with they

.

as

capitalist farming

owners and maize producers

to

as

'



their manorial estates

transform

in

not

wealthier landlords tried

.

move

.

.

to

could

themselves acting

War and policy

armed

8 2

;

6

:

'

see also section

war the larger landowners

kaffir farming into commercial

Britain

easy

their cattle had been killed and that arable maize farming offered better opportunities However

these landlords

1906

of

,

,

by

would have

they

the consequence was resentment and

Meara 1983

arable production

1899

from

to

decade following

them

,

of

-

British victory

24 –

African circles

the ( O

in

the British



by

.

the

a

,

after

cattle many

seized many Afrikaner farms

lands were reclaimed

these

the the rinderpest

.

,

.

2 5

,

42

.

land When

they realised

In

the

the economic

Boer War fought

During the war African peasants

pastoral

,

one

the first decade after the

million head

The second was the Anglo

Africans believed that

restlessness

a

.39

,

of

their landlords increased

Africans The first was

and

which killed about

1896

for the purpose

230

This

and from

of

by to

and many

In

another

century two events negatively affected

19th

Africans

until 1902

from

that

and even further

,

the

both Afrikaners

epidemic

access

African tenants

.41

of of

position

of

the end

owned

depended

claim

Boer War

At -

Anglo

farm

in

,

,

power and their relative power

stipulated that

tenants had considerable bargaining

the time African vis

At

.

to

another

and

one district

from

his

power between

power relation differed markedly period

his

landlord could him

the balance

crop

a

.40

on

primarily

it

The proportion

maize farmers

which

improved market conditions for African

created much

,

smaller landowners

1887

the

intensified the struggle between larger and

gold

of

the discovery

Law

five squatter families

than

of

While

of

farmer could not have more

Squatters

'

to pass

vis

of the ZAR

Volksraad

this trend the smaller landowners convinced

To stop

a

.

became impoverished

the

As

a

,

was discovered

of

in

have been too expensive

would

these

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF THE TWO BOER REPUBLICS

wealthier landlords was considerably strengthened government to the Transvaal . “ responsible

make

only

to

successful

enlist the support

they could

of

.

the

.

a

-

of

a

if

to

by Selborne

smaller white landowners and against

.

45

African tenantry

the

power

the land owning class and between

capitalist farming

their dual struggle against

The symbiosis

profound effect

the latter that they could the

in

the state

pastoral

stronger position

a

wealthy farmers convinced

tenants

Smuts won the first

The support given

44

white landlords and African

from

in

'



'

notables had

struggle between the different elements

transition

Botha and

on

the

between Selborne and

notables



,

election which also placed

Jan

of Generals Louis

party

Volk

the

The Het

Selborne granted

when

more attractive contracts

many sharecropping tenants More white farmers

.

the Transorangia

,

to

moved

and entered

Natal

from

the

larger landlords and smaller landowners resulted

for

-

-

considerably The competition between

improved

.

highveld

,

Anglo Boer War the socio economic position

the

in

the

Africans

on

of

In

the decade following

and

Cape

sharecropping contracts with

into

at

47



in

of

low

by

a

-

evidence

,

in

Also

,

in

of 48

.

smaller white

and

contrasted

of

sharply with that

,

and 1910

was

the

repeated

the decades after 1913 see

(

the Transorangia

1890

of

,

the Land Act

the next chapter the attack

in

show

eve

on

.

Transorangia

been under serious

.6 ).

50

in

On the

the status

of

had already

the Cape between

Africans

the Transorangia

1890

in

the

in

As

we will

in

peasantry and tenantry

8

.

in

)

(

of

Africans

the Cape

against independent

liberal Cape since

.

in

the

Africans

the decade after

than the latter

including tenant farmers

the supposedly

position

in

.

to

a

of

is

'

-

the detriment

,

is in

of

,

the highveld

ironic that while this was happening

African peasants

compatible

was highly

socio economic position

respects

marked

farmers were better maize farmers than whites

fact produced more maize

section

family labour

South Africa had

emerging landless Afrikaner proletariat

suggests that African

the first

.49

the

Africans many

in

happened

landowners and

1913

input

high

maize production

weather conditions

The improvement

attack

Their type

on

uncertain

promise after the Union

of

with

the

.

in

of

capital and

,

input

the Transorangia

tragic that this emerging entrepreneurial class

its

to

fulfil

1910

in

a

chance

been established

war

it

was not

given

,

of

the 20th century

decade

It

Africans

and relative independence

wealth

the

of

in

by

in

.46

African tenants There were also better job opportunities for Africans Looking the relative wagon transporting goods railroad building and

231

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3:

PART

Endnotes

. ).

8 7 in

-

.

,

in a

(

an

in

as

.

reached

of

These tensions

of

of

its

(

labour

and

financial intermediaries

will

1978

slavery

:

Trapido

of

240

;

:

1975

– 5

Harris

in

(

by

.

privilege

of

50

them

in the

contractual

,

in

as

.

For

1828

in

,

When

.

,

enough

docile

vagrants

1828 created serious labour

the Eastern Cape

in

,

especially those

labour supply was never enough

unjustified material

establishing themselves

outside white control after Ordinance

problems for Afrikaner farmers

1828 and

,

a

in

serious and

an in

as

Khoisan serfdom

1838

or

.

)

(

of

.

the abolition

The fact that many Khoisan succeeded

settlements

was abolished the labour force serving Afrikaner farmers not only became free but also less exploitable and less obedient see Crais 1992 While the Afrikaners were effect deprived their land rights the British settlers

).

, :6

in

-

almost unlimited land was therefore

north

land and labour see Keegan (

by

of

,

its

.

,

aftermath

at

heart but provoking the

,

in

military advances

ie

interests

claiming

Keegan

1996

:

and

By

the other

own agenda

Cape

the Eastern

see

of

'

in

annexation

its

)

did

not have the Afrikaners

policy

evacuated

Frontier War and

the Sixth

fact advancing

a

to

(

in

Queen Adelaide



of of

,

of

the Province

the Grahams Town Journal Keegan was according imperial power into

the situation

(

the one hand and the bleakness

on

the Journal

land

of

,

on

in

Natal

buying

the availability and quality

overemphasised

that the Great Trek was the direct result

and the British settlers drove

for

,

at

their the

their cattle Against this

.

a

Afrikaners

the commando system

of

deprived

by

the Xhosa

background the abolition

of

,

1830s cattle raids

by

-

.

to

in

unprecedented land prices levels their quest additional land profitable sheep farming activities During serious drought the beginning

the British and the inability

of

longer available

of

was

for

farming

,

extensive

no

for



).

200

Land

2 3 2

1996

:

to

the

the

with the

imbued

a

trek

to

'

their access

who were interested

settlers

after the disannexation

194

in

of

Their decision

to

' .

this closure

still

the

).



For those British

prospective emigrants land

For many Afrikaners

their easy access

restore

scale land speculation

96

184

.

traumatic

deliberate attempt

the support they needed from

large

to

must have been

Town

Natal

the Trekboere

to

of

wanderlust

and even



Cape

in

colonial authorities Eastern

engage

all

Cape

and mercantile elite

to

in

Cape Town were given

in

in

of (

,

,

serfdom

5

-

in

in

see

insufficient compensation

loss

6

intervention

important hierarchies

the ZAR and OFS

Legassick

,

section

.

8

in

26

to

burghers

experienced

Afrikaners with

7

When the

serf relationships

)

be

discussed

which the Trekboere

heemrade and veldcornette were

British military authority

of

)

subjected

The subordination

not only

1830s when the boards with

politically

and self rule

the master slave and master

and the commando system

abolished

-

attack

century

their patriarchal cosmology

on

an

-

in

,

the

18th

individualism

these interventions

8 7

A

relations but also

section

of

favour

in

way that reverberated

see

-

to a

experienced

breaking point patronage

high degree

intervene

to

started

Afrikaners

3

20th century

patriarchal feudal order developed during the

British

4

but

Africans

the of

detriment right through

became accustomed

‘ resolved '

white and black proletariat was

the

Afrikaners and to and ideologically 2

a

,

This contest between

1

:

,

many

Cameron 1986

in

see

not

north

(

to

important role among the Trekboere but that Afrikaners became far more religious the 19th century the

states

of

took place

.

punitive judgemental force

of

:

'(

by

]

so

of

83 ).



of

in

,

.

.

This was one

Frontier War

the see

(

to

of

,

to

:

in

,

,

to

is

.

It

,

to

(

Cape

the Sixth

.

of

1843

.

In

Britain

in

annexed

by

but

1839

,

Natalia was established

in

of

republic

A

12

).

:

in

the

Thompson 1978b

generation

435

]

a

presented the African inhabitants

high veld with their second massive challenge

'(

,

serious shock

the Transorangia

in

Afrikaner settlement

the difagane wars

was

the Voortrekkers

(

of

).

the growth

a

,

upon

order

9

that contributed ch

1986

:

in

of ,

Cameron

Thompson

to

1799

survival The the mfecane drove the Mfengu tribe

the Eastern

in

Xhosa areas

the other tribes the arrival

hortly

Bay

traders and

slave trade through

and

,

of

.

the

to

penetrate

)

following

(s

According

Delagoa

closed

victors Among others

reasons for the overpopulation Edgecombe

778

the participating tribes were plunged into wars

Zulu were the ultimate southwards

1992

lucrative ivory meat

,

. all

trade

in

After the Portuguese

,

Delagoa Bay

possible that their

during their relative

conjunction with European

in

tribes

were

of

in

of

several northern

whale hunters monopolise

Mostert

the 19th century

involved

the north

racial superiority hardened

the

the

half

the second

them

is

,

in

)

-

,

or

a

clear cut racist ideology with

18th century

For many

gelykstelling

any kind

between white and black and did not allow Africans own land enjoy political rights the Voortrekker states irrefutable evidence that

racist ideology and attitude isolation

to

.

-

)

2

(

they took

In

of

in

’.

opposed

marry

10

Boer and that the racial viewpoint the equivocally articulated either Mostert 1992

The fact that the Voortrekkers were completely equalisation

11

mind

.. .[

well

had never before been

frontier

781 9

as

British

,

colonists both

racial matters among all the frontier

on

newly sharpened



War caused

as

,

an

its

of

,

Voortrekker religion with strengthened Calvinist affirmation the electbecame the face indigenous agrees new enemies unshakable faith Mostert that the Sixth Frontier When

'

the Great Trek

, of

,

in

,

the 18th century

play

in

Mostert believes that religion

an



128 8

the

trek

Du Bruyn

31 .)

to

sufficient reason

farmers

farmers against Xhosa invasions were

did

the latter to protect the frontier

PERIOD OF THE TWO BOER REPUBLICS for

THE SYSTEMIC

of a

is

tribes

in

far

as

204

).

:

1996

1867 they had

to

subject the Pedi failed

states

away from

abandon

2 3 3

.

see Keegan

the

Potgieter

satellite

get

to

was

In

attempts

and formed

relationships with African

.

The Voortrekkers

to

Transvaal after the Ndebele had been expelled



,

in

of

intention

close

(

his .

,

.

as

possible He developed

'

15

the

British control

-

co

of

at

of

which would

the latter part

increased

poor white Afrikaners core the beginning the 20th century typical example the radical Voortrekkers Rather than setting operate with the British

establish similar

.

and accumulation

'

'

order

to

In

a

state formation

and

this radical group

in

in

'

the Transorangia

century the outsiders and landless Afrikaners

,

19th

succeeded

in

-

the notables



As

14

relationships with African tribes

the

the 18th century

operation with Xhosa tribes and trekked

co

close

resisted the

more equalitarian atomised

280

).

'(

-

in

lived

1996

,

self sufficient economic system

Voortrekkers

A up H

,

bureaucratic government sought

:

entrenchment

groups

the more radical

of

Keegan

of

According

to

13

.

1848 Harry Smith annexed the territory between the Orange and Vaal rivers

PART

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3:

.

the Zoutpansberg area to the Pedi and the Venda

British when the latter occupied

the ZAR from

The Pedi were only defeated

1877

by the

1881 . The tribes subjected

until

by

the Afrikaners in the Transvaal were ultimately forced to pay tributes in the form of taxes and labour ( Thompson 1978b : 437 -40 ). When , in 1881, the ZAR was given

back

military

In

of

( Thompson 17

In

1978b

Kokstad

in

in the

and

.

East Griqualand

the

OFS . The farmers employed coloured

many became

sharecroppers

labour

and

population was

and the white

100 000

tenants

15000

;

by

(see Heydenrych

,

in

population

numbers were 800 000 and 43 000 respectively

these

in

: 442 –5 ).

1852 the African

1880

communities

labourers ,

African

and

themselves

Orange River to

century friendly relationships prevailed between

the 19th

Afrikaners and the black

of the

their rights north

sold

the OFS government and established the rest

the cost of the

1994 : 15 ).

000 (see Clark

1861 the Griquas under Adam Kok

During

charged

ZAR , with the result that the republic 's public

to the

£257 000 to £426

from

of Britain , Britain

a suzerainty

of the Pedi

conquest

debt rose 16

Afrikaners as

to the

Cameron 1986 : 152 ). The unequal social stratification that developed in the Afrikaner republics had little

18

to do

with economic productivity , but largely depended on burghers positions in the

'

commandos and as official functionaries .

before the discovery of gold ,

In the period

some burghers became quite prosperous through land speculation , raiding African tribes , hunting and trading in ivory , and capturing children ( Trapido , in Marks and Atmore 1980 : 350 - 6 ). military expedition was undertaken

against

African tribe,

an

was often

it

currency secured by the land that was to be taken during the

expedition ! This caused a continuous devaluation

consequence that many commercial

of both currency

land, with the

and

transactions (also between employers and

by

,

of 94 –

:

,

in

of

(

of

,

Trapido

see

(

in

1881

in

,

but the latter creditors persuaded

the ZAR government

's – a

revenue fold

-

Boer War

,

of ,

Piet Joubert and Louis Botha each

the century the dominant group to

them

:

and Atmore 1980

,

in

to

1898

356

informal network which

accumulate profitable land

).



'

million

7

).

17

£33

established

and enabled

Regular Griqua slave and cattle raids

234

and



as

:

the

'

the notables

Marks

and

Thomas Francois

Immediately before the Anglo

Paul Kruger

on

,

in

(

this increased

last two decades

with information

Trapido

Marks

).

,

22

holdings

them



Afrikaner landowners provided

In

farms

.

40

up

to

prominent Afrikaner leaders such owned

the ZAR

The bank was liquidated

1994

(

a

in

decade Clark

Trapido

the bank and other

years before gold was discovered

had averaged £110000 annually increase

see

an

353

state

4

.

1877

result

,

In

in

a

As

.

:

in

its

the

of

the

15

Whereas

1980

owned

the

121

companies

loan with the Cape Commercial Bank

-

to

and Atmore

name

the then president

1872

funds

annex the ZAR

in

Marks

000 farms were

favourable

a

,

could not recover Britain

).

354

Burgers negotiated

60

:

1980



Atmore

21

11

(

,

In

20

1899 more than 2000 almost 3000 were registered

foreign

land

conquest

a

,

on a

the ZAR off further quest for more land continuing vicious circle greater debt and increased insecurity and instability see Arndt 1928

became set

employees ) took place through barter , while the system of tax collection practically unworkable . In the long run , the devaluation of both currency and

of

financed by issuing

, ).

a

-

When

30

19

San and Batswana

groups affected the latter

as

the

,

the

1830s readily admitted

in

that

capturing slaves simply

:

a

as



the AmaZulu

Similar raids

114

).

the attacks

or

Khoisan children

the 18th

see

,

in

of ).



of

is

,

to

).

3

, .

3

'

in

at

the same

the region

of

is

).

3

in

,

Morton

;

Kistner 1952 232

:

see

recalcitrant

reminiscent the Khoisan during the second – 3

'

the wild

on

in

these raids

This pattern

(

in

raids

on

.

bridegroom

There

custom

involving

indications

the

that the 2 3 5

the

the African marriage

are

fee

It

it

.

a

to

to

:



Transvaal to

in

in

.. .

participate

.

lobola

by

a

of

and eastern



262

procedure closely resembled

payment

slave raiders supplying the Delagoa

the northern

the Cape frontier

:

1994c

1825

1830 onwards

).

:



on

to

of '

Eldredge and Morton This

Khoikhoi

18th century

000 from

'

and

in

of

the

more than

protect their own positions

tame

stamp out

Delagoa Bay before

through

the 1830s



to

operate

Eldredge Morton 1994a 129 African auxiliaries were often willing

half

242

also

malpractices and use

Boer frontier brought raids and turmoil

time that the expanding

tribes order participation

blind eye

of

an

annual average

Eldredge claims that

Bay slave trade began

1952

to

few

a

(

Elizabeth

increased

Kistner

slaves were exported

dozen to

this figure

turn

did not have the administrative capacity

it

excuse that

slave raiding and trading only

,

of

-

to

the government was inclined

the convenient

and other labour laws

evade the anti slavery

see

that

act

The continual strife between the followers various relatively easy for the government and made

Boer leaders weakened the control irresponsible burghers

93

,

little means

government

to

the

it

immense area with

difficult for

.

against slavery and misconduct

:

an

over

administration made

and

kin

,

by

in

see Boeyens

,

rules

no

in

,

of .In

or

their parents were sheltered and were Eldredge and Morton 1994c 188

had lost one

guardianship

communication

While

the

Malherbe

law

justification for regarding African was however orphans traditional African societies children who

The fact that burghers were scattered

possible

if

a

by it

, ,

It

.

an as

,

there

regarding displaced

(

to

more accurate

been

inboekelingskap

).

as

orphans

had been orphaned

subject

would have

30

15 –

:

indentureship

(

of

,

to

' ,

if

,

act

By

any

the Cape government

had enacted

While there was some validity century

28

the

of

explicit purpose on

of

in

in

‘,

Natal

Eldredge and Morton 1994b

,

very little naming their

cases

children without parents

29

of

'

members

.

in

these

.

In

1991 26

,

(

the unregarded

training took place and was also not including the controlled the Apprenticeship Act and training condition the Voortrekkers tried deliberately system create that would both

Voortrekkers

30

and sold

Eldredge and

the OFS and the Transvaal during the 1840s

win the approval

27

Eldredge

see

the Koras and

century

19th

in

.

Eldredge



expedition

such

first three

).

:

Many Boers thought

cattle

took place 25

Boers

.. .

as

as

hunting

Trek

against the AmaZulus for

battles were waged

well

the

Elizabeth Eldredge

to

24

'(

1990

According

in

114

describes blacks

movement

turmoil

).

:

1994b

Thompson

the OFS and Transvaal

in

Voortrekkers

The

88

23

Morton

groups

raiding African groups well into the

continued

to

the captives

19th

during droughts

famines

as

the

-

Bergenaars

severe

Breakaway Griqua

century

(

decades

that there were

on

such an extent

of

to

.

of the tribes north of the Orange River

slave raiding destabilised some

the

by

themselves under Griqua authority

that they placed

such an extent

generated

93 –

to

PERIOD OF THE TWO BOER REPUBLICS

SYSTEMIC



THE

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

:

:

1991

in

'(

3

a

for

of

and that some

of

loyal members

of

in

,

a

Eldredge and

less important part

believe that the inboekstelsel the inboekelinge

to

,

of

reason

the 19th century

of

,

,

large numbers

Morton

Inboekelinge probably became

however there

end

see

(

to

.

;

was maintained until the

Transvaal farmers

special

Shepstone

who assigned

1877 until 1878

from

61 )

256

-

:

,

181

the labour force after 1877

Theophilus

Sir

,

in

the Transvaal

until 1881 the apprenticeship

1877

Afrikaner households during the first decades

of

perpetuated

African women and children 1994c

by

was probably

from

,

controlled the ZAR

is

is

it

for several years

sometimes claimed that slave raiding and the inboekstelsel were

abolished when Britain

remained

the Ndzundza

from

indentureship

.

.

Malherbe

Morton

and claimed

their

25 ).

and debt bondage perpetuated

commissioner

to

,

five years Unpaid tribute was backdated

system

annum

among the burghers and indentured

This taxation

Although

per

000

173

10

:

several hundreds

from

000 Ndzundza were dispersed

( 33

1994c

range

of

32

period

together with those transferred

,

'

,

-

owners

Eldredge and Morton Some

the number duly registered

that

new

to

extra legally

228

).

Kistner 1952

Morton claims

normal and legal practice in the

a

35

Transvaal ( Fred

was regarded as

children



of bartered

31

apprenticing

).

3:

see

PART

the 20th

in

not

succeed

employing large

in

of

did

the two Boer republics

To

land

.

Africans could not own

in

or

circumvent as

).

by

of

continuing

gaining access

to

in

collect all the rent payable

to

.

a



in

-

to on

it

was the rent

of

the

gold the opportunities

tensions between

,

higher level and state only

became

intervene

in

to

-

.

disposition

be

).

-

:

white owned land could only

maize prices

the

10

additional

Bundy 1988 200

wage earning proletariat The

and developed the necessary

-

of

relations between

worsened

at a

to

stabilise

and corruption

patronage

-

;

caused

see also

-

become

kind

).

.

intervention a

state

often

their farms But

34

8 7

see

,



strong enough

which

section

on

In

.

strong

forcing African tenants

2

the means

African tenants producing maize to

of

(

'

This pattern by

38



notables and the rest

land

their feudal state and from

the decade after the discovery

for land speculation improved

36

difficult

was

the ZAR

despite their extensive

experienced problems

to



'

had access

two groups even further

broken

income

squatted

the government and the commandos

in

officials

2

.

.

of

1978

The fact that the notables

26 –

the land companies even

see Trapido

:

their land 37

Africans who

of

Some

But

free themselves from

was that these landlords found

(

.

them

large numbers

the total land area

absentee landlords

.

the

by

problem

mercantile

from



or

these landlords failed

one fifth

of

1900 more than

land companies

mercantile dependency Their chief source paid



:

(

themselves

free

of

,

holdings

for

tried

to

in

by

the fact that claimed

dominance

land and buying numerous farms This speculative urge accounted

farmers

speculating

to

Wealthier

by

36

'

to

on

,

on

prosperous African chiefs used missionaries the prohibition land ownership buy farms dummies their behalf see Bundy 1988 200

as

sharecroppers

rent paying squatters

-

white farms where they produced maize

as

,

Transvaal and the OFS many Africans became as

of

parts

,

tenants

the century

Africans

the central and southern on

In

the end

the Transvaal was the gold mining

.

numbers 35

but until

of

,

industry

.

34

The only capitalist sector that developed

it

.

century

the

PERIOD OF THE TWO BOER REPUBLICS

THE SYSTEMIC - tenant relationship

landlord

relationship

after the Union

of South

political power was entrenched

it

change

and

- African servant 1910 , and after

into a white master

Africa was established

in

white hands by the Act of Westminster ( see section

in

prevent wealthy landlords from earning rent from large colonies African squatters their multiple farms and growing rich from farming rent kaffir The small landowners hoped the law would increase the sharecroppers Trapido 1978 numbers their farms see Bundy 1988 the

was

to

on

;

:

7

on

a

, of

's

on

of

on a

Beinert

al

on

).

8



:

30

its

up

to

:

).

the

dozen

morgen are

landlords and

the this

swelled

the ranks

were crucial of

in

process

the

productive relations

Marks

and Rathbone

2

(

,

Keegan

'

the highveld

in

– 8

).

52

-



46

:



where they

additional

of

,

areas

caused

an

.

of

a

,

large portion



).

and

sharecroppers

of

of

of

in

)

(

it

'

, of

(

,

to

the

37

:

al

et

subsist

et

.. .

of

urban

the

of

in

the passage

small landowners and see

(

wage earning proletariat

-

get

into

of

rid

them

tenantry

the African

a

This act enabled

strategic role

sell their share

it

transport facilities made

the crop

far

for African tenants

urban areas and improved

of

maize

in

The large demand possible

to

for

.

)

8 7

.

1913

to

and transform

OFS played

a

and

in

).

'

bywoners

,

of

the Transvaal

Land Act section

proportion

plot

-

:

notables



The

201

195

settler agriculture and the transformation

the maize belt

in

the

on

1982

farms

the tenant

power between

unemployed Afrikaners Trapido 1978 According Keegan the half dozen years after 1907

of

44

1982

the balance

African

poor whites into

capitalisation

form

the terrain over which agrarian class conflict was

the terms offered

movement

the

Afrikaner and African farmers destroyed the rivalry between landlords and smaller landowners

This intensification

time over

and Rathbone

300 bags

Afrikaner homesteads were burnt down

000

and crops

livestock

1986

own labour could

produce

given

to

About

much

form

of of

40

'(

42

by

,

(

it

Beinart

,

fought

took

195

could

Marks

that

claim

provided

tenants

in

,

see Keegan

correct when they

43

in

, a

maize

cultivated

largely

landlord took the

family unit using

year while

a

bags

the white

and Rathbone 1982

has been calculated that

of

It

'(

in

surplus extracted

Marks

large urban

considerable measure predicated

enterprise

This

opening

which surplus labour was expended

a

the

crop

system

with

was

,

on and

of

inception

the

its

.

From

peasant enterprise

black

sharecropping

the agrarian

.. .

'

of

the highveld

markets the South African maize revolution

45

ch

had profound effects

claims that the mineral discoveries

of

Keegan

formation

46

:

(

on

of



'.

or

).

6

-

42 40

,

of

The purpose

of

39

law

8 . 1) .

more profitably than

Many

on

to

,

on



and

the ones of

class

these farms

independent African peasantry emerged the African tenants also owned large herds an



.

dummies

the tenantry

On

.

death during the war –

or

losses

missionary

.

to

parallel

by

market because bought

of

of

to

of

.

on

before the war After the war the ban African land ownership was lifted and many opportunity buy chiefs used the some the many farms that had come the

peasant and tenant class

900 000

in

of

the African population on

land

of

per cent as a

still had access

80

1904 more than to

In

47

.

cattle and sheep

the Transvaal

terms more favourable

than

237

PART

3

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

as

became increasingly precarious

land became

more

access

commercially

viable

land as

'

to

A similar situation prevailed in the OFS ( see Bundy 1988 : 208 – 10 ) . Bundy claims that the status of the white bywoner declined and

and

of

48

his

the 123 000 on government locations or the 50 000 Africans in full - time employment .

a

.

report



in

quotes

in

class differentiation Afrikaner He 1910 which fears were voiced that the black peasant with his more thrifty habits and small society deepened

1910

better

direct interest

the in

successful production

'(

towards

its

best endeavours 201

large numbers

Africans

the Cape had been proletarianised and

in

not exert

:

will

of ).

and Rathbone 1982

While

by

50

his

he

Marks

,

crop

good

in

and that unless the farmer has

,

farmers than some white men

sharecropping or

commissioner that some natives are

of

).

the maintenance

as

of

:

210

a

before

in

'(

1988

favour



the OFS testified

1908 whites a

,

to

ousting the poor white

Keegan

in

is

gradually

According in

49

wants

.

,

.

Act not political

racial capitalism

à -

vis -

in



the

highly disadvantageous position

white employers and the Afrikaner proletariat

238

the Land

vis

a

in

African proletariat

but of

,

in

of

new

But

.

wage labourers

only proletarianises Africans the northern provinces framework white supremacy and the emerging system placed the

in

to

a

small percentage were employed

as

Only

a

in

to a

reduced subservient labour force subject harsh master and servant laws 1912 Africans the Transorangia were still prosperous and independent tenantry

Chapter

8

The systemic period of British imperialism and the political and economic hegemony of the English

establishment ( + 1890 – 1948 )

8

. 1.

of

The institutionalisation

a

power constellation

new

in

the late 19th and early 20th century about 1890 until 1924 , South Africa experienced

From

political



economic and

an

’. During this period various political units , Afrikaners , and independent African tribes – were

revolution

the British

controlled by



united

into the

Union of South Africa under the effective political control of whites . During and agricultural revolution took place

system

the North

but also

racial capitalism

sectors

of

the northern

agricultural

institutionalised

,

in

the Cape

in

system

of

fledged

fully

of

first established

in

capitalism

racially based

all

provinces that not only extended

a

mining

the

a

to

the same period

the South African

.

economy

during which white political

building

a

and physical racially based

Consequently

.

;

the power

Bonapartist

,

secondly

,

of

by

,

thirdly

the well organised certain

in

firstly

,

,

explained

-

by

exerted

strongly

and agricultural

largely

key state

character after 1910

.'

that gave the state

and

,

agricultural sector

only

mining

the mining corporations



departments

political influences

a

the

,

Afrikaner

the

;

terms

enormous influence exerted

of

in

of

revolutions and building racial capitalism terms

the

be

facilitating can

the state

by

the

racial

1990s in

The active role

of

that endured until

and

a

,

labour force

symbiotic relationship developed between white political domination capitalism

of

on

the

,

and docile

cheap

.

a

farmers with

created

behalf

supplying foreign corporations

at

economic and labour structure aimed

and white

it

the same time

-

socio

.

white supremacy

infrastructure

At

of

-



in

,

domination was consolidated but also one which state foreign owned mining corporations built the institutional



,

state

-

of

This period was not only one

239

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID power constellation

was

based

on

corporations that controlled speaking

South

British

,

collaboration with

in

and

Afrikaner agricultural elite

South Africa politically almost uninterruptedly

controlled

'),

notables



(

the

electorate which

in the 1930s –

local English African economy and the English

alliance between the

close

a

was finally consolidated

– which

,

new

the

The

3

the

PART

until

,

of

to

an

to

a

as

in



of

in

(

of

.

,

in

in

a

of

last quarter

and

the 19th

was permeated

by

an

in a

all

.

Victorian

an

, the

the in

as

,



and more

British imperialism 1948

section

All three

only required

the state

to

not

superi

played formative

system

1890

(

racial capitalism

in

in

discussed

of

be

will

The institutionalisation

greater detail

white

(

the local English establishment

of

the

's



systemic period



three ideological strands

.4 .) ).

.

'

and practise segregation

of

its

hegemony

during

well

early 20th century the British

,

,

labour patterns

as

British civilisation

8

propagate

official native policy All

launched

other British institutions



to

started



with

corporations

segregationist policies and ideologies

emulating

in

,

but

as

together

liberal capitalism

-

and



United States

the

others

1840s



,

which

the

press

South Africa

ideological strands

240

key role

liberal capitalism

ority liberal capitalism and racially oriented segregation constructing South Africa political and economic roles

and

– if

of

a

during

century the mining

19th

',



of

authorities

racism

in

ideologies

notably

to

of

of

about themerits

zealously propagated the alleged merits

's

since

South

the racist ideology

deepened

Natal

. of In

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influential mining

the

civilisation

more

.

of

the end

country

not

Victorian liberalism

the values

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British

their zenith

played

Darwinism

therefore not surprising that British imperialism

of

.

It

century

is

free market economy reached

Social

and

dogmatic optimism

equal

the 1880s

motivating British imperialism

and therefore

Cape

ideologies that

British imperialism

of

in

the

,

and

but

the legitimisation

new set

the

liberalism

whites its

by

propagated

a

's

African civilisations

to

especially

theory

superiority

the alleged

in

role than economic ones

.

justifying

the start

from

Spencer

Paul

and social transformation

racial considerations may have played

Africa Herbert

class forces

the

and –

important

and

157

The new power constellation was legitimised propagated

power

).

:

]' (

1996

especially the

'.



major economic

period

decades after 1910

were actively

a

-

)

a

reflected

of

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during

formulating

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state

own right which was crucial

its

in

agent

great deal

within

states

institution that simply

an

not

',

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acquired

effectively became

the NAD was

state authority

NAD

by

and

,

independence

Cultural

major actor

racist policies Several government bureaucracies

native affairs department

independent

state emerged

.

's

the country

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.2

1948

PERIOD OF BRITISH

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.

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.

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region

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.

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imperialism

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).

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mostly

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developing world

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Africa

)

War motivated 1

years before World

industrial to

the

British imperialism

1994b

:

Worden

19

and economic power that shaped

Sharpened economic rivalry between

those parts

in

'

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)



phase

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political control over

on

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region

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the high costs involved But from

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1910

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Britain might scale down

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's

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partly inside

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new

development

50

institutionalised The origins

embarked

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conquest and the alliance

that fundamentally changed

Africa

South Africa

due

upon

competition

.7 ).

in

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1880s onwards

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and

particular against black

seemed

South Africa

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the

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(

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control

British imperialism wars between gold and maize mid

These

8

sections

.

(

see

exploitative measures

protecting whites against black encroachment

8 5

labour market

.2

the 20th

proletarianising laws laws aimed migrant and compound systems

,

,

),

at

influx

impoverished Afrikaners

in

and

discriminatory laws aimed

8

explicit

of

,

coloureds and Indians with

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tradesmen

diamond and gold mines

In

battery

labour legislation

repressive

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countries

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proletariat The

and entrepreneurial class

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system

the period after Union

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was resolved

discriminatory laws applied

purpose

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almost exclusively white property

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competition

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element into the South African labour market

new

of

,

domination and

also

unskilled wage earning

the new power constellation

framework

and had

the Afrikaner and African proletariats

between

areas introduced

Africans

smaller Afrikaner

almost 200 years

members

inadvertently

the Afrikaner population

onwards an

the

first time

labour market

competition

large portion century

19th

these revolutions

of

the

for

landless

this

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than

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'

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quarter

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(

proletarianisation

urban

into

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modernisation

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to create an

indispensable for the mineral and agricultural revolutions the process

a

this

1910

of

labour repression

proletarianising Africans because they regarded

in

as

before and after

-

the

large corporations and

by

the

even

system

, but also

In

more comprehensive

and completely

IMPERIALISM



proletarianise Africans more deliberately

the

THE SYSTEMIC

241

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND



Africa

Britain

Africa within

southern

to

the

scramble

those parts

several

of

grip

this prompted its

consolidate

on

its

countries joined in

European

in the industrial core . When

by a country

',

that were not yet controlled

APARTHEID

for

3

of

PART

sphere

federation

a

republics under British sovereignty

the

,

African

South

British

colonies and

Besides infrastructural considerations his

242

It

.

by

,

's

.

,

of

,

E

.

on

.

,

of

(

costs



ore

the

of

meant

,

of

the

.

The nature

and especially

century two factors

produce gold profitably

,

Cameron

1986

185

;

,

(

in

even more

with

:

.

'

outside

economically

sufficient cheap labour for the

mining companies became

the

By

the

.

mines but most

of

The

convinced

.

cattle farmers

wages offered

,

Africans worked

on

the mines

and

economic independence

the

high level

of

were successful maize

100 000

Zar

independent African

'



to

release

for

in

work

.

from

Thompson

Africans and the other with the

the

of

the century almost

enjoyed

and to

land

They were not prepared came

19th

see Grundlingh

and

the Transorangia

,

-

white owned

see

2

1890s traditional

in

.

on

Africans

aim

).

120

their

the



:

the

of

do

to

to

1990

the ZAR

communities were still not prepared mines

of

,

to

in

production

During the

with the behaviour

Afrikaners

Carnavon

grade

in

be minimised

a

During

of

-

Thompson

from

an

a

its

profitably

undermine the gold companies ability

behaviour

Milner

extending

South Africa

threatened

one had

gathered

and

). interests

labour costs

could

in

of

, .

in a

, .

produced

despite this

conquer the still independent

and particularly the

be

,

the case



that gold could only

state

low

gold mines

lived

provided Britain

1886

compelling reason for expanding Witwatersrand

of ,

gold

But

subservient labour force

if

discovery

vast British in

a

of

:

;

Worden 1994b

expressed

Cecil John Rhodes and Alfred

As

further

into

Gladstone

25

it

to

to

turn them

of

The

53

146

create

even

ideas

Transvaal After the First War

control over land but

gain

tribes and –

:

1990

of

.

Zambezi and

the

Carnavon

the ZAR was restored

the century

their mission

was not only African

end

against

1880 the Liberal Party

South African federation

in

to

considered

independence

idea

's

At the

momentum

Cape

),

Carnavon

,

setback

1881

(

Liberation

the

serious misgivings over British policy

the

leader William

its

,

in

Britain

1877 When

in

ZAR

the

fields and

the north

from

ZAR

the

was

colonial

the Natal

the diamond

to

to

the annexation

general election

a

won

of

motivated

labourers

protect the migrant labour route

burgher commandos

of

interference

the

to

as

.

it

became necessary

African labour

diamond fields and

migrant

Many Pedis worked

authority

flow

on

officials

control the

on

strongly supported

desire

the

by

idea was motivated

a

by

.

,

,

1867 Lord Carnavon

,

diamonds

colonial secretary pushed for

of

discovery

in

Shortly after

of

the

.

influence

end

them

that

PERIOD OF BRITISH

THE SYSTEMIC

their labour problems would

remain

sympathetic

undermine

that would

state

Africans, thus

unresolved

powerful and

a

independence

the economic

volume of

creating the required

without

IMPERIALISM

of

labour ( see Clark 1994 :

cheap

the gold mines needed

.

as

in

the

's (

to

to

(

see

',

the

on

,

the

,

fiscal

's

as

position

the

in

a

in

a

of

the Rand gold mines

In

.

It

was therefore not

.

gold

by

its

to

of

to

a

.

large parts

internal socio economic

of

increasingly more aggressive and ruthless colonised

problems

people

see Worden

(

solve

the gold

economic and trade problems

-

its

to

on

-

' a

's

to

,

its

to

to

in

of

Britain

shrinking economic interests

an

,

of

attempt

in

,

.

still feudal

a

in

,

in

,

a

of

:

civilisation

superpower

the

the surface

power but caught

a

challenge

On be

of

the

at

emerging Afrikaner

seen

the powerful British

At

the

world

.”

and

orientation and impudent

to a

;

downward spiral

its

marked

turn

the century

two white civilisations

the arrogance

in

a

struggle between

by

,

civilisation

Boer War must therefore

-

global capitalism

wider framework

war was

the Anglo

of

that led

to

).

:

world based

given London

,

solution

conducted

economy was

Britain

imperialistic conquest and capitalist exploitation

The factors

the

protect

United States

that stage gold was central

even more crucial

saw the

and

26

an

in

1994b

Britain

In

,

At

.

gold

were rather

Britain

widespread poverty and unemployment

greater and more profitable production

policy

century

19th

the current account

the world

surprising that Britain

the world

, ).

an

late

sharp inequalities

desperate attempt

1902

long depression

Germany and

the capitalist world economy and

financial centre



,

,

).

:

,

of

the

was losing

Britain

stability

In

288

chronic deficit

standard

1899

.

a

,

and

a

characterised

Boer War

imperialist war par excellence and

had experienced

lost economic and industrial ground 1988

for

high commissioner

economic conditions

Since the early 1870s Britain

Kennedy

the one hand and

gold war

the 19th century

by

had

of

the

.

bleak

the Anglo

to

on

the

, be

the other eventually led

little doubt that this was

end

ZAR

the administrative and

build

gold mining industry and Alfred Milner the British

At

economic

the sharp increase

The growing animosity between the ZAR and Kruger

more specifically

zar

increase the

.

,

the government failed

channel

bleed

money

in

.

However

government revenue

There can

possible Kruger

He was hoping

and

despite

physical infrastructure

South Africa

sympathy

.

's

,

the British

from

order

to

development

to

independence

profits

the gold industry

,

of

portion

local economic

cheaply

stance towards the mine owners

adversarial

sizeable

a

off

an

adopted

produce gold

to

the gold mines and their quest

Kruger, had little as

the ZAR and their leader , Paul

in

in

Afrikaners

for

22 – 5 ).

deeper level the

243

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

primitive

by

led

),

were also

the

its

(

who

.

throughout South

Africa

capitalist mode

of

establish

but the Afrikaner

,

production

companies wanted

a

British mining

The

traditionalist

primitive accumulation

in

interested

equally

maize

and African

still maintaining corrupt tribal chiefs

-

economy

redistributive

rather corrupt nouveau riche

accumulation

producing and cattle farming feudalism

kinds

ZAR amid two

,

in

agricultural elite interested

by

feudalism

in a

Afrikaner pastoral

operate

to

led

feudalism

it had

,

constrained because

:

seriously

which was

capitalism

of

of British corporate

war was about the expansion

to

3:

PART

was neither

elite

a

at the

at

be

,

.

of

,

of

-

co

).

7

,

the

,

-

,

the

To

a

.

-

of

the highveld

by

the comprehensive onslaught on

to

,

onwards between

South

,

Faced with this onslaught Africans

-

wage earning proletariat

see Legassick

(

.

a

a

:

34 –

in

Boer

cost and the way

economic and moral decline

an in

high

South

safeguard

as

's

was conducted hastened Britain

consolidate and its

Africa

southern

,

in

Britain

imperial interests

.

While the war was fought

tragedy

in

the greatest

-

Boer War was undoubtedly

Africa

s

on

-

to

be

.

generals to

of be

reduced

history

it

accomplish this

this perspective the Anglo

to

The Anglo

' 's

British became

).

:



1975 244

to

,

option but

Boer

feudal

wage earning proletariat

African tenantry

the

operative

had been defeated

large British corporations and the Union

two former

led

no

by

formidable alliance

of

essential prologue

and two

British

1906

From

mind

51

a

on



the Transvaal

a

in

the

turned into

from

British

between

the Afrikaner and African

Afrikaner elite

the defeated

against the economic independence

244

be

,

of

in

64 ;

.

seen

elite as

can

which

1999

not

British imperialistic

after the two Boer republics

could only

of

-

be

and the Afrikaner

had

the way

Halisi

rapprochement took place

remarkable

mines

elite was

competitive and

'

operation

co

with the

Africa

stalemate

mines labour problems were still unresolved that Africans

crucial

produced

wage labour

into

,

same time When

convinced

War

Britain

to

(

the

at

It

the

but

a

a

,

take

was not possible

orders

strangely

Legassick 1975 259

:

see

Africans

force

very much

for

intentions

employed

expansionist frame

relentlessly

other but

each

only

the

.

the

with

dictated

could

and the feudalistic Afrikaner

,

to

,

,

with

feudal civilisations locked relationship

could

before the war was

situation

capitalism

that gold

tribal and semi feudalistic Africans were not

But

political power

its

use

Therefore corporate

wages

capitalism

Africans

become mineworkers

to

prepared

of

,

's

extremely inclined

economic history

large numbers

low

if

profitably

same time the imperatives

Britain

in

juncture

the

.

States

At

to

the

to

to

nor able create the social and physical infrastructure conducive compete against Germany and the accumulation Britain needed United

prepared

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH IMPERIALISM

. From

.

disaster for Afrikaners as well as Africans

to

,

by

status

he

a

letter

which

Africans

-

a

is

Shortly after the

in

.

for

Africans

an

,

in



the

labour from Cape Town emphasis the original During

to

).

in

Thompson 1978a 330

:

'(

by

-

treated and justly governed black

a

Boer

in

1902

Transvaal

)

-

postponed until after self government had been restored

OFS would

the

of

8

a

crucial

and

to

Africans

article

(

them

the

vote

making

in

promised

by

of

all to

these promises

in

.

granting

the Peace

Vereeniging

(

that the question

be

)

treaty

Afrikaners

the defeated

the

concession

of

the

to

British imperial politicians reneged

on

.

the

negotiations that led

population groups after

It

defeat But during

granted

to

'

would

to

be

-

,

laws equal liberty

the

:

(

the

attack

61

economic

boom

his

As part

of

war show clearly that the war

.

an

envisaged

to

,

of

see Bundy 1993

and

).

to

white power bloc strong enough

of

a

the process

59 -

,

a

mining companies

,

government

the

qualified

provinces

and

the

national

of .

of

by

of in

the

northern

parcel

the British

African

not extending

control over African labour

,

British

Westminster

intended

that would attract

immigrants He hoped this would not only ensure

.

massive influx

passed

South

the Cape

the African tenantry

he

gain

programme of

reconstruction

to

's

fought

by by

.

of

8

treaty

labour policies during and after

Milner

Act

but formed part

assembling

independence

the economic

a

of on

the British

Afrikaner elite aimed

was mainly

accidents

,

no

among

-

operation

the

Africans and coloureds

These events were

African

South Africa

draft prepared

at

voting rights

the Union

honoured article

of

convention

and based

-

,

parliament

constitution

white political domination that

The South

of

of

the for



)

(

1909

system

the 20th century

most

endured

a

-

.

republics

This laid the foundation for

co

South African

Anglo Boer War the British colonial authority assured Africans that equal

the

a

The

self governing white community

;

quoted

proletariat

labour patterns

and

political and economic

-

Zambezi

well

the

The ultimate end

:

supported

ex

on

of

future South Africa

create

dominate

Milner wrote

November 1899

his views

by

a

clearly formulated

power relations consequences

-

the war

was hastened

.

view

Anglo Boer War had devastating outbreak

of

The proletarianisation

century

the 20th

the point

From



larger African

even

these two proletariats were

of

politics during

of

conflicting claims

Transvaal and OFS

imperialist plundering was

Britain

proletariat and

Afrikaner

.

is

the mineral revolution

's

of

Thus the end result

of

large

a

motion

.

by

the war

in the

livestock – were destroyed

,

Africans and Afrikaners

of Afrikaners

. It

both groups

in

to

, houses , furniture , and

set in

ie

war

It not only brought about huge

social dislocations , but also impoverished many people estimated that 60 per cent of the assets

, the

.

a

view

of in

was

economic point of

an

,

industrial and imperial superpower

245

at

'

,

in

a

,

see

its

of a

:

(

the the

in

-

.

It

to

to

at

of

be

the

?

co

-

succeed

rapprochement

the

a

to

of

Transvaal and

,

and British capital

May

the first major strike higher wages

On

demands

or

(

first three

alliance

.

staged

the

1907 on

forge

23

to

.

Africans Within

speakers

-

English

won

the In

.

party

In

(

of

from

the franchise

an

from

.

state

the Transvaal and OFS

)

to

'

)

in

(

fields

in

the

Afrikaner

support

support

that was destined

mainly British miners

gold

operation

South Africa

The Nation

for

symbiosis between

-

the

,

of in it

it

-

's

the

an

the encroachment

important event occurred

Witwatersrand

Liberal

).

given

Volk

the Transvaal with considerable

English speaking

246

for

.

the to

, if

-

'

possible

large landowners

Het

of

in

General Louis Botha

)

a

even

was probably

would not

bringing about

the task

self government was

who were concerned about months

about

course

7



:



264

large

convinced

who

with constitutions that excluded Africans and coloureds elections

as

CM far

he

Its

'.?

-

if

.



notables

-

the

( In

with

mining

the

and especially

-

a

'.



as

In

of

Sir

the

the

for

most remarkable about faces

Lord Selborne was sent

1906

had

were politically accommodated

notables

British government and responsible

1907

1982

'),

of (

,

be

as

Afrikaners

wage earning proletariat without the

see Mostert 1992

March

the

. by

, .

,

the

in

-

in

into

high commissioner

1907

Cell

. ). one

the

indispensable

Henry Campbell Bannerman that

least the notables

OFS

1913

was accepted

8 6

stabilisation

companies and

turn Africans

proletarianisation

approach

British policy towards South Africa What brought

government

major

Boer War the British government



in

– be

Anglo

achieved

the Transvaal

regarded

mining

implement

migrant labour with

the principle

and

but

1905

not immediately

Land Act was promulgated

only

could

landowners

between

import 64000 Chinese

segregation

native reserves

decided that socio political

Milner

east and central

could

Its

.

for

65 ;

the

Within three years after

of

afield

report was published

report became

the northern provinces

section

This can

wages

mines serious labour

solve

before

the ideological justification

subsistence base

industry

Lagden

London

The SANAC

unreservedly when 58 –

,

recalled

recommendations

Africans

Sir Godfrey

of

chaired

was

vehicle

mining

gold

Milner appointed the South African Native Affairs Commission

the

Milner

from

attempt

another

the

),

SANAC

as

to

,

In

, .

problems (

1903

bringing about

employing Africans

Milner allowed the

failed

1901

that they

also

war rate but did not succeed Milner gave

recruit African labour

by

CM

workers

than

this also

.

When

labour From

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restore order

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Smuts

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Jan

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH IMPERIALISM

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parliamentary

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the

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1984

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.3

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Africa

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the

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Africans

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take over the unified state



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1909

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of

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The

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NP

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English speaking elites agreed unify the four British colonies into the Union South Africa the preceding negotiations parties easily agreed that and

mining 247

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

strategy for developing

-

the

African

its

to

to

reserves under the control

was also hoped that relatively able

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African

stable

).

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with

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close

A

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political patronage

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1996

The social control system

ties

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discipline themselves

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contain any threats

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Unfortunately

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,

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to

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given the conflicting

.

248

and profitability

of

viability

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, , ‘

solutions were found

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political legitimisation

solve the serious labour problems

and the maize farmers without endangering their alliance

Union

of

an

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14

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1910

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degree

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THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH

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. .1 ).

see

small farmers

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section

1907

capital accumulation

accumulation and legitimisation

economic position could

.

-

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,

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to

the Transvaal

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the

;

4

ch

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.

petit bourgeoisie

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the

(

Rand Revolt

that conditions guaranteed

1983

and

demonstrates the

authority through strikes and insurrections during

see Yudelman

After

the state

rejected the validity

be

its

challenged

electorate

sustain

the gold mining industry

white workers

(

severely strained the legitimacy

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interests

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initial neglect

order

This policy

was conducive

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's

government

collaboration

.

industry

close

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Afrikaners

mining press

and capital established

state

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capital

British

establishment



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.

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),

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SAP

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speakers

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1914

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on

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1912 because

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cabinet

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powerful leader

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found

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Africans were

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for

Marginalised Afrikaners

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of

both groups see section

the

order created

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satisfaction

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in

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when

'

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were only

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of

nature

in

the

racist

a

’ were

“solutions

IMPERIALISM

Afrikaner

the

Smuts 249

in



by

the balance tilted

of

the

,

.8 ).

8

as

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Although

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(

1924

mining

the gold

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industry

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senior and the state the junior

Pact victory

section

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petit bourgeois Afrikaners and

wage earning class This tilt was not alleged

but

strongly supported

of

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')

was

1922 and

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relationship

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.16

of

partner After the strike

capital

premiership

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mining press

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'

.

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/

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),

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English speaking

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During

British controlled mining capital

24



(

1910

symbiosis

symbiosis

a

1910 forged

and British English controlled capital

until 1948 the terms

1910

and maize

sometimes came under strain and small power shifts occurred threatened

see

1924

In

after

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and

gold



before

of

from

alliance

state

-

the period

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based

years immediately

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on

in

the

The power constellation created

early

6

:

Yudelman 1983

Industrial Conciliation Act

).

passed

-

government

the

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3:

ch

PART

formidable pressure group

the greater part

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)

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section

. ).

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intellectual atmosphere dramatically

English

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white circles

in

and the

8 4

of

Afrikaner

see

in

liberalism

segregation

(

Cape

)

( or

African

both

The almost unanimous support

could only have occurred

elements South

repression

an

.

establishments

labour

and even until the 1980s was the

black

1948

the symbiotic relationship

the racist ideology by

of

system

until

1910

the remarkable support given

longevity

(

to

state and capital from

between

to

A

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.

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policies

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This department

native



applying

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empire with

ideology The NAD and

white governments ruled the different colony see Rich 1996 South Africa were still ).

10



9

:

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and

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from

state within

formulating

).

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O

(

the

be

the a

in

1910

20th

instrument with which successive

African tribes

250

played

role

and

decisive role

greater part

bureaucratic

due course became

accordance with segregationist main

of

the

.

a

played

in

and

,

independence

slowly became

It

affairs departments

188

1996

state and capital

strategic

The NAD was constructed

Meara

symbiosis between

.

.

successors

emphasise

the

necessary

in

also

true nature

irresolvable see

staying power during

remarkable

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its

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to

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hegemony that proved

To

crisis

This led

a

disinvestment

.

undermined both the accumulation and legitimation strategies



as

the 1980s that the ANC driven policy

of

was only

Germany and the United

-

.

States

countries such

and other industrialised in

Britain It

of

Another contributing factor was the continuing and lucrative economic support

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH IMPERIALISM

The decline of Cape liberalism ideologies (11880 – 1948 )

-

to a

.

by

of

by a

, of

. a

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to

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428

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liberal ideologies the

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to

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mostly corrupt chiefs who

,

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was

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5 5

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Ballot Act

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),

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the Cape parliament

headmen

:

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1892

mercantile and financial elite became the champion

Africans

view

Afrikaner Bond

controlled proletarianisation

of

(B

)

From

and

undy 1988

African labour

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chiefs

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section

acts

Eastern Cape

collaborating class for the the gold mines

Grey

.

tribal

)

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in

the

-

discovered

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Glen

and

in



-

's

),

anti squatting

proletarianisation

by

Act

squatting

Cape

Eastern Cape and began

coalition with

and his Glen Grey Act 1894

1892

(

Anti

see

the

vested interest

for

.

labour reservoir in

the Transkei into

a

the peasant economy

Cecil John Rhodes

the

and the growing demand

labour undermined

1890s the mercantile elite

from

The mining revolution

in

quite drastically

,

the Cape economy

ch

of

this material interest the elite changed the African peasantry

African

of

role

the

Consequently

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gained

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political

vote

a

.

of

and

the

depended

,

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1860

lesser degree

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This

From

financial and

the

shifted their financial interests

elite

the mining industry whose profitability

On

in

gold and the advent

its on

Rand gold mines

Bundy 1988

see

Xhosas

creating and maintaining

its

the discovery

mercantile and financial the

committed

of

After

buffer against the Afrikaner

the Eastern Cape

in

peasantry

was strongly

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maintaining the electoral rights

of

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interest

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missionaries

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proletarianise large numbers

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.

measures implemented

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time repressive labour legislation was

same

as

At the

elite

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,

in

1854

George Grey established

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the mid -19th

in

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'.

in the Cape

that developed

liberalism

century was ‘Janus - faced

and the rise of racist

a

, the

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noted

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(

.4

8

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251

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

of

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50

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1996

belief

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Thomas

years after his death the

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had created continued

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Victorian

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of

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personified notions

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(

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He acquired newspapers rules the minds men

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alleged racial superiority

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ideological justification

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in

British imperialism

poor

South Africa

Cecil John

press

to

be

's

in

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played

(

in

capitalism

252

)

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of

expansion

natural inferiority

were characterised

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Both these characteristics

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centuries

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19th

which

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recent history

-s

righteousness

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1977

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divine destiny During the last quarter

actions

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the

worst forms

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peaking world were the pioneers

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ultimately

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into

on

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groups

work

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ie

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quickly broadened

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poverty

the face

nature

strong individuals

were

The British sociologist

divine revelations and

of

his

'

'

individualistic

The

selected

idea were regarded

justify their wealth

247

attained cultural and racial connotations

of

to

the rich

quickly

struggle

‘ '

.

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His

theory

in

, of

and

and America

Britain

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liberalism

Charles Darwin

Darwinism

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argued that the fittest must

generation

Darwinism

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and applied

animal world

humans Spencer

fittest

Social

,

of

the

Herbert Spencer reinterpreted

life

,

the rise

and Atmore 1980

and the decline

to

with

of

closely associated

Imperialism

the New

into

labour was essential for capitalist

Marks

in

;

:

The outbreak

survival

Trapido

Rich 1984 123 of

see

paid proletariat with the argument that such

progress (

of Africans

the conversion

in

to rationalise

the a

side that was prepared

see

3:

on

PART

indeed

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD

OF BRITISH IMPERIALISM

difficult to properly evaluate the merits and demerits of British imperialism in South Africa , and the same is true of Rhodes 's contribution . Although British

European

based

Americans

of

)

to

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19

.

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South Africa was formulated during Milner

Social

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stage

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years

100

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had already been propagated

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place

in

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the 20th century

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mining capitalism

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first

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with

greatest negative legacy was

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in

structural element

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as

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imperialism

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Union

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ideology

umbrella

as

it

).

52 as

practices seeking

to

and set

legislation

restrictive

life

panoply

:

of

,

Beinart and Dubow

:

see

1989

segregation

Dubow

of

ideology

Africa

South

of

than

a



more

to

According

(

of

',

period

social differences

and

methods

,

by

in

already

's

;

,

4

, :

cheap

and

; the

(

stipulating that certain

on

docile

the labour market could either

jobs could only

,

,

statutory wage discrimination stipulating that whites whites paid higher wages than blacks for the same job Job and wage

, of

possible

.

a

as low

as in

keep production costs

as

to

its

in

method

quest

mining

discrimination was important for the white working

of

a

as

,

farming and industry

)

labour repression was important for the white employer class

method

(

.

discrimination were often applied simultaneously Segregation

Segregation

aimed

.

should

discrimination

from

labour

cheap black labour

labour discrimination

or

occupied

.

on

job

be

statutory

the other Discrimination

supply

methods

at

an

adequate

but

distinguish carefully

should

legislation

black

be be

and those

applicable

in

,

as

guaranteeing

and

protecting white labour against competition black labour

)' (

in

,

)

,

the one hand

at

repression aimed

we

labour was concerned

segregationist practices

between

legislation

of

especially African

segregationist

to

far

areas

and urban

and segregation

of as

As

rural

and educational institutions

of

.

workplace

as

in

political

white and black

in

territorial segregation between segregation

[

-

a

).

as

in

every aspect economic inequality South Africa 1995 author Segregation emphasis comprised socio economic system inter alia

253

(especially proletarianised Afrikaners ) in

quest

its

class

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3:

protect itself against

to

PART

.

black labour

1840s onwards when pass laws and masters

,

a

,

in

In

of the

.

a

22

.)

,

it



.

.22

-

-

their way

provide

of

)

not only

small

to

of

sustain their African populations

, to

of

207

.

)

:



black

1991

creating

later

native



the

mines

]

an

land ownership

South on

.24

(

segregation

of

of

labour problems

into

immense influence

the territorial separation

1905

According

rigidities

introduced new

,

too

a

in

English speaking experts



,

It

.. .

as

envisaged

solve the

which were

'

graduates

by

and

permanent mandatory principle to

It

his inner

the SANAC report

-

an

.

debate

also hoped

. 4

were

was that between the

,

by

British

African thinking about race relations which had

25

speakers

and his Kindergarten

Milner

Rodney Davenport the SANAC report

reserves

the

,

in

to

:

).

22

(

of

segregation

Their ideological approach was distilled

which was produced

and white

that

ideological rationalisation for new and existing segregationist

elaborate

political

and

Legassick claims that the

created additional segregationistmeasures but went out

practices

the

(

23

Afrikaans

rather than

were young Oxford

whom

view

to

of

officials many

,

circle

of

-

Boer War and World War

emerged

The liberal

ideology

1989

the policy

.

crucial formative period for Anglo

as

segregationist ideology

1

responsible

speakers

-

the

believes that English

Dubow

limit

Boer republics has been repudiated

19th century

-

of

direct heritage for

a

was

and why segregation

over when

who was responsible for segregationism

115

1990

an

see

Thompson

:

Historians have disagreed

white

1889

control over their working conditions

(

of

African workers

and severely

protect their skilled positions and their

1890s the ZAR government created colour bars and imposed upgrading

to

in

' a

to

white managers

all male

on In

to

companies

(

to

the mining

gold

split labour

racially

African men were kept

African foremen responsible

organise and maintain

1886

.

and controlled

struck successfully

mineworkers

by

,

in

Kimberley

precedent

part and parcel

-

the Kimberley

the ZAR

in

.

,

by

disciplined

as

On

.

compounds owned

rights

in

as 21

the 1870s and 1880s

When gold was discovered

the Rand

which small

discriminate against black

of

Kimberley

mining industry followed

' . in

a

contract labourers

in

in

the mining revolution

tribal area

where white employers could recruit

and

The first segregationist measures introduced

labour were applied

According

1894

.

)

(

as

without plots

force

to

)

-

to

African farmers

coloureds

specifically segregationist character

this act the Glen Grey district was demarcated Africans

proletarianise

Cape parliament enacted the Glen Grey Act

plots were given

laws were passed

as

the

.

These measures gained

the Cape Colony from

and servants

anti squatting laws implemented

,

and Africans when

eg

measures

(

and the

Labour repressive measures were institutionalised

and could

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH IMPERIALISM

serve

report

approved

, and

establishment of segregated locations for urban Africans

of blacks

the separation

,

undoubtedly familiar with Social Darwinism

and convinced

.

and especially Englishmen

unrestrained

Moreover

were

the alleged

they were

capitalist progress and obsessed with the idea that

,

,

of of

champions

whites

segregationism

the

ideology

the

of

elaborating

,

Those responsible superiority

urged

parliament .

in

of

whites

the

whites in political life , with Africans represented

from

for

systematic

by

‘ reservoirs ' for migrant labour . The

as

Although the roots

Beinart

,

and Dubow

1995

:

and

,

the

of

.

to

(

earlier

applying segregation during

in

a

in

As noted

and

, to

he

is

be

-

'



,

in

as

of

was because

the racism

it

in

did

and social cum

-

the specific political

class

-

ethnic nationalism

1910

'

,

be



)

).

8



:

1995

-

and

analysed

economic and

the reason why unification pan

,

of

rationalisation

regional divisions

the late 19th century

should

the case

which segregation was based

7



-

a

history

or

and Dubow

and Trapido

on

.

a

as

Beinart

little doubt that

segregationism

product

,

of

of

a

Marks

the outcome

Darwinism

There

single pan South African

'

was

to

not lead

to

(

see

the

farmers who were

.

in

the

of

capitalist imperatives According

on

,

.

redominantly Afrikaner

motivation

be understood

mining

labour not only for

economic terms The racial beliefs

should therefore

and gold

the

During this period the overwhelming

for

(p

but also for white

between

cheap African

becoming commercial maize farmers primarily

influx control

period

political authorities

adequate supply

an

to

secure

British imperialism

,

's

,

, 1

-

the

in

formulated

of

was

is

(

see section

corporations were collaborating closely the gold mines

,



:

of

vehicle for administering

was the main

Anglo Boer War and World War

concern was

It

.

)

.'



to

minister For several decades the Urban Areas Act

segregationism

When

when

creation

the white man and should depart therefore

the needs



so

'

and urbanisation

the white man

allowed

. ).

on

Stallardism

to

based

ceases

the following

The Native should only

are essentially

,

when

he to

minister

Stallard

was based

Local Government Commission

1921 Transvaal

Colonel Frederick

enter urban areas which

willing

1923

government

the Smuts

9 5

by

chaired

the

in

enshrined

dictum

Act

Areas

Urban

(

the

Native

African urbanisation in

about the threat

Concerned passed

of

).

– 7

153

British imperialism

20th century

see Dubow

previous

ideology was qualitatively

launch

rationalising

years after unification

14

first

the

strategic role

a

the NAD played

efforts

during the first decades

capitalism

British

to

and inextricably linked

new

modernising the

segregationism

the as

,

three centuries

the racist attitudes and ideas

of

undoubtedly

segregationism

in

lay

.

only the gold mining industry could drive such progress

of

therefore

255

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

of nationalism

struggles which were being legitimised by the discourse

circles ) ' (1987 : 103 ) . For English - speakers

- who

Afrikaner

and African

dominated

South Africa politically and economically during the first half

of

by

,

its

/

,

, ',

. .)

9 7

of

.

'

the



25

Although

.

to

,

the

Westminster

segregationist principles

was

ANC

,

Between

. 1

of

World War

end

1917 and 1922 black

political

. 10 ). on

8

section

,

of

in

the peasantry the Eastern Cape and growing numbers Natal and the proletarianisation The assault

of

the colonial governments

,

their quest

the

convinced the relevant Cape

and

Natal

and

the

mines and the large farmers

In

.

labour was available

if

mining for

gold

and of

the

in

the

nature

,

,

governments

the gold ie

,

both

Both

gold

white farmers claimed that they could only operate profitably

cheap and docile African



enough

profits

for African labour

the

and

white employers

fundamental change

in

by

companies

demand

generated

-



agricultural production

the

social economic

The emerging capitalist nature

.

.

political relationships

revolutionary changes

of ,

,

South Africa experienced

gold and the adoption in

the discovery

century between

of

)

1913

a

the quarter

Land Act



(

of In



-

in

.

ch

:

in

important segregationist legislation

protest movement against the disenfranchisement

Africans 1890

256

see

sharpened significantly when black political leaders were radicalised

awareness

and

liberal

and against

the British English

and

turn

northern provinces segregationist legislation was not strongly the

before

as

in

1912

the

in

opposed

see

sections

complement the

the Act

a

by

In

Africans

(

parliament

entrenched

established

.5

see also

superiority

the years immediately after Union

already

8

;

and alleged

and Trapido 1987

was enacted

African nationalism

militant aggression against Afrikaner nationalism

the economic domination

Marks

racism

was

nationalism

the 1940s onwards and replaced

from

1

a

with

Afrikaner Christian

insulting version

became much more Africanist orientation

and African

1930s Afrikaner nationalism

.

by

content

new

English

and African

both Afrikaner

9 1

'

into

the 1930s onwards

from

aggressive version

an

derailed

accompanied

was strongly

struggle between the Afrikaner

.

nationalisms

an

gained

a

proletariats intensified

nationalism

Africanist underpinnings

of ‘

-

its

As the

of

the exclusiveness

liberal values originally propagated

19th century

and missionaries

. While

, but

nationalism

late 19th century European

of

speakers

despite

-

influenced

roots

'salvation ' in

their

nationalism

In

by

nationalism

had

of

black

its

these were two different versions

Afrikaner nationalism

ideology .

was an alien and perhaps unnecessary

Both the Afrikaners and the Africans saw

of the

in

20th century – nationalism

[ in

of

3

(

PART

,

they

of , .



-

'

.

a

-

in

,

of

,

in

for

to



in

)

during the last quarter

than the

the 20th century

Africans were not

experienced

were nonetheless

their economic

less organised

pressures exerted

economic

necessarily bloody

this assault

the five

.

the extra

economic

the labour markets

as

Although

farmers

extra economic

northern provinces

the three

Africans

independence

labour

and even more aggressive state

on

for political

white

1889

wage earning proletariat This

courageous although

as

was perhaps

of

recruitment

African

on

The resistance

struggle

the

-à -

in

'

to

in

its

controlled

of

labour market

.

decades after 1913

1910

-

of



or

'

favoured

down African peasants

to

the

1890

from

of

Natal

jointly

active state involvement

in

in

shortage

(

of

the Cape and

independence

established

agitate

into becoming

them

to

,

and coerce

huge task that necessitated

intervention

mines intensified

severe

break

to

legal measures

independence

and

the

supply

previously

of

an

increasingly

the adequate

elite

shifted

industry

retribalisation

monopsonistic

)

pressures

vis

.

.

the

through

the gold

Africans

became expedient for the white employer class

it

,

As

of

Africans

and construction companies

( or

,

mining

supported

now

farmers experienced Consequently

the mercantile

CM

.

,

migrant labour

a

,

,

'

proletarianisation

a

While

material interest

Cape

the

who for decades had

the gold



from

it

peasantisation

the peasantisation

the Cape and Natal

mine labour

African

rentier landlords

in

The mercantile

and developed

Witwatersrand

was

African peasant farmers

the

investments

their

and outside

gold and agricultural sectors

political and material interest

a

had

Natal declined

of political

structural underdevelopment

1890 onwards the fortunes

.

and

Africans

deliver

to

process

of



')

was reduced

developed and modernising From

comprehensive

a

relative economic independence

native reserves

the

Through

to

the

,

engineering

.

-economic coercion

extra

in

cheap and docile African labour

use

(

– to

of

government after 1910

Union

IMPERIALISM

vis

PERIOD OF BRITISH

THE SYSTEMIC

violent and the –

,

Firstly

early 1890s

,

the

independence in

to

events made the

.

of

its

,

an

in

a

on

,

-

in

,

.

Secondly

to

started

way that

and induce

the same

change the terms

greater surplus could

be of

such

find

the American mid West

from

a

by

predominantly African areas

of

of

, '

series

African peasants

a

,

the profits made

peasant relationships

-

trader

traders

this assault

attempt

independence

the Cape reached the Vaal River

in

undermined

decade

the same time

cheap maize were imported

in

which

'

-

.

-

in

as

break

of

large quantities

from

the white agricultural class

down the peasants

African peasantry more vulnerable after the railway line

which the governments

anti squatting measures

become wage labourers

to

the hands

to

instruments

effective them

with various

'

experimented

firmly

now

the period

At

Natal

regarded

to

Cape and



The 1890s can

in

be

.

disruptive

257

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

258

the

to

all

in

in

the

's

or

-

the to in so

[ by the

in

,

of

an



in

-

of

.

'



.

were

and employed

',

-

the

to on

in

.

). he

(

the

.

an on

,

( he

do

to -

,

:

of

,

the

of

of

the

in

of

to

(

,

,

the

to

To

26

.

a

on

of

an

.

regarded

as

.

can

'

This

well

turned this into the prototype

the

for the or

While whites were prohibited from acquiring land Glen Grey area some blacks would receive eight acre

1913

in

.

to

or

,

insufficient

The land

provide

a

cases

add

to

most

,

to

subdivide sell be

in

of

one holder would

-

,

the

as



27

to

tribal

as .

law

overpopulated district

Kaffraria The act be

the Cape and



force Africans

the employers

became on

to

Africans



great contribution

of

's



-

the former

allotments which they were forbidden possession

These acts

.

of in

attempt

,

'

in

of

Kei River



property

1899 and

the squatter peasant

become proletariat Glen Grey was

native reserve

Land Act

Rhodes

a

to

a

'

'

the

Act

and indirect

in

on

'

land

Location

anti squatter laws and had already done

the economic independence

-

In



deliberate

enable

137

1894 the Glen Grey

onslaught

first

1988

anti squatting

already possessed

undermine the position

:

Eastern Cape

their farms

first act were closed Bundy

the Bond

).

much

(

]

that time

formidable battery to

a

)

[ by

,

effective that the Cape

according

and

who were anxious

Additional location acts were passed in

which loopholes

.

1909

south



-

of

passed

in

Act was

their farms

turn

English

missionaries

-

the rid

1892

squatters

to

get

farmers

white

even

united

both

African peasantry Many

quasi feudal relationships

in

dispense with

was

the

offensive

Afrikaner Bond and

was

the Cape

the white farmers

mercantile elite

against

This

241

120

were commercialising Afrikaner farmers

supporters

1910

support ie

the the

in

),

,

-

'

'

with

the colony

speaking

employers

1988

,

)

1896

interest groups

Afrikaans

Bundy

see

the

peasants used

their land

Rhodes became prime minister

1890

in

office until

control

gain

the

these events impoverished

,

of

the smaller peasants

stratified the peasantry more sharply

When

see

(

of

.

1896

early years

the smaller peasants more successful and moderately well the predicament

or

by

,

be

to

the

severe drought 7

,

epidemic

the

and the rinderpest

them

vulnerable

population increase that put pressure of

1890s

was

,

areas allocated

to

limited

remittance

).

113

events that made African peasants more

against them

'

legal assault

:

;

1978

of

A

third series

debt



Wilson

1

130



:

1988

either

mines This procedure amounted migrant workers Bundy enslavement

from

'

deliberate and systematic

repaid

26

when the latter returned

and were empowered

gold mines

labourers

to

advances

cash

. Most

their peasant clients

on

to

exert greater pressure

to

the

them

traders became recruiting agents

pay lucrative

'

their interest to the Rand s mines

trading centres – shifted

could have induced

who

that members of the mercantile elite –

As all

of the

owned most

. The fact

peasants

from



extracted

for

3:

PART

PERIOD OF BRITISH

,

to

a

labour tax

see

(

pay

a

be

to

be )

-

of

,

,

to

a

assistance

The Cape government

mining

gold

but none

industry

to

. the

,

white farming

1910

to

forms

and other

received from

1890

of

from

of

,

20

,

, of

it

these subsidies

until 1980 the predominantly African

,

While

,

of

years

white agriculture

.

been regarded

as

not have

the Cape could

the

'

of

the

African farmers

Africans

'

a

hut tax and every

).

income

every aspect

almost to

would have

not sell his labour outside the

did

underdeveloped appendages

of

in

areas

of

a

sizeable part

was available

pay

compelled

grants

subsidies

the commercialisation

subsidise

family

each

offensive against the independence

employers

massive programme

used

who

would

Cape government also launched

promote

compelled

IMPERIALISM

4

ch

:

landless

month period

Bundy 1988 Apart from the the

or

whether landowner

within

area

Every family would 12

male

and

in

.

seek work

some males from

so

whole family

the

(

to

living

,

for

THE SYSTEMIC

this

-

,

.

the Cape

.

'

the kaffir farming

,

the

125

squatters



African

Lieutenant Governor

African

to

at

. in

in

squatters

over the African

and

Natal Native Code was streamlined Sir

authoritarian

issues

:

on

1891 the

two

for supremacy

',

1988

farmers

estates bought from rentier

).

Bundy

-

In

centred

.

the

commercial

85

see

The struggle between commercial farmers purchases

When

African land

and consolidated

,

in

white farmers and African peasants on

of

than

,

1890

commercial farming with labour tenants

resisted this vehemently

peasantry

.

Africans was already proletarianised



into

transform

the

the Cape

:

landlords

relentless

1890 because

rinderpest epidemic But

more independent that that



,

attempted

to

Natal was more

As was

of

1909

in

effect

the struggle between

(

a

Consequently

the

devastating

small percentage

by

.

to

541 000 acres

white

the

of

rentier landlords sold their estates

of

the

and

.

to

at



(

or

1891

Natal was economically

in

peasantry

giving

English

African peasant agriculture deteriorated after

the Cape

severe droughts

while

from

commercial farmers The area cultivated

85000

from

white

and

redominantly

indirect income

,

in

case

increased

absentee

As was

the Cape

the gold

in

its

Many

in

.

)

farmers

those

the mercantile elite was neutralised

power and increased

support the commercialisation

exceptionally low prices farmers

of

,

in

to

speaking

responsible government was

when

many respects similar

the Cape the influence

government used

mines

1893

from

(p

were

1910

in

Natal

to

)

the

the case

which they have

.

Developments until

backwaters

day

in

to

remained

granted

and

white agriculture degraded the predominantly African areas

extent that they became underdeveloped

an

such

for

of

,

support

of

'

state

'

in a

dual model South African economic development the double barrelled effect the legal onslaught against the independence Africans massive

Theophilus Shepstone almost 259

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

controlled

the

Beinart



to

to

the five decades after the adoption

,

,

-

in

,

(

of

KwaZulu Natal also

economy see Slater

of

).

162



:

and Attmore 1980

appendage

4

underdeveloped

an

rent tenancy

of

The Land Act 1913 and the proletarianisation Africans the three northern provinces

.

financial

in 29

the

.

allay the fears

of

',

213

).

see Bundy 1988

against

that

which made

about the amount

14

them

:

successful African peasants

protect

-

and

to

-

the Transvaal and OFS

to



The purpose was

(

Africans

in

especially

stipulated

native reserves

.

South African territory

1913

land

the competition

of

.

It

at



on



the

industry

and

satisfying

simultaneously

mining

longer own land outside the

,

by

white farmers

of

per cent

-

8 3

,

up

Africans could

purchased

an

,

both white farmers and no

of

demands

ideal formula aimed

,

a

'.

industry

maize farmers the Union parliament passed the Native Land Act This actwas based

and

As result

mining

both the gold

in

the

on

wages offered

native policy

'

issue

farms

who represented

Unionists

solve the labour problems

to

enough Africans were prepared

and

of

an

effort

mines the

in

SAP and

mining interests largely agreed

the on the

's

Botha and Smuts

not

,

.

to

become wage labourers

at

feudal production activities Consequently

semi

in

the three northern provinces were still engaging

of a

was that Africans

government after Union

the new

of

problems that confronted

the main

in

One

of

in

.6

to

in

that predominantly African areas

the

in

in

.

It

was only following concerted

its



into

proletarianised

of

the

in

as

Eastern Cape

and

provisions against African land purchases

sharecropping

8

al

).

those

Union government

with

degenerated

Natal had not been dispossessed



and

the –

by

same extent

Marks

,

Africans

land

white settlement in

36

In

1910

African

and

Richardson

see

governor

28

:

129

pressurised

open Zululand

industry

(who now

farmers

squatting

(

.

1986

the

from

Land Act

the pressure

the prosperous sugar

came

action

of

extraordinary power against

great deal

A

purchases

Natal executive council ) continuously

his

using

into

. White

et

power over matters concerning Africans

the

unlimited

the

3:

PART

The act also stipulated

the

Swaziland

,

the then Bechuanaland

in

to

recruit migrant labourers

,

,

high commission areas

ie

reserves and

was given the right

(

while the in

',

reserves

CM

-



that white farmers could employ pass carrying Africans outside the native

cheap and docile African

which not only the political alliance between 260

a

.

labour for white farmers and the mining industry

section

was truly the rock

on

creating large reservoirs

of

and

proletarianising the great

of

Africans

successful

It

majority

of

The Land Act was extraordinarily

in

).

and Basotholand

the Afrikaner farming

OF BRITISH IMPERIALISM

the

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD

,

of

ultra exploitative system

-

racial capitalism

which the

on

British English business elite was built but also

/

elite and

was built and maintained until the

.

1970s

,

shortages

to

,

in

a

to

,

.30 a,

,

for

it

possible

the gold

The fact

industry

1982

:

Cell

;

:

Beinart and Dubow 1995

ch

plundering not only African men 3

system

the

).

8

(

,

but also African land Wolpe

in

successful

rural areas

ch

extremely

gold production made

of

of



the cost

entrenched

countries originally

'

and foreign southern African

the

to

subsistence

also

.

and

,

areas

in

is

exactly what happened

the

based

migrant labour thus

in

of

reserves

on

commission

labour

and

recruit migrant labour 32

.

high

in

and

the

This

a

be

gold production

CM

of

the

cost

land

way that they would

of

such

in

'



to

reserves

maintained between

organised

Land Act authorised

of

the

Beinart

secure the migrant labour required

to

would have

migrant labour

African

create

proletarianise see Legassick

be

in

,

order

'

31

.

areas

an



to

The

order

in



compel indirectly (

,

in

“ to

'

forcing Africans into wage

to

attempts

other words

that

the

of

bearing part

create

labourers

.

to

become wage

support migrant labourers before and after their spell

bore part

be

,

and

numbers

drastically

).

:

Lagden wanted

that

SANAC recommended

white areas should

48

'-

1995

equation

principle

On the

to

favour

SANAC realised

native

white areas

in

'

in

adequate

of

was

and Dubow

tribal

commission did not favour directly in

it

,

land

thus inducing

the

after 1913

because they

,

labour

.

,

'.

the

'

end

would

SANAC also concluded that

Africans temporary sojourn to

access

voluntary supply

delicate

To

.

of

,

,

.

the native reserves

Africans would not

'

,

Although

marginal

remain

that their families

and

of

Africans

labour

Africans would always

these dubious assumptions and conclusions

curtailed

It

,

or

/

based

would merely shorten strength

that

assumed

their supposed undisciplined nature and

short periods only

in

to

be

for

in

white areas

higher wages

that

Africans

the economy The commission concluded that Africans would

in

participants

continue

cultural peculiarities

extended families

to

their attachment

commission gave specific attention

the

their traditional attitudes

for

of

and

that South

about 300 000 workers

.

African labour

anthropological

because

of

,

of

,

mines farms and industries were short

explain the lack

stay

investigation the SANAC concluded

exhaustive

,

,

In

's

Africa the

an

after

1905

system

)

prevent theft impose

a

mines

to

enabled

the

mining

was at

.

if it



as

,

to

This

had not

soon became apparent that the system It

gold

but

.

other advantages

,

diamond mines

successful

system

for health and safety reasons

for

Kimberly

labour compound

it

originally developed

the

not have been

ie

been complemented

would

(

by

The migrant labour system

the

had

quasi 261

PART

3

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

,

Trapido 1971 312

,

,

white wages 1911 1990

*

Manufacturing

construction

24 , 19 , 18 ,

8 , 6

and

7

/1

6

/1

, , 18 5

/

1

21 , 5

/5

0

1944

/

1

16 18 , 7 6

/6

1955

, , 22 0

29 5

1985

0

, ,

1980

7

/6

1975

21 , 20 ,

19 17 12 , 0 0 0

/1

1970

1990

Cash wages only

:

;

be

css

7;

involved

table

in

an

it

.

.

enormous Land Act

kaffir farming were still the dominant



’.

the maize triangle

Farmers who

labour tenants and the

,

or

many farms



and

was

share Africa

South the

of

,

'

white

many Africans When

in

in

-

,

of

farming

were becoming commercialised wanted wage labour

262

Davies 1979

fully implement this provision

independence

production

1995

Africans could not

and squatter

was promulgated share cropping relationships

:

;

that



setback for the economic

table

'

,

took decades

to

,

tenant

it

Although

farming

Fallon 1992

in

The Land Act also stipulated cropping

12

and

table

.

1991

11

.

tables

4 .2

Crush

:

:

1986

et al

30 ;

:

Sources Lipton

10

.

*

labour

'.

'

native reserves

1940

1960

and

white areas were merely

1930

1950

.

is

in

in

to

the

Mining 1911

the

by

.

percentage

The migrant

,

a

as

African wages

The

clearly

-

of

life

million

justify average wages below

the grounds that jobs

'

:

.

and 1972

the mining industry

in

for

1910

abruptly

were

,

of

not increase between

possible

supplementing Africans basic economic

8 1

African

Land Act mining African workers

of

by

the fact that the real wages

the bare subsistence level

Table

million

33

a

than

whites over blacks created

on

made

system

it

did

demonstrated

agriculture

more

stage the African population was about

.

structural domination

undermining the social structure

and

5

At that

proletarianised

skills

).

, :

,

(

Act

Land

the

)

rural society

trade union

from

of

them

(

eg

hindering

organisational

Under

male mining barracks political and acquiring urban

their rural families and the

oscillated between simultaneously

all -

.

the

military discipline upon African workers , thus further restricting their freedom in labour market Throughout their working lives migrant workers

under the Masters

.34

the

of

state

and not only contracted

wage

be

(

not elsewhere would

,

and Servants Act and therefore guilty

defined

servants

as

African tenants

although

of a

,

the OFS

in

)

earners

down that

the active intervention

,

The act also

labour was

such

all

laid

of obtaining

only way

PERIOD OF BRITISH IMPERIALISM

via

THE SYSTEMIC

criminal offence

the

Act further institutionalised

The Land

close relationship between

up

patronage

system

see section

(

lucrative

8 3

. ). 36

,

from

the

personal relationships with chiefs

of

administrators built

specific tribes who benefited

a

the

's

,

NAD

CM

.

of

collaborating tribal chiefs and white employer groups With the support

of

if

.35

they broke their contracts

Many poorer farmers

.

and vulnerable white farmers

,

-

of

of all

of

, of

maize

,

,

the

at

The the

to

.

to

Legassick

1910 and 1935

-

to

farm

loans for capital

term

Act

1937 whereby

,

produce were brought under

control boards

much

their land

and ending

share 26

3

in

of

-

long

the Marketing

Africa

producer friendly farmers

and

's

South

provide white farmers with both

, .38

of

of

of a

of

-

.

in in

harvesting

.

By

depriving African

land between

of

crop

the bulk

series

According

way that benefited agriculture

1912

improvements This policy culminated the control

the

economy

the

for

-

loans

be

not

.

rest

a

bills

relating

The Land Bank was established

marketing

of



the gold mines

was also developed

the

of

from

87

Union parliament enacted

should

the independence

acts and large scale subsidies mainly

farm



series

farmers

the support

the economic position

strengthen

to

with tax revenue

of

financed

adopting

a

farmers

,

the government tried

term

maize

legal assault

'

Apart from the

by

.

government

Land Act

the

on

Union

to

the

system

see

and the African

of



50

in

years after the promulgation

the

underestimated

expense

less

(

37

to

years before more

or

took the best part

50

to

,

.

change rent tenants

of

,

of

,

destroy sharecropping and

tenantry

railway

tenants

8

334

:

In

by

maize

white farms were forced into the wage earning proletariat

1976

given

the

Natal African

the OFS and

large companies

assessing the struggle between white landowners

tenantry

short

needed

).

on

by

on

.

Morris

could not

The Land Act enabled

land owned

labour tenants but

Africans

Transvaal parts

the highveld

on

farmers into

live

to

continued

the highveld

continued illegal sharecropping agreements with

it

.

African tenants

not only

bywoners and small

buy the implements

not

could

them

In

Many

and

the

of

,

afford wage labour

favour

for

large numbers

also

,

the countryside

transform

of

proletarianised African tenants but

resolved

between

, .

not immediately

on

did

.

It

white farmers

farming

rural struggle in

the

It

which

be

terms

and African tenants would ultimately

white landowners the

laid down the

in

Land Act

The

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

PART

3

cropping and tenant farming

on white

land ( if

-owned

not

, then

immediately

in

due course) , an important agricultural and entrepreneurial tradition and store indigenous farming knowledge were destroyed of

value

tradition

this

,

. ' It is

of

difficult to determine the

but it was probably considerable , because

was well

it

adapted to South Africa 's weather , land, and labour peculiarities . If this African agricultural tradition had not been destroyed , but given more or less the same

government support (both

,

farmers

financially

Africa 's agricultural

South

and technologically ) given

and economic history

white

to

could have been

radically different.40

section

Act

served

of the

of

by

in

a

,

as

, it

the

on a

'

of

free people

radicalise African

as



by

as the

of

,

to

relatively

and

military

.

an

class only

revolution

had

made

impossible

for

those

white

by

the land suitable

had been occupied and when the modernisation brought about

for

.

when almost

all

19th century

a



of

-

the

+

a

the end

it

mineral

political

,

farming

their

der

become

the members

white wage earning class did not exist Such

of

emerged

1880

at

to

1700

to

led

abundance

van

indigenous people into unfree and exploitable labour force the extraordinary state affairs that for almost 200 years from

turn

-

to

power

and used

Adriaan

the knechts opted

during the 18th and 19th centuries

white master class remained landowners

and white

or

With land available

Willem

-

Trekboere

.

,

-

easily conquered

or

,

almost

soon

all

Stel made loan farms easily accessible pastoral farmers

As

all

with chattel slaves

.

tandem

was the

the VOC

the company

as

by

whites imported

in

the 17th century

-

in

landowners

)



(

second half

white farmers remained scarce

-

by

occupation

of

for

as

the

in

land

knechts remained wage labourers and were used

#

upon the elementary

,

of

.7

8

case

264

a

,

M

infringes upon the common

Afrikaners and its political and economic ramifications 1870 1924 The proletarianisation

As long

This

the

.

Land

described

resting

to

Thus

the

.

1996

act the

it

,

]

as

in

(

were

. : 10 ). 18 )

in

(

see

(

which

recognised

pariah

criticising

from

Makgaltha

justice and humanity which are the heritage

Rich

but

slave

8

the

of

of

quoted

Sol Plaatje wrote

the ANC refrained

,

the Transvaal



principle politics

people

passage

before the Beaumont commission

fraught with the most momentous issues

rights

actually



’.

,

in

In

the Congress

.

leader

testimony

1916

not

African black

During World War

his birth

of

act

the

national protest campaign

Act

the

as

of

that the act made the South

a

Native Land Act necessitated the land

Africans

foundation the ANC found that

1

Soon after

.

Westminster

disenfranchisement

of

protest against

to

S

1912

its

in

the

The South African Native National Congress (later the ANC ) was founded

the

farmers

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH IMPERIALISM

(predominantly Afrikaners ) living

A

.

Cape gentry class emerged during the

of

in

18th centuries

myth

the

.

This

wine producing districts

-

social strata

or

without hierarchies

,

,

century Afrikaner society had been egalitarian is a

the

5 2

Afrikaner populists claimed that, until the end of

In the mid -20th century 19th

persist with

to

. ).

farming ( see section

subsistence

small uneconomical units

on

and

17th

the Cape whose members

,

at

to

the

product The

larger

247

wealthy

9

1975

of

the farms



Harris

Consequently many

:

of

.

in

on

bywoners

on

effect

of

The combined

, of

.

important player

,

became

smaller ones

,

;

to

the transition

bankrupt smaller farmers

state

Legassick

and

.

of

maintain

least until the

in

of

mercantile

the

both working

,

hampered

of

the status 34

to

detriment 26 –

the

to

Trapido 1978

:

(

see

smaller farmers were reduced

41

by to

The interaction

modernisation and state involvement consolidated the domination

landlords

to

.

in

43

.

in

,

to

onwards the

lack

agricultural transformation throughout South Africa

wealthier landowners

Africa

).

1870

South

tended

credit and paid

not only

but also helped

but

an

.

uneconomical units From

'

'

agriculture

,

commercial

enslavement

on

to

.

the

-

,

'

mercantile

anything

affairs

state

chronic

investment capital farmers mostly bought farmers

, If

of

.

did its

in

semi feudal and dependent Due

the Cape

mercantile intermediaries and the

not promote modernisation

century

.

.

42

by

.

in

-by

a

-

of

the 19th

mercantile activity

white farmers was complex

bound

agriculture

European

than 200 years between

more

1870s

1880 onwards

from

the two Boer republics White agriculture

of

as

period

1883

the 1860s and

mercantile intermediaries not only

product

intermediaries

in

1873

from

two

.

the

land

There were

, At

severe

,

off

1863 and

droughts

The

policies

of

1857

swollen

Europe

from

onwards

1860

from

,

of

:

from

to

of

unskilled labourers

of

An

Natalbut also

a

emerged

important factor that impoverished many Afrikaners

tradition

of

.

-

the

was the dubious role played

over

of

(a

,

far

.

A

the

import

immigrant labourers

developed

cheap

but affected smaller

white wage earners was considerably

many Afrikaners moved

end

only

same time particularly after the

and

the

more

indigenous pool

waves

One

successful white farming was the scarcity

white wage earning class

favouring

ccording

farms that were unworkable

black labour This factor also inhibited larger landowners

landowners

all

.

much divided farms

.

law

for

most inhibiting factors

on

,

Roman Dutch

allowed almost



precepts

farmers

the

some smaller landowners were existing

on

subsistence

of

as

precariously

become landowners or

to

Afrikaners

Although

social stratification

the 19th century

land until the end

)

abundance

instruments

-

of

commandos

used

of of .

as

were far wealthier than the Trekboere Both the Trekboere and the Voortrekkers

265

is



'

-

'

more numerous smaller landowners

and commercialisation

relentless struggle

produce successfully

market

of

in

of

.

to

It

was only

up

Act

1986

:

Beinart

al

to

Bundy

smaller

the Land et

20

severe

continuing process

swallow

in

357

this

commercialisation that

years after the adoption

1980

a

,

as

, of

the

in

the

Attmore

and

bywoners

,

Marks

in

its

peak

dubious methods

larger

many smaller farmers

1910

acceleration

:

in

Trapido

,

(

see

landowners reached

1880

urbanise Paradoxically

larger landowners used

which

awkward position facing

.

were forced

African squatters

the agricultural sector

Act and

Land

to

passage

bywoners

the

of

the

,

in

most

other

of

.

of

went bankrupt but remained

From

hands

the

the

,

both land and labour

easy access

in

land smaller landowners were placed

land

to

,

landlords and land companies and

after

of

concentration

;

the

an

of

.

Afrikaners Because

the proletarianisation

to

directly

Afrikaner farmers contributed

shortage

some

onwards the rapid capitalisation and accumulation

1880

the

From

of of

.

44

took place between larger and smaller Afrikaner landowners

to

.

normally not the

reality

in

Afrikaner historiography But and

wealthier

between

is

modernisation

that developed

for

and

control over land and labour

gain

the

state

so

in

acknowledged

poor white problem

called

a

during the process

struggle

the intense the

.

supported

(

farmers

of by ,

Consequently

control

the

colonial exploitation and other factors beyond Afrikaners

to

often ascribed

emergence

so

Afrikaner folklore

In

of

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

)

3

the

PART

).

108

of

by

it by of

.

It

it

of

of

a

measure



'

poor white Afrikaners

.

,

During the period

ethnic

identities were

and black

workers

,

black

rural

and

and urban

There was

vicissitudes

clear line between

changing circumstances

the 18th

and

19th

a

to

linked

in

parallel

centuries the

,

.

and

closely

was During

the

of

history

century people

the Afrikaner community

Afrikaners and coloureds were

them

and what line there was

,

.

shifted with

coloured

no

economic

intertwined

20th

In

early

of

and

19th

large portion

of

.

quite common

proletarianisation

266

alongside

sexual liaisons between white

The proletarianisation

social and

employed

were

then

poverty made

with

political mobilisation

poor whites was neglected

whites and

used

issue

was only

Afrikaners were impoverished

and dislocation

.

.

intermarriages

late



'

Poor

poor were

,

in

ideological

when the predicament blurred

the poverty

Boer War that

the nature

unfortunate fate

was only when large numbers

a

became

ruling class perceptions

for

-

Anglo

an

the

the 1890s onwards

of

.

It

sympathy

from

regard the poor whites

to

possible

community

was only publicly recognised

of

major shift

in

that

a

broader Afrikaner

among Afrikaners had already assumed

1870s and 1880s

of

the

serious dimensions

the

'

Although the poor white problem

many cases the determining

factor was

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH not colour, but the ownership

of

land

.

IMPERIALISM

Brown Afrikaner landowners were

gradually

incorporated into white Afrikaner circles , while many whites who

lost their

farms were

incorporated

of coloured people . When

the ranks

into

of as

.

of a

by

no

31 ;

26



:

,

.

.

find jobs

45

The war

of the

of in

a

-à -

by the

by

property

impoverished

and

the hostile

exacerbated

also

it

towns and cities where they found

to

move

vis

vis



In

of

'

to

of

of

of by

7



difficult

extremely

them

the social dislocation and destruction

choice but

coloureds

the

coloured ethnicity and

was strongly stimulated

Afrikaners

to

Afrikaners had

to

the Anglo

and

position

the

rigid definition

governing urban

1948 and again emphasised

Boer War After the war many landless

no

during

1896

-

rinderpest

of

The

at

'.

purity

making numerous apartheid laws applicable proletarianisation

.

in

and

1930 they were

.

through

and legislation

pass laws

Afrikaner upliftment

Africans

',

degraded

NP

,

was again

relation

had taken office

a

.

the need

for

But after the

coloureds were nevertheless

,

influx control

those

upliftment

when the

to

a

,

priority

advantageous position from

century

in

the 20th

dramatically

,

of

's

rights deteriorated

proletariat became

segregation

in

'

(

.3 .1 ). people

the early decades

exempted

steps

'

of

While coloured

relatively

a

as



to

chronic community poverty Marks and Trapido 1987

see also section

Afrikaner

coloureds Unfortunately

similarly uplift poor brown people who were already exhibiting

the syndrome

in

'

against impoverished

upliftment were stimulated

,

them

the rising

beginning

the

.

protect

Part

10

to

the

and steps taken towards Afrikaner

were taken

whites

Afrikaners

late 19th

Cape Town

cities such

dangerous class

the poor white

Afrikaner consciousness about desire

proletariat

coloured

and Port Elizabeth was regarded

century

By

the

,

large portion

their coloured workers were also uprooted and

hopelessly impoverished proletariat the

a

century

a

urban areas

as

driven

the 19th century

of

of

end to

the

many small and subsistence farmers went bankrupt and were proletarianised at

.

relationships between larger Afrikaner landlords and Afrikaner bywoners After

')

(“

-

to

).

46

,

pastoral

bywoners

the

they

because

Lord Selborne

the conditions

of

Many

as

tenants

high

Afrikaner

The commercialisation

of

see section

.4 ).

landlords quite dramatically

1905 improved 7

South Africa

from

of

.

provide wage labour The arrival in

commissioner

for

were more likely

:

by

bywoner

their

217

already deteriorating relationships

landlords preferred African tenants

(

modernising

and

change

.

Afrikaner landlords to

between

and

and this

1986

,

.

This also aggravated

Cameron

of

the

arable production

tried

to

notables



the Transvaal

'

After the war

Grundlingh

,

(

aggravated their impoverishment

hands uppers

other Afrikaners

in

during the war were rejected see

')

sell outs

-

joiners

had become hensoppers

to

war many bywoners who (“

the

the

267

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

three

the

in

provinces

northern

the

of

The

its

,

a

.

'

'

as as

.

.

-

,

).

9

,

up

as

as

'

in

stir

to

,

.

or

ethnic mobilisation

and

on

as

).

– 64

the

after

religious

poor whites

,

of

the predicament

such

12

,

, 1

,

on

immediately

critical

Afrikaner political

when

the

).

4

:

labour were

prime instrument

the bitter struggle

for of

the course

of



colour bar

1978

the

(

emerged

acute

,

subservient African see Trapido

in

,

-

the

from

the mines was that these

.

Merle Lipton

suffering

an

own reckoning

by –

to

employ landless Afrikaners despite the fact that

their owners

the workplace

characteristics

Joint findings paras

a

,

NP

limelight

the

However the commission

-

for

at

48

. 1

:

'

a

time

also

'

by



In

of

be

became

arduous underground work to

of

, in

exclusion

but

having themselves employed

According

African and

the opportunity

political

unskilled labour The reasons offered

to

unsuitable

to

to

an

to

1932

Afrikaners

gold mines were unwilling

Afrikaners

para

serious

poverty

white

party

part

:

or

.

War

-

factors

Grosskopf

organisations became highly conscious the mines were

Joint findings

aggressive movement

systemic

At

Anglo Boer

who

Those

did not blame poverty among Afrikaners exclusively

among

Poverty

or

by

;

, :2

in

It see

(

of

/

environmental and industry

1932 part

used

the

compete with black labour

to

,

it

, it

its

findings

.1 ).

(

9

see section

into

third

the unfriendly English dominated

way that gave the Purified

Afrikaner nationalism never intended

adapt

very poor

poor

classified

third

the Carnegie report placed a

,

and dramatised

another

Grosskopf

About

million were Afrikaners

white poverty was not nearly

1932

in

Le

(

poverty

1932 the white population

the Carnegie commission

difficult

very

Roux 1984

poverty

coloured

less

cities lacked the necessary skills

They also found

Although

and

the time

1

, of

to

migrated

the 1930s

the

of

beginning

shortage

first third

compare Afrikaner and African

of

which more

of

1 8

,

million

Afrikaners was classified

lack

of

meaningfully

white poverty

.

,

and

determine the severity

were laced with the racial prejudices

cities

with

measurement were unreliable and the value judgements involved

methods was

push

.

difficult

the century

final

47

Land Act to

the

is

It

passage

to

of

proletarianisation of white and African tenants received

consequent

the

and

the

estates

50 –

larger

in

3:

of

PART

.

the

positions previously occupied

268

,

'

1907

,

of

miners strike

'

in

'

the

skilled and semi skilled on

.

)

whites

first time

the

British mineworkers The percentage South predominantly Afrikaners employed the mines

(

born

-

African

the

and after

problem

of -

were employed

During

awkward

the 1890s were reintroduced

in

Boer war

by for

Afrikaners

Anglo

solve this

the ZAR government

.

after

-

the

colour bars introduced

To

.

Afrikaner poverty by

to

significantly

49

by

in

mining industry and state sectors The discrimination against mining companies and British mineworkers contributed Afrikaners jobs

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH IMPERIALISM

:

of

a

at to a

in

of

a

, .

,

farming

them

political bargaining power The

and

.

land

laws

pass

access

created

modernisation and

but

emerged

Anglo

Boer

-

was not deliberately

inadvertently mainly because

by



52

white employers

the

however

series

their

of

, ,

proletariat

mine

,

(

behalf

to

of

measures that denied

,

and

Africans

manner

by ).

: of

created

measures included masters and servants laws deprived

.

to

by the

,

2000 634

'(

institutionalised

that much

white management

white labour

the

lay down

ie

claim

of

advantage

helped

correctly to

.

,

increased

suppressed

before and after Union

on

,

white workforce

changes

These

,

Saunders

Thus the African proletariat was deliberately

,

move towards

1907 onwards through

of

the

to

than

)

owners and the notable farmers

largely

the

1907 between the to

attempt

became increasingly evident that

which this was donewas more

Afrikaner

of

strike

creating semi skilled supervising jobs

and era

.

it /

;

colour bar but

opportunities

the mines

-

by

,

of

/

was done during the Botha Smuts

that

reserving

,

the

of

poor Afrikaners

deliberate

from

and

Botha Smuts government Davenport

These repressive

African

Mines and Works Act

1913 and 1914 which were harshly

labour measures

sanction

on

The

Afrikaners rather than employing British artisans

measures

in

.

.

In

.

done

This was

and electrification

the strikes

the criminal

changed the structure

,

.

)

(

in

that had existed since

Africanisation mining employers fragmenting jobs

Africans

from

whites only

gold companies and British artisans

repressive

a

,

was the tense relationship

mechanisation

discriminatory

various ways inter alia

influenced the position

that

created

and servants actssº

striking

a

Another factor

was put

state

.si

the mines

on

certain jobs

and the other

extended

masters

from

them

protected white mineworkers

for

)

and prohibited

1911

in

-

,

mineworkers (

cheap African rather than

protecting white miners against competition

against contract breaking contained

legislative

intensifying

repressive measure aimed

a

the one was

decades

from

accumulation was

legitimising the white controlled

The Native Labour Regulation Act

by

to

)

employ

:

for

last

at

measure aimed

trigger off

for

to

on

,

African labour the

making African labour cheaper and more docile

for

the other

1911 two important segregationist laws were passed which

pattern that would

1911

mining and

them

-

,

In

.

at

state

to

,

poor white workers the risk

new

employers chose

as

but insofar

the

prevent

aim

respect

in

repressive measures promoted

to

,

legitimacy

of

endangering

accumulation

faced the

1910

pamper the white electorate

poor Afrikaners

and

aim

the

mineworkers

of

on

)

(e

specially

the one hand and having

of

difficult task agriculture

.

1983

of

of /

creating conditions conducive

75 )

see Yudelman

The Botha Smuts government which assumed office

By

about 1250 men

during

to 24 6 per cent

(

of

increase

an

strike

,

per cent before the strike of 1907

17 5

(

,

from

-

the

increased

269

, SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

white discriminatory

labour measures were institutionalised

and

mainly

the

measures

English -speaking mainly

were institutionalised

Afrikaner proletariat or working class . While

,

,

with

vested interest

capitalists

in

the other

who

, .

Those

those

Labour

and

.

( LP )

to

-



protecting 233

,

:

1991

6

see Davenport

(

,

employees

ones aimed



but rather discriminatory

not

were

repressive measures had

at

necessary

1924

(

of

Hertzog

33 )

,

(

),

the mainly English speaking

of in

by

,

1921

in

,

forced the

to

.

Smuts government CM

the

by

strike

-

inter alia

eliminating the colour bar

plans threatened

the jobs

15

it

,

25

.

by

The decline

more Africans

1918 and

The chamber

55

.

:1

in

15

1920

of

.56

-

and

than

white and black

,

to

fewer whites

status quo agreement

for semi skilled work

sharply

by

the

employ

of

,

announce plans

gold declined

more

ANC organised

1920 that was again suppressed harshly

1920 the price

gold

by

led

The rate

1920

between

an

African mineworkers

to

1911

in

.7

:1

11

from

's

in

in

,

the sterling price

to

of

the real wages

abandoning

1910

the same time the wage ratio

mineworkers increased

Africans

increase

of

.

54

per cent

At

inflation outstripped

in

the

'

from

of

Gold mines profits declined steadily

to

).

53

,

of

of (

Pact government

predominantly Afrikaner

19



introduce repressive

Botha and Smuts while the segregationist

perhaps because

already been adopted white

behalf

the

measures introduced primarily repressive

the

by

) by

the SAP government

on

is

It

not surprising that the most intensive attempts

electorate

When

one

class

UP while

the SAP and

NP

on

discriminatory measures

segregationist measures were made

518

Afrikaner

and large

who favoured discriminatory measures mainly supported the Party

English

the

cost saving repressive measures

repressive measures mainly supported

favoured

them

the mainly Afrikaner petit bourgeoisie and Afrikaner employee in

,

hand

a

emerging Afrikaner

vested interest

and

a

landlords with

of the

developed between

struggle

,

capitalist class

speaking

behalf

on

-

a

,

protracted

class ,

repressive measures saved

costs for capital the discriminatory measures increased

Consequently

behalf of

on

capitalist

.

employers

the

War . While repressive

on

COLONIALISM

3:

the

PART

000

270

air

of

.

:

9 1

casualties featured a

also

to

Afrikaner working class

led

200

The

)

in

more than

maintained

.

the

consciousness

esulting

of

(r

of the

in

prominently

the strike

the South African

was agreed that the ratio between

African mineworkers and white supervisors would harsh suppression

used

the world

at

the strike

,

After

it

suppress the strike

Smuts

It

'.

white South Africa

Workers



the slogan

:

and with

mainly poor white

(

white mineworkers

be

'



a

fight

flag

Red

a

under

1922 strike

.

force

to

unite and

off the for

Afrikaners

),

This triggered

by

.

white workers

F

'

,

).

.

secured

the

on (

within

it the

gold

Smuts

The

more actively

even

in

to

intervene

protect white

57

white workers

could

state had to

's

of

if

Afrikaners

order

8

see

the position

predominantly

industrial

was that

1922

could only gain legitimacy

white supremacy

Africa

of .8

;

Rand revolt

be

government that

government also realised that the South

the

also section

)

(

now

effect

)

of

parameters

mines

to

demonstrated

the

The most important

of

(

:

see Lipton 1986

1924

it

'

of

election

the

anti imperialistic sentiments the Pact won the 114

)

capitalist and the Afrikaners

By mobilising

NP .

Hertzog

and

Col mineworkers anti

-

Cresswell

- speaking LP (

the mainly English

's

PH

led

‘pact between

class -based white

by

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH IMPERIALISM

workers against black

.

'

-

Africans

and also

longer participate

no



not become

-

reaching implications

discriminatory measure

,

of

the bargaining power

because Africans could

repressive measure with

most

official labour

the

from

far

This was

a

.

,

and were thus excluded

a

system

black men could

in

relations

trade unions

,

of

'

members for

a

,

and agricultural employers and white trade unions

important stipulation was that pass carrying

broad

united front

,

,

mining industrial

interests

the white bureaucracy and

of

.

political

,

spectrum

1924

a

before the Pact government took over This act was supported

Its

,

early

by in

Act

passed the Industrial Conciliation

it

this

accomplish

of

,

ie

To

.

competition

wage negotiations alongside

(

of

as

.

a

to

18

,

a

for

,

to

,

as

adopted

this

.

by

the economy and the

white workers and

interventionist approach

the Electricity Supply Commission

section

ESCOM

)

of

important result

increasingly

(

imbalances

British capital an

it

1

,

so

strongly

. ). “

the first state corporation

(

in

,

as

1922

the Industrial

when

disgruntled and unemployed

.

petit bourgeois Afrikaners

For African

/

,

to

the structural

legitimacy caused

was the establishment

propagated

of

crisis

of

interventionist approach

pay

the Botha Smuts government accepted

after World War

the decade

, An by

of

liberal capitalism

see

,

in

the

However

the latter

won the

were disastrous

When the Union was established ideology

1924

employees

(

and

they had 60

59

1922

Act was passed

had

9 6

Concilliation

the events

power

)

mineworkers

Although white mineworkers

bargaining

their

was the case after

.

terms

the

per cent and remained

against African competition

protection

of

statutory

of

in

price

for

.

at

their wages fell

colour bar

and

white mineworkers was

by

,

result

this lower level until the 1940s

battle

led

,

.

reduced

a

considerably

But

the bargaining power

1907 and 1914

As

of

the strikes

trade union rights

from

especially

white

entrenchment

the

in

Africans

and the exclusion

victory

of .

of

)

Afrikaner mineworkers insofar

it

1922 therefore turned into as

The strike

of

.58

white workers

271

PART

3

The Pact government and the ' civilised labour policy ' on behalf of poor white Afrikaners ( 1924 – 33 )

.

,

,

,

.

a

caricature

of

hostile

as

record

the Pact

rhetoric against the gold mines during the election campaign

not translate

in

the

by

.

no

it

,

,

the

to

the

and

accumulation imperative

of

,

has

Act

,

civilised labour

and Works Amendment

.

1927

years

the

the “

four policy initiatives

Mines

by

.

Botha Smuts

it

almost

/

the

:

the for

Act

during

senior all

expert advice

of

from

of

inherited

hardly ignore

the

the SAP government



the

,

Pact was hampered the

it



’,

,

',

1925

and the Native Administrative

2

could

adopted

become notorious

the Wage Act

longer

legitimisation imperative

While the Pact government perpetuated

of

subsequently

72

approach

new

-

native policy

segregationist measures

Smuts

23 ).



215

evolve

the NAD

of

-

.

be

to

to

:

devote more attention

was

.

in

its

-

As

officials

Consequently

about

and business oriented bureaucracy

regards

policy

concerned

a

its

In

to

it

the

1983

(

English

Pact

Act

Conciliation

previously militant white labour force into

consensual order

free

attempt

Industrial

the

-

necessary

see Yudelman

opted

co

controlled

-

the white

was therefore

the its

1924

of

.

adoption

for

government

the

and

in

1922

be

apparent volte face must judged against events during the two years before election victory The defeat the miners Its

into hostile policies

the gold

the

However

did

as

high

,

63

).



;

1994

2

Clark

see

60

1909

in

1924 were almost

:

in

(

amounts paid

foreign

contrasted the economic

many white South Africans with the enormous profits 1923 and

62

,

.

far -

reaching

's



It

.

of

dividends

might

of

the

Hoggenheimer

Jewish capitalist greedily exploiting South Africans industry

capitalism

state and capital

'

critical

did

and foreign

empower impoverished whites The

to

order

the Pact

1910

in

-

state founded

imperialism

symbiosis between

economic policies

problems

LP

-

.

Smuts

than

for

far

white oriented

and

Given that Hertzog

During the election campaign the Pact called

Pact was relentlessly

Those

small businessmen

government

greater extent

British

and

be margin

,

the



to

a



1924 that

white workers

white supremacy



in

changes

the

its

endangered

legitimacy

strong hostility

in

feared

.

was

of

the

white interests

strengthened

Given

controlled

now

to

represented

the

a

petit bourgeois

after the

The Pact victory can therefore

primarily white workers

of

the

alised white communities

The

be it

victory for the consolidation

as

regarded

and poor Afrikaners

.

particularly unemployed

completed

bitter campaign that strongly

state protection

greater

for

, the

the NP and

of

emphasised the need

election after

1924

a

strike won the June

1922

union formed

electoral

power

assumed

practical purposes

of .

, ,

on

government based

and Cresswell

by

was – for

formation

state

an

of

process

all

of Hertzog

When the Pact government

in

.8

8

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

1926

competency

about 8000 jobs

whites While the Pact government was less concerned about the

for

in

',

)

on

it

industries

.

levels

to

for

Thusminimum

per cent lower than they had been

in

in

service

stimulate employment

relatively

the

for

'

, ie

put pressure low

at

23

were

the public

66

in

1933

policy

doing

(

to

'(

65

,

its

In

'

'

wage rates for whites

civilised labour

higher wages

and also

attempt

was

mainly

'(

To

.



a

)

.

so

do

to

tariffs

the

.

It

.

of

's

64

.

.

African

civilised wages were pegged

),

whites

create

,

.

protected

and the

jobs for white unemployed

civilised rate

Railways

white

solve the

labour policy

civilised

The government applied this

blacks

the South

by

on

same jobs and

some coloureds as

and

whites

the

wages

initiatives

main

effect the policies involved paying

In

of

difficult

very

were

the minister

eliminate the economic incentive

The Pact government

industrial development

Industrial

to

to

this was



of

,

.

The purpose

empowered

prescribe the same minimum

white unemployment problem promotion

the

of

's

a

to

white employment

protection

employ black miners

labour market

loopholes

closed certain

1925

wage board and

and black labour

blacks

(

at

,

)

Act

Wage

Conciliation Act

to

from

segregationist measures

protecting whites predominantly

aimed

in

.

,

Consequently

against competition

was more concerned

it

predecessors

,

than

the

its

of

African labour

enacted were mainly discriminatory

appoint

It is

.

and 1933 the Hertzog government transferred

about white unemployment

The

.

be

to



'

estimated that

supply and cost

Afrikaners

The

.

to

blacks

from

vires

themining industry

,

1924

ultra

of

.

in

skilled trades

Works Act

and

this time simply

whites and coloureds thus excluding Africans and Indians between

' on

for by

reserving certificates

colour bar

the

in

restored

1926

in

amendment act

of

of

but

the Mines

1923 the Supreme Court had declared this

in

1911

fact been introduced

in

colour bar had

“ colour bar

a

workers This measure was not entirely

white and coloured



, .A

new

Act introduced

and Works Amendment

favour

in

mines

Mines

' of

The

PERIOD OF BRITISH IMPERIALISM the

THE SYSTEMIC

and established

'S

,

of

35

-

)

black

mass movement voiced branches throughout

ICU ).

of

(

the strike

a

:

10 to ,

's

Commercial Workers Union

into

in

the

,

1996

distribute

broad

Union

.

popular grievances

itself

over

a

of

see Rich

efforts

,

transformed

of

-

co

'

NAD

the

and

sectors

a



1920

state authority

'

to

also advanced

African and coloured workers which organised

,

range

of

workers

Industrial

indirect rule

the reserves and controlling the rate

various economic

the

-

of

union

the mid 1920s

in

In

cheap African labour

NAD

opted tribal chiefs and

maintaining the

This

means

in

African proletarianisation

act

society

.

the disintegrating African

a

as

customary

colonial policy

the authority

enhanced law

revived African

It

,

'.

native reserves



the

and consolidated

its

and power

influence

1927 significantly advanced

(

The Native Administration Act

of

of

.

1920

273

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

of

,

,

,

to

and to

).

:

,

to

.

,

it

to

the

in

if



-

at





sharp increase

in

the

in

artificially

jobs

solving the poor white the

Afrikaners

of

/

not succeed

in

.

did of

1932

the

,

by

.

the 69

At

and exploiting blacks

segregationism

This only happened after

the enlistment

,

in

of

gold

problem

policies

widepread agreement among

Although many poor whites were employed

blacks the Pact strategy

unemployment

the same time

British English capital and the creation

, .

cost

of

the

for poor Afrikaners

274

in

of

the profitability

the Afrikaner petit bourgeois and

Cresswell

perpetuating

of

of

of

the importance

behalf

price

and

Pact government strikingly illustrate

of

the

of on

whites

Hertzog

1924

of

of is

on

the Union

which

South Africa was based was not endangered when the capitalist oriented SAP

white worker parties

to

a

as

,

not the ideological level What

.

the rhetorical

strengthened

that the power constellation

Botha and Smuts was replaced

in

in

'

).

,

as

.

were undeniably

or

on

'

'

,

perhaps more important

least is

,

then

and the

during

of

's

/



racial capitalism

white supremacy

racial policy However

the Pact government the whiteness

actual policies

of

fact

1924

,

's

in

the

crucial

racial history the Pact government

Smuts Botha government

racial character

tax

:

(

to 68

182

contracts were granted

).

(

:

1993

South Africa

at

period

was not primarily

assist those industries using

government

,

in

mind

of

of

perpetuated

is

' of

,

but

Although many historians regard the Pact victory turning point

and

did not

it

'

in

.

's

67

.

the

same objective

whether

nor would be mining opposed

tariff protection

stimulate white employment and numerous

with

black

inward industrialisation policy was clearly meant

Its

to

comprehensive

stimulate industrialisation

mainly white labour

industrialisation

1932

1983 228

Kemp

Tom

of

a

it

see

The government

intended

the in

in the

According

industrial capital

representative

1924

see Yudelman

the Pact government

-

a

to

.

capital

1931

the

significant

white

gap between

white

However

from

.3

11

,

in

respect

mines

of

:1

in

:

). 15

1921

the mines more

employ poor

contributed

gold

was only

unionism

not

did

capacity

1926

1946

253

1986

earnings

consciously worked out policy

correct

trade

to

,

in

to

-

of

colour bar

the

Native

the

strike

promote the industry

industrialisation

initiated

,

his way

:1

of of



question

it

what extent

from

as

see

(

wages declined

about the mines

Remarkably

114

black

Cameron

foreign shareholders

1986

The main

,

,

to

.

entrenchment

Lipton

have

mineworkers

from

the Pact government

concerned

went out

disinvestment

Murray

expectations

heavily Hertzog Afrikaners

see

(

in

the 1970s

Contrary

renewed

Apart

000 black workers participated

rekindled

the

contained strictures against black trade unions

.

movement declined 70

the

,

also

rapidly

adoption

to

Administration Act which

which

But after

demands

.

in

radical

become

the ICU had some 100 000 members and had

the

,

peak year

to

quite

its

By 1927 ,

its

3:

PART

the

South African forces

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH IMPERIALISM that participated

,

World War

in

ofmany additional jobs

and the creation

2

the

in

industrial sector during the war .

The English establishment regains political hegemony in 1933 , and maintains it until 1948

of

.

It

in

to

it .

In

and

,

-



,

of

CM

the

from

Smuts



serious

the

entered into

a

to

in

solve

to

)

,

the Cape

.

's

.

Smuts

hidden

support

This was

agenda was

was

of

.

on

lower taxes

in

gain

's

' 's

to

the

the economy

'

for

-

in

this

gold

the

revenues

)

50

tax only

per cent

the bonanza

50

50 /



called

-

the

so

Under

economic and political

of

the

"

on

).

:

1983

altar

.

.

-

Africans

to

sacrifice

It

that Smuts

to

old

of

,

in its

NP

,

.

tax most

also demonstrates

Hertzog agreed

,

arrangement

currency thus

English oriented SAP were prepared

of

the

Meara

'

see

's

,



the mining industry

entrenched political rights

expediency

exchange

43 –

in

in

in

most members

(

the

(

and

South

taxing the gold bonanza The fact that Smuts ugly horse trading and allow the abolition

the Cape

power

role

support Smuts

Smuts

the

preceding negotiations both was

voters

of

demonstrates

Hertzog

common

with

1936

of

the

African franchise

from

from

engage

to

to

prepared

the

removing Africans

O

for

.

Hertzog and Smuts had hidden agendas

stop Hertzog

a

a

of

of

March 1933 During

threatened

pressure

Under

.

in

coalition with Hertzog

sectors

higher taxes

the prospect

sterling

per cent

attempt

among Afrikaners by

(

which was distressed

support other

to

sector

unemployment problem

fact accomplished

some

an

farming

the

which

and devalued

1932

6

especially

September 1931

the pound

Pact government announced proposals

bonanza and use the income

1932 and

.

mines

gold

insoluble

and SAP respectively

45

in

December

in

1933

the

only

government made the costly mistake

by

of

the

Early

in

boosting the income

1929

.

all

in

Africa left the gold standard

the economy

the

the

of

both Hertzog and Smuts

not

South Africa

seemingly

year between

political turmoil

Amid

.7º

suit

and especially

that followed the collapse

and depreciated

.

not following

leaderships

gold standard

per cent The South African

40

than

6

.

suspended

sectors



In

unemployment rocketed

per cent

and

power created

Africans

serious and

of

by

Pact government with

economic crisis GDP declined Britain

white

October 1929 made itself felt

in

York stock exchange

presenting the

of

its

4

but also intensified

the early 1930s the great world depression

New

more

ramifications

,

prolonged their subjugation the

and

The context

was exceptionally detrimental

society



Afrikaner

1933



of

by

.

power relations were significantly restructured the events

political and

political and economic structures



that period

in

its

economic history ;

's

years in South Africa

by

The years 1933 and 1934 were watershed

in

.9

of

8

This

275

private

later acknowledged that after 1993

had

as

,

Yudelman

1983

:

Potts quoted

avarice

in

dreams

'(

.



made profits beyond

of

the

mining house historian

72 A

sector

well

to the state as

,

arrangement was extremely advantageous

it

the

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3:

,

PART

)

.

252

(

),

to

F

.

of

of

to

,

of by

to

60 ;

-

:

see

of

,

in

256

a

as the

of

in

(

as

on

,

to

a

by

this period the

manufacturing

state

creating

the

for

period

of

of

.

In

of

.

basis

of

40

the

, for

any meaningful

the

increases

gold

in

not result

feature

of

on

more strongly

and the regaining

The most remarkable

the

of

,

both

1911

and

The huge

).

253

7

1983



Yudelman

in

they had been

:

see

1946

the real wages

',

avarice

were lower than

(

level until

of .

,

low

even

the

black labour force

African mineworkers

at

prime minister

imported machinery also encouraged

amid riches beyond the dreams

that

gold

years

in

it

.

or

either the white

did

industrial

an

or

(

of . 2

, to

the development

High duties

mainly

interests

establishment

in

.

that lasted

the

their capacity

launched

and

policy was

state

white

promote

symbiosis between

1948 the

the

growth

of of

in

In

and the English

the 1930s was that

remained

the

)

.

Its

-

until

Smuts succeeded Hertzog

effect subsidised local industry

and

new

them

1986

)

co

of

.

accumulative

English establishment laid

iron and steel industry

white

Neither

beleaguered

explicit purpose was

the effective price

significantly

1936

by

)

(

's , ie

(

a

.

of

(

Cameron

white Afrikaners

period

World War

in

1932 increase

unprecedented

wages

already

between state and capital was

operation

the

), in

,

1939

towards business

political hegemony

boom

nationalism

.1 ). 73

.

When

participation

contributed

Afrikaner

Both trends subjected

system

and the economic

by

The

Purified

the

1948 and the subsequent

Africans

see Murray

interests

)

( or

-

of

oriented

symbiosis

capital nor the upsurge

and capital solved the poor white problem

issue

276

formation

the

and

state

excellence

developmental

English speaking whites

revolution

political history

and

9

business alliance par

farmers and workers

and

labour

and plunder

relationship

The new

state

These two political

and discrimination against blacks

for

of a

repressive

deprivation

social

Malan decided

heightened

the election

was good news

In

of

and

Smuts

radical version

symbiosis between

Afrikaner nationalism

and

NP

the repression

the heightened

also section

of

.

of

Malan

's

)

to

intensification

types

The second

presaged the upsurge

the victory

segregation

and

and

,

growth

accumulation and that led

Hertzog

economic

Fusion

capital and created conditions that were highly conducive

state and

movement

Africa

in

,

between

Purified

South

on

the alignment

(

The first

of

ie

,

a

profound effect

D

the Gesuiwerde

Afrikaners

section

NP .

break away and establish

led

a

of

,

launched the United Party

events had

Samesmelting

on

Hertzog and Smuts decided

1934

in

,

When

PERIOD OF BRITISH

of

at

the

a

it

,

.

it

as

)

for

of

the

.74

the

,

to

a

in

of as

,

on

, of

as

see

(

as so and

,

'

the

pay

of

an

'

because

obligation

rejected

vigorously

in

The chamber also

,

and

the

the 1946 African

arguing that

level

of

that the

.76

mines low

claim

the

this by

had

in

supply

a

could

to

,

CM



a

labour was

Landsdowne

the

stable urban labour force

mineral

migrant

African

agricultural revolutions

in

of

'

cost

chamber

This culminated

often

to

wages paid

of

by

of

low

conditions

economic

myth

to

mines continued

African workers organised

.

the

capitalism

for

of

well

mining

the “

of a

to

a

migratory

precondition

chiefs

the gold

the

(

).

AMWU

The

of

a

'

from

'

a

liberal

the prohibition

).

wage

'.

in

.

living

that the

disastrous policy would force the closure

wages was

At

it

(

.

as

of

.

,

concluded

,

from

labour

black

75

'

the

in

the reserves

was

subsistence

provoking protests

move

Proponents

Smuts

collaborating

reproduction

which was violently supressed

'

a

such

gold

)

in

’.

by

'

resisted any

Afrikaners

1943 that the idea that the reserves

workers

strike

extend

After exhaustive investigations

African Mine Workers Union miners

to

-

,

:

the

,

in

so



argument that part

migrant workers with

recommendation

final consolidation

migrant labour

The gold mines justified the

the reserves

migrant

pay

and

real terms despite the deterioration

growing poverty

the Fusion

white and black workers

much more problematic was that the

(

the

structural exploitation

commission concluded

of the

system

separated

institutions that

native reserves

part

,

its

of

.

on

,

laws the migrant

Harris 1975 257

carried

the

African labour was sustained

labour through the NAD

of

pass

workers with

had been

the third phase

coercion

Legassick

wages

the same time

position

and unemployed

such extra economic

of ).

in

:

(

by

behalf

perpetuation

low

poor

The relative cheapness

African strikes the control

industry

While Hertzog was

of

the

313

the persistence

What made

had lost

the state and capital

Both

proceed with

what Trapido identifies

repression 1971

modified

that

sector were responsible for several measures intensifying

corporate

labour repression

the

effectively

and capital under

state

of

a

as

strong enough

discriminatory legislation

rate

Industrial Conciliation

19349

for Africans

setback

segregationist legislation

and



'

'

the

for

symbiosis between

themselves

grew

unskilled urbanised poor white Afrikaners

It

regarded

cost

workers

and black

industrial bargaining power

Fusion government

interests

huge

so

?

a

-

co

6

government was

white

while the economy

1940

regards white labour

its

look after

until

opted and depoliticised

important

The heightened

of

year

As

.

Pact

1932

militancy but also

as

to

it

not only was

had

1924

'

Act

per cent

the

of

of

almost

from

were therefore attained

could the wages

both white and black labour How

increase only slightly



industrial take -

government income –

in

,

'create' the

to

used

off

profits of the gold industry and the sharp increase

IMPERIALISM

at

THE SYSTEMIC

the

277

we

the

).

(

on

' its

the

of an

in

important

to

in

to

,

African labourers

.

,

,

of

,

.

(

.

promote and help

,

finance new industries and build

278

'

was

'

to

racial stratification

classified

unskilled

either exclusively

for be

and

'

'

'

skilled as

jobs would have

. If

Africa

be

these new

South

to

,

continued

in

outside the racially defined legal classification used

Mass

semi skilled positions which fell

of

new

-

created



in

.

closer relations between government and privately owned industry wartime factories

was

)

The Industrial Development Corporation

local industries to

strongly

countries

other

and

requirements IDC

's

Britain

to

war industry was established

the Union Defence Force

from

to

scale industrial boom

-

a

for

81 A

.

of

full

of

:

in

imports

labour previously

mere

a

food was

,

,

of

value

cash

annual wage

of

,

1947 the average

In

.

white farmers were

labour

80

the 1930s

decline

production

to

continued

,

a

.

Africans

result

the dismay

to

;

the

.

order

remnants

finally end

).

30

in

.

.

79

to

)

As

farmers

conditions

considerable

in

Smuts

fearing black unrest the Smuts

despite the scarcity

proportion

1940

quest

urban areas thus intensifying the labour problems

to

,

.

to

(

2

transform

this issue during the war years

white farms including the

established

a

the 1940s played

was designed

increase African wages

continue the gold boom

established

'

,

a

,

in a

on

its

heels

World War

stimulated

it

.. .

its ”

(

)

of

6

on and

see Posel 1991

sharp

first

The

the Stallardist

The inability

give farmers greater control over

However

on

African males

Land

,

in

13 ,

(

1936

)

's

,

(

of

not prepared

and

The third prohibited

Stallardist line

white farms into wage labour

white farms

white farmers

The

areas

urban

it

of

from

the

1937

areas thus extending

was not implemented immediately

migrate

with

1948

white predominantly Afrikaner

produce

South African land

more aggressively

in

to

NP

of

Land Act

government dragged

R64

the common

urban

Africans victory

election

squatting

African

mark

Laws Amendment Act

control African urbanisation

labour tenancy

However

per cent

and taking

influx

the

4

in

Chapter

of

1923

of

of

the

to

control

water

the Development Trust

1936

the Cape from

acquiring land

legislation

the

of

a

total

,

from

role

Native

high

to

78

.

Africans

'

to

a

separate roll

see

roll and placed them expand the native The second authorised the government

removed African voters

government

)

(

Blacks Native Act

and the Black

reserves

reached

(

of

legislation

(

(

),

Representation

and

extreme

occurred

),

Segregationist

emphasis

the opposite

been

).

's

:

;

.

1971 315 author

have suggested that

turn

practice

In

labour was not essential

Trapido

1936

might

wages

control

Act

of

1935

of

have

in

to

would

raising

The

Mines cost structure

accept

raise African wages significantly some time between

of

.

1950

the Chamber

of

the

imperative

possible

important point that even

if

.

early 20th century Trapido makes



the

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3:

PART

,

,

in

,

'

,

on

(

,

of

(

-

see

the

If in

or

,

recommendations but in

job

the election

in

,

(

's

NP

in

).

78 – 80

the

into

urban

areas during the war their

coercive mechanisms

,

Africans

used

by

an

of and

The

among Afrikaner workers about and Wolpe victory See important role the

:

,

conditions

in

.

,

, .

the commission

The growing dissatisfaction

The large influx

be

at

,

which would

corporate sector

Afrikaner employees

's

of

Africans

properly implemented the UP was defeated

Beinart and Dubow 1995

made

they would have resulted

-

of

that the Fagan

,

be

time

English dominated

and the real wages

Smuts government accepted most

wage security played

the

patterns were concerned

and labour

,

for

employment opportunities

jobs

threatened

limited concessions

economic conditions

have either reduced the profits

this

for

that certain

Africans

and improved

before they could

'

'



was

of

urbanisation

It

.

recommended

the

higher wages

unskilled

,

84

.

colour bar

the

of

)

8



1946

and

and their political control and therefore began

these recommendations had been implemented

.

it

'



low

of

to

of

of

relaxation

the

as

far

the Smuts

war the English mining and industrial

After

their enterprises

(

a

to

commission

skilled

realise that growing African militancy

to

began

profitability

as

openly

).

:

corporations

of

growth see

industrial and political conflicts between

increased

employers and black workers

living

strict

1983 227

manufacturing gave rise

1948

53

,

,

).

,

Without acknowledging

The ambiguous situation concerning

favour

by

of 10



118

based

encouraged the rationalisation and mechanisation paid African labour during the war years the basis

on

'

O

Meara

per cent between

would not sustain such dramatic

government actively industry

labour costs fell

became apparent that old labour policies

107

:

1994

of

-



manufacturing output jumped

race and skills differentiation

Clark

at

positions

as

value

1939 and 1945

,

-

the industries

manufacturing production expanded rapidly throughout the

But the



country

skilled whites

it

83

.

markedly

those

than

Smuts

skilled and semi

which African workers were drawn into semi skilled operators wage rates considerably lower

82

.

-

In

blacks during the war years

by

the

In

many

process

the post war period

all

take

war

skilled work under

do

to

.

to

when white soldiers would return skilled jobs occupied

labour issue

sensitive

to

addressing

. of

merely postponed

in

-

the engineering and other industries up

in

supervision

Smuts was not manufacturing

masked under emergency

diluted

the

to

be

Fearing

skilled and semi skilled labour

unqualified black workers were allowed

a

;

measures

semi skilled work

, of

.

allowed the colour bar

Smuts

white businessmen

alleviate the serious shortages

To

to

address

industries

legal definition

production costs

,

white voters and

from

of

repercussions prepared

for

whites with serious ramifications

,

blacks or

the

for

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH IMPERIALISM

the

state

poor and

279

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

‘liberals ' who

.

segregationism

.

some

gold

white artisans formed their

own African Federation

.

1946 it

ten

,

in

)

of

all

of

contingent

mines

and was

The strike leaders were tried under War

.86

.

many others

with

145

which the Smuts government suppressed

assumed power

1948

in

Natal

the

segregationism on

of

colour

discrimination

'



argues that systemic

.

when

NP

was well entrenched

the

.

bar and influx control Basil Davidson

Indians

pragmatic concessions in

notwithstanding

,

labour repression

the strike and

to

was still committed its

Transvaal shows clearly that

1943 and 1946

it

curtail the land rights

in

to

passed legislation

87

in

The manner the

on

seriously affected

which 70000

,

.

16000 policemen

on

Production stopped completely

.

The Smuts government suppressed

of

strike

the

increasing

about in

CM

commission

wages the AMWU organised

'

not accept

did

in

Landsdowne

a

, of

the

which

senior members

than

workers participated

and

(

(

more radical position

When the government and the

recommendations

ANCYL

),

of

.

radicalisation

the time the

black politics that caused

a

,

in

organisation

mineworkers

adopted

1944

.

the

was formed

a

government circles The ANC Youth League

war

to

great concern

in

social upheavals

It

.

1944

in

000 members

campaigned

At

In

.

constituted

a

led

to

(

have

1942

1943 the African

of

the

and claimed

)

AMWU

'

,

energetically

was formally 25

Mine Workers Union

Measure

145

.

,

to

was introduced

280

CNETU

The CNETU soon launched several strikes War Measure prohibit strikes but was not effective

from

Unions which

Trade

Non European Trade Unions -

of

in

a

,

.

1941

Council

of

realising they could expect little support

,

the 1930s African workers was incorporated

By

suppressed

then

.

1920s but were

,

in

the

.

Black trade unions were active

and

be

the price

85

in

the future

century

have been partly valid earlier

,

1932 onwards

-

stage

however they were entirely invalid after the sharp increase from

a

economy would

; .

Africans improved

might

manufacturing

of



arguments

Liberal

the

the

These sorts

wages

,

,

of

and

liberals

economy still needed more African

argued that the expanding the

,

and founded

but that the industrial colour bar and repressive

dismantled

be

This moral

The humanitarian

mainly mining

to

liberal capitalist

and

the

abolition

1953 The economic determinists

entrepreneurs workers

economic determinism

.

to a

advocate

to in

Party

entrepreneurial class

split between the humanitarian liberals and

school that emphasised began

speaking

first

the

and economic progress proved

segregationism English

' of Africans . For

in

for

'

the retribalisation

-

irreconcilable

had, before the war , favoured

in

of

the ideology

dilemma led

' and

of

time,

segregationism

of

“ protectionist

the new urban squatter settlements created

in

serious moral dilemma for those

the

a

control Africans

to

,

municipalities

at

3:



PART

Although Smuts

his

relaxation

of

,

measures were relaxed during the 1940s

these

).

9

(

:

of

of

)

of

the

of

it

until

favouring

an

act

late

gradual ways that

in

to

in

in

,

.

much

the segregationist South

very careful not

brand

to

of

(e

the basic legitimacy

opposed

1913

moderate organisation

would enable the white government

organisation

that acted

unconstitutionally

During

segregationist period there were periodic signs

of

the

.

or

illegally

and

specially the Land Act

Until the 1940s the ANC was

state

protest against the disen

the northern provinces

remained

and did not question

the 20th century

first half

as

African

,

, .

1940s However

it

the segregationist legislation

reform

25

,

Africans

a

franchisement

the 20th century its

the

1912

in

The ANC was established

of

of

puzzling

racist

black protest against the segregation

the mainly English establishment

.

is

policy

and ineffectiveness

it

The weakness

see

ineffectiveness and ideological orientation of

,

weakness

years

half

the first

in

Black protest

in

10

8

.

legislation would occur during the next

ch

would have foreseen that the most comprehensive and cruel phase

few

.

of

which

to

books

statute

many racist measures was nonetheless meaningful

the implementation

Given the extent

from

IMPERIALISM

,

law

single segregationist

a

did

of

not remove

the

PERIOD OF BRITISH

THE SYSTEMIC

more radical

.

sharpened

.

its

)

(

of

100 000

were sufficient reason

and

for it

1926

to

,

ICU

of

39000

the

of ,

dangerous organisation and legislation

Act 1927 contained exiling political for leaders

.

provisions

When this clause proved impossible demise

the

ICU

1930 enabled

of

the in

.

to

Dubow

,

;

3

ch

1996

:

;

3



Rich

This

led

Riotous Assemblies Act

of

.

the

Beinart and Dubow

).

-

5

:

the ICU

embracing both urban

and the close links between

deport several ICU leaders

see Davenport 1991 270

(

from

CPSA

subversive

, to

the minister

a

of

clause

politically

implement amendments

:

the 1920s when

The Native Administration

tough

to

'

be

to

it

to

neutralise

hostility

considered

Africa

regard the former

'

its

in

was enacted

South

to

government

to

the

.

the Communist Party

as

Its

-

.

membership increased

1927 The aggressive attitude

164

came

the radicalisation

nation wide and regional black movement

and rural workers

1995

second example

resistance

but this was harshly

1920

in

)

(

a

became

in

coloured

of , ,

'

and especially

A

security forces

.

by

.

black

strike

of

to

out The ANC organised the mineworkers suppressed

political

persist with segregationist policies commitment disagreements among key ANC leaders the protest petered

's

of

,

because

1917 and 1922 black

distinctly when black political leaders were radicalised

the government

But

Between

in

awareness

by

,

harsh and authoritarian manner

a

in

,

black resistance but the government suppresssed these easily although often

281

The

ANC

its

,

,

an

roll

1936

(

a

) the

(

four appointed

and

further

'

per cent

of

to

13

South African Native Trust

native reserves



by

were elected

a

by

the

represented

Native Representative Council NRC

establishing

the

size

and

,

the common

Union were

)

Native

(

Blacks

by

to

of

of

provoke

South

Jabavu

,

,

the AAC

by

more specifically

and

led

.

's

Africa

territory

of

the

tasked with increasing

.

.

to

D

,

.

,

it

'

the

1936

.

)

territorial segregation

effective

).

bills

government was created The Development Trust and Land Act entrenched

ICU

3

ch

in

whom

and

)

African members

CPSA

becoming

from

the Cape from

.

the same time

of

16

with

All African

create the

The Representation

roll All Africans

(

.

four white senators

voters

At

separate

a

them

in

,

African

This ideological

the ANC

native

in

removed

elite

.

the African

on

of

placed

1936

from

a

sharp reaction

Hertzog



have expected

One would

Act

a

in

) (

:

1996

affairs

DT Jabavu

divisions within the AAC prevented

protest movement see Rich

moderate Pixley

the 1930s both the ANC and the CPSA

united front

12

,

However

1935

the

the

(

AAC

as

division created the opportunity for Convention

1930

little influence over public

exerted

radical

operation between the ANC and

of

and

of

.

,

declined

For the best part

rather

-

.

,

Seme was elected president After this CPSA was suspended

adopted

James Gumede

the ANC reacted against this and

in

,

others

protest politics When under the

ANC president

the then

co

,

influence

views

1920s the CPSA became active

late

,

the

In

in

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3:

PART

protested

but peacefully against the Hertzog bills Jabavu described the Cape justice inherited from African franchise treasured gift

, of

of

,

the

.

,

leaders

and the

Rich

the ANC

black

1991

284

;



for

on

of

African

7

the

,

,

from

The strike drove

in

of

,

frustrations

African mineworkers failed

and

improve

the

attempts

to

its



indirect rule

of

of

When

the

claims

,

1946

and

the

August

the

.

in

trusteeship

.

strike

.88

declared

in

wages and working conditions

auspices

the ANC published African

1943

principle

1941 under

'

.

the

it

rejected

of

B

A

Dr

in

,

to

was established

of

,

the AMWU

a

the

the African

Despite strong resistance

demanded incorporation into white structures

282

NRC

white trusteeship

see Davenport

segregation revived

Transvaal African Congress which

principle

Xuma became president

In

CM

,

When 1940 political opposition the

representation

patronage between

white political domination

seats

:

of

the ties

and obtained

some

and

, 6 ).

:

1996

ch

system

the white

4

and

system

new

albeit implicitly with

of

,

agreed

strengthened

fought

of

By reluctantly accepting the leadership

a

)

though not Jabavu

the

the end

noblest monument

(

',

In

ANC members

than

African leaders accepted the Hertzog bills

(

rule

'.

's

man

nothing less

and

'

Victoria

Queen

as

in

the

.

vehemently

AMWU African

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH IMPERIALISM

point,

leaders with the NRC to breaking

the

co

the

-

.

a

the

in

power and the

of

state

+

to

of

of

of

(

in

the

.

of

,

racist ideologies

,

huge irony that

in

the rise

the

justify

repressive labour

liberal values and

the

to

among whites was suspended

idea

.

parliamentary government

a

.

for on

.

African elite remained devoted

.

in

order to

segregationism

in

,

when

(

of

1950

vested interest

cheap labour From then

!

),

practices

the

the ideology

to

1890

Cape liberalism

until

discovery

to

of

was the most important

which segregationism from

creating the space

The Cape

19th century

After

the Cape gained

is a

liberalism

in

of

the mission stations

whose profitability depended declined

the

1850

stations

mission

Christian humanism

the second half

the 19th

the privileges

the Christian

,

liberal tradition

from

elite enjoyed

,

the gold industry

only stretched

It

mercantile elite and

the second half

in

state

on

-

the white controlled

.89

of

white pressure groups played

of

,

the

, )

by

liberal tradition was maintained gold the white champions

and

the virtues by

convinced the African elite

its

of

of

In

.

Apart from

not understand

small African

legislature of

in

the Cape

is

It

. all

).

7



to

by

26 –

:

and ineffectiveness

white

Cape liberalism

but during that period

for its

a

of

of

in

5

an 1996

'

O

at

in

64 –

Meara

racial

Westminster had concentrated

of

age

a

The golden

participating

by

1948 the ANC called

enormous

liberal tradition

of

90

, .

1890

the Cape

in

by

A

century

of

the very end

of

Act

and

very important factor was the strong reformist outlook inculcated

black leaders

period

ANC

aggressive

and demanded that

the 20th century

consolidating and perpetuating the power

in

67 ).

:

:

(

first half

ideological rationalisations

the

in

.

the it

9

157

had done

leaders simply

,

important role

regime

advanced for the weakness

economic power the

hands many black

1996

did

black protest during

political and

-

the

can

formulating

segregationist

Bundy 1993

be

Several reasons

Rich

the first time

abolished

vigorous

adoption

the

of

-

be

discrimination

#

36

:

(

universal suffrage

;

strategy against

see Posel 1991

the ANC

more

into

the formulation

's

to

strategy

operation

first attempt the ANC political against white domination

This was

remarkable that the ANC only succeeded comprehensive

political elite

soon dominated



,

of

1949

1940s

organisation

new

renewed

moderate

was instrumental

and

common

a

formulate

action

from

so

strategy

and

Programme

The ANCYL

.

nationalism

ideology

this

in

mobilise popular support under

.

African

prepared

role

;

militant movement

the

to

during the 1930s The ANCYL was

been suspended

had

transforming the ANC

to

committed

strategic

a

with the CPSA that

played

in

(

in

which Nelson Mandela

The radicals

1944

)

ANCYL

in

was the formation

a

of

the

the most important events in African politics

of

Perhaps one

1890

during the strike, they voted

this body .

suspend

rule

,

and

283

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

the two

settler communities

Africans

the

of

understood

Boer War

all

to

against the assurance given

This betrayal must

during the Anglo

by

the hands

British

Westminster placed political power almost exclusively

Act

'.

of

in

betrayal when

not appreciate the full meaning

‘ of

the

,

the African elite

and parliamentarian

Cape liberalism

-

government

their devotion

be

strength

to

On

did

the

3:

of

PART

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's ,

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. the

of the

by

co

of

-

of

to

.

,

,

,

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by

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The NAD was employers

best interests

,

Africans that

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of

white

elite core

to

,

of

not only

the

.

state

in

in

the

)

African

putting Africans

-

This enabled the white controlled

also section

. ).

157

another 9 7

the Africans belonged

to

as

Rich 1996

it

'





for

on

behalf

succeeded

:7 if . ,

see

its

on

business

(

or

the South African state

another realm

the

see

with

to





,

as

-

.

in

At

NAD gave the government was

mainly rural

activities the NAD

the

labour specially the gold political and ideological



its

of

carry

'

and

(

an

the range

'

to

‘ “

important

reformist policy applied

Through

time the NAD acted

the white power constellation



was

.

community

284

sounding board

repressive African labour patterns

a

to

'

segregation

country

cheap African

maintaining the authority and sovereignty

convince

chiefs

white authority

given

advice

the same

The information

therefore strategically placed

state

co

.

.

in

to

and

and

reformist leadership

of

African society

the

the missionaries

corrupted

the 1940s the

the

trends

),

and white farmers

of



for employers

mines

outside

Until

the NAD

a

-

'

house

their discourse

collaborating class during

not escape the moderate

the ANC could

and although

themajority

white trusteeship

opted

patronage

English speaking bureaucrats

but also

the rhetoric

.

forms

in

of

with generous

develop

segregationism

Many chiefs were

the 20th century

of

of

various African tribes were

and black unrest

families

of

principle “

the

(

:

1996

accordance with

In

of

See Rich

intentions

11 ).

with African leaders was reminiscent

crucial

,

in

accepted the ideology

they enthusiastically

enter into

the NAD was remarkably

missionary

from

and

reformist

defusing black radicalism

even

of

and

officials were recruited

Cape liberals

supposed

about the

a

.

containing

clearing

Westminster

operate with white

their own governance

During the segregationist period

successful

in

servants

whites

segregationism

core

Act

black protest during

67 ;

discourse with

mainly tribal chiefs



politicians and white public

first half

them

,

especially African leaders

NAD

the



weakness and ineffectiveness

prevented

period another remarkable phenomenon was the preparedness

segregationist

Many

of

from

the state created

of

Apart

the

questioning the legitimacy

from

a

of

loyalty towards parliamentary processes and the rule

law

,

40

.

a

'

population groups would enjoy equal laws British colonial authority that equal liberties after Boer defeat For more than years African elite

PERIOD OF BRITISH IMPERIALISM

THE SYSTEMIC

Endnotes 1

The large British corporations involved

and diamond exploration were new

in gold

Africa . From the beginning of the mineral revolution until 1910 a close partnership developed between these corporations and the British government, players in South

co

in

-

,

.

in

in

the

.

by

,

30

-

– a

to

,

to

on

it

for

).

war

1899

in

:

for

-6

to

,

cause that was lost

a

,

a

,

)

in

).

by

on

50

),

as

of

35

,

(

).

desperate

scorched homesteads and putting

'

a

,

000 Afrikaner

000

Africans many In

000

000

camps

a

,

;

estimated

concentration 20

in

least

an

It

).

2

a

at

least

the

Canada Australia

and

at

colonies

the war Lord Kitchener launched

burning down more than

to

,

British

fought

500 000 men

which conditions were appalling

phase

conduct

has been

(

from

40

in

million

million

It

£20

.

:

,

).

Almost

soldiers and

of

of

to

,

,

[



)

30000

-

:

),

(

184

the republican side accompanied

women and children

them

camps

a

£3 3

to

.

of

21 ;

(

,

Britain

22000 British

stop the guerrilla

by

as

,

of

-

a

by

men fought

( an

concentration to

as in

27000

estimated

policy

'

and budgeted

Zealand 000 from the South African colonies Thompson see 1990 141 was brutal war

Afrikaners died

attempt

1986

empire went

50



365 000 from

strongly

colony that

producing gold more

and cost Britain more than £220 on

000

companies into

peg

companies

Atmore and Marks 1974 128

,

that about

Cameron

British

about 30000 African agterryers auxiliaries

Africans

(

50

.

on on

a

at

of

17 –

Grundlingh

Kruger

the mining

Boer War the gold

last three months

lasted almost three years

fold

not prepared

pressure

than

annex the ZAR and turn

of to

'(

the war

expected

90

It

quoted

year

The burghers were also

supremacy that was finished

(

a

great illusion

and New

put

much higher level

social and economic conditions conducive

concept the restoration

British side

million

the gold mines

their farms and

the Anglo

see Clark 1994

estimated

the

of

as

.

,

behalf

Robinson and Gallagher conclude that the

Britain

for

essential

Heydenrich

discoveries ZAR government revenue

government was also

The ZAR

the eve

:

profitably

independent African tribes

gold

'

On

.

create

these were Pedi from north eastern wages higher than those elsewhere The

). a

in in

decade

in

over

(

could

interior entered and left

buy rifles which they regarded

the idea that Britain should

favoured

from

year this figure increased

little

pay

to

to

the area

years before the Rand

the labour situation

to

wanted

a

greater detail

155

15

:

1986 the

experiencing labour problems African mineworkers wages

.

discussed

.

labourers Most

,

in 4

increase

intervene

earth

will

1924

000 Africans

political existence

had averaged £110000

5

,

1890

to

,

'

#



1875 about

annually

Cameron

Whereas

it



-

from

1871 and

ensuring the continued

6

of

in

co

'

in

,

constructed

Pedi largely used their cash income

them

the maize

operation with the mining

opting the Transvaal and South African governments before

Transvaal who were drawn

well



8 .3

Between

Kimberley

for

mid - 19th

Cape Town and the

expansionism

their territorial close

in the

Grahamstown

in

solving their land labour and marketing problems which the racially based South African economic and political

in

2

The manner

systems were

3

colonial administration

support

in



companies

and after 1910

section

London

the northern provinces succeeded

in

farmers

'

the

. co

in

in

succeeded

colonial office

-opting both

the settler press

– and

,

the sheep - farming British settlers

be

,

century

. While ,

government

and the South African

them

in

and then between

285

to

).

:

18

.

of

on



1907

follows

;

a

000

of

of

the

(

the

from

).

:

(

342

– 3

,

Africans

enjoyed

different

1978a

'

in

people and 6000

coloured

the

race attitudes

not fundamentally

and the United States

the Cape

in

14

10

Province were

a

.

In

.

.

,

.

a

in

be

to

of

.. .

Rich

157

:

;

1996

(

it

of

of of

of

millions

segregation

,

,

For

48 )

-

(

.

a

special type

colonialism

and apartheid

and

into

new

party

:



fused

on a

decided

their two parties

a

and the SAP respectively

).

was responsible for

This belies the popular myth and

policies

repressive

in

when

power was a

ideological

and

it

the 20th century

,

of

economic

,

,

political

discriminatory

that

1910

-

NP

1934 they

.

section

establishment

circles

of

of of ).

:

see

the

.

of

what were

61

the leaders 1933

colonialism

segregationist legislation

speaking

social controľ

and

difference between

formidable during the first half battery

developed and rationalised

that segregationism

's 8. 9

The English

(

coalition government the United Party

157

1996

in

(

Herzog and Smuts

14

no

perpetuation

In

Rich

see

political

claim



)

were

the

there was indeed

-

13

apartheid

the

– is 94

(

1948

Africans

in

's

12

indeed merit

There

entrenching white

).

emphasis

resilient instrument

that emerged

state

control and peripherilising black political policy making echelons What was unique

was the way

state

essentially colonial structures author

of



the control

from

about the South African

Cape and

the

the Union parliament

modernising structures

demands away

in

in

proved

after Union

only three

1906

Africans

and

-

to

Africa

South

domination

million whites

Natal Coloureds

the important conclusion that the white controlled

by

in

11

Natal could not become members

1 1

in

the hands

the vote

.

Africans had acquired

of

4

,

vested almost exclusively

Rich comes

10

,

of

In

per cent

5

,

.

85

Cape voters were white per cent vote 1910 some per cent African coloured and only The total coloured population was half million and the total African population more than million Political power was to

qualified

the Western world

Europe

that

when Social Darwinism

century

20th

]

in

the culture

attitudes that prevailed

About

of

in

[

,

)

the early

in

,

).

:

it

'(

prominence

were

the

75

by

to

in

-

is

“ 9

Afrikaners

British

them

for the entrenchment

Thompson acknowledges

Leonard

:

as

out

of

May

events

quoted mines Yudelman 1983 Although mainly was Afrikaner leaders who lobbied franchise

that

the squatter

getting topsy turvy The whole position Boer Government calling troops keep English miners order while Dutchmen are replacing

white

a

the northern provinces

undermine the position

described

,

,

mining magnate

a

217

Cape

Eastern

Lionel Phillips

1986

the situation

already had legislation

the

in

peasants

Cameron

provoked

.

7

The SANAC report concentrated stage the Cape

8

Pakenham

the

worldwide outcry (

concentration camps . This strategy

into

in

see

the women and children

At

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

,

3

in

PART

English only

were

.

to

rebellion against the

the side

Britain

.

in a

staged

smash the

the Transvaal and OFS

of

World War

/

of

to

, -

newly established participate

000 government troops

small farmers on

Afrikaner

)

1914

NP

of

government used

1

's

286

Hertzog

decision

's

(

of

supporters

government

to

In

.

/

the later half

.

The Botha Smuts

strike

in

threatened

capital

60

of

general strike

by

mainly English speaking skilled workers seriously the accumulation function the state the dismay British English

1914

a

Early

in

15

-

institutionalised under the Afrikaner oriented NP government

This

PERIOD OF BRITISH

threatened

to deteriorate

civil war that

into a

IMPERIALISM the political

could have undermined

. Botha

the Afrikaner rebels

The

1922 when most white mineworkers

government the symbiosis between

its

;

, ,

an

on

-

3

.

:

in

the in

dominant role

section

In

).

,

to

;

a

the idea

. ).

9 1

the 20th century

play

until

follow

the 1930s and

in

God and destined

63 ,

:

of

African

1978 428

(

in

Kuper

in

,

47

(

1996

of

Hitler

see to

the second half

1936

in

,

in

to

in

Rich

1886

).

(

:

to

,

1887

its

such

proclaimed

people chosen

vote

racial superiority and divine election

(

Africa during

in

.

,

to

'

.

a

were

268

Victoria East

per cent

such measures were

of by

as

century Aryan superiority

an

In

1882

their parliamentary rights

;

18 19

of

).

an

set

by

constitutional measures Many

Relevant examples are British notions that Afrikaners

1996

the African

early precedent for the progressive diminution

the Africans were deprived

South

per cent

14

,

These acts

Thomas

King Williams Town Queenstown

and Woodhouse rose from

political rights

19th

whites

qualifications for Africans were first tightened

Franchise 196

506

348 non white voters

Ballot Act were passed

of

Eastern

Aliwal North

4

.

in

Cape seats

remove

by

ten

bill was

the first year and add

years before the Franchise Act and

five

the

-

the electoral roll

from

the

The effect of the

non whites

number

qualification

the property

from

R50 R150 and included education test poor white farmers the list and decrease the

from

the number

increase

owned property

,

of to

in

order

qualification

property

during

1948

1994

,

tribally

assumed power

state and capital was occasionally

but remained intact until

stressed

The Franchise Act excluded the

17

also severely

raised

the

of

years

NP

important power shift took place when in

46 An

16

.

,

in

even more damaging Rand Revolt took place were already Afrikaners

against

.

mainly Afrikaners



000 soldiers

-

of

an

army

40

legitimacy of the new state . It was fiercely repressed by Botha and Smuts

led

THE SYSTEMIC

evaluation we must take into account that Britain and

imperialist

of

Africa

South

).

:

of A

,

).

4

ch

:

Natal when Shepstone

and

. ).

in

1988

8 5

.

segregationist laws

Bundy

in

)

in

and

Britain

.. .

by

'

reconstruct the institutions

power greater than that wielded before and since

his

Milner

of

1905

]

1900

to

from



the opportunity

to

years

[

]

[

with

a

.. .

administrative appointees had

Africa

[

'

:

Legassick also claims that during the

South

6 8

sections

192

were 1900 less racially segregated settlement and economic activity than were Natal and the Eastern

land

six

1994b

see

1982

to

..

'(

Cell

).

of

Cape

the

tried

73

terms

of

multitude (

a

of see

(





'

or

of



his

system

who

'.

's

kindergarten

1913 was the most important

reserve

of

.. .

influential members

did

Sir Alfred Milner

territorial segregation was also introduced

location

decade

studied the

.. .

So

.. .

the

on

subject

Worden alleges that the Transvaal and OFS

'(

23

of

21 22

created

or

in

ran a

.

segregation

The Glen Grey Act became the prototype

form

the

racial capitalism

the system

reconstruct the former Afrikaner republics after the Boer War

similar

racist to

-

deplorable

Several English speaking South Africans

British High Commissioner

which the Land Act

to

,

in a

,

,

,

of

highly

-

America

of

In to

The evolution

American literature

extensive

imperialist

the mining sector

.. .

behind that

terms

large scale

mineral revolution that was crucial

the process they extended



follows

:

as

it

the agricultural sector

of

so

20

in

.

South African economy

He puts

their actions

in

and justify

succeed

the same time they launched

.

ideology

groups

a

At ,

plundering

local population

the

all

all

entrepreneurs had the necessary political military economic and financial power subjugate

287

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

45

price

low

Beinart and Dubow

in

suitably

'(

,

feudal relations of

on

.

for

)

In

'

.

of

90

. ),

(

Act

full implications

The

and

1923

),

)

(

Urban Areas

of (

.

in

,

Africa

these

of

liquidated much

and made ploughing more

a

and had

their capital

,

South

in

cattle

It

. of

farmers

their creditworthiness

affected

land ownership

. .

.

per cent

peasant

smaller

towns

which imposed

1911

8 7

and

8 6

almost

on

impact

catastrophic adversely

in

destroyed

This disease

sections

Act

and the Native

;

for

discussed

Kindergarten

which segregated

1913

residential segregation 80

be

laws will

and

),

Act

prohibited squatting and sharecropping which provided

his

Milner

these were the Mines and Works

the Natives Land

;

the colour bar

envisaged

(

,

The most important

by



it

,

in

'

' of as

:

24

based

state

paragraph occurred the first time the report thinking about segregationist native policy for the systematised

Africa

future South

26

a

create throughout South Africa the conditions for

black labour

segregation

The word

many ways 25

destroy

to

– 6

1995

in

and

a

sufficiency

Transvaal

to

securing

a

in

at

power . .. was called

British

production

of

3:

the

PART

difficult and

as

,

us in

,

',

.

in

It

.

(

of

-

of .

Before his

white farmers

At

.

imperial interests

.

's of

to to

of

, ,

it

.

planned

introduce stricter measures )

especially the OFS and prevent

.

(

:

Africans were generous

,

to

to

occurred

Britain

native

work

enough

for

the land granted was be

'



,

opportunities too restricted the native reserves would not support the migrant workers partially while they were employed and

,

to

,

in a

(

to

to

in

-

be

the

to

If

30

He also

areas

the needs and demands

self sufficient they would not come out

too little and farming

288

see

provided for the

the cabinet because

from

political incentive

land and farming opportunities granted

position

,

.

'

for

segregated

was dropped to

more sensitive Smuts had

then minister

since

than eventually

Africans

against Africans pacify white farmers order Hertzog see Rich 1996 them from defecting

them

in

in

in

by

Africans

18 in )

and

In

's

for

of

,

enacted

a

far

final bill was

white land grabbing and

Hertzog

complaint that the Botha government was too sensitive The

the government

wage earning proletariat

system

in

on

tenure

he

be

's

could

1912

the Glen Grey for

of

in

was drafted

individual land

that time Botha

leaving

).

Bill

.

to

into

a

to

African peasants

allocate substantially more land

bill

Zululand

male not liable hut tax 1906 The Bambatha claiming the lives was the almost 4000 Africans

affairs His bill was modelled

Hertzog

their proper

the Delimitation

1905

squatting

and undoubtedly the result

turn

will

the day

– 9

:

The original Land

1906

counteract

the native

with

century was

the 20th

white settlement

every

,

',

-

attempts

To

.

on

until 1907

Davenport 1991 208

extension

;

be

2 6 in

R2

a

of

,

systematic

29

tribal hands

Anglo African war



last

rebellion

million acres

,

set aside

unrest continued

emphasis

author

sparked the Bambatha

million acres poll tax

3 9

only

imposed

271

actions against Africans early

's

Commission

it

that

thankful that we have the natives with

:

in

'(

28

The government

connected

supreme race

the

so

Thomas 1996

quoted

to

If

.. .

all

position

in

is

.. .. I

come when we shall

aggressive

their position

the whites maintain

and

their own

).

I

:

feel rather glad that the labour question here

question

the United States

occur with the English people

in

that are going

see the troubles

country

that are occurring

see the labour troubles

I

when

Rhodes said the following about African

. If

When

'

labour

parliament

,

act was debated

the

to

When

in

27

.

transport facilities rarer and dearer

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH fully when they returned economy were prepared

's ' delicate

small

accorded

in a

in the

on

,

to

-

to

,

on

to

,

(

)

to

50

in

80

, .)

:

or

.

of

to

(

,

in

to

-

co

of

a

its a

,

;

:

and

in

,

of

in

(

see also

,

;

Legassick

in

,

to

,

see

of

the

in

-

and industrial

).

70

1995

,

and Dubow

,

mining

be

its



:

).

9

native

production

African reserves can only

agrarian



the

peasantry

underdeveloped

of

the

,

Beinart

[

(

to

(

Marais 2001

:

,

in

Wolpe

).

or

:

underdevelopment

The African

absorbing part

of of

by

,

industry

of

the

1946

598

many decades

the development

– 4

the framework Bundy 1988 223

in (

'

832 000

easy

2000

late 19th

plagues like the rinderpest transport good markets

68

'

independent African

.

loans

for

1936

the gold mining

in

to

access

to

million

:

(

1978

Those who succeeded

legal restrictions

from

;

'

.

subsidised

see

story

partly from

succumbed

of

)

lack

in

,

or

,

drought

Bundy concludes that

capital

1948

from

the

,

Saunders

had been short and unhappy

2 5

from

understood

231

during the war years they increased

ie

rule

(

NP

and

OFS

1988

40 ).

of

Davenport

Both Bundy and Wolpe emphasise that reserves

1940s

)' (

of

-

38 –

:

30

years

but most decisively

costs

until the

despite

Africa

South

the Eastern Cape and the

).

:

to

or

),

– 7

of

1986

and early 20th century

dwindled

persisted

251

entrepreneurship

1896

pockets

maize farmers declined

sharply during the first

According

for

).

).

al

et

,

in

, '

,

of of

the law

Although subsidies Harris 1975

share cropping

the south eastern Transvaal

Beinart

see

personal account operation the Crown Mines and the ruling regent his native Transkei

in

:

Bundy

to

contravention

broad swathe

tenants

Keegan

55 – 8

1994b

(

According

Act

in

at

,

the authorities

see Mandela

century

to

,

see

.

.

of

their defence against landlords

– 7

:

205

had

1916

tenants and for against their aid recalcitrant

the Masters and Servants

his autobiography Nelson Mandela gives

to

In

36

and Rathbone 1982

Beinart

It

(

in

be

in

.

The extension

effectively stripped tenant families

between

the powerful

The act was only

the legal status

that the farmers could summon

unwilling workers

the only

work for

done

implications

had considerable

coercive apparatus

1973

Natal existing share

these two provinces

of

the

35

This stipulation

Marks

illegal due

cash was

the Transvaal and Natal after the Beaumont Commission

recommended how this should

and

force

in

-

cropping contracts remained

then

white landlords was

the Transvaal and

in

land owning companies

influence applied

the crop

share

a

the form

per

407

laid down that from

rent

pay

of

of

in

of in

.

African tenants could

which

Lipton 1986

the OFS

in

was immediately applied

Rent

1982

in

42

to

per cent

act

34

The

them

37

the

on

.

in

of

to

place until the 1970s

foreign African migrants gold mines oscillated between The number per cent from 1911 until 1961 and increased per cent cent and

legal way

38

even

support migrant labourers before and after their

60

33

remain

before dropping

39

with

the larger

giving this monopsonistic privilege chamber the state legitimised and formally sanctioned the extra exploitative African labour system the gold mines that was

40

short term

perspective ,

longer - term

.

on

was

1936

reserves' perhaps

'. But,

equation

white

in the

gold mines

By

32

spell

the

allocation of

.

the

Lagden

to pay

' native

The land set aside as

too

31

not enough land was

if

have to be set at higher levels than employers

would

to

, wages

granted

families . This meant that ,

to their

IMPERIALISM

289

of the

21 000 whites were employed

al

wage labourers

as

in

a foreign

.

]

in

[

[

).

in

36

per

:

in

,

17000

were

see Grundlingh

in

in

'

and

,

there

side

(

in

on

')

-

(“



Grosskopf

(

'

a

to “ a

',

.. .

as

included the number may even have increased

the to

in

1929

.

about 300 000

South If

in

'

by

.

there were

1906

the very poor

,

is

1916

in

106000

from

that

Estimates



the Transvaal estimated

to

in

adding

1911 and 1921

between

21 ).

,

considerable

fairly harmless and normal process

the Transvaal alone

in

refers

'

'

on

poor white question

by

the

)

by

]

[

to

the

of

by

prevent the

;

9



87

see

Mines

labour

was finally defeated the Davenport Yudelman 1983

:

1926

(

of

Works Amendment Act

codifications to

the Chamber

,

.

Attempts

it

by

the

mines

).

By making

white miners

colour bar were successful but

:

186

.

the threat

this

and Saunders 2000 634

excluding

they became more accessible

on

of

introduction

and

.

recruit and retain

two acts were the first comprehensive statutory

discrimination

to

)

1986

:

their unions

British competition limit

standard wage rate for African mineworkers

,

to

and thus accentuated

from

Britain

from

' ( (

by a

]

exclusive craft unions and tried

skilled jobs and very low

were dominated

trades

further immigration

agitating

African miners cheaper

only between whites Afrikaners and immigrants

[

the skilled

.. . from

also instituted

originally

(

,

Initially

They established

to

]

.)

(

struggle over jobs was

not

the



[

,

but also

their jobs

,

the British

1933

immigrants

It

cent

were bywoners who

1902

the field

and blacks

51

an

in

'(

in no

joiners

between local whites mainly

290

the

of

)

of

-

of

,

of

May

Lipton contends that

and

from

urban areas were Afrikaners

.

in

ceased

500

the

para

whole increased

a

]

.

in

of

)

)

of

be

,

'

, 1

:

as

of

treated

Commission

mainly British

50

5

'.

-

(

:

in

the

(

47

48

and

the Great Depression

Afrikaners

had

between

14000 burghers voluntarily laid

fewer than

white rural inhabitants

Joint findings

10000 white indigents

330000

1900

hostilities

1932

number

The Indigency

effect

urban areas increased

the new arrivals

these hensoppers hands uppers Some them even fought actively

When

that this could not

Africa

ZAR

217

1986

1932 Part

June

bitter enders

The Carnegie report decrease

49

the



,

of

.

to

defend

.

no

Pretoria

'

Cameron

informal network

).

:

of

( 46

bittereinders

Afrikaner landowners

173

joiners

became

Many

1904

arms Many

land

the larger and smaller landowners

the 19th century

the white population in

to to

1978

down their

Mines

the

which provided them with information and enabled profitable land holdings Marks and Attmore 1980 357

per cent

53

45

Welsh

dominant group

and veldcornetten

accumulate

After the fall

These

, from

value

industry

mercantile value and the small wine

the last two decades

The percentage

mines

economic

.

to

Trapido

in

landdrosten

from

that almost

Cape (see Bundy , in

in the

's only

1870s

the

).

In

44

According established

had

was

struggle little love was lost between

this

1891

23000

Cape

Western

them

,

perspective

its

43 Until diamonds and gold were discovered, South Africa

in

is estimated

It

1875

111 - 15 ) .

:

1986

and nearly

Cape rail system

of unskilled white workers .

absorbed large numbers et

,

1863

.

1873 and 1883

The diamond mines and the construction

Beinart

1857 and

in

between

AND APARTHEID

immigrants arrived between

41 About 10000 42

, SEGREGATION ,

COLONIALISM

).

:

of

3

of

PART

THE SYSTEMIC

PERIOD OF BRITISH

IMPERIALISM

52 According to Johnstone , the collective restrictions on Africans in the labour market

was

repressive

unskilled Afrikaner

workers

.

the job security

It

.

by

for

unskilled jobs

ultra exploitable

'

workes were made

that they threatened

'

in an “ open market

them

level that poor

a low

-

because African

measures

to such



whites could not compete with precisely

of Africans down

the wages

to force

of

made it possible

to

as

as



(

of

see

).

and

and

milled

1911

to

per

in

ton

,

81

. ) . R1

237

million

,

,

(

64

£10

see

of

total

million

96

,

a

the mines earned earned only

whereas the 179 000 blacks employed

£5

:

Horwitz 1967

for stricter repressive

9 5

.

9 4

see sections

the gold mines increased from

455 whites employed

the

racial inferiority

).

of

see

21 (

55

1920

in

1920

,

58

The working cost In

54

discriminatory legislation

R2

:

NP government became notorious

the

already

an

'

on

;

49

-

:

1976

1948

on

After

wages

well

Davenport 1991 506

(

53

Johnstone

26

of

:

a

racial matter employers justified extraordinarily proletarianised class workers the additional grounds

class

for

the

colour bar was

a

exploitation

the 1910s the

' -

end

low

.

proletariat

of

At

the

of

,

its

Consequently the government used political and bureaucratic power protect the Afrikaner proletariat against the competition ultra exploitable African

Davenport

in

,

– ie

by

In

.

to 1

white

14

.

to

11 4

be

).

per cent

24

1945

the most

see

(

and

86

,

in

1930

per cent

in

:

per cent

from

of

of

,

65

in

1921 the

formation and specifically

,

state

,

the process

Act was one

Conciliation

of

in

the Industrial

of

Yudelman

,

.

:

to

1920

the final

By

.

and racial capitalism

of

in

,

of in

,

).

to

order

avert

,

of

-

co

white

).

6

1984

ch

Yudelman

the political and

to

the Pact government when the Iron power 1928 When the NP came

.

by

see

(

state

into

:

incorporated

controlled

)

in

of

opting

-

of

1921

labour the white trade important section the marginalised

This interventionist policy was perpetuated and Steel Corporation ISCOR was established

(

24 8

'

: By an

of

to

that structure

the white

white supremacy

structure

mainly the proletarianised Afrikaners

administrative structures

per cent

190

(

whites

revenue fell from

1979

the new industrial order organised white labour was

opted into the leadership

the stability

industrial relations legislation

)

Yudelman

gold

1983

union movement was depoliticised and

threats

finally

,

By

.



:

of ch 7 ).

total

see Yudelman

(

a

as

1922

,

in

percentage

.

effectively

co to -

per

18

According

to

1983

(

and 1981 see Yudelman

cent

economic

the Afrikaner proletariat and against the African proletariat and

that lasted until the reformist

White earnings

system

passing the act the Smuts government

in

of

in

favour

pattern

exploitation

in

set a

chose

and black

enforce industrial peace

a

,

-

state intervention

segregation

to

Afrcans

mining

opting white labour the act comprehensively institutionalised the principle that

justified

,

its

as

.

,

in

several other state corporations were created The NP used the state corporations important instruments comprehensive interventionist policies 1948

in

59

increased

the symbiosis between white supremacy

consolidation

60

7 4,

at a

132

important events

61

1986

of

(

Lipton

per cent

1983

According

co

see

blacks

Afrikaners among white mineworkers increased

51

to

in 58

Yudelman

of

'

be 50

per cent

The percentage 1907

ratio

that the ratio would

announced

almost 57

frozen

that the number

Africans for every one white supervisor

)

CM

should

stipulated

1918

of

).

The status quo agreement

'

56

:

1991 254

291

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

PART

;

:

(

a

in

.



a

in

29

of

per

of

by

1964 a

,

47

of

.

in

gave the appearance

which

act

of

in

',

the

.

-

in

, .

white workers

the Wage Board

(

the Hertzog

)

profitability

and

of of

.

never made

a

to

the powers given

to

jobs

restrict skilled

to

),

to

and

the

mining

,

of

whites

blacks fell

of

while the number

17783

to

the number

1933

).

:

,

1942 251 264

(

cent

In

central and local government the proportion

per

in

and

of

1924

,

760

4

from

,

per cent

the public sector the

civilised labour policy was made compulsory resulting particularly displacement Indians and coloureds who had moved into such jobs from agricultural forced labour system

the

in

,

'

the

in a

by

.

of

of

371

. the Pact government and the

between

legislation

create

local

steel

industry

.

to

192

,

1928

combined session

both houses

of

passed

of

was eventually

which

the English establishment the legislation establishing in

ISCOR

by

's

corporate sector was the former

Trade and Industries

substantial increased tariffs The number

considerable tension

Despite strong resistance

their lesser skilled white

a

caused

from

a

An issue that

jumped

Board

of

,

of

,

via

:

the tariff schedule

by

items

on

selectively encouraged local industry 68

the employment

1983 238 This strategy operated through the reconstituted

'(

67

the price

to

of

colleagues

,

particular paid part

).

in

decrease

concludes that the increased employment whites was paralleled wages suggesting white real terms that the more skilled workers for

Yudelman

in

66

.

,

of



of

of

.

]

.. . of

all

an

in

[

the

in to

for

.



in

cent

was that only

a

whites

Likewise to

from

industry

)

:

.

22

008

45

whites rose

the railways rose to

564

1945 and

fact powerful and subtle colour bar The also determine wage rates non unionised industries

der Horst between

van

paid

South Africa

sensitivity towards the interests Sheila

their class

mining dividends

proportion

might raise mine wages But the board mining industry This another example

the

South

corporations were still owned

the board

(

37

from

by to

65

employed

regardless

the gold mining

was strongly opposed

industry Davenport 1991 509 According

rate

64

's

government

fragile

interventionist state

is

determination

was

whites

per cent

.

feared

for

because

Mines

number

Only after the

.

it

The Chamber

of

(

thereby setting higher rates

and

1910

the white

).

's

of

fairness but was the government

the

for to

empowered

the

of

.

).

principle

,

complete

Another criticism huge profits was invested 258

the

: on its

It

64

operated

notion

the mining

1918

per cent This declined

82

tiny part

Britons

them

,

1986

(

Lipton

of

abroad was

shares In

foreigners most

and

militarily

1924

.. .in for the





so

;

of

per cent

stage

and 1922

1914

state

emphasis

471 author

80 :

'(

63 At this

a

.. .

all of

,

the

of "

securing institutionalised minimum privileges

Between

various elements

which were suppressed

called Pact government consensual order forged around

1996

of

:

a

violently contested strikes

position

see

colonial elites rather than

electorate

consensual order pushed

population into two serious armed rebellions

Africanist

1994

central South African

competing

the overwhelming white

of

broad consensus

1922 this absence

The creation

compromise between

job

on a



an

important point

tenuous

of

a

on

1910 rested

election

see Clark

. ).

Meara makes

'

O

62

discriminatory and repressive policies

9 6

also section

its

and to implement

43

3

292

striking illustration

strength

of

this

the

regards

of

Yudelman

'a

69

as

.

parliament

the structural

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH

shaping the development of the increasingly interventionist South African

factors

from

R12

in

of

J . H

of

's

companies made

see

of 6

to

)

in

1930

that level until 1940

33 ,

percentage

also

(

a

as

(

,

million

2

( or

R3

in

in

90

the mining

the

in

,

,

to

in

,

48

1940 and R25

)

in

(

,

and remained

ordinary per cent

Hancock

new

long

joined Jan

.

'

'

in

the

into

of

,

.

at

wages As relatively order create more jobs for whites the days Pact the public sector and subsidised manufacturing industries were pressurised to

in

the civilised labour policy

of

commitment

'

The Fusion

low to

its

.

,

of

jobless Afrikaners went

poor white problem Young Afrikaners who effect profitably employed

' in

,

of

.

the

solving

1934 onwards created thousands

from

The employment

a

economic growth

'

's

R16

the gold mines

per cent

war were also government maintained

Smuts

industry

at

,

the gold

from

white and black workers

way towards

1932

.)

)

in

1935

voted

the entrenched

1973

of

:

for

The acceleration

from

5 8

.

)

R21 million

betrayal

both working capital and shareholder profits

The revenue

increased

and Van der Poel

on

Despite the higher taxes

state revenue

Smuts

the

1910

increased

decades after 1933 ( or

.

of

gold

of

in

the constitution

extraordinarily large profits

jobs

(

old

of

.

.

71 72

1950

FS

act They were bitterly critical

1936



,

of

-

Hofmeyr

The price

73

African

against the principles

74

South

and aggravated the already serious economic situation Eleven members the SAP including Malan and

,

currency

retention

the

against

speculation

scale

the world

)

.

The government

's

off large

triggered

the metal

in

confidence

its

demonstrate standard

discipline and financial

the main gold producing country

as

,

should

fundamentalist viewpoint that

stability

,

unmistakable symbol

probity and that South Africa gold

the conservative

,

case

-

an

convertibility was

gold

of

its

The government based

on

' (1983 : 243 ) .

state 70

IMPERIALISM

.

of

to

, in

In

).

:

,

but also

would lead

the

migrant labour

,

in

which 230

would

Committee had not even effect called for the

264

).

the

' ‘

Natives themselves

,

1983

:

the

1946 strikes

Meara

'

O

see

this

,

To

.

the chamber alleged that

ended

the 1930s

keep African mine workers

of

,

'.

the

of

on

foreign labour hoping that

with mechanisation

the AMWU before

system

407

the Lansdowne Commission that

(

read the demands

1986

the gold mines

Presumably the Gold Producers

be

be

suspended

the

.

of

use

the

In

.

curtail the

mines proceeded

oppose

migrant labour

Lipton

Africa south

total migrant labour

late 1930s the ANC requested the government and

,

gold

to

to

should

low see per

50

73 (



1950

in

a

year

wages but the request was rejected

the proposal

When rejecting be

76

,

subservient the

to

Mines

it

increase

the first

80

of of

the economy

of

an

to

-

to

other sectors the Chamber

system

per cent

foreign migrants not only kept wages

in

of

,

the use

60

In

.

rising

the

establish

of

needed

monopsonistic migrant labour system that covered almost half Sahara 1931 migrant workers constituted cent force

on

of

's

the help

it

with

In

.

a

shift

.

low

industry

recommendation that

The real wages Africans the period government until 1960 this the

cents

all

mining

gold

4

raised

exceptionally

gold mines remained the

Mine Natives Wages Commission by

Africans

be

CM

rejected the

of

In

75

1934 the

provided

an

of .

the economy

weak sector the wages

of

to

in

'.

'

to

giving preference civilised labour The uneconomic protection local manufacturing and agriculture meant that these sectors were unable compete especially world markets At the end the 1930s the manufacturing sector was

293

PART 77

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3:

and foreign

,

the economic growth rate averaged

In 1933 – 73 – when

per cent, and both local

4 5

made huge profits - African workers were

cruelly exploited

so

try

investors

as

.

to

-

,

to

justify this that even the staunchest proponent of liberal capitalism should not According Legassick what neo classical economists euphemistically describe

:

(

'

of the

its

of

).

– 7

256

in



'

in

of

'

'

of

-

'

profit retention self financing and high rates fact represent the reinvestment capital accumulation from the forced African labour economy Harris 1975

by

to

it

).

as

.

8

;

10

a

,

be

,

-

as a

in

).

4

:

see

(

43 –

to a a

,

for on

-

the

-

27

in

to

19

of

of

the

of

13

of



the

:

from

the South African

-

).

,

in

the



-

.

– 9

000

The

in

)

1946

years

Africans

,

involving

58

1930

in

:

268

African minewokers in

of

to

of

the increase may have

who were not subject

Legassick 1974b

304 strikes

the

).

Africans

blacks

in

of

In

.1 ).

8

in

Much

.

than

,

,

of

).

:

(

areas were employed

urban

),

of

(

:

(

38

record number

little more than the

the war the number

250 000

but declined

1945

mid 1930s the number

(

to

the end

extra economic coercion

coloureds and Indians Posel 1991

105

, 24

to

(

in

table

per cent

was about 100 000

-

saw

1994

African wages were less than

1940

which included the massive strike

also

in

of

an

or

,

.

.

1948

-

of

salaries see Clark

million Africans

By

.

the

artificial wage structure that resulted

in



of for

manufacturing

Most

a

45

in

',

to

sector

1684 915 African man hours were lost against 171 088

-

agriculture increased

of

,

this

assumed power in

NP

While

(

– 9

In

1936

labour narrowed the gap between white

among coloureds and Indians rather

the same forms

294

GDP

mining declined

weak

figure increased

1

of

whites

and

African

manufacturing industry had increased

1939

and R918

.) especially

an

(

in

of

per

20

of

demand

mining and domestic service

84

per cent

contribution

wages

manufacturing

white wages

blacks employed

1940

R1 600

10

: . see

19

.

to

per

,

was

,

in

in

,

increase

sharply after the

been

and those

most striking features were low average productivity per worker the per head employees was about half that factory workers

and African wages

number

year

402

1986

white workers earning the bulk

cent

white workers were

same period the contribution

Canada and New Zealand

The sharp

Posel 1991

the mines earned R100

increased from

Lipton

production

Australia

head plunging

).

-

(

in

Its

.

of

value

83

cent

that stage manufacturing

economy

a

and incoherence

per cent while

,

At

82

1951

13

from

per cent

During

per cent to

15

per cent

409 manufacturing 1986

of

80

in

The contribution

pro

.

ambiguity

The figures

R250

Lipton

serious

Stallardists won the argument long standing African labour brought

-

into

pro

,

wartime demand

At

's

Although the

this stage African migrant labourers

respectively

anti

and

while the latter regarded African urbanisation

and anti Stallardist factions within the NAD

policy

manufacturing

Black

involve

,

growth

economic

the department

The former regarded African urbanisation

supremacy

1937 the extraordinary

conflicts between

rift developed between pro

for

for

essential

12



.

in

theNAD

white political

to

threat

helped

patronage

163 see also section

1996

While the legislation was being drafted Stallardist factions

81

Rich

:

to

it

few

suspend itself

of

79

decided

Native

dialogue about native policy and blunt more radical years the NRC proved disappointment and August (

.

a

demands Within

dispense

in a

African political leaders

ability

to

.

)

(

's

Act The department

Native

1946

)

(

78

The NAD policy indirect rule over Africans reached zenith when Representative Council NRC was created Representative the 1936

for

the

,



';

to

)

(

,

whites

table

This was the first time black workers had seriously

in

:

'

to

to

.

strident reimpose

speaking

itself was deeply

)

-

(

its

defuse

nor

divided

.

'. O '

of

claims that the

also

the war

and predominantly English

UP

Meara

white

after

,



,

(

on

for

'

O

constituency

behalf

to a

immediately

years

the

government was able neither Meara the change and restore stability through reform African demands ideological control

in

in

;

:

in

,

the industrial relations

266

led

a

in

racially

government policies

manufacturing

Davenport and Saunders 2000 progressive divided society

1986

in

to

Cameron

challenged

UP

of

According

UP

'

paralysis

struggles

class

).

– 8

Rising

Stadler

(

since 1920

Africans

(

those

the gold mines were lower

. ).

the

of

of

wages

8 1

while

of on

migrant workers

1911

in

per cent

17

, of

-

on

,

In

.

1970 were only 86

English

the legally entrenched and ultra exploitable migrant labour

real terms the wages

1971 than they had been

357

the

especially the mining industry was formally opposed but nevertheless maintained the repressive

sector

labour economy based

system

argument

and discriminatory legislation

apartheid

system

heyday was in Oppenheimer thesis

the



was propagated

economic determinism speaking corporate

as

85 During the 1950s and 1960s – when apartheid

IMPERIALISM

ie

its

THE SYSTEMIC PERIOD OF BRITISH

The

puts

on

:

'

(O

the

, of

is

a

,

of to

no

a

NP

on

of

to

(

-

'

,

of

in

as

a

the

in

.. .

is

'.

,

of

,

of

the state

's

,

it

basic system

controlled labour Marais quoted

very cheap

response

of

a

of

.

for

looked

imperial mother country of

the

the field

in

the real terrain beyond the confines

of ”

,

in the

century

South

for

in

faith

)

.

of

major reason the failure power state after Union 1996 61

:

the nature

benign

'(

understand

a

'

and was undoubtedly

a

,

provided the basis of

to

tradition

for

). this

parliamentary gradualism leaders

number

Africa was formed

lay “

CPSA

the

)

like

overseas

in

political authority (

at

the late 19th and early 20th

.. .

in

the

: of ‘ in

of

missions

Union had

South

10

, :

Rich

'(

According

to

the time

way the political terrain

conflict that also extended

1996

)

Worker militancy

not only indicated the but forshadowed the extreme repression after

the violence

Black political leaders

others

class

African state

(

90

landmark

).

,

.. .

of

trained

For

international

black

capitalism

African

portrayed

better working conditions challenged

felt threatened

follows

source

Britain

commonly

12

as

:

it

Some leaders the ultimate

in

and

that

different conceptions

many

.. .

,

'

, ‘

an

on

of

's to

(

'

89

which

strike

South

abundant supply

remark

2001

Rich puts

crisis

a

,

'

O

1948

the 1946 miners

higher wages

that pivoted Meara degree

a

).

Marais

event announcing support

to

17

-

114

to

88

:

1994

According

white minority

task was complete what already existed that kind while taking growing volume repress non white protest Davidson to

,

additional measures

that

power came 1948 way install systemic

of

of

- -

but only

When the

apartheid

full blooded

discrimination

Afrikaner

its

speaking

whether English program

their people into the helots and servants or

of

the transformation

since the 1880s

ancient and stable rural communities and

in



:

South Africa

dispossession and eventual destruction

.. .

The history

follows

as

it

87

).

He



229

30

.

an

economic policy

on

African political rights but also fundamental questions political escalating The result was crisis Meara 1983

the question

of

only

of

on

,

of

wartime restructuring South African capitalism and the intensified class struggles provoked growing produced which this conflict within the capitalist class itself not

295

PART

3:

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

91 Rich puts

it as

follows: ‘Missionary - educated Africans

in the Cape enthusiastically

embraced parliamentary government and continued to assume well into the 20th century that racially discriminatory legislation would be ultimately reversed through

296

a

in

of

indicates that the

as

lie )

did the

by

[

African elite

of

:

1996

'(

missionary evangelisation

62 ).

a

in

,

of

this commitment

under the 1854 constitution [of

Cape liberal tradition sphere not only but also fundamental restructuring African society

century

processes

economic

result

19th

the rights secured

to protect

The tenacity

.. the

roots

if necessary

of

Cape

of ) .

the

intervene

parliament would

believed that the British

the

( parliamentary ] means . Many also

Chapter

v

9

The systemic period of the political hegemony of the Afrikaner establishment

by three major ideological paradigm

racial attitudes towards blacks .

of which hardened

onwards , when evangelical humanitarianism

hamite liberal utilitarianism

occurred during the last quarter

the

, when

century

19th

The

ideologies

racial

the

from

second

upsurge

Social

and white superiority

.

Darwinism

religiously oriented

Nationalism

from

and

aggressive and

the

1930s onwards

racist ideology during the NP

implementation

's

of

The third

.

shift involved the rise

Afrikaner Christian

and the hardening

declined

of ,

regrettable

and

an

a

period when Cape liberalism

-

perhaps most

in

liberal capitalism

segregationism –

this ideology was supplemented

due course

, ,

In

of

was legitimised

imperialism

British

of racial superiority .

and notions

,

was replaced by Bent

by

# 1840

shifts

first occurred

The

of

each

history is marked

South African history

in

of

South African

shifts

of

Three major paradigm

. 1.

by

9

– 94 )

the

( 1948

of

. , 9 3

a

in

be the

NP in

power

the apartheid

the

of

black protest

the implosion

in

will

the second

be

and perpetuating apartheid

half

the apartheid regime

-

to

a

prelude

labour

The important role played

of

. in . ‘ 9 7

The radicalisation

.

respectively

these two unfree

of

of

.

9 6

.5

and

a

,

discussion

discriminatory

final section

.

discussed

in

be

the 20th century

will

crisis

repressive and

both

manufacturing

as

section



discussed

and

new

section

. . the

section

state corporations in

by

intensification

9

follows

patterns

discussed

section

apartheid regime

in

measures

by

Because

discussed

will

government institutionalised

9 4

section

of

in

regime

be

will

Nationalism

Christian

which the

in

The manner

constellation

of

Afrikaner

the

. .

9 2

The rise

of

.

apartheid after 1948

297

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

PART

3

The rise of Afrikaner Christian Nationalism , and the hardening of racist ideology

.2

9

When , and

a

1934

in

, Hertzog

NP broke

section of the

, Dr

and Smuts decided on Samesmelting

Party (G /NP ). This caused

away

form

to

the

D

F

Malan

Gesuiwerde (Purified ) National

so

sharp division in Afrikaner circles between the

a

called Hertzogiete and Malaniete (Herzogites and Malanites), which triggered

to in

of of

'

to

the mobilisation

prior conflicts within

section

of

.

, a

the

Afrikaners were

by

dangers

a

of

the as NP

in

swart

creating the

In

.

this way

portraying Afrikaners

the first was their exploitation

the second the uncivilised

'

and

by

,

of

Afrikaner culture being swamped



and foreign capitalism

an

:

double onslaught

by

by

ie ' , ),

'-

a

of

other population groups

British

of

the

to

. Afrikaners

and exaggerating

ethnic power

British colonialism

'

of

-

During

the idea that the existence and interests

by

a

'



'

external

victimisation

below

as

a

2

of of ).

.

,

. ).

7 4

Certain

Anglo Boer War also helped

the

injustices done

,

in



the

of ,

alleged

mobilising Afrikaner

'



from

losing their land

Afrikaner ideologues succeeded

of (





danger

during the process

ʻblack swamping

wrongful victims above

the

larger

between

Afrikaner propagandists

Afrikaner volk were endangered

from

Afrikaners

the latter

section

impoverishing

and foreign capitalism

syndrome

ch

'(

,

obfuscated

oorstroming

succeeded

and especially

in

in

their role

overemphasising

imperialism

20th

the 1930s and 1940s

the

deliberately

By

of

,

ethnic power

by

to

pests droughts

Afrikaner society

and

intense during the last quarter

predominantly rural Afrikaners

impoverish

Afrikaner

proletariat

urbanised

see

an

as

factors such

notables

internal struggle

smaller ones leading (

in

to

the detriment

and becoming

small elite

some larger landowners consolidated their economic

when

and

the

position

the

protracted

19th century and the first quarter

modernisation

which

1996

far more

they referred

least two thirds

century and was particularly

the 18th

towards

young

over control over land and black labour This struggle

and smaller landowners began

(c

result

Meara

into

omprising a

was largely

Afrikaners

of

)

1930s

large underclass the

relatively

see

at

of



Afrikaner Christian Nationalism

nationalism

of

group

new

A

party

:

which

aggressive and exclusive version The stratification

guided

of Afrikanerdom .

or soul

very intense . the

/NP was

,

G

'

the

emerged

a

of

the ranks

in

intellectuals

urban

debate about the true nature

of

The polemic

ie

unprecedented

an

O

off

of

,

'

purity

the reverse side

of

Consequently

as

.

with ostensibly inferior indigenous races 298

the ethnic

protecting this purity against miscegenation

,

imperative

emphasise



Afrikaner ideologues

oorstroming

of

Afrikaners and

the

of it

became expedient

to

growing African urbanisation fuelled fears for

1940s

as

, .

the

In

African majority

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY OF THE AFRIKANER

Afrikaner

of aggressive

explicit and insulting version of racism apartheid . The NP regarded

.

the

.

,

by

to

of

for

'

.

,

. to

.

.

,

NP

to

ever

embracing movement

see

For many

(

it .

rule

an

its

,

NP

NP

an

of

')

in

that had preceded

an

a

to to

perpetuate

.

sick

apartheid

society

The conversion

relatively wealthy

of

this

was

one happened

to its

that uncritically Afrikaners

from

a

,

establishment became notorious for

in

a

institutionalised and defended

harnessed

the volksbeweging went seriously



Afrikaner

self righteousness

relatively poor group into

Afrikaners

'

the

of

,

its

)

alia

;

uncritical

carried away

political power

political and bureaucratic power

it

Inter

became

rule

power

1

ch

sectional interests

,

.

wrong

power and

-

promote

misused

system

and

suppress and exploit blacks

.

the

the

With the NP

in

1975

:

Moodie

volksbeweging

party had risen

political power

the

important

-

racist laws

played

the perpetuation

Afrikaner

greater degree than the white governments

Afrikaners

;

,

-

of

of

,

's

,

and

constitutional to

plethora

of (“ the

manipulated

movement

all

of

the proper use

the volksbeweging

of

a

and passed

it

;

grand scale

exclusively

of

the emotional élan a

on

by

Without

that

any experience

1948

turn blacks into

exploiting blacks

from

, of

first time

This was the

benefit

people

victory

election

an

the NP

's

in

role

to

.

volksbeweging

Afrikaners

had captured political power

After Afrikaners

their turn had come

The Afrikaner

attain

their wealth and realised that the latter

-

by

-

economic measures

cheap and docile labour force

the British

their promised land Many

and

had become wealthy

extra

space

'

aims

economic

using

and

accompanying this

racism

Afrikaners envied English speakers

many believed

of

.

.

The

for

and

out

ethnic power

create the

,

political

order

in

allegedly inferior indigenous races attain their

NP

example

end namely maintaining the subordination to

an

to

a

means

for

Afrikaner nationalism was

mobilisation

,

also

of

. the

-

on

ideology

political power and especially greater wealth ideology was

other whites they

injustices meted

the

,

end namely

,

to

an

-

means

a

Consequently

.

speakers

the

's

and English

Some

only were their

Afrikaners and English speakers

backlog

economic

Afrikaner

racism

Not

other whites

the economy than English speakers

propaganda incited hostility between blamed the former

version

capita income lower than those

in

a

lesser role

crystallisation

accompanying

Afrikaners felt deeply inferior

educational levels and also played

role

by

permeated

of

and

per

'

'

backward

its

Nationalism

,

Christian

capitalism

major

a

factors played

Economic

,

people with dubious moral standards

as

materialistic and egotistic values

to

ethnic groups as heathen

be Christianised and civilised by Afrikaners . White English - speakers

were portrayed

really

an

into the policy of

crystallised

in

to

, which

ideologues formulated

the different African

of

nations

, NP

nationalism

to

the coin

ESTABLISHMENT

the surprisingly 299

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3:

PART

of

short period

25 years. It has been

claimed that Afrikaner business was

largely responsible for uplifting Afrikaners economically – ie , that Afrikaners

had pulled themselves up

.

a in

,

a

'

were shocked

mushrooming urban shanty towns

.

the

NP

'

in

labour

urban areas

,

The Sauer commission report

1947

in

to

its

which

the growing racial

'

'

solution

published

a

,

and recommended

,

,

]

commission

it

,

UP

see

.

of

of of

for

.

example

an

prime

of

a

the

of

of

the –

It

is

'

the pinnacle

political

Afrikaner self delusion -

,

and represented

zeal

development

nine African ethnic groups

of

of

to

with evangelic

separate

apartheid

sovereignty and

, ‘

was propagated

Afrikaner

tried

legitimise

advent

of

the British

the

the late 19th century

to

. . ).

9 5 2

see section

policy

each

and foreign

the system

national

to

granted separately

ideological travesty

he

,

ideology

the upliftment

that the policy

announced

non racist



with the

notion

imperialism

British

.

This ideology

realise that

adequate justification

-

.

would

who had become prime

Verwoerd

victims

Consequently

Verwoerdian be

freedom

replaced to

be

According

Dr

,

longer

power and privilege would

the alleged an

no

-

as

of

was

Hendrik

was astute enough



1958



capitalism

In

in

,

the

native policy

the 1950s

poor Afrikaners

(

of

from

programme

the

.5 ). the in

At

end

of

minister

300

NP . [

of

reaction apartheid the

African

a

's

stabilisation

the

9

in

conflict inherent

1948

was horrified

the Fagan

African urbanisation

’,

the NP

formulated

section

.

'

strong

a

provoked

When

' s '

the

facilitating

of

policy

inevitability the

emphasised

black urbanisation and the

oorstroming

as

of

alleged dangers

of

,

However both Afrikaner farmers and urban workers were distressed economic implications

their

by

Africans

lowering

by

UP

of

a

as

(

means

further

by

of

poor living conditions

and among the

favoured

protective segregation

favour

and the

.

:

'

O

.

the industrialists

in

those

in

the Transvaal the

rapid black urbanisation

of '

),

shift

(

by

(

it

While

influx control and job reservation in

of

social forces that supported

the

historic

themselves with smaller Afrikaner farmers

which widened the already deep differences within the

production costs

The support given

urban industrialists

prosperous farmers represented

the

farmers during the

(

interests

and

in

of

the

in

the rural constituencies

Afrikaner petit bourgeoisie see Meara 1996 The other major issue during the election was

relaxation

of 1938

27 – 37 )

It

.

the elections

was the first time that wealthy farmers

associated

')



neglected

,

.

of

Afrikaner circles notables

strong support

generation

new

1948

in

NP

/

to

the

G

in

favour

. During

was unexpected

However

OFS

and

the

Transvaal war

1948

UP retained

'

of

1943 , the

of

a

its

's

The NP

There is

victory

'

degree of truth to this .?

it

of 1948 .

victory

own bootstraps before the NP s election

by their

the New

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY OF THE AFRIKANER

terms of Social Darwinism races ,

of other as well as a indigenous people . of

people

segregationism

inferiority

British /English tried hand ,

the one

.

differences But

these

strands were

The similarities between the ideologies with which the

on the other ,

plunder

plunder

and their economic

which Afrikaners

with

those

and economic

sectionalism

the supposed

on

ideological

legitimise their imperialism

to

and the

on

.

based

over

tried

legitimise their

to

perhaps

greater than the

differences are nonetheless important We can identify

.

of

half

the 20th century

Both

superiority

by the local English establishment during the first

and propagated

maintained

and their alleged

at

in

are

Imperialism

ESTABLISHMENT

surrounding British

.

so

in

to



of ,

high

moral values

(

a

as

as of

typical response

By contrast the Afrikaner

,

.

petit bourgeoisie trying

to

a

into the

political

attain

the first time

propagated

formulated and

their double barrelled

-

British

of

in

downward spiral

Providence



)

by

by –

prescribed

.

for

and economic power

,

task

regard the British ideological onslaught

ideological onslaught was typical the

belief

Afrikaner churches that they

and instilling

civilisation

a

,

a

supported

other population groups including the English

great world power

Finally

the British

)

Christian

we can

Third

role

,

Afrikaners

(

a

claim

of all

members

explain

these considerations were not nearly

divinely chosen people with the

promoting

of

divinely chosen people

of

as

the

German

Afrikaner political thinking

,

were

a

explicit

1930s helps

the 1920s and

Second while religious considerations played that they were

were exposed

.

herrenvolk ideas

rather

Afrikaner nationalism

in

of

the influence

and Verwoerd

Nazi propaganda during

and

on

philosophy

,

,

Dr Piet Meyer

a

.

Dr

-

Nic Diederichs

the key ideologues

of

of

in

Afrikaner superiority and black inferiority they did

clumsy way The fact that some

the

English ideas a

While Afrikaners undoubtedly imitated

of

and subtle than the blatant and almost crude propaganda

Afrikaner establishment respect

more

to

sophisticated

English superiority was

/

First the propaganda

far

, .

least four

ideology about British superiority and indigenous inferiority before World while Afrikaners formulated their ideologies about Afrikaner superiority the

of

.

in

,

it

is

.

its

it

What

cultural support

say

if

long Needless

it

got away with their crude and

,

so

opinion

were not

great powers such

as

economic

and

the large scale

-

for

post war world

that the NP and Afrikaners

unwarranted ideological propaganda

the 1950s and 1960s

to

its

grain

ideological propaganda

the

the

racist policies

for

remarkable

is

went completely against

NP launched

When the

most important

brought ideas about racial

in

and institutionalised

was that

.

the 1940s

.

into disrepute

,

superiority

Nazism

Perhaps one

-

's

war against Hitler

of

the

result

of

and aborigine inferiority during and after

it

, 2

War

301

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

PART

3

States , Germany , and Japan gave South Africa during the for

second half of the century , the apartheid regime would not have lasted

46

, the United

Britain

a

-

the

to

it

,

of

as

of

of

the

.





a

of

a

,

,

NP

.

the

,

“ the



,

'



to

It

.

,

',

and toyed

introducing

of

that the

victory

the

non

Although

.

NP

NP

a

.

in

is

It

the secret

the war

control

panic after the

government and the English business sector )

.

mining industry

state and

'

the NP did not restructure

or

the gold

The symbiosis between

maintained with little adaptation after 1948

until

Afrikaner government



the contrary

,

On

system

some

foreign

the

During

mines and

the

the

a

NP

in



the capitalist

replace

therefore understandable

economic order and nationalise

unfounded

control

continuity

socialist order

English establishment that

.

be

new

of

(

the

fear

whereby

processes

the rhetorical level and occasionally hostile

.

capture

to

would create proved

especially

a

,

1960s

the

state

single

responsible for the anti

almost completely

then

was

the relationship between remained tense

.

-



establishment

agricultural economy

sharing

of

profit

on

of

system

English

a

to

of

,

the gold

idea



radical ideas about nationalising

forward

notion

was mainly

the NP

an

of

attitude

of )

the

(

-

pro socialist

grand

5

-

that was originally

Afrikaner

statutory

of

the

:

'(

a

)

and even

the

1991

had

she notes there was

socio economic order

new

AB

capitalist



extent



’.

, of

Broederbond

(

Afrikaner

with

Posel

government the NP failed conspicuously

put

workers

urban

mean that the

Nevertheless

apartheid

capitalism with

spokesmen

farmers and

Deborah

4

,

the

in of

system

taken

exaggerating

planning involved madness

in

Once

be

.

'

method

to

Afrikaners

aims According

apartheid was built greatly and long term

alleged

comprehensive welfare policy for

fundamentally misrepresents the political

master plan

to

.

to

of

Two groups

The third

special governmental support programmes

its

for attaining

a

in

in

implementing

the

the Afrikaner

racial integration

poor white Afrikaners and remedy

This threefold agenda should not plan

process

to

for

.

uplifting Afrikaners

and adapt

ensure the purity



the past

were identified

of

by

injustices

problem

restructure

Afrikaner volkskapitalisme implement the policy apartheid

order

',



solve

of

to

the

volk and defuse the conflict inherent

was

`

a

The second was

the native problem

to

solution

socio economic

new

first was

The

system

a

(

').

ʻnational capitalism

a

creating

to

to

so

free Afrikaners from

the Afrikaner volk

create

foreign capitalism

,

needs

items

had three main



of

economy

as

.

order

This agenda

ie

s

agenda before the 1948 election was

).

NP '

9

.3

The NP government and the institutionalisation new power constellation

The

302

of

.

years

capital was

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY

,

Afrikaners were

expanding Afrikaner

system

to

.

by

its

of

racial

growing Afrikaner state bureaucracy

policy the NP built mammoth a

,

control not only the movement

Africans

.

,

its

apartheid

of

order

plethora

,

(

at

during the mining revolution the

system

was well adapted

apartheid with

to

system

on

mainly based

its

migrant labour and the compound

segregation

(

the system

agriculture and the emerging

(

While

of of

to

sector

.

Afrikaner industrial

demands

of )

meet

the

of

order

9 6

and

. ).

on

and discriminatory laws was put the statute books see controlling Much the political legislation was aimed

in

.

9 5

of

black labour

also

taken

of

and

growing a

a

dynamic

but

embourgeoisement

but also their living and working patterns and their intellectual lives sections

NP ,

a

problem

to

rapid

)

too

'

poor white

A

organisational structure segregationist

the

's by

to

of

of

's

.

to

the

.

of

:

),

The lucrative

public sector and parastatals not only

(

to

multitude

).

implementing in

the course

and

NP

the

and

of

by

(

controlled

creation

the English corporate sector and

sector

the

drive towards statism

The bureaucracy was also

the 20th century

an

in

(

controlled

In

by

'



controlled

corporate

advance

the security

uplift Afrikaners

probably

two vehicles

to

in

of

the third quarter

-

the

.

the

of

the rapid

NP

'

in

contributed considerably

capitalism

of .

),

the

.

-

all

developed

including

strict control

The

of

-

by

system

the remnants

their promised land

of

,

)

at

the same time

employment opportunities created

Afrikaners

corporations

’ it .

state departments

the private sector and

the welfare

out almost

the more

-

to

use that system

were brought under

NAD

stimulation

shaped

but

the Transvaal

state and semi state bodies and institutions

enlarged



of

'

-

of ‘

all

,

the

'

the



involved

almost

politicised

and

not

farmers and Afrikaner

NP

the

.

ten

departments and

racial capitalism

restructuring

Afrikaner agenda instead years

insight

The NP

nature

capitalist oriented economy was growing

may also have convinced the

Afrikanerised

was far more advantageous

from

-

(

The fact that



the

in



mainly

(

in

the

was more important

government were probably

and already capitalist oriented

Within

Africans

order

government the NP discovered that the

anti Afrikaner

new

AB

policies

the Western Cape

strongly

white hegemonic

the

staying power and dynamic momentum the

the

,

in

Once

supposedly

firebrand ideologues pragmatic

maintenance

and white

state

with the responsibility

confronted

African capitalism

South

its

the

than

demonstrates

.

'

of

/



racial character

of

,

the

squabble

Boer Brit

Secondly

was

the structural subjugation

which entailed

Afrikaners

the

white Afrikaner

of

.

soon

realised that

it

government

the

As

English capital

NP

the symbiosis between as

underpinning

wiped

ESTABLISHMENT

should

perhaps

new

THE AFRIKANER

we explain the NP 's volte -face on this key issue ? Firstly, it is another example of the strength of the structural and racist factors

How

than

OF

labour needs

comprehensive

303

3

:

, SEGREGATION ,

COLONIALISM

control over Africans

urban areas ) was developed

in

industrial revolution . Verwoerd industries

the

from

AND APARTHEID

developed the abortive

onwards

1960s

in

, but this was doomed

territorial segregation with industrialisation

'reconcile ' the very

from

.

beginning

of economic growth was maintained

very high rate

A

1960s. During the heyday

of

in the 1950s and the racial disparity

and racial capitalism

state

. ).

.

in

of

of

10

10 4

,

.3

. ). fiscal

its

,

used

social spending

policy significantly

redistributive

and

implementing

In

of

(

.

to

', -

NP

the

,

improved

the poorer two thirds

favouritism

was even more

ie

.

the past

and increase

the Afrikaner petit bourgeoisie

economic position

of

of

kind

This

and the further

sections

social upliftment

or

of '

Afrikaners

Afrikaners

English speakers

tax wealthier

this period

solve the poor white problem and

of

powers

affirmative action

to

its

policy

Afrikaners

see

in

the NP

remedy the alleged injustices done

10 8

concentration

The

Afrikaners

Africans

agenda was

to

on

item

's

a

The third

the embourgeoisement

and impoverishment

proletarianisation

the hands



economic and bureaucratic decisive role

zenith

power

the early 1970s

in

reached

in

undoubtedly

in

of

Apartheid

its

ratio between white and African incomes became much larger (see table

played

the

of border

system

attempt to

desperate

a

of

suit the interests

to

the on

PART

the

,

types

Afrikaner

favouritism

contracts

,

quotas

and

sorts

of

.

fishing

mining of

government

Afrikaner liquor

and

inside

valuable

the 1950s and

Meara has made

'

O

white business

.

good for

all

be

.

1960s Apartheid proved

in

not only Afrikaner business that profited

,

,

was however

to

It

allocations

Examples

champion

.

,

concessions

the

all

were

, of

of

a

of

favouritism information

unbridled Afrikaner capitalism

an

' fate

in

uplifting poor

Afrikaner haute bourgeoisie was created which quickly became system

late 1950s

emerging

and

generous

of

ideological

farmers

it



,

a

richer

extraordinarily

Through

of

of

from

and

,

.?

entrepreneurs

curious twist

enriched

the

helping

towards

whom

of

emphasis shifted away

Afrikaners

In

.

a

in

spectacularmanner

Afrikaners

aim

's

the

Afrikaner

the

NP

empowered

policy

the upper layers

to

advantageous

the

of

However

NP

, .

Afrikaners

304

from

in



no

81 ). “

system

while continuing

of

The hypocrisy

ugly

'

:

the

to

itself



criticising the

important cause

of

[s ] “

interference

1996

'(

' in

partly created

NP

]

he

]

to

]

[

workers wages

establishment was

the

of

benefit handsomely

from

by

and apartheid

black

profit

an

the English



segregation

and raise their

it

free market

displayed

by ”



liberal businessman who declined

[

[

,

-



the important point that although English speakers may have had moral and anglophile theoretical qualms about the NP racial policy know

continued friction

OF THE AFRIKANER

and English -speakers.

between Afrikaners

the

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY

During

ESTABLISHMENT

1950s and 1960s South

,

a

to

."

of

in

, ,

to

),

(

of

,

to

to

of

,

the

NP

an

its

the

those

of

culture

of .

economic

as

on

NP

the

of

-

NP

in

.

.

in

so

'

.

unhealthy process

,

The

create

mechanisation

a

's

Verwoerd

programme

to

,

part

and cheap African labour

in

'

,

an as

favouritism

explicitly favoured

haute bourgeois

sector did not become

and

especially

system

a

in

its

in

,

the political

increasing by

in

succeeded

was

liberation

against the apartheid by

,

of

.

of NP

society Protest

However success

a

and PAC

.

the ANC

of

racist character

civil

accumulation

the century

Although the

broader

purpose

times but was effectively suppressed

at

for

.

the

by

,

as

questioned

became violent

policy

of

on

.

of

parliamentary majority organisations such

Afrikaner

state and capital attained

legitimacy was mixed

increasingly

secure higher prices

capitalist farmers remained vulnerable

spectacular manner during the third quarter

terms

the

agricultural capitalism

this support the agricultural

self sustainable

The symbiosis

this way

became

prevent African

15

Despite

of -

independent

stimulated all

'

.

agriculture

14

'

white

economy

victory

election

1954 the maize price

applying

credit subsidies

interest rates introduced

or

low

to

,

their industrial counterparts most their dependence

In

3

the ranks

Although their ideological orientation

of

was nurtured

favouritism

farmers

.'

more efficient

in

and

,

,

subsidies Land Bank loans and

larger

due

a

in

But

of

almost

per cent

.

50

by

,

, ie

-

rose

and the

NP implemented

The

way

and



for

of

Agricultural Marketing Act 1937 such agricultural produce between 1950 example

of

(

the

cities

the

as

migrating

FCI

After taking office the

labour bureaux



from

the

powerful position

its

workers

Industries

sector

12

the

the maize farmers

extremely

the contrary

the English corporate

ASSOCOM

almost immediately reorganised

farm

South

).

).

an

in

them

),

(

by

Commerce

to

NP

demands

,

Chambers

The decisive role played 1948 placed

to

(

very sensitive

can

Afrikaner business

Despite popular opinion

SAAU

industry the Federated Chamber

of

Association

both public and private

of

NP

the

,

ie

the mining

than

the emerging

the AHI and the strongly Afrikaner oriented

African Agricultural Union remained

power

as

such

the strong bargaining

,

as

corporate sector

growing capitalist orientation

of

in

terms

the

terms

in

explained

organisations

FDImore

helping the poor towards favouring the rich

from

of

and partly

policy

of

NP

be

office

,

partly

Afrikaner

century

1960 and 1972

in

The shift

the third quarter

large and sustained

.

doubled between

the

capital

contributed

of

foreign

all

the gold price in

inflow

the rise

of

and

,

levels

of

.

of

supported

its

by

the large industrialised countries despite racist policies The intensified exploitation African workers high profit

Africa was strongly

system

harsh and effective

305

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

in

far

A

.

, the Its

.

,

a

the

in

,

the

In

of

, if

a

in

.

by

not

at

gaining

.16

the

mobilise electoral

60

.7

and 1992

The

per cent were

of

perpetuate

to

a

for

)

diabolical ways

white political supremacy

successive

11

win

typically



to to

NP

which

a

aims

)

into

of

to

NP

the

period

46

the

consolidate

realise the lofty NP

,

to

ie

by

from

received

1980s

the

.

it

-

,

at



a

(

which only whites

system

coloureds were

early

referendums between 1948

could vote was used cleverly but

control within the

long

deplorable

the

the

enabled

(

)

questionable

and three

system

after

These and other means

in

parliamentary Afrikaners

used

the media

for

until

least

-

to

general elections

easy

Another method

and morally

undemocratic

was

religious purpose

capture part

1956

from

parliamentary groups

the ideological support

'.



Christian Nationalism

support was

step

Namibia

Cape

senate

morally

( of

.

.

of

Afrikaners

first

citizenship

attain

laws were passed aimed

and extra

Given this

in

NP

society

churches

volksbeweging with

enlargement

Numerous

was also bolstered

great majority

Court

it

of

,

manner

control over civil

three Afrikaans

the Appeal

political rights

their

whites

in

to

representation

the

,

after

and

by

'

was halted

of

to

unconstitutional

The

of

as

roll

deprived

stronger

or

white political power

on

give parliamentary

constitutional struggle finally

African Unity

,

in

grip

remove coloured people living

to

in

1951

common voters

international

the party developed

the 1948 election

lengthen the period before immigrants could

attempt

NP

white

than

).

this direction was

and

small majority

about consolidating

obsession

other

9 8

NP

to

the

of

an

Owing

people

the United Nations and the Organisation

's .

see section

) (

(

OAU

such

more

own power base among white voters than about protests

the ranks

in

brewing

organisations

those years the NP was

In

,

about

concerned

of white supremacy was never

viability

until the mid - 1970s .

endangered its

seriously

in

. Consequently , the

system

its

security

of

3:

to

PART

.

years

,

306

in

an

69

banned the

,

the Nation

),

.

wing Umkhonto We Sizwe the Spear

the

of

off townships

people Once underground (

guerrilla

response

, .

)

,

,

the

PAC and arrested thousands

,

up

a

set

Vaal triangle during

campaign against the pass laws

the nationwide protest the government cordoned

ANC and

the

people

,

police shot dead

African township near Vereeniging Africanist Congress

period was triggered

In



1960

in

in

the Verwoerdian

of

Pan

(

/

ANC PAC

March

94 )

,

.

,

Sharpeville

to

legitimacy

the Sharpeville unrest

-

off

an

by

The most serious crisis

In

of

(

a

to

of

.4

9

of

The intensification the liberation struggle the survival crisis white supremacy and the transition negotiated settlement 1974

ANC

which

into

up

at

. ).

9 8

see

(

that turned

1960s

of

John Vorster

legislation

.18

the

,

in

of

a

the

end

police

the security

their

minister

formidable political force his

built

Vorster had

by

a

'

state

security

web

section

parliament

a

,

into

1964

of

's

.

Africa

South

police

life

assasination

Vorster created

police

'

,

Verwoerd

became primeminister

ESTABLISHMENT

leaders were rounded in

and incarcerated

following

1966

In

Rivonia

in

headquarters

of sabotage until

acts

for its

various

,

committed

OF THE AFRIKANER

As

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY

whites and blacks

,

power towards blacks Although

the

,

,

20

.

Without the

pack

a

new

of

to



,

failed

a

,

the

.

its

the

by

up

all

provide

dismally

cards

and

1974

,

in

in

by

'

in

,

from

the

Lisbon

,

to

South Africa

and

's

W

by

P

uhuru Africa and communist Angola The abortive invasion Botha to

the rest

the north

of of

in

coup

of

1974

African

in

.

to

in

of

support

the nascent strength

.

the continent

April

The protracted nature

of

for a

organise

of

penetration

trade

Angola and Mozambique broke

white colonial regimes

the white minority regimes

black

the economy

Durban struck illegally

the strikes demonstrated

.

exposed

sanitaire

white

1973 South African industry was shaken

African workers

subsequent independence

of

cordon

)



of In

of

1976

Lisbon

way that surprised even Africans The

of

the

'

·

labour power

in

support

that precipitated the

the downturn

General Spinola

.

of

June

of

état

1973

demands for higher wages and the right

wide

1976

to

(

crisis

'

d

oil

,

,

uprising

large numbers

Soweto

1973

from

survival crisis included the unlawful strike

1974 onwards the coup

and

facing

political and economic power

Desperate attempts

white rule

years

white regime managed

,

events

the OPEC

1973

in

unions

and

and

20

's

hegemonic order

the

shoring

structured

. of

the

early 1990s

The cluster

when

movement

liberation

legitimacy

justifications

the next

legitimacy the white hegemonic order collapsed like

necessary in

maintain

it

;

ideological

survival crisis

During

countries

.

to

but failed

from

for

ward

its

off

to

mounting offensive

western

1970s the

ideological power and enjoyed the

and

,

,

major

its

of

all

-

the

the victors

the early

well

took

of

a

support

economic

based

The

-

.

-

political

was

on In

the

of

mid 1970s were nonetheless decisive

white hegemonic order seemed invincible

in

and racial capitalism

power struggle stretching two decades before blacks emerged

integrated

changed

.

of

crisis also tilted the broader balance

and dramatically

as

both

shift

it .

a

profound paradigm

power relations within white political supremacy

well

the

the mid 1970s plunged the white hegemonic

.

of

ideological thinking

the events

in

in

events

-

to

dramatic

survival crisis This caused

a

order into

African protest

1973

in

of

series

A

1963

from

suppressing almost

.19

;

it

succeeded

all

's

.

brutal methods decade

,

to

suppress black protest but also which was used not only own nationalist opponents Vorster highly security system was authoritarian and employed

307

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

from

critical attitude

immorality

'

the

of

putting

in

succeeded

.

view

In the

the Carter administration

of

the United States and the increased hostility

Angola

in

the

and the Group

OAU

regime

apartheid

in

decade

,

half of

second

the

the

complicated the situation rather seriously

of Cuban troops the NP point of

77

and the resultant deployment

1975

of

in

the

in

army

of

3:

the

PART

a

prolonged

into

,

a

as

be

;

2

:

,

1992

to

sections

see also

10

(

long and

seated structural crisis for

deep

Schrire

in

Smit

a

,

of

racial capitalism

conducive

regarded

ch

to

cannot

normal cyclical downswing but represented the system

create conditions

stagflation

-

21

.

The long period

all

.

hegemonic order

the white

accumulation

and

,

the threat

see

(

if

(

in

of

militarist

The

liberation

a

after Soweto

.

took

not

22

Africa

South

.

in

disinvestment

the 1960s when

as

circles

southern

damaging

the awakening

than

the white hegemonic

to

During

of

community generally was

of

'

organisations programme

frontline states

'

from

the 20th century

as

unleashed

African

in

resistance

as

economic history

for the white hegemonic order

of

)

so

it

and the international

9

Africa

and

deteriorating

most decisive

the

off

's

The reaction

section

.8 ).

in

political

one

'

Africa

regarded

in

be

.

economic circumstances This must South

was partly caused

1976

the

June

in

uprising

The Soweto

by

.2 .3 ).

.2 .2

the

reinforced each other and nullified

struggle

liberation

of

attempts

3

downturn

recession turned

.

by

the intensifying

culture

and

that lasted until the 1990s The deteriorating economic situation and

stagflation

more

the

oil price hikes

the OPEC

international economy The South African

events

economy had moved into in

caused

1976

a

,

serious recession

Soweto uprising

of

Even before

by

the

.

international limelight

order was

million

The

six

.

of 9

,

R1701

1975

this period that the defence

total strategy

to

in

was

to

1971

/2

Angola debacle

'

establishment devised the ideology

It

table

23

1986

R345 million

:

Calitz

see

(

years later

from

of .) ' .

defence budget increased

the in

This insight was confirmed

15 6

.

real menace

by

.

in

be

,

an

identified internal one the police budget and security legislation enjoyed preference Early the 1970s the NP realised that external forces might the

counteract the alleged

, “

of

.

'

economic pretext for into

unholy

'

capital turning



state and

and

ward off

an

ideological

it s

Botha regime

to

W

P

,

symbiosis between

an

supplied

commonly mobilised electoral support

by

NP

'

,

noted earlier

the

As

'

in

blurred

.

attempt during the

which the normal dividing line between the two domains became

coalition

308

total strategy

but also became the key mobilising element

it

redefining

also

separate development

,

the

.

survival crisis

state

's

the apartheid

ideology

ideology

an

only functioned

as

's

Verwoerd

It

of

not

contrast

to

In



'

total onslaught against South Africa

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY OF THE AFRIKANER

campaign

the Soweto crisis was internationalised

and

any

the

of

,

',

'

'

In

the

as

(

in

of

to

),

JG

of

in

NP

of

aim

as

(

of

to

for

'

in

's

,

25

of

,

'

.

of

meeting

bureaucracy



the

strong



maintain

a

aimed

at

', to

The

the corporate

three partners its

and

was

policy package but also had vested

,

the

the

its

of

but

,

became staunch

hoping

that reformist policies would

.

’,

and

the

The first was the

establishments

loyal bureaucracy

,

in

of

a

.

'

,

on

at

reforms

rather odd

behalf

managerialism

Each

new

-

, a

in

to

an

in

the

of

'

of

a

centralised

of

on

formulated

reform

comprehensive

the securocrats

of

,

a

of of

of

)

(

direct vested

collaborate

the in

to

interests

of

.26

policy agenda state and capital began

,

Botha

the merits

ARMSCOR

operation between and overlapping

-

close

the business community developed

co

the

expansion

's

main partners

concessions would convince urban blacks

large part

in

A to

the

.

Owing

without falling

grievances that communist revolutionaries could exploit and also

-

in

interest

the early

total onslaught

and security

the other two Surprisingly

free market

that neo apartheid capitalism

military

specific aspect

'

supporters remove

policy

the process

a

the

,

of

in

each

forces

ensure the survival

business sector and the government

interested

interests

mixture

the government and

securocrats

1978

of

grip

existence

policy was three ingredients

.

managerial

of

-

of

.

the ambition

attempt

accumulation strategy

new

the dark

the overreaching purpose

counteracting the alleged

security interests

a

the



aimed

sector The third was

mainly



integrated

',

total strategy

the

give greater substance

neo apartheid

'

.

well

from

and

protecting

architects realised

'

NP ,

white hegemonic order This

second was

Malan

.

on

weighty moral arguments

and

had shifted

the eventual transition towards

strategy

for the first time justified

policy agenda was implemented

meeting

and thus

24

the

more important

as

all

of

the common interest

Shortly after Botha became prime minister

nonetheless

days

the

its

, , by

. -

of

racial

the

against

presenting the survival struggle

Also

government the

back

propaganda

white South Africans

Africans

South

non racial dispensation than

1970s

organised

militarised

,

of

This widening

total strategy was

the

the Cold War

executed

Verwoerd and during the Vorster period

'

to a

promoting the interests

existence

communism

Afrikaners

sectional interests

.

continued

of

through

),

the

Strydom

latter days

and

.

also meant that the main

promoting

far

Total

.



of ,

racial connotations

strategy

of

"

deprived

Moscow

from

said

-

a

well

,

and

on

,

,

the Soviet Union

part

be

-

a

was presented

financed

orchestrated

values

to

high profile project

as

total onslaught

The

Christianity western

'

strategy

' total onslaught '

a



.

system

white civilisation

,

existence

capitalist as

of

continued

and

the anti- apartheid movement as

characterised

of

cleverly

of the total

the the

inciting fear about one peril or the other. The ideologues

ESTABLISHMENT

309

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

PART

3

rural

's policy

the best answer

agenda represented

a

of

introduction

,

,

Soweto uprising

in

favour

the tricameral parliament

the former

September and

1984

escalated

,

half

the

and

1985 Botha deployed the South African Defence

.

in

hugely during the first

created

give

liberation organisations 1985

The

with increased

African townships throughout the country

of

the

together

something had

these circumstances

white establishment took another decisive turn unrest erupted

This shift had important

-

for

after

The protracted power struggle between Shortly after

.

,

.

serious budget problems

'

maize producing farmers the

and black education

defence

.

constituency comprising

economy

the sluggish

the

on

of

spending

capacity

In

tax

the main

the NP s traditional

from

both the Afrikaner and the English haute bourgeoisie

shrinking

of

it was co - opting the others 27

an urban

implications for agriculture , and especially

difficult

are

These

that every one

is

shift away

Afrikaner constituency towards

and

at what price .

compact of power ' believed that

players in this

Botha

. Perhaps

answer

to

, and

- opting whom

co

, .

questions

significant

a

who was

about

sections of monopolistic number of businesses raises

.

and

of , the

.28

questions

kinds

the bureaucracy

to

parastatals

different

The

, key

the government

interconnections between

,

phenomenon .

everyday

an

the private and public

between

of

became

sectors

' interaction

Close

in

artificial manner .

in

rather

a

loans South Africa was plunged into

,

worst ever financial

.

30

-

In

billion was

less than R50

to

a

in

of

15

.

to

.

',

no

'

Rubicon

foreign

When Chase Manhattan and other American banks refused

short term

renew

crisis

the ten years after

large outflow

its

disinvested

speech that resulted

'

.29 .

investment

a

in

of

in

)

infamous Rubicon

'

made

In

his

a

(

desperate attempt Force SADF the townships smash the uprising July 1985 partial state August 1985 Botha emergency was declared On

.

-

co

,

In

an

June

1986

a

.

white plunder

as

be

can

regarded

31

became

'

)

32

.

opted

-

co

willing

,

whites but only those be

)

populations groups

of

.

This

tragedy

not benefit

to

the drive

a

In

.

Lusaka

-

co

of

. the

to

of

to

given

Eminent Persons Group

all

of all

elites

plunder

drama

council

Botha used

1986

optive domination

structural corruption

the long

constitution

May

optive

and additional security

was declared

,

members

the

this method

,

However

system in

important episode

310

emergency

of of

adopting

zenith

reject the proposals

However the strategy

of

an

pretext

for

.

legislation adopted

reached

of ‘

state

(

comprehensive

the tricameral

and ordered the bombing

of ,

Commonwealth

a

the

of

his

extraordinary powers

additional power

, of

president

its

state

towards centralised managerialism

by .

executive

did

Botha

Due

The state security

to

's

close collaboration with the SADF

effectively governed the country as

)

(

SSC

policy approach was one

( or

',

domination

1985 and 1989 Botha in

Between

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY

While this was not realised at

time, this development

the

ESTABLISHMENT

hastened the downfall

old order ( see Davenport 1991 : 437 -45 ) .

several important policy

.

announcements under severe internal and external pressure

These concessions

to

.33

in

an

to

.

.

of

,

of

,

,

16

.34

a

35

.

still mobilise the

At the

restore

to

.

,

same time

it

was unable

to

,

NP

a

for

to

the

.

.

to

the

conditions conducive

-

-

failed for

so

.

long

attain

the

vulnerable

any

,

the prevailing social economic

,

had

was indeed remarkable that

South Africa was extremely from

of

the

the A

all

.

.

.

an

at

,

be

of ,

given that

.

exclude

it

,

situation

peaceful

the white controlled state and white controlled

In

a

,

of to

initiatives

maintain

legitimation and accumulation

political

could

state

However

serious survival crisis

the symbiosis still existed

objectives

failed

it

to

.

The symbiosis

capital was experiencing

seek

mystery

internal and external legitimacy

for almost two decades

accumulation

NP government was

The true reasons

still shrouded

quo

faltering Botha

that Nelson Mandela and

political parties

system

volte face are

maintain the status

the system

West

with his announcement

that the

and

the 1980s the South African

's

,

,

or

power needed stability

set free

-

a

to

the end

and

stagflation

high level

world

unbanned

of

to

's

By

of

of



stunned

democratic political

unexpected

After

years

who had succeeded

enter into negotiations with

government

States Britain

unhealthily

all

on

de

F

W

,

in

1989

political prisoners would

transition

and

Klerk

the liberation organisations would

prepared

had

August

United

third

international political

crisis Unemployment reached record

-

a

in

,

2

On as

president

state

almost

South Africa

deep structural

February 1990

hostile block

the

governments

and government spending was

levels

other

,

),

friendly

Germany exerted strong pressure

be

the

(

out

Mass

the

several defiance campaigns

isolated

South Africa

COSATU

municipal elections

in

,

,

.

extremely

forced

the economy was

enact additional

regrouped itself into

which organised

Africa was

South

world countries had forums Even

MDM

point

It

a

successful boycott against

-

.

Democratic Movement Internationally

necessary

ban several organisations and restrict COSATU

The extra parliamentary opposition

1988

almost

and economic

it

Botha government deemed

nonetheless mobilised

that

,

,

from

security international

further

international markets During 1989 rumours were

.

1988

crisis

legislation

security

to



state

boost

liberation movement

,

In

.

of

view

of

.

end

their

both

the concessions was

the 1980s the white hegemonic order was

the

At the

unmanageable

The overall effect

and intensify the onslaught

of

,

the moral stature

organisations

of

internal wings

and

a

external

which power had already shifted

government towards the liberation

of

the

from

the extent

it

NP

because they clearly indicated

but

reform

to

,

were important not because they were valuable contributions

,

government made



1987

to

to

1985

to

From

the

of the

OF THE AFRIKANER

311

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

,

could

of

,

the in

of

36

.

the

,

an

in

as

or



,

on

a

peaceful

alliance

's

the

the

in

,

huge

the country

,

1992

tense and volatile

was

,

of

government

democratic

severe crisis

of

favour

of

veto

in

situation

its

NP

so

the idea

sharing power

national unity

.

to a

17 an

of

the

. 7

on In in

,

in

June 1992

the

of

In

.

,

,

and influx

,

,

different

from

segregation

.

UP

the

,

in

order

often

is

new

from

the segregationist policy

as of

'

as

'

native policy was not

during the 1948 election campaign

or



apartheid



(

,

However apartheid

312

term

'

its

to

distinguish

the

entrenched

alliance signed key Minutes doing the abandoned

labour repression

as

a

The apartheid system NP coined

this extremely

minority

rather limited manner

control 1948 The

Klerk government a

De

.

a

,

in

to

five years

September

and accepted

veto

dilute the demand for

the

86 )

9

.5

for

prepared

The

election

ground

the situation

demonstrate

a

, In

it

.

civil war

26

on

of

majoritarianism

bureaucratic

COSATU organised

1992

Bisho massacre

of

on

early August

minority

statutory

issue

the negotiations

from

government and members situation the Understanding September 1992 demand for

votes

high

after the Boipatong massacre

NP

the brink

command

majority

Union Buildings the

.

'



at

mass demonstration street power Following

the

.

country became very tense

held the moral

broke down over

the liberation alliance withdrew

and

alliance could only count

of

,

the

in

in



1992 negotiations

was hovering

that

disadvantaged

minority veto When

economic

mass demonstrations

form

.

(

white

voice

May

)

In

organised

of

and

the

,

's

power

ideological power

on

-

on

people

the

the

in



form

securocratic media and professional resources

of

establishment

.

structural



considerable

the ANC

,

white

of

.

,

The differences between

black alliance were striking While the white establishment power

the

of

volte face

they quickly developed

predominantly white bourgeois the

and SACP

of

, as

1990

Soviet

the chain

establishment and the predominantly black liberation alliance COSATU

its

-

. . ).

(

government

-

struggle between

the

kind

new

implosion

's

in

May

a

the

in

of

a

into

power

the 1980s which culminated

1989 and

causal role

When tentative negotiations began

should

part and parcel

scenarios have been constructed

external events that played

the

maintain

1990

of

November

seen

Africa

the

years

few

South

,

.

in

Different

should

see section

in

to

.

Berlin Wall

in

the

of

the

fall

global power shift during the last

1991

took place

isolation

in

seen and judged

Union

South Africa

'

'

be

not

Union

,

not applying sanctions The political revolution that

Commonwealth to

and the European

council

of

policy

from

3 2 2

United Nations security

pressure

to

in

mainly due



be

difficult

government were finding it

Conservative

of

increasingly

Thatcher s

the

'

that Margaret

rife

NP

3:

It

PART

,

,

,

.

government

it

in

of

.

the powerful

suppress

to

,

in



NP



a

,

.

NP '

's

segregationist

black

legislation

mainly

did

to

94



,

1964

white political

perpetuate

differ qualitatively

from

the

the

in

used

English establishment during

first

37

of

especially

)

,

system

apartheid were confronted with the same challenge

co

.

).

:

(

operation

The

with

-

accordance with

for African industrial workers

demand

during the war years created the opportunity

anti Stallardists

in

in

8

a

in

close in

)

the

The Native Urban

-

increase

new

urbanisation the

The sharp

38

was not

for

Stallardism

control African in

sector

to

the business

.

1948

1937 and 1945 were designed

1923

endangering

without

,

NP

government faced

faced

labour policy that

black

political domination see Posel 1991

white

,

Areas Acts

of

dilemma the

accumulation

(

stability

and

capital

of

encourage white

develop

to

segregation how

:

architects

legitimacy

the NAD

relax influx control

it

,

a

,

it

the

,

,

Also while

.

was inevitable

the latter did not advocate

urban areas

39

3 1 3

from

While

white political supremacy

urbanisation

African labour

African urbanisation

.

unrestricted

of

call for

the complete withdrawal

strong

.

and

latter acknowledged that some African urbanisation the former did not

took

the Fagan and Sauer reports were

influx control

thoroughly committed

1947

,

,

differences

the Sauer commission

in

was published

but not inhibited

of

regulated

the report

to

the

issues

of

these

. on

former remained

be

8

a

of

(

' . -

Stallardist position Despite the

permanent African population was

anti Stallardists When

blueprint for apartheid

both ambiguous

stated that the continuing expansion

and that they should

-

the

side

's

the

NP the

took

and desirable

,

inevitable



1946

urban industries and the growth

of

of

When the Fagan commission

)

.

to

also with

.

of of

the

to

,

of

The architects



50

.

then apartheid

the 20th century

by

the

apartheid

due course the term

policy but

native

difference

discriminatory and social engineering programmes

repressive

segregationist regime

would

constitute only

mean not only the NP

,

its

,

domination the

enacted

the draconian security

also

half

by s

If of

.

(

but

laws

security

we take apartheid

including

they probably

qualitative one However

was associated not only with the

protest

coloureds

differences between labour patterns under the segregationist

a

in

degree and not

arsenal

labour market

and made partially applicable

regimes are important

and apartheid

segregation

over the African

-

Although

practice

well the

as

and Indians

intensified

and

but

the discriminatory character

This means that long standing state controls

were restructured

predecessors

to

intensified both the repressive

English

Ideologically

years

,

segregationist

by

laid

the previous as

as

foundation its

regimes

segregationist

regime was

apartheid

on the

of

's

establishment the

scrupulously

built

and

. It

alleged

the

OF THE AFRIKANER ESTABLISHMENT

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

PART

3

NP a

it

diabolical

a

decisive role

of

persistent beating

its

s

regarded

in

NP '

.

The

as

to

up

,

of

'

'( '



the election the

probably played

drum

most contentious

the

and presented

white civilisation

black peril

')

the

the swamping

swart gevaar

run

with horror

urbanisation



for

growing African formula

.40 In

the 1948 election

was probably

-

issue during

the

of Africans

The growing urbanisation

it

, its its

.



practical school a

is a

about

policy saw

it

a

as

it

saw

' the

the

were two schools

there

in

but

white supremacy

maintain

in

.

41

. for

,

the

, ‘

be :

to

1940s

and

to

set

, by

.

solving

supporters shared

the purist school

,

to

a

as

years

but had conflicting ideas

of

At

the end

ought

total segregation between white and black policy intended

'

‘a

of

preserved

what apartheid

1970s and

government

below

from

grand plan Its

by

,

,

it

did not have

white supremacy

.42

it

NP

on

of of

popular struggles

the Smuts government

from

sanctity

could best

thought

be the

commitment how

assumed power

had inherited to

it

problems

the

but also

to

, ,

of

of

a

'



to

When

above

from

was

both organised and

unorganised black struggle groups over period more than important apartheid only shaped understand that was not intervention

to

of

NP

orientation

the

militant

repressive measures were challenged

were

which

state

40

the a

police

measures

in

state with

securocratic

In

.

did

control

by

a

into

All these

the structural

early 1960s onwards the

legislative

the institutionalisation

and

hindsight one can

not resolve

a

developed

by

complemented

and

From

resolve

process

modernisation

of

administrative

statism

them

.

's ,

of

multitude

accentuated

control

based

government

With the benefit

comprehensive

but

contradictions

.

Africa

South

the

.

NP

that the

1980s

inherent

white political domination

perpetuate

a

and regularly amended

limits

social engineering

racially

the multitude

's

the contradictions

word

catch

blacks

comprehensive programme for

the

measures implemented

see

its

,



'

Apartheid

implementing

powerful pressure groups

and opposition

while the resistance

could achieve with is

it

what

apart

torn

by

own constituency

planning and control

of of

government was

in

the

had

comprehensive statist approach

by

greater degree NP

approach

of

the

from

much

a

with

UP

.

inherited

government required

and

,

government was confronted with serious social economic decided that the contradictions and potential conflicts

It

racial problems

It

The new

,

NP

.

victory

way that would not by

Racial Affairs

practical conception

into the

AHI

in

those

, ie

(

emerging Afrikaner entrepreneurs

of

The

cultural

the

Bureau

of

propagated



(

DRC

).

,

African

the South

and those organised

,

Afrikaner volksbeweging

314

AB

the

as

was propagated

was

),

apartheid

apartheid

Dutch Reformed Church by

and

),

(

SABRA

conception

such the

organisations

'

purist

'

The

of

.

hamper Afrikaner business interests

and the Afrikaner

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY OF THE AFRIKANER

ESTABLISHMENT

farming community ( organised into the SAAU ) . The AHI argued that business

profits depended

on uninterrupted access

African labour . It also stated that

to

it preferred

abundant supply of cheap

an

permanently urbanised African

a

migrant labour.43 The SAAU , in turn ,was not opposed to African urbanisation as long as this took place from the ‘ native reserves ' and not from

labour force

a

.

employment

did

its

of

'

in

NP

,

migrants

Verwoerd

were

stricter

the

ensure that

available influx

control

more exploitable

48

and

to

,

increasing numbers

influx control measures

African

As

.

,

in

areas

. . ).

9 4 1

,

46

.

-

on

-

the urban

migrants became increasingly more vulnerable

see section



of

by to

a

Due

onwards

Africans

and deteriorating

for

more

1950

's

47

not

like

the pre capitalist economies

of

from to

of

but

-

-

enough

influx control measures

African labour repression

regularly redesigned

government

measures

final phase

to

in

the

subsist

The

What was frightening was the dynamic and ever

those areas drove them

manufacturing

(

in

'.



of in

conditions

was

increased rapidly

the reserves

NP

1952

the battery

wage earning proletariat which

was supposed

native reserves

changing character

only



by

Verwoerd

migrant mineworkers

the

sufficient

arresting African urbanisation

in

succeed

large migrant labour force created

the

almost

.

not

These measures did

enacted

while still allowing

zeal

45

to

of

cheap African migrants

supply

influx

Although influx control was

government became notorious

stop African urbanisation



1986

designing stricter and more efficient influx control measures desperate attempt

in

an

'(

'

,

until

in

,

for

set

s

40

policy

native

1948

an its

practised before 1948

also

from

flooding

for

the NP

years

'.

control was the core

For almost

's '

of

.

urban areas

was obsessed

integration and the

economic

the

Africans into

the 1940s onwards the

From

a

the supposed dangers

and especially

'

should

ongoing battle

native policy



of be .

)

influx control policy

not of

[

NP circles over what the

and

because

practical conceptions

the scene

NP '

in

the Sauer report

NP

Afrikaner

ambiguous

and

60 ).

:

)' (

1991

The contradictions

ambiguous

and

purist and the

the

of

wove together strands from mutually

apartheid

finally choose between apartheid

because

Posel puts

it

exclusive conceptions

contradictory

internally

it,

single hegemonic conception

,

contradictory

imprints

,

-

document

was rather

It

.

of

apartheid

not bear

it

the Sauer report

conceptions

report. Consequently , as

the Sauer

in

practical

the

and

'

did

apartheid were contained

‘ purist '

the

an the

to

of

Posel, both

'

According

with

areas . 44

- controlled rural or farming

of ,

white

to

315

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

of African migrants

identifying five phases of influx control measures during

, when

Verwoerdian dogmatism

in

a

,

's

'.

'

'



on

.

of

)

(

a

its

of the

the

.

term

'

to

claim

complete political a

.so



In

,

of

him

white domination was



of

dictated

moral situation

a

create

by

exception

'

-

a

-

as as

the



what

In

of

of

,

of

the

as the

a

',

49



same blueprint

NP

final

of

in

1952 differentiated

between

two categories

',

and thus permanently urbanised

legislation

which gave rise

,

the African labour market

was

be

This labour market was

to

,

urban labour surpluses and unemployment and labour shortages

to

the new

to

.

be

identities and should only

the in

tribal

of

their

into urban areas The purpose

.

, of

effective

'

retained

control

.51

of

by

,

of

be

in

presented these two

Verwoerd presented

the policy

means

'

,

term

of

a

of

of

).

66

:

(

,

solved

white agricultural districts 316



,

as

of

a

as



'

's

to

:

the rid

problem

Verwoerd

short

minority who were detribalised

the vagaries

the

supporters about the large number Africans the urban areas Verwoerd promised 1953 that all

The two native affairs acts

who

The debate

This approach also enabled

would

allay fears among

these problems would

get

1950

Passes

the morally desirable and long

final result

and economic segregation

temporarily

Abolition

the Sauer report continued

policy and the existing reality

because

majority

Black

shrewd ideological device

1991

that would still work

practical conceptions

legal foundation when both

the

two separate phases

practical conception

native

morally justified

allowed

,

in

of

and the NAD until

total segregation

the

,

'

that the NP

formulations in

of

NP

of the

'

conception

economic realities

and

and

period

gestation

Documents Act were promulgated

apartheid

Posel describes

Africans

purist

the

)

-

in

conceptions

and

migrant labour

battle took place behind

relentless

native policy gained

and ambiguous

the



's

.

Co ordination

attempt

regarded

Natives Laws Amendment Act and

contradictory

ideal

can

During this period

NP

1952 the

(

the

NP rule

scenes between supporters In

the

.

African labour policy

purist

when

insiders and outsiders

the 1950s and the design

be

of

The first four years

unabated

initiatives

reform

for the manufacturing sector

7

.5 .!

9

Verwoerdian pragmatism system

and

.

.

W

P

of

Botha

distinction was drawn between African

Black

policy

post Verwoerdian ideologues

The 1980s were the years

apartheid

when

which influx control was applied increasingly

-

by

rigidly

official

'

' iii

growing

separate development became

The 1970s were the years

iv

manufacturing sector

the

' or '

territorial apartheid

of

1960s were the years

The

ii

was designed

an exploitative

, .

African migrant system

for

The 1950s were the years of Verwoerdian pragmatism

of NP rule .

40 years

ie

i

by

can be demonstrated

NP

The deteriorating position

a

3:

of

PART

replaced with state

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY OF THE AFRIKANER

.

of

'



'

.

.53

)

to

a

of



',

as

an

it

to

. ’ ’

as

'(

54

)

(

should

in

Africans could remain

1952 to

the

ss



When

Verwoerd made the important concession

the

urban areas even

to

.56

migrant labour

the early

enact legislation

the concessions the

system

,

.

But despite

certain

in

,

the

creating

influential AHI and the

NP was not

and was careful not

1953 election a

succeeded

in

defeat

in

,

parliamentary majority

the

for

the pressures from

pragmatic concessions

to

from

Verwoerd

the

advanced

's

for

be

.

acts

ULPP which

Africans was undesirable

business organisations

to

its

of -

English oriented

1952

The NAD was adamant that influx control

urbanised African elite with considerable bargaining power

the business lobbies Apart

that could lead

migrant

This concession had the ostensibly unintended effect

Several reasons can

1950s

enter urban areas

of

.

small

who

influx control

,

a

creating

wanted

)



section

'

business lobbies that

all

an

legislation was finally enacted when unemployed

small

permanent urban labour resources had been



in

influx

the further

Verwoerd

1952

made several concessions

, .

the “

until

that

10

,

utilised

tribal Africans

The

documents

urban areas

economic realities

apartheid

well

Campaign

in

to

live

Urban Labour Preference Policy

(

categorically

identity

Defiance

1952 legislation

employment

, of

specify

on

should

be

absorbed based

was

source

detribalised Africans with urban residence rights had

the

'

all

that would only allow

fully

farm

52

passes



'

When the NAD planned

been

the

women



of of

After taking account the purist conception

workers after

were created

.

)

carry

about who could become permanent city dwellers

system

was in

to “

to

African

Africans with permission

restricted

'

supported

to

led

,

and

to

influx control

.

percentage

rural employers

amended the previous Stallardist



applying

great discontent 10

Section

a

and

of

, (

1952

announcement that African women had provoked

of

urban

efflux control

the

legislation

NAD affecting

national labour

local labour bureaux

This imposition

Laws Amendment Act

by

The Native

Organised

restrict and control the movement of

.

successful

,

s

idea

.

The

constraining African urbanisation

in

quite

urban areas

to

labourers

due course

order

to

,

agricultural districts

In

the SAAU

.

proposed

African labour

allocate

in

by

that could

the

NP '

in

routine and institutional links with the NAD bureau

the white

was the only capitalist lobby that enjoyed

at

supply

the

of

agricultural labour

the main

government

new

white farmers

all the activities

in

to

participate

.

the

agriculture was invited

favour

the labour problems

addressing

in

time

It

in

no

wasted

the

.

Given the decisive role played

swinging the election

of

'

in

the maize triangle was one

by

issues during the 1948 election

rural vote

see

.

)

African labour



The scarcity

different sectors (

to

1



1993

of :

Bonner

30

et

al

labour bureaux tasked with rationally allocating labour

ESTABLISHMENT

industrial 317

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

employment that was not only harsher and more repressive it , but also supplied

(see Hindson 1987 : 64

of

The Abolition

Passes

act, reference

books were

to

distribution and

the

only given to

leave

for

urban area without permission

72 –

to

as

but were

find work within that period they had

.



of

or

migrant workers

work

seek

other

work for

many more

,

to

prison

set period

white farms

both English

and Afrikaans speaking

labour bureaux and influx control Their

the

.

of

were rhetorically very critical



Organised industry and commerce

-

120

to

the urban areas

a

of

offenders were sent

-

:

pass law

).

Posel 1991

areas

8

see

out



endorsed

(

was established

,

a

thousands

were

-

system

control over

their local labour bureau

being

-

; if

was

While

a

criminal offence and the police were tasked with monitoring



.

this



reasons

limit

this

urban

they could not

of

Exceeding

so

to

hours

prior permission do

the

Tribal Africans could enter with

degree

' local', ' district ,

.

African labour

labour

at the

bureaux

Through these labour bureaux

of

allocation

of labour

network

unprecedented

an

exercising

to enable the

the

control and channel African labour. The act

– to

an

for

.

levels

a

of passes by Africans . Under

57

'regional

and

of

the creation

carrying

the

to

be issued ( to men and women )

bureaux - created by the NAD authorised

Co- ordination of Documents Act ( 1952 )

and

repealed previous laws relating

– 8 ).

of

they demanded

those that had

than

urban employers with as many tribal workers as

in

preceded

on

3:

PART

,

the benefits

skilled African labour

.

them

in

in



find jobs

to

a

native

their position was

the need

often had

no

-

,

72

the

labour bureau

poverty to

,

remain there illegally and

the cities

hours

by

driven

for to

-

to

.

to

choice but

find employment within

Many

from

to



tribal Africans



for

conditions

Given that those who received permission

urban area had

more

,

economic

-

socio

became urgently necessary

exceptionally vulnerable

in

'

the large far

.

urban

,

the fact

60 ).



.

to it

enter

deteriorating

.

areas an

',

urban

the

:

(

reserves

155

workers

employers

in



influx control most

Despite



of

to

Africans

tribal African migrant workers

employ

see Posel 1991

Owing

318

opposed

of

remained unskilled

1960

some

employed

unskilled jobs available They were much cheaper and also

number

docile



per cent

that organised business formally

actually preferred

semi skilled

and

majority



84



,

increased

manufacturing

skilled

the overwhelming in

steadily

employed

state permitted

workers Although the

semi skilled African

-

of

Africans

performed

as

be

percentage

by

skilled jobs

to

,

without antagonising the hostile white trade unions the

-

employers

allow

of

to

order

In

.

urban areas

in

if

-

as

argument was that they needed Africans semi skilled workers and that they lived permanently Africans could only acquire the necessary skills the

find employment

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY

OF THE AFRIKANER

ESTABLISHMENT

was even more pressing. Government officials were aware that most Africans the Bantustans would return

in

of

,

' of

the

,

the for by

.

of

not

the mining industry

in

on

percentage

manufacturing and mining native reserves

')

the

'

both in

1970

a

1950

the

the

The fact that African wages

as

'

for migrants were supplied

to

,

as

and

,

of

,

housing so

,

health

123

58

of

-

,

education

the case

in

As

.

in

to

'

for

the barest minimum

the

.

of

migrant workers

of

-



,

of

Africans

in

from

bolster

predominantly

the manufacturing sector was also based

services

).

1991

NP

the

larger centres were replaced

to

'

Posel

(



Consequently

comprising well built houses

despite the economic deterioration

(

to

.

,



of

',

' or ' the

to

cities

for employment

white wages declined industries

poorer Afrikaners

for urban Africans was deliberately minimised

:

'(



see

scale

-

to

,

of

of

townships

the supposition that welfare reserves

-

.

to

43 ).

:

The shanty towns

on

.

migrant system

see

From

stabilisation designed

urban

Government spending

Africans

the

was looming racial

living and working conditions





attract more

large

proletariat

especially

conditions

-

strategy

Influx control deprived millions security

to



',

or

37 –

whites

in

.

urban decay

detribalised Africans with residential rights and hostels social citizenship

about

development

urban

urban problem

semi squatter

locations



-

neatly laid out

social



).

',

,

urban areas

heavy

perform

migrant workers

and African

most pressing

the a

on

control over

in

's

an

,

living

also

government embarked

Africans

low

contrast with

complaints

employ

problem

untenable

the threatened swamping

and

the state

the

NP ,

of

of

the

and had

laissez faire approach

the urbanised white coloured

view

who were

and especially

and growing poverty and unemployment among

in

conflict

,

overcrowding

,

point

of

members

threat

tribal workers could

despite their public

1999

's

the

1940s created

squatting

',

', '



8

-

:

Halisi

The Smuts government during

cheeky

employers preferred

;

many urban

Hindson 1987

lazy

Consequently

64

,

choosy

be

.

industrial work system

in

'–

or

'

to

not afford

employers

exceptionally

unpleasant jobs

perform

to

work

Africans with permanent residence rights

urbanised

'

migrant workers

were not only prepared

wages but were also prepared

upon

depended

and were vulnerable

,

'

. ‘



, ’

illegal migrant workers



Tribal

the authorities

to

exposure

illegally

flout the regulations

to

preparedness

employment

to

for

:

(

looking

charge

more disciplined and

even

In

's

a

result migrant labour became

even cheaper see Marks and Trapido 1987 Those

who were prepared

influx and migrant policies

,

As

.

the Bantustans

of

put tribal authorities

help administer the government

rural

the liberation organisations

at

government

banning

22

1961 enabled the to

to

to

in

would

accept lower wages . The crushing of African

early 1960s and NP

resistance

the

then be prepared

the urban areas , and

to

'

to

the

forcibly removed

shows

319

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

of foreign Africans

:

the

by

al

et

of

by



, (

,

industry

their

until

of

The real wages

1960

,

1932

from

was

'.

The gold mines stubbornly

,

Beinart and Dubow 1995

:

Wolpe

foreign countries even when

,

on

the grounds that they had

in

and

'



ie

the

of NP

.

61

in

to

'

see

the

native reserves

320

as

'

a

.

,

in

of

of

Africans

white

'

order

curtail

to

also adapted

in

'

an

whites and

circles between

those favouring the

purist

'

Afrikaner

.

the urban areas



in

The struggle

to

,

of

the flow

migrant labour

and with

ideological shift towards the purist conception

but administrative measures were

apartheid

These

1952 were too flexible and

Renewed concerns over the growing numbers

urban areas caused not only

policy

arena

stopping the growing economic integration

.

Africans

the

that the influx control measures

had not succeeded

apartheid

Afrikaner political of

realisation

in

new

in

in

coincided with important events

apartheid

territorial

1960s

the 1950s important shifts occurred in

of

At

the end

the

and the acceptance

dogmatism

of '

). Verwoerdian

official government policy

of

the Pact

gold and the serious deterioration

Africans

longer the case

during

3

. .2

9 5

ch

wages

(

was clearly

this

no in

to

subsistence base

in

the native reserves

low

also

including the

mining

the

mining remained unchanged

economic conditions pay

yet

also taken into account

local and foreign African labour the price

The

mines not

gold

apartheid regimes

and

in

in

1910 until 1972

despite several increases

continued

the

successive governments

, is

,

no

exploitation

after 1948

foreign countries

from

1993

the

the NP government

English establishment but

the segregationist

cahoots with

of

in

doubt that

migrant workers

(

in

the

to

given

. The gold

.

of

1920s and the

recruit migrant labour

be

see Bonner

industry

so

system

labour bureau

Afrikaner establishment

the

,

the

in

the support

to

NP )

If

government

systemic

industry and

secondary

in

of

of

hegemonic periods

the hegemonic periods

fully

the legislation explicitly

the extraordinary bargaining power

by

only during

of

South Africa

the gold mining

CM

the

another example

the scope

from

recruiting Africans

of

of

also excluded

special treatment

there can

. While

the gold mines were given the rights to continue doing

mines were course

so

other African countries, but

of

,

to do

them

to

a

easier for

even

' and

the ‘native reserves

in

prohibited the employment commerce

' ability

in

recruit migrant workers

went

Verwoerd

ensure that it would not hamper the gold mines

to

would make it

,

,

out of his way

1952 was adopted

).

of

When the influx control legislation

years . 59

25 apartheid

8

during the first

more exploitative

became



in

considerably

industries

both

in

is

that the migrant labour systems -

clearly

in

3

60

PART

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY OF THE AFRIKANER

,

order

)

)

(

and the

in

of

,

Africans the authoritarian

suppress black unrest more effectively

.

to

was created

and

1961 onwards

from

at

,

and

,

were banned

61



of

(

1956

the

the Sharpeville protest

an

of

Trial

growing hostility between whites

in

an

security system

the 1950s strengthened

Treason

African resistance that culminated

liberation organisations

forced the black opposition movements underground with the the

apartheid declined

of

that open resistance

in

consequence

the

,

system

to

This

on

the most important being

atmosphere

English business

same time

the end

the

,

of

'

In

62

.

1960

events

.

to

'

escalation

of

wages Certain

purist position

practical conception

the

influx controlmeasures but continued migrant workers both legally and illegally

employ large numbers low

the

1950s

organisations increased their attacks extremely

At

during

unabated

favouring

those

at

continued

and

.

of apartheid

the

conception

ESTABLISHMENT

second half the

.

1960s



in

the

at

In

63

.)

a

of

as

),

(

in

the

'

a

in

,

it

in a

as

.

the

of

for

in

's,

(i

did

operate with the

of

to

not always

a

'.

Johannesburg

-

an

UP ,

by

,



applying influx

their

long and protracted struggle

bantu affairs administration boards

64

the

part

deprive local authorities

This caused

-

,

of

be

ethnic

's

on

of

the convenient

Africa

It

on

created

1936

the );

of South

Act

.

in

proposition that there was

scheme rested

also

independent

South Africa

Trust and Land

African majority

to

NP

in

for

per cent

and decentralised industries

The Bantustan

was

different African

;

.

the Bantustans

1948 was

separate development

13

be

comprising

'



stemmed

apartheid

this new package

created

the Development

policy after

of

the

of

'

-

In

, ' ‘ .

terms

would

no

of

urbanisation would

to

(

according

policy

racist policy

the native areas

be

or

on

’,

Bantustans

1959 that

non

apartheid



as

,

groups based

,

ncluding

most important policy shift

grand

homelands

borders

tried

the creation

replaced with the supposedly

territory

BAD

important role

and

the

native affairs

announcement

's

Verwoerd known

1960s

.

in

Perhaps

)

1971

in

that culminated

the early

at

)

BAD

for

.

Many local authorities

the outset

responsibilities

(

authorities had played

were still controlled

From

dogmatic

implementing influx control more effectively

the

.

control measures

more

more

became

electoral position was vulnerable

renamed the bantu affairs department

Until that time local

BAABS

colours and favour

1958

co

was

restructuring exercise aimed

NAD

primeminister

the 1950s but improved dramatically

1958 the NAD

example

The

control measures

,

beginning

his true

.

influx control

influx

was elected

's

show

apply

NP

him

of of

application

to

.

he

pragmatic manner When

for



,

him

.

1950s had forced

possible

practical

However economic and political conditions

in

early

apartheid

(

conception

to

of



Verwoerd was always inclined towards the purist rather than

held that 321

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

but belonged instead

of

,

it

,

10

of

'

of

'

to

,

,

66

.

its

.

settlement and

,

,

in

-

,

10

In

of

'.

10

of '

.

the

in

,

ie

', In

It

.

the

in

on



to

,

,

a

to

labour bureau

,

by

was widened

for

migrants

women

and

,

oppose

the

)

and African

capacity

to

's

employers

per cent increased

a

.

administration

the

migrants

The high average annual

demand

the same time that the deteriorating situation

for

urban areas

at

economic growth rate

time when the

African labour

in

strong economic motivations

At

one

it .

both white to

,

stronger

5 5

experienced

grew

of

administer

it

ideological obsession with influx control and

the other

the

influx control

the BAD

(

main administrative

on

1960s was the intensified struggle arm

the

on

,

of

.

67

controlling the entrance

.

procedures

of

.

the BAD started

'

' ' or '



an

of



to

be

.

.

and

hand and those opposed

in

to

.

' -

of

result

characteristics its

the main

between the government

3 2 2

the

The 1964 legislation also strengthened

,

were made much stricter

to

One

1964

idle and undesirable

Africans who refused three jobs offered

the same time the regulations

children

1960s

enabled the government

idle person

efflux control and streamlined registration

of

At

and

the mid

rights

movement

1964

non productive

The definition

and thousands were removed

influx

Act

)

of .

areas

as

include section

rural

communities living

black people Under this legislation

millions

10

urban

section

Africans

large scale social engineering with devastating effects

remove individuals declared

from

reject the

urban removal policy

the homelands However

The Black Labour

the

the new approach

section

(

of a

on

policy

of

the lives

to

on to to

embark

used the idea

with

accordance

with

Africans

those who were urbanised and

legislation concerning

Africans

the residential rights

urban and rural areas

the relocation

Africans

remove

government amended employment

of

.

's to

they also began

areas

a

'

in

rural white

now

these rights came

on

of

the

the

,

attacks

authorities emphasised

spots

black

and

contrast with the pragmatic

the residential rights

disclaimed

BAD

some

and the idea

claimed that section

Africans

ties with the reserves

BAD regularly

Initially

sharp

,

Africans

idea that there were two kinds those who retained

attack

residential rights

guaranteed

claim

first

rights

the 1950s the government now

fundamental ethnic unity

The

renewed

.

10

section

of

not

could

separate development

excuse

'

approach

and

the African problem

'

'

an

as

Africans with of

of

used

with

outside world

During the 1960s the policy ethnicity were

Afrikaners

solution

their own

in

opted and corrupted African leaders

a

in

was never accepted

was

of

multitude

-

small number

co

of

a

morally justifiable the

a

impressed only

a

propagated

of

as

speakers

edifice

majority

and was accepted by

)

English

this.

the

evangelical zeal ,

ideological

for

'homelands ”. 65

Although

to

exercise their citizenship

by

‘ national / ethnic groups ', and should

(

,

Africans

via

not South

In

' were

“Bantu

-

3:

PART

the Bantustans

-

be

of



of

on

in

the

,

the

).

so

of

of to

's

,

to

to

:

'( a

of

for

,

of

in

of

at

, . the

Africans

their control over African

of

that

,

urban area the records would show

labourer and therefore not eligible for urban employment

(B

all a

soon

as

,

This meant that

that

he

inter alia

,

,

.

Pretoria

the

government passed as

, .

Coincidental with the

1964 which stipulated in

to

of

an

in

be

registered

flow

stopping the

in

in

did succeed

the 1960s

of

Laws Amendment Act

arresting

the

,

areas

it

the urban

succeed

in

did

not

undy

).



44

1971

stricter influx

the 1960s For some

.

the English

speaking

-

'

tribal

'

turnover

of

and benefits

controlled

'

migrant

workers

was

improving labour productivity For employers

.

-

serious obstacle

mainly

to

undoubtedly

a



-

capital intensive industries business sector the high

of

and the mass removals

costs

surplus people

by in

relative

or

the

determine

of ‘

difficult

to

5

a

the inflow

the BAABs

movements and rights

the labour tenant and squatting systems

farm

is

stop

labour quotas

1967 which introduced

agricultural sector

farm

It :

to

the Bantustans

the white

labourer was employed

control

In

.

,

government

labourers had

1975

desperate attempt

the 1970s The first was the Physical Planning

controlling

farm

was

decade

.5 .3 ) . NP

the

(

from

Throughout

large

combat the illegal employment

thus depriving municipalities

see section

Although

and the

9

,

level

task

bureaucracy

from

The second was the creation

of

.

urban manufacturing

the Bantu

Horst

der

Van

this

government introduced two drastic

the

of

scene

Resources Act

which took over the

of



and others for

the

of

of

and Utilisation

destruction

farms

deter resistance

1991 253

measures

new

,

that set

from

the Cape

African migrants was

BAD

,

with

migrant workers

Africans

In

.

in

on

August 1966 see

work seekers

-

employers

migrants and improve influx control

efflux

part

1966 African labour

were insufficient

attitudes

the BAD experimented

labour

1961 the authorities

the western

the expansion

,

of

to

Posel and

of

general hardening

local

severely

).

:

,

strong that according

the

more

(

,

the number employed

would

province

contracts

year and

a

region

During the 1960s the demand for and supply

measures

and Colesburg would

114

1976

numbers

that part

announced

31

in

this

at

part was frozen in

rest

migrant workers

Province could only last for Truu

.

',

families

'

decreed that

either

the Bantustans fell

and that African migrant labour and the

of

African

discouraged there than

in

'

a

settlement

of

preference area

coloured

native affairs

line between Humansdorp

a

the Cape Province below

become

minister

then

in

-

In

1954 Verwoerd

urban areas

onwards

the late 1950s

from

to

production per capita

the

dramatically

migrate

to

in

illegally Agricultural

.

legally

of Africans

of

or

forced increasing numbers

the

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY OF THE AFRIKANER ESTABLISHMENT

323

to

pay for the ways

until the

the

in a

,

.

(

324

its

's ).

46

by

46

in

,

an

.

problems

for

set

the

in

.

the cities

scene

their

The

the formal mounting

part

of

,

large

the

most unfortunate part the everyday the

of

activity became

a

criminal

perhaps one

of

this criminalisation

a

of

,

juvenile delinquency youth gangs and urban

urban areas

As

apartheid

.

legacies

of

African population

in

.

crime The cumulative effect

)

reservation

is

job

of

given

unemployment and the spread

of

to

channel African youths born

(

labour market

impoverished proletariat but with

crime records rather than chronic health

the ULPP

impoverished

chronic health problems Many migrant workers

industry were also

of

inability

the mining industry were

into

impressive petty

which millions an

,

the

In

the manufacturing

forms

new

the Group Areas Act

1960s migrant workers from

decade

in

This was also

Africans were relocated under proletariat suffering

experienced entirely

them

This

than

of of

see table

the rapid economic growth

.

.

repression and exploitation

from

the

because many

of

,

but

in

did

was not because Africans benefited less

to

:

)

white

.

23

per cent The ratio

African per capita income rose sharply during the decade whites

of

,

in

Mohr 1994

(

a

,

5 5

in

only

Africans increased

year

Africa

South

constant rand terms increased

by (

whites

in

to

result

per cent

at

grew

structural

.

to

of

to

of

the

the

,

,

per cent that

growing

with

the most prosperous decades

economy

per capita income

unfortunate

succeed

the urban areas the demand

sharply

decline

of

While

average

of

the

.

On

The 1960s were one history

African workers

the Bantustans

in

unemployment

started

)

.

.

and economic growth

the

labour

such

flow

the

labour pattern that was dysfunctional for

,

to

prevent

by

,

so

.

1971 onwards created

There

that the labour quota

ironic that precisely when the government began

is

It

next section

the 1960s and the obstructive role played

continuous capital accumulation

for

detrimental effects

.8 ).

from

African

cost

low

of

BAABs

the end

show

the supply

10

introduced

we will

for

for

control

stricter influx

and

serious that the

compensate

of

system

longer

the 1960s

and need

rate

major bottlenecks

were

of

on

,

could

little doubt

create

labour These were

at – as

be

of

specific categories

economic

the one hand

to

the other began

no

on

technological modernisation

less the end



high

its

the very

black

of

or

growth

,

During this decade

attempts

illegal

1980s

of

1841 and continued

in

to

that began

that the different stages

functional for capitalist accumulation until more

can

of

undermining the bargaining power

general conclusion

(

repression

migrant labour

which influx control

269

We can come

measures

,

,

labour

the

:

'(

1991

was

).

workers

by

cheapened the price

mechanise their operations this instability

small price

Posel

of

to

according

APARTHEID

in

capital

motive

in

lacking

labour

, SEGREGATION , AND

COLONIALISM

to

:

, ‘a or

3

the

PART

OF THE AFRIKANER

the 1960s and 1970s many people

of

.5 ). :

of

so

.

on

the

of

If

to

.68

's '

in

75



,

the

by

their

the Bantustans and

speed 45

to

in

realise that Tomlinson had up

in

in to

cheaper power

commute from

,

000

industrial jobs for

new

.70 the 1970s and

,

ideologues

in

of

a

of

. reserves

1966

,

assassination

in

commuter migrancy

's

His election had two important consequences

.

endorsed

a

primeminister

NP

police

the

minister

a

-

in

ten

74 )

recommended that

and reserves

post Verwoerdian

-

and

due course accommodate

prime minister after Verwoerd 1978

on

’,



,

;

of



.

of of

border areas

political

underdeveloped

the

fewer than

1966

society

the commission

,

electing

tried

then

these

.

office until the

,

by

remained

in

,

John Vorster elected

system

as

the creation

a

The increasing rigidity

of

. .

had been created

of

Africans

the end the

but

in

decentralisation

lay

economic development

government by

69

.

The

periphery

Verwoerd until 1964

took

the difficulties

,

areas

develop

common

1959 that the

their workers who would

, .

,

homes nearby

9 5 3

for the

to

attracted

and transport

border

years

The commission of

population

African

water housing underestimated

problem

that these areas should

It

be the

of

industrialists



the African

and declared

per cent

in

:

he

nonetheless decided

,

reserves

solution

critical

very

to

,

economic

initially

was

Verwoerd

recommendations

Firstly

's

a

.

see Davenport 1991 368

of

Although

1950s was

the early

the Bantu and European populations into

endured

estimated that

the inevitable consequences

commission warned

the

The

central finding was that

spent during the following

'(

must

of

,

be

the integration

and

urgently needed employment opportunities

create

funds were not spent

The commission

as

and

,

reserves

to

R204 million should

extreme poverty

the reserves

the 1920s

since

land

that other

small and often corrupt elite comprising only

the population be

, 7

12

per cent

the income earned

the hands

in

concentrated

of

, 3

46

per cent

of

African peasants had escaped the ravages

The commission

prosperous portion

small and relatively

a

commission also found that only

denuding

of

,

,

,

overstocking

or

as

1956

the reserves

in

-

into socio economic

.

its

report

homelands

it

'

'

inquiry

government commissions and committees had documented malnutrition

the

see also section

to

referred

now

confirmed the appalling socio economic conditions stark poverty

apartheid 10

;

:

5

and

1993

in

in





civil manner after

of

the

native reserves

the native reserves published

in

conditions

that it became

an extent

which the NP government embarked

Tomlinson commission

The

')



Bantustans

.

to

develop

al

a

Bonner

The 1960s was also the decade

policy

lawful et

(

had been abolished

in

act

to

them

such

to

(

system

of

many

see

for

were not only criminalised but brutalised

difficult

ESTABLISHMENT

,

of millions of Africans during

existence

34 –

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY

325

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

police state which Vorster

further entrenchment of the authoritarian

.

to create

, the “ purist ' conception of apartheid was now applied rigidity by ‘ smaller prophets ' on whose shoulders the

increasing

with

.? !

Verwoerdian mantle had fallen

1960s the government took

late

labour quota system

a

introducing

the

earlier , in

As noted

already

had

Secondly

urban

in

begun

areas

a

3:

by

PART

first step towards the Physical

passing

of

the

of

on

the

a

area

or

industry

.

border

a

to

decentralise

to

of

of

In

.

of

compelled

Any

thereafter

:

and only

labour

industrial workers 1 2

to

in

it

of

African

,

to

quota would

the government

1970

the implementation

authorised

1973

industrial

72

exceeding

until

their responsibility

growth

and

jurisdiction

white

be 25

the

Witwatersrand was

which

ratio be

.

The maximum

:

quotas

white paper

1

a

published

local authorities

industrial development

their areas

in

workforce

of

regulating the

African

The act deprived

rate

for

.

industrial purposes

in

of

to

,

of

Planning and Utilisation planning Resources Act which gave theminister authority designated the restrict the use land controlled areas for

to

,

'

'

fell

now

white

in

administering Africans

and the

to

a

BAABs had been

these

the BAD which had campaigned the late 1950s for full control over the application

of

,

a

. its

This was inception

improve influx

municipalities

few

white local authorities

resounding victory in

,

from

performed

of

areas previously

1975

.

in

The task

.

surrounding farming districts boards

By

1971

responsible for regions comprising

each

by

,

set

the BAABs

for

up

control was the creation

Vorster government 22

of

The second drastic step taken

the

by

.

Bantustan

.

326

' .

;



5

a

' be

better

201

:

in

of

At

By

it

.

(

urban

1986

growth

of .

serious

adoption the

of

in

,

as

an

of

urbanisation

a

in

but especially after

in

big

instrument

urban areas had been

in

The

urban areas

the

century

housing

of

of

African townships they

,

the

of 1923

.

in

the beginning

the Stallardist legislation

in

in

,

a

in

use the availability

.

from

Savage

housing for Africans

influx control Adequate housing for Africans problem

white

jail would still

).

to

control over the provision

They immediately started

the end

3



80

,

74

68 she –

Bantustan

When the BAABs took over the administration also gained

influx control

the 1970s the Bantustans

person who could find work

had remained

As

surplus people

see

it

1987

:

Hindson

violate them

nine months and then spend three months he /

off than

was estimated that

if

area

for

the 1970s

the increase

stem

became increasingly necessary

fully proletarianised a

had become repositories

the 1970s

in

the Bantustans

of

poor people

in

for

measures becamemore efficient

urban areas

to

migrants

73

authorities were still unable

to

the illegal employment

the

in

Despite these measures

of

.

influx control

1940s

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY OF THE AFRIKANER

the

of

in

,

'

'

.

to

or

of

of

it

to

in

to

by

,

of

a

to a

in

in

.

.76

even

they

Homelands

-

on

confer self government

any

-

,

became self governing

even

no

this way

,

and these deportations were

In

'.

As

longer

limited legal rights granted ?

including five years income

exemptions favourable

,

billions

of of

during the 1970s and 1980s amounted

road and

taxpayers to

industrial decentralisation

.

,

tariff rebates and other concessions The direct and indirect cost

,

loan rates to

tax

agency basis

offering industrialists incentive packages

,

'

Decentralisation was encouraged

and also

.

the Bantustans

an

white entrepreneurial activity

the Bantustans

by

allowed

areas bordering

on

industrial decentralisation

the Vorster government stepped on

,

industrial licensing

in

policy

of

its

justify

to

up

To

.

African migrants under the pass laws were removed

a

foreigners

as `

’,

these areas who

from

deported

the

1970

of

1971 the Bantu

if of

to

,

of

Act

the homelands

several Bantustans

'

change the

to

.

In

to

one

areas

president

As

the

'

.

African

their homes

government was

' .

legal appeal

form

be

'

in

a

,

to

in

'

, '

in

by

,



from

migrants independent while also supposedly were illegally white urban areas were now regarded result they could now

the

African workers were forced

,

white

the

new

developing

centres

The Bantu Homelands Citizenship

eight territorial authorities

subject

many



creating

Vorster

all Africans

Constitution Act empowered the

the

'

of

never lived outside

and after

reappear

and back again

area

by

Africans

.

rights

, 7).

:

in

of

step taken

attached the citizenship had

of

a

white industrial

'

– a

to

citizenship

policy

this

industrial

wholly

over considerable distances

often

third drastic

more difficult

industrial licensing and

commuter migrancy

of

A

Bantustan

system

the 1970s

'

a

:

travel daily

African

built hostels

even

The result

Bantustans near major

in

By

(

areas

government succeeded migrancy

526

housing

scarcity

dormitory

black

white



Davenport 1991

creating

make

conditions began

'

if

deterrent

'

-

urban areas

'

white

order

urban areas

was that slum

and

decree that Africans could only gain permission work housing was available was another powerful albeit cruel

new

A

.75

urban areas

from

Durban

urban areas became more acute

.

'

deliberate deprivation

'

in

'

white

the

.

,

to

-

the to

'

move

late

houses for

building houses

the government only

the urban areas to

of

addressing this shortage

families



for

white

in

commuter migrancy Bantustan

Africans

for

to

.74

,

housing shortage

bachelors quarters

. But

include urban areas near East London

By shifting home building

urban areas Instead

to

encourage the growth

borders were redrawn Pretoria

of

to

,

order

in

Bantustans

1960s the NP

down the construction

slow

urban areas and concentrate

'

'

in

white

the 1950s and

clearance and housing programme

slum

1960s the government decided

Africans

in

on

launched an energetic

,

result

a

to

large - scale squatting. As

in

in

resulted

ESTABLISHMENT

327

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

. Although

, their cost per capita

border industries

was

higher than

could

as

thousands of new jobs were created in the Bantustans and in be

rands

3

far

PART

regarded

,

a

.

,

of

into

unskilled African migrant workers were

the poverty

by

of

stricken Bantustans

-

to

forced back

the early 1970s the

Africans were drawn

,

made redundant

and

not only

,

,

.

in

larger numbers

even

and

,

Therefore

existed that while large numbers

strange situation

skilled jobs

white urban areas

whites

reservation

skilled work

to

-

border areas but also

relax

to

Consequently the Vorster government was forced perform allow semi skilled African operatives

filled

in

could

by

than

the structure

changes caused job

in

workers

These

be

in

for skilled

industrial sector

in

demand

the 1960s changed

.

greater

,

and capital accumulation

the

economic growth

of

The high level

of ,

.78

economically justifiable

stricter

.

influx control measures

of

,

; 5



,

403

a

as

,

– 74

:

(

.

1971

.

to

of al

Crush

et

per cent

;

88

While

which influx control was improved and

its

decade

,

the

.1 ).

:

Hindson 1987

of

in

.

jobs

1982 the real wages

white wages were only

(

the

in

of

a

40

guaranteeing

, 9

of

1985

in

a 19

per cent

as

percentage

per cent The

5

In

by

less than

consisted

in

its

to

of

.

a

specified period

workforce

the

8

;

10

,

The 1970s was

to

in

mining

table

per cent

As

1975

in

a

of

result the rise Mozambique from

as

to

rise

were almost four times higher than

1971 they increased

-

368

Marxist regime

their migrant workforce

stabilise

African mineworkers

104

on

in

subsistence

also changed

migrant labour

1982 this figure had dropped

workers who returned within African wages

80

1973 almost

in

; .

tried

to

foreign migrants

mines also

to

In

in

.

socio

the

important shift towards using domestic labour took place

mining industry

:

,

.

the

in

migrant workers started

gold and the suspension

by In

an

a

,

result

in

produce

gold mining industry

of

:

.

system

after this territory had become independent under

3

rather than

Ironically

see Davenport 1991

of

the price

28

But

402

1986

early 1970s The wages

1991

to

the

in

the sharp population increase

The migrant labour

in

Bantustans and their ability

1979

).

for

result Lipton

,

government buildings

costly

from

their inhabitants declined dramatically during this period mainly

of

base

sharply

per head

developing infrastructure and subsistence mechanisms economic situation

the Bantustans

increased

a

,

R89

the

1980

.

capacity

64

to

1961

million

of

carrying

11

in

1960

to

,

the

to

)

on

(

caused the populations

development also

1978 prices

the

38

much

million

improve

Bantustan

money was spent

of

,

per head

in

the amount spent

4

,

to

almost desperate attempt

R18

resettlement policy

increase sharply from on

an

Bantustans

of

'

its s

,

border areas together with

decentralising industrial development

policy

in

The Vorster government

a

than

century

and docile African

cheap

of

many white employers

,

the

of

,

relax some

to

,

hesitantly

than

labour repressive measures had

costs

thus

economy The Vorster government

.

already declining

ESTABLISHMENT

became more destructive

,

more

the new measures increased

further depressing started

the African population

supplying white employers with the

,

labour

costs

for

. While ,

ever before

decreased

of

large part

a

by

effects on

OF THE AFRIKANER

the costly discriminatory measures

the

in

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY

the

in

,

by

79

in

,

'



as

of

,

so

to

the

.

oriented corporate

sector believed

labour would solve their accumulation economic conditions together with the political the government

criticise

's

to

Portugal

sectors

economic and especially labour policy was the most

on

organised business

government and almost

of

The clash between the Vorster

all

.

economic and labour policies for the first time

état

in

indecision after the coup

'

's

Vorster

in

,

African

prompted Afrikaner capitalists

also

urban labour markets

-

,

by

.

,

1974

Deteriorating

created

vacuum

to

improved access

increase the size

the urban areas Although the downturn

in

workers

organised

business sector

-

to

the economy was universal the English

problems

corporate profits

order

liberalisation

in

, of

and

increase the mobility

that

by

of

influx control

caused

the economy

of

urban African workforce

the downturn

especially the English oriented in

in

of

for the relaxation

called

).

:

.

caused

and commerce

As

sharp declines

,

/4

industry

onwards

insiders

Vorster government

the

during the 1970s

the

1973

of

influx control policies

widespread controversy

indentured

between African

,

'(

1978

not

89 )

's

outsiders

stricter

from

initiatives and the distinction

reform



,

PW

(

. .

9 5 4

Hellman and Lever 1980

Botha

and

The

in

labour Dugard

legislation

goods produced

47

United States that prohibited the import

prompted

in

's

but was

initiatives

reform

this

80

Vorster

from

stem

However

.

,

repressive labour systems since 1841 were repealed

of for

part and parcel did

and had been

a

criminal offence

d

to

break his her contract

/

In an

employee

, ,

masters and servants laws which made

1974 the

it

.

1970s

government and business

as

requests

least some sections

the pressures from the business

unjustified interference

the realm

generals became not only

the total

'

,

prime minister his

Botha

Vorster

as

Botha succeeded

's

,

formulated

by

strategy

1978

P

,

When

W

government in

of

,

community and denounced

its

.

organised business Vorster reacted furiously

and

of

the day

African

South

in

the government

to

between

to

.

Union

in

destroy the symbiotic relationship that had existed since

threatened

a

history

of

between

It

serious confrontation

main propaganda 329

his political agenda

'.

a

of

-

via

to

black

Soviet inspired

the government

government

Botha

a

'

.

FMF was

message

cultivate

or

communist

particularly those linked

,

interventionist policies the NP had followed since 1948

dismantle

the

and accept the free

in

.

not resolve either the legitimacy various structural

403

.

the existing

)

(

1981

institutionalise

see also section

. ).

to

and

9 6

7



;

,

the

official institutional

and

statutory framework

,

,

the improvement modernisation

of

of

The Riekert commission concentrated

272

1996

:

'

(O

Meara

in

the mobility

In

its

-

reservation

and attempted

Africans on

formal trade union rights

and regulate industrial conflict

330

restrictions

job

and

statutory

African labour eased The Labour Relations Amendment Act

and reform

labour

on

sector was abolished

to

extended

investigate

.

training

of

manufacturing

recommendations

,

commission

,

the

stimulate

make recommendations thatwould stimulate productivity

's

line with

brief was

commission

would

to

legislation and

The Wiehahn

operative relationship

initiatives

reform

's

entrepreneurship

sector and

new

to

corporate

the

.

with

its

The government was quite optimistic that

co



(

:

397

the

creating

for

them

).

Davenport 1991

As

Botha government

.

fiasco

on

the serious

contradictions The business community must bear some responsibility ensuing

by

)

in

by

the white business

,

the

be

,

accumulation crisis but intensified

and

the growing

the Botha reforms

blamed

reforms

the Botha

1979

conferences were

sector

by

role played

did

below

,

in

we will indicate

the Riekert and

and the business sector

on

to

.

the strategic

these initiatives cannot only

The

for the private

role

formulating and legitimising

in

community

the

conferences

by

'

'a

institutionalise

to

and

bureaucratic state Owing

or

1981

.

and Good Hope

)

)

,

policy issues

flaws

whose reports were published

enhance agreement between the government

to

held

1979

(

the Carlton

both

(

Wiehahn commissions

reformist policy was formulated

of

Botha

's

Elements

(

of

.

81

enterprise approach

a

to

the

,

'

and

to

,

of

of -

bulwark

persuaded

also

The

spread

The business community

urban blacks

against

the

ARMSCOR

threat

capitalist

easily convinced the Botha government

life

quality

Business leaders

, .

revolution

class

blacks

a

urban middle

FMF

and

improve

to

need

the

a

spearheaded

as the UF

by

enterprise among young urban

free

save

'

to

all

by

in

established

government and the

forces

white civilisation from the communist major business groupings 1976

and

became

of -

)

(

system

could

remarkable

the

sector both white and black

business

for

The total strategy

which

terms

in

comprehensive policy framework

.

and capitalism

destroy the capitalist

the space

created

join

apartheid

between

Africa

South

in

system

of

collaboration

-

'

'

total onslaught was Soviet inspired and designed

free enterprise

the

The pronouncement that

the

cornerstone

to

also

APARTHEID

to

tool, but or the

, SEGREGATION , AND

COLONIALISM

.

:

of

3

the

PART

the

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY OF THE AFRIKANER

Its

and the living grain

NP be



against the

of

that separate

urbanised Africans should

long last

of

at

Riekert commission

the Fagan commission more than

the view

'

,

be

'

,

in

,

be

to

'

' in

better

kept out

.

This on

'

the white areas and

was

it

place and that

,

in

'

outsiders was based

of

the pre

,

.

extent than before

see

(

greater

even

of

only while the movement

,



to to

and

both the corporate sector and the

'



restricted

any urban area

control measures Paradoxically

insiders

an

be

accepted

now

applied

be

to



was

to

'

outsiders

was

means

by

Bantustans

the free market approach

government

by

the

in

capitalist sector

'



dualistic economy was still

separate the modern capitalist sector

to

possible

a

supposition that

should

control measures

insiders and

into

'

'

of

'

the

division

the commission said

urban areas with even stricter influx

the African population

were those with

Rural outsiders were

.

,

white

the one

improved through property rights

housing better training and higher wages the

on

's

,

should

insiders

insiders

and work

to

move

be

, '

life

to

in

'

freedom

recommendations



:

be

in

the other Urban

white urban areas whom

of

'

whose quality

two groups urban



unrestricted

Riekert commission

.

granted

on

10

rights

' '

section

divided

outsiders



,

and rural

the

the

most important

was that Africans should hand

of

.

years earlier

Perhaps

of

main focus

of

,

of

acknowledged the correctness

).

18

mines

the

argued

the

,

.

but

of black

better utilisation

the

The commission reiterated

permanence

facto

process

the

In

acknowledged

30

-

urban areas

de

that

to

excluding

was non negotiable



orthodoxy

Africans

-

development

labour market

the

conditions

view

a

Utilisation Commission 1979 : para

in

of

the African

was

with

-

' (Manpower

manpower

Africa,

in South

.

labour market

ESTABLISHMENT

).

10

of

'





'

for

,

to

tape

red

,

This was urgently needed the

Bantustans

introducing 99

massive electrification project

see

(

and launching

a

for

-

,

upgrading greater Soweto

run down

.

renewal

to

urban

by to

in

sorts

On the positive side the government accepted

.

)

had

important

political the

’,

'

of

it



insiders

still convinced that the Bantustans political rights outsiders presented with difficult political

'

vehicle

permanence

the

for

the government was

of

While

recommendations

's

commission

adequate

acknowledged

section

5



:

.

implications

83

ownership

The Riekert

with

which African townships had been allowed

plan was announced

Hindson 1987

an

another

Vorster period when home building was shifted

year leasehold

were

insiders

a

of the

1980

a

In

during

.

recommendations

's

Riekert

from

area

the government encountered

.

doing

them

the way

possible

now

one industrial

from

prevented

because

was

on

move

to

rights

While

so

.

several problems

it

,

In

applying the Riekert recommendations

all



:

Davenport 1991 379 400

331

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID the early

1980s to allow

1981 election manifesto

local authorities

these black

BLAS

a

,

suggested

eventually

also

could

Bantustans thereby providing the basis

the

political settlement

tied

that

to

its

local authorities . In

by

be replaced

the the

which the BAABs would gradually

in

in be

process

a

townships .

of

in

NP

envisaged

black

it decided

this problem

elect their own 'community councils ’ in urban African

‘insiders ’ to It

‘solve

To

for

challenge .

)

3

(

PART

terms

Meara

the

:

1996

'

(O

-

the

of

.4 ).

10

in

'(

facilitated

also

of

.

in

'

in

of

to a

Riekert reforms

simply

who

and vehemently

struggle against

1980s The government

attacks

that received considerable

international

to

in

the

aggressive movement

squatters gave rise

on

resisted

forced removals

explosive situations

and put the government under

coverage

was especially the situation

the Western

in

.

It

pressure

into

moved

in

The squatters





areas

,

urban

late 1970s and escalated

's

of

the

'

white

squatters

'

.

already impoverished rural outsiders

millions

'

back

them

.

the wages

see table

an

the

by

to

's

send

severe international

But

sharp increase

outsiders

the

.6 ). defeated

the periphery

in

started

was

to

attempts

urban areas

more capital intensive basis

barricade

to

illegally

applied

9

;

intention

the Bantustans

force

the income

and a

production

see also section

Riekert

Wiehahn on

reorganisation

of ,

together

Taken

274

further decline

of

and

both commissions led

the



',

insiders

a

recommendations

more flexible labour

a

corporate sector

the Wiehahn and Riekert commissions

long way towards meeting the demands

a

the government went

of for

by

The recommendations

as

of

.82

Verwoerdian doctrine

a

.

to

,

in

,

.

to

.

1986



the squatters In

,

build new

137

-

:

1986

policy

;

cherished

of

government abolished influx 45

the



of

In

,

a

be

in

started

and

the Cape Peninsula

al its

Cobbett

et

of



83

1987

:

(

Hindson

the failure

the

large informal African

immense symbolic importance sector

1985

the

territorial

see also section

332

urban

Africans

there

was

in

,

to

the

in

rights

no

Africans with voting

,

perspective

urban

of

to

-

so

but not

coloureds and Indians new

logic

BLAs

.

called tricameral parliament was extended

,

the

1984 representation

in

second structural contradiction was created when

,

A

in

3 2

. .3 .)

apartheid

two weeks When

Crossroads

rights

corporate

control thus acknowledging

;

under pressure from

5

the

a

resounding victory

at



-

African townships with leasehold attained

within

the permanence

the

-by

'

in

Soweto

African women were sent back

, of

returned

them

government finally accepted settlements

of

thousands

sea

,

Transkei but most

wills

,

battle

of

protracted

of

to

,

,

at

Cape and particularly Crossroads that received the most attention because Cape larger the Western was supposed coloured preference area

From

the

not extending

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY

play

of

in

of

low

voters

Front

the BLA elections

all

in

a

to

to

, .

of

to

South

of

the

,

prevent

to

protest and

in

participating

liberation

political

the black trade union movement was struggle

the liberation

see

(

fully involved

3

, 2



:

500

the Congress

).

Davenport 1991 401

,

and



.

in

already entirely politicised

prevent any

the late 1880s

in

by

At that stage

vain

the

political grievances

internal wing

the government

COSATU and other black trade unions from

movements were

permitted

and

December 1985 established close

in

(

attempts

in

,

the

.

founded

UDF and became part

Renewed

express their

and especially those affiliated

African Trade Unions COSATU

political

political parties and trade unions

between

of

trade unions

struggle

it

of

financial links

any meaningful vehicle

the

from

1981 abolished

also laid down strict rules

the

or

of

the absence

with

trade union membership

mixed trade unions

direct association

Africans

, of

to

to in

respect

,

of

formation

ties

reforms arose

extend formal trade union rights

Although the Labour Relations Amendment Act

racial distinctions

black

the Botha

.

vacuum

of

structural contradiction

third

),

A

.

-

co

83

ordinating the internal struggle

the liberation movement during the 1980s

.

reform

the United Democratic

turnout

the

key role

in

to

The UDF came

1983

Wiehahn proposals

In

well

as

1983

formation

a

,

in

)

of of

(

UDF

August

as

programme was expressed in

ESTABLISHMENT

with Botha 's restricted

. Dissatisfaction

to them

the

parliamentary rights

OF THE AFRIKANER

90

to

.6

9

,

The apartheid system and discriminatory legislation with special reference the black labour market

into

tried

different racial groups and

of

the

or

'(



legislation despite the strange that during the

the English establishment displayed

scruples

84

few

racial discrimination

more 3 3 3

entrench

far

began

a

NP

in

1948 the

to

In

.

over repressive and discriminatory practices

African

, ,

is

and

indeed

and

nor the legal profession

,

the 20th century

It

'

costs

the coloured

society

discriminatory practices

fact that they increased employers

first half

themain motivation

,

neither civil

.

was particularly critical

legally

protect poor whites

from

of

Before World War

2

)

.

proletariat

against competition

to

.

this racist and discriminatory legislation was

Afrikaner proletariat

by

first half unsystematic somewhat

social conventions Besides health considerations

sanction

the racist

to

divide the population

During

were

of

and segregationism

various governments

an

20th century

and early

South

practices the

19th

Social Darwinism

,

,

to

manner

century

.

the late

18th

a

since the

century

the 20th

for

of

ideologies

in

legitimised

integral part

Discriminatory

century

in

society

legislation have been

and

,

African

practices

.

Discriminatory

of

)



(

1948

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

PART

3

comprehensive and systematic

way , at

world about the advancement

of human

time when thinking

a

rights

and

the western

in

elimination of racial

the

organisation

of by

,

,

in

's

of

).

3

of

'

:

of

et

(

al

,

To

.

'

a

.

of

were

well

as

as

)

1950

(

',



the Prohibition

Population

The

identified and registered

from

,

.

,

In

.

to

secure residential and occupational segregation

declared

for the exclusive

the

Group Areas Act which

use

of

be

a

purity

whites and blacks

scheme contained

uniform to

1993

described

and white people

black

of

in

by

Bonner

one particular racial

of

of

.

the

The Extension

minister

away The

education

and

a

century

, .

black

be

,

of

than

the

secretary

taken

of

Dr

,

education

'.

Bantu

empowered

schooling

for more

formalised the segregation



1959

)

Act

(

Education

)

laid the foundations

(

1953

As chairman

Werner Eiselein

to

,

the Christian missions that had controlled

Black Education Act

334

1949

that control over African

recommended

for

from

Commission appointed

it

of

the NAD

the four population groups in

systems

separate education Bantu Education

the discriminatory legislation was the creation for

An important part

of

.

group

and

racism

85

provided for areas

people

racial

four racial groups This act caused severe hardship community 1950 the piecemeal regional attempts

period

-

were replaced

on

,

required

)

of

(

as

in

the pre apartheid

.

to

:

)

of

between

extramarital sexual relations between birth members one especially the coloured

lines

and the Immorality Amendment Act

forbid marriages

Registration Act 1950

racial

in

to

introduced

Hitler

and discriminatory legislation

segregationist

maintain

and

the alleged

address

politicisation

racial

be

In

(

Mixed Marriages Act 1949

to

order

statute books

a

,

,

,

a

plethora

after

felt increasingly

the influx control mechanisms

besides

.

the

on

the

of

For this purpose

earlier the NP placed

embarked

racism

Afrikaners

advancement

and

entire society along

,

, 30 ).

28 –

on

the restructuring

especially

to

of

black

black swamping the

dangers

from

racism

with the dangers

was obsessed

Whites

social mobility NP

by

.

swamping and racial mixing threatened

a

power

to

came

it

,

NP

(

When the

against

reaction against the blatant

Hellman and Lever 1980

in

see

detailed code

The movement away

doubt that the reaction

discrimination after the war was Nazism

1948

decolonisation that had gathered momentum

no

can

aspire

82 —

the process

Dugard

and

rights and fundamental freedoms was

and towards human

There

This was followed

of

to

by

.

war

respect

Human Rights which contains

be

the

enhanced

religion

which states are expected

discrimination

‘universal

for

’.

language

the Universal Declaration

freedoms

or

race sex

,

distinction

working

to

rights and fundamental freedoms for all without

human

,

as

observance

to

of ,

that

of

committed

for ,

discrimination was changing fundamentally . The UN charter adopted in 1945

University

designate colleges for

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY OF THE AFRIKANER

specified African ethnic groups. 86 African education was

mission -based

educational

still imbued with

system

assimilationist ideals (Marks and Trapido 1987 : 21). Although the

in

into

who were not only concerned

,

prospect but were also alarmed

,

89

,

the

been

'.

division

blurred

and

servicemen

about their own economic

the advancement

black workers into

to

)

(

).

to





use

.

townships Africans

to

:

5

, -

if

urban

,

).

from

the act

in

in

for

introducing

urban

African trade unions

divided into four phases

,

labour discrimination can 1990

3

1950

by

its

,

job



(

training and

under

white urban areas But

of

(

the ban

the government

reservation

Even

.

It

's

the four decades from

the

103

taken

:

.9

policies

'

in

The

continued

NP

townships

encouraged

Africans

1976

be

act prohibited blacks

This

building industry

housing

Truu

report

endorsed

1951

on

and

on

permitted

of

the supply

increase

in

performing skilled work

the

Building Workers Act

Black

to

the

the white trade unions

from

not the steps

in

Van der Horst

before the commission could complete pressure

races and

in

ensure the desired protection

for

be

adequate protection

ILC

the existing wage regulating legislation

,

or



not

all

as

whether

'

to

operates

an

report inter alia

the Industrial Legislation Commission

appointed

on

1948

NP

the

In

.

90

industrial jobs during the war

dilutions

sharp

Many

of

by

were Afrikaners

.

area

semi skilled jobs had emerged

-

of

racially mixed

war Smuts

these

the formerly

white skilled and black unskilled workers had

between

'

the colour bar and

'

'

.

Blacks had advanced

serious shortages

After

created

more skilled jobs

,

from

Owing

of

meet the

-



,

To

the

steps under emergency war measures

addressing the contradictions

and

semi skilled jobs racially defined legal

dilution

a

'

jobs

,

refrained

groups

.

an

fell outside

skilled labour the Smuts government allowed

masked these

the public

explosive labour situation

.

who

race groups

,

be

to

to

,

to

faced

and unskilled

skilled

'

classification

quality between

industrial production during the war new

for Africans

created

particular

different population

'

in

power

'

were

of

to

the increase

the

differences

transport facilities allocated When the NP rose

reserved

88

there were large

it

although

transport

and

voters

which allowed

1953

for (

),

(

facilities

the common

from

Act

Separate Amenities

and the Reservation

public

removed coloured people

of

,

roll

Separate Representation

.

Act 1951 which

effect on not only

of

very negative

a

-

laws that had

Africans but also on coloureds and Indians were Voters

it remained

. 87

ex

Other discriminatory

,

education

),

white education

to

of primary

extended the reach

by

inferior

vastly

' greatly

education

the

* Bantu

of

system

'

a

for

of

of

the

ideological control over the black intelligentsia who were

to gain

product

over by the state

taken

a

an attempt

in

ESTABLISHMENT

35

i

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND

APARTHEID

3

In

the

1950s

legal

the

for

PART

framework

grand

apartheid

more

and

the policy encountered

stiff opposition

employers complained vociferously about the shortage

of

low

level

,

skilled workers

'

while growing concern was expressed over the

of of

implementation

;

of

the 1960s

In

ii

the

.

comprehensive job reservation was created

most

wages

-

to

an

. to

the

in

of set

the

recognised

The Black

of of .

be

rejected the

becoming members

from

to

'

not the same

definition

)

(

exclude African men and women

the

employee

registered

.

92

to

obstacle

they had

trade unions should

Labour Relations Regulation Act 1953 amended trade unions

trade unions

The government immediately

'.

that African

led

of

,

workers

when

'

non European

colour bar was

the

Europeans

that

as

opportunities

that African

recommended

more

1950s

an

's

.

of ,

and concluded

introduction

discriminatory policies was

a

1951

further progress as

NP

the

in

its

the

report

and

,

discriminatory measures

be recognised

recommendation

.

for grand apartheid

The scene for the first phase

reforms

the Wiehahn

militancy

and

It

. ./

9 6

comprehensive

attempt

Wiehahn reforms

the

labour instability

ILC tabled

on

.

implementation

The legal framework

should

This culminated

of

iv

During the 1980s unforeseen

in

stagflation

many policies

in

the

grip

the

break

government backtracked

of

the 1970s the

In

iii

.

blacks

336

'S ,

)

in

of

of

for to

95

.

,

far more affected

,

directly

maintain the

employment

of

the clock

respect

to

to

in

,

the number

people

to

in

to

of

.94

back



to

' ,

of

der Horst

were conducted

they were

,

turn

of

It

.

of

,

an

the “

,

reserve particular

the

also

van

labour

any race

particular areas

of

but

,

status quo

investigate and

investigations

reservation

Sheila

job reservation

her these orders were not only designed

to

.

indicate

According

to

,

important than their number

some cases

employees

industrial tribunal

of

.

According

non

manufacturing

The act gave the minister

of

and 1971

and orders issued

five members

in

1956

job

Between

and also

particular race groups

27

work formembers

was extended

the economic welfare

,

of

trade

reservation

requiring

ignored the ILC

the further progress

act provided

the new

industrial tribunal

safeguard

by

or

blanket powers

to

issue orders concerning

Africans

of

Section

Industrial

the

legal job bar which previously had only

employment 77

an 93

of .

and for the creation

kinds

and

1924 and 1937

obstacle

to

the new act

and commercial

coloureds and Indians

any industry

was

industry

job

,

construction

replace those

or

the mining

government introduced

the

to

'.

to

In

colour

European workers applied

to

1956

bar

of

a

Conciliation Act conclusion that

deliberations

an

lengthy

After

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY

of different racial groups

. Many of the orders

,

'

on

the positions

of

,

of

the 1950s

to in

white

even

those with

and training

,

rights

and were

their opportunities

addition

,

In

reservation

section

-

contrast with the statutory privileges

.

job

by

of

trade unions were using their

entered the labour market with much less education further disadvantaged

of

white unemployment was

for

Africans

protect large numbers

'

.

In

to

starkly

-

white workers

end

1956

their petit bourgeois privileges

entrench

At the

differed

,

enjoyed

the Afrikaner

stage

.

of

African workers by

and

competition

black

15

.97

passed

,

the one hand and that



of

and 1937

1924

bargaining power

considerable the face

At that

1956

and

important difference between themotivation for the

.

in

an

issue

both employers

council decisions

unemployed poor whites against black competition not

such

overrule

other While the first two were

' .

representing

Whites

)

at

(

enabling

industrial conciliation acts the

were paid

the government amended the Industrial

it

,

in

1959

there was

than

industrial council

an

,

However on

lower wages

vetoed the determination

Act

Conciliation

the competition experienced from

,

unions

trade

different oper

to

When

: ch

were threatening

firms

to

because

'

the

Bantu

, ’ .

manufacture

1994

,

.

employed

Clark

%

given was that some

The reason

replace their white workers

firms who

reserved

1958

to

ations for whites

also

).

Job Reservation Determination

on

discrimination

public corporations

certain level ( Van

a

1991: 512 ; see

of

Truu

3

6

1976 : 102 – 8 ; Davenport

of

stipulated that the percentage

coloureds ) should not decline below

and

in

for

job

der Horst, in

of

whites (or whites

which

in

10

changes were taking place

ESTABLISHMENT

occupations and industries

in

no

members

OF THE AFRIKANER

,

and therefore their

and the police



contract

African

farm

1932

the

The

and mineworkers

a

by

-

criminal offence

of

masters and servants laws and the Native Service Contract Act last named actmade breaches

by

the bureaucracy

rendered

).

employers

were

(

-à -

vis

in

trade union membership

legal strikes Many African workers

vis

virtually rightless

from

,

participate

their exclusion

, .

right

to

reduced

by

advancement and mobility were seriously curtailed and their bargaining power

which meant they could not legally leave their jobs without

from

reservation

the 1960s amid

employers about the growing scarcity

of

increasing complaints

job

in

of

reformist implementation

'

The

'

. .2

9 6

'

.98

their employers consent

skilled

labour

,

,

During this economic

boom

3 3 7

year

.

per cent

.

of

the economy During this decade South a

,

grew

5 5

economy

sectors

by

's

Africa

all

,

in

of

skilled labour occurred

in

NP

by

discriminatory legislation and practices introduced the government coincided with the prosperous 1960s when serious shortages

The second phase

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

numbers , and at higher

Successive economic development programmes

.

, it

,

of ,

,

,

.

on

and

.

,

.

99

. )

a

by

/

be

’,

'

to

a

or

cheap

,

of

supported

unskilled African

an

.

labour

intense struggle in

in

-

'

.

to

According

-

to

.

, to

attitude

Nationalists

'

of ,

with many

the as

'

discriminatory measures

racist policies and step

According

government

its

NP NP s

A

strange love hate relationship

the the

.

and divisions among

). that

cen replacement

to

or

.

African workers for whites

per cent

to

,

These problems led

increase

of

was estimated

1970

,

substitute

in

to

R30 million

70

to

a

:

(

the

declining industry with many mines kept open

the

It

.

mechanisation

of

,

By

renewed pressures

the

132

1960 gold mining was

with subsidies amounting

its

some

black unions showed were hardly out 1986

of

at

many

of

industry and

of

the

mining

1980s supported

repressive policies

ambivalence

and apartheid

industry was opposed

the

,

but until

gold

of

),

the

mine owners over segregation

the heart

to

this conflict

existed between

labour

white

which white interests were entrenched lay

,

Merle Lipton

in

,

skilled labour market

Lipton

and the high cost

of

and

compound systems

to

the unskilled African labour market

in

power

of

-

their monopsonistic

discriminatory

sharp conflict between mine owners

a

.

There was

in

visible

increasing effect

and the cost

which Africans were deliberately proletarianised and also subjected

migrant

these

demonstrated

skilled jobs

no

.

of

of

clearly

so

the supply

that

despite

mining than colour bar became more strongly entrenched economy industry the other were the cost decreasing

repressive measures

benefits from

the

the

's

of

1970

was docile and exploitable After

In

the

it

.

These enlarged

This occurred

But

's

keep Africans out

the

which allowed

black worker

1890s onwards the mining industry strongly

,

in

black

person

the

the 1920s

in

under

reclassified

replaced

determination

any other sector

3

and

Laws Amendment Act

Bantu

labour and ensured that

(

the

for the

to

would work

repressive measures

38

and predicted

the government

floating bar

of

concessions

measures

attained

supplying

As the pressures mounted

become

fragmented

white worker would

white person the

no

condition that

colour bar

to

employed whites

the skills

,

no

traditionally white jobs

government

targets were

solve the problem

into the labour market

government allowed

effect

growth

work legally reserved

unilateral attempt

and enticing women

From

African workers would have

and

encouraging immigration upgrading

to

resorted

type

to

.

In

Bantustans

(EDPs ) quantified and made

African unemployment and underemployment especially

in

increase

a

the an

personnel required

levels .

skills

that the white community was incapable

The EDPs also indicated

be

at

,

government

to

work

higher levels if

Indian

to

the

,

explicit the notion that coloured

them

in

greater

in

to allow

of be

Africans

the government

on

for

employ urban

their pressure

to

white employers intensified

a

3

(

PART

white

the

OF THE AFRIKANER

ESTABLISHMENT

At

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY

to

a

,

, in

as

'

to

et

(

of

a

,





,

'

' a

of

to

'

,

' of

.



no the

,

in

,

on

As

see Van

(

in

100

the be

of

an

of

the

of of by

the the

1960s

,

;

the

1950s

and the

and

the

1960s

in

;

it

in

)

of

political rights

,

,

,

white political

1960s the discriminatory

in

few

legal

of

the

political

collective effect

concessions

1918

in

of

'

the

Africans whose

becomes evident that

the 1950s and 1960s than

in

more exploitable

and

African labour

the 1910s

.8 ).

10

8

is

in

-



with only

in

far

far

and

.1

tables

the border areas

and trade union rights enacted

more proletarianised than

Africans were

lucrative

these areas

collective effect

the 1950s

job reservation

fact that Africans were still deprived and were

ceiling

these areas

institutionalised

a

and implemented

part

position

we consider

in

.

of

respect

(

,

influx control legislation in

measures

describe

residential measures

and

domination and racial capitalism repressive

.

in

to

of

term

If

,

ultra exploitability

in

we

.

the

by

F

.

described

personal power had been destroyed educational

Africans

1950s

112

Johnstone uses this

A

In

section

factories

lower wages

living

to

1976

:

Truu

establish

surprising

important priority

that there would

the border areas

maintain

the alleged lower cost

in

der Horst

itself

to

to

entrepreneurs

8 6

, of

strength

(



.

the

at

government announced

-

the

the government pledged

see

the 1940s and during

end

the

,

the

in

1960s

incentives offered

1950s

1960s onwards

Bantustan and border area development became

the skills Africans could acquire

1918

the mid

white

productivity bargains and

).

on

black advancement deals from

The preparedness

in

to

their unyielding attitudes

As

given

participate

the reorganisation

white workers received higher

retraining schemes

agree

NP

jobs

productivity bargain with

of

,

and

to

fringe benefits

workers and white trade unions

the

of ‘

In

.

,

and reclassification

this sector followed the

onwards

for rationalisation

return

severe shortage

ie

negotiating

in

1968

industry

trade unions

fragmentation

,

.

of

the gold

wages

the 1960s From

mining

in

skilled workers the white

;

to

).

-

The steel and engineering sector also experienced example

well

productivity See Crush

90

86

:

the increase

in

the proceeds

share

of

al

1991

of

in

lions

1966

some white

guarantees against retrenchment

return the whites obtained

'

,

as

the

and the

, '

.

After several white strikes

compromise agreement was reached that allowed blacks jobs but

allow

.

,

in

government blocked the experiment

other mines objected

on

productivity but white miners

increased

the

for whites The experiment resulted

reserved

do

fill jobs legally

relax job reservation

agreement with the white unions

an

black workers

to

gold mines reached

owners

of

a

by

took the initiative

12

of

.

In

1964 the mines

a

,

workers

.

industry R30 million year workers with Africans could save the same growing shortage time the mines were badly affected white skilled

339

in

in

,

the

and

job

(

),

Laws Amendment Act 1970

.

by

rights and

more efficient influx control

'

section



attacks

10

intensified

growth

the 1970s While black labour repression was

in

was not extended on

reservation

desperate

a

the

to

1979

the highly discriminatory Bantu

from

1970s

the Wiehahn recommendations

conducive

conditions

of

acceptance

Apart

reservation

economic

create

to

attempt

of

in

The gradual dismantling

by

..

9 6 3

job

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3:

PART

),

in

(

such

in

as

of

1971 job the BAABs the quota system and the creation reservation was gradually dismantled the 1970s under immense pressure

measures

job

in

101

to

of

of

of to

for

the

In

it

.

to

)

for

be

,

as

,

to

long

would

the white unions

under whites was eventually run

-

direct African taxation was also general revenue and expenditure

,

to

principle that expenditure

Business organisations in

that had made

1974 renewed

their

103

reservation

.

relax

that had begun

unofficial black strikes

Durban

in

to

subsidise the industrial training

in

The widespread outbreak

industrial training

.

,

at

.

be to

improve

the stagflation

the government

from

job

on

due

work

Verwoerdian

pegged

finance came

African education started

pressure

340

In

should

Henceforth

poor profits

1972

to

education

to

and

.

abolished

sector

of

African

than those

including Africans

government

several

preparedness

.

by

the private

wages lower

white areas

the

the

established

and announced

trained

government also acknowledged the need for training

its

In

.

for

blacks

,

centres

1972

, /3

.

facilities blacks

in

skilled work

The sacred rule that blacks had

abandoned

them

from

trainees and skilled

these

as

.

perform

to

agreed

white areas

Vorster announced that blacks

1973

In

the

white skilled workers

allowed

in

illegally

Africans were employed

white areas but allowed

townships Many

black

prohibited blacks

which whites were

102

building work

in

for

performing skilled building work

the urban

1951

(

Building Workers Act

The Black

1970

jobs reserved

jobs

to

appointed legally

,

.

unavailable

not

in

but could

be

, .

areas

of

.

for

at

point

.

job

to

a

.

As

do

to

in

Their inability

illustrates

workers were

use

became increasingly

reservation

industry

white construction

result

employees

Many skilled African construction workers were available

them

on

skilled white workers

the

of

per cent

enforce

the building

reservation

be

almost

bar

wages

in

40

maintain the

the

the beginning

strong incentive

skilled work

authorities

of

job the

for

difficult

half

of

gap between

and unskilled black workers became

black workers illegally

the

growing

from

from

discriminatory labour machinery

skilled workers became critical

a

of

1970s This and

.

The scarcity

the

,

determinations but did not dismantle

but also

the first

In

.

several exemptions

authorities allowed

the

white trade unions

)

'( '

enlightened

the

decade

verligte



of

some

the

,

not only English and Afrikaner business organisations

from

1973 drew

OF

the

.

provided

,

job

Bantustan

of

reservation along racial to

was

lines

explicitly

)

17

.



avenport 1991 512

,

in

of

, .

,

expectations the 105

trade unions had risen from

totalmembership

.

the

African workers belonged

,

system

be

the apartheid

any

to

quarter

the 1970s politicised workers increasingly

part

the

to

.

conflicting ways

regarded

avoided

for

almost

of



in

trade unions

registered

per cent

of

registered

end

of

At the

and

National Manpower Commission

a

of

In

.

to

1982 the

1981 20

in

1983 less than

as

union

260 000

all .

at

,

However

to

1980

in

700

,

.

Contrary

labour movement

the African

that African membership

reported

labour stability to

.

promote

Black workers and their trade unions reacted them

Their demands were

of

full scale politicisation

rights extended

trade

labour instability and industrial conflict

of

to

led

urban blacks

unprecedented

-

to

the

Wiehahn reforms

to

these recommendations was

the living conditions

improve

their

accepted the Wiehahn recommendations The

of

main purpose

relaxed

to

of

when the government

should

given

granted some form

in

job

met

reservation

be

Africans should

,

largely

be

-

rights and that

,

union

people

white business

of

,

. .4

9 6

the mid 1970s onwards most

accumulation crisis believed

56

excluded

The unintended consequences Wiehahn reforms increased labour instabili instability and growing trade union militancy the 1980s

From

new

Black trade unions

but that existing determinations had

repealed before they would lose force

due

they

:

,

in

principle

1979

the

.

for

to

implication was that

The

abolished

first time

(D

citizens

the

.

Act

and built this into the Industrial Conciliation

register

Wiehahn

the official labour relations system

.

admitted

declared

formal trade union rights

government accepted the recommendation

commission that Africans

were allowed

trade unions

,

some white

and

Africans

granting

recognise African trade unions 104

refusal

be

of

employers

be

1979

In

favour the

themselves

in

that stage many

in

government remained adamant

At

.

trade unions were formed after the strikes but the

,

African

ESTABLISHMENT

for African labour

consultative mechanisms

effective

of

new

THE AFRIKANER

to

Several

lack

to

to

its

attention

of

the

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY

that

.

reason

white mineworkers

1982 against the

1982

.

in

to

African unions

major The

very rapidly and organised

,

)

After

.

1984

grew

was the last

of

CM

,

NUM

(

Mineworkers

African mineworkers

Owing

.

,

to

the

extend recognition

in

by

strike

bitter rearguard

but found their employers unyielding

of

'

employers organisations

National Union

struck

trade union

to

reservation

of

hostility

job

the

repeal

of

the

.

battle against the reform measures White mineworkers

for

a

but the more verkrampte unions fought

Africans

a

the recommendations

in

trade unions supported

,

rights

for

Most white

extensive negotiations between

341

,

and NUM

workers

stipulations

Act

the Industrial Conciliation

.

trade unions

)

,

labour reforms

the highly charged

of

the

to

, of

all all

,

.

these powers

not use

). at

the end

1984

inception COSATU had

,

It

of

the internal

stabilising

order During

1987

,

from

taming

or

such

became with

part

reforms politicised

.

of

was deeply

COSATU

it

the Wiehahn

to

It

.

in

was

3



,

,

ironic that far

white hegemonic

vain

.

an

were

openly militant way

of

in

its

From

as

in

onwards

.

, .

results

the

labour movement for

devastating

,

-



to

It

. or

job

:

(

402

the UDF and

is

of

the liberation movement

the African

342

member

It

, , a

and acted

other black trade unions

wing

financial links between

the Vaal Triangle

and rapidly spread through the entire country

However strict

give full trade union rights

1991

December 1985

black workers

a

the

.

of

on

Davenport

the unrest that had started

strong political agenda

gave

and think that they would

it

a

All

to

to

in

to

in

its in

formation

working

black workers

cover

these attempts

the government

vacuum

230 000

reservation

prevent any association

exert political pressure

involved

remaining

trade unions

political

from

government redefined the definition

and abolished

completely unrealistic

considerably

,

compared

(

a

1981

in

days were lost

,

to

the

organise

political parties and

From

which was

1982 when almost 400 strikes

Labour Relations Amendment Act

rules were laid down

Africans

South

.

point

including local and foreign migrants and commuters

right

Federation

,

It

107

formed

was subsumed into COSATU

new high

working

In

1973

).

in in

'

eschewing the newly

them

strikes and working days lost increased

took place and 365 000

'

system

formally non racial but

1985

1980 onwards and reached

the

).

FOSATU

(

December

of

Trade Unions

formed

in

African

of

,

and most

formal industrial relations

employee

;

.

largely black memberships

days lost

statutory

system

numerous militant trade unions

1979

The number

employers outside

from



April

the

demand direct recognition

industrial relations

opened

In

,

to

opted

with

.

surrounding labour relations black unions proliferated many

to

atmosphere

them

of

to to

state control

them

represented

In

subject

empower

trade unions

an

attempt

unregistered

their

and

the

or

,

genuine attempt

unions had been

unions had simultaneously been

registered

result black workers a

,

rights

registered

form

(

,

than

a

as

felt that rather

;

circumscribed

join

to

,

Africans

to

extended

right

the

of

Moreover while

the

)

(

the 1980s was African

that Bantustan citizens and migrant workers could not become members

registered

them

in

.

industrial unrest

They were not satisfied with

of

abolished

of

The main source

1979

the industry was finally

in

in

1987 .

August

colour bar

the

the

CM

of

the

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3:

106

PART

with

more strikes

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY

took place than ever before . Most and formed

of

OF THE AFRIKANER

integral part of the struggle against

an

almost desperate

, attempt to

126 – 8 )

1987

in

/8 . But this was

,

1991 : 401 – 2

(Davenport

515 – 17 ; Worden

,

in

,

its

on

of

to

in

a

of

unique

IDC was

was

task

to

.

original

state

place

partnerships with private

Act was

amended

rather than simply

assist

160

state

corporations became

far

).

rule

own

given

power The

Its

.

in

local ventures

,

years

130

1994

,

(

46

the

:

establish

:

'(

,

,

. to

came

public corporations

undertakings

production

doing this the

had already

'

NP

the

far

for

to

to

'

when

NP

In

During

and

their

and large numbers

1942 the Industrial Development Corporation

private enterprises Clark

increase their

labour patterns already

duplication

This

attract FDI

of

to

1939

of

allow

it

.

business

the

.

industry

the establishment

to

fund

in

established

production

racial capitalism

to

character

skilled white workers

,

the gold mining

solve the

was not easy

use highly mechanised

disenfranchised and cheap African workers

corporations perpetuated

were created

and

their higher capital

compensate

In

to

.

of

a

,

,

unskilled

elite

,

powerless

corporations had access

the foreign

capital The only way

small

)

(

by

8 6

. ,

unemployment problem

cost was for the state corporations methods

1928

20th

industry

expand their operations and lower the cost

,

.

order

cheaper European

and ISCOR

foreign companies

compete with foreign corporations

complicate matters

To

products

in

market shares

to

or

ISCOR

)

to

and especially the Afrikaner

ESKOM

1922

1994

(

]

ESKOM

markets dominated

(

white

section

in

As indicated

[

and

disenfranchised and potentially volatile African workers gain access

mining

but

,

class ,

working

,

industry

throughout the

and developed

the needs of the dominant

to

powerful] white

[ and

mining

gold

)

vocal

of the

corporations

state

in

11 ).

[also ) grown

have

century with due attention paid the

her, the labour pattern

to

labour policies of

a

corporations

Africa 's industrial

in South

‘manufacturing ’ the

labour pattern

the

Nancy Clark analyses the

It

‘state

in

,

the

corporations

state

on

apartheid

.

by

period . According

was not only moulded

to

the

by

to

role played

the apartheid

for

of

.

development , and more specifically

in

the end

was almost completely beleaguered

her seminal work Manufacturing

strategic

to

At

too

State corporations and the 'manufacturing of apartheid

.7

In

:

last,

a

or

9

government

trade union movement

1994b

In

counter the politicisation of black trade unions, the

intensified the militant actions of trade unions .

it only

the 1980s the apartheid

black

white regime.

the

government tightened up the Labour Relations Act

late , and

politically motivated ,

were openly

these

ESTABLISHMENT

more 343

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

PART

3

instrument , not only

for industrial develop

general but also for increasing the share of Afrikaner

Afrikaner entrepreneurship

South African manufacturing

complement of cheap institutionalised . The

white

workers ,

African

workers

of

small elite

a

and unskilled

sector –

corporations concentrated

state

"upstream produced

these products ) through processes not unlike

.

.





dilution

To

.

.

,

a

of

a

of

further

skilled and

,

new

the

ESKOM

and

the

NP The

create

of

,

and

to

.

capitalists

S

'

and

mining

of

to

of

a

.

.

protected environment

the

corporations

the

a

of

vehicle for creating via

all

state corporations

In

huge amounts

110

Afrikaner businessmen could as

a

new generation in

to

suspicion

.

to

reversed the

new

ISCOR

control over strategic industries

and channelled

two

Both

extremely valuable

NP government used the IDC

of

,

SASOL and FOSCOR the

gain

experience

early 1950s

finance

despite

a

in

which the

the

entrepreneurial In

gain

Africans

very important tool

racial policies

and

government was eager

state

state corporations

both

their markets and

employ more

corporations became

state

maintained these partnerships corporations

war

them

Anticipating continued

in

to

.

them

partnerships with the AAC proved NP

to

,

to

to

enable

economic

's

monopolisation

be

government

expand their production

its

.

jobs

After 1948 the

NP

and that this was depriving

109

in

work

-

of

move towards

semi skilled

344

the production and marketing

for their products after the

demand

fragmentation

IDC

Africans

.

and steel were making huge profits

to

of

decided

and large numbers

semi skilled and skilled work During the war both ESKOM

the revenue they needed

growth

make profits

steel increased sharply

and

diluted

and ISCOR learnt that their private partners electricity

of

2

the colour bar was

in

in

were employed

electricity

gaining

blacks

with

both

2

an

.

whites

-

,

the demand

War

Even before World

replacing

for

demand

job

creation

the

'

the

the

war

and steel

important justification for launching ESKOM

increasingly

were

achieving

the local market for electricity

this intention

,

meet

gold

their market and labour costs

both

significant control over their workforce and their ability During

production

corporations Although

foreign

both deviated from

corporations

as

).

a

hands

opportunities for whites was and ISCOR

what Clark has called

steel , chemicals , electricity ... ( and

ESKOM and ISCOR succeeded

control over

sizeable part

of

the

in

was still

of

significant measure

Despite this success

large

a

10

:

period before World War

of

the

In a

1994

'(

or

diamonds

goods ... such

mechanised

became far more



on

, key , or produce

‘ skewed '

together with

in

the

ie , highly

,

of

character

production methods and

capital and

the industrial sector. Consequently , the

in

the

in

of



public money

the state

the colour bar after strikes

by

ment

strategic

– and even

of

important

white steelworkers

the the

In

in

(

was

1963

following

of

established

ARMSCOR played

hugely

a

in

IDC was made

the

.

of

important role

ARMSCOR

international arms embargo

an

announcement

1960

Border Areas Development Scheme and

Corporation

Armaments

corporations

state

1956 amply protected

in

the

Industrial Conciliation Act

ESTABLISHMENT

,

responsible

the

for

white skilled workers

THE AFRIKANER

.

.

1948

OF

)

before and after

The

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY

's

,

, or the

'-

,

of

cheap

be

employed

the experience gained to

rural areas

and

state

the

to

extension

by

border policy and industrial decentralisation

of

's

while

corporations were shifted

state

decentralising plants

in

on

of



By

the

. of

,

in

in

fact

the 1940s

in

corporations

an

NP

.

of

1970s were

were made

which African workers could openly

government

mining

as

to

,

a

.

to

remote rural areas

ESCOM

upstream

white elite and large numbers

protected

African workers Where possible the plants

the

developed

the gold

producing

large capital investments

relatively

they

corporations concentrated

state

less finished products

labour force was split into

operatives The

's

.

a

far

all

.

of

goods

,

producer



on

the production

NP rule

precepts

the economic

investment and labour patterns

keep production costs low

To

.

reflect

to

but continued

greater role during the

The new corporations were mainly patterned the

to

operate largely according

during earlier years industry

of

corporations played

state

continued

NP rule

111

.

While

years

25

during the first

of

protecting and perpetuating the apartheid regime during the 1970s and 1980s The public sector share the economy almost doubled

of

and

.

the other By modelling

capital intensity

of

.

This second phase

,

in

.

at

were from

forced

to

,

.

corporations

to

of

state

-

to

the

When

Consequently both the for

the

.

'

,

be

cost effective

large

which

low wages

African workers started

higher level substituting machines

take

unskilled workers

the 1970s onwards

.

the employment

of

on

unskilled migrant labour While semi skilled African operatives were drawn into employment

devastating effect

large numbers

the

and

conditions

,

far

ceased

to

,

capital

the high

Mechanisation proved

employed

1980s the wages

a

racial

gold mining industry and the

production be

in

of

upstream



to

a

to

industry

grand scale

a

a

on

both

of

,

the old formula

mechanisation

had

create

especially

and

mining

gold

the hands

unskilled African workers could

of

in

increase

of

of

state corporations

the 1970s

system

large numbers

the gold mines

the economy was significantly increased

powerful instrument

numbers

their

-

a

be

intensity

the pattern

on

the state corporations

modelling

of

,

the one hand

unskilled and easily controllable African workers

its

,

onwards on

,

capital intensity

by

,

the

a

rested

and

South African economy attained

the mineral revolution

From on

capitalism

state corporations

mining industry

gold

.

unique character

variety

on

on

production

the

By developing

of



'.

native reserves

345

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3:

PART

the 1970s onwards , even larger numbers

from

of unskilled African migrant

of

the gold mining industry

in

for the unemployment

.2 .2

10

see

workers were made redundant by capital deepening and in the state corporations (also section ).

this growing capital intensity

effect

in

the

346

NP

in

.

the

a

of

,

of of

by

'

-

the

to

of

.

(

to

it

in

the

-

's

the

.

'

,

the

,

( of

ANC

,

of

.

the first

During this civil disobedience campaign aim

the

of

of

'

NP

the

the

getting

,

Amendment Act

Communism

of

Riotous

was passed

of

-

opposition more

7

383

Africa

had been

Lötter 1997

;

South –

:

Davenport and Saunders 2000

of

law

which the public

ignored

: 43 ;

',

national security

the

measures introduced over the

'

interests

of

a

series

the

to



,

the on

after the Defiance Campaign

of

to in

and especially

under the Suppression

suppress extra parliamentary

act

,

see

(

).

6

:

1983

ch

then

1954

was one

civil liberty

black circles

the latter was banned

of

In

.

1950

in

.

the

Act

years which

of

few

1952

more radical Congress Alliance

growing militancy

the government

until

influx control measures

laws were openly violated with

CPSA

.

based

Kuper

counter

effectively The 1954

Lodge

extended

the Defiance Campaign

government

Assemblies and Suppression

principles

reaction

The government silenced these protests with threats and

of

Communism

next

context

arrested

of

To

.

influence

enable

government

African

the

transgressors

the

and urged

and non cooperation

understood

1952 applied

between

discriminatory

violence

an

,

-

.

on

-

)

and

laws

This provoked

confrontation

selected

trusteeship

self

).

's '

native

African women

and CPSA

and the

The programme

70

459



:

counter revolution

Verwoerd

head

1948 should

means

Africans

',

,

,

political movements after 1978

of

It

.

of

civil disobedience

strikes

and CPSA

militant Programme

and the rights

white

against

parliamentary

system

important victory

white domination

from

rejected the principle

boycotts

apartheid

gained

be

freedom

determination use

ANCYL

the

NP

demanded

to

overthrowing the existing

When the ANC accepted

won

intensified

Afrikaners

the white dominated

.

,

1949

in

action

The

same time the ANCYL

its

revolutionary struggle

and especially

of

began

to

',

democracy

talk

and

to

question the legitimacy

relentless

and

century

,

'



started

a

.

African majority

the uncivilised

protracted

that promised

manifesto

protect whites

to

segregationist measures

ideological

the

’, of

the basis

place

for

half

the second

the

election

the scene

a

on

along racial lines

confrontation

the 1948

whites that set

and

of

blacks

orientation

important shifts took

1940s

of At

the

in

of

end

of

At

the

of

9

.8

of

The growing radicalisation black protest second half the 20th century

NP

in

For

,

of

all

.

,

,

,

.

/9

in

to

a

the

in

in

's

for

). by

4

arresting

156

,

,

-

communism

on

built mainly

After Verwoerd had announced

indirect rule since

introduction

his

it

1927

,

and with

.

of

)

and corruption

chiefs

policy

authority

enhanced

that were part and parcel

patronage

by

(

1951

tribal

of

Act

its

the

The Bantu Authority

of

.

tribal chiefs

the

a

of

in

Even before the Sharpeville unrest erupted March 1960 the government started moving towards more radical version indirect rule

by NP

of

on

case was

the Native Administration Act

separate development policy

of the

Charter was inspired

political

western

in

state

extra parliamentary

, .113

mind

African liberation

52 –

:

the mainstream

from

by

allegation that the Freedom

's

.

its

,

the

of

'

of

.

.

in

opinion With this consideration the

of -

.

an

;

to

opposition without alienating itself

1958

the state against black protest

clamp down

could

Conference

Their trial which lasted until

's

a

more active strategy

what extent

1958

Conference

Charter

the Freedom

the

seeing

at

aimed

to

,

1961 marked

Halisi 1999

with treason

them

and the

Africanists were not committed

by

black leaders and charging

March

283

1986

it

The

Cameron

government responded

head

The

being resolute and courageous

,

NP

(

,

in

see Coetzer

image

take whatever steps were necessary

:

,

to

-

who would

Africanists

1957 and

African People

The pan

PAC

and projected

Ghana

the All

and

were inspirational events for the non violence

-



.

Independent African States

people

)

-

The independence

Africans

between

African nationalism

was established under the leadership

PAC

(

the

of

'



of of

Robert Sobukwe

for

112

a to

betrayal

ANC and Congress Alliance came

when the Pan Africanist Congress

ethnic

Africanist perspective

operation

ideological rift between the exclusive non racialism multiracialism

the People

inhabitants Certain

-

racial

of

represented

this

minerals banks and industries

co

of

its

,

,

,

and Indians

goal

a

.

the

state ownership

the

The congress adopted

equal rights

those African nationalists with

Charter with

Freedom

coloureds

To

'

'

were also adopted

called

Africa belonged

South

socialist principles such

1955

of

,

that

and declared

as

,

groups

Congress

.

inter alia

June

for

Charter which

, ,

Johannesburg

south

,

Freedom

a

of

at

Kliptown

held

in

purpose several opposition movements organised

victory

their strategy

rethink

all

black leaders were forced

to

election

,

1953

ESTABLISHMENT

Defiance Campaign and after the

an

After the defeat of

OF THE AFRIKANER

,

the

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY

the Afrikaner

officials

)

(

the

English

convincing many

-

speaking

the supposed developmental merits NAD

1960s

could not establish the same rapport with the urban African intelligentsia

They

'

'

new

.

the 1950s and

,

the

of

leaders

successful

of

African

While

in

a

.

the NAD had been exceptionally

urban

segregation

urban intelligentsia

of

rural and

black

of

of

more militant

officials

-



-

to

the

in

and

co

,

of

January 1959 the Promotion Bantu Self Government Act 1959 was passed opt order the conservative rural elite and drive wedge between them

347

as

its

of

,

.

' he

,

,

as

it

the

.

,

,

it

6



Halisi

1999

:

352

;

, it

Davenport 1991

legitimacy

gain

gaining growing

:

the

to

the

in

undermine

(

in

an

about 1960 onwards

From

,

the

ceased

of

It

was nonetheless

storm

.

it

the in

at

up

.

's

the

a

led

on

to

led

,

-

of

30

widespread international

Unlawful Organisations

prohibited

organisations Conse

.

be

prison

provoked

passed the

these events

Orlando police

a

NP

the

for

of

government

1960 the government

.

,

in

Coetzer

,

treason

Mbeki

Ahmed

life imprisonment for (

of

were sentenced

to

,

Govan

the ANC

In

July 1963 police raided

the leadership Sisulu

,

as

their military wing

of

.

,

).

10

:

ch

18 ;

Lodge 1983

In

In

.

in

and Lionel Bernstein

Walter

sabotage after the state had withdrawn charges ch

')

the Nation

Rivonia and detained

Nelson Mandela

launched

1961 the ANC and CPSA

Poqo for the same purpose

-

,

Kathrada

Spear

of

,

1964 these leaders



the MK headquarters

MK

("

we Sizwe

or

to

oppose the state

the PAC launched

:

leaders

After

the ANC and the PAC went underground and increasingly advocated

Umkhonto

348

PAC

foreign investment and

the ANC and the PAC

violent measures

1986

Cape Town

The Sharpeville massacre

to

,

an

.

With

.

April

Act declaring

flight

a

On

8

protest

,

and caused

.

.

and were arrested

unarmed

March 1960 Philip Kgosana

gave themselves

effective protest movement

unrest

while

the centre

leaders

PAC

huge ideological setback

quently

March 1960 when the police fired

,

in

an

be

69

000 Africans

which

anti pass campaign

people On

to

30

of

and killed

Soweto

21

Sharpeville

Sobukwe and other station

PAC launched on

at

1960

demonstrators

march

the

). In

ch

process

neither the black

the black protest movement was

and

tried

concerned

4

March

massacre

to

impressed

which the white regime tried

protest movement

international recognition

a

regime

white

ideological one

and the black

However

nor the international community

the struggle between

became

government internationally

.

urban intelligentsia

1960s

was extremely

to

to

.

Bantustan policy was offered instead

NP

in

legitimising

and

accepted internationally

and externally When the treason

internally

both

the

-

own legitimacy

When

was hopeful that

the early

From

black protest movements that the

trial did not succeed

largely

'

,

NP

the Bantustans would

decolonisation

version

clarion call

international relations

rebuild

NP

's the

to

its

about

Africa

with

two years later

'.

Africa

evident

Bantustan

government

'

'

that the independence South

policy

of ' of

the

help

the rapid

be its

his

a

new

of

prospect

Verwoerd announced this would

decolonisation

of

, .

,

up

it

opened

the lucrative

uhuru

1957 Ghana became independent

in

When

leaders

offer

on

patronage

and Bantustan

development mainly because

separate

,

supposed merits

convincing many tribal

of

succeed

,

,

however

the

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

in

3

of

did

PART

Cameron

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY

OF THE AFRIKANER

ESTABLISHMENT

and PAC , and the imprisonment

After the banning of the ANC

of their key

ten

leaders, the liberation movements and protest organisations were largely

revolutionary

NP

by

,

of in

a

,

.

-

,

the

,

its

in

all

in

of

in

by

,

non violent

1940s

onwards

,

one hand

,

the

on

Africanists

off

a

growing

The and

.

exploitation

be

the late

a

favoured

democrats

-

Christian

to

).

10

,

, an

or

While the

fierce

the ANC

insisted that the communists had

former

,

ANC the latter insisted that while the two organisations had

).

the 1950s the NP government took over African

education

order

to

1999

3

Halisi

:

the other

ch

,

long and fruitful fraternal relationship neither movement had ever (

a

From

and European

in

In

considerable

But the whole

system

increase

by

several ethnic universities

the

was designed

to

black tertiary students

resulted

were therefore still

in

education

and

of

Bantu

The creation

.

number

of

the department

of

.

imbued with assimilationist ideas

system

a

education

in

the mission based

-

produced

,

ideological control over the black intelligentsia who had until then been by

gain

liberal thought

the black protest movement sparked

.

the

the other

were

they

capitalist

and

,

on

captured

'

and SACP

option

.

(

ideas

black

which the

apartheid

African intellectuals and increasingly came in

Marxist

section

colonial

both

founders

's

.

The ANC

debate between black nationalists

controlled

114

rights parliamentarianism

,

acceptance

of

its

with

to

as

as

associated

see

appeal

race consciousness

missionaries associated

democracy remained

liberal democratic path lost

the

elite educated

trends

.



by )

198 200

cultural and religious values long

a

)

formulated

humane treatment human

enjoyed

of ,

of

.

by

,

:

1990

(

The African

BCM

class

United States

the

American

explicit and radical rejection

an

signified

Thompson

influenced

8

of

,

,

.

'

'

black

period The

this

among the new

declined dramatically

Left student movements

the New

thirdly again

consciousness movement

liberalism

the

generation

new

intellectuals Secondly radicalised black middle

African

And

popularity

whose

(

and Europe

and

hindsight

hugely important one

thought were prevalent among blacks

students were inspired

with

and nurture

them

.

of

first was liberalism

forms

With the wisdom

ideas

government

without trial and hold

the 1960s and 1970s was

radical

new

the

see section

leaders

Three strands

generation

to

.

in

gestate

to

serving

arrest people

solitary confinement

peaceful period

seemingly

term

institutionalised

,

. ). 9 4

gave the police broad powers

into

was highly authoritarian

system

suppressed with inhumane methods

Inter alia the coercive apparatus

indefinitely

Africa

(

This security

a

to

and allowed black protest

,

.

'.

'

state

a

comprehensive police

security laws that turned South

of

set

years During the 1960s John Vorster then minister

be

created

a

police

,

of

inactive for more than

349

,

the number

embracing character

.

racial capitalism

and

multitude

At

consumerist

similar experiences

had

of

in

the

in

at

.

in



.

students

the

all

the

apartheid

rules

to

in

,

)

(

in

to

)

's

National 1972

)

(

,

prison

Their defiant

similar attitude

from

injuries sustained

while being held

by

1977



's

.

among black youths during the Soweto uprising two years later Biko

death

in

and stimulated

a

. of

,

sent

their leaders

the security

sent shock waves through South Africa and not only stimulated

the

,

the dock was widely publicised

many

a

Act and

on

charges under the Terrorism

1974

to

September

installation

of

the

.

,

of

Mozambique

and welcomed

1973

in

in

the

Durban strikes

attitude



1968

provide black students with

Convention BPC was formed

were tried

police

In

(

SASO

).

a

black caucus

-

-

NUSAS

90

to

In

Christian

political front while the Black Community Programme BCP

Frelimo government

September

1967

formally non racial but white dominated

Students

an

a

to

in

the University

the

the large

a

,

government

.

in

.

to

of

of

founded

them

the ANC and PAC

NP

the

of

.

in

(

'

encourage

African Student Organisation

.

the

create

.

of

on

of up

was

promote black health and welfare initiatives When SASO and the

BPC supported

in

played

voiceless and vulnerable

delegates

their own The Black People

to

set

was

South

the

South African

operate

black strong

Rhodes University Black delegates formed

SASO broke away from

vehicle

and

(

)

(

UCM

black

'

'

and

at

'

white

the BCM

and

the

Steve Biko

The banning

relatively

liberalism

resulted

black people

and propaganda

which developed into the Union

dignity

left Africans

scale social engineering

Movement

which

of

the

of for

and

circles

The purpose

their own achievements

1960s had

segregated

),

for

In

take credit

merits

role

black

of

.

BCM

intellectual and leadership awareness

Left

the New

consciousness movement

early

1970s the growing rejection

the late 1960s and early

enthusiasm

to

the

the

regulations

and

350

and

military industrial complex during

of

,

radical black

Left

the New

embracing character

the

War

Vietnam

of

the influence

and

of

capitalism

While

student bodies

all -

from

United States was protesting against

Europe

ideological

received

of

foreign

1960s

consisting



's

organisations

and

universities

indigenous New Left

Africa

South

students

intellectual support

radical students

student activities and organisations

the

,

white

of

universities small groups

,

At

and the United States and

the

explosive

of

important role

an

black

time when New Left students were causing havoc

black

What

apartheid

both ethnic and English

played

institutions

was creating

graduates whose upward mobility

of

increasing

was blocked

a

did not realise was that

channel

.

situation

by

by

government apparently

segregated

into

an

black middle class

emerging

to

educated black labour along racial lines and

it

market

in

the

structure

for

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3:

the

PART

7

to

new

that

a

.

He believed

.

a

mass cultural

see Lodge

1983

:

programme

to

revolutionary intellectuals

before they could steer

effective revolutionary

.

by

)

(

of

' a

.

to

of

of

in is

It

by

:

remarkable

that

thinking

anti apartheid

-

and

a

the American South exerted

to

of its

of

consciousness

in

which or

to

be to

of

military

the

mass action



changing

the

teachers

taught teach

in

the government had

in

for

the extent

schools should enough

the

to

the fact that there weren

,

,

.

,

African

for

young black

join

irrevocably

1976

dimension

be

despite

certain

Early

't

Afrikaans

,

that

subjects

in

.

African political landscape

into violence in

'.

Soweto erupted

a

as 115

'

June

stipulated

to

is

It

.

violence

precondition

116

16

'

regarded

dimension 1976

determine

subjective transformation

of

circles that Biko

objective

the

the BCM

the country

The strong

the reason

Soweto uprising thousands

not possible

PAC

it

on

for

)

.

of

brought about

subjective

mass action could

formerly associated with the BCM left the ANC and PAC

the



its

it

necessary precondition

rival the ANC

was strongly committed

own armed struggle

and especially Biko

1976

or

to

replace

,

a

'

violence

the BCM

could not sustain

revolutionary failure After the

South

).

.

in

1972

(

,

of as

emphasis

On

which the early

years later

revolutionary action

black

192



of

.

8 6

see

Power

raise

segregationist practices and

Cell 1982

and other liberation organisations and although

wings

liberation

during the first two decades

anti segregationist

Although SASO launched the BPC

people

the

.

70

some

(

and black

and

the United States

the way

6

,

black

similarly strong influence

we discussed

-

notions

theology

liberation

was the first organisation

BCM

influenced

American South

part

been

segregationism

was strongly

on

of

in

ideology

section

the ideology

century

20th

the

the

Africa

In

'

development

of

in

South

not

had

organisations discourse until then the this idea

particularly

,

black power

of

idea

in

the

dialogue between

Africa and the Africa diaspora

'

in

the

While

the BCM encouraged

in

to

.

Biko and other members

intellectuals

the 1960s

subjective dimension

the

in

populism

struggle

and

Student Non Violent Coordinating Committee SNCC

American

similar commitment

a

shared

civil rights

black theology

-

and

during

of ‘

SASO

Afro Americans -

power

the

black

of

Black consciousness was strongly influenced

the

).

– 6

an

construct

precondition for mass action

of

,

stressed the responsibility

greater

(

he

Africans

necessary

themselves psychologically

movement with

his attempt

South

consciousness was



:

of

Consequently

black

a

's

transformation

323

for

consciousness

emancipate

gave the movement

Davenport and Saunders 2000 434

most important contribution was

Biko

ESTABLISHMENT

).

see

credibility ( political

black consciousness , but also

of

philosophy

OF THE AFRIKANER

a

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY

351

,

which continued

performance

economy since 1974 had caused increased unemployment

the

and poverty

in

of

Afrikaans was not the only

the growth

in

of

confrontation with the

the country

The compulsory use

The downturn

by

an a

bloody

thousands

of

the uprising

.

of

.

sporadically until 1980 cause

that ended

illegal march

Disturbances broke out throughout

.

police

direct cause

Soweto

in

school children

of

This was

in

.

Afrikaans

the

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3:

117

PART

of

in

a

,

of

of

of

of

a

(

the

of

,

.

the

refinery

,

August 1983

in

oil

SASOL

liberation

against

tricameral parliament

,

the new

from

7



,

as

campaign a

a

guerrilla

and

and not only

truly militant

UDF was launched

Africans

.

the

war Despite

a

slippery slope that undermined

the

of

belated

reforms

,

open

the 1980s

vicious circle that its

a

on

plunge the country into

developed into

.

resistance

and during the latter part

to

,

's

state

The draconian

suppress black insurrection provoked more

it

securocrats

to

'

.

total onslaught against South Africa

to

the mid 1970s

-

'

'

total strategy

in

).

the trade union movement

strategic targets

regime was

account

of

for

an

. .

section

9 6 4

see

:

(

;

228

the ANC and other liberation

the early 1980s Davenport and Saunders 2000 30

in

close links with



:

in the

on

by the

a

in

of

of

into

in

the

its

NP

to

struggle and threatened

1990

the alleged

terrorist attacks

,

.

-

of

.

a

When

government introduced

measures used

for

to

.

joined the ANC

,

;

78



well

organised

1976

But many

powerful internal wing The same happened when COSATU

Thompson

counteract

352

of

,

started

organisations were launched

apartheid

It

.

in in

the Soweto

and other trade unions with

growing militancy

the invincibility

was relatively ineffective

uprising

life but transformed

the exclusion

the ANC acquired

view

).

The ANC

protest against

and

the pass

see Davenport and

black South Africans

Africa after Soweto

South

and various power stations

The

psychological point

the myth

destroyed

Soweto

the South African army

regime and attacked strategic targets such

apartheid

458

from

-

.

left

lease

The defeat

1960 the ANC

a

its

new

a

it

minds

marginal role

young people who

movement

the

banning

of

a

played only

, .

of in

54

:

449



Saunders

2000

1975 was also

white power

white military power Following

conditions

slum

it

.

with increasing rigidity

the end

great setback

emergence

Africans

serious housing

The BAABs also took over the implementation

for

Angola

so

at did

in

,

laws and

It

.

,

other townships

Bantustans This resulted

the

the

to

shortage which led

gave

to

'

'

white urban areas

mainly white officials Moreover

government had shifted home building

-

the early 1970s

from

immediately increased rates payable

pay higher salaries

re

inter alia

to

,

residents

from

City Council

Johannesburg

the

benign

by

a

of

.

,

black townships Harsher influx control measures had caused great discontent and BAAB had taken over the administration Soweto from the relatively

the

trustworthiness

OF THE AFRIKANER

and bargaining power. Although economic

of

the

of

as

as

the

be of the

of

to

political

new

).

4

,

:

2

vol

ch

For the activities

see TRC 19981

,

in

preparedness a

.3 .

9

1990

of

.

,

in

;

see also section

the liberation movement from 1960

it

to

1990

,

to

announce

creating

This crisis

situation

9

183



:

'

O

see

1996

of

(

Meara

crises

that could not

the liberation movement over

with

against

had succeeded

them

to

of .

enter into negotiations

the

organisations and the large

economic and security

hegemony forced the NP government

well

1980s

hegemony

the 1980s the liberation

almost unmanageable

or

,

protest movements associated with

of

variety an

By

defend the

of

.

the end

crisis

a

legitimacy became

At

of

Africans

black South

the end

system

the security forces

disinvestment

the propaganda

its

of ,

by

the apartheid

remedied

dispensation

the efficacy

but

of

of

authoritarian methods used

and

redistribution

.4 .1 ) .

the

(

of

war that disputed the legitimacy

accumulation

caused

was perhaps not

white supremacy

the liberation organisations

the international community

legitimate claims

had already

black that brought about

eventual collapse

the military campaign campaign

the struggle

10



of

income see section What hastened

white

from

and political power was ostensibly

a

substantial power shift

intensification to

white

in

the

still

hands ,

ESTABLISHMENT

a

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY

NP ,

the

of

)

,

'

to

A

.

its

in

of

in

to

to

on

,

's of of

-

.

)

(

to

and

Afrikaner

movement

(“

')

salvation

(

')

Salvation League

what extent

'

great leap forward

.

War

,

of

World

2

economy

The

.

in

result

of /9

a

,

1938

,

in

of

1948

what extent the larger share

Reddingsdaadbond

the people

fact Afrikaners

excluding agriculture

it

to

1940s

as

in

9 6

to

/9

in

economy per cent

reddingsdaadbeweging

,

realities but

face harsh

resulted

during from

came after the election

when political power fortified the economic movement After the

,

office Afrikaner corporations became influential

.

the new power constellation

Afrikaner

pressure

business leaders strongly

groups

in

.

1948

assumed

In

, .

of

victory

NP

the

determine

the

the formation

economic congress

war effort

rate

' ' ’

the the “

from

from

African

1938

the

difficult

resulted

emanating

of

growth

supporters

South Africa

South

of

it

is

high

a

Consequently

per cent

to

from

maintained business

£5

increased

the

the ranks

evil forces outside the Afrikaner

Afrikaners not

of

all -

to a

ownership

Afrikaner

their minds

self delusion was not only extremely damaging

make believe world the people

but for

them

,

for

'

'

escape

them

evade hard

deficiencies

some scapegoat

The inclination

lands before

ideologies was the inclination

/

on

)

.

or

society

,

(m

volk

the

ie

blame problems and

to

of

NP

reality and

ainly Afrikaners



of

,

many

1948

rather peculiar

false consciousness

characteristic

from

ideologies about Afrikaner promised

unattainable



,

comprehensive

a

and instilling

presidents

later state

and

his supporters with misguided

placing the prospect

victimisation

2

prime ministers

misled

or

the

(

1994

of

until

six

Each

of

1

Endnotes

supported the

353

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND

emerging Afrikaner

and

cheap ,

with

industrialism

favoured

docile , mainly

of the anti -squatting

.

,

of

's

low

.

in

,

).

3

,

on

of

in NP

,

the 1948 election

the cities During the 1950s

.

to

it



).

4

stay

to

. ).

6 4

per cent

a

4 8

,

average

government

section

of

an

(

urban areas at

grew

due course

in

but

sector

,

in

the public

year

however remember that the economic growth

should

of NP

.

the

40

NP . of

of

The

to

. in



, to

:

-

a

'

six



way

,

).

We

product

,

table

in a

:

1974 gross domestic

:

(

1994



African migrant labour

1

6

Mohr

to

1947

From

before

industrialists convinced the

.

sector Afrikaner

maintain the supply

the

with their own industrial revolution

initially

in

the private

black people

succeeded

government support

elections The per cent total

future

the advantage

320

and

syndrome

dual

This

but only

the one

and capitalism

clever but questionable

of

in

also

of

'

' '

' in

(

and 1960s Afrikaner entrepreneurs with lucrative

also

about African urbanisation of

in

never succeeded

seats

deloaded 1948

stopping the flow

were

22 –

:

as

be a

were

argument

formula

with

imperialism

British

years Davenport 1991

indignation

's

5

46

the next

Despite the

NP

for

power

black

per cent support

food levels

farmers

strategy

double barrelled

peril

winning

election

rural seats

that stage

40

on

.

vote

to

apartheid

ensure

cheap

relatively

at

,

‘ ' it

won the first

At

proved

built

of

.

part

of

the

'

(O

on

the other

used

victims

exploited the

victimisation

its

4

,

it

presented Afrikaners

the

to

,

As

way that would

food policy was maintained after the war Afrikaner

cheap

Second

the government

maize was maintained

profoundly alienated Meara 1996 During the election campaign the NP hand

Fearful

this issue

.

its

applied

to

.

to

When the

of the

prevent the migration farm agriculture strove persuade the

strictly

higher prices for agricultural produce price

IV

to

be

to

heels

workers urban areas Third organised government implement the 1937 Marketing Act policy during the war

on

work

,

laws

as

African labour tenants

unrest the Smuts government dragged

farmers wanted pass

white farmers

wage labourers

a

would have forced

to give

. Implementation of chapter

over African labour tenants

to

greater control

for major policy

vain

in

of act

fought

provisions of the Native Trust and Land Act ( 1936 ) , designed

black

migratory African

First , farmers wanted the immediate implementation

.

supply

to

9 4)

1940s , organised agriculture

Throughout the

measures

stricter

. .

labour ( see section changes

of apartheid ,

conception

NP

‘ practical

3

APARTHEID

3

see

PART

rate

it

)

(

on

see Moll

).

80

1996

:

'

Meara

If

.

1975

of

in

of

private industry

per cent

industrial output under the control 1975

a

21 ).

of

:

to

1948

21

Afrikaner control in

,

per cent

policy

Afrikaner community instead

see Sadie 2002

policies

(O

,

the total

in

of

45

to

per cent

of of

'

NP

from

Stellenbosch already favoured

the

problem

9

)

(

rose

of

'

consequence

state corporations are included

3

rate

were not

doubtful suppositions

(

C

Schumann

the poor white

excluding agriculture

rose

growth

.

a

Largely

as

concentrating 8

GW

promote the wealthier component on

to

7

During the 1940s Prof

54

but based

large influx

91 )

.

-

:

271

interesting

,

His argument

apartheid

is

if

.

of

foreign investment during this period Terence Moll claims that during the 1950s and 1960s could have been much higher

1991

73



(

'

and South Africa enjoyed

for

foreign investors

the a

lucrative opportunities

,

for

.

its

'

of

capitalism the OECD countries during the golden age 1950 was even higher The white hegemonic order and repressive labour system created

the

Afrikaners

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY 9

that , 'as

of NP

was part

While ethnic favouritism

OF THE AFRIKANER policy

it

the NP administration matured

political corruption

. It

administration

was

common

ESTABLISHMENT

,

1948 onwards Lodge observes

from

.

became more degenerate

By the 1980s

both central government and

in

was especially entrenched

domains of government

those

in

homeland

in

secret funds . .. Quite mysterious operations the world of covert (several] central government

activity which one might term “ strategic ” and which expended

.

:

by

Africa

South

)

the average

American

investments

against

174

conducive

capital

by

-

far

:

'

1996

conditions

to

Meara

,

South African

as

1974

controlled corporations but also

the Afrikaner

after

-

as

As on

apartheid

the post Sharpeville crackdown

late

create

ease

The costs were visited upon

'(

.

see O

(

preparedness

's

accumulation not only

Britain

to

in 18

an

NP government

The

in

8

of

return

per cent

cent return

the world per

of

,

ie

(

corporation received

. ..

view

comparative

) with

Marais 2001

fears had been allayed

after investor

only

).

by the apartheid

resolved

system

foreign capital invested

on

,

return

among the highest

was

a

'were

the 1940s

population

,

the 11

particularly African

The average rate 1964

of

end

capital 's point of

. .. from

and little disruption

12

at the

system

(on behalf of the English -controlled capitalist

black

9 – 60

19 )

observes

political economic state

:

1999

).

Marais

' (Lodge

corruption

correctly that the contradictions inherent in the South African

by

10

of routinised

had a history

departments

in

aside from

the

the Afrikaner owned insurance giant Sanlam

.

co

in

but

Slowly

to a

its

the late 1960s

and Finance Corporation

-

of

subsidiary

,

this was when

General Mining

surely

by ,

The best example

the AAC practically handed over

,

of

the English business sector

.

by

-

more prominent English controlled corporations was acknowledged and rewarded

the



, ‘

to

a

of

as

'(

)

full swing Marais

in

)

of

-

Afrikaner capital

by

,

1967

or

. ) .

in

,

million

9 5

(

R66

8

to

workers more

farm

see section

-

on

.

.

education

,

an

of

.

on

state

per cent

commission

average white

power was

to

consolidate

its

160

).

:

1978 to

the

NP

Wilson

74

despite the fact that black agricultural

(

1966

the most effective methods used

1960 and 1975 most

support

A

year between

20

per cent

by

1866

low

the government

The government also

The output white owned Although 1949 until 1959 the average real

black

prevailed –

This situation

).

:

.

to

control African

a

on 7 3

,

by

grew

increased from

of

,

all

to

agriculture

workers were exceptionally

per cent from

143



by

farmers

of ,

a

to

,

of

'

(O

.

50

in

in

75

to

in

of

.

in

income

1996

white farms declined

the money spent

1972 that state assistance provided

farmer

's

Meara

were virtually totally dependent

reported

wages barely

per cent

spending

white farmers

white farmers

1976

the number

for white farmers amounted

state

by

of

farm

47

The wages

farms increased

of

000

Similarly

the 1950s and 1960s was related

Total state subsidies

income

1970

the steps demanded

almost double the

16

In

.. .[

(

1950

000

that more than

of

.

strictly

96

.

all

research

to

in

estimated in

14

120 000

on It is

1936

from

took

15

the

economy was

favouring the larger farmers led continuous outflow whites agriculture The number agriculture fishing forestry whites and fell from

180 000

One

the graduation

of

policy

in

from

1970

still English dominated

into the steadily

.

:

13

The

conglomerates

the economy and integrated

21 )

junior partner

in

evolving web

of

into the upper reaches

propelled

2001



-

.

-

-

especially ideologically opted Afrikaner controlled corporations were the English controlled corporations According Marais Afrikaner capitalists were

355

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

the

of

Africa

South

into

By

of

.

republic

,

1961

.

change

to

in

1960

enough

important point that the English establishment lost the political

'

Freund makes

and republicanism

on

17

support was mobilised

into large scale corruption

turned

Afrikaner nationalism

in

long run the favouritism

beating the ideological drums

patronage and

-

.

favouritism

every possible form

through

a

Afrikaner constituency

its

build up

the

3

In

PART

of

).

:

This protest against the

of

439

1999

state was valuable during the final and repressive

apartheid

]

[

[

to

be

)

Hyslop

in

the Rechtstaat

(

violations

'

of

) (

to



.. . ) [

civil



of

in

many key areas terms that encouraged their continued prominence society when they protested against the political order the apartheid state against abuses legal they tended the structures and battle but

phase

the apartheid

12

.

the later

This was judge

by a

if

authorised

in

to

interrogation

days was permitted

indefinite period

an

regard

with

in

of

1963 and

to

to

days

police were extended

without trial for

and detention 90

,

procedures extended

powers

in

1962

the

the

In

18

.

regime

,

an

.

, .

9 8

to

;

the

.

of

view

to

.

,

20

the

,

,

found blacks

.

,

,

by 1 7

to

to

. ).

section

10 2

(

astonishing inability

to

an

per

year amounting

,

,

0 7

of

R900 and

1994 real GDP only increased by

.

1974

a

From

price increased

see

1

,

when the gold to

1994

1980

of

a

increasingly

order

made more and more concessions

The Vorster government was paralysed and displayed the true meaning

until 1994

1974

from

bargaining

it

20

years

,

a

TRC

them

were

of

revival

years

per cent cent year while real per capita income declined quarter century creeping poverty and rising unemployment

22

1994

and ideological point

moral

economic

/

The only two exceptions

an

this

pacify

/5

to

attempt

the economic

1960

from

active

For the see

. At

of a

:

the

of

from

in

a

slope

,

a

in 21

see also section

was that the white hegemonic

,

on

slippery

during

gradually

Consequently during these vain

200

198

white regime was sudden and dramatic

blacks increased

The main reason itself

that stage

).

collapse for

of

position

consciousness

black

ch 3

2

vol

the

20

:

1998

Although

1960s was the

philosophical movement than

the state against the liberation movements

,

of

(

,

however black consciousness wasmore political programme Thompson 1990 actions

resistance

of

of

African

the powerful new ideology



important development

The only

emergence

in

19

.

1965

to

,

to 4 8

,

.

a

2 4

,

in

supremacy and

it

white

the

,

rather astute twist because

,

a

the business sector

by

of

ARMSCOR

not

).

,

by

in

by

establishment

strengthen their position

bureaucracy but also

,

of

a

real

was not only

'

' .

in

communist countries but almost all countries the world government the Botha could not have maintained total strategy its

,

to

,

government

was against the racist character

supported

.

.

W

,

the

Botha and the military

production substantial expansion propaganda point view this was

struggle

However

of

's

of at

's

P

of of

Vorster

in

It

a

as

period

'



From

a

24

(

through

per cent per cent GDP doubled from this high level until 1989 This was clear

defence

the government and

in

only

.

six

lame duck

used the

percentage

remained

that the minster

indication

3 5 6

the liberation organisations

Defence spending years these in

23

encouragement

to

by

of

by

.

to

the crisis Vorster was clearly unable reorient himself regional Mozambique independence the new situation created the and Angola political leadership gave unexpected moral The vacuum created Vorster lack grasp

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY OF THE AFRIKANER empire ' without the comprehensive

ideological

– was essentially

'

that the total strategy

moral considerations , could its

of

the

a

NP

bureaucratic

'

:

the

300

few

the

during

, To

.

to

(

.

,

a “ co

of

'

spending was more

despite the serious

of

Dr

an

of

(

between January to

1991

464

enabled the ANC

From

now

far more effective punitive measure

was

it

.

It

(

South Africa

.

on

them

and externally

Africans

South

).

prices

:

withdrew

Davenport

bargain

,

a

British firms had

184 American corporations

buy

This crisis had many ramifications both internally

mounting external pressures

Andries

on

,

1989

firms which

sold their assets

)

One fifth

April at

By

1988

and

important

).

table

. 15 .6

:

1986

ie ,

, of

-

/9

and 1978

/2

1971

level

1982 and the defection

114 American

the

its

'

'

all

for



of .

by

February

Calitz

clear that disinvestment was

an

to

,

).

into

).

of

This low

the Botha years

mainly whites who could raise the finance

(

and

especially

his reforms degenerated

firms was considerable

Africa

and

corrupt wheeling and

This happened

half between

than

GDP

to

, .

in

NP

Africa Of the and April 1988 most

consolidate

sorts

The fact that the Botha government was unable

by

by

South

from

had left South 1986

foreign

private

between

maintain high agricultural subsidies was

Treurnicht and his supporters withdrawn

more

per cent

(

the

to

)

.

in

the split

,

of

'

,

on

in

the early 1980s

perhaps also unprepared

Disinvestment

1985

during the remainder

less maintained

for

0 6

to

,

1 5

only

and

1989

'(

Terreblanche

agriculture was cut

per cent

of

Rubicon

's '

,

speech

.

of

after Botha

optive domination

legislation

14

agreements

into structural corruption

turned

led

of

security

transactions between ARMSCOR

subcontractors set the scene

dealing that eventually

reason

-

its

's

of

.

reforms also

'

total

It

public sector institutions and the lucrative

drought

neutralise

the military and security

strategy

strengthened

was not surprising that the overt and covert

from

also

SSC

violence against the liberation organisations

ch

321

,

:

(

1996

3

their supporters

repression



even

security interests

,

more ruthless levels

Spending

)

',

'

or

did

the

political

sanctioned

when

but

council

),

of

-

,

he

to

Meara

multitude

and the

political position

security

state

total strategy

and

states correctly that the

intensification and

co

(

to

his

the reform

of

.

process

administration and

'

forces

O

interests

consolidate his own rather vulnerable

power even further Botha created the

,

of

therefore

operation with the securocrats

policy agenda was cabinet whom not like trust Botha attempt reconcile the economic interests business the political his

an in

ministers

or

298

1986

of

.

Botha used his close

manage

to

not only

28

and

'

,

,

of

PW

his

consolidate

29

Cameron

stagflation

business community

30

the

moral content

structural corruption

in

Aswegen

not

profitable concerns ARMSCOR was one expansion parastatal the continued this was crucial for 5000 odd

and

to

the

be

'.

Van

:

'

(O

1996

;

1980s Meara During the time

The absence

the reason why

into such widespread

descended

subcontractors

27

could also

'

establishment

26

,

total strategy

ch

of

ideology

white establishment

and even immoral methods

ruthless

such

the total strategy

with the methods

agree

beleaguered

but also against those political opponents who

enemies

of

not only against

as a

during the 1980s )

( especially

13

employed

The fact

survivalist ideology , deprived of any

why the

be the reason

.

moral and religious crusade

a

was now presented

– as a typical petit

nationalism

did

bourgeois phenomenon

258 – 69 ) .

in

the G /NP in

of

25 Since the formation

1934 , Afrikaner

and material

- 8,

'

support of Reagan and Thatcher in the 1980s ( O Meara 1996 : 224

).

' evil

the



against

ESTABLISHMENT

than trade

357

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

(

-

,

of

the

.

the

of



'

in

a

to

.

.

At

a

be In

to

be

a

NP

,

an

by

A

.

25

.

).

a

in



with after

parlous Botha

's

P W

had

.

Reagan and

.

important

seek jointly

the first results

peaceful settlement

of

,

of in

Namibia and Angola

for

decisively to

as

in

One

.

as

those

on

it

,

,

Iceland

of

a

superpowers was

and

of

in

by

,

.



-

.

1989

the same time the MDM

was decided inter alia

such

to

at

of

(

,

had been associated

summit between presidents Ronald and

1987 Net

townships ungovernable

Reykjavik

1986

per

Smit 1992

see

leader However

unabated

regional conflicts

,

these

GDP

20

3

27 ,

to

18 7

to

of he

GDP

per cent

the

its

because

at

October

to

All

gross domestic

.

1982

per cent

and coloured

so



continued

these takes the

in

of

.

be

to

'.

,

of

to 7

of

in

'

of

,

the two

also

and

would

per cent

'

9

7

in

before his election

Africa the Middle East Afghanistan agenda

of

).

co



(

at

per

, 1

cent

GDP The ratio

per cent

1982

They reached remarkable agreements solutions

The

principle

this

spending puts the figure

per cent

27 ,

to

‘ 8

25

,

from

more unexpected

in

Michael Gorbachev

3

,

's

W

or

per cent

1985

found

government spending increased

as

of

NP

's

.

from

making many African

The most credible

negotiated

and that

control was abolished

of

16 “

succeeded

and

desert

one citizenship

stagflation and rising unemployment economy was foreign investment The large outflow which accelerated after

Rubicon speech

58

survival

.

,

of

per P

14

from

speech was Klerk the right wing the

state

36

, of

,

GDP fell the

De

savings dropped

to

/8

investment

years

the

the 1980s the

the highest level

how

influx

term

cent rising

budget

1987

the

main purpose

that Africans were

South Africa

indicating

real security

estimate

'

of



fixed

35

18 5

of

11

34

annual average

making

a

the system

the principle

united

of

', 1986

In

but without

concessions were too little too late During the years Botha conservative

itself

found

-

decision

of

franchise

to

universal

cent

,

at

-

“ co

of

levels

the principle

itself

.

of

all



into

committed

implemented

and

in

of

incorporated

While

while

restore the legitimacy

admitted that the homelands policy had failed incorporating the African population politically had

federal congress endorsed

NP

's

the

direction

and

,

of

its

purpose

1980s was

optive dominance was any price At the end order

the white hegemonic

1985 the

different way 1986

purpose

early

especially

rewarded

NP

May

opted Africans

.

lost

the

in

'

'

had



),

in

,

the

disillusionment In

reforms

only

perpetuation

NP

and

including sections

were handsomely

of

total strategy

system

the media

Asian leaders

and

be

,

more

,

's

coloured

bureaucratic state

opposition was mercilessly suppressed

every form

33

,

,

business sections

the Bantustans

the

of

the bureaucracy

operate with Botha

-

to

co

32

Those prepared

in

,

at

.

in

Despite the miraculous political transformation

structural corruption continued unabated and has perhaps become even comprehensive and more structurally entrenched see Terreblanche 1989

of

endemic

the public sector proved

to

in

far

corruption

1994

of

'

' or '

in

power

When the democratically elected

damaging

,

government assumed really structural

the time and

more serious than was appreciated

1994 was

'.

15

dealings between the public and private sectors

effects were extremely

term

-

its

long

.

of '

of

31

.

in

the public sector and

years before

the

the rand lost one third

The political effect Rubicon was devastating Botha hindsight we now realise that the structural corruption that took

With the wisdom hold

already its

week after Rubicon

already declining value

's

Africa

South

of

In

crisis aggravated

for

.

situation

'Rubicon '

' ',

, the

sanctions . Internationally parlous economic



3

the

PART

South

this joint

the Namibian

and

the

,

-

,

,

.

in

a

in

[

12

).

in

'

far

a

sharp

,

urbanisation

stricter

fuel

to

African

of

in

favour

(

-

favour

of

in

(

a

on

NP

:

.

in

-

, 1

' ,

of

:

to

:

by 1

per

57

by

.

),

's

the liberation movement

documented

control

in

of

of

millions

struggle

organised

the unorganised

the role

co

close to

and industry

-



mostly

,

,

in

- .

While

well

migrant workers against influx control

millions

urban

and widespread

the struggle

also

of

has been

mining agriculture

,

migrant workers against them against apartheid

NP government

the

migrant labour but

cheap

These demographic

drama was the influx control measures

,

of

the

flow

Posel

expanding avenues

of

to

this protracted redesigned

operation with the white employers

not only

from

which increased

manufacturing

the growth

cent

24 ).

:

.

,

to 1 7

and regularly

see

64

59 –

According

by

important facet

designed

of (

'

(

due

grew

the urban white population

,

,

1 3

from

African employment largely rural impoverishment 1991 An

:

;

,

to

per

31

million outstripping

million million had two principal economic determinants

cent

changes

41

1987

and 1946 the urban African population

1936

million

and Hindson

of

Between

1 8

40

:

Posel 1991

ch 2

,

39

For the differences and similarities between the Fagan and the Sauer reports

of

)

and anti Stallardists

growing industrialisation

the

more aggressive

the act was drafted

Stallardists

pro

sense

way that

).

control

influx

the NAD between

wider

the

temporary sojourners

Stallardist line than the original 1923 act When differences developed

Thatcher exerted

'

be

merely

1937 Native Laws Amendment Act took

The

.

urban areas

Africans would always

negotiated

1989

that apartheid

'(

Stallard

this scenario

rigorous and totalizing ideology

a

be

to

to

. the

De

on

)

second half

government

Beinart and Dubow 1995

had never been

,

For

segregation

According

are correct when they claim

purported

the word

all

of

decided that Margaret Thatcher was the best

discussions with the

renew

Klerk during

Beinart and Dubow

38

working relationship between United including the United Kingdom West

new

the South African problem

strong pressure 37

to

,

of

,

for

state

ESTABLISHMENT

the greatpowers

Canada and Italy

France

placed head solution

of

part

Soviet Union

-

Germany

As

OF THE AFRIKANER

of

the

problems .

Angolan

States and

the

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY

struggle

the dompas has not been

and

Posel correctly

observes that the

apartheid won the support

term

of

42

.

sufficiently appreciated

Afrikaner

to

:

).

1987 123

In

.

it

feared

apartheid

English

economic integration

,

cheap African labour

see

(

implications

the of

's

’,

because

).

ch 2

:

4

While



the business which were concerned about the availability

and less concerned about the political

Posel 1991

organisations

of

,

establishment

proposal that the government

African farmers The practical conception

strongly supported

also

SABRA

the native reserves

of

from

opposed

potential

of

competition

increased was

the economic

control African urbanisation

.

develop

,

,

The SAAU was however strongly should

to

could effectively

of

the state

by

long

as



as

supremacy

45

policy

'(

of

apartheid

Afrikaner business circles the conviction was nurtured that greater economic integration was not necessarily irreconcilable with white economic and political

'

43

these conflicting versions

44

it

an

in

,

successfully described and legitimised the nationalists across the board because ideological Afrikaner cause discourse sufficiently ambiguous accommodate

million Africans

were arrested and prosecuted

under pass laws and influx

359

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

in the

,

31 ,

influx control laws the

1980

. of

per cent

,

per cent

8

to

1951

in

,

slightly

pass and

in

law

, ,

in

.

in

3 5

but not

205

).

:

181

per cent

27 2

from

and declined

battery

,

1986

of

But without the formidable

BAABs dealt

court prosecutions

of

so

81 ;

:

1970

,

per cent

,

1960 and

in

in

urban areas increased

33 1

46

Africans living

newly introduced

the

million

The decline

during the 1970s declined

Savage

Hindson 1987

the 1940s

the 1970s

that the number

Africans prosecuted

(

number arrested

in

of

.

The number

million

deceptive because

with technical pass offenders directly declined

prosecuted

influx

up

prosecutions

32 9

is

,

in

the 1970s

and

,

1 9

5

in

prosecutions

1960s

the

of pass

compare the number

million Africans were

million

the 1950s

in

,

decades

:

successive

took place

which the NP government stepped

to

if we

million prosecutions

13

in

1950 to 1980 . The manner in

from

control becomes evident

, almost

to 1950

1916



from

4 2

regulations

control

,

3

,

PART

rate

).

:

'(

'



in

deteriorated

to

.

of

3

two

of

's

Lenin

SACP

the

-

of

,

).

:

reminiscent

to

every tyrant who wishes

control his

however unattainable this vision Afrikaners were during their period

political

,

the

NP of

is .

device

,

that the

intention

native

's

Verwoerd

segregate blacks

to

such

the long term

-

legitimised

's

arguments

by

morally

1980

in

11

,

to

or

-

via

'

remarkably

from

million

402

1986

(

is

's

see Lipton

increased

and the two phase programme

the

It

.

Joe

is

by

to

being deceived be

,

grand vision

how susceptible

remarkable

could

Slovo

a

with

hegemony

of

, ‘

in

of

-

is

It

constituency

policy

Verwoerd

programme for communism

propagated

Bantustans

the total African population

the total African population

This two phase formulation phase

the native reserves

per cent

of

40

or of

in

per cent

of ,

53

Africans

1946

as

part

The population

the native reserves

migrants were driven the urban areas paying but their total subsistence low urban jobs

of ,

an

not

a

to to

earn

or 49

extent that increasing numbers

such

million

50



the 1930s onwards economic conditions

From

by

48

47

in

,

to

African urbanisation would have been much higher due the deteriorating socio economic conditions the native reserves see Lipton 1986 401

in

'(

But

to

)

with

to

.

low

(

in

to

.

as

in

(

by

be

of

of

in

at

'

wages

the

system

African

In

.

.

:

urban

areas

15

born

continuous employment with one employer

). , 64

,

Pass Year but

-

Anti

Hindson 1987 in

Africans

the

1959

,

in

to

1959 native

register contracts with employers

(

at

the act

several years

Sharpeville

,

of

)

urban

).

women

for

of for

passes

passes continued

b

&

conjunction

disposal This

farmers

farm

those

labourers

farm

or

with ten years

offences

1

260

of

it

( 1 ) (a

10

in

section

the NAD

pay extraordinarily

1960 with the shooting

'

Africans

of

In

terms

the

obligatory

carrying

to

,

136

6

125

,

farmers

labour regulations made was finally broken

to

white farmers

the carrying

against

agricultural districts

put convict labour

-

:

Posel 1991

petty

without the necessary permission

African women resisted

Resistance

of

]

,

to to

the

)

of see

(

of

prisons was

those



documents

forced labour enabled

labourers

large numbers

the mining industry

who were convicted

were also sent for fixed periods

department

53

[

(

or

,

. )

with the exception

those Africans

the biggest service rendered

54

,

,

,

'

-

seekers

addition

without identity areas

quoted

frustration

).

:

foreign work

work

360

and better combating

68

),

in

better order

serious labour problems the NAD also channelled

solve farmers In

To

of

52

better control better influx control better control

the towns

Posel 1991

the people

of

' .

Verwoerd promised there

[

51

and whites politically

and

with

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY OF THE AFRIKANER

, were

several employers

. And

unemployed married

permanently in urban areas even if women living in rural areas

to remain

10 ( 1 )( c ) , African

terms of section

in

' urban ' status

men with

to

entitled

ESTABLISHMENT

join

could

and become permanent city

them

dwellers . Despite these concessions , the act excluded many thousands of Africans

who had settled in urban areas but had not been continuously employed

of

'

to

of by

' .

of



.

of

or





if

A

.

.

The first

the

,

to 3 6

At '

off

as

.

African workers

of

the detriment

of

for

wage increases

government

white workers

of

in

's

Verwoerd

social

urban unrest among both

1960s

1950s and early

see

(

in

an

of

This part the

.

development

the

.

-

per cent work

of

manufacturing

to

and

60

mining

in

in

take into

semi skilled jobs received

Wemust also take into account thatmore than mining were foreigners who were prepared

).

gold

1950s and early

mining But we must in

Africans

in

the wages

of

as

in

manufacturing and construction

in

).

23 – 8

high

10



,

,

.

as

:

as

of

al

for

wages

.

:

in low

a

(

the migrants exceptionally

409

both

trade unions and buy

much higher wage than the migrant workers 1986

range

1954 some 800 000 African

1959 the number had risen

account that those Africans with residential rights and Lipton

unemployed

African residents the new urban the NAD insisted that the former should carry the full costs

Africans

1960s were twice

to

,

by

By

to

them

'

et

The wages

even

the labour bureaux

of

the end

urban workers declined

crush African

and township

1993

areas

migrant labour but also made the

programme was important reason for migrant Africans and workers the late

urbanised

skills

64 ).

:

-

,

housing

engineering

'

(

's

to

on

urban

cancelled

By

the rents and transport costs

townships soared

59

to

and

58

( the

by

granting

a

of

10 10

or

an

1952

.

in

,

renewed

mid 1950s real wages

the same time

Africans

Africans with the required

enormous bureaucratic machinery

men had been issued with the new pass books

employers sought

not the labour

large number

.

,

to

be

of

of

issued

reference books were issued

Hindson 1987

whether

Africans much higher wages Many

could remain

influx control required

permits had

control the influx

enter into wage employment but become petty wage section Africans labour and the in

to

The aversion

migrants more vulnerable

Bonner

'



a

to

pay the section

made industrialists not only more dependent

urban

of

be

,

employ

of

a

'

.

who wanted

that such labourers

discontent

(

an

for

.

such

opted not

ability

loophole that licensed the continuous growth

particular urban area justified

had

,

however

entrepreneurs

Until

see

).

.

to

, '

permanence

created

irrespective

employers

Those urban

milion

workers

detribalised

than

undermined the NAD

population

urban

of

requirements

The system

Afrikaans

only because they were much



seriously

urban areas

the African

concession

the praises

5

82

:

Africans

sang

both English and

not

docile

the type

labour ULPP was strongly opposed

Although these organisations

they were more

because

concession

's

of of

The proposal



but also

Verwoerd

57

irrespective

employ migrant workers

It

)

preferred

,

56

applicable

workforce many employers

and permanent

Posel 1991

them

employers

urban

to



a “

stable

cheaper

ULPP

commerce and industry

speaking

formal

Hellman and Lever 1980 : 84 – 5 ).

.

organised

and

the

NAD also wanted

demanded

in

to

The

by

55

,

Dugard

to

( see

in the cities

in

of these people were women who were only doing casual work

jobs . A large portion

361

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

1911

.

to

,

gold mines

per cent lower than those paid

61

on

,

).

:

to

whether agriculture

foreign African

in

to

was

reserves

establish

from

While from the 1930s unproductive help sustain 407

1986

'

native

Lipton

(

in

1973

the gold mines increased too

,

10

the

difficult

is

,

mineworkers

per cent

in

agriculture it

,

onwards

to

1951

in

per cent

to

pay their migrant workers real wages

foreign migrants employed

'

The percentage

79

of

:

(

61

per cent and

20

that were respectively Lipton 1986 tables

1961 and 1971 8

late

11 ).

,

enabled the latter

as

as

The labour market privileges granted by successive governments

60

in

3:

the

PART

of

While the

NP

is

5

per cent

1961

.

but also loaded with loyal

'



The shift

the scene for

the

relentless

a

set

.

apartheid

of

,

of

'

'

conception

purist conception

who favoured stricter influx controls and those applied more flexibly abolished Posel 1991

,

:

(

or

,

be

and

be

to

'

'

a

which the

exercise their political sovereignty

.

to

different African ethnic groups were supposed

gained

now

geographical space

became the

and

While the reserves

they

in

, .

Bantustan

migrant labour

ethnic

given the

political

its

-

'

or

'

reservoirs

of

the

realisation



/

of

They

on

's

'



in

character

.

new

calling

national

own homeland

the 1950s

as

completely

in

treated



economic independence were

emphasis

national ethnic minorities was

these

each

divinely ordained

its

realise

of

),

the volkseie

to

right

nationalism

its



).

35

to

,

and

in

1958 and

per

44

,

in

53

5

in

48 ,

to

,

in

1948

those

keeping with Afrikaner

identity

(

In

per cent

of

purist

the

the 1960s between the policy

the popular vote

BAD was not only increased

government and BAD towards the who wanted

of

per cent

increased

Nationalists who favoured

65

(

.

this figure

40

only

received

the meantime the staff

227

industrial disputes and strikes were nearly

the early 1950s

1953

struggle

,

.

the number

1958

,

In

of

and

1955

were even worse

)

Mozambique

double that

in

63

Between

cent 64

in

especially

62

of

in

to

.

to

help sustain foreign migrants However there countries was productive enough agricultural reason believe that conditions some these foreign countries and

of

in

a

as

Ghana became

the colonies

did

it

:

'

the

no

,

to

as

it

leave

year

-

on

's

the nation 30

in

,

the

declined

removals assumed massive Bantustans population increased

Bundy

, 3 , 5

According

to

'

).

1987

68 – 70

the

Forced

1970

:

(

promised

of

,

to

.

,

7 4

to

and

rural receptacles

longer own their own houses

them

Hindson

the 1950s

surplus people

'

in

Bantustans

Africans could

million

defined

with dependent children

the

,

in

4

million

BAD

.

in

.

1968

areas increased

no

and women

making

urban

1967 circular

leasehold plots but could only rent proportions the 1960s From 1960

3

,

of

'

notorious

,

,

,

unfit widows

to

of

its

.

In

the ratio

the 1960s

stone unturned unemployed From

62

succeed

Posel 1991

).

While

from

in

,

10

women

removing

35



67



in

227

in

men

interest

the in

vested

(

not succeed

in

a

.)

BAD and those with

between

Although BAD

place residential rights section Africans and put ULPP firmly depriving many urbanised Africans their residential rights

aged

of

(

all .

of

)

( or

the time

years almost

did

rights

of

section

ten

,

struggle

sustained

policies

independence

.

maintaining

and

uhuru

the following

were granted

10

This

to a

led

66

European countries

in

'

anti colonial

1957

in

independent

-

countries

western



's



policy Verwoerd had hoped that separate development decolonisation bring ideologically within South Africa borders would South Africa line with

POLITICAL HEGEMONY OF THE AFRIKANER ESTABLISHMENT

THE

1960 and 1982 , representing

million people were relocated between

‘ some

of the

most dismaying pages in the entire history of South Africa .. . In them may be promises , naked force , shattered communities , learned the details of broken desolated camps

million

graves

shallow

in 1956 prices

would

' ( in

34 )

. prices .

in 2002

of

the already proletarianised majority

.

, If

,

we consider

,

all

the

,

and did little

ideological political

and demographic forces

economic

at

Bantustan petit bourgeoisie

for

of

'

on

developing the Bantustans during the the government mainly improving 1960s and 1970s had the effect the economic base the small

69

money spent

Schrire 1992 :

about R9 billion

be

by

The

68 R204

, and

work

a

,

of

.

of . If

a

we take

the sum

underestimated population

,

the African

development is

the

and around the Bantustans during

the fact that Tomlinson seriously

,

fraction

it

development

in

on

be

.

in

,

created every year

clear that at

economic conditions were much worse during the 1960s than they had been beginning the 1950s when the Tomlinson enquiry took place The

of

:

(

35

to

's

NP .

The Vorster

-

it

in

of

20 to

on

job

to

idea

with the

take direct coercive measures

negative effective

creation and economic

in

of

of

.

.

On

in

,

to 4 2

to

of

.

.

in

,

as in

While

the white

'

from

' .

urban areas

urban

near the Bantustans was now

the Bantustans

.

to

Africans

sending culprits

.

these Bantustan

housing and employment

draw Africans back

The number

Instead

migrants were still forcibly removed

of

,

the provision

the

the pass laws

the Bantustans in

to

jail ,

,

but not the number arrested

schemes were developed

the 1960s African

million

centres for dealing with technical pass offenders

court prosecutions declined

many were simply deported

to

This

Africans

infringements

of

They introduced

was reduced

,

.

to

of

the 1960s

pass

of

in

thousands

law

million

decline

in

5

from a

interpreted

as

law

not

prosecutions

that the number

Large housing

the BAD

to

prohibit

or

.

so

prosecuted

given

the

to

power

of

in

,

the

NP government before

the 1970s the BAABs largely took over the enforcement

the police

,

the Verwoerdian

her legitimacy

than any

so

In

.

pay homage

years after Verwoerd

.

.

in

The decline

contrary

402

).

It

in

the

to his /

to

1986

and was prepared its

of ,

(

).

8

.

in

in

:

-

,

3

,



in

1986

see

building and expansion factories During the 1970s BAD used this power prohibit industrial

pass

the 1970s should

also used

Lipton

and turn down applications for the employment

expansion

74

1970

million

the Bantustans increased

administering the Physical Planning Act was

designated areas

areas

increased

from

urban areas

gave the department

directly

actually

The population

ensure

more

urban areas

irrespective

the

in

The task

to

of

Africans

stop this flow

of

to 72

million

order

was obsessed

be

,

1946

2000

almost every NP leader continued

growth

73

426

influx control was scrapped

government

from

to 7 4

3

million

territorial apartheid

flow

million

Saunders 2000

and

Verwoerdian death

to

8 5

71

from

1951

in

,

million Davenport

16

projection was that the total African population would increase

commission

in

the

.

of

-

socio

years

jobs

000 new

the homelands and the growth

needs

little doubt that influx control played

government spent only

the

Tomlinson

of

first

's

in

ten

recommended the

that

had recommended

account the fact that

of

Tomlinson into

There

this contradictory outcome

by

70

decisive role

Africans

is

the majority

45

the lives

of of

of

is

it

history sharply ironic that the most prosperous decade South Africa living impoverished increased the standard whites but further and disrupted

363

3:

PART

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

of

75 According to Bundy the NP government already began in the 1960s with a policy

' of

to a 80

as

of

.

far

11

of

it

in

some Granting independence

to

foreigners

'.

,

the South

205

).

:

197

This kind

the urban African population

1970s half

either illegal

remains part



Savage 1986

see

as

to

travel pm

had

home

'

and returning

(

the late

classified

case

in

the Bantu

at

migrant workers

'

,

this day

to

in

,

was estimated that be

It

77

African labour pattern

facilities '

attractive

own homeland and accustom

thoroughly institutionalised that

so

migrancy became

relocate

).

:

day rising

a

kilometres twice

Bantu

or

of

76

'(

1993

generation

this new

towns could

'bigger , better, more 's

with

Bundy

the effort to

minister who warned the local

quotes a deputy

of

compete

foreign taste

Some

Bundy

1967 not to provide

in

these should

.

of

large townships as part

70 the

authorities

areas

in the

am

rural

to

'

at 3

Africans

deprivation

as

‘ deliberate

:

(

in

,

-

on

as

,

from

of

,

).

70

69 –

on

:

(

to

workers and only

information

urban

areas

the one

the other hand

were

,

subsidising industrial decentralisation

on

of

registered

work seekers

in

of

Savage 1986

per cent registered industrial workers employment Hindson 1987

industrial licensing and labour quotas

policy

see

1970s based

46

case

registered prior

of

per cent

the early

in

study

of

.

in

,

,

policy its

and

,

The

's

NP

no 78

found that

vacancies had been

hand

later

A

registered their contracts

labour bureaux

30

national survey found that

considerably

and accepted jobs without registering

urban areas found

the

1970

Africans was augmented

In

.

a

numbers a



).

5

201

of

'

increasing In

of

'

in

of

the Bantustans therefore had the important implication that being illegally white areas became far more serious criminal act this way the criminalisation

some

both ideologically driven and responsible for serious economic wastage

--

for white

43 )

those who

of

,

between

'

inter alia

,

a



'

breakdown developed

serious

,

(

laws that controlled

been rationalised and

then

extent that the masters and servants laws had become

establishment

enlightened

(“

80

Within the Afrikaner verligtes

of

A

.

redundant 1975

new

and

.

such

:

to

strengthened

an

,

directed

serious

government made the masters by

the

barrage laws increasingly anachronistic and disciplined the black labour force had

servants

during the period

. of

,

to

79

in

economic decline that started 1974 According Bundy the policies



potential African employees NP

well

as

as

employers

the

favoured more pragmatic influx

'



).

to

in

1977

of

a

the AAC

improve the living

).

a

for

'

O

see

(

an

new

potential voters went

to

of

Meara

).

per cent

the search

government

of

the Botha

16

the first phase of

but only

80

a

' for

. . .

1983

,

in

accumulation strategy during the first period The first BLAs were elected

of for

– a

per cent military approach

3 2 3 1

;

see also section

20

'

to

programme and

323

,

182

– 6

:

1996

82

the initiative

9

1996

incorporate

key role during the Botha Even the Defence Force generals who played such regime victory against the alleged Soviet now claimed that the only recipe onslaught was per cent win the hearts and minds the people through

political reform

364

and tried

. , At

of

' UF

was established

Meara

'

,

the

-

81

urban Africans

(O

of

and the Rembrandt

group

urban Africans

capitalist economy

class into the white

'

black middle

sectors expressed

and Afrikaner business

to

both the English

concern about the living conditions

ch

1976

:

unrest

conditions

/

(“

of

of

Soweto

'

'

)

control measures and the verkramptes constricted cramped those who favoured purist concept apartheid the and wanted stricter influx control After the

POLITICAL HEGEMONY

THE

the polls . BLAs were

introduced

OF THE AFRIKANER

1983 with powers equal

in

ESTABLISHMENT of

those

to

the white

. Although the BLAs were supposed to be financially self- sufficient , Group Areas Act precluded them from gaining not the case , because be

'

.

when

of

1986

these

agents

defusing African

and

'

as

seen

a

of

,

,

all

.

anger

the new

,

Instead

the tricameral

targets

The main

BLAS

the hated

in

introduction high point

and informers

of

, of



.

by

'

of

a

in

.

regime

the apartheid

Africans

urban

was announced

policemen

.

'

of

stooges

'

state

should

stricter influx control

emergency

were the BLAs African

insiders

the

competition for employment and housing

uprising that started shortly after 1984 These uprisings reached

comprehensive uprisings

means

improve the financial self

reason that Riekert recommended that the

the political aspirations

satisfy

the to

sparked

parliament

of

protected against

that the wages

the

,

, be



Intended

was for this

and

migrant workers

from

83

should

'

insiders

it

BLAS

markedly increased

was accepted

it

the

sufficiency

of

rateable commercial and industrial property

to

access

of

this was

To

the

municipalities

of

,

,

law

-

,

the pre Second World War

was

by

in

as ,

the legal process era

over the use



discriminatory order

of

.

-

:

achieve

made many townships ungovernable

inter alia

observes that there was little concern

a

to

84

(

Davenport 1991 428

John Dugard

which

,

the MDM

45 , )

passed

to

on

in

.

constitutional dispensation and the BLAs provoked uncontrollable black protest struggle When the UDF was banned 1988 leadership the internal liberation

seen

in

attending

from

.

the reserves

by

The Group

the Universities

,

).

:

5

;

1986

23

,

Lipton



84

1980

:

in

,

(

of

trading

trading within the

blacks and for the first time

Hellman and Lever

were prohibited

to

return

of

to

encouraging businessmen

coloureds Dugard

students

2

government stopped

,

of

the hope

all

.

The

of

86

(

-

.

in

of to

an

The emerging black middle and skilled

after 1948

back

Areas Act further restricted the residential rights Black

for their classification during World War was

area designated

economic segregation

the reserves and townships and discouraged

Africans outside

those

and law

.

the

were pushed

classes

live

NP

reversed

NP

energetically

working

by

.

became compulsory for people group The significant erosion

in

in

large scale social engineering this resulted removals that caused immense disruption and distress Under this

it

law

The implementation population

latter

'

of

,

82 ).

of

85

:

and Lever 1980

in

of

a

as

lawyers and politicians reared mechanism control the positivist legal tradition which denies the importance legal values Hellman essentially

Cape Town and

)

(

on

It

in

).

10

on

to

in

increased sharply 1990

in

,

of

of

(

per

per capita

: 9 ;

Berg and Bhorat 1999

see also

injustices

).

Voters Act was declared 1956

after the senate had

illegal been

the appellate

enlarged

to

6 ;

der

25

levels

African

give the

.

two thirds majority

-

a

,

white

1996

1953

by

Representation

and only became law

government

:

al

et

racial inequalities and systemic

expenditure

white levels

De Villiers

per cent Van

result

of

The Separate

division

a

.

.

and reached 1993

1975

22

per cent

As

per cent

in

.

section 88

Bonner

10 4

(

see

on

terms

13

from in

job

,

-

taxation

,

after the Soweto unrest

4

to

only

Education Act 1953 required that Expenditure African education was

the Bantu

self funded

African

per capita terms

1961 and

,

in

in

to

the level

fell

education

cent

be

education

pegged

reservation largely

of

African

to

auxiliary

an

As

87

.

the Witwatersrand without permission

365

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

servicemen returned and demanded preferential jobs and training

of

,

better

opportunities

higher wages and of Africans on the mines deploying 16000 policemen After the war 106 000 ex

the strikes

by

job

89 In 1946 Smuts suppressed

for

3

.

PART

.

The definition

.7 ,

8

in

'

The most important was the civilised labour policy the Pact create protected employment opportunities the industrial sector for in

to

the

-

,

seemingly fruitless struggle Afrikaner Nationalist orientated After long years trade unions finally captured control the white Mineworkers Union after 1947

in

the

).

– 7

-

40 ,

skilled building

-

it

strikes illegal

.

;

85

Hellman and Lever 1980

:

,

employment Dugard

to

'

'

plant level works and

-

of

of

made lock outs

,

In

addition

and sympathetic

separate system

in

of

a

.

on

the 38

;

:

36 to

-

strikes and lock outs

(



140

within which management and African workers were meant

committees

'

liaison

negotiate terms

striking

from

African workers were provided with

1986

registered

had been

1948

111

a

instigation

of

the

,

blacks

Rand

won

).

:

,

in

(

act

92

Truu 1976

totally prohibited Africans

Lipton

The

which regarded black

electorate

as

1974 almost 8000 Africans

workers Van der Horst The

:

'

(O

,

of

By

91

the end

seats

an

class

general election and was therefore sensitive competition with great fear Meara 1996

, .

of

,

critical number

predominantly working

the steel industry

in

and also made important breakthroughs

strike

NP

of

90

areas

'

of of “

poor whites who were moving into the urban

the large number

.

.

in

this area government

of

of

.

burning

a

'

'

'

'

skilled and unskilled issue As indicated section numerous discriminatory laws were enacted during the first half the 20th century jobs was

Horrell

and

,

as

.

(

to

he

,

be

of

worker

'

of

so

77

,

)

will not

In

.

a

by

and

,

,

percentage

62 ).

12

:

the

fallen from

should

per

not in

,

45

the Witwatersrand

,

it

505



. in

:

in

jobs

Truu 1976

the

was stipulated that the Uitenhage per cent

East London and

in

in

of

,

ie



(

act

the

65

that

had

on

of

white employees

,

of

per cent

white coloured

Davenport 1991

per cent

new

African trade unions were

vehicle assembly

der Horst

1960

The act prohibited

unions

excluded

in

,

the

by

courts and replaced

was stipulated

per cent

1957 skilled

104

).

It

.

25

,

(

Van

,

that only

the European

but the determination was

.

to

be the

in

1955

motor

Elizabeth Durban

'

:

(

to

for whites

under

percentage

of

to

was claimed

in

20

registered

2 9

It

97

per cent

the Sword

that

).

it

respect

will

employer

Industrial

the

protect white workers

been

whites should not fall below

Bellville and Port

3 6 6

per cent

Section

stabilise racial percentages

of

.

fall further percentage

In

1938

24

,

in the

In

96

cent

invalid

Africans had previously

not illegal but could not clothing industry

introduced

the expense

of

.

workers

as

,

,

of at

of

he

,

worker

-

to

said

any further mixed trade unions

establishment Asian

was declared

designed

determination

labour

the white

in

withdrawn when

and

coloured persons Van

col 5852

1954

,

,

31

17

May

At

( 95

in

-

1954

first the minister only used these powers work the clothing industry was reserved

and

the

all

parliament

minister in

then

exploit the non European

Hansard

The building

Natal

the Wetern Cape were open

Damocles that will hang over the head dare

well

the Cape Province and

OFS were excluded

apprenticeships but this

104

, :

in

Bill

Conciliation

Transvaal

).

Schoeman

in

Truu 1976

Ben

in

especially

in

-

industries

,

,

furniture trades When

all

apply

to

not

der Horst 94

non whites

1956

,

Act

skilled and many semi skilled occupations

from

did

of

Under

IC

the

93

).

1978

the industrial sector were formally

THE AFRIKANER

Merle Lipton this

If

.

(

the

and

per

18 , 6

in

1945 an

per cent

24

,

of

compared

discriminatory measures

of

in

,

50

of so

secondary

142

to

in

in

the result

the 1950s had

,

).

,

's

to

in

or

, It

-

of

of .

of

of

).

– 3

:

at

in

,

in





a

in

to

all

.

,

in

the

Afrikaner

trade union

. in

books

In

1971 the Economic Advisory Council permit less skilled work to

of

use

order

be

.

the to

of

in

of

law

kept the legislation the unemployment and white

,

for

.

-

In

.

of

(

,

Van der Horst

to

-

skilled work

,

skilled workers

black

In

building sites

.

of

on

thousands

unskilled and semi skilled do

by

were also used

in

on

labour practices

the building and engineering industries

illegally

these areas

).

:

police

African labour

to

was almost impossible

172

– 8

in

1996

of

the

a on

better use

Meara

'

O

a

of

.

to

;

108

the Bantustans and border areas 1971 the industry the decentralisation which

white paper

to

by

-

employment

section

Truu 1976

:

in It

the late

verligtes and

Indian workers for both skilled and semi skilled work Africans were for

be

to

and

government issued

102

black people

semi skilled workers The council also advocated the increased white release male labour more productive use and the training

trained

contained

to



of to a

to

led

an

of

that the government

accepted

female labour coloured

the trade unions about the

not dare dismantle the discriminatory machinery

recommendation jobs concerning the reclassification done

The white jobs were

trade union movement

NP and

prolonged and serious depression

government

war

labour hampered economic

on

,

did

white

the pre

trade unions also

white

bitter struggle between

the

of

is

it

also possible

skilled

persuade

Afrikaner

the right wing

the government

movement the event

in

,

.

in

Given the strength But

and especially

the white

core

the concessions made

1970s nevertheless

verkramptes 101

advancement

,

1960s and

black

intensive campaign

,

of

necessity

20

:

the

. to

.

Despite

security

The leadership

the

the border

attitudes

and poverty

in

to

black

understand that the scarcity

started

drive

and prosperity advancement and the fragmentation

initially handsomely compensated growth

101

made

any area

white urban areas

from

Truu 1976

high unemployment

had given way

circles

workers who agreed

any job

for the more accommodating

given

the mid 1960s

Afrikaner

in

period

can

Horst

der

Van

-

By

Several reasons workers

divert economic activities

1986

Bantu

The act coincided with the government

'

.

Lipton

(

100

of

the 1960s

see

:

areas

be

end

the employment

any employer to

of

service

the

of

far of -

possible the prohibition

33 ;

99

(

occupational advancement Lipton 1986 409 reaching job reservation measure ever introduced This act was the most

.

see

it

to

.

of

,

employers

-

on

their negative effect the socio economic conditions blacks was enormous They not only impoverished urbanised blacks make was not possible for them but also criminalised many youths because on

important cost effect

one

determining the

manufacturing and construction were

white wages respectively

the additional

the

).

1986

41 ,

Lipton

(

years

30

for

the next

per cent

While

years

of

.1 ).

(

8

table

,

cent and

next

38 –

As

)

in

.

industries

for the

determining the labour structure

1960 and 1970 African wages 16 7

In

the 1924 election was decisive

of

was decisive

1948 election 98

the result

which employed

account the number affected must have

into

the gold mining industry

labour structure

tertiary

are also taken

the effects

,

substantial

1970

whites

the public sector

:

been

whites

of

third

of

'

in

colour bar and the civilised labour policy

employed

into 217 500

translated

,

million

ESTABLISHMENT

of

OF

to

,

of

the

1 5

.

,

But according

per cent

15

1970

in

jobs

whites

or

reserved

,

for

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY

workers

the enormous 367

PART

3

:

, SEGREGATION , AND

COLONIALISM

APARTHEID

financial benefit of white workers . These blacks were often paid the wages of unskilled or semi-skilled workers . This was an illegal and crude version of black

of

a

of

UF

-

60 ;

59

:

),

TUCSA

(

be all

.

1976

Almost

the

trade unions

of

of 28

in

August

that African

an by

big

a

.

,

dominating many

that blacks were already

Second many employers and particularly markets were becoming increasingly aware the

of

-

.

,

skilled and semi skilled labour categories to

argued that

changes had made existing industrial

recognise

to

which failed

unions First

law

economic and workplace

he

in

a

,

accept the need for black organisations and black

foreign

68

).

6



as

, as



;

[

,

]

of



of

a

’ ,

of

:

,

,

8 8

(

17

in

to

)

.

-

This

it .

to

'

of

overt

was

of

up

as

the UDF was

sanctions and disinvestment

and

).

.

-

:

al

et

in

(

:

business interests Davenport and Saunders 2000 486 based mainly Clark 1994 and Clark Bonner 1993

95

own

,

its

trade

set

94

in

.

in

was

rival

contrast

,

,

by

.

COSATU Inkatha

consistently opposed

the 1980s until

65 -

1986

the

170

1985 when COSATU

and organisations such

,

This section

capitalism

on

support

and

,

in

UWUSA is

,

3

108

The

joint purpose linking

apartheid

the early part

community unions joined forces

of

fight

the

to

.

founded

1986

factory and political demands The tension between

'

and several

Lipton

become embroiled

'

to

separate workers

-

FOSATU

per cent

about restricting their struggles the workplace community unions which believed variety

black and non racial trade unions persisted

sought

to

-

:

was contested

impossible

held

mining

in

.

of

,

4

,

approach

adamant

over important issues

bargain

unions which formed FOSATU were reluctant and were

his proposal

class economic struggle

1990s Africans

Davenport and Saunders 2000 616

politics

union

working

the semi skilled jobs

a

The

per cent

by

107

12

6 ;

204

36

skilled and

political protest

industrial relations

continuing

from

notably wages and safety conditions

the

:

1989

not stop the NUM

In

did

(

and Padayachee

vehicle

67 ).

of

the radical and overt politicisation

of of

rather provided

fostered

Morris

of :

7



-

proposals

facilitating the depoliticisation

instead

But this

243

1996

;

26

:

al

co

[

,

intended

)

Wiehahn

Mamdani

reasons for the failure the Wiehahn reforms allowing for the option the insiders working class his

of

'

:

Instead

1991

the

,

put

and Padayachee

follows

106

Crush

et

(

growing fast

Morris

105

see

,

.

,

50

accommodate black labour Thirdly there were already about black trade unions operating outside the statutory framework and the number was to

urgent need

the

).



of to

requests

Africa

South

per cent were white and

der Merwe director general manpower and member major role played persuading the state and business

Wiehahn commission to

home

stay

the Soweto

-

.

with

,

van

considerably

organisations made renewed

at -

a

,

:

of

a

.

72

acknowledge African trade unions

The pressure

escalated

companies exposed

1986

which

business

anachronism

Lipton

and commerce

million members

per cent coloured and Indian

1979

elimination

the

employment This code was

Hellman and Lever 1980 118 important 104 The most was the Trade Union Council

recognised Piet

for

published

.

it

aspects

industry

1977

20

quarter

organised

In

pleaded

of

representing

which

colour

,

Van der Horst

race

all

on

per cent in

accepted

90

by

discrimination based

.

the trade unions concerned

practice

in

of

code

employment

(

of

with the concurrence

force had been

in

two ( in the metal and engineering industries ) suspended ,

a further

of

cancelled

work reservation orders

in

, and

: 205 – 10 ) . of the 25

1986

1977 , 18

of

or

exploitation (Lipton 103 By the end

THE POLITICAL HEGEMONY 109

As

OF THE AFRIKANER

result of close co -operation between

a

Oppenheimer of the AAC , the privately

J

H

Bijl of ESKOM

der

van

and Ernest

owned Victoria Falls Power Company was the AAC . As the major

early in 1948 with huge financial support from

expropriated

ESTABLISHMENT

mining house and consumer of electricity , the AAC benefited enormously from the cheaper electricity supplied to it by ESKOM . With the support of Ernest Oppenheimer , ISCOR also made headway towards a steel monopoly before 1948

,

of

of

,

12

in

,

's

and

of

at

the cold war that the west would

,

make

on

March

convincing

1961 Rich

1996

:

to

failed 29

.

However

the liberation

darkness

which

was

]

view

of

the point

: (

by

from

prolonged period

,

was



,

that

a

Jaffe observes momentarily moonlit

1970s

of of

the 1960s and early

struggle

it

at

).



Organisation

the

the communists

were acquitted

whom

,

71 Looking 167

consisted

).

side

it

on

more sympathetic towards apartheid

the height

, of

,

it

if

could prove

all of

be

(

of

hoped that

case against the accused

a

of ). a

of

key

to

in

of

in

to

,

'

so

had worked

of

a

:

It

as

to

'(

an

be

to

.

the

the

a

,

élan which transfigured the major beneficiary was rebuilt ANC

Soweto

was thus

a

emerging militarist political play culture which was to

-

a

politics

.. .

South African an

the 1980s

of

catalyst

revolutionary

crucial moment which significantly shaped culture throughout the whole southern Africa

also

that

the first half

the young rebels defying the might

the dominant force

be

Soweto regenerated

was

Black Consciousness movement

a

generate

follows

population

a

the

.

black liberation

which emerged

in

the

an

Soweto

the black

vast courage

in

politics

state helped

of

apartheid

The

to

.. .

produce

as

to

psychological liberation which

was inculcated

of

much

of

in

of

pride

ideological orientation

). of 21

117

'

sense

gradual but was destined

the black protest movements

Meara describes the importance

hard

in

.

,

In

1999

of

that

-

(

this way

:

Halisi

Africa could not

Its

the

.

was completely different the 20th century

regime The BCM inspired blacks not only develop awareness that the path

apartheid

solidarity but also

South

apocalyptic and violent

O

'

for



fundamental reform

in

a

their struggle against high degree achieve

deep

organisations could not have succeeded

without which the liberation of

radicalism

,

,



workers strikes Natal the early 1970s 1994 182 believing that There are however reasons BCM infused blacks with kind

to

114

Charter

SACTU

the

,

NP government

Trade Unions

the main black protestmovement was

116

235

,

1986

the Indian Congress the South African Coloured People

ANC

115

per cent Afrikaners coloureds including employment Africans the state

the People which accepted the Freedom

the South African Congress 113 The

economically active

,

Lipton

sector declined

(

as

ISCOR

per cent

,

The Congress

1980

investment

The state sector became the largest

,

112

of

corporations such

per cent

14

Asians and

,

per cent

even larger percentage

an

(

and

of

whites

in

.

79 )

16

, accounting

employer in South Africa

:

1996

34

53 per cent ( O 'Meara

),

to

per cent, while that of the private for

to

: 283).

1986

state corporations in gross fixed

of

of

63 , 5

11, 5

corporations (Lipton

state

(

rose from

per cent

supporters of an

- speakers were initially

,

6 ,2

any English

of

the managements of

to

1946 and 1973 the share

:

appointed

from

. Hardly

the protective

in

later became outspoken

free market capitalist system

111 Between

nurtured

a

environment of state corporations unbridled

,

that many of the Afrikaner entrepreneurs

ironic

).

It is

in

110

Bonner et al 1993 : 77 – 86 ) .

in

of

,

(Clark

369

PART

3

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND

APARTHEID

'

crucial role in the unfolding regional tragedy of the 1980s (1996 emphasis

:

).

first year after the Soweto uprising an estimated 600 people died, almost 6000 were arrested ( Davenport and Saunders 2000 : 453 ).

117 During

3 70

'

181 – 2 ; author s

the

and

Chapter

10

of colonialism , segregation , and apartheid The legacy

. 1 The legacy of the pre - 1994 period

10

historical

in

of

-

.

to

African history For many years

.

the 350 years

modern South

come social historians and social scientists the

of

.

at

the

of

-

.2 ,

pre 1994 period

the

As we

and abject poverty

attempts

relieving

population finds itself

not thoroughly

is

legacy

All

-

in

which the poorest half the

if

fail

social disruption

long before 1994

of

will

the

terrible predicament today

to

endogenous dynamic

an

gained

section

in

have already indicated

contribution

the

contemporary socio economic problems

of .

,

colonial period

extended

should not lose sight

2

doing

so

,

However

we

.

distinguish between what happened before and after that year in

will

point

the biggest turning

and economic exploitation

of

regard 1994

in

white political domination

,

We can

summarise the dismal socio economic legacy

of

periods

five systemic

is

this chapter

as

purpose

to

of

The

perspective

recorded

a

be

to

is

to

, the

it

-

its

political compromise in

,

Mamdani

the

into

a

between

In

.

,

of a

by

the process

the compromise

as

so

,

to

of

of

turned

(

in

the

truth

the TRC

exploitation

systemic

Amadiume and

).



:

177

was

8

,

Abdullahi 2000

because

identifying the business sector

from

and beneficiaries

,

sector

moral one obscuring

seeking

Mamdani this constrained plight many black South

see

the

.

the

,

in

the

the political constraints imposed

ANC and the corporate

huge responsibility

,

.

.

.

the

of

main players

accepting

causes

prevented the TRC

,

Africans Notably one

of

the truth about it

search

investigate

compromises forged between ANC leaders and

the early 1990s According

in

a

as

for

corporate sector

restored

The TRC not only interpreted truth

,

its

mandate too narrowly but also compromised result

if

places

colonialism

social historians and social scientists

established

justice

The fact that the TRC failed

systemic exploitation during extended on

necessary

so

lasting reconciliation achieved

and

also

do

past

to

study

is

the

thorough

of

A

.

and studied

371

educating

whites about

.

its

for

,

of

in

) as

(

of .

-

to

,

it

.

the ANC chose short

have

leave the

expediency

term

-

sector

By opting

the corporate sector

uninvestigated

certainly

would

to

managerial elite

the

appointed

been

of

a

convinced

.

had



business

commission

',

embarrassed

government nor the TRC could

new

,

such

could also

JRC

a

If

for

investigation

their responsibility for restitution and nation building

Unfortunately neither the the need

a

Such

IRC

systems had

white controlled

how

impoverished blacks and enriched whites have sensitised whites

Such

Commission

JRC was regarded

a

mandate

open

be

essential for

Justice and Reconciliation

an

a

longer life span and

the TRC

proposed that the TRC

this book

-

complemented

white political

appointment

the

an

by

ncluding the author a

be

should

with

and others

(i

Mamdani

Before and after

inability

)

.

domination and racial capitalism

reason

social injustices inherent

of

's

investigate

.

unwillingness

short life span may

TRC

the

,

earlier

)

( or

As noted

be

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID the

3

to

PART

above

exploitation

,

.

the

it

,

,

its

.

the

of

,

to the

is

)

,

an

of

:

.2

in

.

various kinds

'

to

', "

employed

the extended

in

',

involved

the total labour

in

20

of

or

in

of

is

40 in

to

15

per cent

underemployed

,

or

The growth

subsistence agriculture

according

were

1995

subsistence

the informal sector has accelerated since

the

.

agriculture

per cent

the unemployed

casual employment

of

hoc informal

)}

unemployment

definition

and

or

per cent

contrasted with

the formal sector could find

informal sector

between

even

mostly structural rather than

almost

‘ ‘

,

1995

of

least

,

that

potential labour force

the potential labour force were

not find jobs the

'

in

employment

or

(

to

. in

20

this rose

,

in

1970

of

( or at

estimated

this study we

which employment fluctuates with

South Africa

than

those who could

40

some kind

of

,

Fortunately

in

."

.

per cent

While more

already unemployed

In

in

the

extent

cyclical

is

also

white domination

Structural employment

business cycles Unemployment

ad

will

with structural unemployment the overall inability

cyclical unemployment

It

and

this overview

1994 has been hotly debated

business cycle

its

of

the peak

of

zenith

1994

provide employment for the total

ie ,

to

economy

372

socio

.

of

unemployment

are mainly concerned

force

the dismal

reached

five systemic periods

black labour before

last However

of

is in

of

the nature

1994

truth

Unemployment and underemployment

The extent

at

1970 when apartheid

Hopefully

uncovering

.

the

.2

10

and

better understanding

1970

from

of

on

further deterioration



its

economic situation that existed

first attempt

the

will certainly not

,

contribute

stimulate debate

not

ugly past and a

Africa

hopefully

to

will

this chapter

's

about South

in

The analysis

be at

.

justice and restitution

1980s

OF COLONIALISM

THE LEGACY

of the

,

.

formal sector

1000

( % )

2454

+

159

.38 .5

+

+

+

+

+

.5

+ + + +

+

100

128

4840

.6

.6

27

+

152

93

+

903

45 46 .2 . 3

8585

+

13425

63 .4

445

7542

659

+

Labour supply

718

+

1

2117

9

2269

Employed

,

.13 8

.

1

+

42

154

.3

2937

+

+

+ 1

+

043

labour force outside

the

of

definition

the

36 . 1

1

20 .2

(% )

the expanded

3980

+

6 7

(% )

Unemployed

to

166

+ 59

( % )

1551 458

Unemployment according

+

331

Unemployed

114

+

165

Unemployed

202

23

Employed

Unemployed

140

13 48

379

12 21

177

Employed

185

+

132 17

( % )

177

Labour supply

65

421

317

Labour supply

Unemployed

Total

606

380

75 .3

642

1063

Unemployed

Whites

46

24

' ( % )

774

Unemployed

Asians



-

1666

2657

Employed

Unemployed

)

-

203

4323

+

5074

Labour supply

Coloureds

)

5277

+

Employed Unemployed

Unemployed

9397

6

supply

943

1

Labour

95

000

35 .4

000

,

Change 1970

(

1995

(

group

1970 )

Category

Africans

'

,

1970 and 1995

in

:

.

,

10 1

Labour supply formal sector employment and unemployment

Population

|

labour

the

the demand

in

for

increase

slow

Table

rapid increase in urbanisation after influx control was abolished in

the

and

because

, SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

CSS

.

unemployment

,

,

the formal

same period

by

1970

sector

number

of

in

that from the

.

potential labour

is

),

employed

per cent During

million

employment increased

really shocking the

is

).

But what

per cent

the

1995

1970

,

from

to

increased from

1 9

.

1995

-

of

apartheid

;

;

CSS 1970

7 1

:

25

7

, of

years

African workers

,

table

unemployed

42

the

million

( or

4

of or

203

.

, ie



. in

8

,

13

(

the number

1999

last

1995 While

per cent

,

decreased

Barker

The number

almost

000

1995

by

1

million

,

to

only

or by

,

8

to

in

million

force increased

table

during

considerably

worsened 1970

1995

to

1970

4

From

:

1999

;

.

the formal sector

Bhorat and Hodge

:

Source

3 8

Employment

in

2

.

formal sector

373

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

non - African workers employed

female unemployment among

,

; 60 in

and

65

.

no

,

1995

fewer than

were unemployed

.

24

years

25

16

of

than

per cent Unemployment

at

estimated

higher

and unemployment among African women

was

also higher among those younger

per cent

of

male unemployment

than

million (or 45 per cent). In

1 3

racial groups was substantially

is

1995 ,

,

increased by all

3:

PART

Africans between the ages

Unemployment was also much higher among

a

for

to

by NP

,

of

the

the

unravel the role played

the sharp

we can

attribute

in

sharp increase

:

to

the

-

.

of

non Africans Although the

vis that

of

;

of

the economy

has changed

which

,

i ii

capital intensity -

growing

the

number

the economy since 1974

growth

the slow

1970

policies

those responsible

,

next four factors are closely interrelated unemployment since

attributed

to

5



in à

African unemployment

in

increase

concentrate

-

,

also

our attempt on

.

we will

these factors

can

the liberation struggle and

predecessors

its

government and

linked

1994

were beyond government control while

them

In

others were strongly

Some

vis -

factors

to

of

interrelated

of

. of

unemployment

The high levels

be

.

the poor

the primary sector

of

a

in

as

,

decline

rate

growth

of

;

of

iv

reflected

service sector and

the

in

increase

the sharp

in

sharp increase

a

and

production the

structural shifts

in

iii

;

production methods

group

the African population

system

the

in

of

labour

on

production

literacy and schooling

The segregated

other

of

for

of

in

demand for different categories

the one

different

the

for

groups

.

population

labour

took place from

of of

the different levels

and

increase

important interaction

the method and structure

of

in

changes

the slow

demand for some categories

in

.

for

others

the changes

the

,

demand

1995 between

result

hand

responsible

,

decline

on

a

as

1970

mainly

for labour and the increase in

and

to

the

demand

factors

An

first three

of

The

are

.

since 1960

education

374

a

of

means

large inflow

1974

of

of

its

.

of

African

labour

This high rate

foreign investment foreign

per cent

a

5

least

of

1947

at

relatively high rate

of

be

for the

-

as

as in

the

in

from

other

1974

,

post war period

the

especially

supply

since

certain

the oversupply

.

economy grew

economic growth

to

's

attained

decline

well

the undersupply

total population

the increase

of

The sustained

by the

in

year

,

also contributed

to



The sharp increase

South Africa

blamed

skilled and professional labour

-

.1

2

10 .

component

should

in

.

categories

education

at

categories

of

different systems

of

,

different population groups and the large qualitative differences between these

growth was

entrepreneur

THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

Many of the

,

in

of

,

.5 .3 ).

9

(

or

,

on

for

,

however

another

decade

developed

from

see

.

The

(

only

for

,

1960s and the need for

the

it

,

to

in

,

-

-

20 of ).

.

be

a

by

in

,

year This outflow made

growth potential

of

1985

a

August

the

'

speech

.

a

to

achieved

importing fewer capital in

by

in

a

19

:

the

of

from

At ,

. . ). 3 2 2

(

in

The current account

the economy

the steady decline

domestic 3

This became evident

the

payments

GDP

a

no

of

3

unrest

1974

1992 the average annual outflow

to

1985

per cent on

,

1

4

to

From

.

its

of

sharply from

the

of

.

balance

Rubicon

'

notorious

of

the

foreign capital was equal

of

and black

products

decline

,

in

of

.

Botha

serious debt crisis developed

more serious

primary

affected

declined

and

year since 1973

balance during this period but this could only

. 's

.10

After

FDI also

for

a

was negatively

political instability

improve

OECD countries

per cent

.

the century

less than

curtailing domestic spending and P

deliberately

W

a

as

was kept roughly

in

a

(

,

by

large demand

demand for these products after 1973 result

economies

its

of to

1973

order

the capital labour ratio

from

year but

,

of

quarter

increase

Bantustans had

in

the

,

'

per cent

This

migrant workers declined

machinery

sophisticated

1950

from

limits

see section

African employment Gelb 1991

age

1970

longer supply migrant workers

,

5

almost

constraint

substitution

-

golden

in

As

.

to

especially

While South Africa benefited the third

inward

the productivity

sharp

a

.

by

invest

This caused

'

the in

In

decline

crisis

cheap and docile African labour

extent that they could

base

subsistence

productivity

by

in

a

to

by

an

such

became necessary

far

group

the 1960s socio economic conditions to

deteriorated

goods

The

skilled labour that could

policies

economic

the effective control

industrialisation policy

of

an

the end

a

to

was based

on

and

population

see section

accumulation strategy reached

when the Verwoerdian

strategy

1984

demand

discriminatory

Stephen Gelb

on

onwards

grew

created

the 1960s

. ).

According

with

and

from

until

9 6

section

then

the white

costly

its

with

in

,

the

rate

with

the collapse

1841 and continued

during the 1950s

it

the

be

supplied

continued

that began

but became dysfunctional

technological modernisation not

contrast with most other

stagflation that coincided

capitalist accumulation until the end

high economic growth

very

South

early 1990s

a

,

1970s

But

into chronic

The repressive black labour system 1980s contributed

big profits .?

very

and black unrest culminating

in

white political domination

early

that invested in South

.

,

the recession deteriorated

of

a

severe recession

political instability

period

totalled

1974

in

1973 slowed down economic growth elsewhere

.

crisis

Africa also experienced countries

corporations

foreign

cheap and docile African labour to make

of

oil

Africa exploited

prices, FDI

2000

in

NP ,

almost R175 billion .

When the

. Measured

technology

of

,

ship and foreign

75

.

in

This low level

investment

political

regime and South Africa

the apartheid

cent

the sanctions and disinvestment

to



at

16

indirectly

and

1993

's

directed

per cent

,

campaigns

directly at

,

it

attributed

stood

-

can

1972

in

be

GDP

only

of

investment after 1980 . Whereas gross domestic investment was 30

of

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3:

per

PART

and

and limiting access

,

involved retricting international trade opportunities

All

these anti apartheid measures

black wages

. ,

to

,

in

,

3

its it

,

to



to

damage

economy after 1970

the South African

economy

over

the

),

and has increased considerably

and

(

the

of

of

capital labour ratio

countries

the

.

's

almost any cost But

attempts

to

structural unem

government

has always been relatively high compared with other developing countries some developed

in

(

.

its

the latter

economically

NP

it

alone in

go

'

to

During

1994

)

or

and

.

1974

the South

-

on

,

by

2

."

the liberation

from

supporters

movement also helped

growing capital intensity

(

The capital intensity

the

and economic privilege

the South African economy

where

the short sightedness

The sharp increase

1974 was largely caused

The high and

and

done

the harm

government was prepared

destructive methods used

76

to

of

.

.

the

be

blamed

NP government

the cost involved

political power

arena

at

of

NP

the

NP government and

the economic

system

to

to

the liberation

longer conducive

we take into account the fact that the NP was

largely

by

of

the 1980s the

ployment since

.2 .2

fought

immoral and discredited

recalcitrant attitude of

.

harm

If

other was mainly

economy should

irrespective

the one hand and the

-

an

irreparable

defending

even

the

and

organisations and their allies

liberation

in

)

the

on

securocracy

on

'

level war between

-

'

low

the international community

10

,

of

of an

to

led

-

investment and domestic capital accumulation

cling

unrest

intensification

foreign

1950s and

the 1970s helped

This

and created socio political conditions that were

struggle

the

-

suppress

onwards

1970s

,

attempts

early it

from

1994

the same period

black poverty

,

's

government

in

.

unrest

1974

from

during

stricter influx control measures

to

fuel black

political instability

socio

the

,

1960s together with

part

inflation

caused several devaluations

economic performance

accident The perpetuation the

by

did not happen

African

level

high

no

's

South Africa

and the parallel increase

caused

payments

balance

.

in

The decline

The

of

-

's

and the

problem

)

of

sharp increase

Africa

South

African rand

the South

to

payments in

(

to

partly due

a

The continuing balance

vulnerability

of

'

exploited

'

deliberately

the

.

international loans and foreign technology

regime

of

."

Economic sanctions against the apartheid

a

and technology caused

investment

to

foreign

of

the inflow

productivity

in

decline

of

The decline

in

.

social instability

past

OF COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

THE LEGACY

.

creating capacity

of

its

. from

high capital

lower

demand

of

In

.

of

.14

and

or

'

a

on

to

,

,

of .1 .15 ).

.

a

on

of its to

's

of

tip

.

of

economy Verwoerd

the

for

.

at

the southern

third world continent not a

in

,

so

did

of

way

.

it

not During the 1960s

job

a

of

The

enough

serious

white

meet

the

large

supply to

simply

the economy

.

sectors

growth resulted

in

?

."

,

rapid economic

skilled workers

,

Over the next three

the economy but

of

to

in

all

and

)

labour and

Africa African economy His policies

African workers

workers was

was maintained quite rigidly

11

see

(

economy

-

-

and even coloured increasing demand

for

of

labour

contributions difficult

-

the South

the 1960s and early 1970s skilled

the economy and

price relations

a



European

the employment capacity

that was highly detrimental

state

This dramatically

government embarked

capital intensive first world economy

only weakened

of

to a

their relative



a

in

section

skewed development on or

a

of far -

reaching effects

the

capital intensity that clearly

labour

on

NP

,

complex

white

level

capital intensity

economic policy that seriously distorted creating

industry

,

,

for

the high

1960s the

decades this resulted

mining

unskilled African

and

are

the

.16

determine

1970

In

increase since

a

. ).

the gold

unemployment among Africans

The factors responsible

small

large cheap and unskilled labour force When wages for Africans began increase

and moved

employment

the

gap

in

,



producer goods

their labour force was also split between

of

the

,

damaged

a

upstream

manufacturing industry changed their methods

the private

quite drastically

mining

unskilled workers until 1970

producing

onwards

1970s

production

shortage

the gold

9 7

section

(

the

from

creating

between

of

finished production

corporations and

In

white mineworkers

corporations were also relatively capital

The state

concentrating

African labour force

increased

white

those

several state corporations were modelled

highly paid white skilled

sharply

1911 the

,

of ,

instead

by

.

the gold mines

intensive but

(

those

gold production and the large

on

did

of

those

had

of

4 5

per cent

not necessarily disadvantage

The production methods

policy

per cent

skilled and unskilled workers the capital intensity

industry

and

factor prices

relative

, of 8 , 6

Given the nature

,

only

of

,

1971

in

,

and

8 of .1) .

(

wages

influenced

unskilled African mineworkers were

mineworkers table

strongly

by

this occurs

is

which

wages

of

,

unskilled labour and increase the demand for more skilled labour the pace

at for

a

capital intensity tends

investment the

mines

level

-

in

increase

deep

than

Although

to

intensity

exploiting in

an

especially

or

,

inception

high levels

needed



capital intensity

.

mining industry

gold

The

much poorer

is

's

Africa

of

that

. South

other developing countries with lower levels

of

especially since 1970

job

This has weakened the job - creating capacity of the economy

-

years

30 to 40

discrimination

was only during the 1970s that Africans 377

PART

3

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

were allowed

to

move

skilled and semi - skilled jobs

into

. Influx

control became

in

onwards

1975

from

the

by

to

a

incentive was reinforced

This

industrialists sharp

18

to

labour

African wages

strong incentive

.

capital

substitute

increases

1960s and 1970s provided

.

in

for

unskilled )

the

much stricter during the 1970s and early 1980s . We can therefore say that the non -availability of different kinds of African labour (both skilled and

,

,

by

,

8

19

of

NP in

agricultural sector

),

while African and

in

agriculture

from

1980

:

Bhorat and Hodge 1999

break down

(

,

,

the

.

to

.

least until 1978

growth

general loss and

,

an

in

the services

in

and

all

Although

sector

,

.

of

,

the gain

employer

of

.20

a

generally

,

Africans

The significant

Asians who

employment was

employment resulting

of

economic

of

the case

sector and

significant decline

Hodge mainly whites

the

the slowdown

from

and

compensate

caused

workers

,

to

large enough

traditionally

increased employment

for

this shift

In

from

.

benefited

Bhorat

to

according

in

,

was

from

coloured

the

of

four racial groups benefited

and

to

in

in

of

African

1995



1970



a

:

in

from

important ways

the

in

employment

the

the primary

decline

the

in

increase

the tertiary sector

an

).

.

shifts

primary sector decline contribution mainly unskilled African and coloured workers in

per

9



2 3

10 .

production

Structural

The economy changed

it

168

government continued

more expensive

and

onwards when influx control started

not

in

,

-

-

-

coloured labour became scarcer 352

the

the

in

cost capital

1980s may have

increased

the capital labour ratio

( at

of

.

supply farmers with

and continuing

unskilled workers declined

distorted factor prices The

low

to

in

per cent The increase

force

substitute capital for labour

while the employment

1995

was largely the result

the early 1970s onwards

sector the capital labour ratio

to

1970

employers

,

to

In

the agricultural

from

16

by

cent

stronger incentive

even

strikes

1970s but especially

to

an

labour and township unrest been

the Durban

in

From

docile and manageable work

a

ceased

to

Africans

be

.

increase their real wages

to

During the 1980s Africans used their new trade union and strike rights

growing capital intensity

that after

1970

,

seems contradictory

,

first glance

it

, .21

At

the primary sector

the

South

African

378

overinvestment

in

.

-

labour intensive activities

in

16

to

per cent

unemployment among Africans and

relative underdevelopment

the informal sector and

the

of

high levels

of

coloureds was

the

reason the

Another

for

-

,

capital intensive activities and underinvestment

only

22

explained in

This apparent contradiction can

1972

by

GDP

in

per cent

be

.

1993

from

of

investment declined

30

-

economy should have becomemore capital intensive while gross domestic

or

because

years

illegal

was

manufacturing

engage

for

.

23

activities

their own enterprises

head

to

Africans

partly

the

.

,

informal sector was relatively unknown

For many it

informal manufacturing

in

investment

in

level

, SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

OF COLONIALISM

to

of

low

THE LEGACY

30

-

’. 24 ,

,

,

South and

,

a

,

result

the

a

a

,

of -

favour

and

exploiting

, of

white core

years this twist

in

.

40

interests

century

political economic

than

,

serving

and apartheid

by

in

its

the

at

economic development was shaped

world oriented modern sector became much stronger

first large

Black

of

after 1970 during

the

develop

for

.1

11

see section

African economy

into

an a

the South

stagflation

to

to

of

the no

period

had been destroyed

Africans

protect themselves against the

(

.

.

the tendency

already proletarianised

poverty worsened spectacularly

capacity

of

a

and structurally

then the economic independence

of

of

pauperisation effects

of

years had

white

this process had been

when

growing number

because those whose economic independence

description

the unfree

of

just

By

unemployed

had already been destroyed

130

into

of

,

.

Africans became

previous

them

the white controlled economy was modernised

When that happened

transformed

1970

,

labour

In

unskilled

a

,

completed

force

-

employers

order

economic independence

thus satisfying the seemingly insatiable demands

.

for

,

labour market

undermined

historical

broad

and

Africans were delibrately

1970 the freedom

from

to

until

in

at from

unemployment problem

African

1841

,

perspective

the

.

the unskilled periphery was declared redundant

Looking

were

effectively

deprived

defeated

and subjugated

forms

in

).

they

been

of

,

colonial wars

population groups had

all

the black

of

After

,

first world capitalist enclave

-

,

of

'

,

For more

as

.

struggle

black periphery During the past

open

in

-

of a

' –

the

of

in

-

-

South African economy during segregation

the

into

ideological forces aimed

part

the

economy but also contributed

RDP that serious structural problems had

and especially during the liberation

's

and not only undermined

of by

become built

the

The ANC acknowledged

the

in

),

the

'

job in

creating ability

1960 onwards

from

the 1960s and 1970s

development

distorted

Africa

Verwoerdianism

1970s and 1980s

total onslaught

.

its

growth potential and to

ideology

by

by

-

by

total strategy

'

and

large public

but also

the economy

in

The large scale government intervention

was strongly driven

distorted capital labour

total strategy against the

'

behalf

the

labour intensive activities

separate development

of

sector investment

in

, -

was not only the result

Verwoerdian on

caused

capital intensive activities

and underinvestment

the

by

the

in

informal sector

(

ratio

of

overinvestment

private and public sectors and

the South African economy over the past

-

by

'

characterised



years

development

skewed



The

political 379

, SEGREGATION , AND

, with contradictory

political point of

and the economic

view

From

market As

economic processes

marginalise

a

.

From

a

of

political domination

white

they spelled

soon

deliberately

set

black

the end

happened

this

of

protracted process

view

class and white bureaucracy to

entrepreneurial

.

the labour

in

subservience

set in motion

South

in

system

of racial capitalism

the breakdown

economic point

an

the 1990s

.

in

black unrest that ultimately

political

effects on the

system

, the Durban strikes

points

the white

,

white domination

to

Africa 's

of the most important turning

1970s as one

racial history

can regard the Durban

the black labour force

socio

motion

in

the early

in

led

strikes

. We

discrimination

system

an elaborate

as

of proletarianisation , repression , and

through

of

‘ enslaved ' economically

and also

of

,

representation

APARTHEID

as

COLONIALISM

,

:

as

3

of

PART

effectively

.

possible

of

,

12

a

,

it

'



,

.1 ).

2

, of

.

years

However

,

the

25

to

25

.2 ).

table

African

four population 10

of

each

1960

69

percentage points from

,

by

6

7

an

to

least

Africans and whites changed

whites declined

per cent and that

extent over the next

(

the

of

. ,

1910

Africans increased

,

, .

5

76

per cent

share

per cent that

to

19

to

significantly The per cent

stable from

1996 the percentage contribution

, of

1960

the total population

remarkably

5

from

to

groups remained

even greater

by 5

share

economic war

has also contributed

to

The percentage

will

so

,

and

structural

African population

the African population

do

unemployment

of of

rate

of

The high growth

growth

of

in

(

.2 .4

10

The high rate

and figure

the black

organisations

that the liberation

,

10 4

see table

part

seemingly insoluble

winning the political battle but lost

for the time being

skewed



.

can

large

the

situation

unemployment and abject poverty We succeeded

ie

enslavement

, 5

in

the miserable

liberating themselves

the inheritance

of

,

a

,

population

the

and

say

structure



economic

economic price

huge

of

but

at

politically

political and economic

in

black people ultimately succeeded



,

subservience

safeguarding

of of a

.

their endangered economic interests After centuries

of ,

among whites aimed

reaction

blacks

'

enslavement

at

political

the

at

ending

of

in

powerful protective

a

provoked

succeeded



strikes ultimately

of

While the black protest movement that got under way during the Durban

percentage points

from

coloureds and Asians declined

only

with

explosive phase

mortality

the result that population growth

is

or

growth rate

is

the cycle

of

and

of

,

mortality

, ,

and

a

The first phase

declines starts

to

than

fertility

or

,

cent During the second

,

per

2

.

almost uncontrolled fertility

more rapidly 380

,

five demographic phases

characterised

about

population group has moved

each

through

.

,

moving

Professor Jan Sadie

by

According

to

.

marginally

THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

Table 10. 2:

total population of various

The share of the groups ( %)

White

African

population

Coloured

67

1910 1925 1946 1960 1970

70

1980

72

1991

75 2

13, 5

1996

76 , 5

12 , 5

starts

.

.

,

49

to

, ,

21

3

African its

.

and reached

per cent Africans have

.

96

the

of

its

.

and

0

per

,

in 6

,

-6

only

growth rate was

The growth

of 2 ,

cycle since 1985 with

average

Africans

per cent and only

59

,

,

5

against

70

'

1970

and Africans constituted

per cent

1970

in

of

.

the total

In

million

9 4

to

million

per cent

,

from

76

,

,

workforce

9

6

from

70

or

,

1995

the total population was

68

.

26

,

an

the

in



in

a

of

cent

The coloured population

1950 onwards

growth rate

the population

per cent

the employed

1990

from

African labour increased

in

1990

1960s when

in

, 5

with



in

73

accelerate

per cent

as

of

in

of 2 ,

a

in

per cent

of

70

to

per

per cent

1996

by

.

in

cent

1980

declining phase

The supply

68

population group started transitional phase

1

to

,

only

to

transitional phase

per cent declining

share

growth rates declined

.

, 1

group reached

growth rate

their transitional phases

,

its 28

, 3

69

per cent respectively Their population per cent respectively per cent and

been

decline and during the

1951 when their population growth rates were

to

1946

peaks

fertility drops below replacement level

The white and Asian population groups were from

. .

:

population growth

population growth

2 2

,

fifth and final phase

transitional phase

,

phase

,

During the fourth

table

to

,

the third

Seventer 1999

,

During

and

or

.

increase

Van

Source: Sadie 1989: table 1; Whitefield

2 1

16

,

of

in

4

37 ,

the

,

years reaches working

per cent age

,

9

only

and aggravate the already high

their ranks

high percentage

of

,

will

A

in

African labour force unemployment

than

increase dramatically

.

of

whites When the generation younger

years compared

At present 20

than

,

Africans are younger

14

per cent

to

.

African unemployment until 2020 14

considerably

. of

contribute

to

20

.

in

76

to

,

projections made

of

to

Sadie the supply African labour will large per increase cent the total 2020 The numbers Africans that years will undoubtedly will enter the labour market during the next According

Africans presently

younger

381

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

on

, 28

is

.

of It

11

/

to

(

is

are

50

18

be

,

ie



a

of

to

/

the

as

,

if

-

,

,

,

,

by

.

in

economic

less According

.

to

18

by

be

2015

per cent and 21 per cent

the decline

,

be

a

-

-

will decline by

18

the

in

on

will

probably Its

meaningful manner

.

a

the

a

on

.

,

0

9

(

.

-

,

the demand

,

more serious than the economic one

impact negatively

political

-

The socio

the

economy

.

latter

.

the

far

pandemic

on

,

will

complete Over year per cent higher

negative effect

in

,

be

former has implications

The projected

increase

view

2010 and

the overall population

is

of

,

have

for

the

likely

which

1 5

,

be

will

unemployment

aggrevate

to

nor

AIDS scenario

decline

GDP

course

per cent lower

a

is

to the

to

than

unemployment point

is

an

).

'

relieve



to

.

to

.

,

is

), (

labour From

will

This

climate could deteriorate

monthly expenditure

in

As

lesser

the poorest

4

the

of

1996

,

and

,

people

In

coloured

.

,

degree

81 ,

case with unemployment poverty affects mainly Africans

poor

.

are abjectly

a

the South African population

to

.3

very high percentage

of

Poverty and deprivation

10 A

for labour While

substantially

non

period real per capita GDP growth

even though

the

high prevalence

.

/

by

2015 compared

human and social impact

382

will

suggests that per capita

BER 2001

neither

and skilled

the unemployed countering the

scenario

projected

significantly less

.

for

average

semi skilled

that

reduced

non AIDS

,

,

7

5

,

,

in

GDP

which

projection

HIV AIDS

AIDS

HIV

per cent lower

per cent

factor

not entirely clear that economy wide unemployment

Overall real GDP growth decline

likely

the demand

employment and income

of is

it

,

a

as

result

to

respectively compared

the BER

not

AIDS were

However the relatively

the population and labour force will production

It

29

.

replaced

the labour supply

working people

total population will

most serious threat

by

AIDS

skills

be

can

on

impact

that

the be

is

it

.

million Arguably

for labour productivity but also

only

HIV among the youngmakes the

estimated

would

the

most acute

2000 HIV prevalence

.

at

of

.

61

by

than

per cent

skilled and highly skilled workers has serious implications not

among

HIV

2015

HIV AIDS

about

HIV AIDS quite serious

It

.

impact

on

negative

to

workers lost

of

of

is

the economy

its

instead

the end

people

/

,



million

million

The high incidence

potential economic impact disproportionately affected per cent smaller

and

6

4

million

-

)

15

in

the

taken into account According

factors have been identified that have made and

were HIV positive

49 age group

population growth rate and

Africans highly susceptible

South

estimated that between

population

of

a

/

number

make

to

continue

)

(

the

2000

be

on

employment unemployment rates needs BER

the

of HIV /AIDS27

effect

their lifetimes ( see Sadie

in

of

, the

However

of

: tables

never have formal jobs

a

1999

will probably 1 . 1 , 1. 2 ) .

is

than 14 years

of

3:

PART

follows: 21,5

per cent spent

8,

and

per cent

,

:

,

households 7 8

,

follows 25

the

less

27

of

In

as

,

6

a

less

-

).

(

:

2000

regarded

those

Even as

month

a

households that spent R1 001 R1 800

poor

be

regarded

59

,

very poor whereas households that spent can

could

households that spent R600 as

regarded

or

,

as

be

South Africa

be

-

000

per cent spent

coloured

per cent was

or

.3 ).

(

month

a

R1 000

R601

Statistics

could

1996

in

month

table

to

According

-

, ,

-

R1 001 R1 800

47

per cent spent R601

13 6

spent R600

the poorest

R1

monthly expenditure

next

the case

or

of

).

constant 1996 prices

APARTHEID

10



R1 001 R1800

at

per cent spent R601 -R1000 , and

(

,

32 4

, AND

per cent spent R600

,

per cent of African households was as

less ,

SEGREGATION

5

,

THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM

relatively

,

or R3

RI

RO

-

% 5

,

7

,

17 4

18 0

20 37 , 0 4

8

64 8,

,

, 51 , 71 , 44, , 20 2 1 1

, 4 2

11 , 1 , 47

8

5

to

, 14 , 32 7 2,

%

1

1

%

27 , 25 , 8,

9 3

,

5 8

23 3

of

22

.

other correlations urban

women

.

headed

by

the rural poor live

per in

is

rural areas

in

rural than

63

,

in

in

of

are

32

).

Many

'



urban areas

.

what

between

1993 and 1995

rate

,

of

,

-

6

(

:

of

Africans and

,

There

.

educational achievement and poverty

of

are

in

one measurement the poverty 22

of

,

so

is

'

poverty

between race and poverty

strong correlation between

will

of

an

]

in

60

2000

per cent

poverty are much higher

per cent

South African

Irrespective

of

.

to

the nature

clear cut and pervasive that for

Bantustans where many households

erstwhile

501 more

determine the extent

in

in

50

,

is

and

of

, .

cent compared with

a

pictures

close correlation

also conspicuous Levels

also

of

the

(

,

are

from

800

appropriate technical tools

array

coloureds were living

areas According the

application

used between the

32

per cent

Apart

is

Leibbrant and Leibbrant

very similar poverty

measurement

Africa

South

among Africans and coloureds

produce

and

to

'

."

According

any reliable data

-

-

32 , 13 6, 4, 1 7

.1 3

,

9

,

Several measurements are used poverty

1996

801 R3 500

.

table

population group

001 800

5

2000

:

SSA

:

Source

%

%

483

9001

24

|

Total

, 78, 21 5,

741 244

0 8

Coloured Asian

1 , 4

6534

White

RI 000

16 5

' African

R601

600

000

RI

RO

:

Households

poverty

by

Monthly household expenditure

.3

Table



10

.30

poor and vulnerable

among

rate rate

Women

,

almost double the overall national

.33

of

.

poor households

is

members

The unemployment

.

or

unemployment are also closely linked of

and

be

to

no

primary education Individuals with education less than seven years poor than individuals with higher levels Poverty more likely education

383

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND

a

is

. is

28

1996

month poverty was not

.

a

,

)

who

the

,

a

of

.

For most

in

and squalor

and

their destiny for many generations

been

for

.3 .3

poverty amid plenty

multiple deprivation

less

It

.

11

index

million were Africans

R1 800

of

-

malnourished

35

of -

in

all

– 14

8

;

to

25

are

).

's

,

whom

poverty

see also section

especially

humiliation

live

Africans

,

or

had

children

human development

The

of

impoverishment and proletarianisation tribes was

tables

per cent among

per cent among male headed

South

experience

households that spent but

of 31

,

per

6

,

2

the

on

a

million

define poverty

destitution

Africans

phenomenon

cent

or

to

belonged

61

a

:

South

pain

UNDP

lifelong

of

accompanied

million

describe

normally by

is

Poverty

to

not easy

(

's

It is

position

,

(

South Africa

and

3

that

11

is

It

.

estimated

Leibbrant 2000

and

the poverty rate was

compared

also estimated that between

Leibbrant

survey

1995

-

to

,

.

households

-

female headed

households

the

According

greatest burden

60

poverty

elderly and those with disabilities bear

34

,

the

children

new

APARTHEID

3

the Khoisan and the different African

long and relentless process that began

in

PART

the late 17th century and

arises whether the economic subjugation

undoubtedly

,

on

which colonialism

,

colonial

coin

and

exploitation

the

of

,

the

the

the empowerment and enrichment

and

.

Africans and coloureds the other

arrange

factors that contributed

the

We

side

power relations

to

can

impoverishment

were based

of

were one

Given

of

whites

and apartheid

the

segregation

groups

the

a

indigenous population

political

less exploitative and less humiliating manner

.

developed

in

have

the economy would

indig

for

,

power had been less unequally distributed

inevitable

If

enous people over the past 350 years was historically

.

The difficult question

of .

continued uninterruptedly and with increasing intensity until the 1980s

poverty under

following

the different African

tribes

proletarianisation

order

the

of

deliberate

to

and

in

i

land deprivation

the

:

headings

Khoisan and

repressive

institutionalise

black

especially

(

social spending

on

;

black proletariat

education and

and

two thirds

the

further pauperisation

of

and

of

,

iv

stagflation since 1974

a

);

training

in

iii

official discrimination

from

Afrikaner

)

(

protect the white and predominantly

proletariat against competition

the

discriminatory measures

to

ii

;

labour systems

and repressive labour systems

the Khoisan and different African

colonialism

and the hegemony

of

during Dutch and British 384

,

the ancestral lands

of

The seizure

,

Land deprivation proletarianisation

of

.3 ./

10

.

population

the

tribes

English

, SEGREGATION , AND

'

to

,

In

.

of

it

.



to 36

the

in

. .)

6 4

;

11

ch

It

of

of

,

the land wars were

more correct

that

claim

to

would

in

:

.. .

remarked

-

for

the

to

In

of as A

such

a

northern in

the early 20th century but not

,

similar

.



7

the

in

of

the

of

of

,

so

and

that the Xhosa

1856

occurred

the Eastern Cape

systematic and aggressive character after the discovery

diamonds and

more gold

.

Africans assumed

a

economic independence

of

in

as

seizure

of

the

The onslaught

on

bloody way

land

contract

.

of

the 19th and

relentlessly

killing movement

in

in

the cattle

colonial conquest and

at

of



'

salvation

Xhosa were assaulted

Xhosa

and physical

,

the

employment

of

search

the

their land

thousands

and

for

the colony

into

settlers

,

by

,

British

social structures

the

undermined large parts

to

of

, . 38

and 1853

and

deprive

During the three frontier

cultural existence

and

virus

1713 the

,

smallpox

colonial conquest the cosmology

the end

Town

.

of a

by

van

Cape

their land and cattle 1835

Stel used the

the socio economic and

the

sought their

der

it

,

in

Simon

destroy

the vicinity

their chieftainships

farming

sheep

37

.

to

17th century

During

.

most

land was not always seized

was relatively easy for the Trekboere

impoverished and driven

dramatic

of

.

,



De

the

Khoikhoi

the greater part

for

provinces

case

see also section

cheap black labour

to

of

access

in

of

the

century

Xhosa were disrupted

process

,

to

'

-

,

the

As

:

in

se .

Kiewiet

be

:

to

gain

the Eastern Cape between

workers

and

who did the conquering

case

the Western Cape were decimated

18th

of

of

the

in

South African

official commando

an

as

political structures

seized

with superior military power

of

garrison

wars

South Africa

their land than was

Perhaps

During the last two decades

Khoisan

tribes

South Africa the land wars were more often than not labour wars

land was seized

Khoikhoi

used

the Dutch colonists who

the African

Diamond 1997

180

colonisers still

considerably more military aggression

it

1941

'(

,

(

,

be

that

land per

labour wars

ie

see

).

of

for

the sake

large parts

-

colonies

emphasised

but

indigenous populations and

the

equipped

the Africans and deprive them

other European

must

use

,

conquer

the European

and domination

to

However the British had

the case

those countries where millions

in

.

expansionism

with

obsessed

rest

and other diseases

conquer

the case

was mainly the British colonisers

VOC

smallpox

This was also true

in

.

But

land because

seize

diseases

in

to

their land

the Khoisan

Even

America

and South

European

foreign diseases

.

them

conquered

them

North

colonists

is

It

Europes colonised

New

of

so

vulnerable

over gunpowder

of

deprive

of

indigenous people died their monopoly

so

all

,

African tribes were immune

also

centuries

20th

Africa the Khoisan were vulnerable

South

called

was easier for European

indigenous peoples were

the

very sensitive cultural issue .

a

to

Australasia

in

and

the 16th

from

APARTHEID

to

Europeans

the

South

to

it

by

not specific

of segregation is Africa , but to the

the period

in

to

establishment

In

THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM

385

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

also

impoverishing and proletarianising Africans . 39 From owning land

from

the

,

in

on

a

of

)

the

to

,

.

)

)

48



important role

community

African and coloured population growth rates their

.

protect the white

and mainly

Afrikaner

)

in

during

especially

of

can

The sharp increase

in

.“

in

so

1900

of

.

coloureds

in

in

of

-

of

,

,

40

say

the ranks

the

the labour market from

most serious

cheap

of

the

black

of

racist ideology

Social

The real motivation

was

for

protect poor white

and especially

problems that confronted

African

the

)

20th

society

South African

(

the

century

.

an

integral part

Union

1910 onwards was the dual proletarianisation unfolding

as

of

.

One

government

386

on

,

the

to

especially

Afrikaners against competition labour

and

social and cultural

also argue that chronic

and were legitimised

the beginning

-

discrimination

1900

per cent

played



,

century

at

the

Darwinism

but the range and

least

groups

disruption

increase

practices have been

18th

severely

against black competition

in

.3 .2

Discriminatory

But we

measures

1910

(

Discriminatory proletariat

than

undoubtedly

social and cultural

communities contributed 10

century

.

black poverty

and

also more

-

the

the 20th

the

poverty

of the

, of

aggravating

lower

African and coloured population

of

the second half

the

)



of

the growth

bribe

was poorer and socially more dislocated

population

and probably

1950

in

1994 than

Africans and

from

and poverty

,

70

per cent

1652

segregation

were undoubtedly more severe

The poorest half

since

on

.

exploitation during the periods 94

of

(

lower

1970

from

Bantustans and

indigenous population groups

and caused more alienation

view

their production

rands

linked

during the Dutch and British periods

1948

part

government buildings and used

underdevelopment

The

and impoverished

penetration

of

leaders

rural poor were

this expenditure benefited the

by

in

disrupted

apartheid

small part

white urban areas are therefore structurally

Colonialism

the

(

',

corrupt Bantustan

point

only

the money was spent

.

poor Most wealth

government spent billions

development

'

Bantustan

the

of

of

Although

dubious moral grounds

of

.

costs

absorbing

NP

by

areas

urban

in

gold

subsidised

.

For many decades the underdeveloped mining and industrial development white

Bantustans

'



native reserves

to

country

rural areas . Most

in

.

the erstwhile

in

living

were living

1996

in

a

month

to

a

of the

for

1994 , Africans

per cent of households that spent R1 000 or

70

of

less

than

87 per cent

1936

the

As noted earlier, more

in

of

were prohibited from

tribal' as

most successful , measure

the

of

the



proletariat . The Land Act (1913 )

impoverished

most notorious , but

existence on

(

an

independent



40

– into

relatively

a



'white ' land

as

was

maintained

an –

well

then

attempt to turn African peasants

deliberate

a

a

who had until

Act ( 1894 ) was

at

The Glen Grey

to

3

(

PART

THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

of the process of modernisation and industrialisation . While

proletariat was largely deliberately

both

exacerbated the unequal struggle

in

in a

in

,

was the vested

keeping the African proletariat

in

What

the same time

'



of

place

by

practical purposes been disenfranchised

1909

the

Africans

had

for

all

Westminster

the same act and were therefore

,

Act

(

the

of

created

the predominantly white parliamentary

in

their participation

),

of

.

of

virtue

by

by

as a

system

the century

not possible

apparently

proletariats

economic

cheap and docile labour While Afrikaners had strong bargaining

source

power

was

the first half

between the two proletariats

the white employer class

interest

Africa

South

.

address the poverty

,

place

it

the power structure

in

adequately

mineral based developing country of

a

given

and

with each other Given

-

as

-



capacity

two proletariats were

fact that the

.

-

relationship

zero sum

was the

with the

in

for escalating conflict

potential

thorny problem

in

.

such

-

What made dual proletarianisation

century

place

the 20th

's

dominated

of



African

the South

for

policies

to

political and economic

a

the Afrikaner and African proletariats

a

.

. ) .

between

'

struggle

The

8 7

and

sun

sections

8 6

(

of modernisation

result

as a

the African

repressive measures ,

of

series

a

white proletariat emerged almost inadvertently

see

the

by

created

at

part

discriminatory laws prevented Africans They were paid lower wages

,

to

,

NP

of a

.1 ).

see

(

of

table

are

white

the 20th century

8

percentage

of

a

the exploitative

white privilege

whites and Africans also

apartheid

table

.1 ).

per capita income

halcyon years

of as

,

vis

during most

(

increased

sharply during

the

The racial disparity between

the

African exploitation

Africans

of

The

of

good indication

.

the others

-à -

mining and manufacturing

in

wages

,

of

wages

character

Africans Many

and reinforced

of

,

interrelated

vis

closely

low

measures were

The

.

.

and

years

30

,

.42

to

see sections

Both repressive and discriminatory measures degraded these

first

this

disruption and

immense 9 5

Africans

(

ranks

the

1948

coloureds and Indians

removals caused

forced

of

of

,

pauperisation

intensified during

and

applied

and also

policy the

's

government

in

NP

of

government

power

10

-

discriminatory laws were enacted before the NP rose

practical

While several

work

.

unskilled

and

legislation was considerably extended

for

. ).

low

to

paid

all

that they were

,

,

condemned

skills and undergo

gain

in

professional training with the consequence purposes

of

.

opportunity

9 6

legislation also deprived Africans

from

the opportunity negotiations Discriminatory

wage

and

doing skilled

they were employed

see

action

from

were prevented

they

and therefore deprived

of

in

.

,

trade unions

industrial

Moreover

whites

the

categories

joining recognised participate

as

job

the

in

same

if

even

.

and highly paid jobs

to

multitude

to

of

A

.

politically powerless

387

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND

APARTHEID

the narrowing

and Africans

1970

are

in in

in

20 %

10 %

+

+ 4 %

+

15 38 % %

72

-

%

%

14 20

+

122935 31

25 % %

%

882

306 662

+

19 %

+ 8 %

463

3 %

%

0 %

13 7 %

-

+ 46

23 %

134 821

80 + + 36 13 %

-

+ 6 % Whiteford

;

:

.71

-5

+ 5 %

%

+ 36 %

29

967

49569

table

20 %

20 %

)

9

-

13 26 % %

-4

26 % %

-

780

17878

and McGrath 1994

and Appendix

.

from Whiteford

table

3 .6

Estimated

1996

C

Income

Top

19183

%

+

-6

1991

25

8214

1996

91

1975

Asians



Income

+

0 %

-4

%

91



-

1991

Next

120

83 506

29549

1996

6

1975

Coloureds

40 % %

-

40 % 16 %



6

1991

Income

%



6

1975

Whites

2383

1996

91

Income

:

of in

given job grade have

in

(

91

1975

Next

21 42

Poorest

1991

:

der Berg

-6

in

Africans

388

Van

,

91

Period

group

1999

difficult for

per household income class 1975 and 1991 and the main household income per income class 1996 constant 1996 prices -

:

.

Population

a

.

,

10 4

Percentage changes

to

equal footing According

an

on

,

to

compete with whites

it

in

the labour market were abolished

and Bhorat racial and gender wage differentials within

Source

vis white

.

and discrimination

1979 but unofficial discrimination and cultural barriers still made

Table

Africans

became unemployed

Job reservation

blacks

all

-à -

in

a

wages

the

per cent

vis

,

80

whites while the other decline

of

20

of

white wages

per cent

the

of

,

of

during the third quarter

about

three

sectors were

except

grew

The

in

or

.

all

in

in

;

2

,

à -

vis

;

,

those

workforce either experienced

the African or

vis

gap

the

less than one sixth

the last quarter the wages

increased considerably

,

, -

and

in

sectors

,

African wages declined

wages

and

sector during World War

century

the 20th century occurred

,

wages

white

of

manufacturing

small elite

became unemployed

African wages

the century

,

one fifth

.

in

a

during the first half

than

their real wages

to

less

1970s onwards

From

African workforce

of

:

phases

deceptive

whites

gap between

more skilled and better paid jobs but most Africans

decline the

impoverishment

of

either experienced

to

advanced

,

of

Africans

since

of the per capita income

a

of white wages , and

percentage

a

of

The increase in African wages in mining and manufacturing as

+

3

+

PART

192 103

and Van Seventer

, SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM

considerably since the mid - 1970s, but

declined

not

had

been wiped

out by

job

, of

is

on

coloureds less than

per cent

multiple depriva

of

lifelong experience

a

was less

1975 40

on

)

as

is ,

.

are

.

It

on on

,

of

; to

Africans until

adequate

Consequently they have owned very little human

little they own

constantly

undermined

the

proper

of

,

and

alarming that per capita social

by

capital

the

.

educational opportunities

lower during the first half

even

have been singularly deprived

Africa

South

however

There

,

poor

see also section

poverty

is

The

in

.

tions

referred

education and that

whites

.5

(

,

Earlier

on

(

whites table we

that

that 10

on

than

per cent

not available

blacks was

the century

including spending

of

12

spending

second half

of

the

during

than

groups

the four statutory population groups

the 20th century

little doubt that social spending

four population

. .3 ).

on

first half

during the

social spending

of

Reliable statistics

social spending on

in

10 4

Discrimination

on

..

10 3 3

the

1989 .43

lack

a

is

the

the

of

,

13 6

4

into the

.

65

per

.

to in

unskilled per cent

that category While The

,

unskilled workers almost as

different

table

1994

(

not substantially

unskilled in

of

skilled

:

Berg and Bhorat 1999

table

in

of

(

3 8

6

,

72

100

29 , 29 , , 32

%

groups

36 1

8

1

6

43 , 35 , 46 ,

62

9,

1

5

0

54 , 39 , 42 , , 39 6

69

All

a

as on

%

Asians

8,

100

,

| Van

der

:

Source

475

%

100

1993

0

100

1972

8

2033

1986

8

1975

11 , 10 , 12 ,

100

20 , 9

100

1511

50 , 9

978

1969

Coloureds

.

1949

Africans

whites 1990 percentage

9

%

Whites

3

(

on

Whites 1990 rands

-

– 93 on )

Estimated real per capita social spending rands and social spending non whites spending whites 1949 )

:

.

Table

10 5

. ). 44

the labour force was

highly

10 6

classification

useful

the executive

classified

coloureds were classified

of

Africans and

per cent

as

whites were classified

whites were classified

be

of

of

per cent

43

, of

, of

cent

1 2

only

per cent

50

coloureds had the educational and skills qualifications

first two categories

2

category

the lesser skilled category and category per cent 1985 only Africans and

,

,

in

3

; (

represents

; ) ;

While

1

.

category

,

category category

managers and directors

,

entrepreneurs

four categories

into

Category

educational distortions

category

.

the labour force

5

barometer

classification

of

's

Sadie

of

.

opportunities

389

PART

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3:

The skills composition of various South African population groups versus that of the entire population of the United

.

10 6 :

Table

States Categories

-=

( 1985 )

US

Whites

%

%

,

0 6

0, 1

18 4

12 6

4 9

44 ,2

30 , 2

,

,

, 63 4

12

14 0

42 ,6

64 ,8

100

100

100

7 0 100

,

, 48 ,9

,

,

,

,

36 8

51,0

Africans

Coloureds

4 2

13 , 1

12 6 29 , 4

= =

Asian

,

100

of

of

low

a

of

. . ). for

to

for

of

as

10 4 3

see

(

the

of

in

lower

a

by

almost

(

Africans

over 70

to

,

(

of

4

50

.

60

of

per cent

1996

owing

to to

the contrary

was paid –

no

On

compensation

the the

very large part

per cent

45

from

in

labour force became redundant and

Africans and

25

per cent

of

explain why the poorest

70

.1 ).

10

table

(

1995

a

-

1960 onwards

24

African

from

.

in to

46

to

is

It

390

not difficult

to

of 42

by

.

per cent respectively

the South African economy towards greater capital

erstwhile unskilled per cent

next

.4 ). century

-

of

income

structurally unemployed African unemployment increased 1970

and

10

the 20th

intensity and post industrial production the

per cent

repressive and discriminatory measures were abolished

systemic exploitation

structural movements

1991

was therefore considerably

.

worst victims

income

,

the

the last quarter

of

during

a

an

of

Although most

of

the

see table

equal

1975

per cent and

African population

in

in

1975

from

The mean household

The household

(

of

per cent

per cent

1996

.

these two periods

the

The mean household

African households

26

Africans declined

the population

)

to

1991

reason

by

)

21

declined

of

20

per cent from

per cent

than

,

, to

in

,

40

,

. of

the

of

the African population

further

further

thirds

per cent

1994

important

the poorest two

poorest

the poorest

African

was

of

income

section

especially

turn

This

Africans

1994 sharply increased

1974

unemployment pauperisation

1974

from

levels

capital during the

the further pauperisation

and

population

The economic crisis from

to

)

for the

two thirds

of

.3 .4

,

10

Stagflation unemployment

result

accumulate human

enormously

them

Africans were either

the inadequate opportunities

coloureds

century has burdened

20th

paying jobs mainly

low

The cumulative effect

lesser extent

large percentage

-

employed

of

,

(

a

to

.

education

the apartheid period in

end

unemployed

and

of

At

or

the

Source : Sadie 1991 : ch 7.

,

THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM

.

apartheid

By

dramatically impoverished

so

during the last 20

almost two thirds of the total population were

1975

already so abjectly poor that they had very little material or human

the pauperisation

withstand

of the 1980s, growing

of the droughts

effects

capacity to

,

per

40

(

,

of (

maintain their example

the

, ,

, -

by

income declined and expenditure

the century

high indebtedness

subsidies The

favouritism

cent

high

government could

Afrikaners after

,

high levels

when

.

in

government

on

government

serious droughts

to

riche

,

Afrikaner nouveau

for

the third quarter

for

not maintain

decline

of

the

a

,

interest rates and

to

, the

of

of of

to

terms

and

and perhaps

the rapid

income levels when economic conditions deteriorated agricultural sector was burdened

poorest

. 46

1996

Africans was whites

in

the

in

Afrikaners

1975

from

NP

many

that

income

explained

the

inability

of

)

rapid

of

embourgeoisement

too

white households can perhaps

be

The decline

of

).

47

mainly Afrikaners

and the

that experienced

household income comparable

in

decline

only other population group

in

The

unemployment , and the socially disruptive effects of the liberation struggle

a

of

years

of coloureds were

of

per cent

SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

1974

when

defence and black education

,

of

,

the in

to

in

income

Also

of .

a

the last quarter

monthly

less than

these inequalities

The

,

.

of

a

.

and

',

cultural

historical

that racial inequalities

terms

, of

's

in

but

'

as

apartheid

should

deeply ingrained

largely

be

, in

of

.

, is

any number

history

white power and

can

distinguish among four different levels

types

of

We

or

.

black powerlessness

South Africa

of

are

, ,

in

however

for

large

the inequalities

Many reasons

given

systemic terms

writ

48

of

this study

are

often characterised

demographic nature can

understood

injustices

oversimplification be

an

is

and then

Racial inequalities and systemic injustices

These inequalities

theme

third quarter

fewer than 500 000 were white

Racial inequality and social this

living

the first half

.

,

of

to

1996

during

households with

ie

.4

10

million members in

28

the

lower standards

traumatic experiences

relative poverty

from

substantial wealth

substantially

no

the

of of

20th

regressed

R1 800

century

the

underestimate

many Afrikaners who had progressed

of

mistake

to

a

be

,

would however

,

It

.

increased sharply

racial and class of

of

income and per capita income

the

unequal power struggles

and

,

,

economic in

ideological power and the ensuing

political military

,

distribution

of

;

groups the

racial inequalities

the share

South

African history

;

ii

different population

in

racial inequalities

in

i

:

inequalities

391

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

entrepreneurial

economic

,

the distribution

in

iii

racial inequalities

,

3:

of

PART

and

of

see tables

10

of

and income

per cent 70

the

per cent

the population

they

,

10

and

.7

.2

income

per cent

can

of

about

(

the

of

:

income

by

20

Share

.

per cent

of

10 7

Table

population

they constantly received more than

,

only about

.

while whites constituted

years

the income and while Africans constituted

received

of

and whites

We

)

Africans

the 20th century 20

70

years

total

the

income remained

total

,

during these

of

: of

follows

as

during this period population

70

the

relative share

each

of

share

remarkably constant during the first simplify

of

the four population groups

70

the

income

of

each

percentage

of

share

of

the

.

and

distribution

of

.4 ./

the

percentage

population

in

Racial inequalities

10

Both

black elite

a

the rise

class structure that has emerged among blacks and

,

highly differentiated

of

iv

the

;

educational opportunities and

population group White

African

75

1925

Coloured

27

1946

19 , 5

3 6 8,

;

9

:

. ).

be

.

share

income

1995 rands

the

.

deceptive

of

the

in

will

struggle

large inequalities

period the

The very

in

10 7

.

10 2

whites since 1970

for

in

is

the

,

it

is

by

groups

These

shift

in

table

race

.8 .

of

income

total

49

that

of

of

of

,

an

vis

-à -

vis

of

and

equally remarkable

improvement

meaningful

10

given

whites

of

of

see tables

,

capita

in

that

the total

per cent and their share

of

5

whites their share

and result from

Africans

total income

,

12 ,

per cent

the total population

their share

and

(

,

9

to

per cent 51

, of

per

.

In

5

,

76

to

cent

the case

. . .)

vis

of -à -

1995

per are

to

Africans

share

Although

10 4 2

in

section

Estimates

Whiteford and Van

relative bargaining power during the liberation

vis

of

Africans

table

.

per cent

relative bargaining power

discussed

Lipton 1986

.21 the

,

7

from

shifts are significant

This shift

392

per cent to 18

from

in

(

the

opposed

declined

35

per cent 71

income

1917

table

percentage

per cent to

, 5

19

from

population

table

1996

70

1970

increased from

to

From

1999

:

Seventer

7 , 9

9 9

Whiteford and McGrath 1994

:

Source

;

1996

.

1991

5 1

1980

51 , 59 ,

35 29 , 9, 7 25

1970

:

1960

, SEGREGATION , AND

THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM

Estimated per capita personal incomes relative to that of whites , 1917 - 95

race group

)

2061

849

2829

671

5417

389

3568

3828

1815

6006

799

5684

6630

2246

7986

6623

8821

2931

6931

16793

4678

times whites per capita

11 . 13 .2 11 .0 5

.

6 . 4

4 .6

1917 1936

14 12 . 3 6

.

6 .1

1946

.

1960

.

of

as a

50

is

).

and

,

,

,

of

the racial inequalities discussed

racism

, .

the

and ideological power

.

Cape was

not

to

indirectly

and racial inequality

, the

,

But the

colony

During

the

undoubtedly

,

colonialism

directly and

above

of

,

are

both

political economic

Dutch

political military economic

a

for

be

,

period

percentage

ensuing unequal power struggles

contributed most

of

in

distribution

systemic

given

expressed

the table

the distribution

income distribution

of

the

can

that have

inequalities

.

-

middle part

ideological power and

Many reasons

of

(

in

.4 .2

10

Racial inequalities

non white groups

the

capita income

see the

of

per capita income during the 20th century become clear when

white per capita income

factors

table

6

:

Berg and Bhorat 1999

of

per

distribution

der

:

Source

Van

5 0

1995

7 4

. 5.2

1980

.11 8

1970

the

8

.

9 1

.

7 6

.

8 9

income was higher than that

races

4 5

other

of

20 .0

:

of

Racial disparity ratios number

8 . 1

100

1995

6 . 8

100

1980

2

1970

5

100

4

100

1960

100

1946

9013

white level

19 . 1

1936

cent

17 15 .3 9

100

100

472

13 8 .5 .5

16 ( .6 .22 . .3 15 0

capita personal incomes

1917

842

)

689

22 . 1

34

Relative

per

1995

23 .1

34655

17 23 . .0 1

1970

48 . . 20 . 25

1960

3

1048

4238

of

3185

3068

per

2151

22

13773 18820

32

1936

1

075

1946

1980

in

Average

Africans

Asians

Coloureds

9369

1917

by

constant 1995 rands

in

capita income

(

Per

Whites

2

Table 10 . 8 :

APARTHEID

Holland 393

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND

Trekboere

was used

of was

the 18th

in

and

its

to

garrison

's

Khoikhoi

the

promote

to

In in

now controlled

company

,

to

subjugate

company

the doctrine

reckless manner the

.

commando

with

accordance

the 17th century

official commando –

century

the an

as

used

government granted

by

commercial interests

narrow

In

,

its

.

extraordinary powers and privileges power mercantilism the VOC used

the

VOC . The Dutch

of the

colony

a

a

but

APARTHEID

3

-

PART

dispossess

,

the 18th century

,

of

Britain was not only the leading industrial country but also one

.

on

the feudal and tribally

on

,

themiddle

by

,

of In

of

expansionist

the lucrative

The exploitation

organisations

South Africa

to

ZAR

gold the

the history

of

a

in

.

,

large mining corporations with predominantly foreign shareholders dominant role

solve

of

the

.

in

was discovered

economic

,

and partly

the large

– ie

and

racial

policy was

colonial

exploitative

trade problems

new

system

Those

Africa

South

in

a

of

.

an

their land

intensified rivalry between

gold

of

the introduction

Britain

to

Britain when

capitalist corporations played

in

to

.

type

the result

chronic economic and balance

ore necessitated

century

19th

the western world

to

opportunities offered

legitimise the emerging

aggressive

an

industrial countries

large part

's

.

the

This was partly

who

the Zulu

unfree proletariat

of

imperialism

into

.

transformed

British

oriented social

of

to

and labour repression

the last decades

each

humiliating racist ideology was formulated

settlers

of

capitalism

British

into

of

predominantly

century

turn

, of

the 19th

all

and African population groups But the real

to

of

of

decades

were forced

them

by

on

,

The power shift caused

bloody wars and dispossessed

a

defeated

In

the country and

the British colonial onslaught were the Xhosa and

while many

its

Khoisan

,

the Afrikaner

in

were

every corner

institutions

of

of

victims

population

economic

and

of

.



groups

-

was imprinted

had devastating effects

colonialism orders

political

of

great variety

from

strongest

the

the 19th century British colonial power

its In

in

manifestations

Weltanschauung its

the world

of

its

military powers

its

the end

of

of

British colony

at

When the Cape became

a

.

and subjugate the Khoisan

94

in

,

the Transvaal were 1909

,

Westminster

of

Act

turning Africans into the

for

-

the

to



'

notables

in

a

formula

on

several

co

of

,

-

led

This

.

1907

mining industry

Boer War and subordinated

and find

,

elite

in

a

white

influential mining and

the gold

of

In

.

order

the period after

perpetuate socio political stability

,

the

of

Anglo

wage earning proletariat the Afrikaner

opted into

3

British rule

gold mining industry

-

a

behalf

to

the British government fought

African tribes

the

serve the interests

to

.

manufacturing corporations

behalf

on

the request and the

1890 was introduced

of

the repressive and exploitative legislation To

Almost

at

all

.

the 20th century

all

and

with

disenfranchised blacks Expansionist imperialism

,

,

-

of

,

;

it

to

in

.

large profits

.

labour laws After mainly American

and

Africa and also made very large

South

disinvest after the Rubicon

to

until they decided

'

in



numerous foreign

1985

as

British colonialism

and

was initiated

elected people but

,

a

divinely

by

1948

by

of

the wronged victims

after

group threatened

a

in

the decades

,

uncivilised African majority Many Afrikaners envied the wealth

English and were aware

,

the fact that the latter had

become wealthy

by

.

the allegedly

of

as

extremely

.

of

'

made

Afrikaners who portrayed themselves not only

of

wages paid

-

by

,

of

1960

The power shift that occurred

the

the

from

gold

foreign corporations low

in

the hands

exploiting the Verwoerdian

financial institutions became involved profits under apartheid

of

years after the discovery

the 20th century multinational corporations

unrest

also had

the gold mines During the third quarter

in

)

(

of

migrant workers

blacks

of

In

.

the first

power between

detriment

to

only benefited whites

and foreign shareholders who profited hugely

the Sharpeville

of

.

realise that the unequal distribution

mining and manufacturing

based

blacks

economic power was mainly concentrated local and foreign

racially

socio economic

increased

the

to

not

hegemony

repressive and discriminatory

but also

perpetuated

and

international dimension

also

the

and

Both these measures were exploitative

60

a

,

an

important and

is

It

inequalities between whites

speech

During

the 20th century

and both

.

not only

and

were

Darwinism

.

at

and repressive

black

of

of

official policy

became the

of

the

in

first half

labour patterns were institutionalised

white

Social

time when Cape liberalism was eclipsed

English establishment

segregation

ideologies

racist

the

exceptions

few

and racial capitalism

.

the

segregation

of

terms

in

legitimised

practical purposes

,

white political domination



for



,

South Africa which

,

system

a

of

Union

of

of

constitution created

the

THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

.

numerous

state



, and

police

black while

Christian values

of

on

enacted

Afrikaners during

third

about

quarter

protest

fairly rapid the

and bringing

black

of

in

,

one hand

suppressing

a

the

on

the

regime succeeded

the

embourgeoisement

of

the mid 1970s

the democratic

perpetuate

discriminatory and authoritarian measures

,

.

,

the apartheid

-

its

at

disposal

1960s

Africa into

,

the western world With repressive

the

and

a

security laws and turned South

to

,

government

claiming that their policy was based

until

.

protest movements

black

,

authoritarian

exploiting blacks

from

policy

in

,

powerlessness

with apartheid

,

counteract

benefit

of

a

accordance

their turn

additional repressive and discriminatory laws was

plethora

the

To

enacted

in

,

Consequently

this

to

regarded

them

NP

of

many

as

.

,

exploiting indigenous people Once the Afrikaners had gained political power

20th

395

SEGREGATION

AND APARTHEID

.

The comprehensive and rigid manner

which oppressive

in

other

.

century on

.

,

COLONIALISM

3:

the

PART

,

repressive and discriminatory measures were implemented during the third

some

, , of

. .)

9 6

. the

of

on

the

'

to

its

'

of

.

to

to

20

+



NP

of

to

a

and human rights

government also made

.

own authority and control Even

the glaring inequalities

apartheid

to

shift took place from whites

of

its

,

a

make

and more specifically

atrocities

the

all

sorts

meaningfulpower of

,

blacks

strategic

.4 ). 5

the "

a

,



10

(

of

1994

per cent

apartheid regime

effect undermined

result

a

,

,

and

as

before the elections blacks

time when

was responsible for

in

concessions that

blacks

discriminatory labour

This constituted

.

1980s

meet black

concessions

of

early

combating the liberation struggle

in

violations

at

is

It

its

securocracy

of

these was the abolition

1970s and

see table

ironic that

levers

total onslaught

alleged

belated attempts

series

economic power shift that enabled the upper enormous progress

the

. to

a

.

the late

of

most important in

legislation

the Botha government made

In

,

of

, the

Perhaps

counteract

protest against apartheid

grievances

retain

blacks despite

grip

but even this could not stop the internal and external

against South Africa

groundswell

the 1970s

1970s onwards the balance

the

total strategy

first half

whites

from

regime

the apartheid

to

to

by a

launched

It

.

power

and

the early

from

shift slowly but surely

desperate attempts



started

9 5

(

sections

the liberation struggle intensified

power

the inequalities between whites and

shift took place during

important paradigm

of As

.8

see table

;

blacks considerably An

century increased

the 20th

10

of

quarter

were

and

entrepreneurial

,

economic

,

the distribution

of

.4 .3

10

Racial inequalities

in

.

removed

during

the

instrument for enriching people and

land surface was reserved

this land was communal property

,

controlled

the

small elite owned private property

Bantustans

52

's

South Africa

by for

.

dependent and subservient labour force

.

a

,

,

.

to a

powerful

groups

in

tribal chiefs Only

into

per cent

most

a

African occupation

.

13

1936

them

, ,

,

in

deliberately turning

396

were far fewer

for impoverishing and proletarianising indigenous

of

,

also

them

not

whites

indigenous population

of

the land

colonial period was not only

whites but Although

those available

of

extended

indigenous people were

,

The seizure

to

far inferior

and usually

Although

opportunities the opportunities allocated

of

deprived

all

.

entrepreneurial development of

and

their disposal

reasonable opportunities for social economic

to

deprive indigenous groups

ways to

which whites used the political and economic power

the variety

of

is

South African history

at

of

the

most tragic features

of

in

One

of

educational opportunities

THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND

.

leasehold was announced for urban Africans For most

in

)

to

99 -

,

in

to

as

of

and

,

deprived

white the

55

capitalist class

with

the

on

Africans

.

on

the restrictions placed

especially

whites

the

skilled

,

and

than

see

accumulate human capital

(

,

section

,

which the government was responsible

social injustice

education

,

Governments worldwide spend about half their social budgets

on

.

very crude form

for

,

of

inequality

of

boils down

a

This kind to

.3 .3 ).

10

these indigenous population groups

to

,

professional and entrepreneurial activities further limited the opportunities

of

,

,

of

Asians

and

blacks

for

limited

legislation and practices coloureds

more limited for blacks than

in

more

result that opportunities

the opportunities for accumulating

for

also

the four

far

,

far

,

Consequently

,

Discriminatory

welfare and education

,

health

,

the

improve

accepted

world

South Africa per capita social spending

.5 ).

(

table

capital were

of

the

almost completely

social and intellectual development were 10

for

an

,

from

statutory population groups was very unequal

participation

to

conducting business

the

In

.

their populations

human

forms

this legislation

century governments throughout

the 20th

for whites

destroy

.

a

develop

responsibility for social spending

of

result

political

white

the

,

1980

to

During

to

and

before

insatiable

legally accumulate capital and entrepreneurial skills outside

,

Bantustans

were

,

Africans to

,

areas

opportunity

almost

in

-

As

additional laws that prohibited Africans

attempt

of

and squatter farming

to

In

1913

an

Act

mining

gold

the

supply these two white sectors

African labour

.

share cropping

Land

the

order

cheap

of

authorities passed

volume

of

the

required

,

farmers displayed

.

demand for cheap African labour

climatic

this promising version

was deliberately destroyed

industry and modernising white

maize

of

.

Unfortunately

’.



the maize triangle

agricultural entrepreneurship

with

for

large quantities

keeping their production costs

a

,

of

conditions

same

entrepreneurship

their production methods were well adapted

in

low

relatively

By

family instead

of

The peasant and tenant farmers produced

.

Africans

wage labour

the

petty

of

form

the second half

the

promising

very

Natal

the Transorangia

all

tenant farming

of

in

the Cape and

by

a

period represented

of

an

African peasantry

in

of

century and

using

and propertyless

.54

The rise 19th

year

1980

citizenship rights

few

the

of

proletariat with

them

the 20th century

disenfranchised

a

population was

almost the entire African

as

late

of

inflation

53

effects

.

against the impoverishing

of

.

property that could protect

own the kind

own

per cent

of

not

of

therefore

exceptions

opportunity

other tangible property More than

or

,

Africans

did

,

farms their own dwellings

a

90

;

propertyless they were almost completely deprived

few

(with

were

the

Bantustans

the

of

outside

As

living

Africans

APARTHEID

397

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND

.



,

of

to

the

at .

to

turn

of , a

it

easy

to

will not

.

in

far behind that be

It

.

African schools

so

,

,

African education has fallen

of

the

,

of

on

learning

culture

inferiority has been established

vicious circle

.

virtuous circle

very

to

,

of

the

African

discrimination

in

in

of

on on

of .

,

as

will

,

inferior training

education

make full

and

use

the productivity

of of

position

to

a

their inadequate

,

result

of

a

As

.

low

It

.

is

many Africans

the accumulation

in

.

But owing

,

opportunities

and

1994 many lucrative job opportunities have

professional training many Africans are not these new

groups The

African education

to

Africans

able

been

other population

Since the abolition

of

political transition

become available

of of

system

immeasurable

to

,

1979 and

education

,

capital

human

African

the services sector

Africans have not

spending

levels

low

education

same extent

.

the is

inferiority

of

the relative

levels the

these jobs

the

effect

of

compete

their

created since 1970 have been

to

for

,

but because

low

of

Most job opportunities

take decades before the educational backlog

.

eliminated

98

characteristics

,

of

a

among blacks

emerged

the African community until the

class differentiation This was the result

of

lack

of

1960s was

that has

class structure

black elite

the most remarkable its

One

rise

of

and

of

the

.4 .4

The highly differentiated

.

10

is

,

the

(

neglect

1976

whites and Asians

of

,

After

generations

of

in

classes

that

since

African schools the inadequate training a

of

large sizes

of

to

the

African education remains far inferior

education

to

the spending

and the absence

3

on

as

gap

of

the

narrowing

African teachers

a

,

on

of

it

quality

into

white population

whites for the first time Van der Berg and Bhorat

of

Despite owing

the fact that the

).

:

1999

times larger than

African

17

In

1992

was more than

surpassed that

despite

As

.

African population

the 1950s

total spending

white education

,

.

education was less than half that

1982

,

As

taxation

4 5

on

African education recently

white education

was pegged

in

.

The new

the

greatly extended the reach

,

expenditure

African

Africa

South

the mission schools

from

system

but remained significantly inferior

,

of

level

world

unequally divided among the

was transferred

bantu education

noted earlier

In

the developed

the

education

primary education

economic

growth

proper

when

the apartheid period

of

In

1953 African

department

especially

was very

education

in

different racial groups

century

20th

was

This

.

,

on

spending

however

training

important determinant

an

became

half

in

scholastic and professional

of

especially true during the second

capital formation

human

.

for

important

of -

this is decisively

and

APARTHEID

3

job

PART

the oppressive

had closed

blacks

and used the Group Areas Act

The social stratification among

professional

and

entrepreneurship

to

own property

and

opportunities

for

, .

Both

these

the Group Areas Act but showed stumbling

statutory

Asian

blocks

.

in

overcoming

of

among members

their two

'

effective networking rights

urban areas succeeded

,

dominant religious groups Africans with permanent residence

in

result



a

. of

as

largely

their

more normal

particular have been extremely successful over the past

in

entrepreneurs

and

had

and accumulation were therefore more lucrative

exceptional ingenuity

in

,

as

jobs

groups were also negatively affected

,

Asians

and

,

skilled

by

perform

years

urban elite

Coloureds and Asians were always allowed

.

profile

succeeded

the rich chieftainship class

from

coloureds

leaders

a

Apart

small professional class emerged before 1960

opted and corrupted

.

.

accumulating considerable wealth

these African an

Some

drive African business co

or

.

.

of

/

CM

by

and the NAD

the most

The only wealthy Africans were

people out central business districts collaborating Bantustan leaders and chiefs who were the

access

40

of

,

accumulative activities

APARTHEID

segregationist , and

a

state

,

'

The

colonial

to

.

policies

apartheid

accordance with

in

off

measures implemented

, AND

SEGREGATION

to

,

THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM

from

including organised crime covert entrepreneurship illegal under apartheid laws They also began and other activities regarded

.

,

-

As

as

several

leaders

attempt

ensure

states

a



the apartheid

further

15

1991 and

by

1975

illegal

and

African households increased a

per cent from

per cent

, of

top

20

of

the

urban areas

.

in

of

.

of



no

the restrictions

to

38

given

At

or

.

in

per cent

the

class

in

years have been

of

past

,

groups over

highly differentiated 30

black population

a

.

a

of

black elite and the emergence

the

structure

in

The rise

1996

the

1991

up

to

a

impressive

option

emerged

build business empires through dubious

The income

to

an

.56

activities

but

African entrepreneurs

the

57

structures

had

them

and often corrupt business ventures

lucrative

new generation

-

of

,

same time

by

rich

elite

build

to

structures

from

the

Many African political representatives and bureaucrats their powerful positions links with Bantustan government

African rural

Many

the

NP government allocated lucrative

Ample opportunities were therefore created for the emergence used

successful

of

.

sector

to

the

and bureaucratic

the new

in

the corporate

emerged

of

of

independent

Africans

and

in



political

to

,

the support

with

Bantustans became

'

was abolished

the 1970s and 1980s when

'.

entrepreneurs



shacklords and semi skilled and skilled

, of

.

discriminatory legislation

success



their capacity

This process gathered momentum

labourers

favours

as

accumulate

in

to

'

as

,

with

an

the 1960s onwards

399

, SEGREGATION , AND

of formal

result

informal power shifts

and

The NP government 's reform

policies were mostly

allocation ofmore power and privileges

leadership core

for the

three black

,

sharply

the

of

income

.

These trends

the inequality

1995

in

,

result

a

to

,

time when

the

the

the

.

58

As

income

in

the rise

black households declined

were strongest among Africans

and the transition

1990

in

,

.

in

of

black households occurred

cent

the

,

to

of

Unfortunately

1994

Bantustans

the tricameral parliament

1981

of

per

60

30

to

democracy

per cent

poorest

1979

from

granted

the liberation movements

,

majoritarian the 20

of

to a

1984 the unbanning

'

'

independence

Wiehahn and Riekert legislation

of

euphemism

a

groups

The best examples are the

top

blacks .

to

.

population

to

whites

from

the

, the

a

last resort

APARTHEID

of

COLONIALISM

at

:

in

3

the

PART

of

.60

-

to

a

's

-

of

an

of

While

of

gives greater

.

a

increase

But what

concern

inequality

the

the sharp

matter

class based one

and black has decreased

white

in

it

,

remains

between

income has

within

three black

.

population groups

is

concern

1974

income

the three black

distribution

skewed

race based

each

61

for

cause

since

from

a

skewed distribution

considerably

elite within

Africa

,

of

,

the

years

30

over the past

the rise

that South

is

population groups shifted

(

59

.7 ).

4

.2 .3

and

important result

of

An

sections

2

of

of

distribution income within African population group was considerably larger than the inequality within each the other three population groups see

.

,

to

,

of

it

is

be

can

violently

.

constantly

extensive

colonial

used

and often

in



is

,

that

their

foreign

)

,

political power their

however

Africa

To

has lost their trust New Europes were

(

,

South

is

becomes

'

the

or

,

if

, all

restore

government

of

.

a

in

or

, ,



beyond dispute

white governments

undemocratically acquired

400

people

normally

state violence

government

white

contentious matter that has not been addressed sufficiently

.

and

its

governments

in

a

is

will

colonial historiography What authorities

But when

the use

John Locke the

acts against the the colonial

theory

and

them

political

use

use state violence

can

people

of

According

by

not trusted

is

.

it

if

illegitimate

western

legitimate government

to

,

controversial

what extent

political

and order and counteract insurrection

law

ilegitimate and opposed

justify the extraordinary

a

.

a

that

Colonial authorities

,

maintain

attempted

and economic violence

is

,

accepted

constantly

them

exploit

it

governments

oppress

socially



,

and

political supremacy violent

dominate indigenous people politically

.

economically

to

methods were used

and white

colonialism

In

During the periods

military

over the past 350 years has been exceptionally violent

history

of

Africa

's

South

to

.5

10

Violence and criminality

OF COLONIALISM

their control over labour patterns to

and

of indigenous

perpetuate the exploitation

by

military power ,

, SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

surprisingly ,

. Not

violent measures regularly

social

provoked

the

injustice enforced and maintained

people

institutionalise and the

THE LEGACY

).

.

a

of

is a

.

,

,

it

is

of

,

-

one

from

to

in

risk

from

are

often

for

of

inequality

Crime

segregation

May

2000

:

in

quoted

crime

of

at



but racial

,

high levels

property

crime

)' (

[

from

of

the

largely insulated whites

as by

(

in

high levels

ten

their partners

extreme levels

black townships have been high for years

one

women

on

,

to

conflict both contributed

assault

.. .

and the political

She also claims that

are



and money

.

,

shelter

poor

relationships because they depend

abusive

victims

and many women

of

,

.

in

pre

quoted

1995

opposed

the wealthy are

Debbie Budlender

to

personal crime According

in

poverty

group reported

,

.

While

largely black



,

crime poor people

,

of

,

very poor

the

as

those

'

of

crime perceptions

'



in

to

.

a

for

for of

a

be

to

the

the mentality

'

half

the highest income category

levels

are

especially

children during their

the most important crime committed against them

food

31

's

,

survey

of

),

Budlender 2000

trapped

black children

62

to

moral neglect

perpetuate

and

.

to

another

countrywide

a

and

poverty

violence

poorer children

of

the

to

from

part

explored

and especially

the physical neglect

school years that helps

In

poverty and criminality

syndrome

which children

spiritual psychological

generation

of

for

's is

to

the durability

extent

Apart

, it.

the

exposed

Although whites

violence many them have also mutually reinforcing The interaction between

hidden history that has yet

One reason criminality

We

350 years

nurturing not only

criminality

systemic

violence and the subcultures

Africa

South

subculture

-

systemic

been

the social and

almost

responsible

of

become contaminated

it .

by

have been mostly responsible

harm

period

of

violence has

poverty but also

,

subculture

of

that systemic

in

say

can

indigenous people over

of

of

This systemic violence has caused irreparable cultural structures

21 -

:

systemic violence see Lötter 1997

of

institutionalised

(

one

or

of

is

is

.

It

oppressed indigenous groups fierce resistance and counterviolence from against this background that we should understand that South Africa history

-

report that post apartheid

experiencing some

of .

a

the World in

by as in

,

of

South

result

South

Medical Research Africa enjoys

the highest rates

of

death

the world

crime but

SA

and

result

(

5

injury

the

is

in

of

trauma

per cent calculated

of

dubious distinction

violent crime

South Africa occur

of

all

of

Not

all

a

WHO

al

May

).

Council 1993

global figure

the leading cause

is

Africa crime

deaths

).

Organisation

et

Health

compared

to

,

trauma

per cent

(

than

has among the highest rates

of

More

Africa 16

South

of

).

134

the

violence and 401

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

of

levels

,

(

6

in

2000 increased

to

According

254

:

(

violent crime

women 21 ,

May 2000

African

with

by

in

rapes

,

crimes

income

the lowest

).

42

of

those

,

(

,

reported crime was violent compared with per cent

Britain

.

in

,

per cent

6

recorded

per cent assault and rape

violent in

to

of

per

95

of for of

the culture

reported

cent

the United States and

in

15

,

per cent while per cent

victim

Security Studies 32

the Institute

and

higher proportion

much

brackets reported falling accounting

between

ISS )

).

A

respectively

18

increasing

6

crimes

,

to them

all

serious

forms

. According

in the world

crime rose dramatically between 1990 and 1994 with

of

almost

all

crime found anywhere

by

3

of

PART

The ISS believes that

will not decline

violence and criminality

the next ten

during

the apartheid

regime ended

it

to

to

poverty and coercive labour

.

the

by

the

for those who

violence and criminality

organised

in

to

become involved

,

time

an

organisations involved

had already been marginalised and criminalised patterns

criminal

and

in

large scale

attempts

and state

that period created the opportunity

The lawlessness

were

By

of on

.

struggle

the struggle

the 1970s onwards that subversive

from

activities were organised

especially during the

inclination towards criminality was initially

was only when

intensified

and coloureds

state violence and the resistance

,

.

it -

While

organised

less well organised suppress

Africans

a

well

comparatively

criminal behaviour has become deeply

and

the

apartheid

.

years

It

of

46

ingrained among impoverished

community poverty

chronic

63

The inclination towards violent

integral part

.

both systemic violence and the syndrome

is

criminality

subculture

-

that

-

understand

of of

should

by

of

We

the

(

).

years 2000

this subculture had become thoroughly

402

of

as

.

,

violent history

realise that that

it

to

,

,

in

's

is

it

,

important

will

the

subservient position When

.

a

the colonial authority and

,

1799

the

and

San

Trekboere and

1803 After this

.

of

The violent clashes between

bloody Khoisan Rebellion

the

Khoikhoi



resistance

Trekboer commandos were the

century

communities

in

small outcast of

18th

both

violent punishment became unbearable

lived

ferocious

.

colony

, .

to

to

keep slaves

the

the

break the

Khoisan culminated

During

in the

to

of

the

to

expansion

.

areas

increasingly used

Africa

colonisation

the nature

Although

them

many slaves became drosters who mountainous

them

,

slavery

and apartheid

regarded

the strongest terms and although

in

or

of

slave owners used violence

conditions

get

Dutch

segregation

in

period

South

of

During

of

take generations

criminality should

eradicate in

deeply embedded the

probably

so

both are

made

to

every effort should

denounced

rid

phenomena should

colonialism

be

these

of

of

the ugliest legacies

two

be

Systemic violence and the subculture

be

of

.

entrenched

AND APARTHEID

Khoisan had been further humiliated

two decades

,

see

many



,

to

and

.

the

.

of

on

-

of

to

, .

Based 150

for

in

almost

the

years

-

.

Boer War During

,

1946

,

1914

the

.

During the last quarter

practical purposes this was

a

,

struggle against apartheid

,

all

of

,

of

,

, 4

and

experienced

.

it

1922

,

the –

1920

For

violent

's

of

an

Africa

South

Afrikaner Rebellion

the

protracted

think that South African society was less violent during the

wrong

first three

to

,

,

would however

be

which systemic violence turned into open political violence

white regime and the oppressed

of

criminalise labour

. ).

of

1906

It

between

place

integral part

.

the

-

level war

resistance

to

's

state

in

the

the

the

and

1913

century South Africa

20th

white settler

century smaller skirmishes took place

20th

including the Bambatha Rebellion violent strikes

mid

From the

companies

century ended with the Anglo

17th

of

the

colonial history since the

and

1857

9 5

The bloody wars that formed

first three quarters

in

in

violent one that remained

.4 , 8 .5 ,

sections

frontier wars that

the hands

started

Xhosa

The

and servants laws the repressive

and masters

,

was

now

and

white farmers and the

proletarianisation

system

episode

mining

of

behalf

6

see

labour

masters and servants laws

a

pillars

twin

of

killing

the cattle

of

relations

enacted on



groups

(

the British onslaught during

century onwards the Cape government

19th

low

bloody and violent wars

series

-

affected

they sought their salvation

the British

defeat not only the different African tribes but

of

badly

were

in

two Boer republics by

also

the

used

so

superior military power

and imperialism

colonialism

,

century

19th

a

long

'

During their

of

.3 ).

section

6

(

violence and criminality

to

underclass inclined

by

,

and

SEGREGATION

,

became

them

.

labour regulations their resistance was completely broken an

of

's

Caledon

the

war , and after

C OLONIALISM

for

THE LEGACY OF

quarters

by

,

Cape Colony open warfare had already been replaced

of

the the

groups changed drastically

In

nature

.

violence against the indigenous population

place

,

white government put

the

the dispersed groups had been defeated in

all

,

1910

in

when

strong and centralised

a

and

contrary

,

On the

-

.

the 20th century

institutionalised

the northern provinces cheap

and docile African

'

economic freedom and independence 1948

In

laws that became more subtle and

assumed power

.

NP

plethora

for

.

after the

Africans

in

comprehensive

a

violent onslaught

was institutionalised

Africans

insatiable demand

of

the seemingly

in

,

labour

given

the

,

But

similar measures were adopted

opposed this onslaught

on

Africans vehemently

process

.

destroy the economic independence

and

This

to

.

1913

in

Act

of

continued when the Land

the independent peasantry

destroy

of

1909

to

1894



enacted

in

-

violence when the Glen Grey Act and several anti squatting measures were

the 1960s the heroic

403

see

. . .)

its

,

. a

or

,

white urban areas

.

by

In

.

to

an

-

of

migrant

.

find temporary the

in

they could

with

often entered

urban to

pass laws and sent back

,

under

areas only

urban

-

if

the

by

to

. .

and

desperate poverty

prosecuted

Government officials were well aware that most unemployed forcibly removed and would

the urban areas would

from

prepared

to

illegally

,

either legally

or

African migrants who were

,

could work

(

-

.

the cities

Millions were

the Bantustans

return

to

, ,

in

Africans



tribal

driven

areas illegally

designed

Africans could obtain permanent

small percentage

which was not easily obtained

jobs Many

sector

),

Impoverished permission

unfree labour patterns

urban areas

in

residential rights

the manufacturing

institutional

the

of

only

system

a

Under this

1950s

when Verwoerd

be

far

more violent and exploitative

for employment

system

the

Africans were exposed

degrading

unhealthy working

dangerous and

wages

low

but also

this proletariat became

of

to

became

compounds

violence

were exposed

they

where

,

the

the gold mines

which millions

violence

ultra

land and

proletariat During

exploitable

century many members

extraordinarily

and

,

on

migrant workers living conditions

institutionalised

reduced

20th

in

years

conditions

further the

by 75

first

being

systemic

in

by

the African population was not only deprived

independence

economic

of

9 5 2

large part

degraded the

onslaught was finally defeated

this

of

A

section

African peasantry

to

resistance of

(

the

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3:

of

PART

accept

lower

even

a

of

.

.

job

of

,

a

living

from

,

its

of

a

).

6

25 –

:

1993

in

trained

the as

be

to

of

liberation before education

Africa after Soweto

South

al

et

(

4

make

African youths who were responsible for the

Many urban youths left

freedom fighters see Bonner

40

opted

at

a



to

‘ It

.

urban

.

1980s

discriminatory

stabilising the urban situation was aimed promote gang culture and tradition violent

uprising and for the campaign

Soweto

many

to

Bantu education

was these

strong

migrants Many African

influx control but

,

crime While

.

opportunities were blocked

criminality

that

urban African youths rose and their

advancement

eventual effect was

vicious

the

.

of

educational levels

of

in

, the

.

measures

ironic

into

urban areas were also criminalised

their case this was not the result

As

In

youths with residential rights

to

.

inclination towards criminality was not restricted

result

The inevitable

is

lawlessness and criminality

,

,

violence

influx control

Africans were drawn

It

this inhumane situation was that millions

of

-

criminalised many migrant workers

inadvertently

circle

and strictly enforced

systemic violence that deliberately

situation

a

,

the other created

the one hand

of ,

the

Bantustans

of

or

measures

on in

conditions

and deteriorating socio economic

Act

the Land on

effect

The combined

of

.

wages and poorer working conditions

THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

of

20

.

of

as

list

or

victim

should

human rights

as

,

the TRC

,

of

this

To

).

2

,

ch

' :



to

.

to

its 18

(

of

,

1960 but throughout



the

white employers and

both

system

see section

'(

the

'

by



a

1970s and 1980s

and

of

the

regime

'

white corporate

in

white business establishment became involved

a

white political establishment and

of

both

part

the apartheid the

racial capitalism

,

survive

1990s

of

in

crisis

as

1980s and early

the

all

the

of

a

was also

their struggle

In

downturn

we can argue that the crisis

to

1990

)

-

+



',

survival struggle

.

vol

not only after

the

If

. . ). 9 5 3

structural

approach

also take into account the corrupt wheeling and dealing between

we

the private and public sectors

(+

rights

human

000 persons who had fallen

black employees were criminalised

predominantly

part

in

the

economy was

of

a

at

time when

large

TRC

The TRC defined

human rights

very strictly during

When influx controlwas applied

sector

The

possible

individualistic and legalistic

ross violations

non

from

violent history

Africa

1974

1994

rather narrow

TRC 1998

systemic violence

levels

picture

violations

May

years

.

South

in

'

names

human rights

or

structural

as

well

of

.

In

a

list

added those who fell victim

's

to

gross violations

the violation

accordance with

nonetheless published

complete

of

of

human

1960

mainly

rights

investigate

systemic violence

March

-g

,

not

and did

period

unprecedented

the gross

of

'

gross violations

of

,

of

committed during

extent

and

the

,

nature

also the violent reaction

by

to

establishing

1

1994

the causes

be

.

political violence escalated

was burdened with the task

sense

securocrats

the struggle

when

During the almost

as

and

it

and with

,

1976

its

NP

the to

from

government

5

,

intensified during the Soweto uprising

phase

new

a

a

violent history entered

an 10

's

Africa

South

sorts

of

on

in

of

'

left

,

we

the

past 350 years

the final episode

the violent nature are

be

)

regarded

.

of

over

as

94

'

the

. , .

can



#

'(

's

1984

during the period

corruption

white plunder When reflecting

history

Africa

structural

section

optive domination

long drama

9 4

in

indicated

-

co



As

criminal and corrupt activities

the

South

with the disturbing did

major moral

of

‘,

'

their humanity

culture

violence

social

only

be be be

to

to

the

could thus

.. .

violent struggle itself The struggle

could

]

struggle

assumed

[

not

and

opposition be

for the

the discourse

democracy in

,

rooted

violence could

'.

a

underpinned

of

,

the

in

process

political

because

by

be

generated

very nature

. of

Therefore

its

state

1993 that the struggle

by

in

Africa was

,

South

irrational and senseless

to

As

.

on

Taylor observed

of

apartheid

said

that seriously affected the core

harm

,

justice

in

Vivian

.

:

(

1997

white people

apartheid

Lötter observes

).

harm

whites

, a

to

blacks but also 36

on

conclusion that systemic violence and criminality left their ugly marks not only

She makes the important point

405

3:

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

that

the

struggle

victims can yet

nor

perpetrators

of

morally high ground

the

',

the the

the

.

this reason neither on

of

take

both the perpetrators and the

dehumanised

violence and

issue

ignore

structural and political roots

. attempt

a

are

of

the

in

,

.

,

of

the

to

its

which

the

instigating the violence

fully clarified

total strategy used



to

and criminality With

the

and the

police

,

desperate

extent

zenith

'

.

a a

in

mainly involved

space for lawlessness

protect

to

created

it,

counteract

total onslaught

the

last quarter

This reached

The

role

been

'

of

a

violent character

The

a

)

(

remains

in

.

1994

controversial issue that has not yet

problem

.

1990

from

predominantly white security forces played

that

which the ANC and the

involved

.

the negotiations

makes

basis

).

violence

to

Freedom

(

Inkatha

has

187

in



black

IFP were centrally

during

it

,

of

and

of

:

(



Party

its

:

,

the

on -

of

black

'

was

1993

that the

and structural

political inequalities

political violence during

)

unfortunate

the 20th century

lot

aspect

violence That

capitalism

the crisis

more complex the

An

political violence

part

is

apartheid and

social economic

of

by

of

legacy

the

both the victims and the agents

reinforced

reality

physical psychological

a

violence has had

a

is

and

on

impact

of

level

sustained

painful

is

The



She reaches the following conclusion

illegitimate political

an

its

like apartheid

violence For

to

victims afford

,

PART

in

the opportunities were created for already sizeable criminal elements black community wreak havoc with their lawlessness and violent gang

them

and divided not only along racial lines but also

of ,

to

such

African

segregation

,

,

the South

for

This tendency

colonialism

South

,

fractured

and

and

society

African

is

,

and

the struggles against

,

.

,

apartheid

on

.

large sections

population both black and white After centuries

of

behaviour has become internalised

the

sides

ideological justification

easy

of

find

to

anti social manner and

both

moral religious

,

to

find all kinds

violent and criminal activities

-

in

act

an

ideological justifications

for

great divide ample opportunities

gave people

of

the resistance

to

and

in

.

activities The struggle

it

to

,

system

moral and attitudinal

406

criminality

a

the

one hand

on

.

only being intensified but also perpetuated

,

this way crime violence and

,

In

the other

mutually

. . ,

section

2 2 4

we

in

saw

As

the black community during the

.

pauperisation

that

it

and

is

violence

exists today between crime and violence

,

not

poverty

are

and the process

of

reinforcing dynamic

colonialism

.

extended

especially

on

long period

of

became deeply institutionalised

of

the most disconcerting aspects in

One

of

.

ones

THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

Endnotes

of

is

.

in

it

,

be

,

to

of

became

to

include

Shortly after

an

them

was the first

.

1970

African affairs and another shortly 1995 roughly covers the crisis phase

of

,

South

in

as

is

of

. of .

for

before some

,

ie

the workforce

several reasons The census

unified South Africa

to

.

if of

a

.

20

up

(



95 ,

in

ie

of

as

a

,

part territories once again important paradigm shift took place before 1994 The period from 1970

The implications

per cent

Survey

and the 1995 October Household

these

classified

contribution

valuable

agriculture

subsistence

1970

difficult

very

have been much more serious

the Bantustans

,

all

was the last that included

')

'



in

possible for

't

)

it

wasn

to

of

for

and criminality would

1995

Bhorat and Hodge chose this period independent

hidden

the people and families involved

the informal sector and

in

a

living

sectors

economy cannot

these sectors makes

in

to

as

was the case

this

poverty

unemployment (

at

,

in in

the informal and subsistence

the income earned

the living standards

'

Although there much undoubtedly

crisis dimensions during the last

and attained

in

,

.

employed

1970

of

definition

1994

1995

unemployment

.

of '

to

formally

make

Stellenbosch has

apartheid

employment

The extent

per cent

1

to

,

,

a

of

25

years

major challenge

)

(

of

19 1

1970 this figure had risen uncertainty about the extent and

the University

the labour force was outside the formal sector

measure Although those involved

4

BER

per cent

in

3

Research

49 ,

Economic

estimated that while

presented

in

.

, of

2

The Bureau

people

of

of job

a

formal sector

) terms. The

working age who cannot find jobs the economy irrespective they actively the whether have been includes

searching for

' or 'broad ' ( or expanded

‘ narrowed

in

of

'

broad definition

all

Unemployment is often measured

1

In

.

5

,

76

.

( or

million Africans

formal

,

only one

1970

of

formally

larger percentage

the

in

employed in

,

5 1

only

16

of 15 , 5

the

,

a

the African

become

an

,

1970 the above figures nonetheless

has

in

15

,

8

,

) of

in 32

of

of

59

,

of

12 ,

or

)

70

of

)

(

-

of

.

in

African

par

problem

per cent

of

24

the

GDP was financed

to

by 31

,

13 5

During this period

inflow was registered

in

investment contributed significantly

net foreign

of

,

2

.

foreign

8

return

of

compared with

,

18

an

per cent

174

).

1996

:

Meara

'

(O

Britain

investment

a

1974 the average American corporation received

South African

in

on

investment

late

as

).

:

estimated that

per cent return

1976

.

to

1945

its as

's

economic growth

A

years after World War

(

is

34 2

.

( or

in

dramatically that unemployment

FDI Smit 1991

its

the total African population

1970

years

the

While

three Africans was employed 1995

per cent

workforce

employed

million were

Although

per cent

4

30

In

6

years from

It

per cent

per cent

1995 was younger than

South Africa

7

only

the

1970

.

demonstrate

on

one

.

in

population

the

While

1995

was thus employed

excellence

In

4 3 a

of

)

in

six

sector

Africans were unemployed

African population was

the formal sector total African population in

,

was employed

per cent

per cent were unemployed

the total and Africans constituted

1995 the

million Africans

5 3

million

70

constituted

,

almost

per cent

per cent

workforce

total but Africans

non Africans

in

of

the employed

46

million

African population was

( or

,

,

in

than

less

only 517 000

1995

,

While no

5

.

apartheid

407

until 1994 the annual growth

.

)

(

1980

:

for

per cent

02

,

the

and SAF 1996

could not

University

Stellenbosch told

alone economically

a

from

179

).

to

96

of

payments

be

;

179

the

:

1995

Africa

of

run

(

60

only

74

:

,

it

90



balance

from

they were

.

would

the

it

,

, if

.

is

In

It

is

. -

of

of

to

compared

is

very capital intensive South African economy developed countries with similar levels per capita income also higher than the capital intensity developing countries general the capital intensity more like Latin American countries than newly industrialised Asian

,

Kaplinsky

to

13

of of

per

,

5 to

;

necessary

According

hampered

import rose

total factor productivity declined

professors

cabinet committee that South

capital

foreign

rose from 176 Kaplinsky 1995 during apartheid should also blamed

Kaplinsky of

a

,

group

net inflows

gross domestic investment was financed

capacity

system

1972

In

.

in

:

1987

told that

1994

1990

educational

(

,

to

1970

year Mohr 1994

When

social and large balance

to

foreign investment mostly FDI was equal

import was severely

industrial countries

productivity

in

11

a 12

From

new

The inadequate

decline

Mohr

See

capacity

's

For

100

).

=

.

constraints

cent

its

Africa

50 – 2

10

).

foreign investment

13

(

of

per

,

2 5

GDP

the

political

by to

deficits because they were financed

cent

also increased

1946 and 1974 South Africa could afford to

During this period the annual inflow

South

environment

go

payments

economic

African balance of payments

the South

total

to

of ).

of

instability . Between

earnings

export

by

vulnerability

from

international

the

gold

per cent in 1969 to only 24 , 3 per cent in 1990 .

of

declined in

64 , 8

(

change

The

of

by the fact that the contribution

by

export earnings

per cent, while the

1 7

at 1

oscillated between

rate

is illustrated



This

,

was only

rate

11 and 15 per cent in 1974 – 92 .

to

inflation

APARTHEID

it

1974

8 From

9

, SEGREGATION , AND

COLONIALISM

.

:

to

3

50 – 2

PART

of

.

to

This surplus was mainly used

,

by

in

by

the deeply

wages paid

the South

large surplus

the

towards

to

low

of

80 in

,

extraction

a

.

of

harsh

banking and

per cent

stimulated

Lipton

to

the emergence

strong tendency

and the extremely

1970s According for

.

408

one

was

of

African workers

until the early

development path has been

these conglomerates

to

repressive labour system

of

institutionalised

.

The growth

a

firms displayed

policy

protection

,

.

These

capital intensity

African majority

the 1970s

.

-

in

on

it

In

the

JSE

.

By

the

of .

1983

the gold mines

a

of for

.

unnecessary

,

To

15

of in

the shares listed

a

and mechanisation unskilled exceptionally low levels The cheapness and easy

was estimated that seven companies controlled

finance

industry

its

discipline

restricting competition the government encouraged mining and manufacturing and firms

value

group

large

The gold mining

become significantly more capital intensive until the beginning create employment opportunities the Pact government started 1920s

small group

of

and

a

,

the other

it

of

the one hand

the African labour force made

large monopolistic

in

,

electrification

keep their wages

on

African workers at

to

manageability

of

the threat

used

workers and

be



,

of , its

labour force divided between

and highly paid skilled white workers paid

South Africa over

the past century gold mining was characterised

relatively high capital intensity and

unskilled and poorly

terms

).

182

:

1995

quarters

compared

explained

3

these countries

on

first three

of

(

the 30

the 14

During

Kaplinsky

years

capital intensity has been higher

This can partly

to

.

of

-

in

South Africa

the higher economic growth rate past

in

years the growth

a

Over the past

30

.

countries

middle income countries than

African from

the

capital accumulation and for

THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

. As the employers of large

expanding the conglomerates

,

numbers of white and black

of

of

54

,



).

: in



by

(

by

,

).

By )

,

-

for

,

, 5

,

to

466

27

to

10

of

).

(

of

,

to

to

in

on

,

levels at

,

.

to

,

tax

-

-

in

capital intensive natural at

low

prices through the

of

sectors

-

in

).

– 5

of

the to

.

on

average

Hofmeyr

and semi skilled

after

)

elite

1979 Hofmeyr

1994

(

in

a

small African

Africans :

of

-

skilled

in

.

,

of

in

per

year

of (

3

cent

the manufacturing sector

a

is

,

,

a in

investors

The state corporations

the non primary

the occupational ladder

to

at

the

,

the

1974

gold

,

Spinola

and Mozambique

in

led

1975

the labour turmoil by

to

Portugal

Angola

,

be

'

état

per cent from

416

attributed

in

increased

largely

of

by

industry

and

mines

1974

1976

and

To

.

in

per

unskilled labour were

thereafter continued

to

from

,

per cent

48

to

,

African migrants the nominal wages

of

in

79

.

in

recruiting foreign migrant workers The component per cent from 1973 cent 1978 to

by

almost

high

to

capital write offs

wages

d

:

serious problems

foreign migrants declined

increased

at

to

its

)

in

to

8

, (

3

,

at

for

,

, , 2

3

79 3

,

1

,

– 9

,

up in

than

the 1970s After the coup

recruit more South

kept

concessions were granted

Africans

average

the mining

38

of

more

subsequent independence

experienced

white urban areas

year while those whites actually dropped during African wages however deceptive From 1975

.

beginning the

354

This dramatic increase should

of

.

1995

African

51 ).

Mohr 1994 in

job

the advance

;



213

the

the Bantustans and seek

rate was

discrimination was first relaxed and finally abolished

Capital intensity

from

of

a

in

on

concludes that the increase

198

move back

unskilled African workers

Johannesburg dropped

from

:



The increase

the real wages

resulted

1999

per cent

of

,

1985

the

agriculture

sector less dependent

comparative advantages

the real wages

,

,

by

rose

same period

.

the

economy

1990

2 9

to

1975

contrast

the modern sector

were supplied with further capital

Hodge

by

-

(

see Bhorat and

In

18

resource beneficiation IDC

system

the exchange

the same time large

built

had been

from

manufacturing and

modern

while businesses were allowed accelerated

which

were the

followed

order ensure that imported capital goods would stimulate capital accumulation interest rates were kept

To

.

At

to

,

To

.

aim

in

.

a

cheap

level

per cent

social engineering which deliberately increase the capital intensity

choice but

this

attain

per worker

142 per cent from

per cent

marginalise Africans

make

no

then have

during the 1960s and 1970s relatively

168

that Africans should become unemployed

employment there

very low

large

and

comprehensive

to

attempt

was

that they would

remain

tables

Vorster and Botha an

the

.

The idea

30 8

, :

(

under

R1 000

1995 the capital labour ratio

to

(

.

)

97 4

for to

,

continued

.

He implemented

labour

from

352

measures

economy

and

)

(



,

1

40 1

,

1999

Verwoerd implemented

economy

for the economy

mining

3

,

,

9

151

for electricity

ratio

the greatest capital deepening

1970

29 3 to

from

242

1986

the South African economy increased

the service sector was modest From

increased from

19

to

(

) of

,

to

.

in

(

construction

712

labour

mining 416 per cent and agriculture per cent and manufacturing 160 157

primary sectors

increase

Lipton

see

the overall capital

The sectors that experienced

1995

to

in

constant 1990 rands

1970

17

cheap African labour

Bhorat and Hodge

capital

apartheid and the possibility

-

high levels

According

large amounts

accumulate

due course created contradictions that undermined

employing 16

realised was that their ability

government

of

in

the

workers these conglomerates gained huge power to influence the government 's economic and labour policies in their favour. What neither these conglomerates nor

keep

409

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

11

,

7 to a

of .

, 7

14

).

as

of

to

we

.4 . 3

as in

The decline on

by

19



,

of

apartheid

activities

.

in

was

very negative effect in

labour

in

Kaplinsky

(

have been created

by a on

those

labour 1995

).

the sums invested

the late 1970s and the 1980s had been invested

in

.

embarked in

government

If

the

NP

,

.

time In

apartheid

at a

,

to in

in

by

in

,

7

a

10

In

in

-

a

these

1972

activities

These increases were not driven

economically unviable

activities many additional jobs would

,

in

2

,

50

of

is

42

.

in to

.)

,

up

by

,

410

that were industries

shore clearly

the

for

. in



to

.

its

lie

at

in

1

of

,

in

,

's

.

31 ,

of

per

10 in 3

6

). to

63 )



the

). ( -

of

to

the dying years

invest

.

,

,

intensive

such

from

NP

'



.

in

per cent

NP

intensive

'



strategic

per

low

capital heavy investment certain government drastically increased

SASOL MOSSGAS and ARMSCOR

attempt

investments

other

discuss

strategic political and ideological considerations economic logic but government when the was domestically and internationally under siege desperate

But

education

the

quite possible that investment

by is

It

.

the

-

economy

intensive activities was crowded out During the 1980s the intensive sectors investments

labour

-

of

in

investment

section

labour intensive activities undoubtedly had

the job creating ability

levels

the same extent

declined

the prevailing political climate

of

the consequence

the from

the services sector

intensive activities

labour

and clothing

in

footwear

-

, ,

,

leather

Kaplinsky argues that the underinvestment

1990

movement

during apartheid

the capital stock

which private sector capitalists were reluctant in

– 79

:

(

on

African education

Kaplinsky

furniture

363

from

the shift from

from

necessary

benefit

to

them

.

to

,

textiles

to

According

for

.

, :

)

to

is

for

in

capita spending

the

1970

producer services

capital accumulation among Africans due

human

GDP

per cent

whose share increased

skilled jobs

Africans without

was not possible

of

level

low

deep

The share

per cent

from

shift also implied

that this

population groups Bhorat and Hodge 1999 the

very

A

in

35

of

social services

sector

of

to

,

it

to

and skills

sharp

share

business services

(

,

to

18 5

the primary

the large percentage

the

,

18 ,

,

in

of

of

its

GDP

services

An

owing

22

in

,

,

and

.

,

by 2,

per cent

demand

the services sector

unskilled jobs

1995

This

1995

and

sector was compensated

per cent per cent Bhorat and Hodge 1999 359 important reason why Africans could not benefit more primary

cent

per cent

The share this group per cent GDP 1970 1995 technology significant component information

,

.

is

in

:

,

9

,

of

( 21

final

cent

share

financial

services increased from This shift was mainly driven

1970

the 1970s

from

The largest group

1995

transport communication

the service sector

the primary

this sector increased

sector

per cent

7 5

to

early

remaining gold reserves mine While agriculture

in

57

to

1970

in

per

,

30 4

the services

in

rise

The decline

1995

from

.

to

gold

only

to

declined

only

secondary sector remained almost stable declining cent

the

.

's

.

it

1970

,

in

, ,

3

18

was

per cent

increased

4 3

its

of

then declined

the price

levels and have become very expensive per cent

The

mainly because output

1995

from

industry

1980 onwards South Africa

from

the

in

of

but

1980

the rise

to

mining

the

stimulus

mines

of

,

per cent

attributed

decline

The share

1970

GDP declining

share

to

that

in

21 7

be to

1970 can

1995

in

per cent

.

20

The primary sector saw

,

,

also declined

in

by

37

per cent from gold

mining industry declined especially



unskilled workers

of foreign

The scarcity

mining industry mechanisation production workers and operatives

increased

of

of

employment

towards

.

unionisation

wages were perhaps

,

leap

in

unprecedented

amid increased

sharp increase

ie

migrant workers and

per

of inflation

pace with the rate

the

3:

PART

For many decades Africans were prohibited

by

acquiring artisanal

from

,

23

law

THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

Infrastructure

the

,

in

in

67

the life

years

to

,

51

63

years

to

40

of

;

of

the

from

the 1990s the

from

from

. .)

,

Virus

mutates

virus which

into AIDS

leaves

Acquired

(

illnesses and eventually

a

fig

Africans

and

1 4

:

Asians

to

to

an

of

.

73

to

and

;

to

43

;

:

secondary

to

sufferers

the late 1930s years

Sadie 1991 for the Human Immunodeficiency

the acronym open

from

61 years years 62 years

from

3 – 6

Sadie 1989

is

HIV

,

,

modern medicine

,

to

of .

of

; of

years 27

whites rose

coloureds

(

68

years

19

2

.

to 3

per cent

the various population groups From

life expectancy

to

Asians increased

1

of

from

by

3

per cent and that

from 22

points

better diets started reduce the mortality rates coloureds and Africans 1950s onwards Improved medicines and diets also led increase expectancies

in

,

4 8

to

in

per cent

points

percentage

percentage

;

at 9

only

that public health methods the availability

show

1972

.

of

;

from

GDP

of

Statistics

of

per cent

whites decreased

coloureds remained

point

2

that

percentage

.

.

, . )

from

by by

at

90

188

the

the informal sector was highly

that high level until 1989

per cent that

of

to

;

per cent

the African

Africans over this period increased

The share per cent

:

(

and remained

69 of

,

24 25

1980

1995

budget increased

The defence

The political

militated not only against and coloured townships but also

opportunities

needed job

Kaplinsky

policing was poor

services and other micro enterprises Consequently



of

creation

26

highly

of

against the development

in

manufacturing

and gangsterism

the struggle

2 4

of

development

constrained

townships

these

and disruptions caused

uncertainty

African and coloured

While criminality

, .

-

day

by

order

in

the

were

of

the

,

townships was poor and sometimes non existent

in

.

,

in

,

their own corporations

launch

to

allowed

.

in

as

,

or

managerial skills jobs financial these fields were reserved for whites Moreover Africans could not own property white urban areas and were also not

,

to

on

, ,

of

the

condoms based and the high

society

,

South

disadvantage

Africa

's

,

.

a

be

Ironically

in

social norms that allow men

sexual partners

with regard

).

,

21

by

contract

per cent

to

,

14 3

per cent

2015

the labour force remaining

years

households

and

2

African

per cent

of

.

14

skilled workers from by

;

,

18 3

of

projected

with the overall size

47 ,

per cent

of

4

,

1996

81 ,

almost static for the next

per cent among

of

;

non AIDS scenario

-

compared

to a

.

,

cent

skilled workers are projected

and among unskilled workers from to

per

to a

,

,

to

25 4

per cent The total labour force

,

,

peak

is

(

per cent

12 1

from

per cent

27 6

increase

rates among highly

HIV prevalence

2015

7 2

2000

to

/

to

29

to

allowing

HIV AIDS BER 2001

From

In

migrant labour

,

,

(

;

of

to

numbers

use

women

developmental edge over other African countries may

30

apartheid

in

;

(v )

large

have

to

resistance

low

( iv )

;

the virus

cultural and social norms the status prevalence of violence against women and particular

and other sexually transmitted

good transport infrastructure and high mobility

vi ) of

iii

of (;

for

the

and extensive poverty

rapid spread

epidemics

other

family and communal life due

disrupted

)

( ii )

;

diseases

of

the prevalence

i()

These are

:

28

).

Immune Deficiency Syndrome

coloured

.

a

$ 2

consumption per

,

per capita consumption household

,

:

criteria

or

.

1 6

,

25

Themost common

are

31

of

a

households spent less than was R1 800 month This implies that the daily expenditure million Africans and million coloureds was less day

411

: COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

PART

3

capita income , per capita food 2000

According

32

,

expenditure

(Leibbrandt

and so on

and Leibbrandt

: 6 ). to Statistics

Africa (2000 ),

South

,

per cent of African households ,

3 99

J

in

,

al , 54,

an

it

of ( or

Of

60

').

94 ,



7

,

of

).

5

:

;

in

poverty

J

(

in

poverty

in

in

per cent are living

, 1

,

69

(

(

41 et

of

if of by

of

the

ie

,

99 or

in

in

per

)

of

,

ie

54 3

, , 7

26

per

,

individuals to

include

seen

.. .

to

was

satisfy

a

of

by

fragmentation

crowded homes

.. .

is

inability

Poverty

as

described

time

on

were organised

,

to

time

from

be

not

could

of

famine occurred

,

but they

terms

and the different

the indigenous population

lives

communal basis and although

the Khoisan

,

modern

of

the living standards in

-

the

5

:

'(

period

colonial

people did

these

the multiple deprivation and the humiliation associated with poverty

not experience

give plausible

a

in

the

, .

a

livelihood

indirectly into becoming

them

after

powerful and effective and

economic

impoverished

an

'

coercing

thus

'

,

independence

of

)

to

because land deprivation proved depriving Africans their traditional

be

(

ie

by

-

,

gold

for

of

instrument

study

explanations for the

widespread and deep rooted poverty among Africans and coloured people military and legalmeans from 1890 More correctly land was seized discovery

of

of

ignored

in

be

are

,

try

,

.

this

especially when we

-

as

such

from

still largely unresolved

They are however issues that cannot to

by

colonial intruders

European historiography

Europe

the land

the seizure

in

and ideological issues involved

moral

,

The cultural

, .

the modern world

indigenous people

37

per

households

table

per cent are living

,

al ,

SSA 2000

.. . . ..

to

of

living

food insecurity

.. .

etc

2000

.

a

no

a

et

of

standard

poor The social and economic

in

;

4 2

,

a

or

,

minimum

African tribes had been meagre

36

1996

command sufficient resources

, ).

pre

,

of In

35

the

Market

poverty line

less

per cent are living

characterised

the community

from

the family

poverty

entire communities

socially acceptable alienation

households

with

). May

to

,

households

only

education

households with

compare

per cent

almost

education

million lived

the Bureau

below

R1 000

May

5

fig

:

According

34

or

,

to

of

those with secondary

May 2000

those with

only primary education

those with

of

,

,

in

)

of

and

May

cent

month were African and coloured

less

of

poverty

;

33

According

and

per cent coloured

(

38 2

1991

50 8

calculated

(

MLL

per cent

we

percentage

poverty cent the total population were living all the households with monthly expenditure

cent were African spending R1 000

1995

May

the total population

,

,

.

in

's

Their estimate was that

coloureds

somewhat conservative

and Whiteford 1994 estimate income below the Minimum Living Level

Research

poverty

the

This estimate

McGrath

of in

per cent

;

of

al

of

et

that

per cent

,

.

whites lived

of

in

1996

Africans

is

1

per cent

This implies

3

:

in

poverty

per cent

50

fig ).

,

Asians and

2000

60

to

them

of

of

according

, . , 7

in

in

all

21 , 4 per cent of coloured households , and 41 , 4 per cent of households were living poverty poverty are even higher 1996 May contend that levels

and

own

land

and humiliation

,

exploitation

to

granted legal rights

,

' .



and

violent oppression

proletariat that they neither had the capacity different lifestyle This was also the case with the ex

,

ie

the coloureds

(

The freedom

of

1838

.

adopt

slavery was abolished

.

and demoralised

in

slaves when

liberated

of

-

impoverished

nor the inclination

4 1 2

after decades

a

such

an

-

they were already

the Khoisan were

to

in

1828

,

When

,

38

easily manageable and exploitable proletariat

the

THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID 1841 , the first of a long series ofmasters

. In

Khoisan and ex - slaves ) was short -lived

and servants ordinances and laws was adopted .

implement

to

act

50

.

years

,

its

it

-

(

by

Kurien 1978

'

poverty

quoted

,

acquisition

)

..

intensified

black

(

its

of

,

racial capitalism

).

in

Africa

wealth

but

was markedly

costs and benefits

South Africa we can regard

In

)

white

from

always proceeds unevenly

capitalism

South



:

68 ). [

.

the carcass left over

of

the

1993

(

and poverty

(

inequality

skewing

case the

racial axis Here

a

along

increased

took

.

African

the South

as

in

African circles Bundy development

',

to

40

entrepreneurship

According

,

of

to

purpose was

Although

Africans

the act and wipe out share cropping and squatter farming destroy the African peasantry and with the promising petty

] (

the

all

provisions

prohibited share

also

it

and squatter farming

cropping

in

by

depriving Africans of much of their land, the

39 Besides

)

in

10

.8 ).

.

in

(

to 20

. . ).

(

'.



for

'

a

space

discomfort

created

.

see section

whites

These the

in

competition

especially

blacks and seriously

harmed

job

in

job

in

grades

Indian wages 1989 Van der Berg

.

(

per cent lower

grades

1989

in

,

,

of

per cent lower

in

.

21 ,

Coloured wages for similar

of

such

the United

the United States fell

the

in

as

developed country

the labour force

in

of

educational spending during percentage the whites the four

in

highly

of

a

compare

by

.

)

privileged

been

per cent

42

,

,

top .

similar

40

+

The poorest

but not

,

1996

next

40

the

per

to

.

the

. ).

10 4

(

of

the poorest

additional socio

economic stricter

4

the Bantustans

by

the poorest were restricted

and suppression

-

vulnerable

They were powerless and

,

.

exploitation

to

systemic

no

to

to

in

1975

from

of

)

.

of in

in

in

1996

to

many

,

1986

R9 120

their disposal

were extremely

of

the population

at

reserve sustenance

.

Until

.

shocks

1970

R5000

from

income

,

them

of

thirds

declined

while the annual household

per cent African households table relatively were uneducated and unskilled with almost

unorganised After generations two

African population

became poorer

also

60

as

property and

the

of

Almost

of

all

same extent

the poorest

1996

R11000

coloured households

no

cent

of

per cent declined from

in

less than R2 400

of

per cent

,

1975

to

of

African households

in

( 50

In

of

,

50

per cent categories two whites South Africa fell those two categories per cent terms 1996 prices the annualmean household income the poorest

20

45

1985

in

While

whites

5

,

skilled categories with those

46

and only

becomes evident when we

apartheid

States

in

,

in

in

1976

which whites have

to

extent

table

1989

and

of

The

:

and Bhorat 1999

1976

those

10 1 6

43

only

per cent lower

per cent lower

were

44

per cent lower

but

,

were

15

1976

per cent lower than

33 37 8

,

43

.

their dignity African wages were

from

petty apartheid

protect whites against black

more convenient living

They nonetheless

urban areas

in

create

to

but

,

labour market

commission

for

measures were not introduced

the Wiehahn

and

-

the discriminatory measures became known to

the recommendations

of

accepted

Many

per cent declined

1979 when the government

in

was abolished

as

legislation

R1 001

R2 231

9 5 3

40

20

the next

;

(

Most discriminatory labour

1995 rands

per cent declined from

10 4

of

of

of

the next

R3 075

per cent declined from

1995 rands tables

in

1991

of

R3 528

R1671

from

the poorest

and the income

1991

in

in

;

in

R1 643 1975

1991 the income

;

to

R3 42

707

but the income

1975

R586

in

in

1975

Africans increased

,

1946

1975

to

from

of

per capita income to

The

to

41

).

Bundy

13

PART

COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

3:

influx control measures . Living conditions droughts , overpopulation , and decades 47

The mean household income

by

per cent

40

1975 to

from

and by a further

of white

16

This group s mean household income declined

10 4 )

( at

1975 to less than R30 000 in 1996

prices

1996

households declined

per cent

'

. .

( table

1991 ,

of

cultivation .

the poorest 40 per cent

of

as a result

in those areas deteriorated

of predatory

. ) Although

1991 to 1996

from

almost R63 000 in

from

the percentage

decline

income of the poorest 40 per cent of Africans and the poorest 40 per

in the household

cent of whites wasmore or less the same , the household income of the poorest 40 per cent of white households was in 1996 still 12 times higher than that of the poorest 40 per cent of Africans ( table

in South Africa are deeply South

the institutions and

Racist ideologies and racially discriminatory institutions capitalist production

1993

:

(

'

the social relations

of

(

per

NP

of

.

9

at

,

to

6 8

of

from

times higher

,

,

,

in

14 6

per capita income

These racial disparities

10 8

. ).

table

of

the

the

. ).

1946

per capita income

and

Moreover

of

to

This

.

10 a 4

at

of

time when

Africans

part

see bottom

(

patterns

economic

.

of

power

per cent

income earned

in

(

in

received almost

the Bantustans comprising

of

)

the chiefs and the landowner class

the population

50

cent

of

per

13

a

small elite

of

.

-

political

coloureds and Asians which remarkably improved their

,

of

to

economic position

1984 also represented

a

,

the

of in

11 5

(

20

of of

,

to

of

table

tricameral parliament

ill -

Africans increased

income clearly reflect the uneven

the advantage

shift

In

52

1970

1970

four population groups during the 20th century

socio

1950

Africans

times higher than that

Africans

conceived

'

51

The

per cent

years

levels But this improvement was mainly

white

per cent declined sharply

the distribution

development

1995 the per capita income

per cent

13 5

.

to

80

poorer

than that

in

the top

whites was

of

of

the

restricted

of

the

,

of

8

6

,

per cent

1970

From

about

25 in

Africans remained

only per cent cent white per capita income but declined resulted from increased exploitation Africans during the first

government

in

income increased

household

table

1996

income

that

income has changed

of

the per capita

Their share

table

. ).

per cent

share

of

.

the Asians

80

20

of of

of

the lower

per cent declined

10 7

1970

per cent increased sharply

group whose in

1970

1917 until 1946

From

the 80

,

,

of

whites the income population

substantially

African households declined

the top

income

,

,

2 5

since

per cent

per cent

of (

50

case

are

substantially from

while

The only other

.

period

1996

in

.4 ).

10

the to

1975

from

the poorest

to 4 5

of

).

The income

In

49

– 8

to

the creation

of

of

.

's

of

.

alone uprooted

by

cut back

,

easily

let

be

will not

They

colonial conquest

were central 77

of ... inequality

the very high levels

history

modern capitalist economy was profoundly shaped

Africa timing

in

.

embedded

its

48 Bundy claims that

. .

10 4 )

.

44

1910 could

be

in

-

).

)

( all

white

the advantages attached

to

(

would not have been possible and the power relations

on

property

without white political domination and racial capitalism which those systems were based

R1 000

almost exclusively

,

,

accumulation

and with

it

of

5

skewed

worth

inflation BER

the population

of

Such

'

.

property

per cent

private property

per cent a

owned

the top

2000 owing

of all

,

the early 1980s 88

In

54

sold for more than R100 000

property to

other tangible in

or

farm

,

house

,

a

Property

-

53

.

those territories

,

,

(

rise

an

of

of

in

business

.

government One

was the legal and illegal

entrepreneurship

were responsible

these activities

NP

intersected with legitimate

the corporate sector and the the

.

. All

and

of

of

African

the most important areas

the

other

.

criminal enterprises

empires that enjoyed the support

taxi industry

with the informal sector

the 1990s

sophisticated

of

,

African

elite

from

1998

:

;

.

(

Asian 29 ,

by

Marais

10 4

per cent table

per cent

per cent

of

60

of

the top

20

of

and that

per cent and more than

35

households increased

coloured

the two periods

,

in

cent

as

).

on

,

of

'

, 70 , in

[

a

).

of

a

78 ).

:

to

of

,

of

,

is a

or

in

:

'(

'(

of

matter

). not participate

:

to

in

1992

employ

is

to

anyone

for our

The desire

the

.

,

become inactive and

say

in

easy

political motives

for

,

'

It s

!

for

the police

peace

4

).

196

of

to

by

Taylor 1993

:

by

to

fear

violence

,

to

be

governed

quoted

'(

process

out acts

the physical violence

2



Political violence and crime sleep under one blanket carry

having

lose any sense

Thokoza branch had this

so

the ANC

the hands

of

201

's :

,

Dume Nkosi secretary general

1990

and Ramphele have

-

,

Thompson

of

by

'(

quoted

least

majority

find themselves

minds and values at

's

not

1994

the process

,

survival and

children

that they witness and experience great concern

,

's

of

be a

as

matter

The impact

Fund Wilson

socialised into vandalism on

.

right and wrong

poor

urban

19

,

)

black

0

,

,

all

to

-

,

and unemployable

that children may

adopt violent measures

people

1994

solidify between

unionised skilled and semi skilled black workers and

report for the United Nations Children

criminals

will

inequality

new axis

relative contribution

and 1991

1975

of

'

that

a

77

1993

inequality

per cent between

(

of

to

per cent

within population groups

the inequality

and Whiteford

in

75

from

coloureds and whites was

its

SSA 2000

(

88 ) of

Africans

far the biggest contributor

unskilled unemployed written

African household income

' .

McGrath

Bundy already warned

minority

63

of

in

,

respectively

, :

by to

] is

1991

In a

for

,

a

,

55

0

0

, ,

and

According

60

the pay

inequality

).

Gini coefficient

increased

62

the level

18

:

1995 the 57

In

59

(

1994

61

vast increase

in

has resulted

, of a

of

on

'

,

to

decreasing incomes McGrath and Whiteford the interplay rising unemployment drought result and the one hand and rising incomes upwardly mobile professionals skilled workers and entrepreneurs the other hand

of

58



7

households 106 According

#

by

10

+

and

the top

per cent

per

The income

40

of

early 1970s

10

In

56

due course

compared

for

of

the 20th

also underdeveloped when

were

developing countries

37

from

and from

in

it

in

greater part

production capital land non labour factors government transfers was exceptionally low during the century The informal sector and the entrepreneurial activities

Africans

.

income

entrepreneurship

-

of

55

)

The

THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM , SEGREGATION , AND APARTHEID

15

PART

4

An incomplete transformation : what's to be done ?

Chapter 11

Working towards

social

a

democratic version of democratic capitalism

II .

The apparent dysfunctionality of South Africa 's

, South

political domination to a with serious political, social,

white

from

democracy

and economic

problems . The new governing elite is struggling by

is

its

,

in

bureaucratic incapacity in

deracialising the

has left

a

apartheid

worse legacy than

section

in

of

redirection

The four poverty

traps

which the poor

spending

Increased

social spending

to

inequality

and augmented

whites

from

blacks

is

into

not doing nearly

alleviate poverty

ability

of

powerlessness to

address these problems effectively

Its or

is

the seeming inability

.

government

to

What complicates matters new

government

new

taken

.

to

it

, ,

enough

becomes apparent that the

social are

by

apartheid have reproduced

laudable but when the structural dynamics surrounding the poor are

account

state

widespread poverty and social

.2 .

.

and

exposed have been discussed the

matters

During the past eight years the social distortions and

.

,

are

consolidate

.

chapters

and perpetuated

services and

alleviate

to

apartheid

destructive dynamics introduced poverty

the

to

failure

from

1994

in

was realised

threatened

2

indicated

authority

,

inherited

faced

make meaningful progress to

and

,

deprivation

As

state

is

and exert

10

system

system

2

economic

Africa

new democracy

its

the inability

of of

The viability

the the

multiracial democratic

in

the

representative

, .

the transition

after

on

years

capitalism

to

Eight

democratic

of

of neo -liberal

version

the

implement

is no

It

the

20

during the chronic stagflation

.

over the past eight years

4

crisis experienced

and

. 4 ).

sections

in

accumulation

have trapped the

left the government with

therefore hardly surprising that poverty has worsened The

sector and

4

see

,

of

ignore their terrible plight

and

(

to

a

in

choice but

systemic

transition

.2

exclusion

situation

the negotiated

4

poor

.

global partners Thus the terms

its is

elite compromises with the corporate

of

constrained

its

clearly

by

comprehensive programmes for alleviating poverty and redistributing wealth

19

PART

4:

years

TRANSFORMATION : WHAT ' S

AN INCOMPLETE

from

has also not been resolved

to 1994

1974

and this has also complicated matters

the necessary

to

degree

government (see section

new

,

.

's

of

.

system

,

century

of

symbiotic

of

its

general racist

focused

-

's

politico economic

the many dramatic events

the equally important

system

political

the

the economic

in

,

changes

in

has largely

South Africa

in

on

the changes

system

Until

(

and especially

African

labour

for more than

century

mining and agriculture

the system

had

on

-

.

to

very big profits



make

),

especially

place that enabled



thrived

,

natural resources

foreign

in

system

)

of

to

of

black

conspicuously

cheap

,

docile

,

be

to

1970s black labour ceased

,

the

in

.

character

,

When

local and

the fact that the economic

the exploitation

colonial

both

labour

most vigorously

grew

labour patterns were

(

the white employer class

Owing

predatory

1974 when



to

not incidental that colonial and racial capitalism 1934

African

.

and especially

)

black

was based

a

exploitable

a

and

in

docile

colonial and racial capitalism (

the availability

system

of

economic

of

the

.

its

.

the

1970s

is

the

exploitative

and

relationship with the political arena have largely been neglected

on

of

class and the white economic

, 9 ).

accentuated

early

racial

and

close

A

a

colonial

.

for

almost

The system

and

the

-

.

zenith

To

in

democratic

and

420

of

we

version

the current politico economic

reached

place

benign

been

of

of

our

not

important

Consequently

and

It of

,

a

for

.

the

of

's.

as

compare

in

of

democratic

arena

from

task

8

ch

see

-

(

1970

are aware

government

only the new

these changes have

appropriateness

system

The literature since

All

its

's is

had

.

.

politico economic

new

both the political and economic components

The racist character

can

believe we have ample

liberal capitalist version

existed between the white political

relationship

character

not

the

politico

reconstruction and development

white political domination

been

not

South Africa

when apartheid

1970

was one

capitalism

class

.

30

a

in

,

of

that

1970s

years

necessary

It

with

it

capitalism

also

also

after 1994

judging

economic systems have changed

and

and evaluate

but

Although

we nonetheless

the

,

-

ways over the past understand

such

political

Africa

South

settlement

the appropriateness

situation

introduced

period

a

are a

enormity

liberal economic policy but

capitalism

short

negotiated

extended colonialism

reason for questioning neo

too

of

democratic

or

,

after centuries

the

as

of

,

well

as

and

capitalism

the

be

economic dispensation

social and economic policies

of

's

the new

and economic problems eight

should reconsider the appropriateness

,

government

argued that eight years

this

we

on

of

political transition

liberal capitalist version

, social ,

these political

far

the

years after

only

of

the severity

Given

It

,

. 2 . 3 ).

to

10

for the

DONE ?

BE

TO

and easily

its

. its

to

.

,

-

,

of for

of

,

of

.

of

of

a

, .

to

,

in

',

,

sector

the tertiary

sector

to

substantial share

GDP rose

while the financial

1998

system

).

54

Cling 2001

:

see

(

developing country

of .

a

in

of

the

the corporate

,

in

an

.

a

,

of

-

3

a

per cent

way that has

,

-

the

of

member the

if

Rich

English corporate

new

a

of

as

South

in

introducing many a

powerful and

political sector We have

political influence

.

and

neo

the

labelled the growing ideological and

of

-

with both the

virtues

forged

and have also the

sector

initiative

of

affiliates have taken

private

the alleged

developing country such the

a

even for

old

its

prescriptive relationship

a

as

and ANC governments

,

the changes

the

and

The AAC

for myth making

,

NP

South Africa was

convincing not only the Afrikaner controlled corporate

in

its

also the

in

.

integrated

finance explains

and

strong propensity

liberal and globalised approach Africa

financial and tertiary

first world orientation

,

but

free market economy

-

,

.

With

sector has succeeded sector

industrial

oligopolistic

the English controlled corporate sector has become overtly liberal

capitalist and globally oriented North

the mining

,

all

,

1960

sector

Africa has

.

in

in 6

,

50

per cent

is

Thirdly

the modern

the economy The contribution

unusually sophisticated

of

As

. far

'

industry

indirect controls over

and moving their primary listings

the economy have been artificially the excessive

mergers

through

influence

that South

notion

these changes

The alliance between

from

given

have

64 ,

of

of

character which belies a

is

. 2 .2 ). ,

,

the

.

,

changes

services

reorganise the corporate sector

other companies

globalisation

lately

for to

A

,

shareholdings

offshore

further enhanced

many other developing

weaker than those

increased their size and

have

and

sectors

dramatically

result the labour absorptive capacity

second defensive strategy has been

result

the

10

see

(

section

minority

the economy

of

,

African economy

other companies

As

the modern sector

substantially

have

black labour has declined sharply

increasing black unemployment

These

changes

These

and methods

At

its

first world

the

the employment

Corporations

taken

.

,

to

.

In

geared

countries

solve

years

substituting capital

the process technology has been modernised

same time

takeovers

over the past

production methods

increased the capital intensity

the South



,

it

,

has changed

production

liberation

almost desperate attempts

steps

several defensive

labour

the mounting



caused

accumulation crisis the corporate sector has

First

of

-

response

it .

stagflation to

's

,

and the state

exploitable black labour

by

of

20

years

the 1970s

from

30

of

the non availability

,

To

coincided with

colonial

and farming sectors

accumulation crisis for the corporate

complicate matters further

CAPITALISM

pillars of

the

exploitable black labour

In

onwards created

-

The

non availability an

.

plundering

struggle

of

the white employer class lost one

by

,

exploitable

VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC

SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC

A

corporate sector 421

TRANSFORMATION : WHAT ' S

INCOMPLETE

Mhone

is

it

so

of

.'

a

the

30

as

of of

,

-

,

of

-

the

.



,

a

-

of

,

a

of a

,

elite agreed

-

undisturbed indication

,

past eight

modern sector thoroughly the ANC

turn

how

to

over

that

the

detach itself the

the

per

of

inclination

expected

the

the local corporate elite and

its

an

by is

-

co

-

.

422

opted

became

black population

we might have

labour force The fact

, a

partners

cent

capitalist enclavity

first world capitalist enclave

government has been



).

constituency

years the corporate sector has continued into

governing

to

the black

elite

the trend towards first world

's

the

capitalist

representative

governing

new

sanctioned

,

's

the ANC

counteract

large part

effectively

world

predominantly African

black

.

from

a

government

to

loyal part

a

are

the

first

system

When the new

Given that the poorer

of .

capitalist enclavity

into

several elite compromises with the

reached

global partners

,

these compromises

junior partner the

white controlled enclave

.

its

sector and

of

to

corporate

when

it



'

systemically trapped

chapter

,

we indicated

4

is

effectively controlled

it

.

elite

which

capitalism

the introduction

in

As

democracy

still

both

2000

colonial

enclave has coincided with

has been made irrelevant

-

:

of

The transformation

black consumer market

as

.

a

(

black poverty

years

the black labour force

has been adopted

racist character see

of

a

in

sea

has retained



bourgeoisie and petit bourgeoisie

past

Although the black elite

by

,

corporate operations and profitability new system

a

to

large part

the lumpenproletariat

whole

liberal first world capitalist

the black labour market and

the consumer market

on

,

a

from

sustainable

Africa has become

South

the population

neo

60

,

of

the process part

of

is

disengaging itself

building

changed over

has been

colonial and racial capitalism

enclave that

ie

system

is

,

of

a

one

economic

the detriment

it

the

As

result

think tanks

Americanisation

,

even more deeply entrenched

government

and prioritising the interests

-

In

.

dual

Anglo

is

system

global provide the latter with strategic

these

to

',

partnerships

class

now

whose legitimacy

)

(

both local

since

The regular summits

-

the

of

capitalist

,

.

sector the more

opportunities for prescribing their policy agenda the

the dual influence

of

. -

leaders

the time being and

and business

least

South

.

the local corporate for

at

unquestioned

Consequently

This has significantly enhanced

highly favourable politico economic



in

embedded

a

the power and wealth

from

global corporatism

,

of

-

corporate and global Anglo Americanisation

to

over the

years

a

been

past

of

Africa has

exposed

world

a

-

or

the British American

from

Anglo American

)

from

the

the local corporate sector , but also

10

of

pressure

from

'

government s acceptance

new

neo - liberal and globally oriented approach has not only resulted

-

a

African society . But the

South

(

of

of

DONE ?

BE

of not only the South African economy, but also

the Anglo - Americanisation the modern part

TO

-

AN

In

4:

the to

PART

global

SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC

that has replaced white

and colonial and racial capitalism

to

the a

.

a

of

the

the

an

of

as

,

a

,

)

white policy

.

of

of

,

1970 poverty

is

2002

. are

/

were

through

exclusion a



/

systemic

system

worse than

population

the old system

through

politico economic

systemically and

is

system

in

of

majority

was the

society

impoverished

the new

as

The common denominator between

of

.

old

its

that

part

the new

in

is

pauperised

individual members

, of

,

.

that

the

in

neglect While

increasingly

dysfunctionality

is

systemic

and

the in

exploitation

. ,

systemic

)

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ominous systemic

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to

majority

democratic

the entire South African population

beyond dispute that 1970

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system

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senior partner and

and dependent partner We need

domination

symbiotic relationship has been

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political

liberal capitalist version

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CAPITALISM

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The politico -economic system

VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC

of of

A

and

marked

1970 and probably also

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423

4

:

AN INCOMPLETE

of

:

.

or

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democratisation

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reappraise

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11 .2 .

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neo liberalism

modern sector

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modern

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'

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424

achieved

with the global economy the

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dualistic character

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VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC

be

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SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC

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operation and profitability

425

4:

AN INCOMPLETE

thriving

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crime and violence .

worlds', and Africa is

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.2 ./

South Africa

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Questioning potential

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'S

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South Africa

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the 1990s



stricter

the

conditions were considerably

is

South Africa in

country such

as

developing

1970s when these funds were originally invested

426

of

far more

.

or

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also

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capital made the constraints

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2002

1980s and early 1990s seriously harmed the

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SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC

skilled and professional

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CAPITALISM

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VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC

of

A

warned

427

TRANSFORMATION : WHAT 'S

AN INCOMPLETE

'crowd

that increased government investment would not only sector , but also undermine macroeconomic stability

to finance

and fiscal balance

way. Larger government investment

ment, and

also have helped

could

,

. But

24

the

would have required higher taxes than

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'

gap between the

accomplish

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).

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ch

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would have

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approach

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to

,

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opening

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the

,

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's

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power

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independent socio economic policy government was pressurised

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lofty

into aligning

promises that

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benign system

of

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government

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implement

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thus depriving the new

liberal capitalist version

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into pursuing

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into the framework

as

force the ANC

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necessary

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1990s the corporate sector and

the early to

considered

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,

in

Unfortunately

28

risk

unenviable

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its

up

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them

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the 20th century

capital and global currency speculation

for South Africa

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,

.

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great deal during

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to

:

position

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developing countries

at

significantly consolidated

South

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.

-

1994

(

By

.

20

those

the multinational corporations

the

government

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should have realised that the global economy had changed years

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1994 onwards

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engage with global capitalism

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,

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African economy

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global economy

sanctions disinvestment and isolation

,

After almost two decades

system

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of

.2 .2

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the

11

.

early 1990s

capitalism

4

a

bridge the still growing

to

was important

it

it was nevertheless

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could have

capitalist enclave and the lumpenproletariat

the

. Although

government investment programme in

a

out the private

of

possible

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to maintain

DONE ?

BE

TO

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4:

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PART

global

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from

their new masters

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in

in

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and shrewd

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corporations

these

on

of

those

2001

capitalism

propaganda

the Poor South can only benefit

in

entrenched that countries at

the

.

and especially

these countries

the price

the rand

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of

global capitalism

the fact that the power vested

game

the global village

game Despite

play the global

,

bombarded

decline

for those who are not independent

ruthless and cruel system

benefits

charity

CAPITALISM

peaceful democratisation

.

is

have shown that there

and the spectacular

1998

in

But the Asian crises

no

of

would richly reward South Africa for

corporatism

enough

VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC

of

SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC

A

).

:

'(

of

.

of

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the

of

to

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,

to

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's

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Africa

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Africa

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.

,

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make the economy function

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Both

South Africa

developing country

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Asia which have major comparative to

that they export labour intensive manufactured products

-

in

104

thereby augmenting

spread their corporate risk

trade barriers was

exports raw materials and

advantages

2001

new politico economic system

controversial issue

relations with

growth

,

,

Whether dropping

goods needed

South African

capital movements

enabled individual corporations

own internationalisation and the

to

improved economic

liberalisation have however

its

the opening

uncertain benefits have been largely ignored

trade has

dysfunctionality

some foreign and local up

,

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-

risks linked

the

liberalisation

highly

the warnings

past eight years neither the liberalisation

of

the

Over

its

and

]

economy

regarding

.. .

economists

Pierre Cling

Jean

to

According

of

.

North

large

is

compared

even

,

to

and

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,

.

on

to

the point where

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an

continue

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and Trade

with countries wage levels

are

India

-

and

China

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to

-

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for export Instead

the General Agreement

South Africa cannot

as

with low labour costs

Cling –

).

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GATT

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exceeded the targets demanded

by

Africa has committed itself

reducing tariffs

therefore

clothing

textiles and

subsidise these and other labour intensive products

its

industries such

-

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,

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would rather have been advisable

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will solve the unemployment

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to

-

.

labour intensive manufactured products

It

exports

is

's

surrounding South Africa

its

increase the share

of

The biggest problem

its

.?

foreign markets nearby

429

inferior education

inflationary effect Cling 2001

,

)

voluntarily

long

term

-

the country

's

in

of

confidence

the

African

South

the early 1990s the corporate sector promised

ANC leaders

precondition for

large inflow

financial liberalisation

was

the

.

by

.5 ).

4

(

underestimate

of

levels

crime

and

the government and corporate it

,

about attracting foreign investment

of

conditions the new

the negative

violence

impact

potential

sector were really serious far

.

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social crisis and the high investors

and macroeconomic

should have done

more

to

FDI

fiscal

on

to

create

.

conducive

see section

South African

Perhaps the biggest misjudgement

government and the corporate sector was the

.

,

the disinvestment

FDI

Although

the elite compromises between core ANC leaders

sector was to

be

that would

all

of

almost

and the corporate

the

.

portfolio capital has increased

The purpose

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capitalist enclave

oriented

,

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corporations since 1994 has outstripped

foreign

,

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, 'to



a

first world

foreign financial markets This has intensified

to

of

inflow

escape

to

and individuals

trend towards

term

,

-

short term

.

of

FDI This promise has not materialised Financial liberalisation has however enabled many corporations both

portfolio capital and long

a

that South Africa

lack

a

's .

In

growth potential

a

corporations also demonstrates

internationalisation

,

Africa

South

from

of

overhasty

This

.

enclave

are

amounts

These

these corporations and individuals have increased the global orientation

capitalist

SA

of ,

,

a

capital

,

disinvesting

and

huge amount

country

the

than

of

FDI

move

for

especially

AAC Old Mutual

.

out

the

to

individuals

,

larger than

At

.

,

the

(

such

wealth

.

considerably

African

strong

informal sector

corporations

has enabled



and thus South

wealthy

In

well

as

as

-

Breweries

have

fewer advantages

even

including

as

The former

globalised corporations

the large

of

of .

of

.

trade

will

).

:

(

South African economy

of

the

of

the liberalisation

and

the same time

114

capital flows has produced

The liberalisation sectors

sharply

higher than goods have

manufactured

the declining rand

result

capital goods have also increased

of

of

but mainly

as

,

increased

countries

Exports

a

other developing

,

of

and

South African workers wage costs per unit produced

imports

all

lower productivity

DONE ?

BE

in

those

given

TO

are

,

similar . This is because levels

TRANSFORMATION : WHAT ' S

INCOMPLETE

AN

-

:

the

4

a

PART

alleviate

African

-

The large scale integration

sophisticated

with the blessing

of

to

in

.

'

is

it

a

of

'.

South

this

financial institutions the new

government

-

-

and

by

1

modern

with global financial institutions 430

disinvest

take risks

prominent

of

Africa

's

South

perhaps

too

businessmen

attitudes

who have opted

and their hesitation

displayed

'

mirror

per cent

South Africa

to

confidence

too

country

the in

lack

of

since then has only amounted

hardly surprising that FDI year Foreign investors GDP

,

capital since 1994 to

Given the large outflow

of .

poverty and stabilise society

SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC

be

on

,

to

to

be

,

,

]

of

of

to

,

-

).

's

far

the

are

the 17

;

in

of of

,

of

as

no

be

.

.

's

of

to

least some corporations them

by

Africa

possible intervention

and from

natural

colonial and racial

that has enabled

'



master plan

at

since the early 1990s

,

if,

its

corporations

plundering both South Africa

detach

the new

which the corporate sector played

central role

so

the systemic

for

victims

of

the detriment

the

of

to

,

but once again

a

exploitation

the

being

If

spectacularly

some

regarded

this has indeed been their secret strategy they have succeeded

.

government

South

from

longer

labour force during the period

clever

lumpenproletariat

-

themselves

a

followed

as

It

seems

economy

in

have

.

capitalism

black

2002 than they were

move their main listings offshore are among those

which accumulated their wealth resources and

and can

,

capitalism

by

that have won permission

emphasis

Many corporations and individuals

African economy Ironically

South

the

non formal sector

author

the

the

complete

global

into

the

more

to

fully part

of



escaped



have

by

to

.. . of :

its

,

more serious

,

the informal sector

are

or

:

(

,

's

2000

marginalisation

1994 and far

in

than

openness

the formal sector begins

.

in

in

irrelevant

economic problems are

more developed

effective

process

Essentially

The capitalist enclavity and global orientation

1994

resorting

opportunities

far

Africa

openness

own quite independent

which now becomes economically

South

growth

investment

-

of

by

,

In

.

momentum

powerful

and

the same token the marginalisation

the context

of

-

a

have

probably

the South African

formal sector

the non

accentuates the enclavity and non formal sector

winds

the chill

without requiring the growth

of

inclusive and integrating

the

exposing the vulnerable and

As

of

,

innovation

and

blamed

corporations but

The real culprits

escape the internal barriers

external markets for investment funds demand

rand should not

Guy Mhone argues

.

able

is

economy

economy

.

their own advantage

to

openness the modern sector

introduction to

the

of

global capitalism

With

of

government into

relatively powerless South African forces

individuals

.



who pressurised

those

value

economy

South African the

openness

undue

the

of

or

the unlawful

irregular actions

'

on

The chronic problems surrounding

the

financial manipulation and speculation

in

CAPITALISM

which corporations and individuals can

in

to

participate

systemic situation

a

(

has created

VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC

of the

A

many

economic growth

will unlock

the

rate

of

high

modern sector

the best example

of

1996

is

The GEAR strategy

of

-

the labour absorptive capacity

a

Questioning the premise that

of

.2 .3

11

.

years

the naïve optimism

about the

431

1

,

2001 more than

have been destroyed

including the agricultural sector since

1996

,

to

the modern

The important question

4 3 2

is

.

to

the

.

of

for

,

in

(

,

to

)

no

,

of

(

.

the modern

to

the

of

the cost

over the

the

past eight

continuing trend towards

sector

to

the

at

the

by by

mature and

retain

small and shrinking demand

informal sector and the failure

,

the

in

sectors had been

sector

.

-

of

the poorly educated

the

economy

capitalist enclave a

capacity

in

of

).

15

low

1970

a

in

the modern sector

labour absorptive

-

considerably reduced

capitalism its

of

colonial

tertiary

productivity

to

2000

13 –

Mhone

the

:

result

The structural transformation system

longer

export more labour intensive products This latter

of

by

to

consumers

of

the see

(

African workforce

is

largely

inability

increase

the premature and disproportion

secondary

-

its the for

manufacturing sector

than

when the black

and was

of

and

labour absorptive capacity was caused industrial production

that the

off

in

-a

be

,

the

economy

The inability

see

route towards capitalist enclavity before

the

.

capitalist enclavity

remembered

sectors has been strongly stimulated

up

opening

sector

has become associated

bsorptive capacity

develop

to

.

years

This tendency

and secondary

by

primary

years

the primary and secondary

capacities

-

fully developed

sector

the

apartheid

attributed

of

of

the tertiary

the labour absorptive

10

in

heyday

en

of

the economy should

ate expansion

the tertiary

the 1970s

in

of

the

in

it

as

had been

these losses

the capital intensity

the modern sector was triggered

Mhone contends that the poor labour sector

It

.

.

an

should

labour force became less docile and cheap exploitable

the

Although this

stagflation

the South African Reserve Bank

be

2001

mainly

1994 was

formal sector employment growth

It

the capital intensity

:

the 1970 and 1980s

') of (

in

smaller

of

to

.2 .3 ).

change

growing

production that was responsible

last

the

22 ).

considerably

in

to

economic

in

a

with

growth

that

job opportunities

increase

According

10

.2 .1

given rate

.2 .2

10

of ;

‘a

sections

10

decline

the structural shift

the primary sector and

in

a

,

modern sector and

loss

the

the sharp increase

to

attributed mainly

;

be

factor undoubtedly contributed

must

1974

from

economic growth during the period

[

of

low

unemployment during the two decades result

supposition

the

of

was built

strategy

GEAR

The

that fewer jobs would have been lost

at

is

have happened

quite possible that

opportunities would have been created What might

job

new

fact been achieved

in

's

if



any

target had

on

few

growth

in

very

GEAR



years

if

how many new job opportunities would have been created during the past

of

,

sector

not nearly

job opportunities supposed

million

million jobs

growth was

as

by

additional

of

economic growth

from

2002

has a

created

of

,

. Instead

2001 . This rate

1 3

achieved

the

of 6 per cent could be attained by

rate

if an

be unlocked

six is

large labour -absorptive capacity that would

DONE?

BE

TO

be

TRANSFORMATION : WHAT 'S

: AN INCOMPLETE

in

4

.

PART

time when the African

the the

As

.

a

, on

a

at

,

are

of 34

are by

is

if

increase

poor labour

The

do –

different in

labour

the

and high

-

job

creating capacity

-

the

fully

of

,

supply

the inadequate demand

not

of

unemployment problem

greater constraint

of

million people clearly are

7

to

6

for

for

the

create jobs

. of

will

that higher levels

a

education

of

,

impact

employers obsessed with first world efficiency far

by

,

,

is

the African

also true that the domestic

government spokespersons

labour inhibits growth

capital intensity

undoubtedly true that

circles Although the inadequate

government

sluggish economy

not caused

South Africans

.

is

It

is .

it

as

as

education

a

in

of

categories

1970

economy will certainly improve with higher levels as

-

of

levels

indicates that the complexities appreciated

at

,

,

It

.

and

,

on

spending

claim

to

But

the

increases significantly

.

of

as

would not have been

high

per cent

equipped with better skills unemployment

of

workforce were better schooled

education

currently employed

against

the fact that most unemployed

unskilled and therefore unemployable

absorptive capacity

the poor education

10 2

;

,

incorrect policies but

FDI

,

of in

the economy

table

.1

the

of

. of ).

of

the total African population

on

often said

education under

tendency towards capitalist enclavity

government circles that unemployment by

figure

additional

sector for which many

African labour and the legacy

formal sector 2

in

per

or

13

;

.

2 1

cent

in

It

table

the supply

and

reduced the

time when

inadequate

their

of

effect

.

the modern

is

in

(

increase

because

sector

the tertiary

as

Africans

The combined

that only see

is

sharp

thrived

agriculture

has significantly

the primary sector

faster rate

the

trend towards capitalist enclavity

have not qualified

apartheid

300

the primary

jobs that have been created have been

Africans

African labour

a

in

labour

mainly

is

),

employment

for labour

demand

.

the

African

mining

in

that

the

year

other population groups While colonial capitalism

of

than

exploiting

000 workers

has reduced

trends have increased the supply

of

demographic

enclavity

000

of

towards capitalist

CAPITALISM

relatively high rate , and

at a



potential workforce has increased trend

200

particular has grown

in

by

population group

VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC

in

SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC

A

the

of

in

confronted rate

can

in

unabated

(

the

in

post

with the awful attained

a

growth

full swing during the

as

higher economic

six

the

.

of

currently

the

4 3 3

government

past

and the concomitant decline

the modern sector were

is

,

even

new

when

the economy Although

be

predicament that

The

far

formal sector

1995

potential African labour

these tendencies have continued

a

.

period

if

of

-

apartheid

apartheid

more serious over

per cent

towards capitalist enclavity

labour absorptive capacity last decades

it

the modern

of

the tendency

that almost

or

force cannot find jobs

has become 55

estimated

in

.

years

is

),

per cent were unemployed It

46

While unemployment among Africans was already serious

in

.

economy

the

'

in

so

of

in

to

is

of

'

'

'

.

is

more

even

'

in

, of

the

.

.

to

.

',

but

will

will not

improve the

a

also

,

,

It

spin



at

.

noted that

in

the predominantly

black

,

,

ruthless employer class

in

' the

exploitation

the informal sector are

in

of are

positive

abject poverty contagious diseases and

'

of

have

should however

occurring

workers

the

will

the

believe that

thriving informal sector

employment

by

exceptionally vulnerable

to

many

The size

a

'

."

the



30



of

,

of

sector

those job opportunities

informal sector Under conditions

,

But what

We have reason

and that



. ‘

formerly fully

million Unfortunately

several

the modern

informal

-

or

of

rate

self exploitation

violent criminality

casualisation

the

casual sector

depressed

informal sector

quality

the formal sector

years are not available

estimated

chronically

levels

workers

does not protect people against the often

a

the

on

'

only increase

'



.

-

in

the past

higher economic growth

off effect

and unorganised

employment opportunities created

the additional

this sector

informal sector

benefits and

the

,

of

a

into casual and

without

the agricultural sector

in

in

workforce

all kinds

'

.

,

,

ie

' in

on

sector over

than

and

the peripheral and

is

informal

is

is

,

exploitation statistics

the

the third

labour legislation has strengthened

new

that the new labour legislation

Hard

content

casualisation

peripheralisation

workers especially

inhuman

first

have been shifted

have been turned

even more

ironic that

the

is

It

.

tendencies towards

ironic

former working class

past eight years many women

process

-

under apartheid

per

-

of

. the

Over

and are often badly exploited

employed

because

full time employment These workers are rightless

of

security



contract labourers

,4

the first world capitalist enclave

time many male workers

the same

say

some

be

At

to

formal

large numbers

informal sector

world informal sector the

of,

.

of

-

-

the marginalisation

from

case

as is

job

in more

the strong trend towards first world capitalist enclavity

of

The flip side

rate

job destroying growth



be

fact

declining labour absorptive capacity

'–

growth

growth the

that an economic

of

countries

in

world

but may

DONE ?

BE

will probably not result

it

will not only mean “ jobless

year

a

It is quite possible



cent

,

investment



opportunities .

foreign



of greater

TO

-

result

TRANSFORMATION : WHAT ' S

AN INCOMPLETE

-

4:

the

PART

this

of

is

's

demographic

and

this

's

Africa

complex

political

,

underemployment

educational

in

'

South are

labour

In



. -



and

the



unfree

'

can

cultural

and

self exploitation

,

,

.

economic dimensions

434

sector

unemployment

phenomena with social

unfree labour

of

.

the informal

most recent versions

economy

the

structural unemployment

identify

of

the

We

,

dualistic

as

sector



underemployment

the multiplicity

black people were subjected during South Africa

history

colonial

in

extended

millions

this book

,

which

main themes

of

the

,

patterns

of

One

to

."

sector

and

for

a

,

as

a

of job

of

of

to

on

,

we

narrow

of

.

generate

gap

and

a

will

income

control

,

if

any

life

grip

the terrible

,

the

to

-

'

. .

'

trickle down effect

has

for methods

search

, in

those caught

Questioning the premise that high economic growth

11 2 4

at

If

.

to

,

of

,

30

the total labour force

long structural unemployment over which they have little

enough

the creation

solve the unemployment problem

to

restore the dignity and humanity

version

.

,

for

to

sensitive

the

huge pauperisation effect

dehumanising effects and

its

of we

If

.

least

Instead

the creation

less sensitive

years with

unable

search

sensitive

percentage

of

to

be

at

the

unemployed

elite

a

as

are the

past

,

The unemployment rate increased during each

and

the

for the unemployed

extravagant wealth and luxury

should

and

,

-

opportunities

will be more

that

the private sector

for

labour intensive development programmes democratic capitalism

of

on

economic growth

the workforce

the government should launch comprehensive

,

remedy for unemployment

part

in

'



casualise

to

high economic

probably not create jobs but destroy them

and

concentrating exclusively

or humane

this complex malady

effective

a

peripheralise

best further

not

high and

of

will

a

'

,

achieved

, however, not realistic

single remedy

probably

,

is

rate

it

growth

more one that will

is

,

what

on

It is

CAPITALISM

through

.

concentrate almost exclusively and

.

growth

economic

a

of



sustainable rates

solve these problems

to

be

government hopes

The new

VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC

or

SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC

A

large

alleviate

the

of

for

.

as

on

of

of

a

-

great that

declining

.2 .1

2

section

;

capitalist enclave has reached years

to the

to

that

modern first world a

the

the

the



is

realise

of

in

It

a

in

the

30

of

growth

table

. ).

2 1

lively debate over whether preference should

and won

the

growth day

At ”.

latter

,

the

lobbied aggressively

for

'

sector

distribution through

' or '

growth through distribution

.

a

the

In

corporate

between

has become

the population over the past

early 1990s there was

to

;

.

2 2

be

given

important

see

portion

figure

the

mechanism

that higher economic

so

and the third world periphery

-

enclave

poorest half

is

the

figuratively

the income generated

the main

(

both literally and

poor



reach

The advocates

more unlikely that meaningful part

.



as

the

will

even

secondary

high economic growth rates

argued earlier

of





income

is

,

additional

'

is

additional jobs

create

distance

unlikely

it

will

it

.

if

poor But

the

of

of

is

, -

'

creation

transmitting the additional income created

income

the acronym by

'

regard

naïve optimism

high economic growth rate

redistribution

position job

,

is

as

approach

trickle down

-

indicated

its

the GEAR strategy

importance

'

also the best example

trickle down effect

'

.

poor

spontaneous

1996

by

the

about

strategy

In

the

GEAR

The

of

poverty

The that

435

TRANSFORMATION

:

WHAT ' S

DONE ?

BE

TO

available



Its

a

-

'

informal sector

?

to

the impoverished

led

in

the

of

is

of

.

to

in

did

collection

-

to

2003 the minister

improved

surplus

But there power

distribution tax

on

the

to

the

economic enable

.

This would

'

large part

result

the

,

,

,

a

rate

of

mainly

2001

from

not

and contagious

alleviate poverty



to

use





at

his disposal

chose each time

it

;

the

of

In

' .

surplus

depends

three budget years

a

but

a

have

each

to

a

use the growth surplus



to

finance

higher

the economy would increase

guarantee that this would happen

society

those trapped

,

2 2

capacity

a

no

minister

the lives

could achieve



tax

of

,

the

we

.

see section

(

growth

difference

If

diseases

make

This redistributive effect has however

growing unemployment violent criminality

of

vicious circle

to

been large enough

place through the national

taken

of

.

past eight years

of ) .

budget over

income has

of as

the

A

of

.

redistribution programme relatively large transfer

is



mechanism

for transferring

available

comprehensive and government

a

The only other

wealthy modern sector is

from

'

income

the

-

'

trickle down effects what other mechanism

and

optimism

will have positive employment

'

and that

.

high rate

' is

it

If

achieved

the

indeed unlikely that

it

will

economic growth

-

three counts

.

was unfounded

of

trickle down effects

creating and

, be

on

all

positive

its

economy , and

job

stage the corporate sector was optimistic about the growth potential

of

INCOMPLETE

AN

4:

-

PART

reimburse relatively

has been forged over

a

thinking

a

. . , The

be a

(

,

)

population

population

)

the the

per cent

of

,

50

(c

omprising

of

-

of

socio economic power property and

(

of

South African society What complicates matters

democratic transition

.

very worrying feature the

a

is

and the middle and lower subclasses

is

not

the elite essential but impoverished majority the see

opportunities between the upper class comprising one third

436

2 2 2

.

Before this can happen

).

The highly unequal distribution

that

implement

, ,

.

the

favour

white taxpayers to

is

rate

finance will agree

of

in

shift in

attained

sector and predominantly

will

extremely

4

3

and

via the budget

11 .

economic power shift 11 .

sections

an

an is

also

ideological paradigm

see National

ideological cement that binds the two

comprehensive poverty alleviation programme only

,

not possible

higher economic growth

that the minister

comprehensive

(

the

of the

is of

. 24

at

on

.3 ).

3

poor

GDP

that redistribution

the corporate

new

past decade between the old

of

unlikely

it

makes

unlikely

of

-

strong anti tax lobby

is

,

even

if

-

up

stepped

it

groups holds

elite

long

section

this coalition insists that total state

per cent

as

table

;

2001

behalf

of

Treasury

pegged

programme

redistribution

elite

As

should

a

revenue

be

white elite and the new black

If

'

distributive coalition

in

.

indicated the

not surprising

These decisions were

As

.12

wealthy taxpayers

and other developments

since

then

have not

in

to

,

is

the most

deep

seated

-

a

is

South African economy

in

economy

ANC 1994

conclusion

:

'(

based

on

).

a

,

.

-

growth

economic

the South African

the

of

as

,

author

that

new

the lumpenproletariat

such requires fundamental restructuring

emphasis

's

;

75

and

crisis

that market

restructuring

1994

in

The RDP claimed

and without

poor

remain

led

the premise



.2 .5

Questioning

will

population

It

11

the

of

poorer half

effective way elia

the fact that the white

monopoly over political and economic power promote sectional interests the expense blacks the unequal power relations its

on

in

of

,

-

the

to

up

-

-

,

.

is

the

do

,

the

of





foreign

of ‘

of

'

economic

is

by

,

aimed



support

a

of

as

integrated

black

timely and

the new

economic important

government

careful not

to

be

,

so

,

however

privileged minority and

in

Empowerment

see

(

Black

of

of

the

implementing the recommendations

the government should

at

'

entitlement

their

to

blacks

only limited success over the

regarded

in

In

).

as

as

well

of

of

empowerment

black

national

be

'

;

Black 2002

a

owned

restructuring does not resolve

the plea

,

should

)

strategy

to

,

empowerment

ie

-

's

.

.

Consequently

document that deserves the enthusiastic

commission

state

opposes the

strongly

which

This policy has achieved

for

2001

certain

way that the participation

jobs

skilled

BEECom

(

empowerment

new government

foreign investment and

form

policy

‘a



eight years

add

and the unequal distribution

such

in

,

to

'

,

the economy

will increase

Commission

this

privatising

not

South African

instead

entrepreneurial and highly

BEECom

among the most

.

-

'



them

government

the

restructuring

policy

structural crisis

power but augments Second

COSATU

a

deep seated



'



to

privatisation

's .

government

they

the RDP First

attract much needed

-

to

in

restructuring

But according

past

;

the

to

.

'

'

order

restructuring

However

envisaged

technology

property

fact that the distribution

.

in

over the past eight years

has committed itself

the

the

the world

fundamental restructuring

assets

strong tendencies

economic power

South Africa

in

,

,

,

and

and wealth

We can identify three approaches economy

the

commanding heights

income opportunities property unequal

and

further concentration on

a

and

';

of

hands

the

towards capital intensity

capitalism

of

the South African version

in

inherent

of

at

of

to

its

minority had used its

'

that includes representatives

distributive coalition

structural

the bourgeois elite

economic power shift

its

-

.

Without

of

third world periphery

the

meaningful

any

the capitalist enclave and the lumpenproletariat relegated an

in

operating

distribution struggle between

the

in

at

-

least not

poor

CAPITALISM

the

- economic bargaining power of

improved the socio way

VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC the

SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC

A

this

restrict

doing neglect the more urgent 437

TRANSFORMATION : WHAT ' S TO

INCOMPLETE

economic empowerment and upliftment of the impoverished majority . If empowerment only involves transferring wealth

of black entrepreneurs , the objective

‘ entitlement of large ( see section 11.5 . 3 ) .

of

black

of

,

corporations

the

If

.

as

far

,

the modern

.

or

's

be in

in

,

the

.

government

unequal

,

left intact and that the capitalist enclavity

-

-

oriented

and that

of

,

is

,

the new

the

is

not

the core

effect agreed that

world

-

first

by

uncritically

in

'.

'

This

one

that

it

a

stationary

nutshell

be

of

.

This

of

about the desirability

than

a

a

free

expedient and less

local and global market forces

government

the

the

if

it

South Africa

the

as



should

-

in

a



be

grain

,

economic

the economy

the market wisdom

in

so

moving tanker

economic power and property would system

sector and

fast growing economy was expressed

that was accepted

the new

itself



.

common wisdom

duly penalised



of

that economic

entrenched

and contrast sharply

are

The huge power

big corporations and their global partners

institutionalised structurally

,

claim

.

in

domestic

lies

and global markets are neutral

,

and influence

of

forces operating

its

the free market propaganda

The main flaw

in

of

.

perpetuated

the

by

doing

be

the

is

it

so

will

market propaganda

distribution

to



those who

act against

do

to

advisable

turn

would

The

take place through market forces while

complemented

usually

is

wisdom

easier

ie

led

-

that

'

maxim

restructuring

of

the

have agreed that

were

misguided

the corporate

restructuring

,

restructuring

the

market

'

has

has enhanced

government committed

in

to

seem

are



It

seems

.

if

They

to

the

to

system

economy was growing rapidly The

438

not the

anything

opportunities

neutral forces operating

supposedly



market

‘ .

be

entrusted

would

RDP

either inadequate

the new

by

'

to



of

'

the

which

government have tacitly agreed that

skewed

certainly

is

and enabled many corporations

African

restructuring

RDP has clearly been neglected

But

The

the economy

fundamental restructuring

free

.

unskilled black labour thereby continuing the

from

and especially

These three forms

painful

enclave

,

further

detach themselves

sector

'

-

globally oriented

destruction

by

deep seated structural crisis

the

. This

trend

envisaged

. (

of

power

restructuring

this

the trend towards

government has created

the new the

‘fundamental

trade by

and

of

capitalist

first -world

and

encouraged

have

that

aggravated

oriented

of capital

liberalisation

the empowerment and

to

so

a

will not be

of the existing small

the continuation

is

in

globally

job

establishing

conditions

of ‘restructuring '

form

small number

a

numbers of small black business people and farmers

)

The third

to

unemployed

social transformation

Instead of promoting the further enrichment

elite , the government ought to give preference

black

and

it

.

achieved

of

DONE !

BE

to

AN

it

:

in

4

the

PART

deeply

with the socio

CAPITALISM

.

economic powerlessness and dispossession of the lumpenproletariat

to

in

it

boils down

reshape the

to

and myopic interests

.

the

the desired direction

most powerful economic players

African

-

certainly

from

fact become

in

the point

of

but has

unrestructured

more distorted and dysfunctional

of

fundamentally

The South African economy

',

remained



not only

past eight years

.

unimpeded over

the

wonder that the strong tendency towards capitalist enclavity has

continued

even

South

way that serves their sectional selfish

therefore

has

The

will ‘restructure ' the

,

a

and move

no

in

economy

run

cheque

blank

a

giving

the long

in

to

economy

of the idea that market forces

,

acceptance

is

VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC

It

SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC

A

the

view

.

impoverished majority

is

shift towards social democracy

paradigm

a

3

11 .

Why

the

de -

.

to

is

the its

If

13

,

to

of to

of ,

,

CE ).

of )

.

is

in

As



order

from the apartheid

of

the neo liberal and

-

acceptance

the

The

initiative

liberal capitalist

this ideology

,

of

the

-

.

British American world

the alleged virtues

be

,

South Africa

concessions wrung

the strategic the

to

a

by

new

longer

in

of

no

would

it

,

it

by

,

and that

to

ANC leaders

the

became apparent that the

Although the ANC leaders were late converts

.

approach

was challenged

sector and key international institutions took

of

in

convincing

in

globalised economic ideology prevalent domestic

BA

( the

One

the

financial support for

political power

the corporate sector was

corporate

a

( CE )

,

in

be

,

.

to

the ANC

It

.

to

's to

the

transfer

all

reject

make certain strategic concessions

the liberation movement

by

from

first prize

two decades

based

take political and economic control

core was obliged

least

attain

regime

say

the United States and Britain

the late 1980s

defeated militarily

:

at

to

the leadership

its

to

simultaneously

dominated

and

ANC

of of

on

.

its

When

apartheid regime could not

possible

period

solving

the Cold War ended unexpectedly

ideological

ended

world power

strategy

.

15

constellation change

Union

struggle suddenly

liberation

towards the social democratic

most momentous period

the

the ANC

of

,

and the Soviet

liberal capitalist

shift they would have

paradigm

governing

weltanschauung

social democratic ideology

years have perhaps been

the core leadership

1989

from

which the present policy approach

of

history

the

the

of

initiate such

the premises

The last

in

description

for

contribute meaningfully

can

of

for

ANC leaders were five

a

-

's

appendix

change

shift

most pressing problems over a

of

continental Europe

sac

the South African problem and

has

decisive paradigm

to

(

see

nature

British American world

the

African

South

the present cul

that problem

a

of

We are convinced that

ideology

of

thinking about

about possible solutions ideology

out

step

the

change

its

elite

indispensable

of

,

first to

A

necessary

they

439

,

is

it

for all

.

to

in

the

of

as if

.

of

CE

of

so

healing

embark

the influential a

be is –

and a

be

persuaded

to

period

on

the

a

approach

social democratic

and

symbiotic

: even

it

economy

,

effectively

if

the business world and may

be

.

powerful The South

the

or

are

economy

in

of

not suggest that the ANC has any real

issues

Hyslop

1999

:

economic

in

taking chances that would involve

(

.

Current signs capitalists

huge adult

change

approach

to

ANC government

its

difficult for

to

will

the

).

14

with

the

.

10

efficiently

.

it

an

CE

.

It

of -

'.

It

require

new government should

against the grain

antagonising

structural change

be

Although

it

-

1

confrontation 440

afraid

on

commitment

440

in

as

of

,

of

all

of

a

.

is

a

the

the

-

it

of

will

post apartheid

or do is

like

so

would

to

intervene

to

unable

do

will

to

state

that the

Freund claims correctly that

the status quo within

be

African

of

the

forces

years

right

will therefore

-

over the past

less

countries

liberal business sector with which the government has forged

relationship

even

are indeed

of

,

this would

and

social democratic approach

that

government could

new

route

merits

go

social democratic

of

.

.

If

the

an

reconstruction

version

Being

centre

quickly

The first prerequisite

become thoroughly convinced adapted

easily

to

liberal capitalist

in

campaign

left

or

from

something that cannot happen education

of

lost their normal meaning

of

have

a

To

change gear

whites

the ideological spectrum

revive the true meaning

to

necessary

and almost

that

Iron Curtain

the social democratic approach

of '

right

seems

capitalism

liberal

knowledge

little

have

unanimous and

such

behind

of

in

and

terms



the true nature

.

'

terms

is

-

Africans

South

judged

left

wing when

wall

Washington

countries Many South Africans

of

a

-

in

it

of

understanding

,

behind

living

indeed

this day

and core ANC leaders

both white and black elite circles that

the London

it

of

can

trapped

Britain

sector has succeeded

This ideology enjoys

liberal capitalism

the South African population call

corporate

Afrikaner controlled corporations

support

widespread

controlled

.

alleged virtues

colonial extension

-

convincing

years the English

of

the

20

Over the past

neo

distributed

the powerful English

1910

in

Africa was decolonised

South

oriented business sector remains

or

unequally

-

Although

We

Africa

South

as

and opportunities are

not

.

they

part

may

countries

are

,

which economic power property as

first world

dualistic and developing country such

a

appropriate for

in it

this ideological approach

rub Whatever the merits

and powerful

developed

they believed

of

's

.

But there

highly

DONE ?

BE

TO

if

over the past eight years as

-

along

this approach

to

WHAT ' S

:

.

have clung

TRANSFORMATION

be ,

INCOMPLETE

AN

4:

the

PART

SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC

economic policy and economic systems,

.

, to

the

,

.

to

to

.

the

on

social

This would imply

countries

of :

.

CE

to

,

be

replace

a

the

of

-

end the

the word

sense

to

in

,

to the

in

social democracy

human beings and their relationship

;

with society

well

-

a

;

of

social justice

-

;

the post apartheid economy

civil

developed

restoring

society

social democratic

a

bureaucracy

in

the relevance

its

the role the state and

of

iii

sound social relations and the importance

iv

ii i

and

vision

new

with

liberalism

-

neo

capitalism

find

but also

truly developmental policy based

of

ideology

socio economic

not

only

population

towards ending systemic exclusion would the

first

Africa

South step

of

A

democratise

and luxury

highest priority

economic development

the poorest half

of

exclusion

on

a

new ideological approach

the government

's

ought

were

extravagant wealth

be

it

elite also live to

black

exploited and live under such appalling

who

of

,

so

a

the new

indeed unacceptable

ugly remnants

whites remains largely intact and when

time when the wealth

Against this background systemic

black people

long should still be doomed

a

members

of at

humiliated for conditions

of

large percentage

a

that such

of

and end poverty and destitution

,

racial capitalism

deracialise the economy, get

to

rid

order

in

is

transformation

of

complemented by an equally momentous socio -economic

urgently

in

be

should



poverty . The momentous political transformation

relieve

– to

CAPITALISM

something meaningful

must do

it

It

drastic

even

OF DEMOCRATIC

VERSION

of

A

and

all

by of

,

of is

the

we take

into

population

)

is

and

the

of

But

per cent

of

they have

legally

if

state

is

.

)

',

its

(

.

17

rights

the poorest half

these social rights #

must take

available resources

social

whether the

households

state

to

of

.

,

far

these

not

and social rights

that the

as

of

,

is

It

to

realise

per cent

of

20

obliged

debatable

within as

each

(

and

.

is

other measures

This

but unfortunately

economic

prescribes

the necessary degree

concerned the

account that

to

progressive realisation

.

achieve

the constitution

rights

of

second generation

legislative

top

,

of

-

human

reasonable

constitutionally

the new constitution the human rights

generation

Although

population

political

the

formally acknowledged and protected

concerned

not been realised

Following

apartheid

and

as a

first far

necessarily true

adoption

are now

of

especially true

racism

of

South African

the

South Africans

its

of

the

,

and

as

every

.

)

the

of

dignity and humanity

the white minority during transformation

social welfare

the

is

80

than

defines

unfortunate position that the dignity and humanity per cent population were not sufficiently acknowledged in

A

.3 .1 more

vision

new

South Africa

( or

what constitutes

11

V

;

system

441

TRANSFORMATION : WHAT ' S

of the national income ,

receive more than 70 per cent

cent ofhouseholds ( #50 per cent of income , there

wealthy part

then

as

the centrepiece

of

-

of

freedom

in

be

,

will

continuously

are

therefore seek

to

will

programme we were inspired

,

of

freedoms

be

.

from

These

They

want

ignorance

by

.

fear

from

,

freedom

freedom

will

of

-

a

people centred

of

to

,

of )

the

to

of

' the s

to

us on

not

each

political

only

what this government

which our attention

the

[

individual must

human dignity

create

dignity

human

of

.

,

of

to

from

the

speak

the goals

deprivation

and freedom

RDP

of

of

it

.. .

the

by

.. .

,

.. .

pursuit

the centrepiece

When we elaborated

we

commitment

from

the guarantee

achieve the focal point

4

freedom

suppression

constitute part

restore

This requires that

government

hunger

from

fundamental

42

the freedom

fundamental objective

liberty binds

from

the in

a

to

is

social order freedom

guarantees the political liberties and the human rights

Our definition

My

of

freedom

an

is

the

the new

of

the

help establish

individual will truly mean the

.

a

all

of

freedom

representative

the new

of

poor and destitute would

South African

freedoms society

it

,

speech

be

the

of

freedom

our citizens

and every

.

.

of

,

first

social policy

manner that

instructed

will

entrenched rights which

individual We must construct that people centred society such

If

.

-

to

during

of

the

on

social rights

single most important challenge

which

and unconstrained

the ANC and the corporate sector

interpret

the

:

's

government

social rights

president Nelson Mandela declared that the restoration

,

dignity

constitutionality

realise

to

is

1994

Constitutional Court

the

in

parliament

obliged

,

24

On

May

Our

a

brave enough

the government

human

is

compromises agreed

this

.

hopefully

rests

elevated above party politics

truly

his

the elite

large about

be

by

Constitutional Court

the

at

educate the public

huge responsibility

by

a

,

case

have

democratic

the new

modern and people centred constitution

to

the

indeed

to

claim

of

.

,

We

.

system

restoring social

from

of

and can endanger the stability and viability

justice

This

is

-

the government

the poor

will not readily

for poverty alleviation

resources

prevents

to

prepared

to

,

its

-

It

of

.

a

to

greater mobilisation

affairs

and especially

of

,

Unfortunately the population

of

.1 ).

ought

they

amid contagious

If

and violence

,

and

the

communities

mobilise more resources for restoring the dignity and humanity agree

the

humanity

be

disrupted

dignity

to

,

diseases and amid criminality

unsavoury state

cent of

2

;

.2

(

figure

,

abject poverty

in

table

really concerned about in

South Africans

living

those

made available

can

are

If

,

or

available

,

than 3 5 per

can be no doubt that the necessary resources

be

national

and the poorest 40 per

population ) less

the

DONE ?

BE

TO

are

INCOMPLETE

AN

2

4:

see

PART

focused

the hope

).

's

,

?

order

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to to on



's

are

in

in

and on

respect

and

is

better South Africa

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their fellow

view

.

racial

conferences are urgently needed

in

in

racism

Durban

related

intolerances held

,

conference against

to

kinds

,



and

every

.

themselves

of

black and white elites

is

these

Africans

white South African any residual racial class and group prejudices

rid

the

the

Or

?

the

confront those who still covertly harbour racist convictions important that

of

are

: influence

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.



building

and especially

of

,

,

if

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,

/

herself

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positively

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sine qua non

xenophobia

September 2001

hearts

).

which

were sceptical about the world

discrimination

our minds

about tolerance

of

him

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in

the

in

way

important that every South African should cleanse

open

social

,

, . in

(

therefore

a

compatriots

will

Durban

Mission 2001

NGO Forum

fundamental change is

A

appreciation

live

in

communities

This

fellow

This transformation within ourselves

to

the first and vital step we

is

through education and consciousness

can

attitudes

,

only

not

follows

Changes

us

happen

for

will

transformation

Africa

South

held

racism

of

.

our minds and hearts

we

in

exists

based

the humanity

on

conference

the

the attitudinal changes required

2001 described

Racism

forum

view

and the

Africans

South

a

The NGO

their

. if

.

compatriots

change

of

drastically

to

prepared

progress

as

.

We cannot make

ultimately

embedded

to

unfortunate history

at

or

class prejudices that are deeply

/

racial and

acknowledge the

This indifference towards the poor

their dignity and humanity

of

continuing violation

both the white

.

,

.

of

poverty

the poor those

civilised society

and black elites towards the poor and their unwillingness

structural nature

are prepared

to

provide

are both the

of

to

Africans

the unsympathetic attitude

discussed

from

Whoever

?

to

be

-

all ,

for

life

create

and

blamed

in

we

its

is

it

be

people centred society

to

.1 .1

3

section

to

basic social rights needed

a

15

to

a

to

create

a

is

,

it

severe resistance

encountered

predominantly white corporate sector

better

a

to

provide

better

Has the government lost

blamed

really disconcerting that not enough South

work together

provide

president Thabo Mbeki

despite

and those with large vested interests

government

In

or

,

and

releasing the funds needed

has

is

goal

the

.

Who

mainly white taxpayers

culprit

3

people centred society

this noble

to

commitment

together

join

CAPITALISM

that the ANC government has failed

-

a

to

create

the contrary

to

claim

:

eight years later

The harsh reality dismally

1994b



all (

Mandela

goodwill could

of

all

South Africans

for

life

that

VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC

to

SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC

A

equally

their reductionist 443

,

in

on a

,

laying the foundation

a

.

them

recalcitrant towards the new

in

Mandela nonetheless succeeded

as

.

's

more

in

]

-

.. .

lt

.. .[

an

accommodating attitude towards even

these

history Unfortunately

for

's

South Africa

the

were

successful

.

stage

and became

,

weakness

the world

-

).

6



's

a

very sensitive

also the basis

effective role

presidency He was remarkably

Mandela

the

are

building

Nation

Nation building and reconciliation

in

of

:

(

1994

5

to

'

ANC

our country

apartheid

South Africa up

a

]

new

[

build

crisis

the

is

to

central

'

that

many whites regarded Mandela

of

is

.

a

which

to

on

is

.

-

,

single community

ensure that our country takes

government

the

.

is

do to

into

spheres during

sign

the majority

not have the cross cutting interests needed

massive divisions and inequalities left behind

hallmarks

rights

the human

century

still divided into seemingly irreconcilable groups These groups

The RDP acknowledges

economy

and after

After

of

plundering

society a

does not constitute

,

and violations

cement them

which

.

factors largely beyond their control

and group

not share the same values and

the basis

that the

.

is

's

conflict

group

systemic exploitation population

population

do

centuries

should acknowledge

and

sound social relations and social justice

Africa

South

of

,

Currently

the result

of

for

of

the poor

new vision

A

.3 .2

11

terrible plight

of

,

poor with empathy and compassion

Africans But what population the should regard

South

a

is

towards privileged part that the

in

the

above

and their class prejudices , and

responsibility

their patriotic all

accept

necessary

,

possessive individualism

DONE ?

BE

TO

of

, their

materialism

'S

TRANSFORMATION : WHAT

of all

INCOMPLETE

by

4 : AN

PART

new

.

population

the behaviour

,

,

. ).

, 5

:

vol

a

to

1998

investigate

to

racial capitalism

-

now have

be

-

society building

cheap and docile black labour

--

for

white employers

the

of of

see

of

,

the task

difficult Other opportunities

a

and

4 6

(

(

its

history

of

insatiable need

TRC

decision not

for educating whites about the devastating effects

social structures

444

mandate

large section

of

now far more

on

on

and

South Africa

and ignored

the laws that together constituted

this unforgivable

of

the

devised

were part

apartheid

of

and reconciliation

is

crucially important aspect

that not

make whites

narrowly

see section

. 's

Because

of of

racial capitalism

).

par

48

,

system 1

ch

of

The TRC explicitly decided

exploitation

all

systemic

final phase

mandate

of

the important dimension

of

interpreted

too

committed during

the atrocities

rights

human

investigation helped the

Although the TRC

's

1994

TRC was saddled

to

uncovering the truth about gross violations

commission unfortunately

the

the

,

of

facilitating reconciliation

its

aware

process

.

1960

of

from

to

with the task

a

part

of of

a

As

.

society

the black

SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC

A

It has become customary

VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC

refer

to

Africa as

to South

CAPITALISM

of two

country

a

one rich and white , and the other poor and black . Although there is still merit in focusing attention on racial divisions , the class division has

nations '



become more relevant because of the important distributive shifts that have is sharply divided between

. to

.

to

,

,

to



a

or



a

to

,

property and

,

,

would

preconditions

undeniable a

humane

for

of

as

,

income power

of

,

-

system

the

,

historical vacuum

a

to

accept

address poverty

the conditions under which the poorer

half

social democratic

becomes

far

programme

this

power that has

extended colonial history the argument

more comprehensive redistribution

in

we have done

in

But

of

still compelling

as

redistribution programme and for better

account the unequal racial distribution

's

to

is

the need

if,

a

in

live

government

the ANC

.

alleviation

South Africa

characterised

liberal capitalist

. to

have

more comprehensive

into

between the

gap

,

we take

we consider

is

funded poverty

face

human

,

of

.

to

redistribution

society building

if

.

for

a

the population

and

important

social democratic approach

and interventionist approach

and inequality Even

power

for deepening our

bridge the

economic growth and the maintenance

social democratic

has

sharp contrast

In

is

's

to

problems a

a

will

growth

The strongest argument for compelling

argument

all

is

It

of

income

an

its

in

own

credibility

a

, :

To

. in to

,

and

for

enjoy

not only wishful thinking but puts the cart before

Africa

democratic capitalism

,

right that ought

the social preconditions

rather dangerous way

South

sustainable

a

,

,

,

is a

value

for giving

certainly give preference

of

South Africa

base

such sharp

property and opportunities

income power

that economic

think

opportunities

of

not possible on

prosperous

more equal distribution

create

and

upper and lower classes approach

This

,

,

.

But

a

of

greater social justice

nascent democracy

book

and destitution

between the upper and lower classes also

horse

class

income power property and opportunities more equally

instrumental value

the

and

, of

in

the distribution

very high priority

capitalism

of

.

capitalism

democratic

property

the upper

destabilise South African society

to

a

the sake

deprivation

opportunities



system

Distributing

. ; figure

2 2

which has deepened even further over the past eight years

of



has the potential

a

deep class division

kinds

of the

to

while the lower class experiences

the hands

in

concentrated

all

-

and socio economic power

almost

and

of

physical and human -



because

class of about one third

mainly black lower class of about two thirds ( table

and a

. 1) . Almost all property

inequalities

' two -nation ' country

is a

- racial upper

non

a

population ,

a

are

it

2

years . South Africa

30

,

over the past

occurred

favour

more

plea

retributive justice

.

not

for

justice

a

restitutive

is

plea

for

A

.

convincing

The latter

445

in

of

blacks

very unfortunate one

people should ensure that our interdependent

,

future

one

as

We

of ,



and the same destiny

.

,

share the same future

is

But we

two sides

a

The link between white wealth and black poverty was

still are

and

a

the same structural coin

and poverty were

Wealth



of

poverty

. . .

linked

of

long colonial history the wealth

the predominantly white group was structurally

is

It

of

.

well

the economic the

's

Africans in

of

-

each

South

the different groups to

of

other groups During South Africa

.

being

expect

can

inextricably linked



-

is

of

society

and always has been

blacks

accept the notion prevalent

But we

acknowledge that the economic well being

– help to restore

humanity

and

South Africans

organic whole

an

is

to CE

countries that society

dignity

of

social structures and

perhaps expecting too much

will

- and probably

can

DONE ?

BE

TO

to

the disrupted

the former

to

, while

destructive

'S

TRANSFORMATION : WHAT

.

will be

INCOMPLETE

the

4 : AN

PART

democratic

social justice and

post apartheid

South

-

play

in

has

role the state

to

the

of

vision

new

A

.3 .3

11

.

mutual respect

Africa

be

to

).

in

-

in

lead

to

will

combination

by

sustainable

in

which the role and which

'

'

and

and reorganising the



entrusted

free market mechanisms

'

has been

apartheid

Given the serious

'.

economy

the legacy

of

the enormous task

of '

the democratic state has been severely restricted

solving

implementing

in

democratic capitalism

in

the junior partner

,

it

-

opt

as

it

a

,

,

.

co

to

of

liberal capitalist version

sovereignty

faulted

to

by

powerful corporate sector

of

a

the

the leading and

achieved through

huge The government however made not assuming the role the RDP envisaged for and instead allowing

This statement cannot

mistake

period

,

,

:

'(

a

civil society which 1994

the post apartheid

).

ANC

will

provide adequate solutions

thriving private sector and active involvement

be

growth

of

of

all

sectors

the state

Africa

South

and development

Reconstruction enabling role

a



confronting

(

problems

can

9

the

unfettered free market system

commandist central planning

-

nor

system

quite categorically that neither

stated

78

RDP

an

The

4

46

any democratic

100

, a

to

the

so

to

exclusively

powerful domestic and global years

country with

,

be

realise that the economic

entrusted

the

implement

predatory labour patterns have

a

it

.

past eight years

longer

economy and

has been over the past

as

corporations

after

to

free market

no

South Africans can

In

called

strategy

has become crucially important

of

destiny

it

,

been abolished

government and corporate sector

as

successful accumulation

South African capitalism

to

the

the

inability

all

of

and

the

that have become the outstanding characteristics

of

,

,

market failures power and income inequalities and informational deficiencies

and

particularly over the

social democratic orientation

the

'

'

as

are

its

a

.

,

the

-

do do

BA

,

.

,

.

of

).

liberal capitalist

of

of

;

system

democratic

a

As originally

the

part

of

of

the new

BA

,

,

is

are

;

12

9

'

in

'

state

believers

power between

that the balance in

.

:

'

a

as

.

as to

of



'



as

to

(

is

typical

society

appendix

1980

the

African corporate sector was always very colonial state and always spoilt with sorts free

'

of

16



,

all

,

the

country with

a

a

,

society but also

'

' a

is

stateless

weak

,

up

-

to

build

.

government

The affirmative action programme

There are

to

,

the bureaucratic

poor black education

all

the new

under apartheid

and professional

the

pool

training for

many positions

,

.

at

the bureaucracy

-

of

to

efficiency

the public sector was too small Consequently

the higher echelons

those

senior officials who could have

black people with the necessary education

appointment

was

three administrative levels

-

of

a

result

racist white bureaucrats

of

.

,

government But

as

valuable contribution

and

, of

included many less verkrampte

of

retrenched

verkrampte

their

replace white

.

rid

to

get

necessary

and

the conspicuous lack

it

in

,

of

of

did

three levels

assured

with blacks was perhaps driven too vigorously Although

bureaucrats

a

not help

lies

state

self

overly

to

.

several reasons for this

The fact that they had

.

,

,

the bureaucracy

the new

all

in

capacity

But the real weakness at

-

.

self esteem

corporate sector

of

dogmatic managerial elite

capable

the

of

,

in

in

the shadow

the powerful

started

to

,

.

several years before government leaders

took

their own autonomy legitimacy and authority

operate

to

Dyson

the

the South

not only

It

.

believe

in

sceptical

From the outset the new government was hesitant and lacked confidence

and experience

made

France and

.

'

South Africa

of

stateless

democratic

inherently

.

is

relation

market favours

state

and both

These countries are dogmatic

significantly tilted towards the former

colonial world in

strong

and

to

British

societies that

stateless society

also

capitalist sector capitalism

currently

countries

efficient professional and service and loyalty By contrast the

Harrop 1992

a “

.

It

countries

is

Africa

their bureaucracies

lead society

see

in

a in

'

free marketeerism

dogmatically

servants which

stateless

the

's

in

right and ability

South

of

a

countries are regarded state

civil

strong culture

a

imbued with

corps

crucially important These countries

the market

They allocate great responsibility

Germany possess

the

sense that they regard state building and the

the state

invisible hand

not trust

would

state

several other European

France and

as



to

the “

bureaucratic capacity

democratic

the total population

societies

of



'

state

outcome

more balanced and more moral outcome for

Harrop and Dyson

to

countries are

CAPITALISM

more interventionist and dirigiste role

ensure

socialwelfare

According

South Africa

of

of

in

an

attempt

the

the sake

play

to

have decided long ago

economy

'

unequal

as

and

of

unsatisfactory

capitalist sector and

of

,

'performance

which the

in

VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC

far as the in

SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC

A

447

448

,

of

. is an

is

the –

1 , .4,

in

of

In

.

of a

In

in

.

be



its

.

-

not

true its

,

or

is

citizens

a

of

the public sector

as

the

is

'.

a

on

to

it

as



'

of

on to

of

the social

the

,

more

take strong steps in

to

to

some

that are rife a

,

it

ought

spend much

political

,

of its

:

). a

is

,

in to

.

the

by

of

in to

as

is

[ it ]

,

(

by

this

the

malignant growth that

can

sector

justify corruption

the government embarked

a

the public

used

on

the private sector are often

to

-

,

Unfortunately the widespread white collar corruption and

If

the

These phenomena

.

in

ought

and careerism

.

careerism

country

in

careerism

.

,

public and private sectors destroy

the same time

corruption

not restructure

east Asian countries have shown

the bureaucracies

At

CE

,

the

nepotism

.

,

assisted

democratic

countries

south

state led

great tragedy that the new

capacity

.

built

in

can

therefore

Luiz

own limitations

responsibilities towards

The government

training public servants root out



It

.

onwards Numerous be

that state capacity

social democratic

decided that

Whether

264

sector

state policy

state could

are

1994

not identify building

the

priority

lacks capacity

.

it

government

did

merely because

embark

seemingly

1998

from

rent

greater

the bureaucratic

truly developmental

a

to

,

state cannot shrink

the democratic

can easily

capacity

and that since

economy the market would have

such

crony capitalism

new government became aware

development was inappropriate

from

lack

RDP experience

state

the disadvantages

of

the

the

of

result

sectors

powerful and persuasive

'

the

of

,

observes that when

sector

entrusting certain

decide between

impede any government effort

and start implementing

approach

a

the state and

and

danger that both private and public

crony capitalism

of

Africa the disadvantages

will seriously

as

sector

section

private and public

and the disadvantages

situation where the corporate

The weakness

the

of

.

bureaucratic inefficiency

favour

state

misuse these partnerships for

to

strongly inclined

are often

democratic

the corporate

of

.

'

be

aware

seeking The government will then have

South

be

.





to

smart partnerships between

the government must

partners

argument

not

very different

are

The efficiency the

be

an

used

respected

root

corporate sector

indicated

of

as

,

,

functions cases

be

these differences should

however

As

the state and capitalist sectors

'



logic and functions

can

done

the market

to

that

especially alleviating poverty

purge the

the public sector But this

capacity

ought

can take

the new

nepotism

of

argument for leaving things

the

,



service

the

culture

of

that

extremely difficult

of

will

indulging

productive

to

the

stronger than

experience be

did

service needed

The organisational and bureaucratic capacity incomparably

have

to

, or

.

incompetence

be

bureaucracy

careerism

a

and

culture

not

like their white predecessors



are

corruption

,

appointees

of

.

servants

who

DONE ?

BE

TO

complicate matters further many

To

loyal civil

and

commitment

,

professionalism

people

black

of

with

filled

It

were

: WHAT 'S

TRANSFORMATION

of

: AN INCOMPLETE

4

so

PART

and truly

the poorer half

questionable

the

.

growth and job

performance

The growth

if

,

is

is

constituency

a

,

the

to

up

live

in

mandated

will

inexperienced

to

without the

that even

unlikely that

would generate

that

the other hand

by

,

and

in

and seemingly

the RDP

, it it,

,

state

.

'

-

goals spelled out

capacity

more unlikely

is

,

even

growth

economic

its

attain

down effect The democratic the necessary

is

higher

really disconcerting

on

on

But what

.

all

this would create employment and

'

and cannot solve

the

the capitalist enclave could

without

one

the

enclave over the past eight years has been disappointing despite

are

privileges conferred

trickle

On

.

the population because

it .

capitalist

highly

security

of

creating abilities

dilemma

awkward

dysfunctional

clearly

its

of

problems

with

is

capitalist enclave

spend much more on

to

of

the

,

hand

indeed confronted

is

Africa

South

have

CAPITALISM

root out corruption

to

judicial systems needed

and

the

it would

an

state policy ,

developmental

VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC

the

SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC

A

two general

think

that

contagious disease

and

from

Given the

.

, ‘

violent criminality

the

the perspective

capitalist

poverty

unemployment

system

strong tendency

,

rescue the lumpenproletariat

ever

to

not only hortatory but also absurd



will

enclave

from

the South African economic situation

's ,

at is

,

poor

it

the

Looking

of

.

elections

-

,

5

3

. -

,

to

of

-

social

apartheid

and

become more sensitive

the public and

will

the predicament has

to

colonialism

devastated

non market



the

A

changing

of

seek

clear understanding

.

centuries

the corporate

it

huge responsibility

the

the capitalist

of

attempts to

-

despite

control

in

elite

the dysfunctionality

by of

political all

,

of if

its

the

also

South

a

social democratic system

Africa

's

great concern

civil society

in

of

the

role

is

Another matter

of

new vision

of

-

.

the post apartheid period

A

in

.3 .4

11

per

,

less than

the poor and more assertive about the huge socio economic role

play

to

.



for

too small



power

‘ in

.

after

hopefully prompt the government

to

economic landscape

the corporate sector

of

profitable

simply militates

lacks the capacity and seemingly

poverty and unemployment

undeniable responsibility

of

be Its



awakened

for

to

convinced

slumber



's

sector

But

to

prolong

solutions

the poor

hopefully its

,

it

to

sector

can

can

systemic orientation

the informal sector

the other hand



,

'

'

to

the

rescue

democratic state enclave

spending

and mainly spent

The state sector

will

It

'

,

GDP

neither the inclination

the marginalised majority because the latter

and their

be

of

unproductive

poor

will never

and the servant

on

too

cent

the champion

poor

be

are be

'

against serving

rescue

.

nor the motivation

narrowly defined efficiency the

despite





has

the to

system

its

-

,

towards Anglo Americanisation and capitalist enclavity the market oriented

poorly developed

civil 449

PART

4

TRANSFORMATION : WHAT 'S

: AN INCOMPLETE

society . During the liberation struggle

of the

form

. According

MDM

of South African civil

heyday

broadly

gathered

of.. .a

flowering

very strong civil society emerged in the

a

,

Marais

to

of the

under the canopy

perhaps the

variety and sweep of initiatives

anti - apartheid

activities, linked

of autonomous

‘represented

the 1980s

.. . The

society

DONE ?

BE

TO

struggle

laterally

, offered

not

and

,

hints

subjugated

hierarchical ideological and strategic conformity ' (2001 : 62 ). Mike Morris

to

claimed

of the population

1991 that “ the mass

in

had recently

embarked

on the

process of spontaneously gaining an angry consciousness of their potential

especially among the poor This was because

the

in

.

of

The poorer part

granted that the new government would automatically

civil its

.

1994

.

in

.



of .

organised

-

social democratic tradition

civil

society

state

South

on a

affairs

Africa

.

distressing

period was

it

a

is

this

umbilical cord

the struggle

of

of

’.

,

view

civil

, of

reactivate

a

nurture

a

to

If

we want

necessary

social democratic point to

.

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enter

spokespersons stated

this way

government and the civil society

of

the new a

between

-



repeatedly that the strategy was non negotiable

to

government

the

government

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announced

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in

society

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.

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GEAR was

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,

.

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's

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450

foreign

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society

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government

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restoring social justice

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and legitimate

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a

-

find

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building and

society

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,

focus and was unable

The paralysis

.

was that the broader

problem



to

the newly democratic

to

main

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serious financial problems partly because

,

lost

its

donors diverted funds the

its

,

organisations encountered

sector

problems that were aggravated

and leadership

administrative

defining

occupy senior positions

corporate

the

and

strategic role

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leaders

the bureaucracy

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government

But

ought

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society was

playing

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general

what the

is of or

government

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,

of

agent and did not realise that any civil society has the continuing function

that includes the poorer half

the is

of

regime

the apartheid

1990s

they had lost their

.

society took

for

it :

central focus the abolition

a

collapsed after

be

organisations

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,

,

election

MDM

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strategic role

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played

society

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preparing the way

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organised

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1991 : 49) . The predominantly black organs

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the

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power

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it

to

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,

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,

special responsibility

society organisations among the poorer half

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the fight

in

with their organisational and professional skills

them

ought

the population

.

in

civil

black

and

the

society by to

white

and

empowering the poor Given the misdeeds committed

whites during apartheid mobilise civil

broadened

and the inadequacy

organisations among the most prosperous sections take the initiative

really

of

, ,

programmes

,

upliftment

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.

of

the poverty

occurring mainly

programmes Given

poverty

, 's

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signs

and does

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,

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.

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AIDS activism

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.

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CAPITALISM

social policy Whether the new elite

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critical functioning Only then

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capacity

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VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC

SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC

A

are

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development

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it

head

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confuse means

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not becoming

new

golden

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growth

of

with ends

rate

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per cent

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strong

equate economic

welfare are

also the ultimate criterion

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increasing

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and

Elliot warns against this of

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over the next eight years

power property

a

during the

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even

to

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,

452

economic growth

achieved

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Germany

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government has placed

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make

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1999

time

2002

reductionist materialism

growth rate can

children

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downplaying

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173 countries

15

135 countries

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107th position

panacea for South Africa

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sub

Sahara

Africa was ranked much lower and Cling 2001 2002 (

110th

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sceptical

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position

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impression that

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out

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both South Africa and sub

income indicators

),

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comprises

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take into account the scope

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position

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in

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The United Nations Development Programme UNDP has developed

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income

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in

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human development index

Africa

of

.

.'

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inequality

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's

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Africa

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population 42

$ 3

Africa

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These averages mean little when

Saharan Africa

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,

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160

its

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that

Africa While

.

's

GDP per capita was

wealthiest countries

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and

).

:

Africa

per cent

34

1966

which growth occurs

not

quality

and with the growing

in

,

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in

Henderson South

growth

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the conditions

,

production

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growth

economic

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without sufficiently looking the content composition the kind things we should wish at

justified

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regarded

do

emphasis usually put

its

339

?

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is

becoming increasingly

Munby 1966

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infectious

on

Paul Streeten claims that

exerts

:

(

in

activity

economic

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end

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danger that economic growth

head

TO

of

growth of income

.. .

of

that the rate a

TRANSFORMATION : WHAT ' S

INCOMPLETE

AN

40 ).

:

-

4

per

PART

different

is

liberal policies this

neo

government

the

highly likely

will persist

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the

that

,

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dogmatically with

possibility

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CAPITALISM

as

, and

society

in

-

classes

VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC

.

SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC

A

long

is

,

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)

]

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we

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we argue below

vis

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sector should decide collectively

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,

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à

vis -

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the government But

South

the long run

how this output should

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.

by

the

as

process and through

the capitalist sector should

possible

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dysfunctional market ought

the

-

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too strong and too influential

distribute

should

does not apply

social democratic and humane

most important needs

it

it

,

to

the

'

full glare

large

,

;

and

the society

efficiently

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resources

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on

as is

capitalism

on

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the social welfare

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's

are

entrusted

much

that any country has

exclusively entrusted

market knows better

taken collectively through the democratic

of

our

cannot

United States

and how

needs These decisions cannot

The slogan that

's

not

sure that

satisfy

compensate

argument

public discourse about what our national interest

the

will

the

South Africa

be

of

such

Stein and Denison

Africa Many decisions currently

danger

of [

,

as

a

is

such

.

output among

rich country

most important needs

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decide what

provided

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our resources

to

our resources always

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society

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output

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use

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level

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in

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our national product

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growth

developing country

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for

more valid

growth

Stein

53 ).

:

If

this statement

. .

are

.. .

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critical needs

expect the abundance

market

economists

growth would

rate

the most important uses

economic

we [

)

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output

rate

higher

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less

our

of

the contribution

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1969

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. growth depends critically upon

economic

)

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wisely

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be

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well we allocate our output among our needs

satisfaction

to

of

warning

:

importance

how is

heart

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the

,

and Denison

to

We should take

large

the

the population

)

will benefit

growth

at

-

it

of

an

government remains ideological proselyte the corporate sector unlikely that will create socio economic conditions which economic

most important

.

needs are

453

are

human beings notions about the relationships between individuals

;

,

government and what

,

large

as is

defines the

and can

These decisions

responsible for affordable

and

.

to

in

difficult

painful and

in

particularly

,

trade offs

confronted with the need are

These

are

states

.

trade offs

democratic

-

all

,

time

developing and divided societies They are also invariably 454

's

alleviation

.

of

'

at

to

by

' of

society

interest

promises about

vague

the free market

the democratically elected

-

-

zero

to

time

sum

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make

wisdom

in

what constitutes

is

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society

't.

what

the alleged

the interests

and many

isn

deciding what

in

taken

is

be

can only

a

,

based

not

relationships between economic growth and poverty certainly not be left

,

in

.

decisions

,

a

situation

and what

is

aboutwhat on

be

some employed

and many inclined towards criminality and

on

,

-

law

.

In



social welfare cannot

,

and uneducated

,

,

abiding

then the decision

some rich and others desperately

or

,

some

such

groups

hopelessly powerless some highly developed

and others

unemployed

difficult

society

,

variety

others undeveloped

extremely

and

divided and conflicting history and when society

and educated

violence

modern

When

and

society

ours when the different groups and socio

of

'a

poor some powerful

a

divided between such

implies

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share

the

,

classes

'

economic

ethnic

is

multi

-

and

multicultural

opportunities

such

as

of

;

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the different groups

allocated between

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notions about



the

a

production process should

and how

used

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should

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how

it

wealth

,

material

and strengthen

,

maintain

and social values our society wishes

,

;

notions about the cultural educational

to

a

healthy society

to

and society

;

and what constitutes

in

'

what determines

this

dignity and humanity

is

notion

stage

delicate

crucially important

are

what

of

our

are

Africa

South

what defines

country

two world

Considerations that

of

.

the transitional process

discourse

a

our social welfare

discourse

new a

-

define

At present about

place since 1994

social democratic approach

and

due to the

systemically neglected owing

-

a

evaluation

new

of

to

ought

plea for

in

for

plea

a

In

the last resort

exploited

at that time.

system

the politico economic system a

dysfunctionality

a

black population

of

fifths of

three

, of

the

dysfunctionality of the politico -economic

, about three

the

was systemically

the

is

population

the black

the apartheid period

on

a

.

of

quarters

. During

social welfare

and our

reflect

to

or

general interest

open discourse that allowed us

an

not have

did

or

democratic process and

it

. But at that time we

Africa

South

This , of course, was also the

.

using

are

in

apartheid

in

nation

a

a

as

is

is not the size of

problem

at

problem

we

how

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affairs . It

state of

'

our GDP , but

is an unsavoury

DONE ?

BE

TO

is

'

quite possible that South Africa s real socio

WHAT ' S

, of

of view , this

social welfare point

a

:

in

From

TRANSFORMATION



AN INCOMPLETE

on

4:

the

PART

our

SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC

A

case exceptionally

OF DEMOCRATIC

VERSION

– especially when they involve the interests

so

powerful and spoilt bourgeois elite

one hand , and those

on the

lumpenproletariat on the other . But

cannot shy away from

.

them

the

and neglected

CAPITALISM

of

the

of the powerless

democratic government

a

-

are based

will

if

which know

be possible

value judgements

whether they are made

hidden and sectional power groups such

under pressure from

terms

the

of

,

social values

the

then

it

only

helpful

as

whether the trade offs

because on

-

,

these trade offs are made

rights

or

democratic state were always explicit about

however

in

,

would

be

),

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the few

.

property rights

of

the

all

and

of

social

and between the

to

between social justice and economic growth

the



-

( or

a



,

ie

The government will have to make desired desired from social perspective democratic trade offs between equality and efficiency

corporate

and the people

old

,

this

desperately

so

.

be

to

debate

enough

and the new

South Africa

white

on let

both

old

-

that the intellectual elites

Sadly

the level which we the

' at



Africa

not nearly

ought

endlessly

-

in

the

on is a

It

.

'

of

new South

government

which the

the

new

discourse

in

down

values that define our social

of

the

.

it

need Can

discourse

black intellectual elite should

new

not taking place be

is

discourse

the

intellectual elite and the what the soul

the

,

ours

extremely vigorous

be

to

welfare ought

a

society such

a

In

.

sector

have

discourse

?

values

of ,

a

.4

is

11

Why another power shift necessary this time towards social democratic system democratic

the

all

paradigm

,

but insufficient

,

a

is

necessary

a

forces against

the previous section we argued that

social democratic ideology

in

and empower the government and

effective countervailing

as

.

system

system

order

,

democratic

act

of

the

,

.

crisis The most important challenge facing South

In

to

South African version

step

its

effective policy

structural power shift

with the corporate

sector and

to

an

government and

its

or

implementing

comprehensive relationship

the

of ,

incapable

because

the

sine qua non for this urgently needed socio economic

-

global partners

a

the government

is

empower

lines

.

agenda along those

meaningless

A

bureaucracy would still

shift without the necessary empowerment

its

state would

in

democratic

be be

ideological paradigm

of

.

right direction

An

in

shift towards

a

powerful capitalist

1994

bring about yet another structural power shift

our embryonic

the bureaucracy

the

is

at

deepen

this stage

to

to

Africa

is

capitalism

democratic

in

Eight years after the political transition

of

capitalism

455

prescribing

in

rules

of

the

DONE ?

the hands

to

The government now needs

power

concentration

BE

TO

of



new South Africa

in

this excessive

sector has succeeded

'.

game

economic

suspend

The corporate

of

.

transformation the

TRANSFORMATION : WHAT 'S

: AN INCOMPLETE

the

4

in

PART

the corporate

.

sector

the democratic

to

structural power

or

equivalent transfer

the

to

political power

of

of

,

was not accompanied

the transfer

an

,

cases

economic

state

:

majority

both

in

,

that

by

Africa arguing

ominous parallel between Zimbabwe and South

an

draws

Colin Stoneman

in

monopoly

,

to

, of .

of

,

(

in

,

too

(

too the as

a

, of

,

with

the corporate sector

),

of

sophisticated

and

too

,

)

,

,

an

,

-

stability and legitimacy

.

,

transformation

of

term

-

cannot guarantee the long

socio economic

the past 350 years

South

Africa

's

,

,

sorely needed

the

of

neglect and maladministration

exploitation

cannot bring about

African elite democracy cum first world cannot rectify the repression social

system

This

.

,

system

is

-

enclavity

destruction

It

compared

and too dominant

Our politico economic

capitalist

too modern

controlled

constrained

itself when

the managerial elite

developed

too

system

too weak

too uncertain

liberal capitalist

.

,

globalised

strong

it

.

hesitant and

(

is

too

ANC

the

the capitalist part controlled which

system

of

too

causing

ever more repressive

The democratic part is

core

making

-

's

leadership

the black majority

constraints against redistribution

politico economic

new

by

the

underdeveloped

because the survival

hopes

emphasis

capitalism

democratic

,

by

version

Africa

South

of

We describe

author

's

1998

government

, of

Simon

new

and that white

).

the

: 91 ;

disillusion with

range

a

and the imposition

experience

closing

of

white economic power meant

and

of the

's

Zimbabwe

relevance

power

political power largely intact

of

of

the

lies

economic interests should survive the loss Herein

of

a

that blacks did not gain

the

ensuring

have been immediately redirected

of



most international pressure seems

to

in



(p

]

to

of

When the whites indicated willingness surrender their monopoly olitical power from 1979 Zimbabwe and from 1990 South Africa

and

new

4 5 6

together with the SACP

the

of

of

are

century

late 19th century

,

the

of

20th

deeply

the British parliament

the second half

for

and

the ANC

of

).

10

.

8

see

section

the 20th

hoped that the Soviet Union would

)

century the ANC

blacks

(

of

salvation

(





'

looked towards the imperial mother country the

the

in

the missionary tradition to

trained

ranks

During the first half

In

leaders

history

in

many ANC

's

this organisation

confidence

.

and lack

,

rooted

in

The hesitation

of

.

democracy

.3 ).

Since the early 1990s core ANC

's

a

,

to

,

is ,

.

's

its

in

too

of , is

-

,

4

(

;

to

shift

the

,

10 6

per cent total income enable

see table

democratic

to

appropriately

patriotism

to

of

.

change

sincerity

and

would

a

be

be

an

lack

made

a

orchestrate

, ,

sector

attempt

of

the corporate

such

the

Whether the

,

strong enough

goals by

's

promised

.

it

proposed

to

are

to

Should

a

.

at

policy approach

should the government decide

's

its

uncertain

their disposal

African economy into

globally

oriented

of

that the trend towards turning the modern sector

the

first world capitalist enclave

-

quite possible

a

South

is

It

.

20

serious indictment

achieve what

global partners Africa

with

and would not achieve the government

.

'

ideological gear

such

defence because the policy approach

South

of

'

global crisis

is

for

corporate sector and

that

the

direction

corporate

it

, ,

hollow

defence may

to

,

policy

the

a

comprehensive

a

line

be

of

first

embark

all

in

a

)

oppose this change

on

.

,

start implementing

,

's

a

is

89

total

with

truly developmental state

impractical and costly

'

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a

to

,

.

and

per cent

the ANC government were

and

global partners will

trustworthiness

its

Its



.

to

the to

elite democracy

bring about the necessary redistribution

corporate sector has failed dismally



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organisational ideological and propaganda power

be

be

will

of -



,

approach

programme and its

(

,

expect that

The corporate sector would

unable and

additional job opportunities

power

if

to

,

is

It

and

and

and opportunities

reasonable

economic

and

power

create enough job

enough control over the capitalist enclave

social democratic

This

with only

needs another

gain

income property

redistribution

unable

the middle classes

from

economic resources

redirect

create

(

is

income

to

.2 ).

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government

population

alleviate poverty

doing too little

Africa

South

sector

sections

the lower classes

to

)

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all

to

,

;

enough

transfer

despite

dysfunctional because the African

it

unassertive

and

liberal capitalist version

the white controlled capitalist enclave

and unable

also

is

system

is

of

opportunities

Africa the

bonanza

dysfunctional because

serve

rescue

and natural resources

democratic capitalism

unwilling

to

to

own human

Africa

South

wait

, ,

Africa

come

serious systemic dilemma

privileged position

.2 ).

and wealthiest country

South

South Africa faces

4

)

,

to

most

developed

countries

however

inclinations

group

a

regard foreign

a

ANC should

and suspend

path

.

rely

section

see

mature

high growth

of

of (

as on

government aid

a

the

As

country

foreign

the or

crucially important for the ANC

its

and poverty

(

and relieve unemployment

on

strategy that will place the South Africa economy

only

the

as

American world

-

liberal British

neo

-

collaborative relationship with

CAPITALISM

the local corporate sector into accepting

the

pressurised

leaders have been

section

3

by see

apartheid (

liberate blacks from

for

VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC

SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC

A

457

it

policy

for

If

for

to

at

another

acknowledge the beginning

will

case

regain

is

sectors

,

is

this

the

corporate

government

elected

of

.

the

If

.

of

global apartheid

what Thabo

it

no

apartheid

from

the

Africa

South

prospects

the domestic and foreign

implement

to

needs

the web

we will have

Then

a

support

helpless captive

sovereignty

is

it

',

slim

.

very

of

the

become

a

only

to

global apartheid

highly unlikely that the democratically

political

entity

that South Africa was liberated

1990s with

the

regarded

longer possible

of

awful truth

of

the

dependent and powerless

referred

be

power shift must

DONE ?

BE

TO

global corporatism



Mbeki himself has

the grip

from

as

a

has indeed become

point where

in

disengage

to

government

to

of

proceeded

to

has already

'S

TRANSFORMATION : WHAT

the

INCOMPLETE

as

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the

social upliftment and

the corporate sector may

counter

are

policy will

stake when these

at

is

such

more

of

also

a

.

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eggs

'.

goose that lays the golden



could

redistribution policy with the argument that

comprehensive

neo

that the

the basis for increasing the

a

economy

the

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of

capacity

be

defence

oriented approach has provided

liberal and globally

kill the

of

line

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productive

of

.

poverty alleviation

kinds

458

of

-

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ill

.

'.

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.

may argue

. ,

4 2

the corporate

dubious ways

Africa But more

is

first elite that 50

that could only propose



of

into

consequence

almost

a

system

the It

entered

stone

.

cast

-

,

South

.

of

accepting agreements that

not

sector

to

in

power

can

-

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and that

,

are

a

-

'

,

.

a

to

is

'

to

an

are

section

The momentous

economic problems The agreement

-

socio

date

that the elite

sacrosanct

in



all

time

economic policy and South Africa

afford

unspecified future

.

.

1993

's

an

'

to

in

per cent solution

November

We can

acknowledge that these agreements

nine years since the ANC and the corporate compromise was

the urgency

bloody revolution

into

the people

the

dead

extraordinary

to

of

the

at

irrespective

their importance

to

.

in

an

is

its

)

the corporate sector ought

,

importantly

compromise

detail

-

interests

live

important argument but one that

.

used

from

opt hesitant ANC leaders

term

-

long

co

,

the

Africa

of

in

were not

be to

of

it

and the ANC

Aswe argued

challenged

or



coerce

,

convince

This

global partners

its

with

(

sector

be

.

they are therefore inviolable

But when we consider

sector may claim

,

concluded between

that these compromises saved South

and should

-

on

the

,

to

poverty the problem the long run wewill all

take

twist the trade off over

poor have

defence the corporate

third line

compromises

in

of ‘,

a

As

postponing the solution As Keynes observed

interests

inclined

all the more pressing

their predicament becomes

addressing

inclined

vested

under which

sector

in

.

to

short term

conditions

inhuman

The corporate

and therefore

-

favour

take place

the future its

in

time

view

of

myopic

ought

of

the majority

the

-

of

defensive arguments are raised the terms which the trade off between privileged minority and the long term interests the short term interests

of

-

,

global corporatism

sector and

to

system

decisions have

over the past eight

its

of

-

'

,

.

a

in

it

,

co

of

be

.

is

an

to

When

independent stand

should

further power shift not only

interaction with the domestic corporate

careful

sector

the

the corporate

from be

'

,

sector

does the

things

.

the proper affairs

the private

liberating itself it

the corporate

the many

for

it

its



:

accomplish

succeeds

proper corporate

The market



to

stated

of

in

terminated

the

empower

sector

but also

to

a

interference

,

government

its

Africa needs

take

fulfil

in

the government

of

If

enough space

interfere unduly

in

South

to

not

no

the opportunity

given

undue influence and prescriptions turn

be

,

this should

operation between

way imply that the corporate to

be

,

sector

the

also

the government

structural stranglehold

and

and pedantic

enough

economic

free market

and with

Should

that should

economists

in

its

corporate

given

).

119

:

'(

must

based

ideological

Arthur Okun has correctly

be

.. .

1975

].

well

As

sector should not

sector

suspended

dominating prescriptive

government becomes empowered

functions

propaganda

,

only

against the corporate

in

the

from

participation

this should not preclude healthy

sector

managerial elite and the

participation

,

.

It

them

is

the corporate

the

of

in

succeed

which

disentangling itself

accept any respons

to

'

,

and

South Africa should

on

elite compromises

its

for

system

'

-

to

and unhealthy

excessive

policy formulation and implementation capitalist

the

and they are

their deeds

its

of

's

sector

nor

take over

-

to

acknowledge this

the harmful results

The corporate

secret take over

.

ibility

we can call

what

sector and

the democratically elected government

of

for

neither prepared

the early 1990s the corporate

for

In

be

).

(

independence

account for the improper political

a

the

on

,



is

global partners were responsible

political

called

the democratic state

that the corporate sector will

tacit assumption

playing Hertz 2001

is

it

game

will not

of

.

by

remain invisible and

in

face the music

what Noreena Hertz calls the silent take over

global corporatism

that those who

the

truly democratic

economic

in

ill -

its

interference

electoral arena What the corporate sector has attempted years

take responsibility

'

a

of

wrong policy

advised

to

for

responsible

of

a

as

the core principles

.

are

result

of

policy One

wrong

gone

cannot

that the managerial elite has clearly

is

is

the elite compromises

ventured into the political arena without being prepared

for what has

and

centuries

from

for

for

sanctity

powerful

the

without the political sovereignty

to

and exploitation

Another reason why the corporate claim

junior partner

.

repression

comprom

these elite

remedy the social injustices resulting

to

structural power

opted

global partners

its

corporate sector and

Through

.

government was

the population

a

the

ises the ANC

poorer half

as

exclusion of

for the systemic

laid the foundation

1996

CAPITALISM

of

of

and the GEAR strategy

1993

co

of

OF DEMOCRATIC

VERSION

of

SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC

A

459

by

. is

in

expected

global capitalism

that

rather vulnerable

and

a

Africa

South

.

as

the

advantageous

in

as

a

developing country such

On the

engagement with The

unequal power and property relations

presence

the 1990s

the

and differentiated manner

of

globalisation has not been

line with

promised

-

if

more measured as

in

a

,

why

reason

places

happened

capitalism

).

(

the beginning

re

its

sector and

global partners

advantageous

of as

,

financial markets and trade

has not been nearly

contrary South Africa might well have been better off

global

and especially with

its

corporate

DONE ?

BE

in

Africa

South

,

global capitalism

at as

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TO

the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund IMF

of

institutions such

's

it in

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:

interaction with global corporatism

its

empower

TRANSFORMATION

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INCOMPLETE

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4:

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if

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.

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Mbeki

certainly inhabit

he

,

.

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narrowed

instead

.

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to

too ambitious

this

years

,

the

-

achieve the urgently needed socio economic transformation governing

elite should

take

over the next

initiative and accomplish

the 10

5

-

An agenda for socio economic transformation

20

To to

ch

:

2001

will

world we

changing South Africa and

be

poor will

global apartheid

its

this project

change

is

to

endeavour

liberal approach

neo

relations with global capitalism the

its

Africa and

reform

But

abject poverty

which only

extravagant wealth and the majority

the government maintains

prefers

(

to

economic system

the gap between the rich and the

Mbeki

minority

-

in

live

politico

between

serious questions about the true nature

its

long

as

)

per cent

must also

new

enriches

-

's

South Africa

it

.

case

)

, 's

the

indeed

which

refer

has described global apartheid

while impoverishing the majority

we

of

population

the world

of is

cent

the extent

ask

of

because

'



barbaric

global capitalism

a

Mbeki

the Rich North and the Poor South



to

balance

unfavourable

in

the extremely

Ali Mazrui

scholar Professor in

the eminent African

global apartheid

use the term

the

to

first coined

of

by

President Thabo Mbeki has begun

460

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à -

vis

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power shift

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of

by

world

instead accept the social democratic

rejecting

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, its

,

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'

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governing elite has become

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people centred speech

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pressure

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at

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election times

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on

21

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integral parts

socio economic

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11

three shifts

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approach

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attain the necessary

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are

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or

property

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capitalism

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CAPITALISM

well -balanced , social democratic ,

a

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effect enough

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into

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iii

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capitalism

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system

VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC

-

SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC

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,

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not the appropriate

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the power relations

in

.

from

economy

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the

system

change

the weak

the power relations

and

between

the

hesitant governing elite and the )

by

its

.

its

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members

advisability

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as if

way

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a

an

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.

its

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.

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ideological

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the dramatic decline

,

seems

to

.5 .2

11

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part

global partners about

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a

on a

.

the

. the

a

in

that

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to

sector realise

change a

the ANC

to

for

global influences

But

consider the nature

early 1990s

, it .

in

,

,

on

question

struggle

commanding heights mainly controlled

the other

new

and some Afrikaner controlled corporations

smaller corporations and

when

the government seems

understand the ideological orientation

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approach

some corporations

to to

started

and

its

of

granted

its

a

's

of

of

speakers

least

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December 2001

the one hand

2007

unanimity has developed among almost

remarkable

liberal and globalised

the

a

if

necessary

of

,

it

elite

the corporate fraternity

the rand

change

the corporate sector

core leaders since

two decades

some

of

convinced

and structural stranglehold the ANC

the last peaceful

and perhaps

multiparty democracy

system

is

to

by

is

-

the governing

policy approach

and hopefully social democratic

new

serious disagreements

of

soured

bureaucratic

substantial setback during

national conference

its

to

.

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reconsider

time being the position

not worthy

the

socio economic policy and

the loyalties forged during the liberation

to

are

blind loyalties

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be

be

elected

owing

entrenched

decide

will

approach

will

leader

important opportunity

is

ideological

forced

experiences

the ANC

be

An

.

for the ANC



one

or

up

,

if

the 2004 election

blamed

poverty relief and socio economic upliftment

extreme case the government could the alliance breaks

socio

.

in

inadequacy

-

for

,

the amounts budgeted

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but also

alone

at

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those services

services should not

on

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services

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further

exerted

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of

those

,

delivery

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economic policy and

for

national conference

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be

to expect that

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:

in

TRANSFORMATION



INCOMPLETE

AN

4:

of

PART

VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC

CAPITALISM

capitalist enclave ( controlled by the powerful and arrogant corporate elite ). because of the dysfunctionality of the liberal capitalist version

core leaders effectively

it

impoverished



'

sold

be

of

to

the

reversed before

politico economic

new

core

system

be

our

in

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the ANC

shift the balance

to

.

centre

can take

of

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to

domestic power

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.

4

the

and

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re

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international power relations and processes

on

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evaluate

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transactions

can

it

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sovereign

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an

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to

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,

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structural

and

global partners

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place

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independent and appropriate socio economic policy

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corporate sector and now

's

.

of

to

pottage

mess

a

for

implement

ANC

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foreign partners

its

govern the country

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from

policy and

-

the electorate

freedom

sector and

over socio economic to

by its

sovereignty

the corporate

itself

of

of

stranglehold

of

cannot remain the way it is . As soon as

system

its

in South

the governing elite has disentangled

on

capitalism

Africa , the

But

it

SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC

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be

the

it

to on or as

its

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is

term

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in

in

of it

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.

rid

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actions Only after improving the quality

in

its its

of

all

,

of

possible

its the

as

it

effectively

forms to

to

itself and

must cleanse itself

as

account

in

gain confidence

rediscover

of

and

squarely

.

,

must

.

policies

and

rests

the

; it

to

.

of

,

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often clever

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and arrogance

for

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.

is

to

be

its

'

to

true purpose

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in

democracy

.

-

electorate

market forces

asserting itself the governing elite needs

decision making capacity

corruption

sector and

.

roots and

its

a

As own

the on

is

democratically elected political leaders

step

sector

large The responsibility for defining the common good

realises this basic precept

first

corporate

the trappings

to

at

sectional interests

economic issues

mind but that

the corporate

left

the shoulders

its

up

society

the

managerial

ANC can learn from

of

to

of be

interests

cannot

dress

machine

general interest

undemocratic

inferiority complex

realise that

knowledgeable

propaganda

the

has

that this sector seldom enough

crucially important for the

Perhaps the most important lesson

exposed

been

not

courage and

.

.

to

be

.

having

itself

core

the only way out

require

the

are

weak

to

global partners

will

done

core ANC leaders as

time

this may

the state without making

will have for

.

its

they claim

state

strengthen

This leadership

economic matters elite and

African

expect the leadership

mandate

what has

South

to

core leaders

authoritarian

do

To

. The

It

's

.

determination ANC

and exert

,

its

impasse

the

easier said than done

sovereignty

reclaim

of

It

could well

It

be

.

achieved

463

.

a

.

,

.

of

a

,

a

to

,

,

a

-

.

the government

,

larger part

of

far

control over

assume

social

truly developmental

and apartheid

colonialism

The purpose

and humane

balanced

building

to

the unskilled black

.

well

capitalism

and

of

of

a

-

be

to

capitalist enclavity

large part

a

no

capital intensive

the black consumer market

create

democratic

choice but

towards large

In

a

should

of

part

to

to

of

the

a

detach itself from

truly developmental

implement measures

inclination towards

address the dismal legacy

will have

must

tendency

the strong

from

system

strong

be

these measures

this policy

a

labour market and

state

culture

.

tendency

democratic

for

of

as

as

's

well

to

the

latter

government These

public funds and

elite must commit itself

key element

counteract

enterprises

massive waste

of

A

.

or

reverse

governing

the

policy

state

responsible

the

,

Secondly

the second and third tiers

essential services

-

of

non delivery

,

to

are

malpractices

and corruption

the inconsistencies inefficiencies

especially

at

which are rife

bureaucracy with the necessary

of

paid

attention needs

and

will

much needed developmental state policy Special

the to

capacity are essential

the bureaucracy These tasks

capacity

governance for

good

DONE?

BE

TO

-

but

be

,

easy

can it build

of

be

own governance

not

TRANSFORMATION : WHAT 'S

INCOMPLETE

AN

of

:

4

to

PART

the South

4

64

counteracting

will

,

to

an

,



of

,

can



that

is

-

we

,

to

narrowly

first world capitalist enclave

-

a

and

continue unimpeded

too ghastly

and

how

to

is

,

periphery



The counter argument

almost

bigger

sector

global capitalism

much richer the bourgeoisie much

to

to

of

that the corporate

and

contemplate

the

capitalist

poorer

the

how

these

enclavity

the

the

how

unscramble

much

the drive towards capitalist

,

,

Of course

in

lumpenproletariat

and

on

will

,

enclave

smaller and be

how much

years

probably not

be .

continues unabated for another

it

the trend towards 30

If

.

for

are

disaster

some

if

to

.

,

is to

be

world

the new

created

example

greater efficiency

we allow the tendency towards capitalist enclavity heading

these

in

,

of

'

to

part

form

achieve

modern

for

.

of

.

it

profitability

order

and

unimpeded

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share markets

.

and

friendly

possible

tendencies the

-

defined

pursued

these

in

still

corporate sector

the

foreign

will not

success

Ironically enough

.

of

argue that most

should

2003

eggs Another serious problem

in

scrambled

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might

in

,

.

other

escape

Unfortunately

undone

achieve

The privilege given to



these tendencies

globalisation

would have been much easier

exceptionally

been



of

has

largest corporations



be

the

proliferation

that

pressure

under

to

environment

time

than

1994

possible It

,

.

It

-

counteract these trends government has

internationalisation

not

also

short period

a

over

endeavours

will

counteract the strong tendencies

of

towards Anglo Americanisation capitalist enclavity

or

reverse

in

easy

to

course not

be

be

will

,

, of

It

.

African economy

without controlling

the

a

ways that will be strategically

.

These measures should include

It

.

'

.

become

,

-

)

(

a

-

.

services for

and

,

,

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.

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as

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.

revised

.

should

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skills

in

meet the demand

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for

on

increased considerably

planned project

, .

this sector

the amount spent

found

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,

protect workers in

the labour force and

'

'

counteract the peripheralisation

to

a

in

,

be

legislation

the workforce

,

private and public sectors

by

-

of

of

on as

be such

and professional training should

far

legislation are hampering the creation

of

a

the economy extravagant

sector against the extreme exploitation

improve the productivity

possible

the private and public sectors ought

be

the informal

large part

of



casualisation

infrastructural

the labour market removed

large responsibility

’ of a

government also has

,

opportunities

has

the government

and

to

,

in

higher echelons

and the inflexibilities

permanent

capacity

which

employing workers

labour intensive

,

the

labour absorptive

works

areas

urban

years

as

-

rural and

350

public

to

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especially

job

of

public

.

to

increase

in

.

be

to

impoverished

These projects should

reduced

service

entrepreneur

development

the last

over

affirmative action and equal opportunity

and

subsidised

ought

produce goods

economic

considerably more

in

spend

socio

African history

South

wages

salaries

uneven

-

at

To

counteract

development

attempt

and

larger

and

economic

in

have

export goods

towards

affordable prices

characterised

low

the

comprehensive

labour intensive –

Employment

sector enterprises that are labour intensive

should

the

be

will

implement

and

the production

especially

government

the poor

can

for reversing the tendency in

.

-

a

formulate

to

the

to

of

the strategy

appropriate employment policy

But

Africa with

put forward

for developmental purposes

a

is

capitalist enclavity

of

An important part

activities

succeeds

22

the word

to

true sense

supply countries

strong case

use these resources

globalisation

.

of

government ought

to



Marshall Aid

the Rich North

something for which

of

.

convincing the countries

would

Development NEPAD

Africa

the

also require

liberalisation and

Partnership

the New

If

policies

counteract

the government

's ' s

fundamental revision

enclavity

for

trend

of

towards globally oriented capitalist

labour

greater

include giving the

also

the capital market

to

emerging entrepreneurial class access

should

far

'

investment that could have

private sector investments

in

crowding

relieving

the additional advantage

be

intensive public

without

and

important

in

in

unemployment and poverty

,

of

savings and investment policy

a

countered

in

be

far

without

cannot

to

financial

redirecting investment

. But

To

sector ,

stability

compromise macroeconomic

to



the trend towards enclavity

CAPITALISM

for

government must be careful not

VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC

in

SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC

A

highly

.

skilled and professional labour

465

TRANSFORMATION : WHAT 'S

capital - intensive

consider the appointment

of

induce both labour and capital

to

towards capital intensity is

conglomerates . The government should therefore few

,

,

,

extended colonialism

it

,

in

vulnerable countries

and

embarked

in

of

the great risks involved

the

developing

liberalisation

government

favour

Poor South

such

are

inherent

exploitable

entity

without the necessary

'

'

opened

Africa

devaluation

problem

an

a

,

ie

-

which South Africa became

foreign exchange market was

its

nature

up

in

'

'

system

in

2001

is

the end

international

when

of

at

of

the

the rand

the

harmful

South

The government should consider the possibility that the dramatic systemic

global

the Rich North

global financial and currency markets that in

's

erratic swings

will

.

not

properly consider

distorted power structures

the

control institutional

and

overhasty

the

of

globalisation

.

the international flow

capital and trade When

did

the

also

counteract the strong tendency towards capitalist enclavity

incomplete without reconsidering the policy

capitalism

If

African

the South

and with

,

to

economic power property

of

ised during the period

be

continue

remain fundamentally unrestructured

inequalities

Attempts

allowed

is

economic sectors

of

will

unacceptable

a

to

economy

comprehensive

a

.

multitude

of

between

formulate

corporations that control economic activity

in

collusion

of large

the rise

to

the oligopolistic nature of the corporate sector.

policy for counteracting

.

reverse these trends

to

linked

also

to

rewards and

how

or

The tendency

investigate

to

in

can be used

commission

a

,

penalties

important issue that the government needs

a

an

be

should

on in

This is such

labour - intensive

less

in

.

counteracted

and

the modern sector to

in

it

more

become

the production processes

DONE ?

to

of

The strong tendency

BE

TO

in

: AN INCOMPLETE

so

4

as

PART

,

,

property

The two

to

a

distributive shifts

20th century

were induced

.

'

will not

possible

the mainly

the previous

distributive coalition

is

new

in

behalf

'

a

such that

be

it

,

capitalist elite and

of

'

forged between the old

early 1990s remains intact

be

not occur

Afrikaners and the black elite respectively

.

4

66

We have

of

the

third politically induced distributive shift should therefore

opportunities

.

of

.

economic growth

black lower classes The additional power shift discussed subsection

and

will probably

distributive shift

on

effect

elite

the

'

political



new

a

the

led a

for

.1 .4

favour

incomplete without

the impoverished lower classes

and fourth quarters

distributive coalition in

by

If

the third

political power shifts

the strong

that

through market

that took place

to

classes

-

spontaneously

redistributing income

3

section

in

in

the rich middle

explained

to

economic transformation would

comprehensive policy from

restore social justice be

socio

in

agenda

distributive shift

-

for

.35

Effecting

a

An 11 .

.

circumspection and differentiation

forged

OF DEMOCRATIC

VERSION

the governing elite and representatives

poverty

and unemployment problems . The economic be

and interdependently

governing

and should

enthusiastically

occur

supported

elite

-

' –

If

as

as

,

in

.

,

can

the

-

of

-

to

of

is

It

.

-

,

the

the

to

+ 2

per

major

of

a



of

view

to

– in

of

9

of

be be

of

a

to on

on

.

1994

-

a

socio economic



from

especially

and

the delivery

of

a

will have

social and

.

it

,

a

to

in

of

,

held

captive

structural unemployment and abject poverty

the

and

to

those

terms

of

,

systems

social justice

the

in



to

restore

and property

In

, ie

(

implementing measures

make

capitalist enclave intact and

and extravagant wealth

exploitative

developed but

The government will have

leaving

will

efficiency and equality that

not only

'

-

(

).

1975

undeserved

off

Trade



efficiency

between

the

a

off

-

Big

approach

social democratic

).

formidable grip

of if

is

a



is

,

victimised

of

were

the

by

(

,

and equality

)

of

,

largely

rich

who

to

-

to the

between

with

also

very negative affect

developing countries

ie

in

-

trade

GDP

fiscal point

purely

zero sum trade

Okun

it

new

GDP that can

November 1993

per cent

and

the impoverished majority

the

as

re -

to

especially

off

, is

according

the percentage

government spending

the government accepts

evaluate

the budget and

social democratic

embark

on

in

the

,

or

.

is ,

It

.

a

As

economic services

will

property

highly doubtful whether the implementation

The strict control over had

and

through

fiscal policy was justifiable

conservative

social spending

have

however

the

are serious about

income

government

elite compromise

from

conditions

we

ever

measures

reform

persuaded

the restriction

2002

economic

inevitable

of



be

can

not realistic

corporations put together

larger transfer

.

in

achievement

soon

a

to



the

,

at

and property

the budget

perspective

richer and

even

their employees

of

to

of all

it

.

of

to

agreed

that

the initiative

the government

strict

will probably become

socio

abolished Lowering the budget deficit

such

economic

trickle down

higher growth doesmaterialise

corporate image building

a

in

social justice

take place



for

,

the

are used

redistributive approach

cent

rates

strong enough

improving the living conditions

Consequently

through land reform

taxed

rich

social programmes alleviating the dismal

lumpenproletariat

to

enclave

limited

and their families

restoration

generate

.

even

succeed

waiting for higher

the population

the the

poorer Although many corporations have social programmes

they are often

think that

point



capitalist

or

the poor

If

of

in

the poorer half

mainly

have

is

,

of

to

the capitalist enclave the

in

effect



growth

no

in

A

unemployment there

case

of .

to

long necessary degree shift cannot take place place As current ideological orientation and policy approach remain distributive

in

the

the new

of

empowerment

.

by

simultaneously

of civil society concerned with

population and the distributive shift should

,

impoverished part

the

of

between

CAPITALISM

the

SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC

A

467

the

;

.

2 2

the see

)

;

of

table

an

to

,

'

of

democratisation

educate

Those

who

the

true nature

of

in

of in a

white

taxation

(

or

programme South

of

accompanied

a

should

by

were

whites about

and their responsibility

the heavy

against their

place An increase

.

and racial capitalism programmes

will have

the impoverished

of

to

and property reform

them

The danger

when the exploitative systems

African

towards the impoverished and victimised

are opposed

principle

to

political domination

to

if

during the long period

compensate

against

in

on

be

injustices committed

be

grave

their shoulders

in

the

for

social responsibility resting

a

.

real one

whites remain unconvinced

The

the growth

harm

that higher taxation and additional property reform measures

will

task

of

the capitalist enclave

greater

large

of

difficult

.

the

economy and a



-

'

over tax

with

larger distributive shift

is

additional resources for

and employment capacity

adult education

dualistic

wealthy taxpayers

a

-

the

strong anti tax culture

will present the government

government can

disruptive effect

a

of

and

of

the

danger that

African economy

the South

a

)

(

enough

)

the

property and as

political democracy of

new



's

.

a

and property

highly modern and developed capitalist enclave and

both white and black

,

and small be to

its

programmes related

entitlement

Africa

South

broadly based

capacity

undeveloped periphery

.

unspecified

. tax

a

economy with

majority

,

to

all

postponed up

ignored

,

,

,

by

a

'

The limited

history

that

important that property should not only

small black elite



be

to

is ,

It

.

Zimbabwe

from

is

to

be

-

in to

learnt

rights

entitlement

ancestors

large

remedy the dismal remnants

enhance the transfer

however crucially

deepened

the relatively

black economic empowerment

land reform

to

,

business development

majority

the

accordance with well structured

,

housing

education



entitlement

or

cannot

class

the government should speed

Consequently

mobilising

of

.

,

apartheid

wealth



and

property –

and

.

'

of



colonialism

should

create

,

,

programmes The lesson

reform

transferred

redistribution

The

additional measures

improve the

proprietor

propertyless classes

and

distribution

blacks

problem

and transfer productive property and assets from

and privileged

small

disadvantaged property

address the poverty

'

complemented

be

relatively

.

income

poorest

to

of

majority

disadvantaged

the

of

2

by

have

will neither

income

employment and educational opportunities

to

income and

the large income and property gaps

narrow

will

income

468

the richest

between

.1 ).

3 3

,

per cent

place through

2

a

larger transfer

nor sufficiently

date

gap

the

alarming

per cent

,

72

households receiving only (

to

to

receiving

(

households

narrow

DONE ?

BE

TO

of income should take

transfer

be

40 20

per cent

But

of

larger

alleviate poverty

per cent

figure

,a

and

trade -off

new

budget

TRANSFORMATION : WHAT ' S

AN INCOMPLETE

to

this

4:

of of

PART

additional taxation and

.

of

an

set

on

,

be

,

.

to

it

,

to

on

It

.

or

the plans

If

-

.

present

ought

is

along with

to

,

ie

)

-

(

spending

one possibility

at

be

, of

,

is

in

delivery

the

to

the

)

HIV AIDS

health services and particularly

high priority

.

be

those affected ought

and especially

/

diseases

Improved to

.

the

poor

meaningful difference (

indeed make

a

will

a

in

urban areas with some free water and electricity

it

,

,

of

'

on

the

all as

for

as

is

of for

system

will

resources

the people who qualify

.

causing havoc among

poverty

transferring

social spending

per cent

is

-

the

of

problem

including improvements

the poor Widely spread contagious

food security

possible and benefits those

social assistance are not receiving assistance

for

are

lives

of by

in

. on

it

,

that almost

fully implemented

can

complexity

the amount budgeted 50

in

for

and housing

supply every household

of be

to

-

inexcusable

effective

and

precautions

necessary

the existing social security

,

,

,

an

increase

qualify

on

improvement

welfare health

take

the most effective methods in

An

.

poor

the

decide

.

difficult

to

it

most Given

the poor

more comprehensive redistribution

should

spending

ensure that redistributive

rooted out

rooting out crime and violence

Therefore

positive distributive effect

poverty alleviation programmes

that should

Ironically the poor are the main

and criminal system

government embarks

who need

redistribution



a

have

paying handsomely for

are

, .

.

the



of

an –

versions

crime violence and

serious crimes are successfully

crime and corruption

criminality and violence

oddly

If

judicial

means

per cent



are

,

punished

improved

10

.

and

that fewer than

many criminals These

will

towards the

elite

present day South Africa that income

of

Given

prosecuted

victims

the black

excuse

.

of

the harsh reality

being wrongly and unlawfully redistributed corruption

the

the last resort not

some members

new black

lifestyles are often based for

.

this can

the

ry . majority

part

is

But

of

attitudes

debt

in

should however

many members

and that their extravagant in

indifferent impoverished

with

show

,

of

is

still rather fragile

high levels

It

elite were

would also

greater compassion

the impoverished black majority

that the economic position

acknowledged elite

the black

of

behalf

on

to take the initiative

poor

,

if

of

predicament

'

majority

impoverished

the

distributive coalition

new

a

organisations ought

black elite

important precedent

of the still

sake

huge

a

It

make sacrifices for the

of blacks . Prominent

realise that they too have

should

of ,

to

-

undeserved

.

system

enrichment is largely

– whose

.

responsibility

often

capitalist

It

artificial, and

of the

only

be

important that the new black elite

also

forging

proper functioning

to

It is

, and

stability

, not

the perspective

from

be

of the legitimacy ,

areas

these

be narrowed

to

democratic perspective but also

a

the

social justice and

a

essential for these gaps

It is

an

.

cannot be left unattended from

CAPITALISM

should realise that the growing inequalities in

reform

of

property

VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC

for

SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC

A

469

50

( or

of

at

to



of

in

is

of

by

.

a

a

The

impoverished

majority the

of

is

What South Africans cannot afford

of

of a

in

or

better future

the

to

the heavy

dramatically improved

few

.

is

also fallacious

BIG

supply

the conspicuous consumption

of

a

coexistence

system

absence

and

the wealthy

fractured

the

social welfare and social insurance safety net

,

4

of

41 , a

an

is

,

and

argument that South Africa cannot afford the

with

expedient excuse

the

poverty and destitution

morally

will become dependent

are already morally

.

of

burden

the foreseeable

programme

of

Most poor people

middle class

in

23

. ).

programme

the feasibility

least the poorest half

sector

BIG

argue that the poor

to

;

such

a

morally degraded

a

-

an

as

of

)

.

fallacious by

is

questionable

households

many unemployed people

formal

The argument that

slim

DONE ?

BE

the government ought

1996

month

The prospects the

TO

programme

term

R100 per capita

and thus wage income

very

is

future

urgent short

table

per cent

R1 000

than

by

finding jobs

(

the population

was less

10 3

of

basic income grant

-

consider

)

population

BIG

of

seriously

monthly expenditure

see

to

the

Given that per cent

TRANSFORMATION : WHAT ' S

INCOMPLETE

AN

the

4:

(

PART

and the destitution

.

the many

a

of

is

in

in

to

of

per

,

3 5

is



,

.

in

is

-

in

.

of

for

a

inclined

highly

romanticise for

been

to

in

to

of

control

ideological

the ANC Alliance and the ANC

's

of

determine the

in

.

-

in

was

16

1970

,

GDP

it

per cent

in

was

of

GDI

30

investment

)

of

places the elite

).

NEC

(

Whereas gross domestic

representation

powerful position

both the caucus

(

national executive committee

fundamentally different

first world countries

of

to

extraordinarily

a

is a

.

an

in

4

It

.

in

.

as

of

exiles may have

parliamentary

orientation and decisions

470

first world

consumption patterns

and

Consequently

those adopted

The proportional system

ANC

cent

capitalist enclavity

to

,

production

these

long period

towards first world

Poor South with developmental problems that require policy approach

the

less than

may have been difficult first world them reality typical developing country the harsh that South Africa the

the developed appreciate

exiled

the trend

of

developed countries some

issues

the informal sector during the negotiations some ANC leaders

'

exposed

the population

-

favoured

the

doubtful whether

economic

address

South Africa

had been

the

to

already

Having being

who

those

the Rich North

this expenditure

believe that

to



countries

of

3

especially some

, of

of

large part

a

total spending and reason

such

the poorer half

Consumer spending

,

2

developing and dualistic country

We have

to

countries

and insight needed

wisdom

growth

economic

the business leaders serving

, it '

from

they possess

meet the challenges

Most

'.

in

highly developed the

are

council

how

South Africa

of

on

'

international business leaders and development

5

of

at

of

in

The International Investment Council was established 2000 the initiative president Thabo Mbeki distinguished draw upon the wisdom and insights to

1

Endnotes

SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC

.

, ;

. an

as

,

(

the

it

South

.

private wealth

Latin America

and

,

of

case

's

Africa

of

.

to

of

to the

40

per cent

Africa Before

South

liberalise the movement

per cent

in

to

is

by

,

,



in

and commitment

the fact that 17

to

of

in

Asia

Financial Mail Thomas 2002

65 job

.

of

,

the case

are

claiming that

also benefit

.



a

,

,

has

,

by

.

will

are

cent There

.

per

18

South African factories

retrench large numbers

of

indications that financial institutions

also

staff over the

years

.

next five

goods produced

in

,

the volume

by

years

per cent but employment has slumped

,

by

increased

of

.

is

towards mechanisation

over the past

in

in

,

to 2

– 6

in

volume and quality Consequently they have swung strikingly illustrated This trend the fact that

,

,

match global prices

strongly

26 10

have

to

to

a

1 2

,

(

the

),

manufacturing have losses per cent year per cent year accelerated from 1992 1997 2001 global competition South African companies Given their increasing exposure to

According

in

per cent

50

:

,

:

in

,

in

).

12

to

if

,

only

compared

will

moved offshore But these corporations

corporate pressure

should have taken note

kept outside Africa 3

is

their investment

government gave

it

capital

semi

and

comparative

main

complex industrial products transport goods South Africa demonstrates

which they say

their main listings

inevitably reduce

the new

an

'.

Its

.

and intermediary

economic

.

(

),

and

in

petrol

finance expansion

African economy

will

of

an

to

products

These corporations have justified their internationalisation easier for them

49 –

,

,

to

of

generate

anticipation

founded

-

a

well

,

to 109



:

in

as

are

,

of

chiefs

,

of

under the rule

manipulation

other

are

political

as

:

in

,

of

. in

In

labour that seems

growing joblessness and absence

to

of

is a

to

or

to

of

economies

forced

live

our country thus

,

the main urban

is

to

the working class that

of

to

is

this section

relationship

of

to

of

.

a

parasitic type

of

a

-

informal self employment

It

who are seeking

light

and vulnerable growing phenomenon informal settlements there shacklords forms extortion against the unemployed and vulnerable workers place potential areas employment retain live closer a

all the

who carry out

susceptible

to

.

In

therefore highly

They constitute the reserve army

the

the former bantustans they

.

economic opportunities patronage

'

in

of

in

be

to

areas

permanently reserved

of

a

the former Bantustan

is

In

in

the

, ‘

of

employment Central Committee the SACP the peripheral sector largely described the following terms The unemployed concentrated the periphery our urban areas informal settlements well

of

publication

are

8

,

of ,

related

those

Cling 2001

economic

products that are most dynamic global trade such information technology machinery and transport equipment see

specialisation

absence

FDI equal



going

in

in

energy

the high

achieve

's

are

inflow

growthmanship and globalisation

the idea that they are

rather than

equipment capital goods

9

in

(

GDS and

South Africa main exports are mining and agricultural manufactured products the metal and wood subsectors disadvantages

10

Schrire 1992

of



levels

and increased only

trade liberalisation and other market liberalisation

,

hope

94



in

of

in

of

27

of

in

of )

14

in A

by

off

-

in

1995 that

represents

1980

Smit

1994 2002 low

the protagonists

certainly good but

are

GDP

GDP since 1994 cannot expect

Krugman observed

take 7

GDP

growth rate predicted

measures

per cent

country with such

).

per cent

1

only

s127

a

6

to

:

SARB 2002

only

per cent

16

to

about

to

slightly

averaged

GDS

average

of

domestic dropped

CAPITALISM

and has increased only marginally since then Gross per cent GDP the 1960s and 1970s

1993

(

savings

VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC

,

of

GDP

cent

an

per

A

471

and

other forms

social ills

society

'

criminality

to

of

being highly vulnerable

DONE ?

BE

TO

of

TRANSFORMATION : WHAT ' S

INCOMPLETE

all

4 : AN

PART

as

) is

an

in

,

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in

(

-

low

sector

labour and

child

the human being

economic

the non formal sector household and communal 21

indomitable odds against survival

are

:

).

2000

'(

in

the face

the non formal

the use

-

in

,

collapse

the

infrastructure

returns

the widespread depreciation

of

.. .

asset and

work

of

and

The self exploitation for

the long hours

in

women

follows

of :“

puts this

reflected

The net effect these reimbursements that the predominantly white taxpayers paying more than R60 billion less February taxes from March 2000 until a

.

This amount would have made

28

substantial difference

relief

poverty

to

2003

1

in

is

of

12

as

Mhone

in

11

(

).

SACP 2002

.

measures

that

than

CE

in

as

those

Africa

South

be

).

in

.1

A

appendix

spending

in

of

table

the same level

to

increased

of

GDP should

does however imply higher levels

more progressive approach may less marked English oriented business circles Afrikaner and black business circles than

,

.

‘ -

and may therefore

poverty

to

have been exposed

In

contrast

both the Afrikaner and the black communities

towards

is

of

of

.. .

of

to

,

develop

of

,

and the rapid

and women

increase

,

children

in

,

of

knowledge

culture and language and

are

,

also includes access

not

safety and

and rising employment the abject and population the the high levels crime and

of

of

).

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's

This entails

the citizen

Given high

the widespread abuse

time

commitment

to

,

to

enjoy one

one Mbeki 2002b worsening poverty the poorest half violence

caring society

these

to

of

every person

and freedom

identity

heart

includes the critical right

also

's .It

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to

banish ignorance

the

.. .

important feature

a

.. .

of

want

from

.

freedom

decided

the

by

of

the ANC over

as

1997 and 2000

At

ie

(

took the view

the

policy position

security and the inviolability to

committee

achieve people centred development and build

only

the

policy

valid and correct

has been the stability

the 51st national conference

The national executive

the ANC

An 's)

of

:‘

conferences remain

our

on

as

December 2002

that the essential pillars

its

held

in

,

to

ANC

be

,

In

15

.

comprehensive poverty alleviation programme August 2002 Mbeki commented follows

more sympathetic

a

-

with the English speaking community

globalisation

towards

less inclined

be

black businesses

,

Afrikaner and

are

in

a

towards

'.

change

to

The resistance in

be

a

(

at

present

14

percentage

see

.

It

countries

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as

spending

does not imply that social

democratic approach

the social

,

13

The acceptance

472

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.

in

's do a

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leadership

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kind

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to

:

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in

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situation

project

proper exercise

take pride

rising

the people

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in

, by

,

as

.

to

-

of

,

is

in

)

us

should

communicating

the people

not think that of

do

not think any one Mbeki 2002b

it

To

I

,

that

least three events have enabled

the corporate sector

further consolidate

its

; do

2002

proven

Mbeki declared

to

At

16

(

Mtshali

and horrible

terrible

create something

communicate

the

Mtshali

).

is

really

I

And



added

:

He

that does not exist and then

which

rapidly deteriorating

and crippling economic recession to

,

,

gloom

our country

KwaZulu Natal

November 2002 Responding

particularly brilliant leadership

.'

is

it

of

sense

Dr

(

situation

unemployment inflation not think

Lionel Mtshali premier

Provinces NCOP in

that

by

(

) of

,

concern

the

National Council

of

speech

a

to

response

to

infection rates these remarks rather puzzling Mbeki unwillingness acknowledge the severity and worsening nature poverty was again evident his

HIV

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capitalist class

class effectively able

.

9 )

if

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capitalist class are represented

,

Moreover

.

hold entire states and societies hostage

as

who

the are

investors

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interests

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and endangering the popular legitimacy

of



.. .

.. .

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capital strike

state

the

investors

"

as

follows

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to

state sector

business confidence

effect they may subject the

economic activity

the democratic

to a “



of

the democratic

hold

Mark Rupert describes the power or

.

of

the corporate sector

,

.

invest there

prioritising

]

itself with social

moral philosophy

branch

feel neglectful

1964

cent

Africa

South

conditions

the incumbent government

of

in

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of

to

, . It

in

'(

a

it

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vis be

-à -

maintain

depressing levels

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.

's

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it

must also concern

Africa with

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In

to

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.

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should

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fails

fare

645 million people

South

income

world

per cent

capitalist sector state

much

. ).

15 in

;

1999

The ability and inclination hostage

primary

itself with something more than

Phelps 1965

the latter territory receive only

figure

least

economic

2 1

of

46

2000b

population

million people

income and

million

add

sense become

becomes the more

word

-

world income

richest

must

loses specific meaning

Sub Saharan Africa has

per cent

employment

social priorities

,

causes and the more

cent

likely

which

social welfare

economic growth

James Tobin warns that economic growth

and the better

word

policy

primarily

the hidden and indirect costs

which economists have been

in

other

of

is

an In

words

.

priorities

economist such

component

are interested

Economics must concern

output and

need more study

income

)

:

social priorities

area

per capita

also convinced that economists should justify economic growth

merely maximum This

increase

of

is

reflection

sovereignty

such precarious suppositions that

the adoption

then

as

,

1967

'(

to

on

.. .

of

terms

seems

based per

all

be

and intangible and

society

Hansen

of

18

Alvin

.. .

years has

use

35 – 7

are

all

If aim

policy

welfare

placed

taken into account

identify

growth

economic

if

in

social welfare

prove that

the tangible

growth

,

the new government

the tendency

'

an

easy

to

is

improvement

the least emphasis should

19

to

in

Mishan claims that

with

0

This

and concluding several elite compromises

that have significantly diminished

Ezra

it

ANC leadership core

it

with

20

opportunity

golden

During the legitimacy

but especially the ANC government Thirdly and perhaps most importantly corporate sector succeeded taking the hesitant and the early 1990s

inexperienced

78

over the past

further diminish the sovereignty

NP

with

sector

global partners

its

relationship

the corporate sector

and global corporatism

corporate

the South African

given

17

global capitalism

a

The rise

the beleaguered

the power and influence

enhanced

of

.

state

liberal capitalism

sell

to

considerably

sector

CAPITALISM

years the state over the past regime the NP government crisis

the apartheid

enabled the corporate

vis

and privilege

of

20

years



of power

position last

VERSION OF DEMOCRATIC

vis

SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC

A

473

said in February

to

of

.

it

in

a

,

of

.

'

in

of to

If

it

.

,

to

is

.

to

its

in

the best example

internal agricultural

on

vis

-

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can

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on

if it

,

,

as

,

.

to

statistics the

,

is

per

,

Moreover

20

the next

per cent

per cent

3 1

. , of 3. 2 ).

tables

2002

).

:

'(

ibid

20

of

SSA

of of

,

and that

2000

1995

2000

.



025

than

20

of

),

2000

the

cent the population declined per cent 2000 that the next

(

in

20

per

to

R1

that the poorest in

in

R628

,

in

R626

,

`

to

of

as the

.

R336

SSA these figures indicate population were even poorer 2002 than

these latest

of

.

in

of

R181

R181 R336 -

in

-



1995

less than

-

R392 R803

1995

the poorest

to

from

1995

to

R200 R393

1995 to

from

in

less than R200 in

from

(

in

R1 103

the monthly per capita income

that

severe than reflected

households declined from less 2000 prices and that the next

in

R660

2000

more

even

According

per cent

-

from

's

of

20

of

the poorest

GEAR NEPAD

failure

figures showing

released new

this book

in

in

households

Africa

SSA

panacea for South

unemployment and poverty problems

28

,

it

was presented

the poor since 1994

less than R620

of

1995

to

monthly income

for

press

in

to

panacea

the position by the earlier figures used deterioration

it

is

of

.

's

to

Africa

,

as

going

before

in

Perhaps

Africa

unemployment and poverty problems Following

According

Africa global apartheid

own interests with little concern for the

spends huge amounts

When GEAR was announced

is 23

system

upliftment Another deficiency NEPAD that the same neo liberal principles and the same naïve optimism the GEAR

mean little

now presented

Shortly

the

while Africa primarily exports agricultural products NEPAD fails the need restructure global economic relations

the

's

Africa

political

trapped

-

on

.

strategy

474

of

in

vis -à

,

, to

based

is

doomed

cent

promote

the last

income between the Rich North and

the Rich North

of

is

position

convince the Rich North

R660

and

the fact that the Rich North

subsidies

formula for the

realise that

ideological power that has

the impoverished and powerless

interests this

the distribution

of

The Rich North

in

dependency is

of

situation

NEPAD should

decisively important but the unequal distribution

corporate economic

,

military

is

the Poor South that

a

,

not the inequality

nothing but

long

empower

majorities

their impoverished

behalf

NEPAD turns out

.



resort

Africa

Africa The architects

'

recolonisation

if

tragic

of

would

for

be

themselves and exert their sovereignty

be

of

African countries

interest

term

only

enables democratic governments

the

'

movement ) is centre left ( 1999 : 96 ). Although this has not been explicitly acknowledged , NEPAD

22

(as liberation in

in

right , and [ the ] ANC

centre

be

[ ideologically )

in

movement and the ANC

a liberation

is

'we must distinguish government . . . The ANC

1999 that

'

ANC as

the

[ in government ]

MP,

ANC

an

:

between

,

to

Turok

BE DONE !

TO

is ,

Ben

TRANSFORMATION : WHAT ' S

a

INCOMPLETE

of

Prof

21

AN

in

:

50

4

a

PART

the

Appendix

The history

of democratic

the liberal capitalist British - American (BA ) world , and social democratic continental European ( CE) countries

capitalism

have adapted

to the

the

ince decolonisation

British

in

,

of

and the collapse

in

, most countries of democratic capitalism .

the Soviet Union

dual politico -economic

system

the

by

on

of

.

is , as



It

,

of

as

(

.

BA

,

.

,

in

9



an

a

, it

( or

to

electorate

the elite group

given

and

authority

,

and

in

by

of

election

elite groups

which

to

made responsible

During

citizens

elections

the

.

are elected

).

,

147

:

which citizens jointly

periodic an

via

achieved

be

by .

.

its

of

(

1996

authority

transfer

to

,

in

power Third citizens

Offe

of

to

the

have

,

is

terms

the state

certain period

.

a

rule the country for

see

they

Second

and property



This

chooses among different political parties that gains the most votes

state

linked

are

political power and legitimacy

or

parliaments with legal authority

by

's

. ’

rulers

citizens

power wielded

for ,

by

democracy

the state

in

,

by

the

if

,

be

,

institutions

transfer

's

)

the electorate

those

including South

create state authority

possible misuse

is

representative

however

democratic capitalism

of

a

,

;

,

'

system

the procedures

version

their freedom

social services provided

government and

of

'

create

consequently

and

We call

countries

these

the immense

law against the state

the

by on

protected depend

order

countries

better served

First they help

.

in

maintaining

well

model

democratic capitalism

system

threatened

to

In to

three ways

social democracy

Poor South

far

to

be

A

.



adopt the social democratic

any country with

continental European

suits the developmental needs

made that

their developmental needswould

are potentially

in

model really

the ideology

imitating the

are

and legitimised

of

Soviet Union

)

the

countries

strong case can

were

the state

)

,

of

the developing

debatable whether this

Africa

(

-

,

based

previously part

countries

and legitimised

on

countries

Most

world based

and the version prevalent

liberal capitalism

of

)

CE

ideology (

American

of

prevalent in

BA

It is , however , necessary to distinguish among different versions of democratic capitalism . For our purposes it is sufficient to distinguish between the version

477

,

.

. the

'

welfare

society

those members

risk

states accept responsibility

all modern

of .

of

rise

at

in

, the of

living

households

for

in

to

which

for

only the legal framework that makes capitalism system

needed

maintain

just

healthy

and

,

welfare

,

not

or

,

,

is



.

and

century

the 20th

to

.

the

,

but also

of



particularly

Therefore

creating and maintaining

possible

miniature

minimum standard

economic independence

,

poor

and often

,

eroded

provide social security

becoming

a

and

became necessary

it

an

to

'

of

the

,

the to

state

individuals and

industrialisation and urbanisation

modern labour market extent that

of

, of

a

However the processes

such

security

,

as

to

before 1800

economies Extended

isolated subsistence

degree

considerable

the

),

,

ie

(

framework

paternalistic families established welfare communities offered their members

one that gives law

-

a

economies

modern

evolution

legal order

the

of

is

of

to

Before the rise

households often practised

and contract rights

including corporations

promote their own interests within

and

capitalist economic systems

difficult

long and

security

the legal system

for preventing social chaos

indispensable

western world after

,

of

in

,

referred

formarket oriented

individuals and private organisations freedom

are

for

them

freedom

a

the

in

created

which

protected against the

These laws and traditions include property

power

state

terms

or

.

created

which provide the foundation

While

and

citizens

the

law

of

the rule

power

state

economic opportunity

of which

terms

in

,

potential misuse

are

of

The laws and traditions

are

APPENDIX

.

productive society

,

system

,

,

for

,



' as

the

all

'

social rights

of

a

'

fair trade

).

,

and welfare

crystallised over time into what

we

the

of

,

478

total social

losers

regarded

'

and

for

bringing about the

which often

provide be

to

in

order



power

The tripartite link between citizens and the political economic components

of

the

in

,

of

responsible for countering

59

the 248



:

]

1983

minority

other

capitalism

democratic

economic

'

'

of

is

'

rights

every

social rights

can therefore not

responsible

Marshall

of

.

,

,

.

Property rights

responsibility

assumed

no

of

, a

In

to

.

system

taxing the winners

1949

(

al

et

,

basic

morally

this argument

had assumed

state

to

,

the for

,

as

a

is

to

, –

in

between the property

Held

certain

human being

The democratic state

Marshall

(

claim

first half

the small propertied class

century

20th

greed and the abuse

social rights

in

off

.

absolute

liberal

the

rights

,

its

he

/

according

capitalism

with basic

property

undeniable

excessive individualism emerge

fully

citizens with social rights According

by

is ,

reason than that

s

individual has

an

for providing

centuries

has since the early

state

all

the democratic

state

a

in

Just

state

and that the state was responsible for

.

century

20th

responsibility for protecting

the

modern civilised

This responsibility was only recognised

them

.

the

providing

that every person

1949

certain social rights

to

was entitled

claimed

in

TH Marshall

can

for

to

.

in

a

all

of

.

in

in

,

its

)

in

the

.

,

,

.

different patterns We

can

.

models

the history

of

CE

BA

'

the by to

in

of

vis

,

.

,

all

a

(

is

and the welfare

capitalism

and

is

is

It

can



at As

.

of

maintained

democratic early

an

1914 during

,

1870

to

from

,

to

1950 coinciding with two world wars

representative democracy

,

the early

;

of ,

and the Great Depression

the

,

employment stability under

1973

,

1950

to

from

the Cold War the expansion

of

high economic growth

the welfare

Bretton Woods

the first period

the system

state

and the end

the

,

global capitalism Cold War

democratic capitalism

.?

the welfare

rise

the

and retreat

which has witnessed

of ,

1973

of of

and

the period since

'

rate and

, of ,

;

,

forms

;

the period

of

or

,

the welfare state

state and exchange



1914

the rise

comprising the first phase

iv

periods

of

,

of

iii

age

society

result

: from

political revolutions the golden

also

are

instability

emergence

in

repackaged

-

of of

ii

the period

crisis

of

-

à

or

of ‘

'-

or

'

democracy

laissez faire capitalism

global capitalism

phase

and hence

periods during the past 130 years when

systemic

of

i

the period

power

sound balance

in

of

since 1870

subject

power

large

power

repackaging

the total system

The four successive

During

society

the

welfare sectors become too great

also identify important differences among the

capitalism

state

characterised the



is

vis -

.

to

that

a

so

challenge

institutionalised

were

system

change

but

vis the other two sectors

the detriment

four systemic

'



great

'

can

identify

three components state

too

,

the

with

redefining institutions

We

and

fixed

capitalist sector also with negative consequences faced

The welfare

and the welfare state

our dynamic world

democratic

the

the

vis

-

à

happen that the power

power

, of

the

become

can

of

,

organisational

balance

continuously

terms

century see Marshall

',

not

ideological

and

citizens

,

,

capitalism In

democratic

technological

disturb

state

20th

capitalism

continuous change and adaptation capitalist sector

welfare

.'

the

the west The

1983

of

'

'

system

of

the

third quarter

The relationship between democracy total

the

.

gradual rise

triumphed

).

1949

]

Held

(

et

al

to

flourish during

,

of

democracy

which certain basic social rights are provided began

has

19th century

(

has witnessed

is

.

by

in

the

after World War

the

20th

During

all

.

century

rise

The 18th

equal legal rights

and the legal system

1800

capitalism

note that

countries over equal political rights for

western the

1918

In

citizens

-

struggle

western countries

of

took place

for

the

.

since then created

space in

all

citizens This

respectively

and 20th centuries

struggle was largely won

CAPITALISM

interesting for

19th

the to

18th

century witnessed long struggles

-

this occurred

,

during the

system

state

It

democratic capitalist welfare

1

call

,

the

THE HISTORY OF DEMOCRATIC

was strictly 479

to

.

lower classes gained representation

to

.

of

a

to

,

democracy started

in

BA

in

low

.

1 3

relatively

and exchange rate

After World War

representative

played

countries

political

.

of

system

a

accepted

consensus

the two world wars

1

the gold standard

,

abolition

of ,

the Great Depression

to

to

the disruptions caused

revolutions

and

economic

was one

1950

by

1914

to

in

The second period from

growth owing

World War

the outbreak

with poverty

However unrestrained

industrialising

of

-

important role

laissez faire capitalism

between

the state

own devices and should

-

,

and cut throat competition

or

practise economic liberalism

full employment

general ideological

The

was that the state should leave the economy

every

an

income

concerned

its

to

or

be

, it

,

.

distribution

.

in

inequalities

and

to

.

and

was thought unnecessary

economic policy

of

social

Consequently

which price

equilibrium

microeconomic

the

these

in

only

belief

According

system

, at

large

the

have

a

in

to

economy

,

in

,

a

economics

self regulating

the

for

was

not

create

of

school

dogmatic

individual market but also macroeconomic equilibrium the

create

,

free market

would

based

-

laissez

especially

instability after the

most

countries

western

The parliaments

in

adaptation

faire capitalism

the neoclassical

the

,

or

and

in

,

doctrines

political will

this period

-

doctrines

during

approach

of

was that

of

)

world

place

time individual countries

the

on (

The ideological

a

system

and

.

welfare

state

for

the lower class

fiscal space

,

did not have the economic sovereignty

of

the global economy

this

social policy for

.

of

in

the framework

in

state

addressing social instability and unrest The gold standard was still and

to

of

to

many members

of

alleviating the appalling poverty

power

the lower

welfare

except Germany had

that

,

,

,

no

other country

created

,

,

.

period Consequently

country

western

the detriment

a

classes Except for Germany

upper classes

of

promote the sectional interests

people

classes

their parliamentary

countries used the

western

in

controlled parliament

.

The propertied

.

property qualification no of

who could meet

franchise right was still limited

a

the

,

place because the

speaking not

in

yet

APPENDIX

which the

establish welfare systems for the

and because

in

unions

)

were

in

the

increase

responsibility

a

and the as

capitalism

,

,

of



radical new

and government spending

result

governments accepted

a

.

a

constantly

with

democracy

state as

grew

of

')

.



GDP

experimented

between the

all

countries

The role

and trade

social spending This period was nonetheless

social contract state

farmers

for

,

480

of

emerging welfare spending

western



relationship

or

which

percentage

(

'

for

higher levels

(

one

in

responsible

small

between

of

coalitions

red

-

'

green

of

,

in

,

.

to

depressed economic conditions levels first time Owing social spending were still relatively low except the Scandinavian countries which

social

providing

THE HISTORY OF DEMOCRATIC

,

the

for

.

,

the

to

,

the

in

'

of

'

,

a

by

be

distributed

contrast

remarkable

referred

in

dramatically

at

more high

of

the success

to

,

is

the

welfare state

of



.

to

according

employment was maintained

what

inter

the new

ideological

the Keynesian

with the previous period

the industrialised countries became convinced

,

conflicting ideological currents

sharp

replaced

of

synthesis

In

the merits

.

-

social democratic

,

,

was reached

on

consensus

and

be

of

opportunities were

eliminated

capitalism

of

-

.

'

of

increased

.

’ , of

democracy

play

state should

should

of

poverty was largely

replaced

growth

levels and prices were kept relatively stable Because mix

should

income that had

standards

income and

the

goods and

and that the welfare state should

economic

living

such

Lord John Maynard

-

in

,

in

period

countries

liberalism

a

,

ideology

,

industrialised

third

,

the

,

the

of a

).



'

'

terms

the distribution

impediment

,

During

equally

an



become

a

in

to

an

. a

of ]

([

the

-à -

in

provision

and

which the democratic

social democracy

,

to



,

that the

,

of

a

more caring one

alia address the inequalities



were allocated

of

of

more interventionist role

him

the production

capitalism

rates

and also

repackaged

persuasive arguments that laissez faire capitalism mixed

shape

capitalist sector Consequently

was justified

approach

space

in

system

the

.

The new

Keynes a

more involved

's .

services by

far

became

final

welfare state were

greater power and

welfare states

'

state

and

vis

and

a

way that considerably

fairly stable exchange

This meant that the mutual relationships

vis

its

,

capitalism

industrialised countries

economic growth within

state assumed

greatest growth

between democracy

democratic

with

,

the Bretton Woods system

During this period the welfare experienced

1973

.

1950

high and sustained

and

1950

,

from

would not survive

1943

its

age

of ,

a

of

framework

golden

Joseph

the time was

,

democratic socialism

the third period

experienced

turmoil

to

replaced

During

An

as

of

by

be

would

ideological

time and when

the inter war period

prediction that democratic capitalism

's

Schumpeter

central

different solution

competing ideologies offered the

Nazism

,

,

as

political and economic systems

the depressing social and economic problems

interesting example

,

is a

. the

multitude

conflicting

time when serious doubts existed about the

of

the

ideological point

fascism

the

each

communism

president

state when

multitude

its

of

appropriateness

was

It

statism

of

and

socialism

place until

experiment with

From

of

,

,

planning

such

1933

in

characterised

the second period

Deal

by

,

and the welfare

New

ideological currents

.1 ).

-

,

democracy capitalism

Franklin Roosevelt launched his view

remained

That country only began

).

(

1929

of



'

mix

of

Great Depression

laissez faire capitalism

– 33

,

In

the United States

table

A

of cyclical unemployment (

problem

new

deal with stagnant economic conditions and the

to

see

infrastructural facilities

CAPITALISM

481

APPENDIX

found the correct ‘mix ’, and had at long last found

of

was that

and monetary

482

the

of

a

.

of

to

,

a

(

)

,

via

'

the trade unions

the

on

,

of

to

in

.

to

its

adapt

for

difficult

it

,

it

says make

.

unemployment

statism

the

,

.

revolt against

the

popular

mitbestimmung

declining economy These



in

taxation

wage

to

of

a

ability

in

,

of

,

state

excessive government

unemployment benefits paid

circumstances created the opportunity for the power

New

emphasise market failures

levels

,

increase

social democratic

in

increase

polarisation

just and balanced way

a

necessitated

an

,

unemployed

and the sharp

and the

social democratic

productivity due

in

increases that outstripped increases agreements

which

the high

1970s

,

the

1973

claimed that the huge power

the system

system

in

social welfare

system

the

bureaucratic failure The New

.

The stagflation

of

.

sector deprived capitalist

co

This happened after

OPEC

of

and

, ,

structural factors

the

in

promote

of

the latter

to

structural flaws

bargaining

the trade union movement



welfare

and

the corporate

made in

the

responsibility

changing circumstances The New Left continues and

to

,

of

of

(

,

-

the

of on

stagflation

state

of

Left blamed the crisis the hands

Right and

economic

,



the

overdevelopment

but also

mitbestimmung

sharp ideological

to

of

blamed

the power and lack

intervention

consensus

the neo liberal New

Right

strong

the Keynesian

,

.

Instead

of

The New

wage indexing

general acceptance

end

state

after 1973 brought the great ideological

stagflation

of

between

and perhaps

a

the

developed

an

to

'

synthesis

system

politico

union movement during

trade

the formation

crisis

first time

.

crisis

the Bretton Woods

consensus and

as

.

,

The economic

.

oil

)

,

the

of -

the Egypt Israel war

Left

and

system

the upper

that

welfare

economic downturn was experienced

an

of

vulnerable when collapse



agreements

determination

and the

institutionalised via

of

the lower classes

The strong

less equal

too



not only through parliament

high economic growth

position

or

a

bargaining position more

of

.

within the broader framework

through the strong bargaining position

time

the capitalist

this period was that for

a

They did

classes

so

-

,

the lower classes attained

, ,

,

,

,

Another remarkable characteristic

system

policy were

structural flaws uncertainties

and unequal power and property relations endogenous

economic

the

well developed

for compensating not only for cyclical instability

indispensable

unemployment and market failures but also

ever

system

new

world had reached

western

yclical fiscal

-c

-

as

which

on

approach

the new

welfare state and large scale anti regarded

the

in

1963 that

for

he



claimed

The crux



end

that

ideology



of

was based

-

.

‘ social contract ' and the

so

with the Keynesian social democratic synthesis

to

S M

impressed with this

-

Lipset was



The sociologist

for

formula

a

and just manner

in a proper

a

organising political , economic , and social life

,

that they had

welfare

bureaucratic inefficiency

and

OF DEMOCRATIC

of

in

of

the

to



.

'

-

.?

,

,

of

the

the the



of

the

,

BA

in

of

' ‘

-à -

vis

' vis

its

of

all

In

.

.

of

Most the

,

growth

which

, BA in

the way

,

capitalism

,

between democracy

1950

.

in

income has increased

BA

,

in

(

levels higher than

than those

and the welfare state over the past 130 years and the way

inflation

especially

the clear difference between

relationship

chronic

10

at

income

of ,

lower

in

the

sovereign

industrialised

higher levels

of

),

of

inequality higher

is

, to

the

to



, the

the

to

of

In

BA

a a

period

continental Europe

even more important



is

, of

the

)

.

.

,

in

(

the

countries were more determined

the unequal distribution

countries packaged

those

crisis for the welfare state

the unequal distribution

levels

of

,

,

, or

-

of

in

the

of in

far

,

in

of

.

to

CE

countries

power and

sharp contrast with the third quarter

century was

countries

countries

relentless discipline

lost much

state

).

BA

in

CE

What which

exposed

While unemployment stubbornly remains

in

per cent sharply

CE

,

in

countries

more

countries

especially

increase

is

a

sharp

and

repackaging

mix

new

considerably

retrench the welfare state but

unemployment

lower classes

state

these developments created

the 20th

especially

and

consolidate their power

independent social policy

an

to

implement

last quarter

and

state

the free

abolition

far greater degree

this period the democratic

attempts than

these

welfare

,

countries became

countries

attempted

welfare

in

all

state and the

global markets power

events

and the

sustained with

brought about yet another

the capitalist sector increased

democratic

As

All these

capitalism

after

state

In

.

,

of



'

space

capitalism

democratic

This happened

economics

market

free

and still

higher classes

the

school

The propaganda

.

-à -

that

.

CE

of

in

countries

democracy

was excessive

industrialised countries with

multinational corporations

trade union movement than

statism

global

enabled

of

of

vis

dramatically

rise

sector

to

managerial elite

anti

the

system

,

Woods

vis the

,

marketeers together with Bretton

(

of

interest

vested

global

highly theoretical but

instead

Right was

New

the powerful corporate the

their huge

emergence

the welfare state were

neoclassical

a

a

of

in

at

as by

zeal

and

the alleged efficiency

The ideological victory evangelic

over

the mainstream

proof

were presented

the

time when market failures and the skewed power relations

the capitalist sector were glossed

unrealistic models

the

supported

right wing backlash

Government failures and the bureaucratic waste overemphasised

that

the United

The end result

.

in

gave rise

little doubt that the

is

.

There

Britain

financial markets



capitalism

communication

in

electronic revolution

of

's

victory and the freeing

-

Right

New

and anti- statism

president Ronald Reagan

States and prime minister Margaret Thatcher

of

during the terms

zenith

to neo -liberalism

ideological swing

an

of

reached

Right ,

The ensuing ideological battle was won by the New

the

its

which engineered

.

of

waste , and taxation

CAPITALISM

by

THE HISTORY

countries 483

,

,

a

BA

to

cent

to

12

,

to

to

7

more

less than

,

per of to

. per 1 ).

A

50

1890

50

CE

).

of in

(

From

or

(

of

countries

as

and

of

in

BA

.8

in

BA countries

a

in

BA

a

in

1999

GDP

1910

1950

1930

1980

1970

1992

Av

1890

1890

countries was

GDP averaged

spending

Government percentage

:

Table

.T

cent

GDP

countries but considerably

total government spending

A

of

total government spending

countries tend

From

countries see table

percentage

CE

,

as

1999 social spending

the ascendant

percentage

higher than

points

a

percentage

as

government spending

emphasise

during the systemic periods when

even

the social democratic ideology has been

while

),

ascendant

in

in

liberal capitalist ideology

emphasise

tend

during systemic periods when the liberal

even

capitalist ideology has been

larger more active

countries consistently

the

social democratic ideology

state

CE

.

interventionist role (

.

and more

CE

The former consistently gave the democratic

so

did

APPENDIX

1999

30 1

,,

7

25

, , 33 4 41 ,

33 0

, , 48 5

44 8

0

,

55 1

BA

of

in

CE

.

36

,

;

:

;

,

in

-

BA

of

,

, BA

in

of

countries

and

to

are concerned

the state

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1980

;

1992

Dyson

).

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.

in

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countries

sector

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countries Harrop

These countries

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BA see

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14

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67 2 29

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, 0, 4 48

3

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societies that are inherently

the

32 37 7 8

34 43

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46 ,

60 9

9 36

4 2

,



the state

way

often even hostile towards

484

state

oecd

oecd 2001

and welfare sectors

worlds According

are

table

tables land

and regard state intervention

.

as

to

'

as

legitimate

stateless

regarded

, 7, 8

,

of

countries

state authority

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intervene

the public

both

these two

the bureaucratic capacity

defer

1992

,

other European

economy

33 37

29 29 ,

35 0

;

size

Cusack

are not incidental but linked

state and the market and

December 1997

in

countries

Report Washington

World Development

of

The differences

9

,

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,

( 62 )

Outlook

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14 3

World Bank 1997

in

:

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countries

12 1

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, 37 , 7

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, 15 0,

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, ,

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Sweden

9 0

Germany

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UK

Liberal capitalist countries

THE HISTORY OF DEMOCRATIC

,

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CAPITALISM

quarter

485

century

20th

liberals claimed that should governments

the economic

,

of

-

the

APPENDIX

they would not eliminate unemployment

CE

on

be

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CE

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rights

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economists

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state

placed

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Ricardo

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withholds

the state

.13

protagonists

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dogmatic free marketeerism

David

of

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however wrong

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The blame

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.

society

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Smith advocated

fact aggravate

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introduce poverty relief programmes

4

86

BA

and political

,

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,

4

.!

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to

when widespread poverty and mass unemployment began threaten the survival the market oriented capitalist system The countries therefore

THE HISTORY OF DEMOCRATIC

is

soon as

survival of capitalism

reasonable

a

is no longer

,

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roll back the welfare state

of

rate

threatened ,

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free market . The

the

growth

attained

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strong forces

,

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unleashed

to

implication

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perpetuate

to

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reasons, and

economic

for

and the United States under

Britain

in

mainly

CAPITALISM

via

'

of



the

CE the

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to on

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),

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Europe and

those countries

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,

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of

IMF

-

market

relevance

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and

development assistance

free market ideology but also

irrespective

the 20th

world

The World Bank

co

as the

,

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crisis

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;

purveyors

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intervention

,

unrealistic

)

exporting not only

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-

became known

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in

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.



position

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state

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themerits

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,

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developing countries

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market and

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,



ie

efficiency

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to

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thought

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during the Great Depression and the

therefore

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price adjustments huge

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by

.

resources

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century

stance

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the 20th century was based

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automatically harmonise supply and demand

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neoclassical doctrine that competitive markets not only

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in

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market during

the state

belief

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BA

CE

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than

and their taxpayers

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1970s

differences

unemployment insurance

carry the burden

alleged

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.

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traditional

of

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,

unemployment and structural poverty

allocate

explain

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,

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economic systems and policies between

countries play

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larger

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countries

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the 19th and early 20th centuries

in

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they were

are

society and

the

explained

be

can

countries by

in

etatistic

CE

Current conceptions

of

of

.

Thatcher and Reagan

487

by

’,

by

it

developed

countries

Instead

is

of

,

limitless accumulation

some kind

perfect

'

system

to

neoclassical economics have begun

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ideological one

.

sector

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to

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construct

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of

and prestige

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analytical thrust

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theoretical model

continuing the quest

market

can only

workings

with efficient allocation and choice

concerned

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,

power

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it

beauty

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pretends

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the United States

classical economics has exchanged

While

of

the myth

between

-

even

in

reality

-

The large

its

gap

APPENDIX

Several economists have argued convincingly that competitive markets are

.

Okun

's

.. .

by

.16

49 )

It

.

.

, ..

it

in

.

be

aids

those with

need democracy

and

into equality

).

20



to

119

chance

protected with

put some rationality

:

'(

1975

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.

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in

given

to

and with countervailing

We

,

promotes economic growth

is

liberal capitalist belief that free market capitalism

efficiently and that

it

allocates scarce resources

the

]

Closely connected with

market

vending machine society

capitalist society

efficiency

the

the

because

.. .[

its

in

place

they need each other in

a

In

low

.. .

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and

and some humanity

democratic

does well

work effort and productive contribution

other values and establish

detailed regulation and sanctions

it

be

to

,

prizes

]

to

for

.. .

be

the

to

the

to

kept

place

protect our freedoms against

most importantly

state

kept

The rights and powers thatmoney should not buy must

488

:

balanced statement

the many things

,

would sweep away

capitalism

to

'(

obviously far less efficient

needs

accomplish

all

But themarket needs

market

bureaucracy and helps

place provide the incentives

income

1992

on in

purely hortatory

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merit

The notion that the market

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indeed

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: scope

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transgression

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enough

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capitalism

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developing countries

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growth

allocate scarce resources

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Given

generate

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economic theory does not

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itself can efficiently

or

efficiently

definition

Przeworski

support the conclusion that competitive markets are sufficient either resources

to

(

coincide with

the democratic process

the present state

claims that

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,

through

outcomes would

these

),

fail

and also

markets were

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be

social welfare expressed he

of

socially justifiable

correct when

even

assuming that this can ever

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produce efficient outcomes which probably not

optimise economic growth

purely competitive market

.

its

is

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)

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THE HISTORY OF DEMOCRATIC

- or, more

the liberal capitalist notion that economic growth capita GDP – is a

. An

measurable money terms.

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the golden age



feature

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the remarkable

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,

As noted earlier

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.

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to

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that the capitalist

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does not imply

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and the state cannot

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line with this

these conflicting logics the market cannot

for

.

to



desirable

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and which collective goods

nor the democratic

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do

to

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promote

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democratic

indicated

fulfil Given

supposed

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failures

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to

is

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system

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'



.

in

'

in

has the essential

society

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trusted

multidimensional

1 5

the

determine the

social welfare

GDP

the social democratic

do

approach

The crux

of

defines

,

represents

Britain

expressed

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that themarket cannot

collectively

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CE



individualism

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As

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collective wisdom

at

goods represents

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are

Those who believe in the

and

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approach

do

CE countries strongly

satisfied that market prices represent true values and that the

market prices

that

In

or

progress

– and often not quantitatively measurable – indicators

favour multidimensional

of social welfare .

turn ,

of CE countries is

of social

every dimension

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into

approach

and the social democratic

-

retrogression

approach

and

liberal capitalist

the

sum

of

the inclination

and

of social

the level

blatant materialistic

a

important difference between

of the BA world

approach

betrays

notion of what constitutes the social welfare or the general country

a

of

satisfactory ) index

a

country . This disposition

individualistic interest of

good (or even

17

of

welfare

a

, the level

correctly

73

of per

CAPITALISM

,

,

;

economic growth rates were high prices exchange rates and societies were 489

APPENDIX

employment was maintained

,

-

19

, BA

.

(

to

the

ability and

on

and social democratic

and their

over

.

,

)

BA

,

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in

BA

,

far

,

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.

,

1997 is

-

their hard won

the

Time

the right

model 24

'.

countries

)

CE

and

has

).

are

transfers

,

social policies

in

to

and

social democratic

the world

in

growth

and inflation are

between employment

which

those that pursue social

of

job

23 In

'

'

as

to

creation with

style free market

The only countries

54

:

1992

(

is

no

The United

US -

in

trade

omprising

between

poor after taxes and

policies

the

,

to

'

growing inequalities

.. .

490

buy

countries that combine strong unions with

control over the government democratic

undignified

,

-

in

off

-

trade

off

a

,

a

and

more favourable

one

view

lower income inequality more extensive welfare

more favourable trade

almost

more humane

conditions under which

BA

that

OECD countries

(c

shown repeatedly

be

the

of

of

,

statistical analysis

found

about

are not

ever they

the important conclusion that

of

Przeworski comes

services

and

prepared

hazards and inequalities to

the

Europeans

for

social justice

American model with

lousy jobs

Britain

,



them

.

for

path

more unequally

remain convinced that the welfare state

Europeans

that

the income has been

these countries

junk

lower wages lower social expenditure reported

but

wages and poor

low

lesser extent

25

,

the

Because

, '

,

and

a

to



States

years

countries

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accept

are

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Americans must perform their

and

latter

lifelong jobs are probably gone

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,

labour

unemployment insurance

growth



regard

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and

high

.

brutalities and social fractures

the one hand

that the glory days

realise

to

not prepared

nonetheless

countries

on

job

in

,

extravagant welfare benefits

past

of

CE

countries

chosen

the

,

.21 22

While

during CE

Consequently

distributed fairly equally

.

right

the

countries have consistently

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,

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off problem

In

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to

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years clearly reveals their different values and ideological orientations

off

25

in

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both

diminished sovereignty within

are

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security

-

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.20

-

individual

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Perhaps

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of

-

negative

mainly

growing

1980s

countries were confronted with having

industrialised

the

sum

circumstances

rates

of

all

become distributed more unequally

exchange

era

the

In

.

fluctuating

the mid

),

;

and widely

until

sharp contrast

of

,

one

eradicated

stagflation

of

;

1973 has been

unemployment

income was distributed

In

was largely

and poverty

more equally since

full

relatively stable ;

THE HISTORY OF DEMOCRATIC

;



liberal capitalist countries with the same

'

the capitalist

'

vis

-à -

vis

democratic

and income more equally

higher than those

and even higher

of

;

more developed

social welfare will probably

distributed and their levels

of

levels



will

strong social

a

the system

and relatively strong

developed

state

of

,

part the welfare

' democratic ' part

the

be

will be well

capitalism

countries with

be

,

democratic approach

in

in developed

therefore conclude that

can

of

We

CAPITALISM

per

.

capita GDP

not have

, ,

all

faces the

the

for

of .

of

a

),

all

a

,

.

of

markets

a

32

an

).

:

(

of as

no

-

there was home except

.. .

)

was experienced

at

to

century

mitigate economic distress (

for

1989

before the First in

GDP

GDP after 1973

,

after the decline

Even

1960

social

because the higher unemployment paid out Although social expenditure expressed the idea

the welfare

a

as

peaked

state

in

of

1985

(

, .

of

primarily

per cent

of

,

from

of

.

12 3

).

in to

to

)

1985 rise

peaked

GDP

, 3 , 8

a

'

in

(

percentage

and early 20th

OECD countries rose

in

of

insurance that had

21

:

GDP

continued

be

,

to

expenditure

of

per cent

see Maddison

domestic laissez faire and

1949 382

social expenditure 24 6

The

]

]' ([

1936

of

World War

the fourth

system

19th

a

to

the competitive struggle

through

in

Under the

international gold standard the late government whereby means open

in

, ,

1 2

follows

year

a

2 5

,

per cent

:

it

as

in

,

the third and

Keynes put

16

in

a

1 6

,

2

Africa

South

after 1994

leading member countries Economic growth per capita OECD averaged per cent year per cent year per cent the first period the second

year

4

that

that

system

and social rights for

300 years

than

developing these three rights

enormous task

3

world over more

the western

in

developed

While political judicial

all

social rights

basic

to

supplied

fully

system

or

all ,

(

system

a

Africa still

South

legal democratic with political rights for guaranteed property and contract rights for fully fledged welfare representative

all

did

,

4

,



note that before 1990

to

disturbing

is

It

1

Endnotes

the early

inequalities

far

,

of

justifications

]

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is

,

so

of

wealth

commonly supposed

is

as

,

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on

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me

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for

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:

]

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'(

of

parties

to

is

removed

of

,

example

the abstinence

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conditions the growth

1936 1949 473 the left and right the ideological spectrum the Labour and Conservative parties Britain were similar that was therefore

political

The policies

pointed

impede

contemporary

of

to

likely

.

from

In

:

'

follows

being dependent

more

6

as

it

Keynes put

in

5

.

1970s

almost every

OECD countries

of

a

,

4



3

:

3 – 7

'(

degree

).

the

(

-

]

to

we

ie

of

.. .[

the

of



by

in

1996

the United States has been

If

average

medieval scholasticism

the

connection between

presentperiod attains

.

than

for

points lower

'

high theorising



be ”



The

modern day economics

the mark

extraordinary indifference

matched only government expenditure Since 1960 that can

the

8

unreality

reality

.. .

) is

classical school

theory and

its

,

Heilbroner and Milberg

-

neo

to

7

.

policy issue According

percentage

also take into account that

491

) in in

the

11

-

7

system

is

its

.

15

welfare

the second place

the United

States

is

to

welfare

in

of

countries

In

of

)

,

the private sector while the public 20

of

and the private

the burden

per

in

in

that country and that

per cent

the

points

percentage

the fact that the liberal

,

in

55 of

to

,

80

per cent

industrialised

government expenditure

other western

per cent

fact that

sector and

has been

has

,

Europe bears

the public

those

45

by

sector

in

financed

defence

by

.

be

ascribed

defence

the first instance

particularly strong

to

be

developed

the

is

compared

it

capitalist ideology

nuclear capability

GDP then government expenditure

The lower level

ascribed

weakly

must

on of

3 1

countries

must

States

on

,

EC

(e

xcluding expenditure

lower than most United

per cent

,

countries has only been United States

maintain

to

GDP while the average spending

of

# 7

been

per cent

of

spending on defence (primarily

American

its

APPENDIX

the

sector only

as

of

view

society was accepted

by



9

organic

or

corporatist

This kind

'

of

.

cent

natural

of

of

all

,

in

of

',

'

the

in

its

-

(

or

as a

as

,

In

of

of ’

of

a

in

up

that society

made

is

are

)

told repeatedly

self interest and pursuing individually

chosen

of

,

-

by

[

in

Britain

,

as

a

,

is

a

'

it

it,

if

, it; as

to



is

-

the

the



of

al ,

neo liberal prescriptions

,

is

be

must maintain

the

it

and physical security

,

territorial integrity

to

in

If

of

organising both public role state institutions groups and individuals democracy sustained the

of

state must guarantee

the principal mistake

.

life

of

and the private

et

Przeworski

that they underestimate

).

12

:

'(

-

,

held

that

a

a

From

.

)

.

a

( of

.

41 )

1990

, cf ,

(

recent neo liberalism moral corruption

caused

-

in

life

new

protection

:

,

and drunkenness

,

,

social

them

'(

an

argument that has found

Second

thriftlessness idleness

First they

for the poor would cause poverty and unemployment to

Friedman

).

not eradicate

labour was sanctified

double one

)

social minimum it –

guaranteed

form

their argument was

[

,

welfare perspective

492

it

It

'

:

as

it

-

popularisers that the pure commodification

Milton

,

co

,

an

citizenship conditions necessary for effective exercise must mobilise public savings ordinate resource allocation and correct income distribution 1995 Esping Andersen puts follows was among Ricardo and other laissez faire

-

13

Prussia instituted compulsory compulsory education system

we may come believe and we believe we though some small but destructive degree were true

in

,

18

liberal Britain

of of

a

as

to

behave

the

12

process



or

214

welfare state

).



:

(

1988

and hence

common good sentimental fantasy and the notion deciding what should count the common good either

potentially tyrannical

According

body

see Esping Andersen

.

in

: ' If

we

that the notion

to

of

absurd

this can

1902

atomistic individuals driven

may start

corporate

that Germany already launched

while

Marquand also states

politics

the organic

the individuals concerned

-

)

(

1806

was only introduced

goods

for

also not surprising that the paternalistic

state education 11

coherence

,

It

.

and

moral well being

not surprising

therefore

1880s

and materialism



health

the

is

is

It

10

:

1990

the

in

to

threat

89 ). to

a

threat

individualism “

excessive

and

members owe

exchange

this approach forms and relentless competition are see

.

certain

claim

which

all

of

.

organic whole

and moral responsibility social rights and privileges terms

one another mutual loyalty

in

an

is

also that society

is

Catholic Church

.

on

by

feudal and medieval period dominated the church The mutual societies formed guilds society the were also based this view The conception the Roman

THE HISTORY OF DEMOCRATIC The first ( limited ) social legislation was enacted

not nearly

well

)

in

of

the

1991

).

,

largesse

the rest

September

15

as

associated with pollution

or

in

[

(

'

such

and

the

a

is

it

'(

Externalities

and public goods

innovations

USA

the

The Observer

capitalism

state

fatten

-

the

of

-

of

follows

are

as

it

)

laissez faire

:

,

get

puts

dose

firm

a

Stiglitz

not the only factors that create stumbling blocks

otherwise market efficient economy Imperfect information and incomplete to

list

the

of

GNP and

:

‘A

conventionally believed

is

as

linear link between the size

from

factors

).

:

'(

1998

3

a

is

such

derive

,

welfare people

it

Alex Rubner there

or

the utility

have been added

the market economy

,

to

According

condition

common

problems

no

rise

in

to

extremely

an

-

markets which give

of

.

an

for

in

,

the -

as

of

state

world

while the poor and disadvantaged

the American model on

of

think

in

actually

of

that Europeans like

, ‘

Michael Ignatieff says correctly

the

16

developed

countries

laissez faire red tooth and claw but form military industrial complex great corporations which

17

1965 , but

in

in

is

in

the United States today

Society

.

CE the 15

's Great

president Lyndon Johnson

by

the United

In

is

Deal was extended

welfare state

.

mass unemployment . The

in 1933 amid

it

'

as

'

States a welfare state was only introduced New

1909 . The welfare

in

the welfare state to pre -World War 2 levels

her best to reduce

tried

Britain

in

very slowly until 1945 , when Attlee extended it considerably . Thatcher

grew

as

system

to

14

CAPITALISM

made

of

in

in

[

,

,

2 0

5

in

,

:

no

).

in

in

, ,

2 8

-

CE

in

).

cent the taxpayers

countries

.

for unemployment benefits

sharp

the United States

.

in

of

can satisfy our

– 2

:

191

,

per

-

of

in

-

-

10

of

in

the higher growth rate the United States the American population During the 1980s

.

'

(

necessary

1990

the

nature

In

of



has

to

).

-

Esping Andersen

the benefits per cent the richest

highly

1960 onwards further complicated

from

such benefits have been abolished

20

per

per cent from

the post industrial society

pay the taxation

,

business

the 1960s was

the 1980s and

that high technology economics

arisen

work

Thurow to

wentmainly

countries

to

almost to

,

contrast

According

has

post industrial society and the changing

unemployment rate higher than

remain prepared

OECD

all

an

,

Despite

that took place

fear

the

about reconciling

it



.. .[

Consequently

The community

1

:

so

of

opportunities

wants but not our need

process through

214

per cent

called industrial

With the rise

, .

problem

the

off

industrialised countries trade

growth

the 1970s

1996

the

'(

]

of

Thurow

The transition

to

,

1995

(

to

per cent

3 6

it

1990

,

was

in

of [

the

GDP

While the average rate cent

job

is

of

a

is be ,

Politics

.

a “

conflicts between individually chosen purposes public purposes 1988

with the choice 19

endeavours

nonsensical

].

Jeremy Bentham

is

or

is ,

common

)

its

on

should

purposes

fictitious body

is

cutting phrase

,

's

the ideas

of

on

moulded

Jeremy Bentham

20

that

it

to

)

(

.

of

to

agrees

as

a

the notion that politics

political community

British approach

21

its

those human

stated

purports which record The money values which the GNP not uniformly oriented links with the utilities people derive from them

Marquand claims that which

22

a

a

for

,

even

criticism

).

:

(

welfare measurements

accurate

within

the prosaic

61

1970

18

are

also open

however

society

given

'

up

the output

it

to

fails

provide

the efforts

is ,

.

time span The conventional GNP

of

the total human happiness generated

a

to

by

, ,

ie

of

of

on

divergence from fundamental appraisal the conventional GNP must centre comprehensive picture the social product the failure theGNP tool draw

493

the

.

far

(

per cent

In

The net

total wealth

.

of

44

.

,

0 5

per

31

44

in

of

to

in

per

in

1989

more

of

of

64

no

Thurow

of

a

as

,

).

:

saying

it

;

we

,

is

)

,

to

(

to

.

).

abolish

Time that while Americans social safety nets Europeans have grown on –

,

December 1997

want

don

't

.

We

unhealthily dependent

and some argue

8

-

to

it

to

government

according

of

of

. ,

our very society

problem

is a

,

the German Bundestag

as

of

a

,

GDP has

1990 but remains less than

:

-

1996

percentage

71

5

per cent

in

23 , in

to

in

Germany

member

date The performing with the flimsiest

'(

of

our economy but up

in to

to

bring

accustomed

494

per cent

Germany would seriously propose abolishing the welfare state This

of



model not are used

cent per cent

rose once again

1990

Esping Andersen

(

4

1980

Time quotes Andreas Schockenhoff

want

was about

to

22

to

of

25 ,

per cent

the United States

in

15

from

per cent

Nobody

1983

was distributed

the richest

The

).

ch

:

23

per cent and

cent

1920

and health expenditure

Social security decreased

24

rose from

the greater earnings

1

dropped

it

1975 1996

The net wealth

the richest one per cent

wealth

per cent

only income but also property 1973

in

American population

not

.

that

1995 than

less than

26

this

in

net result unequally

cent pocketed in

of

1

is

the richest

per

APPENDIX

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,

305

,

subsistence

AIDS

159

65



259



,

155

,

239

444

Apprentice

Agricultural Marketing Act 1937 agriculture

, ,

352



– – 24 5

,

70

68 –

, ,

298

466

394

4 85 – 5

,

80



276

157 229

,

387

264

,

258

134

333

67

102

421 430



8

1892

101

267 297

202 219

72

241

190



184

– 1

173

– 4

, - , 9 , 15 , – – 5 52 5 , , , ,

Afrikaners

369

403

1914

63

,

Afrikaner Rebellion

297

AAC

352

Anti Squatting Act apartheid

Afrikaner establishment



,

, 63

-9 ,

83

-

1

,

80

3

394

30

,

307

344



297 302

,

Angola 256



,

314

-

Nationalism

Christian

)

(

AB

– 6

,

266

,

,

243

Afrikaner

-

, ,

Boer War

317

302

122

70 15 ,

Anglo

114

-

,

,

54

)

(

70

,

-2

111

Afrikaner Broederbond

102

283

280

Corporation

,

,

Afrikaans 351

314

ANCYL

Anglo American 72 – 6

282

Afrikaanse Handelsinstituut AHI

,

,



League

Youth

100

250



Workers Union

443

,

Mine

277

465 African

policy

economic 110

86

,

)

447

(

,

304

428 439

,

,

136

310

,

,

120

422

456

450

, 18 ,

,

47

445

78

action

371

13 ,

affirmative

of

, 2

Abolition of Passes and Co -ordination Documents Act , 1952 318

406

Index

326

517

INDEX

17

,

,

, 8

50



31

189

,

,

,

8



,

180

,

,

,

,

,



132

,

3



,

,

)

– 8



)

(

11

,

,

,

,



,

85 , 8, ,

62 ,



56



,

,

91

70

, 51 , 18 , ,

-8

,

38

, 11 ,

,



,

,

,

,

428 431 460

,

– 7

445

479

466

,

477

,

,

435

91

– 4

,

,

426

-

,

-

industrial

social

468

441

,

91

,

101

4

-

303

,

,

182

441

,

, –

,

,

80

,

274

405 420

,

,

253

,

394

128

,

372

,

,

57 – 8

239

41 ,

63

121

32 , 85

477 484

114



,

423 439

,

,

297

,

,

,

463

, -

-

,

,

-

444

350

271

,

204

,

194

345 9

,

-6

228

– 1

,

110

15 11 , ,

395

,

460

252 51 ,

446

,

240

40

188

liberal



1

350



)

(

,

312

BPC

223

,

Boipatong massacre



Boer Republics 219

20

– 4

,

349

,

,

243 424

463

,

,

332

– 3

)

(

-

,

455

racial 281



419

453

,

336

's

black protest

309

483 490

Labour Relations Regulation Act

BLAS

137

298

270

244

democratic global

121

114

253

478

60 ,

)

(

BEECom

225

,

,

406

corporate

Commission

Convention

203

,

,

, ,

330

Labour Act 1964 322

Black People

110 18 –

-

)

(

capitalism

198

black

black local authorities

376

labour ratio

98 –



BCM

334

1953

181

172

23

)

(

capital

437

518

Cape Corps

173

Cape Regiment 172

350

51

Act

1809

188

108

see elite

1953

226

Proclamation

183

351

Black Empowerment

Black

Africa BSA

Coenraad

Caledon

340

335

BCP

32

South

128

and

Business

,

1952

Consciousness Movement

Black Education

Black

,

447

apartheid

-

,

Programme

consciousness

black elite

116

1937

316

Act

Passes

,

Black Community

349

BER

(

Research

productivity

business

,

Act

Amendment

316

of

,

Laws

,

)

Native

Black Building Workers Act 1951

Black

385

467

,

bureaucracy

348

Buys

Black Abolition

black

220

54

264

122

278

– 4

204

,

Economic

6

350

(

Black

304

300

479 481

,

191



116

15

Billiton

395

382

Lionel

Steve

391

– 2

,

270

104

1820

,

budget deficit

224

– 1

,

,

Biko

427

,

settlers

Bureau

Beaumont Commission Bernstein

-

,

,

, 246 ,

231

,

,

,

137

300

422

451

for

167

,

)

,

9

223

British

137

11



,

, 78 – 9

133

312

– 1

-

274

375

470

-

Basuthos

339

394

158 BIG

of

Hottentots

-

Bastaard

EmploymentAct

329

,

,

404

249

310

Bretton Woods system

Basic Income Grant

326

,

-

petit

,

400

270 120

422

223

Basic Conditions

321



319 321

Afrikaner black

225

,

– 4

340

,

338

,

,

,

,

,

396

,

386

,

82

,

78

75 – 6

,

tribe

383

(

Baralong

375

,

,

348

71

13 ,

Bantustans

203

– 2

1970

193

,

Laws Amendment Act

bourgeoisie

33

323

Bantu Laws Amendment

327

309

, –9,

1964

Constitution

,

,

Act

,

Act

1971

Bantu Homelands

73 – 4

Botha

334

,

Commission

Botha General Louis

347

, , 36 ,

Bantu Education

304

345

33 39

Act, 1951

border industries

,

Bantu Authority

Bantu

(BAAB )

Board

340, 352

,

, 332,

8

321 –4 , 326

P W

Bantu Affairs Administration

,

Darwinism

Social

,

,

,

12

79

)

– 9

, , , 8,

87 –

,

2

-

,

, , , ,

11



,

,

72 – 5 40

,

-4

,

, ,

– 4

, ,

– 4

– 9

,

,

– 5

,

,

,

,

,

,

,

, 3

-8



317

7

346

,

,

,

12

111

-

108

1952

,

99 –

,

,

88 – 9

27

,

101

101

,

,

95

,

88

,

490

,

movement

481

-6

,

477

– 1

,

405 459

83 -4

,

17

16 –

,

10

70 ,

,

400

83 398

Act

)

1936

,

Trust and Land

(

Economic Policy DEP

87 278 – 8

,

Bantu Education

,

Development

79

125

( DP )

108



,

)

(

Trade Unions

,

,

, 9

395

Department

,

87

,

democracy

Department

103

82

,

79

,

348

Democratic Party

African

301

327

decolonisation

,

,

CPSA

303 404

-

,

)

(

Africa

297

79 72

decentralisation

democratic

327

South

COSATU

South

255

122

,

,

252



, ,

De

Beers

,

De

Beer Zach

social 419

,

,

of

,

– 3

Congress

254

of

compounds

324

282 321

,

,

348

,

281

commuter migrancy

121

386

of

28

483

Communist Party 346

,

,

43

– 2

-4

469

,

333

349

309 330 347 349 481

,

communism

82 – 3

199

(

332

of

communications

,

,

,

Crossroads

4

402

, 68 , ,

,

,

113

430

,

,

_

426

274

,

227

,

223

– 4

208

,

192

,



394



,

,

,

,

399 406

,

,

306

90

386



,

,

273

377

,

,

8

-

266

373

,

,

242

172

469

191 220 225

271

Defiance Campaign

,

164

153

463

Trade Unions

-

)

crime

25

F

J

Col FPH

-6

342

,

– 5

,

,

251

70

commandos

-

,

, )

– 3

, ,

-

54

98

,

37

,

Cresswell

De Klerk

402

399

136

20

-

,

,

,

5

,

384

273

,

,

332

Sir

(

,

-6

25

20 ,

,

15

-

-



,

, 73 ,

6

, 4



,

247

323

,

, ,

338

171

245

313

487

-

185

,

-4

colour prejudice

185

,

14

a

,

,

,

183

219

402

colour bar 273

coloureds

403

394



14

158

Dutch

179 210

134

,

384

,

298

453

446

371 406

,

15

,

14 –

, ,

242

393

171

159

British

-

,

5

3

-

107

116

405

violent 402

9

)

colonialism

Democratic South

Craddock

99

95

Africa

for

Conference

(

CODESA

10

482

114 394

280

,

,

445

,

132

436

,

-

,

120

,

, 64 , ,

6

,

52

32 31 –



400

398

120

405 448

Non European

of

Council

CNETU

228

,

,

171

109

224

,

201

246

class differentials 134

5

-

, ,

– 2

corruption

F W

,

Chinese labour

371

482

global 459

Shaka

401

439

464

corporatism

4

44

child abuse

110

,

,

,

399 see

425

462

-9

– 2

,

456

, ,

246

,

122

– 2

,

421

399

396

,

– 8

,

eg

257

244 248 251

,

, 385

under names

341

282

347

284

,

–8

,

8

,

67

202 207

, ,

, ,

199

,

-

,

,

– 3

, , 12

59

270 277

263 277 also

134

118

,

Chamber of Mines

chiefs

100

72

28

(CDE ) 260

corporate sector Corpo – 6

for Development and Enterprise

Centre



Corn Laws British

403

,

- 1, 385 ,

200

342

Business Movement CBM

(

–7

95

, 1856

cattle killing

441

333

Court 442

Consultative

191, 193 , 226

theft

1996

Constitutional

, 229 , 242 , 245

166

311

45 – 6

constitution

200 , 230

137

,

,

207 , 230 , 385

farming

119

437 461

,

cattle 6 , 163 – 7, 169 – 70 , 181 , 192 , 198 , 204 ,

disease

114 352

,

242

,

, Lord

Carnavon

20

INDEX

519

,

384

– 5

81 ,



– 5

,

465

,

,

Federation

346

,

300

,

.

)

(

,

)

8

16

,

,

,



,

3

,

,

, 97 ,

32

-4

120

-

,

,

86

113

,

,

,

)

(

,

,

305

433

71 ,

,

122

14

– 18

,

-6

374

FOSCOR

434

,

,

,

-

306

120

430

investment 310

1948 299 300

96 – 7

82

426

foreign

477

,

,

15

117

,

334

,

, /s

election

482

FDI

investment

343 375

114

Werner

113

387

direct

-

Dr

,

Eiselein

109

, foreign

,

,

forced removals

79

Eglin Colin

225 227

,

firearms 222

,

-

,

90

89 ,

,

389

383

Unions

Trade

342



,

80



,



,

, , 47 ,

, 8

251

305

Mfengu

fiscal policy 199

430 433 451 468

427



374

466

374



– 5

,

392 397

95

89 ,

51 , -

,

349

,

334

52 , , 35 ,

,

27

13

education

464

– 8

457



420

138

FCI

Industries

see

Fingos

( 39 SA , )

economy

(

EDPs

338

313

also land ownership

South African

FOSATU

)

economic

programmes

(

development



Federated Chamber

314

see

481

of

fascism

159

61

farms

279



,

195

of

)

DRC

(

,

,

Church

190

John

,

180

264 385 394 Dutch Reformed

Fairbairn

,



172

1946

156

153

, 6,

, ,

15

204

,

, ,



169

,



,

163

– 5

60

Dutch East India Company 159

202

,

193

70 11

Benjamin

Fagan Commission 331

,

-

391 – 4

, 265 ,

259

Sir



,

Urban

1959

5

334

,

432

– 30

,

429

,

,

54

, 58 60 , ,

, 47 ,

195

,

,

386

,

,

, -

25

, , 21

3 –

,

,

119

117

454

University Education Act

Extension

,

9

115

390

401

,

333

,

,

,

283

,

75

– 6

,

racial

32

124 –

exports

386

371

114

395

of

,

,

387

,

– 43

390

395

-

personal

385

drought D

333

404

discrimination 386

383

exploitation

384

122

117

115

,

221

discrimination laws

disease

385

8

expenditure

Dingiswayo

395

,

,



Dingane 207

exchange controls

122

275

271 343

, ,

Data

ESCOM

301

77

Dimension

English establishment 54

Dr Nic

,

Diedericks

261

, 15,

,

9

228

diamonds

242

INDEX

437

344

387

,

,

,

,

, ,

,

,

,

,

,

,

-

269 275

380

57 , , , – , 64 68 , , – 72 8 9, , 74 , ,

, -7 54 , ,

– 5

116

,

483 485

-

60

)

FMF

347 442

,

1955

,

Charter

121

438

1

,

20

,

,

462 480

(

,

60

424

198

,

Freedom

, ,

18

, ,

98

-

,

137

104

421

84 – 5

,

,

47

1998

459

251

330

free trade 180

117

,

335

1892

101

240

Free Market Foundation 75

,

,

,

463

201

,

Employment Equity Act

520

459

,

190

1833

,

-2

,

,

employment

443 455

436

114

Act

,

Emancipation

31

133

3

,

446

186

,

,

137

, , 84 ,

,

– 9

,

,

468

economy

free market

80

400

,

398

-

392

,

,

– 8

,

441 466

– 8

126

332

,

,

132

133

,

elitism

247 251

245

306

Franchise and Ballot Act

244

120

205

480

478

– 7

white

,

,

422 438

282

,

344

78

38

, ,

,

black

331

,

60 ,

,

224

199

278

461 483

195

Afrikaner 38

,

elite

38

electricity

franchise

125

,

4

28

-

3

1994

,

1953 347

INDEX

Huguenots

155

,

,

,

– 7

,

,

, ,

89

– 9 2

,

,

349

,

,

,

32





6

,

45

,

,

'

69

1979

,

(

– 5

Commission

)

(

ILC

– 6

89

)

(

ISP

Industrial Strategy Project

,

,

Legislation

Industrial

196

5



,

,

IDC

343

Industrial Revolution 251

345

)

Industrial Conciliation Act

,

,

1956

-2

Act

336 – 7

277

Industrial Conciliation

,

22



,



201 203 205

249

,

1924

,

,

– 3

271

341

)

-4

273

Industrial Conciliation Act

335

224

, ,

4

,

490

79

,

, ,

,

-

,

62

93



)

,

,

334

,

38 – 9

96

-

(

IM

,

,

,

,

,

483

387

,

328

,

,

199

373

442

Industrial and Commercial Workers Union (

,

– 3

,

,

)

(

GNU

7

-

386

,

326

340

,

76 – – 32 8,

340

,

376

397

,

,

13

,

,

104

12 –

,

inflation

96

87

,

Gumede James 282

188

117

training

,

development

399

– 9

,

334

,

,

37

324

115

industry

,

Group Areas Act

338

– 5

– 7

72 – 3

unity

227

-4

Griquas 223

313

273

210

278

219

George

,

/s

,

,

,

,

– 7

,

, 305 ,

,

280

394

320

312

187

332

280

,

,

,

,

,

72

,

,

242

,

of

,

,

185

210

106

104

,

, –

275

470

117

400

Industrial Development Corporation

national

109

,

,

98

– 5

7



,

,

12

,

– 3

,

,

,

– 9

,

206

103

,

99

,

79

government

Great Trek

51

480

275

Mikhail

Gorbachev

224

219

377 386

345

270 274

gold standard

210

468

461

383

Independent Movement

ICU

268

190

1950

, -4,

32

,

324

Indian

395

276

3



51 ,

gold price

69



338

,

328

260

,

, , , ,

206

mining industry 246

114

428

239

133

labour

385

British

income personal 452 457

193 183

Amendment Act

,

,

,

258

,

421 424

,

,

,



, , 68 , ,

15

154

242

230

202

,

,

19

123

Robert

Godlonton

197 72

,

38

194

globalisation 118

British

– 4

386

254

,

251

246

immigration

,

,



2

,

435

imperialism

,

E

1894

,

,

,

Lord

,

334

203

444

,

-

,

,

114

23

,

112

,

,

,

431

242 12

,

110

72

William

Sir

,

,

449

436

-



, 6,

,

,

430

,

428

403

Grey

331

452

124

405 441

396

Immorality

Glen Grey Act

gold

319 326

human development index human rights

459

,

Gladstone

gold

,

468

183

467 480 484 489 491

450

Glenelg

8

335

,

and

375

275

,

,

123

, ,



421

Tariffs

75

,

housing

-

,

,

-

8

,

200

181

429

120

,

115

17 , ,

116

32 , - , , 82 4 , 97 , ,

)

-6

,

105

382

451 GEAR

1809

,

on

(

Trade

378

197

– 5

, ,

– 5

General Agreement

GDP

Hottentot Proclamation

221 385 394 403

,

202

181 191

9 , ,

wars

frontier

172

113

196

Revolution

French

GATT

Hottentot Corps

404

27

fighters

freedom

,

,

449

,

434

,

– 9

378

,

,

– 3

,

,

,

13

372

,

4045

,

378

,

376

241

,

,

72

,

70

373

,

,



352

informal sector

,

,

313

346

382 451 469

69

300

,

280

,

278

,

255 267

,

2

,

influx control



270

,

,

,

249

,

247

B

, M

J

469

76

,

28 ,

,

Heunis Chris

/

199 324

298

44

,

– 7

274

HIV AIDS

113

General

,

Hertzog

,

,

health

44

27 – 8

483

465

521

,

,

,

– 20

316

,

317 323 323

,

,

,

, ,

,

, ,

5

,

,

,

386 246

, ,

,

, ,

,

281

,

6

,

– 4

,

396

– 7

228

,

31

, –

251

,

,

384

183 205

-

,

,

,

– 7

-

222 278

4

,

181

202

269



219

6

,

193

– 1

10

,



,

264

231

268

,

,

68 , 4

-

6 – 9

190

254

228

266

154

,

ownership 208

155

305

Landsdowne

Commission

224

and order

Liberal

Party

478

280

277 280

,

1943

,

400

,

law

– 5

-

9

467

,

,

– 7

land reform

,

,

10



,

,

-

industry

64

,

73

156 –

manufacturing

209

260

,

263

,

,

340

186

246

,

2



,

,

, 9



,

219

490

335

239 256

,



228

,

,

farm

522

128

, – 36 5 , ,

21

444

189

242 32 31

costs

180

1981

342

7

,

Land Bank

402

,



6

,

431

, ,

343

278

1936

187

224

,

-6 -

,

2

,

,

137

,

Land Act

land

building industry

397

– 4

397 403

,

,

,

1913

248 258

, ,

173

1803

Kruger Paul 243

labour

– 4

,

395

269 403

20

, ,

, , 166

,

-

6

-

201

333

,

,

Land Act

,

,

181

198 – 9

,

,

198

– 9

,

– 8

183

1799

10 4



,

41

, ,

,

, ,

337

,

329

,

171

253



270

Godfrey

Lagden

403

394

Khoisan Rebellion

179

,

195

73

192

, ,

161



,

384

-

,

224

190

5

,

– 8

184

– 9

158

,

154

,

,

,

,

, –

,

,

20 ,

260

130



,

248

434

Sir

385

,

,

,

224 227

402

,

Khoisan

9



,

,

90

-

, – 8

,

,

-

,

316

200 204

– 9

,

,

,

73



, ,

394

330

163

156

Khoikhoi

251

373

Labour Relations Amendment Act

,

154

,

348

4

-

,



,

, 9

-

248

241 251

119

225 17

,

199

6

,

72

11

-

6

,

,

197

229 244

Labour Relations Act

Kgosana Philip

,

,

8

,

20

,



,

77

,

70

, ,

,

,

,

– 3

,

337

,

,

,

71 , 90 ,

-

,

,

191

,

Derek

183

209

198

246

3345

labour relations 245

100 102

84

,

Keys

20

119 –

,

– 8

see

,

,

2

-

303

Labour Party

agreement

Park

163

113 192

198

348 95

Kempton

7



,

,

,

, 31

,

,

,

-

270

, ,

196

, ,

,



1

10

-

laws

( LP )

Ahmed

195

181

225

187

– 4

,

Kathrada

188

399

433

-

10

, ,

166

403

River Settlement

328

231

208

JRC

1

200

,

Kat

Bill

318

387

also slavery

242

278

381 420 transport

labour

Employment

278

382

465

-

, ,

, ,

,

269 330

372

Kaffir

62

,

-

, 61

,

239

wage Commission

119

189

256

, -

,

,

63 ,

,

,

,

253

328

388

Justice and Reconciliation

375

229

)



241

324

318

(

41

335

300

,

– 9

, ,

278

13

– 6

reservation

268

,

,

424

452 457 465 468

,

435

12 –

job

,

432

,

,

-



186

– 7

398

377

,

,

328

,

325

,

creation

supply

183

116

,

job

slave

Willem

254 256

345

437

– 156 7

,

Jan

Jansen

282

404

246

107

426

DDT

– 6

,

,

– 3

,

83

81 ,

)

(

,

,

9

,

, 18

skilled 335

Jabavu

395

323

231

semi skilled

228

258

326

railways



226

375

343

210

255

305 315

303

242

41

195

345

251

246

277

182

338

276

-

,

ivory

241

328 mine quotas

343

,

, 77 ,

54

iron and steel ISCOR

260

487

460

– 6

,

116

investment

IMF

4

96 – 7

International Monetary Fund 105

228

406

IFP )

(

Party

Inkatha Freedom

12

migrant

69 ,

,

25 465

infrastructure

– , , -2, 13 – , 3 , , , 66

INDEX

3

,

41 ,

-

,

,

, ,

,

,

,

,

,

– 5

90



– 60

8



89

)

(

99 –

(

, 70 , , ,

, -4

, 57 , , ,

– 7



– 8

,

)

(

of

-2 )

(

,

– 7

1995

86

,

123

mines 302 256

283 347 278 352 4

272



,

,

1927

,



,

276

,

African

,

gold

,

,

460

Act

, nationalisation

256

,

– 1

,

443 458

,

,

,

136

306

,

403

Native Administration Act 347

Piet 301

, ,

, ,

)

(

240 250 303

313

,

Act 1911 269 12

52

3

,

1913

,

,

– 3

,

,

– 8

-

273

,

269

Native Land Act

NAD

284

399

Native Labour Regulation

254

,

– 6

,

1911

,



245

272

347

,

316

263 18

,

255

5

-

242

Mines and Works

Native Affairs Department

226

,

2



,

,

201 204

Act 3

,

108

South African Students

National Unity and Reconciliation

281

Milner Alfred

,

249

374

350

Afrikaner 220

mfecane 208 221 Mfengu

247

353

,

108

)

(

,

262

190

– 3

,

,

,

188

375

252

135

298

Mineworkers NUM

NUSAS

nationalism

,

28

,

, Dr

74

Meyer

1856

241 254

37

,



Mbeki

,

348

1982 341

399

395

National Union

,

MDM

,

and Servants Act

Mbeki Govan

106

272

of

,

,

387

316

126

media

)

(

,

207

, , 96 – , ( 6 , , NP ) , 15 , , , 53

,

,

– 20 ,

13

387

311 450

mechanisation

270

100

341

Mass Democratic Movement

Thabo

100

267

116

,

136

, 79 , 86 , 88 ,

109

National Party

National Union

194 201 225

NEC

National Manpower Commission

349

Masters

NEF

national executive committee

Marketing Act 1937 263 Marxism

Forum

63

397

27

,



industry

208

461

69 – 70 ,

manufacturing

112

284

,

9



,

,

247

,

,

442 444

Trevor

251

172

259

,

)

Natal Native Code 1891

72 – 3

,

,

317

,

31 ,



,

— 3

Nelson

,

,

Manuel

305 310

244

298

311 348

,

,

,

policy

National Economic

242

,

Sir

,

,

,

Mandela

197

229

276

226

456

Moshweshe 223

Natalia Peregrine

262

DF

Malan

MERG

(

-

,

88

,

69 , 257

223

,

208

202

194

122

103

207

312

189

10

, -

,

,

202 225

172

Macro Economic Research Group

maize

70

,

172



204 334

,

66 – 7

,

51

12

missionaries

Natal colony

Maitland

1992

Moravian Missionary Society

Stock Exchange

London

Understanding

monetary

London Missionary Society

244

)

210

230 239

,

208

locations

of

Minutes

138

258

108

96

133

,

,

103

-4

,

, , 75 ,

, 27 9

,

,

1892

,

Act

1926

387



400

396

mining

183 209 300 341 391 478 Location

Act

Amendment

living level MLL

,

112 , 7, ,

, 80 , , 85 , ,

77

346

439 450

living standards

and Works

,



4

, 6



, 379

376



,

374

342

,

,

333



-

, 6,

– 3

352

421

Mines

minimum

,

liberation movement 306

404

12 , , 67 , 71 , ,

before education

134

283

272

80

,



liberation

251

395

6

50

349

206

203 – 4 ,

liberalism

,

INDEX

207

,

– 7

,

,

4

-

– 8

, ,

,

– 3

2

,



,

,

,

,

62

,

,

4

-

,

,

52

,

,

– 3

,



,

,

,

-

,

,

,

,

,

,

4

-

,

6

-

52

37

,



,

8

-

,

30

40 – 7

, ,

1

15

-

,

30

25

,

-

,

457 469

,

,

,

,

,

171

447

9

,

,

477

124

445

,

,

,

-4

,

,

439

,

,

,

283

400

-4

247

387

128

,

,

,

125

,

,

,

– 7

,

,

,

,

,

,

123

482

102

245

384

104

479

,

86 8

34 8

-

,

9

,

57 -

,

102

480

,

,

,

306

437

,

391 396

239 41

-

60

,

,

,

20

197

,

,

– 6

,

,

,

466

384

437

– 8

-

9

-

, 3

105

,

, , , 62 89 ,

,

240

353

,

,

,

191

447

-8

,

,

330

9

corporate sector

– 3

,

432 482

,

,

322

,

– 4

,

,

116

437

430

public sector 242

123

187 209

,

,

20

,

77



,

,

72

398

119 375

– 6

339

,

325

,

– 9

,

,



422

, ,

, ,

– 7

376

419

447

,

194

,

of

225

228

260

-4

Africans

,

323 325

,

1967

Mixed Marriages Act 1950

334

proletarianisation

,

,

petit

– 5

186

Prohibition bourgeoisie

,

John

see

,

228

– 7

Dr

,

,

,

,

,

,

397

Physical Planning Act

524

privatisation productivity

African 204 210 251 257

petit bourgeoisie Philip

– 18

404

348

, , ,

352

260

317

306

,

8

,

white

press freedom

254

206

204

271 277

,

269

,

267

192

, ,

186

395

200

14 35 - – 8 15 ,

,

463

– 3

51

)

347



,

6

305

-

PAC

social

199

, ,

pass system

,

Cape

Pedi 223

,

301

352

parliament

386

-

199

19

320

, 5



,

-

Pan Africanist Congress

(

69

272

133

371

400

21



133

299

,

308

456

Pact government

,

19 -

political

,

)

,

OAU

391

200

466

,

198

,

192

306

,

,

of

African Unity

190

(

,

204

,

50

1828

192

187 – 8

Ordinance

,

49

1828

121 124

437

466

353 437 456

economic

Ordinance

peasants

– 7

,

199



482

477

,

351

chiefs

386

334

352

449

400

38 – 9

,

– 8

,

black

461

– 3

,

307

Organisation

32

28

of ,

balance

122 430

441

-6

,

375

382

393

– 6

,

– 8

,

71 ,

oil

455

104

,

8

20

,

,

72

)

(

power

391

OPEC

,

19 –

,

4

83 –

NEM

115

Old Mutual

137

-

,

– 7

490



,

486

3



482

480

Model

325

91 401

436

307

276

380

1950

109

430

Economic

104

266

379

Nongqawuse Normative

101

,

80 ,

3

190

,

138

200

Right

New

14

11 98 -

,

poverty

132

374

Act

,

's

161 268 328

,

Development

105

Population Registration

465

)

(

NEPAD

272

452

81 - 4

482

for Africa

Partnership

,

– 3

157 433

,



7

South Africa

,

,

460

Europe

,

135

– 8

,

, , ,

,

,

96

83

, ,

,

81

18

121

457

101

486

New Left 349 New

38

452



441

,

,

,

– 3

116

50



482

114

– 3

,

419

– 7

103

39

-

, , ,

neo liberalism

268

386

population

227 18

,

223

Ndebele

189 203

266

333

,

302

10

poor whites

481

nazism

,

255 313

,

Poor Laws British

(

)

(

Acts

,

206

,

337

– 9

Native Urban Areas

,

1932

395

,

3

polygamy

Native Service Contracts Act

349

,

police state

326

277

209

43



,

)

261

386

,

,

,

251

325

)

315

,

,

282

police

282

-2

native reserves 248

,

, ,

254

(

Council NRC

, ox- drawn

plough

1952 317

8

Native Representative

,

Native Laws Amendment



Act

INDEX

,

,

Shoshangane

,

400

2



225

,

7



– 16

,

395

,

,

, , ,

, , ,

, 4,

– 8

,

– 9

308

,

, -2,

,

, of

1951

,

,

,

– 8

395

258

smallpox

60



,

208 259

167

,

156

221

– 9

,

, , , , 39

, 63 , – 8 ,

88

-

153

201

225

402

6

195

165

326

-

clearance

,

-3

,

slum

385

348

34 91 – 5

, , 11 ,

,

207

Joe

186 85

99

Slovo

192

223

,

slavery

,

,

-

6

165

Walter

182

,

,

,



,

,

,

321 347

Theophilus

9

,

Separate Amenities Act 1953

242 251

300

,

,

, ,

306

,

,

)

1936

Sizulu

Cecil John

Act

348

477 481

, ,

,

(

Act

335

Rhodes

321

Voters

469

207 221

farming

sheep

282

of

,

of

Blacks Native

Retief Piet

267

398

,

462

,

,

193

Shepstone

Representation

Reserve Bank

246

,

17

Shaka

Sharpeville

189 203

258

Reservation

351

-

466

115

-

,

109

remittance labour

278

,

,

,

276

4

, ,

,

378

37 – 8

services

9

,

,

89 ,

,

106

– 8

,

180

301

346

226

service sector

461

– 3

425

,

, -4 ,

-

,

9

,

16



,

,

87

,

,

1832

,

Act

333

250

297

335

444

445 457

,

121 436

1

,

,

,

redistribution

,

371 85

,

,

reconciliation

Reform

Programme 123

442 444 446 448

– 8

437

108

,

)

(

103

246

282

Separate Representation

and Development

RDP

280

316

separate development

107

Reconstruction

208

-

230

429

,

,



122

103 483

,

Reaganomics

,

,

,

,

,

, 8

Seme Pixley

– 31 ,

352

119

,

Lord

,

Selbourne

13

253

Ronald

477

-

376

,

312

States

Reagan

315

371 406

,

rates

274

United

112

313

406

462 466

rand value

300

311 313 353



,

249

1922

,

,

, 77 ,

54



, ,

253

1947

racial

segregation

443

6

,

307

1852 222

352

13



,

,

security

security forces

441 443

Durban 2001

344

Commission

Sauer

303

Rand Revolt

– 9

,

SA

, , ,

, ,

58

,

, ,

– 4

297 302

256

,

154

221



,

209

88

Cyril

53 – 4

,

47

, 45 ,

201

– 3

391

– 8

,

350

430

122

,

,

– 8

,

,

,

,

-

,

197

Conference

Ramaphosa

SASOL

252

,

– 7

,

334

40

39

4

, ,

,

20

248

,

240

Breweries

Sand River Convention

254

194

– 2

170

478

396

274

194

395

310

,

– 53

,

-4

380

397 447

136

,

240

relations

Racism

348

,

race policy

281

78

public sector

375

200

154

speech

Rubicon rule

protest movement

racism

Island

281

348

77

own

see also land

ership

race

Robben

law

-

,

478

307

of

property rights

486

347

1959

Rivonia

1930

,

of

Self Government Act

Bantu

330

267

Riotous Assemblies Act

Afrikaner 231 Promotion

258

230

,

,

,

449

rinderpest

,

,

451 467



,

427

8

,

257 423

228

,

African

133

,

68 ,

57 78

138

, ,

proletariat

Riekert Commission

75 ,

231 , 264 – 72

Afrikaners

72 ,

INDEX

385

525

278

,

– 3

)

(

188

,

72

,

,

,

,

, -

,

50

,





,

346

,

,

,

.

5

-

,



,

,

,

17

96 – 7

87 ,

-9

,

6



townships

319 331

– 4

,

,

33



,

,

106

40 –

1

1956

325

2

,

,

,

280

482

330

– 3

,

,

387

executive council

96 – 7

378

(

TEC

)

341

271

203

352

-3

335

137

,

333 337 340

, , ,

75 ,

-

,

69 , , ,

trade unions

,

350

– 2

,

,

– 8

10

,

,

Commission

transitional 307

1976

Tomlinson

black

1976

79

'

alternative

,

,

,

312

,

,

,

-4

100

84

439 477

348

uprising

483 485

,

no

is

there

,

SASO

housing 331 Soweto

429

– 6

Soweto

103

260

107 115

thatcherism

-

Soviet Union

228

)

African Student Organisation

(

South

224

,

432

1

Reserve Bank

421

350

Theron Commission

African

350

Act

Terrorism

,

,

,

,

270

273

South

436

,

(

)

(

260

304

323 397

Thatcher Margaret

249

259

134

352

274

South African Railways

209

,

tenant farmers



,

SAP

375

116

487

,

,

TELKOM

textile industry

,

,

)

(

254 261

South African Native Trust 282

272

228

482

324

,

246

South African Native Affairs Commission

South African Party

1950

346

,

,

technology

terrorism

SANAC

326

, 209

206

72

68 ,

SAF

Foundation

– 14

113

)

African

South

,

,

81

-

40 ,

taxation

-

51

)

(

456 461

349

,

,

,

312

SACP

,

114

,

103 112

,

Party

1954

77

)

SACOB

80

,

,

84

Business

(

African Communist

of

South

54

African Chamber

,

,

Racial Affairs

467

South

Act

Communism

– 2

314

403

)

(

SAAU

274 277

350

487

,

SABRA

260

Amendment

,

Bureau

210

,

Agricultural Union

African

380

268

1922

of

Suppression

254

350 378

supply and demand

191

194

43

,

– 6

,

,

185

122

339

337

,

,

,

1973

sugar farming

481

181

)

278

– 3

70



,

– 5

,

,

Durban

9

,

246 249

307

Witwatersrand

of

,

469

317

(

South

441 451

– 7

Henry

,

Somerset

315

280

,

,

,

,

,

,

106

Lord Charles

African

strikes

91

Somerset

South

-

,

50



,

– 8

,

419 467

397

-

,

489

6

,

socialism

37

,

27

,

484

85 – 6

,

478

Andries

Stockenström

389

SOES

steel 344

469 480 484 490 social welfare

state owned enterprises

– 3

384

313

2

social spending

249

247

64 ,

347

,

Sobukwe Robert

231

335

, 69 , ,

275

,

,

,

272



270

9

,

Smuts General Jan

stallardism

223

,

,

197

,

181

,

Harry

68

,

Smith

81 , –

Sir

INDEX

Congress

Transvaal African

282

Col Frederick

,

5

Stallard

26

255

, ,

264

, ,

73

385



181

– 5

,

-

,

163

220

402

400

332

,

310

,

247

,

,

tricameral parliament 352

,

– 7

156 204

78

198

, ,

,

,

4

394

154

192

– 3

14

Trekboere 183

230

1850

,

403

, ,

30

332



327

,



323

321 348

,

Treason Trial 1956

,

,

Squatters Ordinance

254

, -

1887

229

9 , ,

266

,

262

205

,

,

Squatters Law

, 78 ,

, ,

-

257

60 76

squatters

61

– 5

404

INDEX 62 – 5 , 81,

,

Voortrekkers

,

330

B

,

16

-

,

-

,

,

,

– 8

,

– 3

,

,

,

,

204

,



202

,

– 3

221

223

,

207

242

,

155

,

222

-4

)

ZAR

394

1877

,

Zulus

of ,

,

30

annexation

242

– 9

,

,

404

307

190

,

,

181

394

282

,

– 8

347

226 – 1

300

,

,

325

75

,

,

,

385

223 456



245

70 – 1

, ,

3

321

-

,

17

-

316

Hendrik

,

,

72

,

6

-

,

121 460 487

Zuid Afrikaansche Republiek

,

of

,

,

Verwoerd

,

– 8

,

,

-2 105

167 169

207 220

Zimbabwe

1902

,

– 1

,

,

,

,

– 8

,

3



87

,



60

,

– 2

,

83 ,

198

(

-6

154

Peace

,

, ,

6

, ,

, ,

, ,

,

,

,

59

38



,

– 4

,

-4

44

44 ,

192

,

Jan

,

374

, , 155 , –

Xhosa

Xuma

223

Vereeniging

332

401

-

Venda

330

383

Bank

A

Riebeeck

256

242

9

164

,

– 6

155

,

,

164

,

Van

159

-6

,

– 6

385

169

,

Plettenberg Governor

247

195

farming

264

Van

245

394

400

,

313

wool exports

,

,

172

Adriaan

Willem

387

,

)

,

300

317



(

ULPP

15

,

,

75 – 6

72

,

80



, ,

,

Stel

,

der

Van

155

487

490

,

)

(

,

68 ,

)

UF

75 – 6

,

Stel Simon

242

373

unemployment

World Van der

404

348

485

478

341

wine farming

abuse

278

373 404

,

350

women

Labour Preference Policy

318

,

,

,

336

90

of

1960

331

395

159

334

255

(

Urban Foundation

),

of

, 28 ,

6

264 283

Witwatersrand

Act

Unlawful Organisations

1881

114

Wiehahn commission

Christian Movement UCM

Act

188

whites employment

321

Human Rights

Universal Declaration

urbanisation

478

,

,

300

-

,

276

487

,

United States economy

Urban

,

-

,

,

consensus

state

wheat 270

Urban Areas

ZAR

Westminster Act 1909

452

) ( UP )

(

Liberation

welfare

Development Programme

United Nations

University

272

10

306

United Nations

United Party

1925

West Indies

352

UNDP

Act

490

387

,

465 482

328

320

376

273

2

430

318 345

270

,

339

115

276

242

196

,

262

113

,

260

349

,

83

253

75

246

,

90

,

333

,

(

)

, ,

342

85

Front UDF

340

244

Washington water

395

Democratic

- 9,

325

190

Wages

,

,

50



,

-

,

245 247

,

307

182

490

War

239

of

253 United

Africa

South

,

– 7

,

180

121 ,

243

, Britain

unemployment Union

, 482 – 3, 486

467

, 426 ,

207 – 8 219 – 26

166

45 ,

427 , 432 – 6 , 449 ,

41

, 457 ,

452

,

,

169

119

273 , 275 , 311 , 324 , 343 , 352 , 372 – 83 , 390 – 1 , 421, 424

,

73

,

119 ,

113 ,

101,

,



wages

103

15

J

,

96 ,

400 –6

265



89 ,

165

,

193

– 1

Vorster , B

137

372

71 , 78 ,

64 ,

,

,

42 – 3

,

228

4 , 13 – 14 , 25 , 28 , 30 - 1,

unemployment

,

(

( TRC )

371 - 2 , 405 , 444

Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK ) underemployment

28

469 Commission

Bishop Desmond

4



124 – 32 ,

, 25,

violence

1

,

98

, , 70 ,

Tutu

,

, 435 – 7

424

Truth and Reconciliation 66 – 7 ,

84

67

effect

12

'

- down 107 – 8,

40 80

' trickle

394

527

UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN

3

9015 05997 7648

THE UNIVERSITY

OF MICHIGAN

DATE DUE

O 1 0 2004 DEC

-----

ENTO

Barcode Inside

The HF Group Indiana Plant TG

082567

1

2

87 00

/23 / 2007

In

major study , Professor Sampie Terreblanche , a leading Afrikaner academic , provides a systematic account of inequality in South Africa from 1652 to the this

present day . In

a

detailed reinterpretation of South African history , he traces the exploitation

of indigenous people by dominant settler groups to the end of apartheid in 1994 . colonialism Extending his theme country

's

contemporary

to

transition to democracy is

a

the advent of European

from

, he argues that , while this significant development , a parallel socio South

Africa

transformation has not yet taken place , and that many of the deep seated inequalities that developed under colonialism , segregation , and apartheid

economic

are being perpetuated

in

the ' new South Africa '.

major reason for this is the inappropriate social and economic policies adopted by the new government , agreed to during informal economic negotiations in the early 1990s between the corporate sector and the ANC during which the latter A

was pressurised into adopting

a

conservative version

of free market

and glob

.

oriented capitalism

Promises by the corporate sector that high rates of economic growth would create jobs and alleviate poverty have not materialised . The author points out that almost half of the South African population - mostly blacks - are living in 'abject poverty ' ,

fact worsened since 1994 .

,

it

.

-

of

,

to

ruthless pursuit own interests society He also criticises the new black

and its apparent indifference

the plight

of

,

policy

.

,

of

broader South African

elite for its crass materialism

has relinquished

make decisions about socio economic

He criticises the corporate sector for

the detriment

redistributive ideals

situation where

its

power

into

a

manoeuvred to

its

of

d

to

allowing itself sovereign much

be

He sharply criticises the ANC government for abandoning

its

in

to

has

its

and their situation

the

.

poor

,

a

2

.

creating

-

KMM

REVIEW PUBLISHIN

LP

UNIVERSITY

OF

-

86914 022

-

ISBN

1

,

,

to

play more active role social democracy that will allow the state jobs alleviating poverty and providing social welfare

in

a

.

is

it

a

'

'

if

is

unjust and unsustainable and that The author warns that the present order perpetuated He advocates shift towards second struggle may result

NATAL PRESS