A History of Experimental Film and Video: From the Canonical Avant-Garde to Contemporary British Practice 9781838710637, 9781844574360

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For Angela Allen

2nd Edition © A. L. Rees 2011 Reprinted 2013, 2016 1st Edition published in 1999 Reprinted 2000, 2002, 2003, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2010 1st Edition © A. L. Rees 1999 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6-10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author(s) has/have asserted his/her/their right(s) to be identified as the author(s) of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published in 2011 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN on behalf of the BRITISH FILM INSTITUTE 21 Stephen Street, London W1T 1LN www.bfi.org.uk There’s more to discover about film and television through the BFI. Our world-renowned archive, cinemas, festivals, films, publications and learning resources are here to inspire you. Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. Cover design: Toby Cornish/Jutojo Designed and set by couch Printed in China This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN 978–1–84457–436–0 (pb) ISBN 978–1–84457–437–7 (hb)

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Acknowledgments I thank my teachers and mentors, formal and informal, who have given invaluable advice and criticism (most of them over a long period of time) to support my interest in the avant-garde and related matters: Professors Emeritus Christopher Frayling and Dan Fern of the Royal College of Art, Geoffrey Nowell-Smith, David Curtis, Laura Mulvey, David Hall, Nicky Hamlyn, Peter Kennard, Claire Lofting, Michael O’Pray and the late Jill McGreal. Many other friends, artists, colleagues and students have generously given time to debate and explore the issues raised in this book, as have the excellent editorial teams, past and present, at the British Film Institute and Palgrave Macmillan. I thank Dr Jamie Gilham and the Research Committee of the RCA for study leave to prepare this second revised edition. Special thanks are due to all the artists who supplied stills and other material for the illustrations, especially for the wholly new colour section in this edition. Other sources who have been extremely helpful have been the BFI Stills Archive; the British Artists’ Film and Video Study Collection, Central Saint Martins, University of the Arts London; Maureen Paley Gallery; and the many organisations, galleries, museums and collections that archive, preserve and distribute artists’ film, video and digital media.

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Introduction to the 2nd Edition This book was originally published in 1999, as an introduction to avant-garde film for the general reader as well as an overview for the enthusiast. Audiences who, in many other respects, have a wide and sophisticated understanding of film culture often know very little about the experimental cinema, and the book was intended to fill this gap. That is why the first half of the book is broadly international in scope and spans most of the twentieth century. The second half of the book has a more specific aim. For historical and cultural reasons, the most famous experimental film- and video-makers in this area of practice were, and still are, North Americans such as Maya Deren, Stan Brakhage, Michael Snow and Ken Jacobs. Young film-makers in the UK and other European countries often know these famous names long before they realise that there are other kinds of experimental film art closer to home that deserve attention too. In the second part, therefore, I focused on film and video art in the UK and tried to show how it was linked to successive waves of international art practice from the 1970s through to the 1990s.1 My view in the book was that experimental film and video does not only try to critique or even negate the mainstream cinema, but should also be seen in the context of the other contemporary arts. I felt the case for this still had to be made, since film and video had long been fringe activities in the mainstream arts, when they were accepted at all. Paradoxically, when the book was published in 1999, the art world was embracing the projected image – but not necessarily the experimental cinema – more than ever before, and this continued into the next decade. Gallery video, as it came to be called, was still in its early stages when I wrote (in the first edition) that: ‘The recent spread of video installation into all spheres of art gallery exhibition contrasts with the 1970s when museums in the UK were less welcoming to video art’.2 Since then, many major exhibitions of contemporary art have been dominated by digital screens and film loops. But is this an extension of the experimental cinema or is it a distinct kind of screen-based art practice, and a wholly different phenomenon? I try to address this question in the new Conclusion.3 The gallery video phenomenon has also embraced cinema in the broader sense, by citing, reworking, appropriating and plain stealing from the feature film and the documentary; and this too is connected to the issue of whether or not gallery video is part of, or distinct from, the experimental tradition. Many current video projection artists, for example, know little of the avant-garde tradition and do not identify with it. Conceptually, there are other major differences. Gallery video often focuses on spectator consumption and reception, rather than on the kinds of aesthetic production and practice that were the hallmark of the classic avant-gardes. Curator Nicolas Bourriaud made this explicit in an influential essay of 2001, claiming that gallery video is founded on ‘postproduction’, or ‘culture as screenplay’.4 By using terms like ‘postproduction’ and ‘screenplay’ that are derived from the mainstream cinema rather than the avant-garde film, Bourriaud indicated that gallery projection typically cites and reworks the themes vi

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and icons of popular cinema and TV in a new museum context. By contrast, many of the films and videos that feature in this book are typified by material process and the production of meaning, rather than by tropes of visual style and the re-working of cinematic or television codes. Gallery video is often immersive in the same sense as the large-scale cinema, although with different means, to draw the viewer into its spectacle, at least where viewing conditions permit this to take place. More recently, an increasing number of commentators seem to be disturbed by the walk-through and walk-past attitude to projected images in gallery and museum, and by the problem of where – if anywhere – to sit or stand in front of the screens. Some artists compensate for this by adopting more emphatic projection devices and conditions, a tendency pioneered by Bill Viola, James Turrell and Tacita Dean. This book, however, is concerned largely with film and video art that is experiential in a different way, to challenge the primacy and authority of illusionist imaging in cinematic space. In the new edition, I have tried to correct errors of dating and detail in the first and successive printings. The footnotes have been expanded to update references and revaluations since 1999. The text itself has been lightly revised, but I have made very few alterations to the descriptions and interpretations of the films and videos discussed, except where a nuance or correction was definitely required to clarify their sense or accuracy. A wholly new final chapter covers the decade since the late 1990s, although I have updated the short profiles of some contemporary artists in the original sections that discussed their work. While the main text largely stands as written, I have tried to take account of suggestions for improvement made by readers, critics and artists, to whom I am grateful, though I won’t claim to have satisfied all of them. I have added information about the many publications and DVD releases that have appeared since 1999, and tried to signal the extraordinary growth of critical and historical research that has vastly increased our knowledge of the early avant-gardes and their contexts. The films of Hans Richter, Viking Eggeling, Walther Ruttmann and Oskar Fischinger are now regularly shown in exhibitions, if only in reduced digital format, alongside the art and design of the Dada, Bauhaus, De Stijl and Constructivist eras. At the same time, crucial problems of dating and ascription are unresolved – when exactly, for example, was the early and foundational film we know as Richter’s Rhythm 21 actually made? Not in 1921, despite the title Richter gave it, but his own date for this film is still almost always repeated despite evidence to the contrary.5 The literature here, and on other aspects of the early abstract avant-garde cinema, is too detailed to summarise, but I try to alert the interested reader to some of the more recent sources. Similarly, the last ten years have witnessed an explosion of publications about previously ‘unseen’ cinemas, in Europe and the US, from the 1950s to the present day. These include close-up studies of radical artists’ groups from California to Warsaw, where distinctions between artists and ‘amateurs’ were often fluid or dissolved. New scholars and programmers have similarly researched the key film societies and clubs (those vital ingredients of all historical avant-gardes) from the 1930s onward.6 Another major innovation in the last decade has been the rise of digital and Internet cultures that have made accessible many of the films referred to in this book, including the most obscure ones. This facility barely existed when the book was first published, and in turn it has influenced the making and dissemination of new experimental film and video art as well as access to its earlier achievements. Introduction to the 2nd Edition

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I have not, however, tried to update the ‘theory’ sections of the first edition (mainly in the Introduction), which summarise some main arguments about avant-gardes and their philosophical contexts. Here, the central figures are (and remain) Henri Bergson, T. W. Adorno, Walter Benjamin and André Bazin; and, from the 1970s onwards, such critics as Peter Bürger, the ‘October’ circle and the late Ann Friedberg. The remarks in this part of the book are perhaps schematic and compressed, to offer an introductory outline, but I hope they are enough to open up the main questions for readers new to this aspect of film and its theoretical location. The writings of authors from the first half of the twentieth century are still foundational, and have been adapted to the digital age by many later and current critics, as I indicate in the new Conclusion. The ideas of Bergson, in particular, have been given a new life – or twist – by Gilles Deleuze and his followers. Deleuze himself died in 1995, four years before this book first appeared, although the full impact of his writings on cinema only took on their full force in the decade that followed. Nonetheless, I am not convinced that Deleuze himself offers much to the analysis of avant-garde cinema and video art, to judge by the inaccurate and passing remarks he himself made in his ‘Cinema’ books, and I have therefore not expanded on the few – not especially critical – references to him in the first edition. Similarly, the great waves of cultural theory produced since 1999 do not, it seems to me, enhance the already well-known arguments about the successes and failures of the avant-gardes, and of modernism generally, that can be extrapolated from the different positions adopted by theorists such as Adorno, Bürger and Poggioli, all of whom productively disagree with each other. Since post-millennial Cultural Studies are more concerned with popular culture and its reception than the kinds of work discussed in this book, I have not felt bound to say more about them here, except – in the later sections and Conclusion – insofar as they affect the understanding of media culture from a position antithetical to it. 7 More positively, however, I do want to draw attention to discussions about the avantgardes and artists’ film/video that have been generated by writers and thinkers within these movements or close to them. Essays and texts of this kind focus on the key critical questions of experimental media: the persistence of vision (if it exists), the notion of the frame (as it migrates from its physical origins in film to its more spectral re-incarnation in the digital arts), the problem of screen space (especially in expanded cinema), and the ‘apparatus’ or dispositif by which the image materialises as a primal entity in the visual field. To the long tradition of critical writing about film by film-makers since Dreyer, Epstein, Eisenstein, Vertov and many others,8 and the now classic writing of Deren, Brakhage, Frampton, Sharits, Conrad, Gidal and Le Grice, can be added both older and newer authors such as Trond Lundemo, François Albera, Eric Faden, Donato Totaro, Federico Windhausen, Jonathan Walley, Noam Elcott and Yvonne Spielmann (to take a sample of international writing on experimental film and video).9 It is, of course, impossible to write history – even ‘a’ rather than ‘the’ history – about the changing and volatile contemporary media arts. Even interpreting older work in an art form that has existed for little more than a century is problematic, not to say partial. The saving factor is that older and now canonical films are re-interpreted not only by critics but more importantly by artists themselves, as they germinate new ideas from seeds that lie in the past. New practices emerge as creative variants on perceived traditions, often antithetically to them. The past is always unpredictable,10 and is always seen differently by successive generations. History in this sense is revisionary. To try to recognise this partiality, the first edition avoided the pronoun ‘I’, less to claim objectivity viii

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(though I see that it can be so understood) than as a small gesture towards de-personalisation. Here, and in the Conclusion, I have been more relaxed about using the ‘I’ word, and not disguised the partisan or polemical positions that underpin these sections, and implicitly (as the reader will detect) the book as a whole.

Introduction to the 2nd Edition

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Preface LUCIE-SMITH: Can you give a definition of ‘avant-garde’? GREENBERG: You don’t define it, you recognize it as a historical phenomenon. (Interview with Clement Greenberg conducted by Edward Lucie-Smith, 1968)

The aim of this book is to give a brief, historical account of experimental film and video. It puts the film avant-garde into two contexts – the cinema and moving image culture on the one hand, and modern art with its post-modern coda or extension on the other. But it also sees the experimental or artists’ movement in film and video as an independent, living and vital force which has its own internal development and aesthetics. To emphasise art rather than cinema in a book about film and video, which this book does, needs to be explained and even defended. Cinema as a whole, together with all those media arts which are not more simply and better understood as ‘information technologies’, is certainly an art form – the latest and most powerful audio-visual art in Western and world history. Many influential books stress this, from Arnheim’s Film As Art and its distinguished predecessors,11 to the widely used course text Film Art by Bordwell and Thompson. The BFI itself enshrines the word in its charter, ‘to encourage the art of the film’. So the claim made for the experimental film and video work discussed here is not an exclusive one, as if only the avant-gardes make art in cinema. The view taken here is simply that one way to understand the avant-garde (as specified here, because there are also film avant-gardes beyond the experimental circuit) is to see it more firmly in the context of modern and post-modern art than is possible with, say, the drama film. In doing so, the point is both to locate the avant-garde and to try to engage with it, especially for readers and viewers who find the experimental film so far off the map of cinema, especially the cinema of narrative drama, so aberrant to the norms of viewing a film, that there’s no engagement at all. For, by and large, this is film-making without story, characters and plot – or in which these elements, considered so essential to cinematic form, are put into new and critical relationships. The book concedes that this negative view might well be right, in certain instances at least, and starts from there – that is to say, at the outer fringes of the map of cinema and even over the borders. It hopes to be useful to readers who have seen some experimental films and want to know more about them, and also to film- and video-makers who make, or want to make, work of this kind and who are interested in the general background of historic and recent avant-gardes. No more knowledge than this is assumed, and if the book serves either of these two purposes it will have done what it set out to do. The Notes and Bibliography indicate where to find more specialist information, guiding the reader to sources which explore particular topics in more depth. The first sections of the book briefly survey some basic issues in the light of contemporary arguments about art, film and the mass media. They try to show the current state of play as far as theorisation goes, and where experimental or avant-garde film crosses over into current debates about post-modern art and cinema. The aim here is to set the x

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scene in the present, given that the main purpose of the book is historical. Since absolute chronology is not preserved these sections amount perhaps to a signal that the avantgarde has a non-linear aspect as well as a strictly time-bound one.12 Arguments recur and boundaries are unfixed. Next there is a historical review of the experimental film from its origins to the Second World War. This is the broadest part of the book, tracing the birth of experimental art and film back to its roots in early technologies and then to the cubist movement and its aftermath in painting and sculpture. It attempts to show how modern art intersects with the notion of film as an art form, with examples from Dada, surrealism and constructivism. Then it takes up the movement in its rapid post-war development and on to the present day. The second part focuses on the British scene as it has evolved since 1966. This may be considered parochial, but it seemed a useful idea to fill in some of the lesser-known details of the British scene and ‘The Co-op After Le Grice’ – to quote a front-cover headline from the Monthly Film Bulletin in 1984.13 The world-wide expansion of artists’ work in film, video and digital media since the 1970s has anyhow made it impossible to take the full international overview exemplified in David Curtis’s inspired and now classic Experimental Cinema (1971). It is a pity to lose the international perspective,14 but luckily there is an increasing number of national or ‘area’ studies of film, video, electronic and digital art to supplement the partial account given here, as well as many current art and design journals and exhibition catalogues which cover these activities. A more positive result of narrowing the field is the chance to review some British work of the last forty years which has not yet had the attention – and above all the viewing – which it merits. The book assumes that artists’ film and video is a distinct form of cultural practice, with its own autonomy in relation to the mainstream cinema. This diverse body of work, almost coextensive with the beginning of cinema and the birth of modernism, makes up a tradition of a complex and often contradictory kind. A further notion is that avantgarde film and video is a serious art form even when, as with Dada and neo-Dada, it looks as if it is doing something stupid. It is sometimes important to make stupid art (it might not end up that way). John Cage summed up this aspect of the avant-garde – in the context of a documentary film made about him by Peter Greenaway – when he said that ‘some people take my work too seriously and some don’t take it seriously enough’.15 The focus of the book is on films and videos by artists, that is to say by those filmmakers for whom film is primarily an art form allied to painting, sculpture, printmaking and other arts both traditional and modern. Other comparisons might be to music or poetry, but for a number of reasons the visual analogy dominates. No attempt is made to define the terms ‘avant-garde’ or ‘experimental’ in any rigorous way – they are used according to historical context where possible – but the origins of these troublesome but persistent words are glanced at and their changing uses are borne in mind.16 In general, they are used as names rather than as descriptions. Cinema as a whole is of course an art form, of an especially complex kind, but this book concentrates on films which stand apart from the commercial and even the ‘arthouse’ sectors. It is most concerned with films and videos made outside the mainstream, or at its margins, by single-person authors, whose scales of production and funding are almost as far removed from the radical art cinema of Godard, Wenders, Marker and Straub-Huillet as from the industrial cinema itself. The art cinema can be seen as an avant-garde in its own right, and indeed the mainstream itself has avant-garde directors Preface

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like Ken Russell and David Lynch. The scope of this book, however, does not for the most part stretch that far. It centres on experimental film and video as an alternative to the major genres, and often in opposition to them. For the first half of cinema’s first century the borders between art, experiment and industry were particularly free. Global commercialisation and media power have changed the picture since then, as have wider cultural changes in the arts. So, without denying that ‘avant-garde’ has more than one meaning and context, this book concentrates on a loose network of individual authors working outside the industrial sector and the art cinema as a whole. Much of the work discussed here is only tenuously related to the cinema as an industrial culture or a cultural industry. The book relies on many sources to compile this overview, and tries to account for them in the bibliographical notes which follow the main text – but the selections, prejudices and exclusions throughout the book are my own. Scope and space as well as bias have also limited the films and their makers dealt with here. There are many regrettable omissions on all these scores. Readers will undoubtedly discover this for themselves and remedy the gap. It would of course be possible to write quite a different book on this topic, using the same or many other artists and films and looking at other issues. But this is not that book.

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Introduction Siting the avant-garde There have been innovative film-makers since film and cinema began, emerging from mainstream and arthouse feature production to push cinema a step further into untried territory.17 They include individuals like Fritz Lang, Luis Buñuel, King Vidor, Jean-Luc Godard, David Lynch. Such forward-looking directors are sometimes historically linked to film avant-gardes which are far more marginal to the mainstream and unknown to large parts of it; Bun˜uel to the surrealists, Lang to the abstract film, the Movie Brats to the underground, Godard to the situationists. It is these avant-gardes, a set of diverse individuals and groups at the margins of the mainstream but occasionally intersecting it at acute or oblique angles, which are the focus of this short account. Aside from its important if often unacknowledged influence on mainstream film and television, the avant-garde cinema itself has only surfaced to wider view at particular moments in its history. Its best-known epochs are probably the abstract and surrealist film in the 1920s, the path-breaking underground film in the 1960s and (in the UK) the school of Derek Jarman in the 1980s or the ‘young British artists’ of the 1990s. In these cases the avant-garde broke out of its often self-imposed obscurity to take part in a broader cultural picture. Some films and their makers have become cult or even popular classics, as with Oskar Fischinger, Jean Cocteau and Kenneth Anger. But the movement as a whole has more often looked to alternative audiences on the margins of the mainstream cinema. The avant-garde rejects and critiques both the mainstream entertainment cinema and the audience responses which flow from it. It has sought ‘ways of seeing’ outside the conventions of cinema’s dominant tradition in the drama film and its industrial mode of production.18 Sometimes it does so in the name of ‘film as such’ or even ‘film as film’. It was this aspect of the avant-garde that led the Soviet director Sergei Eisenstein to attack Dziga Vertov for his ‘formalist tricks’ in the 1920s.19 At other times film avant-gardes emerge out of wider social movements to speak for silenced or dissident voices. Dating back to political documentary in the 1920s and 1930s, this wave passes through the civil rights and Beat Era in the 1950s and on to today’s cultural minorities. Their search is less for formal purity than for a new language uncompromised by the regimes they resist. At some historical moments the artists and the social radicals meet up in crucial conjunctions (as with documentary and abstract film in the 1920s, the New American Cinema and the underground film in the 1960s, political and structural films in the 1970s and the fusion of music videos with independent cinema in the 1980s).20 Whether they look to aesthetics or politics for their context, the films of the avant-garde challenge the major codes of dramatic realism which determine meaning and response in the commercial fiction film. But cinema is not the only context for the avant-garde film. Some film-makers, and arguably entire movements, have overturned the codes and iconography of the cinema Introduction

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from far outside the mainstream and in opposition to it. Surrealist and abstract film in the 1920s, like much film and video installation art today, flowed from the artistic currents of the time. As the dominant and industrial cinema achieved higher production values and greater spectacle, the avant-garde affirmed its ‘otherness’ in cheap, personal and ‘amateur’ films which circulated outside the cinema chains. In this sense some avant-gardes can be seen to appropriate the film machine on behalf of contemporary art. The gallery or club rather than the movie-house is their site, outside the space and conventions of cinema. Avant-garde film has also taken over the traditional genres of art – rather than those of the cinema itself. These have been central to its language and rhetoric and have shaped its subject-matter. They include still life, such as Hollis Frampton’s Lemon (1969), Malcolm Le Grice’s Academic Still Life (Cézanne) (1977) and Guy Sherwin’s Clock and Candle (1976); landscape, from Fischinger’s Munich–Berlin Walk (1927) to Michael Snow’s La Région céntrale (1971) and the films of Chris Welsby; cityscapes, opening with the Sheeler-Strand Manhatta of 1921 and through to Stan Brakhage, Shirley Clarke, Ernie Gehr and Patrick Keiller; and portrait, from Andy Warhol through to Stephen Dwoskin and more recent artists such as Jayne Parker, Alia Syed and Gillian Wearing. At the same time, the avant-garde has participated in the expansion and occasional implosion of modern art forms, from auto-destructive art to multi-screen projection. The idea of experimental or avant-garde film itself derives more directly from the context of modern and post-modern art than from the history of cinema. But the unfortunate and militaristic overtones to the term ‘avant-garde’ have saddled artist film- and video-makers with a dual legacy. They are rarely by intent an ‘advanceArt genres: landscape; still life; cityscape; portrait: Temenos (Nina Danino, 1998); Metronome (Guy Sherwin, 1976); Manhatta (Charles Sheeler & Paul Strand, 1921); The Dead (Stan Brakhage, 1960; Kenneth Anger portrait)

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guard’ of the cinema, as the phrase may suggest, however much they may have influenced the stylisation of such well-known films as Stanley Kubrick’s A Clockwork Orange, the montage structure of Scorsese’s Mean Streets, the rapid cutting of Oliver Stone’s JFK or the layered texture of Lynch’s Lost Highway. And if the ideal of ‘progressive’ vanguard film-making was an aspect of the cinema’s optimistic first half-century (and a little beyond into the 1960s), the avant-garde since then has turned with the wider culture to doubt and uncertainty. Warhol is pivotal between these two moments. In his portrait films of 1963–5 a fixed camera illuminates and thus reveals the human face, but renders it as indecipherable and blank. More positively, the notion of an avant-garde asserts that innovation is a main goal of this area of film and video. At the same time, it implies a continuous history, even though avant-gardes appear, decline and are re-born in different national and historical contexts. It thus begs the question of whether the artists’ film avant-garde is one or many. Is it one broad movement spanning the century or simply a cluster of fringe activities at a tangent to popular cinema but with little other identity? Significantly, the avant-garde has traded under many other names: experimental, absolute, pure, nonnarrative, underground, expanded, abstract; none of them satisfactory or generally accepted. This lack of agreement points to inherent differences and even conflicts within the avant-garde, just as it also implies a search for unity across broad terrain. Because avant-gardes tend to spark off each other, this search is always open. P. Adams Sitney astutely notes that such names as avant-garde or independent cinema ‘admirably’ bind a ‘negative element’ into their definition.21 Spanning Futurism to post-modernism, and linked to them and to modern art by the nuance of its similarly time-ordered name, the avant-garde cinema is similarly international in scope. This has distanced it from the main context in which world cinemas operate, their production base in the nation-state. Avant-garde films have easily crossed national borders since the 1920s. For the most part they avoid script and dialogue, or approach film and video from an angle which emphasises vision over text and dialogue. The expanded use of new media in the art world in recent years has been just as international, even if the sheer explosion of film, video and installation art ironically makes it more difficult to scan and summarise the field comprehensively. Using the terms ‘avant-garde’, or even ‘experimental’, film at this late date may appear anachronistic or a provocation. For a long time they have scarcely been used without some degree of embarrassment. The earlier history of the avant-garde idea, which first dates from the 1830s, is briefly sketched below. It was applied loosely to artists’ filmmaking from the 1920s, but peaked in the 1970s when it ousted the term ‘underground film’ as a seemingly more serious name for the then rising structural film movement. Since then the term as an artistic category has been deconstructed on two fronts.22 One internal attack dates primarily from 1974, with Peter Bürger’s Theory of the AvantGarde, which argues that all contemporary artistic avant-gardes largely rehearse the deeds of their 1920s ancestors but fail to achieve their promise. The second onslaught, from outside the avant-garde and gathering steam since the 1980s, claims that the idea was delusory from the start, a mask or convenient handle for artists and factions in their power struggles for cultural dominance. The death of the avant-garde, which coincides with the ‘death of the author’, is in both cases seen as a sign of historic failure. Art which opposed museum culture is now embalmed within it, with Dada as the classic instance. Furthermore, it often follows, the avant-garde in art is now the mainstream itself; there is no establishment against which Introduction

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to rebel, with the final recuperation of modern art (including its supposed avant-gardes) into the cultural and media landscape. Only the newest and most outrageous art attracts the interest of sponsors, curators and advertising agencies. None of these claims, which separately are all valid diagnoses of art and of cultural criticism at the end of the last century, can quite equate with each other. The avant-garde once was, but is no longer; or it never really was, but only seemed to be. It has failed, and been tamed by the museums which feed it; at the same time, it has succeeded too well by making outrage the norm in a current art scene which the avant-garde dominates. Subtle criticism could no doubt turn these confusing circles into defined squares. It might show that the new, neo- or post-avant-garde from the mid-1970s to the present is only virtual Dada at many removes. Artists and museums pander to each other’s fantasies. Art pretends to outrage, and museums pretend to be shocked, to promote the show.23 But then shock – the most obvious surface trace of the avant-garde idea – has long been written off as either historical debris which no longer works, or as fake from the first, dating back to the 1920s. That the machine seems to roll on is therefore a mystery. Why do shock and sensation, or the pretence of them, seem to keep working when they have for so long been discredited? Who cares? To judge from public response, it seems that plenty do. Since the range of (absorbed?) shocks now ranges from the cool bricks of Carl Andre to the chopped and pickled sharks of Damien Hirst, from the absence of subject-matter to its strident opposite, from sparse neo-constructivism to ripe post-surrealism, it might be no more misleading to speak of shock in this context than of the sculptural and the conceptual traditions which also underlie these works and on which they comment. Although ‘avant-garde’ is not an altogether happy term, and many film-makers reject it, its survival in film criticism suggests that it may not yet be drained of all content, including the survival of shock as a cultural agent or catalyst. Often dismissed as a merely juvenile impulse to throw paint at the public (but sanctified by Marinetti, Mayakovsky, surrealism and punk), shock was cast by the sophisticated critiques of Walter Benjamin and Antonin Artaud as the founding moment of cinema itself. Recast in the 1970s by structural film to attack film norms of vision and duration, and then in the 1980s by body-centred Baudelairian taboo-busters, the maligned idea of shock as cultural stimulant, interruption or break is far from exhausted.24 Robert Hughes’s popular TV history of modern art, The Shock of the New, has been updated by events themselves since it appeared in 1980. Shock is an idea in art as much as a sensation, to denote the act of stopping viewers in their tracks, however briefly. This may suggest a cooler look at the avant-garde idea, freed from modernism’s past myths and present caricatures. No art exists free of material context, whether conceived in terms of property and patronage (as in Marxism) or in those of market forces and sponsorship (as in libertarianism). Art, which is always a form of social surplus, is a mixed economy even in the most corporate of regimes. The blurring of orders between avant-garde and mainstream is no new phenomenon; it characterised the twentieth century. The avant-garde seems temporarily to have stormed the citadel but without stemming mainstream modernism’s turnover of boardroom painting and institutional sculpture. The avant-garde has, however, won both notoriety and acceptance on its own terms: making ‘impossible’ demands, resisting censorship, getting up noses, offending, asking questions, refusing any given definition of public taste. Based on an inherently oxymoronic radical tradition, it looks for the junction-box between modernism’s secret languages and the revealed world of the public mass media. 4

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Vision machine Reviewing film’s first century, in the mid-1990s, British independent film-maker Peter Greenaway offered an inclusive definition of cinema – or Cinema, capitalised – which attempts to clarify the issues. For Greenaway, Cinema is the sum total of all technologies which work towards articulating the moving image. Cinema is a continuum.25 It embraces equally the big movie and the computer screen, the digital image and the handmade film, and – importantly – such structures as speech and writing, acting, editing, light projection and sound. The concept is large and ambitious. Like Greenaway’s own films and installations it is a grand synthesis of cinema as (in Paul Virilio’s term) ‘the vision machine’. Furthermore, we stand not at the end of its first century but at the opening of its real history – which has just begun. The idea is stimulating – not to say cheering in an age of post-everything – but focused on the phenomena of visual spectacle which Greenaway celebrates. Much of the historic avant-garde, as will be shown, has been concerned to challenge the supremacy of that spectacle, although it has its own key moments of visual celebration as well, from the 1960s underground to its belated offspring in the rapid-eye techno-art of the 1990s. But visual spectacle rests on illusionism, which the avant-garde generally resists. The idea of the ‘moving image’ which binds together Greenaway’s cinema as total work of art is itself sustained by illusionism. At the heart of this notion is a crucial paradox, for in film the image does not move – film consists of a series of static frames on celluloid. The impression of movement is an illusion. And in video and digital media the image in motion is coded as a scanned electronic signal. Film, video and electronic media are cinematic equations which slide apart even as they draw together. For Bazin an unassailable realism underpinned his vision of ‘total cinema’. Greenaway’s totalising vision is by contrast non-realist and post-modern. Nonetheless, like Bazin, who believed that film embalmed time and resisted its passage, Greenaway also turns to the past in the installations and exhibitions which evoke his film myth. For the ‘Spellbound’ show at the Hayward Gallery in 1996 this took the form of a multimedia spectacle of primal light, sound and film (In the Dark).26 Below the screens, in the gallery, were rows of ‘props’. They included live models in glass cases and a ranked archive of household and film objects dating from cinema’s heyday (and Greenaway’s childhood) in the 1940s. Greenaway’s optimistic vision of cinema art contains a latent nostalgia, an embalming of cinema’s own myth and cult. For much of its history the avant-garde has questioned this assumption of cinema as cultural myth and industrial product, and offered a number of alternative ways of seeing. At the same time, the act of seeing – and hence of illusion and spectacle – is itself put in question. This red thread runs through such diverse work as the surrealists (notably Man Ray and Buñuel), the films of Brakhage and Warhol (otherwise incompatible bedfellows), the English structuralists Peter Gidal and Malcolm Le Grice (from two distinct angles), and the feminist film-makers Yvonne Rainer and Lis Rhodes (using wholly different methods). The technologies which comprise the force-field of Cinema (film, video, sound, digital) and which are dedicated to comprehensive spectacle (Greenaway’s ‘vision’), at the same time are constellations which cannot align or cohere. They polarise around different ways to achieve their grand illusions; notably filmic discontinuity – ‘the flicks’, where single images appear to move by time-exposure; and electronic continuity – ‘the telly’, whose apparent images are streams of signals which record the breaking up of light by scanning. This ruptures it from the real which it attempts to denote. Introduction

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This doubt or mistrust of apparent continuity, or the refusal to disavow what one knows about illusionism in order to believe in its impression, has impelled avant-garde film-makers to the extremes of film craft and technique. Single framing (Jonas Mekas, Marie Menken), painted or scratched film (Len Lye), extended dissolves (Germaine Dulac), longtakes (Andy Warhol), flicker editing (Shirley Clarke, Gregory Markopoulos), cut-ups (Anthony Balch, George Barber), fake synch (Gillian Wearing, the Duvet Brothers), outdated filmstock (Ron Rice), found footage (Bruce Conner, Douglas Gordon), out-of-focus lens (Brakhage, Gidal), intermittent projection (Ken Jacobs and Stan Douglas) – these and more are ciphers of resistance to ‘normal vision’, in a variety of aesthetic contexts but all stemming from a clash between the cinema apparatus and the moment of viewing. Ironically, many of these devices leak into the wider culture as they are taken up or imitated in filmic special effects or in TV advertising. Here, anti-illusionism turns into its opposite. In its role as ‘vanguard’, the experimental film has similarly pioneered the manipulative techniques which electronic and cinematic technologies now encode in their software to reshape the appearance of the real and thus to undermine traditional notions of veracity. At the same time, the avant-garde has opposed that simulationist shift from the other side, by questioning the image, the spectacle and the presumed authority of both. The conflicts of this position – the avant-garde as both inside and outside the wider media culture – take on new urgency as the full implications of the digital era become clear. Instead of the truth at 24 frames a second, theorists and film-makers alike are increasingly aware of the dark and blank gaps between those frames, through which the real seems to leak back into the unrecapturable light. Digital imaging adds further levels of mutability. When the French philosopher Bergson critiqued the cinema in 1907 for breaking up time into a sequence of regular units, thus falsifying its unbroken flow, he prefigured the substance of a concern which is now widely and publicly shared.27

Time base If the questioning of vision, and of vision as truth, has been the core of film experiment, to set in doubt the cinema as spectacle which Greenaway affirms, what replaces the authority of the image, an authority on which film’s realism is based? The answer suggested here is that time and duration make up that substitute. Instead of the visual image, experimental film centres itself on the passage of time.28 This has been explicitly recognised by diverse avant-garde artists from Walther Ruttmann and Maya Deren to John Latham and David Hall. The notion of film as primarily a time-based art is central to the avant-garde, even though the shaping of time is common to all cinema. But the experimental tradition puts film time at the core of its project. Fiction film, in the systems worked out largely from 1906–15, shaped narrative space around a montage framework of edited and elided time. The dramatic unities of the classical and Renaissance drama are preserved in fiction film through the stability of narrative space, plot and acting. Mainstream narrative fiction has itself responded to a ‘crisis in representation’ with an increasing number of films which play with time as central to plot, just as documentary film today acknowledges its own codes and procedures. But the centrality of film-time to the avantgarde has other roots than realism. They include ‘the moment of cubism’ which introduced duration and the fragment to modern art.29 From these are derived the material 6

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tropes and codes of experimental film – rapid camera movement and the long-take, film grain and handpainting – which in their separate ways direct attention to film as a material construct and as a time-based medium.

Point of view Modernism was founded on a new understanding of point of view, both for artist and spectator. Walter Benjamin’s essay on ‘The work of art in the age of mechanical reproduction’, a seminal analysis of 1936 in which cinema is central, traces the fading ‘aura’ of the individual art object as it is technologically transmitted through the media culture.30 This aura was originally bound up with the location – church, palace, great house – for which much classic art was made. As aristocracy was succeeded by bourgeois democracy, the work of art became a commodity circulating among collectors in the art market. Eventually, art adapted to its new mobility. The ‘personal touch’ was valued, lower genres encroached on traditionally higher ones (as in the rise of landscape and still life over history painting), the academies were challenged and independent groups emerged, and the portable easel painting brought with it a naturalism and intimacy which triumphed over the ‘great machines’ of the nineteenth century. These material changes underlie the slow decline of the stable viewpoint in art, a regime of vision which the Renaissance had inaugurated through the science of perspective. By the late eighteenth century, the certainty of perspective-ruled sight in art was dissolving under the impact of the baroque. Delacroix and Turner freed colour from its natural base to explode space rather than fix it. Impressionism and Cézanne affirmed viewpoint (the artist’s eye), but also destabilised it to incorporate the passage of time (as in the ‘serial’ paintings of Rouen by Monet, or the overlapping planes and angles of Cézanne). Their followers, such as the Fauves, invented a free, neo-symbolist space, which in the later fragmented vision of cubism turned overtly against the all-embracing eye of naturalism itself. By the time of Mondrian and Klee, and contemporary with the first avant-garde films, abstract artists were making paintings with no central viewpoint at all or one so radically decentred as to defy the fixed gaze. Matisse, a more figurative and phenomenological artist, similarly devised a method of ‘all-over’ painting in which figure and ground are evened out, ‘subsumed into the greater force of the surface-astotality’, as Norman Bryson summarises. Once the traditional distinction between figure and ground was questioned by abstractionist art, so was painting as imitation of the visible. The scene gives way to the sign. The viewer has no central anchor around which to construct the fantasy of the scene and the gaze. Yve-Alain Bois states that as long as an opposition between figure and ground is maintained, we remain in the domain of the projective image and transcendence – the painting is always read as an image projected from elsewhere onto its surface, and this imaginary projection is always illusionistic.31

Immanent meaning is substituted for the dialectical conflict which underpins modernist abstraction in its battle with ‘imaginary projection’ (here used by Bois to describe the appearance of forms in space, but also recalling the codes of perspective geometry). When Bois writes that traditional painting is ‘read as an image projected from elsewhere onto its surface’ and that ‘this imaginary projection is always illusionistic’, he Introduction

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could be describing the narrative cinema. Narrative cinema is the archetype of point of view at work in film. The classical tropes or figures of film narrative – varied distance from the camera, cutting at an angle for reverse field matching, not crossing the line – aim to preserve and locate the viewer’s stability across dissolves, edits and jump-cuts. The spectator’s identification with a character in drama film is locked into a mobile identification with camera and scene, thus constructed. The narrative theme of ‘mistaken identity’ in the fiction film (from Hitchcock’s The Wrong Man to de Palma’s Body Double, Verhoeven’s Basic Instinct, Lynch’s Lost Highway and Christopher Nolan’s Memento) literalises the moment of misrecognition inherent in post-Freudian notions of the self, to enact this trauma as drama.32 The screen projection is a mirror for the play of figure and ground, but is also a suppressed emblem of the fantasy relation inscribed in cinema’s double-reflection of seen and scene.

Modernisms A crucial change occurred in the definition of avant-garde film around the mid-twentieth century when it became associated with artists who made films to the virtual exclusion of other media. By contrast the first film avant-garde was made up of artists, such as Man Ray and Fernand Léger, who ‘supplemented’ their work in painting, sculpture or photography with a small number of experimental films which are now canonical. These artists engaged in very little film activity after the late 1920s, even though they continued to distribute and show their early films throughout their long and productive lives – Léger died in 1955 and Man Ray in 1976. But after the Second World War a new generation from Maya Deren to Stan Brakhage affirmed that it was possible for film to be an artist’s medium in its own right. They went on to construct bodies of work made up primarily or entirely of films, reversing the traditional priority given to the older arts, however radicalised and modernised, such as painting and sculpture. This was a key historical shift, with consequences which still affect artists and spectators today. It underlies later distinctions between ‘video artists’ and those artists for whom video is an additional element in their work. It connects to the never-ending debate – since Clement Greenberg’s seminal essays of the 1940s to the 1960s – about whether and how far an art form is determined by the media it employs, of which the ‘film as film’ debate in the 1970s was an outcrop. More generally, it further complicates an already complex set of terms, notably the question of modernism and the avantgarde. Modernism is a complex and disunified field of activity, even when its constellation is restricted to so-called high art or literature. As many commentators note, the concept of the modern shifts – or indeed slips and slides – between two related contexts. In the first it defines the general culture of the arts in the twentieth century, focusing on ‘the moment of cubism’ (as John Berger called it) and emphasising a break with the tradition of realism and mimesis in Western art and literature. At the same time it echoes in name and concept a much broader process of social and cultural ‘modernisation’. This second sense, known as ‘modernity’,33 points to the global rise and hegemony of industrial, urban and technological societies. Clearly modernism in art and modernity in its social sense are linked, if only because the early twentieth century took itself to be ‘the modern age’. But, as used today, modernism and modernity are retrospective terms which date roughly from the mid-century. 8

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They draw into focus a diverse range of phenomena, from Dada to action painting, or Futurism to minimalism. They thus provoke analogies and insights which may or may not have been present to the original participants, for whom the simpler terms ‘modern’ or ‘avant-garde’ were enough to denote the contemporary nature of their art. But this usage was too all-embracing for later generations, who looked to distinguish the painterly moderns like Matisse and Braque from the anti-art moderns such as Antonin Artaud, Tristan Tzara and Marcel Duchamp. At the same time, the secondary revision of art and cultural history in terms of retrospectively defined modernism cannot easily be mapped onto the history of cinema. Cinema is an obvious candidate for ‘modernity’ – in the social sense – because it is primarily urban, industrial and aimed at a mass audience. For many artists, cinema was an emblem of modern times, as the only independent art form to have been invented since the Renaissance. But in other respects the generic code-word ‘Hollywood’ stands for values opposed to the major tendencies of modern or indeed modernist art. They include the immobile spectator locked into a virtual image, the illusion of absolute presence (‘it was just like a film’), predefined structure, narrative continuity, popular appeal and the ultimate goal of visual pleasure. The central question for literary and cultural modernism is, perhaps curiously, its relation to the past. Some modernists saw themselves as revitalising outworn traditions or discovering forgotten ones, as in Ezra Pound’s rumbustious polemic ‘How to Read’ (1927)34 and in his slogan that ‘poetry is news that stays news’. Others – perhaps reflecting the impressionist Pissarro’s call to ‘burn the museums’ – recognise in modernism a distinct voice which represents a radical break, or rupture, with the past. More recent deconstructionists argue a third and more conservative case which draws pre- and anti-modernists into an expanded modernist canon. Meredith, Wells and Shaw are among the latest candidates. Cultural and political radicalism, which so often seemed to march together in the twentieth century, are clearly not always allied. Eliot’s élitist modernism of the right stresses a high degree of continuity with the past; Adorno’s élitist modernism of the left underscores negation and break with the past. Both join in opposition to popular culture, seen as unremittingly commercial and profit-oriented, and to the progressive theories of the ‘enlightenment’. Benjamin’s position shifts between these two, and he tellingly opened paths between high and popular art by way of surrealism and cinema. His unfinished great project, centred on Paris as the capital of the nineteenth century, proposed a cinematographic method of quotation and fragment,35 to ‘carry the montage principle over into history . . ., to build up the large structures out of the smallest . . . structural elements’. Because it is so intimately tied to popular culture, cinema has a complex relation to the concept of modernism, which initially at least derives from such high culture modes as literature, music and the visual arts. This provokes Anne Friedberg in Window Shopping (1997) to doubt that cinema has an equivalent to the post-modern revision of the modernist past which was first debated among choreographers and architects in the 1970s. In what sense is a classic Hollywood film ‘modernist’? It was challenged as such by innovative films like Citizen Kane (1941), and attacked in advance by the Soviet school of the 1920s. Similarly, cultural modernists like Fellini and Bergman rejected the Hollywood cinema, the supposed modernist master-code. It was also questioned by the avant-garde cinema, led by film-makers who were ‘otherwise involved in all that modern came to mean in the other arts’.36 Introduction

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Friedberg concludes that the distinction between modernism and post-modernism cannot be applied to cinema. She sees ‘avant-garde’ as a necessary but ‘troubling’ third term between cinema’s ill-defined modernism and the broader sense of modernity, urban and social, which produced cinema and its technical base, or ‘apparatus’. The assumed historical link between the modern age and the cinema borders on a ‘nominalist quagmire’, since Hollywood’s modernism – unlike that of the other arts – is openly narrative, representational and often realist. Friedberg turns to the relations between modernism and its avant-gardes to unscramble the knot. Both Peter Bürger and then Andreas Huyssen (the latter in After the Great Divide, 1986) distinguished modernism from the avant-garde, which earlier critics from Renato Poggioli to Irving Howe and Jürgen Habermas had seen as coextensive. In this new historicisation, Bürger argued that while modernism had attacked the conventions of form and language, the avant-garde had gone further to undermine the institutions and even the very concept of art itself. Friedberg uses Richard Abel’s extensive research into French cinema to show that the great divide between the avant-garde and modernism does not work for film.37 Abel argues that narrative avant-garde cinema from 1919–24 (with feature-length directors like Germaine Dulac, Abel Gance and Jean Epstein) and abstract avant-garde film from 1924–9 both fought a common battle to have film recognised as a serious art form, and indeed as a high art. Marcel L’Herbier and Louis Delluc used the term ‘impressionism’ to link the visuality of film with painterly or musical ideas. In this context, the borders between modern, narrative and avant-garde film are especially fluid. To take a different perspective, Hollywood was itself eager for cinema to be taken seriously and recognised as an art form, but rejected the methods of modern art in favour of a nineteenth-century realist aesthetic based on the well-rounded story and on closed rather than open forms of narration. Its production systems and technical inventiveness were geared to these ends. Huyssens argues that modernism’s high-toned resistance to mass culture – Hollywood included – is in contrast to present-day post-modernist reconciliation of high and low cultures. Paradoxically, the historical avant-gardes emerge as precursors here, precisely because their political intent, from Dada onwards, impelled them to incorporate elements of popular culture rather than to exclude them on grounds of impurity and commercialism. At the same time, of course, these avant-gardes reject the conformism of mass cinema even as they transgress the formal divisions laid down by modernism and hence look forward (a true vanguard for once) to post-modernism’s deliberate blurring of traditional cultural barriers. While this leaves post-modernists seemingly destined to repeat the gestures of their avant-garde forbears – only less effectively, which is Bürger’s complaint – it also makes clear that there is no singular history of high art in the twentieth century. But the difficulty here is where to draw the line around the concept of modernism, and thus to define how high is high art. In one sense Mondrian (for example) is very high indeed, dismissing as mere kitsch the flower paintings which he sold in order to be free to paint his pure abstractions. At another level, he had a real zest for urban popular life, and one of his last works is the exuberant and aptly titled Broadway BoogieWoogie. Nearly all the first so-called modernists were also great cinephiles and their enthusiasm for film predated and partly shaped their work in this medium (see also the following sections on cubism and Futurism). While this debate resonates through current criticism, it is by no means new. In 1965 the New York art critic Barbara Rose wrote that ‘the slick magazines have invented a fictional scene for public consumption’, and one of ‘the disturbing signs’ she notes is that 10

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among art students, one perceives a ‘make-it’ mentality conditioned by mass press descriptions of artistic high-life . . . As the pace becomes more frantic and distinctions are blurred, values are equally obscured . . . Having lost their common purpose on being accepted into the Establishment, and now rapidly losing their centre as galleries and museums and exhibitions proliferate, is it any wonder that avant-garde artists are experiencing a crisis of identity?38

Two years later, in 1967, Clement Greenberg asked ‘Where is the Avant-Garde?’ (‘it is a fact that joining up with the avant-garde becomes less and less an adventurous, self-isolating step, and more and more a routine, expected one’), and spoke of ‘assimilation’ and ‘hypertrophy’.39 Two years further on again, in 1969, he followed up with an essay on ‘Avant-Garde Attitudes’: innovations follow closer and closer on one another, and because they don’t make their exits as rapidly as their entrances, they pile up in a welter of eccentric styles, trends, tendencies, schools.

To this confusion, he adds, it seems that the media are ‘exploding’ and turning into each other, ‘scientific technology is invading the visual arts and transforming them even as they transform one another’, and ‘high art is on the way to becoming popular art, and vice versa’. Between these two forays, which along with Rose’s article are remarkably proleptic of the post-avant-garde world we now inhabit, Greenberg took part in a 1968 interview with the English art critic Edward Lucie-Smith and which was quoted as the lead quotation for this book. Asked for a definition of ‘avant-garde’, Greenberg replied, ‘You don’t define it, you recognize it as a historical phenomenon’. At present, he goes on, the avantgarde may be ‘undergoing its first epochal transformation’ because it has taken over the foreground of the art scene . . . Since what is nominally avant-garde has done this, the term and notion themselves have changed. The question now is one of continuity; will the avant-garde survive in its traditional form? (And there’s no paradox in juxtaposing ‘avantgarde’ and ‘tradition’).

For Greenberg, an active rather than compromised avant-garde was a necessary factor in the production of high art; he did not (unlike Bürger) see it in opposition to what was being labelled ‘high modernism’, but as its fundamental condition, and hence he was concerned to defend the avant-garde impulse. The critics were using different maps, then as now. The first map (Greenberg and Adorno, say) pitched modernism against mass culture with the avant-garde leading the attack, while the second (post-Bürger and Huyssens) shifts the avant-garde into alliance with at least some elements of mass (now ‘popular’) culture to tear down high modernist élitism. For one group, the avant-garde exemplifies high art while for the other the avant-garde is always oppositional to it. The terms switched gear, so to speak, in the mid-century. Film, and the other media related to it such as video and other ‘scientific technologies’, always occupied a curious place in these debates and distinctions, wherever the borderlines were drawn. For some, its technical base and mass-culture associations undermined its actual or potential status as an art form; for others, it was simply a new medium to be added to the range of media which an artist could use. Introduction

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The argument is not only historical, but appears again in later and contemporary times. J. Hoberman’s 1984 essay ‘After Avant-Garde Film’ (the irony is in the title) argued that a new and rebellious clutch of film-makers in the 1970s and 1980s added such postmodernist tropes as appropriation, pastiche and quotation to the inherited language of the classical film avant-garde (construed by Hoberman as high modernists).40 In so doing, film-makers like Beth and Scott B., Vivienne Dick and Eric Mitchell were also rerunning the New York Underground of the 1960s, in opposition to the ‘mandarin’ culture of structural film. Camp jokes and popular culture were used as weapons against institutionalised avant-gardism by Friedberg’s ‘avant-garde after modernism’. Like David Hall in the UK, Hoberman believed that artists must turn to the previously foreclosed space of television, now the leading mass medium in the post-cinema age and as yet uncolonised by the contemporary arts. Although Hoberman does not himself say so, in this perspective it looks as if television plays much the same role for artists today as cinema did for the early modern movement led by Picasso, Marinetti and Malevich. Contemporary art theory has clearly been much vexed by the overlapping ideas generated by modernism and its aftermath, and which extend to avant-garde film and video as art forms. In The Return of the Real (1996), Hal Foster refines and expands Bürger’s critique by similarly distinguishing mainstream modernism from the historical avant-gardes, such as Dada, and from such post-war neo-avant-gardes as Pop Art and conceptual art.41 Here, minimalist art is the key: Minimalism breaks with late modernism through a partial reprise of the historical avantgarde, specifically its disruption of the formal categories of institutional art . . . By the same token, it prepares the post-modernist art to come.

In focusing on the minimalists Foster aims to rescue their brand of radical contemporary art from the more conservative modernist tradition and from the post-modern but, as he sees it, regressive revival of expressionism as a counter-avant-garde. The artist Robert Morris, in his book Continuous Project Altered Daily (1993), is more pessimistic about the post-modern attack on the institutions of art, since all art depends on a compromised relation to its social and economic conditions.42 He slices modern art into three parts or ‘discourses’ rather than the familiar pairing of modernism and the avant-garde, and looks to the production of art rather than the context of exhibition. Morris first distinguishes the positive concept of ‘abstraction’ as the leading trend in progress-oriented ‘high modernism’. He then turns to political artists who propose the ‘address of power’ as the key tactic of anti-institutional art. Finally, he describes a ‘negative discourse’ in modern art, with which he identifies, in which art is an ongoing critique that resists both the positive moment of abstract formalism and the reduction of art to a social programme. Rosalind Krauss, in documenting her own move from formalist criticism to postmodernism, returns to a binary model of modern art which is almost the traditional coupling, or decoupling, of modernism and the avant-garde.43 She tracks this along a visual axis, however, rather than wholly through the ebbs and flows of opposing art movements. Firstly, she traces an initial dominance of ‘the grid’ in modern art, emphasising order, structure and control, as evidenced in cubism. Secondly, she contrasts the grid with ‘the matrix’, an underlying but ungraspable shape or web made up by the work of art. Unlike the grid, the matrix fluidly resists order and definition. Its transgres-

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sive nature is expressed by the dissident surrealist Georges Bataille in his concept of the ‘informe’, or non-form, and leads to the hybrid and metaphoric art of the present day. This contrast of grid and matrix may recall the debate between classic and romantic art led by theorists of art from Goethe and Lessing down to Wöllflin, Hulme and Worringer; that is to say from the birth of Romanticism itself to the dawn of a specifically modern art.44 It also updates a distinction made early in the twentieth century between formal art (e.g. the constructivist movement after cubism) and the disrupting critique of art offered by surrealism. The contrast was made in Salvador Dali’s comment on Un Chien andalou (1928): ‘With one stroke [i.e. in the famous shot of an eye slashed with a razor] we put paid to the little lozenges of Monsieur Mondrian.’45 Krauss thus pulls surrealism back into the core of modern art, from which her former mentor Clement Greenberg had expelled it as illustrative, iconic, pre-modernist and neoromantic. Foster, Krauss and Morris are all associated with the American journal October, named after Eisenstein’s famous film. If their different views show a ‘family resemblance’, they are also not strictly compatible. But for each ‘the moment of cubism’ is the crucial episode in modern art, just as it is the founding movement for artists’ film. Like other art movements, cubism implies a process of artistic change which these writers are concerned to underline in their accounts of contemporary art. A period of innovation (1907–25) is followed by assimilation and consolidation (1925–35) and then by a new critical or negative reaction (in cubism this begins early, with the surrealist revolt from around 1925 onwards although crucially heralded by the long-sighted Duchamp, questioning and probing from within the cubist epoch almost as soon as it began). This three-stroke model of innovation/consolidation/reaction inevitably recalls a much older neo-Hegelian Marxism. It is, in fact, the logical triad of thesis/antithesis/synthesis found in orthodox Marxism, but with the final two terms crucially reversed. The conventional triad is embodied in both radical and orthodox film theory through the influence of Eisenstein, whose ideas were forged in its climate. The three-shot model is the basis of montage, literally so in the legendary Kuleshov experiment and in many of Eisenstein’s own films,46 and more metaphorically when the clash of one distinct shot with another produces a new concept which is their joint product, whether there is a third synthesising image or not.47 Methods and theories of montage have for long focused on the subtle variations which can be spun from a triadic system, which has obvious connections to musical form and to some kinds of abstract painting.48 Underlying the theory of montage in film is a further division to which all Western art forms are subject, but which film specifically encodes. This is the split between the material conditions of film production and the idealised flow of on-screen images which are their result. On a Platonic scale which mapped the materiality of art-making from the most minimal to the most tangible, graphic notation on paper (words, scores) would appear at one end and object-making sculpture at the other. It is this range of forms of content, prior to the plane of expression, which much modern and contemporary art has been inclined to explore.49 Foster’s instance of reductive minimalist art as the crucial moment leading to post-modernity is carefully chosen. Cinema is an especially material art – as the full credits to any feature film will reveal – but at the same time, and because of this very materiality, it is also the most illusionistic or phantasmagoric art form in its final product and effect. As symbolic systems the technologies of film rely on animated still frames while video depends on electronically Introduction

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coded signals. The source of the image is, in either case, strictly invisible to the observer. The separate frames of a film echo the regular cubist grid – an aspect parodied in the serial repetitive format of Warhol’s early screenprints50 – but appear as an intuited and impressionist matrix from the point of view of the spectator. The origins of these complex media, which prove so difficult to match even with the multi-plane categories of art and modernism, are the subject of the next section.

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Part One: The canonical avant-garde Origins of the moving image (1780–1880) New movements in cultural history rarely have a single and agreed starting date, and to trace either the moment when cinema began or when it became an art is a matter of argument. The emblematic years 1895/6, when the Lumières first demonstrated their machine in Paris and London, are an endpoint as much as anything else, for behind those dates stands a long period of research and development in Europe and the USA. Nor did the Lumière brothers think they were making art. Even more arguable is the relation of cinema to the other art forms of the late nineteenth century, including realist painting and drama, as well as the modernism which is the main subject of this historical review. Modern art and silent cinema emerged at roughly the same time, after a long period of mutual gestation. Both came at the end of a century which was fascinated by the art and science of vision. It underpins the composer Claude Debussy’s notion that ‘music is the arithmetic of sounds as optics is the geometry of light.’51 Cézanne, who surfaced from long years of self-willed obscurity to become recognised as a master of ‘postimpressionism’ in the mid-1890s, wanted to ‘develop an optics, by which I mean a logical vision’.52 Photography, which had been born from the science of optics, and is a third point of triangulation between art and cinema, had already made its impact on visual artists from the 1840s onwards.53 It left its trace on the subject-matter, the style or the method of every advanced artist of the period – including Manet, Seurat and Degas – just as it challenged and redefined the picture-making of more traditional, academic painters and sculptors. But both sides drew different lessons from the photograph. While the Impressionists and their followers were typically struck by the surprise or chance-effect of the snapshot, narrative painters focused on the illusionist realism and surface of the Daguerreotype or photogravure. Both groups were quick to use photography as a visual aid or as a means of documentation, thus adding to that extensive ‘archive’ of photoimages which now engrosses historians of the early modern period. Photography may link artists with proto-cinema, but it is necessarily a static form of representation which slices time into fractions to achieve its effect. The paradoxes of photographic time continue to fascinate artists today, just as they stimulated such thinkers as Baudelaire, Bergson, Benjamin and Barthes, but the key and missing element – the ‘capture’ of movement – had to be added to the scientific study of optics before the diverse arts and technologies which made cinema possible were in place. Here science added a further link to the chain as it turned to ever more experimental procedures. By the mid-nineteenth century, in the influential researches of the scientist Helmholtz, for example, the traditional ‘static’ medical anatomy of the eye was joined The canonical avant-garde

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to the more fluid and investigative study of colour and light perception which had been pioneered – along quite different lines – by Newton and Goethe, and then by technologists such as Chevreul,54 in the century between 1728 and 1839. Chevreul’s analysis of colour harmony appeared in 1839 at the same time as the famous public announcement of photography’s invention in France. The next year, 1840, the President of the Royal Academy in Britain, Sir Charles Eastlake, published his translation of Goethe’s (antiNewtonian) Theory of Colour (1810). Soon afterwards the 70-year-old Turner painted Light and Colour (Goethe’s Theory) – the Morning after the Deluge, a title which plays on two senses of vision, the scientific and the sublime. Both Turner and Constable, who studied not only nature but the meteorological research of Luke Howard for his famous studies of clouds,55 were to affect two generations of French artists from Delacroix to Monet for whom painting was above all an art of light and colour. Constable’s influence on French artists was first noticed by the critic Villot in 1857. The early audiences who responded so vividly to the Daguerrotype (Louis-Jacques Daguerre, 1839); Card Players movement of trees and shadows in the (Lumière, 1895); Card Players (Paul Cézanne, 1890–2) background of the Lumières’ film Feeding Baby – almost an Impressionist subject sprung to life – were thus seeing a complex heritage pass before their eyes, just as the Lumières’ film of the Card Players, also 1895, unconsciously echoes Cézanne’s paintings on that theme. If the first viewers of film made such unlikely connections (had they gone to both Cézanne’s Paris exhibition and the Lumière screenings in 1895, for example), they did not record them. It was not until cubism, and even then at a late stage in its development, that a context was offered in which artists might make films themselves, opening a new option for the modern movement, then also known as ‘the avant-garde’. But even early cubism was quickly seen to be ‘cinematographic’ in its concern for movement and viewpoint, and by a happy chance the French philosopher Bergson used that very phrase in 1907 to describe – not uncritically – the process of perception. A year later two young and unknown painters, Picasso and Braque, were pursuing their ‘laboratory research’ (Picasso), ‘like two mountaineers roped together’, as Braque recalled.56 They were climb16

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ing in Cézanne’s footsteps, developing his ‘passage’ or overlap between forms just as Bergson focused on ‘passage’ in time.57 Increased attention to the moving image, the cinematographic, was one crucial aspect of the European arts and sciences as they entwined towards the middle of the nineteenth century. Eighteenth-century rationalism had evolved into a broader ‘psycho-physics’, as Helmholtz called it, to produce demonstrable results from fleeting effects. Leonardo da Vinci had long ago noted such effects as a whirling firebrand which seems to leave a circular trace in the eye. Simulated movement and the persistence of vision were studied by such early modern scientists as Rouget and Faraday, typically by observing the spokes of rotating wheels. Between 1829 and 1833 Plateau in Brussels and Stampfer in Vienna had mapped the successive positions of a figure in movement around the circumference of a turning disc. These brief ‘shots’ of moving people, birds and animals were viewed through a sequence of slits and reflected in a mirror. Optical toys were the commercial result of this activity, adding to the kaleidoscope and stereoscope invented by Sir David Brewster. Popular variants such as the stroboscope, phantasmascope and zoescope culminated in Horner’s drum-mechanism Zoetrope, highly marketable from the 1860s, and Raynaud’s sophisticated Praxinoscope from 1877. A further direction of research, which ultimately passed into synaesthetic art and the abstract film, pursued the equivalence of sound and light. In this period, it goes from Goethe and Turner to Rimington’s concert of ‘colour music’, also in the emblematic year 1895.

Photography Photography grew along with and often overlapped these developments in the art of motion. Some recent historians have questioned the tendency to treat such optical inventions as merely the stages by which ‘proto-cinema’ finally led to the real thing. Such genealogies are often traced back to the camera obscura, a closed box fitted with a lens which focused a sharp image onto a flat surface, used as a drawing aid from the Renaissance onwards. But it is also argued, following Jonathan Crary,58 that the fixed and static framing of the camera obscura is very different from more fluid and active moving-image devices like the praxinoscope, suggesting a different model of spectatorship less firmly centred on the centralised gaze. The career of a pioneer like Daguerre shows, however, that the traditional litany of names and devices making up ‘proto-cinema’ offers real insight into the period. Niépce’s first successful experiments in photography from 1816–22 expanded after his partnership in 1829 with the more entrepreneurial Daguerre. A year after Niépce’s death in 1836 Daguerre perfected a silver and mercury method of printing which led to official recognition of the new art in 1839. Fox Talbot’s invention of the negative in 1835, inspired by the French pioneers, was also to change the course of image reproduction. Daguerre, like other businessmen-scientists of his time, was well prepared for the popular spread of photography as a medium for the mass reproduction of images. A pupil of Prévost, he had designed panoramas and dioramas from 1822, later bringing in live action and sound to enhance the attractions of these large-scale scenes of cities, battles and famous events, painted on translucent linen and transformed by lighting. His first experiments in photography used, in fact, an adapted camera obscura. Just as tellingly for the future, the worldly Daguerre made sure that his contract with Niépce in 1829 enjoined them ‘to gain all possible advantages from this new industry’. The canonical avant-garde

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Daguerre’s ‘showmanship’ – his business flair as well as his sense of public spectacle, from dioramas to ballooning – did indeed connect the new technologies of vision and motion; cinema films are still viewed as panoramas in dark spaces, and remain epic rather than intimate in scale. Balzac, like Dickens and Zola, charts in his novels the passage from classical stasis to romantic flux in nineteenth-century Europe. Motion was a key concept and emblem of the period, from cities and empires to railroads and mass spectacle. The sense of dynamism which this implied, and of which film was both literal figure and late metaphor, was passed on to later generations by way of the aptly named ‘motion pictures’ and indeed by a host of artistic and political ‘movements’ which typically came, like light, in waves. Crary’s revisionism attempts to avoid the dangers of simple teleology, or reading history backwards as a series of inevitable steps from the present to the past. It resists the centrifugal tendency of each period, including our own, to construct the past in its own image. At the same time, the nineteenth century’s own ideology of progress and its cult of the ‘invention’ are an implicit part of its cultural history. In this sense, the making of ‘moving pictures’, which culminated in the 1890s, was indeed a goal to which many scientists and others consciously moved by diverse and overlapping paths. The concept of progress embodies this ‘forward-looking’ self-image and led to such real effects as cinema itself. The span of proto-cinema goes from Philip De Loutherberg’s ‘Eidophusikon’ – exhibited in England from 1781 and combining screen images with sound effects – and the spread of ‘Phantasmagorias’ in Paris, London and New York from the 1790s to 1800. It does not seem illegitimate to connect the exploits of Daguerre, a photographer and balloonist who started as a designer of dioramas, with Grimion-Samson’s 1900 ‘Cineorama’ which took circular 360° views on 70mm film from a balloon, or with James White’s panoramas of the World Fairs, or with Edwin Porter’s similar use of a fluid-panning59 tripod for shots of the Buffalo ‘Electric Tower’ in 1900. Film historian Tom Gunning argues that these and similar scenographic ventures make up a pre-narrative ‘cinema of attractions’ which the advent of the single-screen drama film forced underground – and partly into the avant-garde – after 1907.60 It was in a climate of expanding industry and invention from 1820–50 that the idea of an artistic avant-garde materialised. It was prefigured in the bonds between the painter Jacques-Louis David’s classicism and the Revolution of 1789, when David was practically the official artist of the new regime, organising popular celebrations, or ‘street-art’, as well as painting its historical icons. But the avant-garde (named as such in the 1820s) first flourished in a later revolutionary France, erupting in 1848, to which artists and intellectuals were central. ‘Barriers are falling and the horizons expanding’, wrote a critic at the time. Progressive art and revolutionary politics were emblematically united when Delacroix’s inflammatory Liberty Guiding the People was exhibited for the first time since the previous political uprising of 1830. For the next thirty years the term ‘avant-garde’ denoted radical or advanced activity both social and artistic.61 The utopian socialist Saint-Simon had coined the term to designate the élite leadership of artists, scientists and industrialists in the new century. At first the avant-garde was led by social rather than stylistic concerns. Later it took on overtones of more extreme rebellion. Courbet embodied the artist as social critic and outcast (he was exiled after the fall of the Paris Commune in 1871), and his influence preserved the link between the avant-garde and social realism through the 1860s and beyond. But, stripped of its historical quotation marks, as Linda Nochlin recommends, the avant-garde in art can more readily be seen to begin with Manet. Manet’s realism was 18

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nothing if not critical. His free brushwork, allusive and ironic subject-matter and formal doubling of space and reflection (all of which can be seen in the Bar at the Folies Bergère) are far from the social realism of progressive art, even though he shared its republican sympathies. At this point the idea of an avant-garde passes through the crucible of art. By the time of Matisse, Picasso, Stravinsky and Diaghilev, avant-garde simply meant new, the latest modern thing. Fine distinctions between modernism and the avant-garde were yet to come. However, the earlier and socially tinged avant-garde idea was reborn in the radical aspirations of artistic movements (notably surrealism and constructivism) during the 1920s and 1930s. Realism may have been dropped from the agenda by then, but the social instincts of Courbet, Millet, Daumier and the writers of the mid-nineteenth century harmonised with their times. The practice and dissemination of both art and technology had moved beyond private patronage and scholarship to eminently public or state arenas in which academies, associations, exhibitions and newspapers all had their say. These gave the new art and eventually the new movies a context, at the birth of the mass age, in which the image of ‘the people’ was giving way to the new notion of ‘the public’. This intermediate phase, in which new art forms such as film and recorded sound were developing, while older forms like painting and sculpture were being refashioned, only lasted for a short period. Aesthetic, social and economic divisions asserted themselves, so that when their time came, in the early years of the century, such phrases as ‘film art’ and, even more so, ‘art film’, came to mean quite different things in the cultural context. Such divisions were by then a familiar feature of a rapidly changing cultural landscape. In 1895, the year of the Lumières’ first screenings, Paul Cézanne’s paintings were seen in public for the first time in twenty years in a large exhibition urged by Pissarro and organised by the art dealer Ambrose Vollard. For much of his life this reclusive artist was seen as a botcher and failure (his old but now estranged friend Emile Zola had typified him as such in an 1886 novel with the ironic title L’Oeuvre or The Masterpiece), but his paintings were increasingly seen by a younger generation to herald a revolution in art which was well under way by Cézanne’s death in 1906. Cézanne wished to bring together the direct perception of nature with the ‘solidity’ of classical and museum art.62 In the event his fame rests more on his concern for transition and movement, expecially in those still lifes or landscapes which incorporate different points of view. In particular this led to the rise of cubism that took place between 1908–12, the very time at which cross-cutting, close-ups and other cinematic devices were in development. Despite the rising barriers between new art and public taste, painters and other modernists were among the first enthusiasts for American adventure movies, the cartoons and Chaplin, finding in them a shared taste for modern city life, surprise and change.63 By 1912 Picasso was an early fan of the famous Fantomas serials.

Art and the avant-garde: summary 1909–20 Films directly made by artists were first discussed by Futurist, constructivist and Dadaist groups between 1909 and the mid-1920s.64 This ‘vortex’ of activity, to use Ezra Pound’s phrase, included the experiments in ‘lightplay’ at the Bauhaus, Robert and Sonya Delaunay’s ‘orphic cubism’, Russian ‘Rayonnisme’ and the cubo-Futurism of Severini, Kupka and its Russian variants in the Lef group. In turn, all of these experiments were rooted in the cubist revolution pioneered by Braque and Picasso. The canonical avant-garde

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Cubism was an art of fragments, at first depicting objects from a sequence of shifting angles and then assembling images by a collage of paper, print, paint and other materials. It was quickly understood to be an emblem of its time – Apollinaire was perhaps the first to evoke an analogy between the new painting and the new physics – but also as a catalyst for innovation in other art forms, especially in design and architecture. The painter Derain (later mentor to the abstract film-maker Viking Eggeling) called this language of visual fragmentation an art of ‘deliberate disharmonies’. It parallels the growing use of dissonance in literature (Joyce, Stein) and music (Stravinsky, Schoenberg). At the same time, the period from 1890 to 1914 was also characterised by the issue of method in art and thought.65 Both Cézanne and Seurat spoke of the search for method, and Signac continued it in his book on colour after Delacroix. Modern logical philosophy was founded at this time by Frege, Russell and Wittgenstein, as was phenomenology by Husserl and psychoanalysis by Freud. The aeroplane, radio telegraphy, X-rays as well as the atomic physics of Einstein and Planck were also developed in the time of the later Cézanne and the young Picasso, and each of these scientific and analytic discoveries carried a symbolic and even romantic dimension, as they expanded the field of vision to embrace exterior flight and the interior body, radio waves and light rays. New theories of time and perception in art, as well as the popularity of cinema, led artists to try to put ‘paintings in motion’ through the film medium.66 On the eve of the First World War, the poet Guillaume Apollinaire, author of The Cubist Painters (1913), explained the animation process in his journal Les Soirées de Paris and extolled the planned (but not shot) film Le Rythme coloré (Colour Rhythms, 1912–14), an abstract work by the painter Léopold Survage,67 which he compared to ‘fireworks, fountains and electric signs’. Apollinaire, whose promotion of new art was unsurpassed, had a complex artistic heritage. Hermeticism, art nouveau and synaesthesia, augmented by Rimbaud’s litany of the ‘drunken senses’, jostled with his urban and technocratic fervour for the Eiffel Tower, the aeroplane, cinema. In 1918 his call was renewed by the young Louis Aragon, writing in Delluc’s Le Film that cinema must have ‘a place in the avant-garde’s preoccupations. They have designers, painters, sculptors. Appeal must be made to them if one wants to bring some purity to the art of movement and light.’68 When cubists aimed for purity they meant the goal of autonomy in art rather than the search for essential qualities in the media they employed. Their chosen method was to combine or hybridise media and to override accepted categories and genres. Bergson’s vision of simultaneity was glossed by the Futurist Marinetti in 1909 as the triumph of the ‘dynamic sensation’ over the ‘fixed moment’, in a typically cinematic analogy (although Bergson himself saw film as a deceptive illusion which broke up the fluid passage of time).69 Yet cubist modernism was also strongly Kantian in its search for underlying form beyond impression, and here it turned to science.70 The principle of simultaneity had been introduced to art long before, in Chevreul’s account of colour contrast and harmony, influencing Delacroix and the Impressionists. Now optical theory joined with new discoveries in physics. Apollinaire first referred to ‘relativity’ in 1911. By 1919, Raynal and others could call on non-Euclidean geometry, Mallarmé and the new science as background to cubism, quoting Malebranche, Helmholtz, Bossuet and Kant to witness the limitations and failings of sense-data. To these high sources were added the popular context which cubism shared with the cinema, its contemporary, and with the visual culture of chronophotography, panoramas 20

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and dioramas, slide shows, billboards and the instant snapshot.71 All these had opened new scope for perception even as they undermined the traditional authority of the image as a substitute for reality. This was now the province of straight photography, which had invaded the painterly genres of portrait and landscape and even named its major formats after them. These are the contexts in which cubism questioned the direct bond of seeing and knowing which painting had traditionally evoked. The call for purity – an autonomous art free of illustration and story-telling – had been the cubists’ clarion-cry since their first public exhibition in 1907, but the goal of ‘pure’ or ‘absolute’ film was qualified by the hybrid medium of cinema, praised by Méliès in the same year as ‘the most enticing of all the arts, for it makes use of almost all of them’. But for modernism, cinema’s turn to dramatic realism, melodrama and epic fantasy was questioned, in Lessing’s spirit, as a confusion of literary and pictorial values. As commercial cinema approached the condition of synaesthesia with the aid of sound and toned or tinted colour, echoing in popular form the ‘total work of art’ of Wagnerianism and art nouveau, modernism looked towards non-narrative directions in film form. Cubist polemics often cast this in the image of battle. Aragon’s demand for a pure cinema does not foresee a placid or accommodating art. He calls on ‘a new, audacious aesthetic, a sense of modern beauty’ to rid cinema of the ‘old, impure, poisonous alloy’ which binds it to its ‘indomitable enemy’, theatre. ‘Don’t be afraid to offend the public’, Aragon says; slap its face and make it spit. He offers the image of a blank white screen like a pure white sail, metaphors which also attracted Mayakovsky, Apollinaire, Valéry and Mandelstam. Modern art, en route to Futurism and surrealism, associated film with shock from the first.

The cubists Braque and Picasso worked out what they saw as the lessons of Cézanne in a series of portraits and landscapes painted in Paris and L’Estaque from 1908 to 1910.72 They related time and space in art in new ways. Instead of a single viewpoint in suspended time, which the photograph had now perfected, the typical cubist portrait showed changing angles and viewpoints on its subject. Visual certainty, as given in appearance, was questioned. Instead of the traditional division between figure and ground, each part of the painting was here given equal pictorial value. At the same time, through a visible grid of surface marks, lines and brushmarks, these paintings showed how they had been made. They were shockingly non-hieratic, an impression underlined by their echoes of non-Western art from Africa and Oceania or the rugged non-classical sculpture of Iberia. This kind of painting aimed, like Cézanne’s, to unite direct visual sensations – which are fluid and unfixed – with a firm structure derived from the artistic tradition (the genres of portrait, landscape and still life were retained). But it was also more revolutionary in two ways: the first in its conceptual leap and the second in its radical expansion of artistic form and material. The Impressionists had opened their eyes to the raw data of vision in search of pictorial truth. The Fauves (who around 1905 included Matisse, Braque and Derain) raised the banner of pure colour; here, the viewer responded to colours in the painting freed from their source in the visible world. In this, despite their direct and ‘wild’ colour, the The canonical avant-garde

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Fauves shared the artistic climate of symbolism, which turned to magic and reverie as the keys to an insight beyond appearances. But Fauvism threatened to become a decorative style while symbolism led easily to illustration, exactly those nineteenth-century pictorial codes which young artists wished to escape. Braque had been a Fauve, and Picasso a symbolist, and they collaborated to move beyond both options. Their solution was cognitive, and focused on what was known rather than seen. And rather than hide the gap between the object and its appearance, by the classic but artificial means of perspective and foreshortening, they began to include visual ambiguity and indecision into their paintings. As summarised by Norman Bryson, ‘the cubist experiment sought a way to break the analogy between picture and perception which had governed most of painting’s history since the early Renaissance.’73 Cubism therefore gave modern art ‘the method’ for which many artists had called, but a provisional and unstable one which corresponded to modernity in the early years of the century. It did so by breaking with the pictorial sign as a register of observed, visual fact. The sign itself took on a new autonomy – it stood for itself as well as its object – and painting moved a notch further towards pure abstraction. Writing on ‘The Intentions of Cubism’ in 1919, Maurice Raynal stated that the autonomous work ‘will be, to the objects it represents, what a word is to the object it signifies’. Similarly, as expressed by Kahnweiler, ‘these painters turned away from imitation because they had discovered that the true character of painting and sculpture is that of a script’. The sign in painting becomes arbitrary, like the word in language (as asserted by cubism’s contemporary, Saussure). Scraps of newsprint and text enter the visual frame which is no longer wholly made up of natural signs as analogues of the perceptual field. Although the cubists did not take the implied next step, which leads to full abstraction, a new phase of inquiry was pursued by Picasso and Braque from around 1910 to 1914. In contrast to the first stage of analysing and breaking down the object and its forms in art, this second moment of cubism was devoted to synthesising and constructing real and imagined objects from a variety of collaged textures and surfaces. Collage introduced a new set of operations and ideas, from the emphasis on the flat surface to machine art and to cutout phrases and images from the popular press. These were mainly aesthetic questions for Picasso and Braque, who stood rather aloof from the broadening interest in their work and the even broader conclusions drawn from it. As the latest and most dramatic shock to public taste in art so far, the new painting became both famous and notorious; a double legacy. The derisory term ‘cubism’ stuck, however, and wider numbers of artists took up the name and explored the style in a cluster of splinter groups. Their ideas and their shows were encouraged by Apollinaire, poet and publicist of the new spirit in art. Today cubism is seen as distinctively modern because it is sceptical, investigative, active, eclectic. It was the intellectual and artistic core of the modern movement, and is still seen as its foundation. Most major trends in art later in the century looked back to it, and some still do, as a direction to follow or challenge. The moments of cubism still attract critical debate. Key issues remain unresolved, from anarchist readings of Picasso collages to more familiar problems of order and dating. But cubism remains an open question for more than historical reasons. It did not begin as a movement nor did its founders seek to found one, but the ‘researches’ of two young painters took on wider importance in a period of artistic change when traditional forms and content were under attack. 22

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Their challenge was made in part by turning to non-Western sources outside the tradition and by identifying with the most radical aspects of that tradition, which is why cubist myth incorporates Cézanne, Jarry and Rousseau in a rhetoric of the innocent or even child-like eye. Echoing the machine age by turning from the central, positioning human eye, cubist collage took city life – from newspaper clippings to household wallpaper – directly into art. Even by collaborating, Picasso and Braque undermined the bravura-myth of individual authorship. Before cubism, radical artists from the Impressionists to the Fauves regarded the space of painting as a scene opened to the eye. To this long tradition they added new sensations of colour, texture and form. City-bred cubism questioned this notion of optical truth and of the identifications it implied, chiefly between the object and its image and between viewer and viewed. The compositional unity of what Duchamp later dubbed ‘retinal art’ fell victim to cubist syntax, which sought conceptual form rather than visible appearance.74 Low-key materials and ordinary objects from the artisan’s workshop or the artist’s studio distanced the new art from the idealism inherent in the rejection of the visible, a doctrine that goes back to Plato. This pushed the cubists away from pure painting around 1912–14 towards collage or assemblages. Behind this stood the experience of city life which cubism looked to represent. Urban patterns and rhythms score the surfaces of cubist and Futurist paintings with multiple perspectives, or jagged lines and phrases torn or quoted from newspapers or billboards. Against the unitary gaze of the Western art tradition, cubism offered fluid clusters of dots, curves and lines – critic Maurice Raynal called them ‘a new notation’ – to replace visual harmonies with a series of abrupt glances that recall an exchange of looks in the street. While the influential philosopher Henri Bergson criticised cinema for falsely eliding the passage of time, his vividly cinematic metaphors echo and define modernism’s attitude to the visual image: ‘form is only the snapshot view of a transition.’ This is practically a definition of cubism. Bergson objected to the way in which we think of time in terms of space, depicting it as a straight line marked with ‘moments’ as its points. He argues that experienced time is pure duration, not a succession of moments but a flow of invisible continuity. This flow is in fact characteristic of all experience, which is an organic stream. Language, which is in distinct parts, misleads us to ascribe its own structure onto the world. Bergson himself was not a champion of the new art, but the writer Gertrude Stein certainly was.75 An early collector of Braque, Matisse and Picasso, she had been a favourite student at Harvard of William James, who saw Bergson as a precursor of his ‘radical empiricism’. James himself, in 1890, had described experience as a ‘stream of consciousness’. He criticised the older empiricism for isolating impressions or sensations from the stream, in terms that, like Bergson, recall the contemporaneous film: ‘Consciousness does not appear to itself chopped up into bits, it is nothing jointed, it flows.’ Stein looked back in 1934 at her book The Making of Americans, written in 1906–8 when she had moved to Paris, and acknowledged her debt to cinema. The book aspires to the universal, envisaging a Warholian ‘long book that is a real history of everyone who ever was or are or will be living from their beginning to their ending’. Stein wrote in the continuous present, like film, but claimed that she did not employ simple repetition – a common belief about her work – because of the ‘slightest changing’ that was also part of her technique. This she compares to the cinema: The canonical avant-garde

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Funnily enough, the cinema has offered a solution of this thing. By a continuously moving picture of any one there is no memory of any other thing and there is that thing existing . . . I was doing what the cinema was doing, I was making a continuous succession of the statement of what that person was until I had not many things but one thing . . . In a cinema picture no two pictures are exactly alike, each one is just that much different from the one before, and so in those early portraits there was . . . no repetition . . . It is not repetition if it is that which you are actually doing because naturally each time the emphasis is different just as the cinema has each time a slightly different thing to make it all be moving.

She admits bravely that I of course did not think of it in terms of the cinema, in fact I do not think I had ever seen a cinema but, and I cannot repeat this too often, any one is of one’s period and this our period was undoubtedly the period of the cinema and series production. And each of us in our own way are bound to express what the world in which we are living is doing.

If Warhol’s ‘famous for fifteen minutes’ dictum is prefigured in Stein’s ‘history of everyone’, so here are implanted his film-based repeated images and the ‘series production’ which characterised his art.76 Stein’s quiet revolution of the word passed down into later modernism, gathering speed at mid-century when John Cage gave it extra spin.77 At this point it impacted on the young Stan Brakhage for his innovatory film Anticipation of the Night (1959) whose structure of slow, Stein-like jagged repetitions was also indebted to Stein’s more combative contemporary, Ezra Pound.78 Pound thought of poetry in visual terms. His 1913 formula for a new poetics of ‘imagism’ conceived the word as a vortex79 of action and the image as a snapshot. ‘An “Image” is that which presents an intellectual and emotional complex in an instant of time.’ Pound defines the image so as to compactly render the hallmarks of modernism: a conversion of the dynamic and the kinetic into the static, of the temporal into the spatial, and of successiveness into simultaneity. It inevitably recalls the cinematicity of Bergson and heralds Eisenstein’s analysis of montage and frame.

Primitives and pioneers (1880–1915) Film may have permeated the thought and gained the excited interest of leading artists and thinkers – but was it art?80 And if so, of what sort? Authors of the time from Faure to Münsterberg debated this issue, in which the impersonal technology of film and its lack of direct authorship seem to run against the grain of traditional art, an argument which continues today. There were two contexts in which the cinema was described as an art form in the silent era. The first was to apply the term to cinema as a whole, as did Méliès. Ricciotto Canudo and Abel Gance hailed cinema as a ‘sixth art’ in 1911/12, while for the Polish critic Karol Irzykowski in 1924 it was ‘the tenth muse’. For the American poet Vachel Lindsay in 1922, film was like architecture, and that same year the art historian Elie Faure adopted the word ‘cineplastics’. This line was also taken up by artists and critics like Apollinaire, the mentor of modernism, whose vision of a synaesthetic cinema was heralded in Canudo’s 1911 essay ‘Plastic Art in Motion’. A second conjunction of art and early film was less cultural and more commercial, although it shares a context in which mastery of the technological base was entwined 24

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with cultural property and artistic status. Here the growing film industry used the traditional link between art and individual talent (paradoxically set in doubt by the cinema itself) to argue that film-making necessarily entailed creative authorship. This was crucial to their legal battles to establish copyright and ownership. Companies and associations such as Les Films d’Art (1908), United Artists (1919) and the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (1927), party to these battles, traded on the name of art for both cultural and legal reasons, dryly summed up by Benoît-Lévy’s 1907 definition of film as ‘a literary and artistic property’. It is in the crucial period shortly before the First World War that an eventual division between opposed visions of cinema was seeded. Largely through the vitality of the American cinema, films rapidly passed through a primitive stage when they were brief and often single-shot diversions made by entertainers and showmen for fairgrounds and music-halls.81 Around 1903 to 1905 they were revived by capital investment and dramatic invention. They became longer, more elaborate and were shown in purpose-built cinemas – the origin of the picture palaces which were to dominate most of the century. Within ten years the fiction film had attained epic proportions as in Griffith’s Intolerance (1916) and Pastrone’s Cabiria (1914). The impulse of the early fiction directors was to develop a fluid language of film that would absorb, enchant and finally ‘move’ its audiences, developing the narrative drive which the novel and the drama had already attained. It is from this branch of cinema, its mainstream, that questions of realism classically emerge. At the same time, a very different approach to film was developing among a small but influential number of enthusiasts who focused on the cultural implications of the new medium. For some it heralded a new age, a new way of seeing, understood in a positive light by Canudo and Faure82 but more gloomily by Maxim Gorky83 in his famous account of visiting ‘the kingdom of shadows’ in 1905. For others, and these included philosophers like Bergson (and, later on, Moore and Wittgenstein),84 film offered a new way of understanding the construction and paradoxes of time and duration. For yet a third group, mostly composed of artists such as Apollinaire and Picasso in France, the Futurists in Italy and abstract painters like Ruttmann and Eggeling working in Germany, film was a means of forcing forward the development of avant-garde abstraction along the lines of the controversial new painting and sculpture centred on cubism and its aftermath. Around 1912, his friend Kahnweiler recalled, Picasso was thinking in terms of animated objects. Fifty years later he returned to a ‘flipbook’ technique for his cycle of drawings After Manet,85 completing a historical cycle to link Manet’s modernism and the invention of optical toys a century before with its long aftermath in post-cubist art, as fixed gesture turns to sequential movement. While early modern artists like the Impressionists were affected by the first machine age and its optics, it is also broadly the case that the later moderns were aware of a more abstract new physics associated with the theories of Einstein. The art critic David Sylvester states that there is, of course, a certain correspondance between Relativity and Analytical Cubism, for the overlapping and juxtaposition of a multiplicity of views of an object represents the perceptions of a spectator at different stages in a promenade around the object and therefore implies the notion of space-time . . . The main philosophical implication of Cubism is Russell’s conception, expounded in Our Knowledge of the External World (1914), that what we call a ‘thing’ is a ‘system of aspects’: what, indeed, is an analytical cubist picture but a ‘logical construction’ from a series of appearances? If in contrast there is a connection with Relativity, it is an oblique one.86 The canonical avant-garde

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Russell himself was sceptical of Bergson’s subjectivism, but Bergson continued to influence the growing theory of cinema through his ideas about time and his strikingly visual metaphors.87 Hugo Munsterberg’s Film – A Psychological Study (1916) argues that the spectator’s outer world diminishes as film hollows out an inner imaginative world free of linear time, space and causality. In 1920 the painter Paul Klee wrote that the activity of the spectator was essentially temporal. Erwin Panofsky’s essay on film (1936) describes a mobile spectator who is identified with the shifting lens of the camera, as space is dynamised and time rendered spatial. Bazin’s notion of film as a defence against the passage of time is a spirited reversal of Bergson’s own view that cinema falsifies duration. During the mid-1970s Gilles Deleuze and Jean-Louis Baudry inserted into the prevailing structuralist ethos some key Bergsonian ideas which focus on film as a ‘simulation machine’ in which ‘representations are mistaken for perceptions’, a basic assumption on which classical film drama rests as ‘a technique of the imaginary’ (Christian Metz) which mobilises and organises a libidinal economy of pleasure.

Futurists88 While Bergson is best known today for his ideas about perception, in his own time he was seen as a vitalist philosopher who stressed the role of action. The challenge of cubism was taken up as a vitalist war-cry by the first of the new self-styled vanguard movements, Futurism in Italy and the cubo-Futurists in Russia. The Italians were a definite group with an agenda and a manifesto, the Russians a looser collection centred on the charismatic poet Mayakovsky. Cubism in their view had not gone far enough; art must move beyond painting into life. Freed from the gallery, art was to intervene in the flow of daily events (hence the taste for demonstrations and street scandals) and to affect all aspects of the culture. High and low were merged and barriers between the arts were broken down. This was to be the model for interventionist avant-gardes through to current times. With Futurism, the avant-garde which had begun as the cultural arm of political reform now turned to cultural politics and direct action. Prepared by this before the First World War, the Futurists in the 1920s vied for support from their respectively Fascist and Soviet regimes when the movement was otherwise split in two by its ideological divide. Mayakovsky’s suicide in 1930 and Marinetti’s gradual sidelining from the centre of Fascist ideology mark the end of these aims to gain official status for Futurism as the vanguard of art. Even so, the Italian Futurists are arguably the most important of the early vanguard groups. They were the first to storm the public with wild-eyed manifestos and with art as a provocation, announcing a permanent revolution at the heart of museum culture. They turned from art as a private cult to its role in the mass arena. They roamed freely across the arts, inventing new ones such as Russolo’s ‘Art of Noise’ or refurbishing old ones in Marinetti’s ‘Futurist Cooking’. They took up the contemporary themes of work and street life, formerly a hallmark of the realists but now given a new dynamic style. Their idea of modernity openly embraced war and violence as well as music and the movies. Everything they touched on they ignited: automatic art (which led to surrealism), the painting of light and motion (which led to abstraction), art in the streets (which led to performance art), art as critique (which led to Dada). They broke up text and lettering, severing them from their origin in handwriting and leading to a non-linear print revolution which continues today. 26

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The Russian Futurists have equal claims to innovation in these activities, but were overshadowed by the Italians in their own time and for long afterwards when Russian and Soviet radical art disappeared from art historical view. The Italian version was the model for all later art groups founded on a signed, collective statement of intent. Many admired too the general idea of the rebel artist restyled by Futurism, but few took up its strident machismo and war-fever. Such ideas had wider currency in literature than the visual arts, some linked to Futurism (Wyndham Lewis) and others to Expressionism (Ernst Jünger). But the discovery of the self-willed and self-publicising group was instrumental for artists in a period when private patronage had collapsed, state patronage was hidebound and the gallery market an infant. The make-up of explosive, eccentric and uneven talents in the Futurist group, even its mix of avant-garde and kitsch, resembles very early Hollywood – another cluster of ambitious adventurers using spontaniety, publicity and the machine to create a new art. Certainly the Futurists saw the cinema as a vivid, popular and dynamic metaphor for the age, and an ‘autonomous art’ as they called it in the 1916 manifesto, The Futurist Cinema. Deploring its conventional use as ‘theatre without words’ (as yet), they claimed that ‘the cinema, being essentially visual, must above all fuflfil the evolution of painting, detach itself from reality, from photography, from the graceful and solemn. It must become anti-graceful, deforming, impressionistic, synthetic, dynamic, free.’ They boldly concluded: ‘ONE MUST FREE THE CINEMA AS AN EXPRESSIVE MEDIUM.’ The Futurists were the first modern artists who wanted to make films themselves, as well as among the first to design sets for early ‘avant-garde narrative’ films such as Thais (1916) by Bragaglia. The graphic sets in early art cinema gave an outlet to Futurism’s symbolist and even expressionistic side, but very little to its machine-age aesthetic. The inventors of noise-music and automatic art therefore tried to make films of their own. How much they achieved has to be surmised from spare accounts, a few stills and written scripts. But once again, they set a precedent for the avant-garde film to come, for these first experiments were free in style and collaboratively made. The writers played in their own films and enlisted their friends to take other roles. Productions were cheap and unfussy. Stories were minimal enough to prefigure the early films of Vito Acconci, William Wegman and Bruce Nauman in the 1960s, as in a love-story between the painter Balla and a chair, or a ‘discussion between boxing-gloves’ from Ginna’s 1916 Vita Futurista. Some of the Futurist films had such story-lines, or more conventional ones, but already there were suggestions that the art of film could go further into abstraction.

Abstract film The early avant-garde followed two basic routes. One invoked the neo-Impressionists’ claim that a painting, before all else, is a flat surface covered with colour; similarly, the avant-garde implied, a film was a strip of transparent material that ran through a projector. The critic and art dealer Daniel-Henri Kahnweiler recalls that the making of an abstract handpainted film was debated among the cubists around 1912,89 and opened the way to Survage’s designs for his abstract film. But even these were preceded by the experiments of the Futurist artists (and brothers) Ginna and Corra, who handpainted raw film as early as 1910 and wrote up the results as Abstract Film – Chromatic Music in 1912. The films do not themselves survive but written notes do, so a tentative reconstruction can be made of these colour sketches. The first begins with a green colour-field. Then a small The canonical avant-garde

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red star spreads tentacles which cover the screen, until green dots return to absorb the red and return the screen to the original colour. The film lasts one minute. Two further and more elaborate episodes follow, one based on a play of three colours and another on the seven colours of the solar spectrum in the form of small cubes. Handpainted film is better known for its independent rediscovery – and first surviving examples – in the mid-1930s, when Len Lye made Colour Box (1935) for the Post Office Film Unit, and when Norman McLaren made his first films in Glasgow.90 Both needed to work cheaply, Lye because he had promised his boss John Grierson a film for a £30 fee, and McLaren because he was an art student who only had old junked films from which he stripped the emulsion to work on (much as Ginna and Corra had done in 1910). Later still, handpainting and its cousin frame-printing were to be considerable sub-genres in avant-garde film, notably with Harry Smith in the USA from the late 1940s through to Vera Neubauer, Kayla Parker and Stuart Hilton in the 1990s. The handpainted film is a primal means of film-making, hence the early interest shown by cubist and Futurist painters in extending a traditional medium to a new format. There are two options: the first to paint straight down the transparent filmstrip and allow the projector to impose the frames which give the impression of movement; and the second to divide the strip into frames and paint each one as a separate unit. The process can be reversed – for example, by gouging into an emulsion base rather than painting onto clear film to make shapes and patterns – or further refined by using an optical printer to reprint selected frames and sequences and thus to extend or repeat the drawn images. Lye was to use all of these methods, from the complex colour film Trade Tattoo in 1937 to his simplest final works like Free Radicals, released in the 1970s and scratched frame by frame to synchronised sound. Trade Tattoo (Len Lye, 1937)

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The abstract films designed by Gina–Corra and Survage called for sophisticated colour effects which look to tinting and toning of the print as well as directly painting on the original strip. These experiments were hampered by the very limited access which artists had to film equipment and technology. Early experimental film-makers learnt these things by trial and error, and it is not surprising to find that the first outlines for abstract films were sometimes confused about technique, especially in the earliest period around 1909–13 but also into the 1920s. In fact the first fully achieved abstract films after the First World War were not made by direct painting but by adapting the animation process. Here separate drawings or paintings are shot by single-framing them on a rostrum or bench. The drawings are translated into film form with the intervention of the camera, a more sophisticated process. The continuing appeal of handpainting, however, was that it made possible the direct, camera-less film. It was through animation that abstract film dominated the German avant-garde from 1919–25, stripping the image to pure graphic form with a post-cubist variation of squares, curves and rectangles, sometimes handcoloured and accompanied by adapted or composed sound played live or on disc. This led to a modernist variant of synaesthesia, purging the screen of overt human action while developing rhythmic interaction of basic symbols (square, circle, triangle) in which music replaces narrative as a master code. An early vision of this ‘Plastic Art in Motion’ is found in Ricciotto Canudo’s 1911 essay The Birth of a Sixth Art,91 an inspired if volatile amalgam of Nietzsche, high drama and Futurist machine dynamism.

The comic burlesque Abstract film was one route by which artists were to engage with the new medium. A second direction led artists to burlesque or parody films which draw on the primitive magic and slapstick film, notably Méliès, before (as many modernists believed) the cinema was sullied by realism. A return to the style of early film drama has characterised much avantgarde narrative ever since. At the same time these films are documents of the art movements which gave rise to them, with roles played by – among others – Man Ray, Marcel Duchamp, Erik Satie and Francis Picabia (Entr’acte, 1924) and Eisenstein, Len Lye and Hans Richter (Everyday, 1929). The ironic humour of modernism was expressed in such films (some now lost) as Vita Futurista (1916), which starred Marinetti and many others, its Russian counterpart Drama of the Futurist Cabaret (1913), its successors in Glumov’s Diary (Eisenstein, 1923) and Mayakovsky’s comic-guignol films, and such later elaborations of cultural slapstick as Clair’s classic Entr’acte (1924) and Hans Richter’s dark comedy Ghosts Before Noon (Vormittagspuk) (1928). This genre was explored mostly in the Dada and surrealist tradition, which valued dream-like ‘trans-sense’ irrationality as the key trope of film montage and camera image. Arguably the avant-garde story film later in the century was founded in the comic and burlesque mode of the artists’ cinema from 1913 to the late 1920s. The tradition lived on in the Freudian comic-dramas of Sidney Peterson and James Broughton in the 1950s through to the underground. Even Maya Deren – who aspired to make film into a high and poetic art – praised the slapstick genre of the Keystone Cops as a uniquely cinematic invention and inspiration. Artists remembered Méliès when he was otherwise forgotten. The surrealists were instrumental in passing on the comic tradition of cinema, which figures large in their famous film-lists to ‘Do See’ and ‘Don’t See’. The canonical avant-garde

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The early film in general, often but not only in its comic side, was to exert a strong influence on the avant-garde. There were two main reasons why the comic burlesque continued to appeal to film-makers. Firstly, it unchained film drama from narrative logic, showing that drama need not pass through realism. It opened the way to parody and to an irrational-comic style, linked to the surrealists’ insight into Freud’s analysis of wit and jokes as agents of the unconscious and of subversion. Secondly, the magic and early comedy film revelled in film-making devices which realist film largely excluded, such as stopframe motion and variable speeds. These were markers of ‘the road not taken’ by the mainstream, but of great interest to film-makers working in basic ways and formats.

The Art Cinema and its circuit An alternative route to the cinema as an art form (the specific meaning of which overrides the general sense in which all cinema is an art) ran parallel to the artists’ avantgarde from c. 1912–30 and sometimes overlapped with it. This was the Art Cinema, or the narrative avant-garde as it has been termed by Richard Abel to distinguish it from the artists’ avant-garde with its direct origins in cubism and Futurism.92 It is hard to draw firm lines here, for the very good reason that they did not exist at the time. Individuals moved between the two camps, ideas were exchanged between them, and they were collectively seen as part of a new cinema outside the commercial genres. The Art Cinema or narrative avant-garde was diverse and multinational. Its admiration for American films was tempered by a fear of Hollywood’s domination of the world market, and throughout the inter-war period it took part in attempts to protect the European industry though trade agreements and regulation. America itself found it hard to sustain a cinema outside the powerful industrial sector; US enthusiasts for experimental film found themselves in the unusual position of looking to Europe and beyond for information in the 1920s and 30s. The Art Cinema included such movements as German Expressionism (with The Cabinet of Dr Caligari, 1919, and The Golem, 1920), the Soviet school of Eisenstein, Pudovkin, Kuleshov and Shub, the French ‘Impressionists’ such as Louis Delluc, Jean Epstein and Germaine Dulac, the Japanese director Kinugasa, and independent directors such as Gance, Murnau and Dreyer. Like the ‘artist’ film-makers, they resisted the commercial film in favour of a cultural cinema to equal the other arts in seriousness and depth. In the silent era, with few language barriers, these highly visual films had as international an audience as the Hollywood-led mainstream they opposed. There were many differences, some only seen in hindsight, between this cinema and the artists’ film, especially in the question of feature-length drama and literary values. The divisions of later times were, however, blurred for the first generation of film artists and their supporters. Art Cinema directors were able to take advantage of theatrical release and distribution through national agencies (as with the Soviets) and ‘cultural’ organisations, as well as through their financial backers. They drew the attention of serious critical writing which backed their cultural circulation. But nearly every art film was a one-off production, rarely backed (except notably in Soviet Russia) by a studio structure. Making Art Cinema was a precarious business even when the distribution chain gave such films a relatively long life which experimental films often lacked. Such films as Eggeling’s Diagonal Symphony and Lye’s Tusalava seem to have had one screening each, in 1925 and 1930 respectively, and then waited another twenty or thirty years to be seen again. Hence 30

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the importance of the film clubs and societies such as those in Paris, London, Berlin and Warsaw, which made up a non-commercial screening circuit for ‘artistic’ films of all kinds. These supplemented the small number of arthouse circuits in some major cities, a few of which survive today as repertory cinemas. With such limited and fragmentary distribution, the dissemination of the avant-garde and the Art Cinema largely relied on the art journals of the period. These were legion, although – as today – many of them published no more than one or two issues. A few concentrated only on film, but at first the avant-garde film was publicised in radical art journals (G, De Stijl)93 associated with different factions within the Dada, constructivist and other modernist art movements. Later, there were such specialist magazines as the Swiss-based Close-Up,94 the English Film Art and the American Experimental Film. French journals were in abundance, and included Le Film, Le Journal de ciné-club, Cinéa and Le Gazette des septième arts. Their overall tone was optimistic, their favourite theme the renovation of cinema through visual poetry, which was conceived as a dual impulse sparked by abstraction on the one side and montage-editing on the other. These would enliven the mainstream fiction film, which they saw as prone to moralising kitsch and sentimentalism, and also create an independent film vision and culture on the artists’ terms.95 As important as the (rare enough) screenings and the energetic journalism of the period were a number of conferences and festivals which featured the avant-garde film. Some of these were ‘closed’ affairs such as the two famous gatherings of independent film-makers at La Sarraz and Lausanne in 1929 and 1930.96 Others were pioneering trade shows and expositions, of which the most elaborate was the ‘Film und Foto’ Exhibition at Stuttgart in 1929. This gave rise to two important books published by the exhibition: Here Comes the New Photography! by Werner Graeff,97 who was also a filmmaker, and Enemies of the Film Today, Friends of the Film Tomorrow by Hans Richter. Photo-Eye, a selection of photographs edited by Franz Roh and Jan Tschichold, was a further spin-off from this show. The upbeat titles, like that of Epstein’s Bonjour, Cinéma (1923), are absolutely characteristic of the time. Expanding on Epstein’s elegant cubistdesigned book, Graeff and Richter used the full array of modernist typography, including the photo-essay made up of stills or framestrips, to carry their message that a new way of seeing, based in cinema and the photo-eye, was on the move. These events sometimes led to the commissioning of new films. An early trade fair, ‘Kine-Foto’ (1925), was promoted by the short promotional film Kipho directed by veteran cameraman Guido Seeber. An astonishing display of self-reflexive invention, in which the spectator is made aware of the act of watching the film itself, it features abstract light-play, split-screen effects, chronophotography and clips from Fritz Lang and others to underline the magic of film. At the same time, shots of young men and women with handheld cameras imply the democratisation of the new media – films made by all rather than the few. Kipho sums up the main visual tropes of the avant-garde of its time while heralding the ‘promo’ genre sixty years later.98 Political unions of artists like the November Group in Weimar Germany also supported the new film, and French cine-clubs tried to raise independent production funds from screenings and rentals to plough back into making films such as La Glace à trois faces (The Mirror Has Three Faces, 1927), by Jean Epstein. Some artists funded their own films, as did Fernand Léger, while in France several important films – including Blood of a Poet by Jean Cocteau, L’Age d’or by Bun˜uel/Dali and Mystères du château de Dés by Man Ray – were commissioned in the late 1920s by the Comte de Noialles, a patron of The canonical avant-garde

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modernism close to the surrealists. Len Lye, far from these circles in London during the late 1920s, and recently arrived on a cargo-boat from New Zealand, remembered ‘living on fish-heads’ for two years while making his first animated film – that same Tusalava which had a single screening in 1930 at the London Film Society. Just as the Futurists laid out a rough grid for avant-garde film to follow, so too these mixed and haphazard funding systems, or improvisations, were to be the pattern for the rest of the century. Film-making is expensive and time-consuming, depending on a network of skills from shooting to editing and lab printing to eventual distribution. The basic choices were to acquire funds and loans in order to hire in experts, including actors, in addition to the usual crop of friends and bystanders willing to take roles. This was the route followed by Clair, Cocteau and Buñuel. It is the standard model for the ‘narrative avant-garde’ in general, but not only for that genre. Much later Maya Deren and Kenneth Anger – key figures for the US avant-garde – would use camera-operators and basic crews (but professional actors more rarely) in much the same way during the 1940s and 1950s. The second choice, which appealed especially to painters and photographers with craft skills and a hands-on aesthetic, was to undertake as much single-person direct authorship as the medium allowed. Over time the growing availability of cameras and labs made this easier. At first, collaboration was needed even for the technically simplest film.99 Man Ray and Fernand Léger made films with the aid of the American cameraman Dudley Murphy, who was eager to work with the new artists of the 1920s (a case can be made for Murphy’s co-authorship of Léger’s Le Ballet mécanique, as indeed the surviving credits announce). Marcel Duchamp worked with Man Ray and Marc Allégret, a young French cameraman, in the mid-1920s, at the same time as the Borderline (Kenneth Macpherson, 1930)

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American painter Charles Sheeler and the photographer Paul Strand joined in making the lyrical and observational Manhatta in 1921.100 The period from Buñuel and Dali down to the 1950s has many examples of dual authorship: Bruguière and Blakeston, Watson and Webber, Alexeieff and Parker, Charles and Bebe Barron, and Charles and Ray Eames. Both traditions continue today. Some experimental films will use small crews or teams, assembled for professional or perhaps collectivist reasons. Others are as individually, or ‘artisanally’, made as films can be. Both lack the hallmarks of the extended drama film, whether arthouse or mainstream. Scripts and scenarios tend to be basic if they exist at all (although Griffith could claim the same for his early films), and proEnthusiasm (Dziga Vertov, 1931) duction roles and methods are far more fluid and improvised. These impel the avant-garde film to experimentation and to the ascription of direct authorship, as with most of the contemporary arts but less obviously so in the feature or drama film. For the first decade there were few firm lines drawn by enthusiasts for the ‘artistic film’ in a cluster of cine-clubs, journals, discussion groups and festivals, which even-handedly promoted all kinds of film experiment as well as minor, overlooked genres such as scientific films and cartoons which were similarly an alternative to the commercial fiction cinema. Many key figures crossed the divide between the narrative and poetic avant-gardes: Jean Vigo, Luis Buñuel, Germaine Dulac, Dziga Vertov, and Kenneth McPherson who edited Close-Up and co-directed the aptly-named Borderline (1930),101 starring the poet H. D. (inventor of imagist poetry with Ezra Pound), the novelist Bryher and the black American actor Paul Robeson. The division between the narrative and poetic avant-gardes was never absolute, as seen in the careers of Buñuel and of Jean Vigo, especially in his two experimental documentaries Taris (1931), with its slowing of time and underwater shots, and the carnivalesque but also political film À propos de Nice (1930). Vigo’s films were shot by the cameraman Mikhail Kaufman, brother of the Soviet director Dziga Vertov. Vertov’s own Enthusiasm (1930) reinvokes the Futurist idea of ‘noise-music’, has no commentary, and is unashamedly nonnaturalistic despite its intended celebration of the Soviet Five Year Plan.102

Cine-poems and lyric abstraction The idea of the avant-garde or ‘art film’ in Europe and the USA linked the many factions opposed to mass cinema. At the same time the rise of narrative, psychological realism in The canonical avant-garde

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the maturing Art Cinema led to its gradual split from the anti-narrative artists’ avantgarde, whose ‘cine-poems’ were closer to painting and sculpture than to the tradition of radical drama. The short experimental films made by the Futurists around 1913 inaugurate the cine-poem. The Russian variant of Futurism usefully recalls that one of the major distinctions between prose and poetry was formulated in the circles of young linguists and literary critics which included Viktor Shklovsky and Roman Jakobson, both of whom were to be leading voices in defence of the new arts emerging in Russia just before the 1917 Revolution and which rose to prominence in the decade after it. In the West their thinking was paralleled by Ezra Pound and his group, initially as the Imagists around 1910/13 in London, who were similarly concerned to redefine for the modern age the traditional distinction between the continuity of prose and the fragmentation of poetry. In Jakobson’s now classic formulation, poetry and prose divide along a linguistic axis.103 Prose is founded on metonymy, the elaboration of terms out of an initial series into further levels of description. Poetry is based in metaphor, in which terms from two series are set in contrast to each other. There are many versions of this distinction. Shklovsky’s 1927 essay ‘Poetry and Prose in the Cinema’ states that prose and poetry in film are ‘two different genres; they differ not in their rhythm – or rather, not only in their rhythm – but in the fact that in the cinema of poetry elements of form prevail over elements of meaning and it is they, rather than the meaning, which determine the composition.’ Jakobson’s own examples compare the prose of film drama (metonymic through the connective power of editing) to the poetry of comic film (metaphoric by the disjunctive option within editing). Here the continuous flow of images which editing permits, and which is the basis of dramatic illusionism in film, is in contrast to the equal power of film editing to enforce breaks and interruptions in that flow. The first method is built on expectation, the flow from shot to shot which confirms ‘what happens next’, while the second is built on the sudden jump, on surprise, the element of unpredictability in humour. Obviously the two modes are not absolutely distinct – every drama film has its poetics, many avantgarde films incorporate narrative – but in some senses the role of experimental film was to push the distinction to its limits. The poetry–prose distinction is a helpful guide to understanding the avant-garde project. In the widest perspective, the experimental cinema can be seen to expand the poetic art which the drama film subsumes in its drive to fiction. It has its haiku – short elliptical Japanese poems praised by Pound and his successors for a montage of sudden leaps between images – such as Deren’s A Study in Choreography for Camera (1945), Baillie’s All My Life (1963) and Kubelka’s Adebar (1957), as well as its epics, notably the largescale films of Bruce Baillie, David Larcher and Michael Snow. Between them lie all the variants of poetic film form, from ambitious narratives to the random use of junk footage by the underground and punk film. But Jakobson’s dualist contrast of poetic metaphor and prose metonym is not rigid. Two early ‘cine-poems’ make the point. Henri Chomette, brother of René Clair but hardly known today (he was killed at thirty-one in 1927 when a war correspondent in Rabat), made his Cinq minutes du cinéma pur (or Five Minutes of Pure Cinema) in 1925/6.104 Much in the spirit of the first travelogues, but taken to delirious extreme, the film is a high-speed tour of Paris. The camera literally ‘shoots through’ train tunnels, along the river and roads and back to railway tracks, all without pause. In one sense the 34

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film elaborates on the metonym of travel, linked by the continuous flow of the tracking camera, and is therefore prose. In another respect it plays on the metaphor of vision, by cutting across disjunctive spaces with the cameraeye, and is therefore a poem. What really makes it a poem, however, is its stress on rhythm as an aspect of form, expressed both in variable shooting speeds and in the pace of cutting. Thanks to this rhythm [Chomette declared] the cinema can draw from itself a new power which, abandoning the logic of facts and the reality of objects, generates a succession of unfamiliar visions inconceivable outside the union of lens and moving filmstrip; intrinsic or pure cinema, separated from all other elements, dramatic or documentary. Jeux des réflets, de lumière et de la vitesse (Henri Calling it a ‘universal kaleidoscope’ or Chomette, 1923–5) ‘generator of all moving vision’ – and hence glancing to its roots in earlier scientific optics – Chomette asks ‘Why should the cinema not create, with the domain of sound combined with that of light, pure rhythm and pure form?’105 This vision marks the difference between Chomette’s film and a similar sequence in Clair’s famous Entr’acte of 1924, where a runaway hearse is seemingly chased across city and country by more and more improbable pursuers, on foot, in cars, by boats and down a rollercoaster until they all disappear by camera trickery as Picabia waves a magic wand. Chomette’s film, by contrast, reduces the narrative element to search for a ‘pure cinema’ free of the human touch (the chase, the story as frame, the all-seeing spectatorial eye) which is, of course, the charm and humour of Clair’s absurdist Dada comedy. The film ‘reduces’ itself in order to focus on vision and rhythm as poetic and not dramatic facts. Chomette’s path, shared by other film-makers of the period, was to ‘abstract from’ the visible world in order to transform it. His Jeux des réflets, de lumière et de la vitesse (1923–5) is entirely composed of abstracted shots of water and reflected light, and applies to nature the photogenic eye with which Germaine Dulac – admired by Chomette for her notion of ‘visual symphony’ – observed the beauty of machines in Etude cinégraphique sur une arabesque (1929). This was to be a main tendency of the cine-poem; it no more abandoned referentiality than did the poems of Pound and Eliot or the paintings of Picasso and Braque. Rather it cast them in a new and arguably more material light, even as its theory tended to an opposite idealising direction.

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Origins of abstract film106 The German abstract film was a switch-station in the alternating currents that flow from cubism and Dada to constructivism. A largely post-war movement, dedicated to rational abstraction, constructivist art emerges from mixed origins in the fertile epoch of early modernism. In the spring of 1914 the painters Kandinsky, Marc, Klee and Kubin took part in a theatre project led by Hugo Ball, then the young producer of Munich’s Chamber Theatre and later the founder of Dada. Ball showed work by Klee and Kandinsky in 1917 at his Galerie Dada in Zurich. He lectured on Kandinsky with examples of work which the war had prevented from touring with the expressionist Der Sturm group in Berlin. Klee also exhibited in an expressionist context in Zurich during 1917, but his own direct contact with Dada came only later, in Munich during 1919/20. The bio-mechanics of Lissitzky and Meyerhold around 1921, the Dynamic of the City of Moholy-Nagy in 1921–2 and Schlemmer’s abstract Triadic Ballet at the Bauhaus in 1922–3 all share roots in an earlier abstraction of the body undertaken in dance and theatre by Dalcroze, Laban and Adolphe Appia. This first movement, however, while it collectivistically saw theatre as free and unalienated space, was hostile to intellectualism. Some of its strands led to post-war Expressionism, notably through Bruno Taut and such ‘fantastic’ films as The Golem. It makes a late appearance in the symbolist prologue to Leni Riefenstahl’s Olympia, shot by Bruno Ganz (a modernist cinematographer released from Nazi detention to film this sequence), and a Laban-esque dance of fire and water (a style by then absorbed into the state cult of the natural body, in part through the films of the former dancer Riefenstahl herself). Other strands lead further east to revolutionary Russia, where Meyerhold proposed ‘the cinefiction of theatre’ and for which Léger illustrated Ehrenburg’s And Yet It Moved, published in Berlin and Moscow in 1922. Kandinsky, in Russia from 1914 to 1921, was director of the theatre and film section of the state Department of Visual Art under its supremo Lunacharsky. The formalist circle produced theorised accounts of film language (barely known in the West until a half-century later). But despite plans and talk, and the industrial factory links which some exhorted, Russian artists made no experimental films of their own outside the national studio systems of the Russian Federation (later the Soviet Union). Freed from commercial restraint, while subject to official approval, the urge to experiment passed solely through the school of Soviet montage (Eisenstein, Kuleshov, Vertov, Dovzhenko) and its later rivals and heirs. The radicals were bolstered by the unexpected fame achieved by their films in the West, although both Eisenstein and Vertov were to be highly suspect in their independence. While there was no place for a Western-style artistic film avant-garde – which the Soviets themselves disdained, if Eisenstein’s rejection of the abstract film is typical – the strict stylistics and determined documentarism of Shub and Vertov, as well as their battles with officialdom, form part of the avant-garde’s broader history. The German writer Robert Musil, in his 1925 ‘Notes towards a dramaturgy of film’ inspired by Béla Balász, claimed that film language ‘curves away’ from reality without ever losing it, so that it is ‘a frontier between two worlds’. But just as in the early modernist poetics of Kruchenykh and Khlebnikov, pioneers of the Russian avantgarde who split word and sound from sense and reference to inaugurate ‘concrete poetry’, so too some film-makers turned to ‘absolute’ or non-referential abstraction. In this case their immediate model was the abstract painting of their time, itself partly inspired by the non-referential art of music. 36

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The absolute film This was the case around 1916/17 in a series of Chinese-style scroll-drawings made in Switzerland by the Swedish artist and Dadaist Viking Eggeling.107 Himself the son of a musician and a minor painter in the style of the cubists and Derain, his sequential experiments began as investigations of the links between musical and pictorial harmony. He pursued this analogy in collaboration with fellow-Dadaist Hans Richter from 1918, leading to their first attempts to film their work in Germany around 1920. Then they quarrelled, and Richter turned to a more hard-edge geometrical style closer to Bauhaus constructivism. Eggeling worked on alone, assisted by a young Bauhaus student, Erna Niemeyer. He died in 1925 shortly after completing his Diagonal Symphony, which was premièred in the famous November Group presentation (Berlin, 1925) of abstract films by cubist, Dada and Bauhaus artists: Richter, Ruttmann, Léger, Clair and (with a ‘lightplay’ projection work) Hirschfeld-Mack. After that, it was hardly seen again until its re-release by Richter (who had inherited many of Eggeling’s scrolls and drawings) in the USA during the 1940s. Diagonal Symphony bridges the two kinds of cinepoem of the 1920s and 1930s, the camera-eye films of Chomette and Dulac and the fully abstract films of the German group, although unlike either of these it is strictly flat and frontal. Its forms and shapes, while highly abstract, evoke musical patterns and notation just as they echo the early drawings of 1915–20 in which Eggeling derives abstract forms from the study of landscape. Diagonal Symphony is a delicate dissection of almost art deco tones and lines, its intuitive rationalism shaped by cubist art, Bergson’s philosophy of duration and Kandinsky’s theory of synaesthesia, all of which are referred to in Eggeling’s written notes. Here too, Jakobson’s dyad is suggestive but not exhaustive. The film metonymically plays on sequences of lines, curves and cones, all of which are introduced early in the film and systematically but not predictably varied until it ends. At the same time it articulates with great clarity its metaphoric relation to musical form through its visual systems of harmony, fusion and disjunction. The metaphor, or analogy, is made the stronger by Eggeling’s insistence that his film be shown silent. And here too, as with The canonical avant-garde

Diagonal Symphony (Viking Eggeling, 1924)

Opus IV (Walther Ruttmann, 1925)

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Chomette, the poetics of the film crucially depend on its absolute control of form and rhythm, its serene velocity, shot with a single-frame animation camera. Like Eggeling’s work, the abstract films of Richter, Ruttmann and Fischinger were based on the concept of painting with motion, but also aspired towards the visual music implied in such titles as Richter’s Rhythmus series (1921–6) and Ruttmann’s Opus I–IV (1921–5).108 Eggeling’s Diagonal Symphony also announces a musical aspect in its title, as do such key figurative cine-poems as Dulac’s Thèmes et variations 1928, Léger’s Ballet mécanique and other films of the period. For the purely abstract (or ‘absolute’) film-makers, the musical analogy had a special resonance. This wing of the avant-garde was strongly idealist, and saw in film the utopian goal of a universal language of pure form, supported by the synaesthetic ideas expressed in Kandinsky’s On the Spiritual in Art, which sought correspondences between the arts and the senses. In such key works as Circles (1932) and Motion Painting (1947), Fischinger, the most popular and influential of the group, tellingly synchronised colour rhythms to the music of Wagner and Bach. Although Richter and Ruttmann made advertising films which drew from their abstract experiments, they saw their commercial work as a separate venture. Fischinger, however, used studio-production methods to create the most pleasurable films of the new abstract cinema. He embraced the pop classics and ‘light music’ as soundtracks which could open his films to wider non-specialist audiences, rather like Norman McLaren in the next generation of film artists. It is no surprise that he exerted a strong influence on Disney films, with which he was briefly associated after he moved to the USA in the 1930s, especially in his troubled employment on the production of Fantasia.109 Fischinger’s work was carefully preserved by the artist, his wife Elfriede and – in later years – the American curator William Moritz. He is one of the few abstract film-makers of his generation for whom there is a full archive.110 Some experiments of the period, by Werner Graeff and Kurt Kranz among others in the Bauhaus circle, were never completed or are lost. Only Eggeling has so far attracted a full art-historical monograph (from his homeland, Sweden). The surviving work has been preserved by the film-makers or in archives. Even the relatively well-known and much-screened films of Richter and Ruttmann exist in varied versions.111 Some archival prints bear traces of original colour, but the films of the period were for long seen in monochrome prints without their original sound accompaniment. Léger and Richter often showed their early films in this form to the end of their lives, although Duchamp was more careful to track down unapproved variants of Anémic cinéma in circulation. Formerly shorn of sound and colour,112 the general effect was to render several of these films perhaps even more austere than their makers intended (with the exception of Eggeling) although they have always been regarded as a ‘peak’ of pure film art since they first appeared in the 1920s. Hans Richter’s early abstract films from the Rhythmus series, mainly 1923–5, were reissued over twenty years later by the film-maker after he emigrated to the USA. Others, such as Vormittagspuk (Ghosts Before Noon, 1928), acquired new soundtracks. What remains of the originals is enough to demonstrate the vitality of the early work, and his growing and rapid mastery of technique. The first stabs at the new abstract film, preserved in Rhythmus 23, are reassuringly rough-textured, as Richter works out a language of basic forms in screen space. Like the cubist painters he turns to cut-outs, graphics and drawing to create sequences of receding and expanding squares and rectangles. Interspersed with this sometimes ‘raw’ material are linear drawings which echo Eggeling’s very different aesthetic of visual music and pure flatness. Like his contemporary Walther 38

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Ruttmann, Richter was more concerned to explore the visual dynamics of film. Both their styles are generally more robust and optical than Eggeling’s, and they prefer regular clear basic shapes over his delicacy of line and diagonal matrix. Tonal subtlety is more important to the abstract film than can easily be recognised on the 16mm and video copies which circulate today. Here again, Eggeling pursues a different goal. Influenced by cubist figurative painters like Derain (and perhaps Braque), and by Kandinsky’s linear abstraction, he uses film as a medium to record drawing in time. He finds formal equivalents in film for post-cubist ideas. One of these is in the viewer’s relation to the projected image. The angular plane in Diagonal Symphony reduces the viewer’s ‘human-centred’ fantasy identification with the screen which broader, frontal shapes evoke (Ruttmann wittily plays on this to turn curves into dancing legs at the end of Opus IV). A second formal equivalent taken from cubist drawing is the linear unfolding of small, tonal clusters which suggest the complementary relations sketched by Eggeling in his notebooks: open/closed, dark/light, etc. The carefully graded tonality, and the many kinds of line and form which are used, recall the complex armature of classic cubist art. This is all the more remarkable in that the film is achieved by moving cut-out silverfoil shapes rather than by direct drawing. It is shown in negative to Rhythm 21 (Hans Richter, c.1921–6) emphasise white on black, so the film-maker had, as it were, to work in reverse tonalities when making the film, rather like a printmaker. Of the early abstract film-makers, Walther Ruttmann was the most sustained and ambitious up to 1925. Trained as an architect and with professional animation skills, like Fischinger he exploited the technique of the industrial rostrum camera (whereas Richter and especially Eggeling set up makeshift devices in their studios). Ruttmann stands somewhere between Richter’s purist constructivism of abstract signs and Fischinger’s fully blown anthropomorphism in which shapes and sounds evoke human sensations. His work merges both of these modes. The overt ‘narrative’ in the sequence Opus I–IV is a battle or dance between curves and hard-edge forms such as triangles and rectangles. The Richter–Eggeling programme for a ‘universal language’, announced in 1920, was implicitly also taken up by Ruttmann from 1919 when he embarked on his Opus series. Ruttmann shifted abstract film from the purely formal plane towards a ‘universal symbolism’ of music, myth and the body. These codes animate the forms in abstract play. At the same time, the Opus series explores abstract form in film more thoroughly than did Ruttmann’s co-pioneers. More assured in its grasp of screen geometry than most abstract films of the era, it decisively engages with off-screen space and the multilayered plane. Ruttmann investigates rhythm with The canonical avant-garde

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the same confidence, including slow and irregular pulsation where the general trend was to go for speed. The sequence ends with an optical display of horizontal flicker and vertical flow. It recalls the ‘eye-opening’ tropes of frames, windows and camera shutters with which Vertov – the former ‘cuboFuturist’ – begins Man with a Movie Camera (1928). Despite the promise of visual revelation with which the Opus films concludes, Ruttmann made no more abstract films after 1925. It was the high-point of the movement, which ends with Eggeling’s death and the return of the repressed image in ‘the new objectivity’ and surrealism. The constructivist impulse was about to wane as the chief radical art language, and within a few years suffered both Film Study (Hans Richter, 1926–8) state repression (in Germany and the USSR) and rejection by the documentary-based political left. Ruttmann’s later career falls into this history. The shift is symbolised in the opening shots of his now-classic documentary Berlin (1927), in which abstract shapes melt into railway tracks and disappear. Only the film’s subtitle – ‘Symphony of a City’ – harks back to the musical aspiration of pure abstract film. The expressionist side of Ruttmann, seen in his ‘Dream of Hawks’ animation for Lang’s Kriemhild’s Revenge (1924), surfaces as melodrama crossed with the naturalism of his Italian co-production feature Accaio, made in the 1930s. He ended his career making state-sponsored and army training films before dying, probably in action, in 1945. Fischinger alone of the German group pursued abstract animation throughout his career, which ended in the USA, when several other German film-makers turned away from this genre after the mid-1920s, partly because of economic pressure (there was minimal industrial support for the non-commercial abstract cinema) as well as shifts in taste. Richter, who also made fashion and advertising films, turned to lyric collage in Film Study (1926–8), mixing abstract and figurative shots in which superimposed floating eyeballs act as a metaphor for the viewer adrift in film space. His later films pioneer the surrealist psychodrama.

Cubism and popular film While cubism sought a pictorial equivalent for the newly discovered instability of vision, the cinema was moving rapidly in the opposite direction. Far from abandoning narrative, it was encoding it. The ‘primitive’ sketches of the period 1895–1905 were succeeded by a new and more confidently realist handling of screen space and film 40

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acting. Subject-matter was expanded, plot and motivation were clarified through the fate of individuals. Most crucially, and in contrast to cubism’s display of artifice, the new narrative cinema smoothed the traces of change in shot, angle of vision and action by the erasure-effect of ‘invisible editing’ to construct a continuous, imaginary flow. Nevertheless cubism and cinema are clearly enough products of the same age and within a few years they were to mutually influence each other: Eisenstein derived the concept of montage as much from cubist collage as from the films of Griffith and Porter. At the same time, they face in opposite directions. Modern art was trying to expunge the literary and visual values which cinema was equally eager to incorporate and exploit (partly to improve its respectability and partly to expand its very language). These values were the basis of academic realism in painting, for example, which the early modernists had rejected: a unified visual field, a central human theme, emotional identification or empathy, illusionist surface. Cubism heralded the broad modernism which welcomed technology and the mass age, and its openly hermetic aspects were tempered by combining painterly purism with motifs from street life and materials used by artisans. At the same time cubism shared with later European modernism a resistance to many cultural values embodied in its own favourite image of the new, the cinema, dominated then as now by Hollywood. While painters and designers could be fairly relaxed in their use of Americana, being independent at this time of its direct influence, the films of the post-cubist avant-garde are noticeably anti-Hollywood in form, style and production. The avant-garde films influenced by cubism therefore joined with the European Art Cinema and social documentary as points of defence against the market domination by the USA, each attempting to construct a model of film culture outside the categories of entertainment and the codes of fiction. Despite frequent eulogies of American cinema, of which the surrealists became deliberately the most delirious readers (lamenting the growing power of illusionism as film ‘improved’), few surviving avant-garde films resemble these icons. Only slapstick, as in Entr’acte (1924), was directly copied from the American example, but this too has its roots tangled with Méliès and the primitive trickfilm, which was as much a European as an American genre.

Dada and surrealist film As has been described, in France some film-makers, such as Henri Chomette (René Clair’s brother and author of short ‘cinéma pur’ films), Delluc, and especially Germaine Dulac, were drawn to theories of ‘the union of all the senses’, finding an analogue for harmony, counterpoint and dissonance in the visual structures of montage editing. These were fundamental to the birth of the ‘cine-poem’, a genre also pursued by Storck and Ivens with a documentary twist which is traceable down to the early films of the aptly named ‘Free Cinema’ (UK) and ‘New Wave’ (France) in the 1950s and 1960s. But the surrealists in France during the 1920s rejected such attempts to ‘impose’ order and musical structure where they preferred to provoke contradiction and discontinuity. Perhaps they were made especially hostile by the collective name given to Dulac, Delluc and their followers, who were dubbed the ‘Impressionists’. Surrealism was, like Futurism before it, a fully fledged group of the kind which dominated modern art between the two world wars.113 It had leaders, notably Louis The canonical avant-garde

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Aragon, Paul Eluard and André Breton (the moving spirit, and by the end the only survivor of the triumvirate). It had too a quasi-party structure in which group loyalty bulked large, a series of journals, no less than two major manifestos and several minor ones, a theoretical position, political commitments initially to communism and then to Trotskyism, expulsions and heretics (Dali, Artaud, Bataille and many more) and, above all, a project – the overthrow of rational thought and of the barriers between art and life. The movement was founded in 1924 from the debris of Dadaism. Both groups were directly linked to the devastating world war of 1914–18. Dada was a loose collection of artists who gathered in or around Zurich during 1916, some of them pacifists, others war-wounded or resisting conscription in their native countries.114 Neutral Switzerland was their refuge, as it was for Lenin – who may have visited the famous dada nightclub, the Cabaret Voltaire – and the young Walter Benjamin, a friend and neighbour of Dada’s prime mover Hugo Ball. Ball’s diary, published in 1927 as Flight Out of Time, records the rapid and explosive growth of Dada:115 its improvised performances, its neo-Futurist magazines, its eclectic evenings at the Cabaret, its emphasis on chance and disorder, its invention of the simultaneous poem (random texts chanted, sung and shouted by several performers at once), its tactic of provocation. Dada, a nonsense or trans-sense word invented in 1916, was even more of a protest movement than the Futurism which had in part inspired it. Ironically, the Futurists themselves were enthusiastic fighters in the war, which they saw as ‘the apotheosis of the machine age’. In this they followed their own logic. Dada was their mirror; a mad art for a mad age. There were, roughly speaking, two kinds of Dada, one more tough-minded than the other. At moments they merged, which was Dada’s aim, but finally they split in two, which is when Ball withdrew from Dada activity. The softer side was drawn to pacifism and mysticism and, despite everything, to ‘the demands of art’; it included Arp, Janscó, Eggeling and Ball himself. In Ball’s case these concerns took an especially tormented form which led to religious conversion with his companion, the dancer Emmy Hennings. This branch of dada was connected to the Laban–Wigman school of Eurhythmic dance in the nearby colony of Ascona.116 The harder side of Dada lay mostly with politicised radicals such as Richard Huelsenbeck and Wieland Herzfelde, who were soon to take part in the revolutionary uprisings and agitation in their native Germany between 1919 and the mid-1920s. As may be guessed, the ideas of Nietzsche – but in different aspects of his thought – lay deeply within both kinds of Dadaism. He too had acclaimed the birth of ‘joyful irrationalism’. It was in this milieu that Eggeling and Richter began to study the art of movement, which eventually led them to film. At first, film was simply the best (if as yet purely notional) means to articulate the unfolding rhythmic patterns which they drew out on scrolls – long rolls of paper, like ancient texts. For Eggeling, film stayed a means and not an end, an austere and purist position of great personal integrity. Richter, a more expansive artist, was however to become an influential and diverse maker of abstract and experimental films which explored the visual language of cinema, as well as one of the avant-garde’s first chroniclers and historians. In 1920, with Europe still in turmoil, they published together a booklet on film as a potential ‘universal language’, to seek industrial and cultural sponsorship for their work. Amazingly enough, they succeeded; UFA studios helped them make test-pieces, and later a German manufacturer lent Eggeling a camera for ‘research purposes’ that enabled him to complete Diagonal Symphony.117 42

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Return to Reason (Man Ray, 1923)

It would be inaccurate to call Eggeling and Richter’s films ‘Dadaist’ except in the special historical sense outlined here, which leads back to their discussions and speculations in wartime Zurich within the Dada milieu. Just as the first ‘cubist’ films were only able to materialise many years after the event, notably in Léger’s Ballet mécanique of 1924, so too it makes sense to see Eggeling and Richter in the broader context of abstract film and art from 1921 to 1925. For the authentic Dada flavour it is necessary to turn to René Clair and especially to Man Ray, who notably did not pass through Zurich or the Cabaret Voltaire. As an American he only arrived in Europe in 1921, just in time to take part in the post-war ‘Paris Dada’ manifestations led by Tristan Tzara (an original Zurich Dada) with the dynamic Francis Picabia and the ‘eminence gris’ of modern art, Marcel Duchamp. Both Picabia and Duchamp had spent the war years in the USA where they had participated in ‘New York Dada’, a more playful and ironic offspring of the original branch. Man Ray was, importantly, a photographer. He soon obtained one of the new ‘amateur’ cine-cameras, marketed in the wake of Europe’s economic and social recovery. Man Ray’s first films, made on the cusp of Dada and the new surrealist group which was to supersede it, anticipate the next phase of film art in surrealism, even as they evoke a Dadaist anti-aesthetic.118 The major films of the surrealists turned away from the retinal vision of form in movement – explored variously by the French ‘Impressionists’, the rapid cutting of Gance and L’Herbier, and the German abstract avant-garde – towards a more critical and contestatory cinema. Vision is made complex, connections between images are obscured, sense and meaning are questioned. Man Ray’s emblematic 1923 Dada film – its title Return to Reason evoking the parody of the enlightenment buried in the name Cabaret Voltaire – begins with photogrammed salt, pepper, tacks and sawblades printed on the filmstrip to assert film grain and surface. A fairground, shadows, the artist’s studio and a mobile sculpture in double-exposure evoke visual space. The film ends, after three minutes, in a shot of a model filmed ‘against the light’, an allusion to painterly Impressionism, printed first in positive and then negative. Exploring film as indexical photogram (objects placed directly on the filmstrip), iconic image (representational shots of objects mainly in the artist’s studio) and symbolic pictorial code (the nude as sexual The canonical avant-garde

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and artistic image of desire), its Dada stamp is seen in its shape, which begins in flattened darkness and ends in the purely cinematic image of a figure turning in ‘negative’ space. Return to Reason was an ‘occasional’ piece, assembled in one night, so Man Ray tells us, to fill out the programme for what turned out to be the last Paris Dada event before the dissolution of the group, ‘The Evening of the Bearded Heart’. Man Ray’s later film Étoile de mer (1928), loosely based on a script by the poet Robert Desnos, refuses the authority of ‘the look’ when a stippled lens adds opacity to an oblique tale of doomed love, lightly sketched in with punning intertitles and shots (a starfish attacked by scissors, a prison, a failed sexual encounter). Editing draws out the disjunction between shots rather than their continuity, a technique pursued in Man Ray’s other films which imply a ‘cinema of refusal’ in the evenly paced and seemingly random sequences of Emak Bakia (1927) or repeated empty rooms in Les Mystères du château de Dés (1928). While surrealist cinema is often understood as a search for the excessive and spectacular image (as in dream sequences modelled on surrealism, as in some films by Hitchcock), the group were in fact drawn to find the marvellous in the banal, which explains their fascination with Hollywood as well as their refusal to imitate it. Their technique of watching films has since become famous, moving from one cinema to the next and leaving in the middle of the show when they lost interest – a kind of cinematic channel-hopping only possible in the days of cheap movie-houses. The surrealists’ own films only rarely invoke the ‘special effects’ and high-grade illusions with which their name is often associated (these appear more often in directors influenced by them, such as Walerian Borowczyk, the Quay Brothers, Terry Gilliam and David Lynch). Surrealist visual hallmarks are, rather, a scathing documenAnémic cinéma (Marcel Duchamp, 1926) tary eye, ‘trick-effects’ in the simple and direct manner of their admired ‘primitive’ cinema (often made in the camera) and an avoidance of overt montage rhythm (seen as too seductive). Man Ray, Duchamp and Buñuel– Dali also encode post-Freudianism in ways which cannot be reduced to a triumphalist or uncritical masculinity. Images that evoke castration and loss are central to all the surrealist classic films, which resist any simple notion of (male) narrative pleasure. Duchamp cerebrally evoked and subverted the abstract film in his ironically titled Anémic cinéma (1926), an anti-retinal film in which slowly turning spirals imply sexual motifs. These ‘pure’ images are intercut with words on rotating discs; the letters spell out scabrous and near-indecipherable puns (e.g. ‘Inceste ou passion de famille, à 44

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coups trop tirés’ – ‘Incest or family passion, with too much stroking’; ‘ Avez vous déjà mis la moëlle de l’épée dans le poêle de l’aimée?’ – ‘Have you already put the marrow of the sword in the oven of your beloved?’). The word-play echoes Joyce’s then current and likewise circular ‘Work in Progress’, Finnegans Wake.119 Less reductively than Duchamp, Man Ray’s films also oppose passive ‘visual pleasure’ and the viewer’s participation. In Emak Bakia montage is used to slow down or to repeat actions and objects which both invite and defy thematic connection (spirals, words and phrases, revolving doors and cartwheels, hands, gestures, fetish objects, light patterns). The tactic of the film is seemingly to frustrate narrative and elude the viewer’s full grasp of the fantasies which film provokes. This austere but playful strategy challenges the rule of the eye in fiction film and the sense of cinematic plenitude it aims to construct. Seen today the films of the surrealists have gained a certain ‘patina’ or perhaps ‘aura’, due to the sheer fame and continuing popularity of surrealism itself. Seen arthistorically, in the context of museum and exhibition screenings, the films are documents of their epoch and of the surrealist movement as a whole, from which they cannot be disengaged. At the same time, and partly through this mixed circulation, they have a continuing half-life in contemporary culture and the mass media. Surrealism has a cult value in a variety of subcultures, from modern myth-and-magic (based on surrealism’s appeal to the occult) to youth TV and internet video. Surrealism is not only the most popular and widely known of all modern movements, but also one of the most influential on the fashion, advertising and cinema industries. To this extent it has long been ‘recuperated’; Man Ray himself was a successful and stylish fashion photographer. And yet, in addition to its historic role and to its effect on mainstream and subcultures, it also exerts a powerful influence on new and contemporary art. American ‘action painting’ of the 1940s, European ‘New Image’ painting of the 1970s and the current heterogeneous art scene worldwide all have a surrealist dimension. So too has much critical thought, especially when it passes through Lacan’s revision of Freud. Here the connections are direct. Lacan was a friend and associate of the surrealists in the 1930s. His wife Sylvia Bataille (who stars in The Seashell and Clergyman by Dulac and Artaud, described below) was previously married to the dissident surrealist writer and thinker Georges Bataille. The intellectual direction taken by French thought in the post-war period, and especially since the 1960s, is permeated by this cultural milieu, which coincidentally includes Bataille’s friend Walter Benjamin for whom surrealism was a central moment of modernity. To the extent that later art criticism still engages with the surrealist critique (notably in Rosalind Krauss, Hal Foster, Suzi Gablik and David Sylvester – a very diverse list of critics!), coupled with the seemingly evergreen allure of surrealism on the formation of young artists, it remains a living cultural force in a sense not true of the other art movements of its time. Viewers may therefore encounter surrealist cinema in a variety of contexts: in museum repertory, as clips and quotes on TV, in mixed programmes of avant-garde film. In the following section some key surrealist films of the 1920s and 1930s are loosely linked with other French experimental or art films of the epoch to suggest some relations and differences between them in the growth of a radical approach to film language.

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The French avant-garde 1924–32 Three major French films of the period – Clair’s Dadaist Entr’acte (1924), Fernand Léger’s cubist Ballet mécanique (1924) and Buñuel–Dali’s surrealist Un Chien andalou (1928) – celebrate montage editing while also subverting its use as rhythmic vehicle for the all-seeing eye.120 In Entr’acte the chase of a runaway hearse, a dizzying rollercoaster ride and the transformation of a ballerina into a bearded male in a tutu, all create visual jolts and enigmas, freed of narrative causality. Ballet mécanique rebuffs the forward flow of linear time, its sense of smooth progression, by loop-printing a sequence of a grinning washerwoman climbing steep stone steps, a Daumier-like contrast to Duchamp’s elegantly photo-cinematic painting Nude Descending a Staircase of 1912, while the abstract shapes of machines are unusually slowed as well as speeded by montage. Léger welcomed the film medium for its new vision of ‘documentary facts’; his latecubist concept of the image as an objective sign is underlined by the film’s Chaplinesque titles and circular framing device – the film opens and closes by parodying romantic fiction (Katherine Murphy sniffs a rose in slow-motion). Marking off the film as an object suspended between two moments of frozen time was later used by Cocteau in Blood of a Poet (Le Sang d’un Ballet mécanique (Fernand Léger & poète, 1932), where the action takes place between Dudley Murphy, 1924) two shots of a falling chimney which open and close the film. The abrupt style of these films evokes earlier ‘purer’ cinema: farce in Entr’acte, Chaplin in Ballet mécanique and the primitive ‘trick-film’ in Blood of a Poet. These and other avant-garde films all had music by modern composers – Satie, Auric, Honegger, Antheil – except Un Chien andalou which was played to gramophone recordings of Wagner and tangos. Few avantgarde films were shown silent, with the exception of the austere Diagonal Symphony for which Eggeling forbade sound. According to Richter they were even shown to popular jazz. The influence of early film was added to a Dada spirit of improvisation and admiration for the US cinema’s moments of anti-naturalistic ‘excess’. Contributors to a later high modernist aesthetic of which they – like Picasso and Braque – knew nothing at the time, these avant-garde films convey less an aspiration to purity of form than a desire to transgress (or reshape) the notion of form itself, theorised contemporaneously by Bataille in a dual critique of prose narrative and idealist abstraction. Their titles refer beyond the film medium: Entr’acte (‘interlude’) to theatre (it was premièred ‘between the acts’ of a Satie ballet), Ballet mécanique to dance and Blood of a Poet to literature – only Un Chien andalou remains the mysterious exception. The oblique title of Un Chien andalou asserts its independence and intransigence. Arguably its major 46

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film and certainly its most influential, this stray dog of surrealism was in fact made before its young Spanish directors joined the official movement. A razor slicing an eye acts as an emblem for the attack on normative vision and the comfort of the spectator whose surrogate screen-eye is here assaulted. Painterly abstraction is undermined by the objective realism of the static, eye-level camera, while poetic-lyrical film is mocked by furiously dislocated and mismatched cuts which fracture space and time, a post-cubist montage style which questions the certainty of seeing. The film is punctuated by craftily inane intertitles – ‘Sixteen Years Later’ inserted within the same sequence, for example – to aim a further blow at the ‘silent’ cinema, mainstream or avant-garde, by a reduction to absurdity. The widely known if deliberately mysterious ‘symbolism’ of the film – the hero’s striped fetishes, his yoke of priests, donkeys and grand pianos, a woman’s buttocks that dissolve into breasts, a death’s-head moth and ants eating blood from a human hand – for long dominated critical discussion, but recent attention has turned to the structure of editing by which these images are achieved. The film constructs irrational spaces from its Un Chien andalou (Salvador Dalí & Luis Buñuel, rooms, stairways and streets, distorting 1928); Menilmontant (Dmitri Kirsanov, 1926); Blood temporal sequence, while its two male of a Poet (Jean Cocteau, 1930) leads disconcertingly resemble each other as their identities blur. For most of its history, the avant-garde has produced the two kinds of film-making discussed here: short, oblique films in the tradition of Man Ray, and the abstract German films, which broadly set up a different space for viewing from narrative drama, in which stable perception is interrupted and non-identification of subject and image are aimed for. Un Chien andalou sets up another model, in which elements of narrative and acting arouse the spectator’s psychological participation in plot or scene while at the same time distancing the viewer by disallowing empathy, meaning and closure; an image of the disassociated sensibility or ‘double consciousness’ praised by surrealism in its critique of naturalism. Further variations could be spun on the cinematically divided self, as with Epstein and - perhaps even more so – the early films of the enigmatic Dmitri The canonical avant-garde

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Kirsanov. His 1926 Menilmontant depicts a Zola-esque tale of ophaned sisters with a visual rhetoric whose dynamism rivals Vertov, while Brumes d’Automne (1928) merges a walking figure with mist and water via a neo-Brakhagean optic of hand-held and camera focus dissolves. This lyric modernism is not at all surrealist, but similarly puts the thematics of personal film and drama under intense pressure. ‘All his serious films’ wrote P. Adams Sitney, ‘derive a tension from the interaction between explicit action and the uncertainty of motivation.’121 Two further French films expand this strategy, which came with the sound film era and the end of the first phase of avant-garde film-making before the rise of Hitler: L’Âge d’or (1930) and Blood of a Poet (1932). Almost feature-length, these films (privately funded by the Vicomte de Noailles as successive birthday presents to his wife) link Cocteau’s lucid classicism to surrealism’s baroque mythopoeia. Both films ironise visual meaning in voice-over or by intertitles (made on the cusp of the sound era, they use both spoken as well as written text). Cocteau’s voice raspingly satirises his Poet’s obsession with fame and death (‘Those who smash statues should beware of becoming one’), paralleled in the opening of L’Âge d’or by an intertitle ‘lecture’ on scorpions and later an attack on ancient and modern Rome; Buñuel links the fall of the classical age to his main target, Christianity (as when Christ and the disciples are seen leaving a chateau after, it is implied, a Sadean orgy). The film itself celebrates ‘mad love’. A text written by the surrealists and signed by Aragon, Breton, Dali, Eluard, Peret, Tzara and others was issued at the first screening: L’Âge d’or, ‘uncorrupted by plausibility’, reveals ‘the bankruptcy of our emotions, linked with the problem of capitalism’. The manifesto echoes Jean Vigo’s endorsement of Un Chien andalou’s ‘savage poetry’ (also in 1930) as a film of ‘social consciousness’ which he gave in a speech to introduce a screening of the film. ‘An Andalusian dog howls,’ said Vigo. ‘Who then is dead?’ The poet, artist and film-maker Jean Cocteau was scathingly attacked by the ‘official’ surrealists in his own time. He was both an unabashed aesthete and prominent in the post-war period for a classicist ‘return to order’ shared with Picasso and Stravinsky. Cocteau nonetheless shares much in common with surrealism, from the use of ironic symbolism to a sardonic wit. In his first film, Blood of a Poet, the poet-hero is first seen in a burlesque of eighteenth-century décor, drawing a portrait. The mouth of this image takes on a life of its own, calling for ‘air, air’ in the voice of the film’s female lead, the photographer and pupil of Man Ray, Lee Miller. Materialising as the poet’s Muse, she leads him ‘through the mirror’ – in a spectacular trick-shot – to a series of encounters with archaic art, fake suicide, magic, ritual, voyeurism, opium and transvestisism. In his final adventure, he encounters a scene from his own past: a snowball fight in which his childhood self is killed. The poet finally dies on stage in front of an indifferent audience when he loses an emblematic game of cards. His transformation complete, the poet, crowned with laurels, enters the ‘eternal glory’ which he desires and which has so far eluded him; at the same time, it ambiguously fixes him forever in the image of the past and of tradition. Cocteau’s film finally affirms the redemptive power of the classic tradition, but the dissolution of the hero’s personal identity also undermines the Western fixation on stability and repetition, asserting that any modern version of classicism was to be determinedly ‘neo’ rather than ‘post’. It inaugurates a new genre in the avant-garde, the psychodrama, in which a central character undergoes a series of ritualised trials which typically end in either death or transfiguration. This subjectivist thematic had an especial appeal to American film-makers a decade later, with Cocteau’s film in circulation 48

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through the US arthouse circuit. By then, Cocteau was embarking on the larger-scale art films which make up his ‘second period’ as a director. While many of them are as personal, emblematic and inventive (and as sarcastically funny) as Blood of a Poet, they are also more elaborate in scale and production values. This links them more closely to the films of Franju and to the post-war French Art Cinema than to the low-budget artists’ avant-garde, although in another perspective Cocteau’s entire film output over three decades makes up a distinct body of authored work.

Voice and vision in the pre-war avant-garde The now legendary conflict between director Germaine Dulac and poet Antonin Artaud, over the making of The Seashell and the Clergymen (La Coquille et le clergyman, 1927) from his screenplay, focuses some key issues in avant-garde film.122 The differences between them were manifest in the film and its reception. Often cast as a crude misogynistic attack by the surrealists on a famous woman film-maker outside the movement, the issues were more complex. Artaud and Dulac began from different points on the modernist map and their divided principles gradually emerged as the film was being made. Dulac made both abstract films such as Étude cinégraphique sur un arabesque (1929) and stylish narratives, of which the best known is the pioneering feminist work Smiling Madame Beudet (La Souriante Madame Beudet, 1923). These aspects of her work were linked by a theory of musical form, to ‘express feelings through rhythms and suggestive harmonies’. Artaud opposed this aesthetic vehemently, along with representation itself. In his ‘Theatre of Cruelty’, Artaud foresaw the tearing down of barriers between public and stage, act and emotion, actor and mask. In film, he wrote in 1927, he wanted ‘pure images’ whose meanings would emerge, free of verbal associations, ‘from the very impact of the images themselves’. The impact must be violent, ‘a shock designed for the eyes, a shock founded, so to speak, on the very substance of the gaze’ (le regard). For Dulac too, film is ‘impact’, but typically its effect is ‘ephemeral . . ., analogous to that provoked by musical harmonies’. Dulac fluently explored film as dream-state (expressed in the dissolving superimpositions in La Coquille) and so heralded the psychodrama film, but Artaud wanted film only to keep the dream-state’s most violent and shattering qualities, breaking the trance of vision. La Coquille is a film of cinematic flow centred on an Oedipal clash between an older male (‘the general’), a young priest and a desired woman. The Freudian scenario is nearliteral as older and younger man chase the ‘vanishing lady’. This play of desire is signalled in the subtly dream-like shifting of scene to scene. The film is located in imaginary and distorted space, but far from Artaud’s hyper-aggressive view of film language, or counter-language. This is perhaps better reflected in the Buñuel–Dali Un Chien andalou of the following year which contains some of those images which Artaud describes, notably the ‘shock designed for the eyes’ in its most notorious ‘cut’, the slicing of an eye by a razor. But its ironies and parodies appear less suited to Artaud’s deathly serious vision, which favours the grotesque over the slapstick and comic-absurd, both of which are at the core of Buñuel and Dali’s masterpiece. Here the avant-garde focused on the role of the spectator. The Artaud–Dulac conflict, which was expressed in two quite different visions of modernist cinema, is one of the starkest examples of aesthetic choices during the late 1920s. The issues are not The canonical avant-garde

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La Coquille et le clergyman (Germaine Dulac, 1927)

always so clear-cut, but often overlap as the problems are worked out over a series of films and polemical essays. In the abstract film, analogies were sought with non-narrative arts to challenge cinema as a dramatic form, and this led to ‘visual music’ or ‘painting in motion’. The German ‘non-objective’ film took this in one direction, the French ‘Impressionists’ in another. Both in their different ways sought a ‘pure’ cinema which stands to the narrative film as poetry does to prose. Insofar as surrealism rejected absolute abstract art, it promoted in painting a kind of dream-image or magic iconography – in Dali, Ernst, Tanguy – which for later critics such as Clement Greenberg revealed its literary bias and its anti-modernist streak; its favoured artists did not go through the crucible of cubism, which tried (it will be remembered) to ‘pass beyond’ literature, symbolism and illustration. But in cinema the surrealists took a harder line. Their major films (those made close to the movement if not from within it) resist the lure and pleasure of dream in favour of its more purely disruptive elements. In Jean Goudal’s 1925 surrealist account, film-viewing is seen as akin to ‘conscious hallucination’, in which the body – undergoing ‘temporary depersonalisation’ – is robbed of ‘its sense of its own existence’.123 We are nothing more than two eyes riveted to ten metres of white screen, with a ‘fixed’ and ‘guided gaze’. This forward-looking critique (only the size of the screen has changed) was taken further in Dali’s Abstract of a Critical History of the Cinema (1932), which argues that film’s ‘sensory base’ in ‘rhythmic impression’ leads it to the bête noire of harmony, defined as ‘the refined product of abstraction’, or idealisation, rooted in ‘the rapid and continuous succession of film images, whose implicit neologism is directly proportional to a specifically generalising visual culture’. These directions of which he disapproves clearly include the abstract film 50

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Las Hurdes (Luis Buñuel, 1932)

of any kind as well as the narrative cinema. Countermanding this, Dali looks for ‘the poetry of cinema’ in ‘a traumatic and violent disequilibrium veering towards concrete irrationality’. The goal of radical discontinuity did not stop short at the visual image, variously seen as optical and illusory (as by Buñuel, whose weapon is disruptive montage) or as retinal and illusionist (as by Duchamp, who attacks it with the ‘precision-optics’ of his rotorreliefs filmed in Anémic cinéma). The linguistic codes in film (written or spoken) were also employed, as in films by Man Ray, Buñuel and Duchamp which all play with punning or interruptive intertitles to open a gap between word, sign and object. The attack on naturalism continued into the sound era, notably in Buñuel’s documentary on the Spanish poor Las Hurdes (Land Without Bread, 1932). Here the surrealist Pierre Unik’s commentary – a seemingly authoritative ‘voice-over’ in the tradition of factual film – slowly undermines the realism of the images, questioning the depiction (and viewing) of its subjects by a chain of non sequiturs or by allusions to scenes which the crews – we are told – failed, neglected or refused to shoot. Lacunae open between voice, image and truth, just as the eye had been suddenly slashed in Un Chien andalou.124 Paradoxically, the assault on the eye (or on the visual order) can be traced back to the ‘study of optics’ which Cézanne had recommended to painters at the dawn of modernism.125 This was characteristically refined by Walter Benjamin in 1936, linking mass reproduction, the cinema and art: ‘By its transforming function, the camera introduces us to unconscious optics as does psychoanalysis to unconscious impulses.’ Benjamin was interested, like Richter – another member of the informal ‘Brecht circle’ – and the surrealists, in the power of shock to break the viewer’s ‘absent-minded’ stare and induce self-conscious ‘apperception’. A decade earlier Artaud had put the case in extremis, callThe canonical avant-garde

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ing for a cinema that was a ‘total reversal of values, a complete overthrow of optics, perspective and logic’ – the reverse too of Cézanne’s cherished hope for a ‘logic of sensations’. Unlike Artaud, for whom shock was visual, optical and physical (‘founded on the very substance of the gaze’), Benjamin argued that cinema was uniquely determined by temporality and not by the image. His concept of shock is therefore expressed in terms of time: film is ‘dynamite at a tenth of a second’, which frees the spectator from the fixed space of the nineteeth century. It is the victory of the panorama and diorama, the arts of controlled light, over solid architecture. His position is close to Vertov’s theory of montage, in which the gaps or ‘intervals’ between frames or shots are as important as their contents. The discontinuity principle underlies the avant-garde’s key rhetorical figure, paratactic montage, which breaks the flow, or ‘continuity’, between shots and scenes, against the grain of narrative editing. Defined by Richter as ‘an interruption of the context in which it is inserted’, this form of montage first appeared in the avant-garde just as the mainstream was perfecting its narrative codes. Its purpose is counter-narrative, by linking dissonant images which resist habits of memory and perception to underline the film event as phenomenological and immediate. At one extreme of parataxis, rapid cutting – down to the single frame – disrupts the forward flow of linear time (as in the ‘dance’ of abstract shapes in Ballet mécanique).126 At the other extreme, the film is treated as raw strip, frameless and blank, to be photogrammed by Man Ray or handpainted by Len Lye. Each option is a variation spun from the kaleidoscope of the modernist visual arts. This diversity – reflected too in the search for non-commercial funding through patronage and self-help co-operatives – means that there is no single model of avantgarde film practice, which has variously been seen to relate to the mainstream as poetry does to prose, or music to drama, or painting to writing. None of these suggestive analogies is exhaustive, in part because of the avant-garde’s own insistence that film is a specific if compound medium, whether basically ‘photogenic’ (as Epstein and others believed) or ‘durational’ (film was firstly defined as ‘time-based’ by Walther Ruttmann in 1919). The modernist credo that art is a language brought the early avant-gardes close to Kuleshov (‘the shot is a sign’), to Eisensteinian montage, and to Vertov’s ‘theory of intervals’ in which the gaps between shots – like silences in post-serial music – are equal in value to the shots themselves. A very special sense of opticality was developed during the 1920s by the first avantgarde. In attenuated form it has survived among many later groups of film-makers. It does not simply reject the visual, nor the pleasure of sight, but insists on sieving or filtering the sense of vision through the material constraints of the medium. This is one of the reasons why the experimental cinema can be seen as medium-specific, as long as it understood that the medium is not the same as the technology of film. To take two terms from painting as a metaphor, the medium is equivalent to the surface, or what is presented, while the technology is the support, or the means of production. The implication of the one through the other is the core of what artists and critics have called the materiality of the medium, and which some are still concerned to elicit even as the digitalisation of the image questions the lucidity of the distinction. And this is yet another manifestation of what Lucy Lippard in 1977 referred to as the dematerialisation of the art object. By focusing on absence (gaps between frames, breaks between shots, disjunctions in editing and nonsynchronous sound) rather than the illusion of 52

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presence which these phenomena can also yield, the historic avant-gardes passed a complex legacy of ideas to later movements in film, video and digital art. These ideas were manifested not only in the advanced texts of Benjamin, Eisenstein, Brecht, Artaud, Dali and others, but in a series of films which are aesthetically and philosophically inexhaustible.

Transition: into the 1930s and documentary Many of the ‘extended’ avant-garde films of the later 1920s and early 1930s had integral soundtracks. Experimental sound, modernist music scores and minimal synchronised speech in these films expanded the call for a non-naturalistic sound cinema in Eisenstein’s and Pudovkin’s 1928 manifesto and explored by Vertov’s Enthusiasm (1930) and Ruttmann’ Melody of the World (1930). This direction was soon blocked by the popularity and realism of the commercial sound film. Background music and synched speech were prime contributors to this new naturalism of the mainstream feature film, exactly as the Soviet directors and the surrealists had predicted and lamented. An important branch of the avant-garde defended the silent – hence purely visual – cinema for many years to come. The birth of the sound film also of course led to a new branch of specialist technical production and to higher financing. Rising costs of film-making and the limited circulation of avant-garde films contributed to their decline in this period. Such problems were not simply economic, but also political.127 The broadly leftist politics of the avant-garde – both surrealists and abstract constructivists had complex links to communist and socialist organisations – were increasingly strained under two reciprocal policies which dominated the 1930s: the growth of German nationalism under Hitler from 1933 and the ‘popular front’ opposition to Fascism which rose belatedly, under Moscow’s lead, in 1935. The attacks on ‘excessive’ art and the avant-garde in favour of popular ‘realism’ were soon to close down the international co-operation which made possible German–Soviet co-productions like Piscator’s formally experimental montage-film Revolt of The Fishermen (1935) or Richter’s first feature film Metall (abandoned in 1933 after the Nazi take-over). Radical Soviet film-makers as well as their ‘cosmopolitan’ allies abroad were forced into more normative directions. The more politicised film-makers recognised this themselves in the second international avant-garde conference held in Belgium in 1930. The first more famous congress in 1929 at La Sarraz, Switzerland, at which Eisenstein, Balászs, Moussinac, Montagu, Cavalcanti, Richter and Ruttmann were present, had endorsed the need for aesthetic and formal experiment as part of a still growing movement to turn ‘enemies of the film today’ into ‘friends of the film tomorrow’, as Richter’s optimistic 1929 book had affirmed. One year later the stress was put emphatically on political activism, Richter’s ‘social imperative’: ‘The age demands the documented fact’, he claimed. The first result of this was to shift avant-garde activity more directly into documentary. This genre, associated with political and social values, still encouraged experiment and was – despite claims for its objectivity – ripe for development of sound and image montage to construct new meanings. Finally, the documentary did not use actors or, if it did, they were not star vehicles. In the first full age of the film star, acting was one of the final barriers between the avant-garde and mainstream or arthouse cinema. The documentary – usually used to expose social ills and (via state or corporate funding) propose remedies – attracted many European experimental film-makers, including The canonical avant-garde

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Richter, Ivens and Storck. In the United States, where there was a small but volatile community of activists for the new film, alongside other modern developments in writing, painting and photography, the cause of a radical avant-garde was taken up by magazines such as Experimental Film and seeped into the New Deal films made with Pare Lorentz and Paul Strand (a modernist photographer since the time of Camerawork, New York Dada and his own early short film-poem Manhatta, made with Charles Sheeler). In Europe, notably with John Grierson, Henri Storck and Joris Ivens, new fusions between experimental film and factual cinema were pioneered. Grierson’s attempt to equate corporate patronage with creative production led him most famously to the GPO, celebrated as an emblem of modern social communications in the Auden– Britten–Coldstream montage section of Night Mail (1936), which ends with Grierson’s voice intoning a night-time hymn to Glasgow – ‘let them dream their dreams . . .’. His legacy is still hotly debated. For some Grierson compromised too far with his sponsors and especially with their statist and imperialist ambitions. Such critiques also focus on Grierson’s realism, here cast as reactionary. An alternative view looks to his attack on commercialism and his championing of modern artists, poets and film-makers even when – as with Humphrey Jennings – they were too ‘arty’ for his own taste. On this account, Grierson’s cinema was the British avant-garde movement of its time. This is not solely a British issue – American and European documentarists faced similar conflicts under government or private sponsorship, as they do today. But certainly there was a peculiarly British dimension due to the reaction against ‘élitist’ modernism of the 1920s by a young generation of artists in the 1930s. They ranged from the social poets led by Auden to the ‘apocalytics’ headed by Dylan Thomas and George Barker. Eliot, Pound, Joyce, Stein, abstract art and serial music were, in different ways, found wanting. There were few abstract painters and sculptors, and even these (Moore, Hepworth, Nicholson) saw their sources in ‘natural forms’ and landscape. The novel especially swung against modernist experimentation, in Graham Greene, Evelyn Waugh and Aldous Huxley. But ‘Grierson’s gang’, which agreed with this general trend, and indeed took part in it, also breached it. This was for two reasons. The first was their belief that film’s language was basically montage, which came directly from the theory and practice – and, on occasional visits, the person – of an arch-modernist, Eisenstein. Grierson, who cut in the English intertitles for The Battleship Potemkin when it was shown in London in 1928, said that he learnt editing by studying this film. Secondly, they were inspired by figures such as Brecht, Weill and Eisler – then in exile from Nazi Germany – who similarly tempered ‘abstract’ modernism with social art and who were strong anti-realists. Added together, these radical and international connections were points of resistance to a ‘little Englander’ rejection of modernism. Many of Grierson’s productions were indeed standard enough, centred on the role of the post office. Others more ambitiously anticipate the forms of TV drama and documentary to come (the first TV broadcasts in the UK were made in this period, 1928–36). Of these the most hard-hitting was made independently (funded by a gas corporation) by Edgar Anstey, Housing Problems (1935). Cumbersome sound trucks were taken to London’s East End to record people’s stories, spoken directly to the camera, of poverty in the rat-infested slums. The film mixes interviews, documentary shooting and studio models (of improved estates) with a social punch which is still the basic strategy of TV reportage. It recalls such European radical social films as Buñuel’s Land Without Bread (1934) and Ivens’s Misère au borinage (1929). 54

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Housing Problems (Edgar Anstey, 1935)

The most famous of British artist-documentarists, Humphrey Jennings, did not easily fit Grierson’s earthy approach to film: his major works, mostly edited with Stewart McAllister (another ex-painter from Glasgow School of Art, like McLaren), were made in wartime for the Crown Film Unit after Grierson’s departure to North America. But he did complete Spare Time (1939) for the GPO, with a laconic commentary written and read by the poet Laurie Lee, only recently returned from the Spanish Civil War. This short study of three British regions focuses less on their industries than on ‘what people do with their leisure – the time they call their own’, from cycling, strolling, drinking and choral singing to playing the kazoo. Spare Time has always been an enigma. For many, including Grierson, it seems to sneer at its subjects from a smugly élitist high angle; for others it is an intensely observed, emblematic celebration of dailiness and the submerged magic of ordinary events. It can’t be both; but which? Fittingly, Jennings was a member of the English surrealist group with Roger Roughton, Herbert Read, David Gascoyne and Charles Madge. Here again, the radicalism of continental Europe – suitably naturalised – approaches the core of British culture by feeding in from the margins. In a comparable but distinct category is a film like Coal Face (1935). Here the theme is fully industrial. The work of British miners, and their living conditions, are seen – with the aid of maps, diagrams and chanted statistical information – and also questioned. Its stance is not neutral. It does not flinch from details of working hours, poverty, injury and death rates. With sound by Benjamin Britten and a poetic choral text by W. H. Auden (both still in their twenties), this is the most indebted of the GPO films to the radical and ‘Brechtian’ ethos. Again the European link is direct, for it was The canonical avant-garde

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Coal Face (Alberto Cavalcanti, 1935)

directed (or primarily assembled from existing footage, some of it shot by Flaherty for Industrial Britain in 1931) by Alberto Cavalcanti. Grierson invited the young Brazilian director to join his team after Cavalcanti had completed such films as Rien que les heures (1926). Alberto Cavalcanti and Len Lye were hired to bring new ideas and techniques to the documentary movement. Lye’s uncompromising career as a film-maker, almost always for state and business patrons, showed the survival of sponsored funding for the arts in Europe and the USA in the Depression years. His cheap and cheerfully handmade colour experiments of the period treat their overt subjects – parcel deliveries in the wholly abstract Colour Box (1935), early posting in Trade Tattoo (1937) – with a light touch; the films celebrate the pleasures of pure colour (including technicolor) and rhythmic sound-picture montage. The loss of Grierson, Lye and Norman McLaren to North America after the 1940s marked the end of this period of collaboration.

Reviewing the first avant-garde Cubism had set the tone of later modernisms by stressing that the role of process in art was as important as the result and should be indicated in the work. At the same time, the work was to be autonomous and non-mimetic (i.e. ‘pure’) to resist final interpretation through logic or verbal language. The emphasis on surface and form was attacked 56

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by surrealists as mere formalism. Cubist collage was given new content in the chancebased methods of the Dadaist Jean Arp or in the cut-up dream montage of ‘Dada-Max’ Ernst. A sense of process was thus preserved in collage, automatic writing and chance procedures, all of which distinguished the surrealists from the ‘return to order’ and classicism during the 1920s. The surrealists, for whom the formal autonomous image was anathema, proposed instead to seek the ‘marvellous’. By this they meant an image (better found than made) which was rich and disturbing in its associations but was severed from rational meaning. The film still, detached from its context and rendered enigmatic, was a ripe source of these. Plucking images from their context to reveal a latent and unintentional magic was like the cinema of mind created by the surrealist drifting from one movie-house to another. A mutual enthusiasm for the new film linked apparently diverse movements such as Dada and constructivism, and indeed the surrealists. Unexpected fusions between these groups appeared in the European borderlands such as Hungary, Holland, Czechoslovakia and especially Poland.128 Even the supposedly unified constructivist movement was made up of distinct traits, from extreme rationalism to theosophy. It included the Russian factory-based productivists, the theory of ‘cinematology’ (Malevich), the proto-structural films of Charles Dekeukelaire in Belgium, the Dadaflavoured films of Stefan and Franciszka Themerson (whose Adventures of a Good Citizen, 1937, inspired Adventures of a Good Citizen (Stefan Polanski’s 1957 surreal Two Men and a Wardrobe), the & Franciszka Themerson, 1937) abstract film Black-Grey-White (1930) by László Moholy-Nagy as well as his later documentary shorts (several, like a portrait of Lubetkin’s London Zoo, made in England), the semiotic film projects of the young Polish architect and political activist Mieczysl⁄aw Szczuka and the light-play experiments of the Bauhaus. For these and other artists film-making was an additional activity to their work in other media. Poland had an especially thriving film culture, in the main provincial cities as well as in Warsaw. Film clubs and groups for the ‘artistic film’ grew among enthusiasts for modern art. Polish modernism uniquely fused constructivism with Dada-surrealism, a vividly internationalist blend for the beleaguered inter-war years. This fusion of seemingly opposite artistic directions had a strongly social caste in an age of post-war rebuilding and industrialisation. Much activity centred on the ‘constructive’ role of architecture and the city theme, also the subject of several now-lost films. The range of screenings, published journals and film-making from the late 1920s to 1937/8 was rooted directly in the first era of the avant-garde, transmitted notably through figures like Eggeling’s friend and contemporary, the Polish artist Henryk Berlewi. It was probably through Berlewi, and the Western The canonical avant-garde

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The Eye and the Ear (Stefan & Franciszka Themerson, 1945)

European art journals, that the leftist constructivist designer Mieczysl/aw Szczuka was inspired to make his first drawings for an abstract film in 1925 (like Eggeling, using long scrolls). The film was never shot, for Szczuka’s death at twenty-seven in a climbing accident prevented both this and a second project being realised. The later work was more ambitious and original, a semiotic play or permutation of three dramatically descriptive phrases (‘I kill, you kill, we kill’) which were to be seen in different typefaces and sizes. Well in advance of the 1970s structural film, it anticipates the ‘word movies’ of Sharits and Snow as well as the typographic imaginary of post-modernist design. Key surviving films from this era include those by Stefan and Franciszka Themerson. Rooted in Dada-futurism, their early films were either sponsored commercials or promotional documentaries. Their influential Adventures carries a strong anti-war message. The ‘good citizen’, uncertain whether to go ‘left’ or ‘right’, overhears a foreman instructing two removal men to carry a wardrobe backwards – ‘The sky won’t fall if you walk backwards!’ Inspired by this novel idea, the citizen encourages others to do the same. An angry crowd, offended by this unconventional gesture, chases them, but they escape to Parnassus in the skies. In a rare moment of synchronised sound, a pipe-player in a field then speaks directly to camera and says ‘Ladies and Gentlemen, you must understand the metaphor.’ This shot is followed by an image of a child crawling in the grass, which ends the film. The Themersons’ last films, made in wartime London, exemplify the playfully didactic spirit of the Polish group. Calling Mr Smith, 1944, is a propagandist attack on Nazi brutality, with highly manipulated colour and sound. The Eye and the Ear, 1945, by contrast is a lyrical evocation of synchronisation and counterpoint between musical and visual forms. In each of its four sections, songs by the Polish modernist composer Szymanowski are explored though abstract photograms, graphic diagrams and photogenic camerawork. These films end the epoch emblematically, with a return to the origins of the abstract film in the 1920s. They embody the goal of a modernist synthesis in abstract art, and affirm a postsymbolist surrealism in the context of the social documentary. The Themersons’ films, with typical modern infusions and influences from formal film, contemporary music, abstract art, complex notation, abstract graphics and direct address to the audience in voice-over, mark the close of this kind of vision of experimental film. Even the sponsored funding which made them possible was on the way out. The inter-war period also closes emblematically with Richter’s exile from Nazi-occupied Europe to the USA in 1940. Shortly before, he had completed his book The Struggle 58

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for the Film, in which he had praised both the classic avant-garde as well as primitive cinema and documentary film as opponents of mass cinema, seen as manipulative of its audience if also shot through (despite itself) with new visual ideas. In the USA Richter became archivist and historian of the experimental cinema in which he had played a large role, issuing (and re-editing, by most accounts) his own early films. The famous 1946 San Francisco screenings ‘Art in Cinema’, which he co-organised, brought together the avant-garde classics with new films by Maya Deren, Sidney Peterson, Curtis Harrington and Kenneth Anger; an avant-garde renaissance at a a time when the movement was largely seen as obsolete.129 Richter’s influence on the new wave was limited but important. His own later films – such as Dreams That Money Can Buy (1944–7) – were long undervalued as baroque indulgences (with episodes directed by other exiles such as Man Ray, Duchamp, Léger, and Max Ernst) by contrast to the ‘pure’ and to a later generation more ‘materialist’ abstract films of the 1920s. Regarded at the time as ‘archaic’, Dreams now seems uncannily prescient of a contemporary post-modernist sensibility. David Lynch selected extracts from it, along with films by Vertov and Cocteau, for his 1986 BBC Arena film profile. Stylish key episodes include Duchamp’s reworking of his spiral films and early paintings, themselves derived from cubism and chronophotography, with sound by John Cage. Léger contributes a playful skit on the act of viewing, in which a semi-hypnotised audience obeys increasingly absurd commands issued by the film they supposedly watch. Ernst’s episode eroticises the face and body in extreme close-up and rich colour, looking ahead to today’s ‘cinema of the body’ in experimental film and video. Richter’s own classes in film-making at the New School for Social Research were attended by, among others, another recent immigrant, Jonas Mekas, soon to be the energetic magus of the ‘New American Cinema’.130 Two decades earlier, the avant-garde had time-shifted cubism and Dada into film history (both movements were essentially over by the time artists were able to make their own films). By the 1940s, a new avant-garde again performed a complex, overlapping loop, re-asserting internationalism and experimentation, at a time as vital for transatlantic art as early modernism had been for Richter’s generation. Perhaps the key difference, as P. Adams Sitney argues, is that the first avant-garde had added film to the potential and traditional media at an artist’s disposal, while new American (and soon European) film-makers after the Second World War began to see film-making more exclusively as an art form that could exist in its own right, so that the artist-film-maker could produce a body of work in that medium alone. Ironically, this generation also reinvented the silent film, defying the rise of naturalistic sound which had in part doomed its avant-garde ancestors in the ‘poetic cinema’ a decade before.

Origins of the post-war avant-garde The avant-garde film movement before the Second World War was international in scope, although Europe was its cultural epicentre. From Paris, Berlin and Munich the idea of an abstract and surrealist cinema spread outwards to Holland, Belgium, Poland, Czechoslovakia, the USA, Britain and Japan. The rise of naturalistic sound cinema closed this chapter in modern art. The political strife of the 1930s also propelled radical film-makers away from purely artistic concerns towards the ‘social imperative’ of the documentary film. The canonical avant-garde

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European avant-garde film was reborn surprisingly soon after the war, in the 1950s, with the provocative neo-Dada of Fluxus, Lettrisme and Action-Art.131 It was unexpected. Reviewing the French avant-garde of the 1920s for Roger Manvell’s brave (but mostly historical) Experiment in the Film (1949), veteran cineaste Jacques Brunius praised it as a precursor of Clair and Renoir, but lamented its ‘excesses’ in the era of cinema’s ‘adolescence’. He saw no signs of a new emergent avant-garde, but only two years later, in 1951, the Lettriste poets Isidore Isou and Maurice Lemaitre, soon joined by Guy Debord, made their first films, described by Tony Rayns as ‘a rediscovery of the founding spirit of Dada and surrealism in the years after the First World War’. Aggressive and physical, they reduce the screen to found footage, raw colour and bursts of black and white frames. ‘Excessive’ even in their length, these films answer Brunius’ hopes and fears for a new avant-garde, as they reclaim the radical heritage of the first one. As in the original Cabaret Voltaire, and for similar reasons, mockery and ‘excess’ were weapons of social and cultural protest. The post-war period, marked by violent decolonisation, the nuclear threat and the Korean War, was dubbed ‘the age of anxiety’. But film as an aspect of ‘bomb culture’ was often defiantly marginal, even after the aptly named underground surfaced to public view in the 1960s. It was in this climate that (in Bürger’s view) a neo-avant-garde was born. If, as many argue, this finally led modernism tamely into the museum, its radical aspirations safely defused, there were artists who resisted direct recuperation. Film, still a marginal medium for artists, was perhaps attractive for that very reason. During the 1950s and early 1960s a small number of European radical artists used film as a medium in live performance or other events, and a small number explored its more ‘minimal’ properties. Post-Dada artists in Paris recycled ‘treated’ found-footage to undermine its original message and more formalist artists in Austria turned to experiment in basic sound, light and montage. These were important strands which in some ways lead straight to art today, where found-footage, installation and ‘basic’ video are much employed. But in sheer output and in eventual wider influence, these developments were overshadowed by the rise of the experimental film movement in the USA, beginning in the early 1940s. The American avant-garde is still the best known and most sustained example of all similar movements, and remains a paradigm for independent film-making. It meant that the US took the lead role in avant-garde film, as it did with painting when New York replaced Paris as the cultural capital of modernism. As Abstract Expressionism triumphed in the 1940s, new waves of experimental film-makers began to explore film as an art form.132 The Americans, in a climate of cultural growth, were more positive than the Europeans about their shared Dada–surrealist heritage. They wanted to make art, not abolish it. Their hallmark was personal vision, the basis of both the California-based abstract film and of the short film-poems made in the artists’ colonies of Los Angeles, San Francisco and New York. Many currents ran together to produce this extraordinary period. They comprise the wartime presence of modernist writers and artists from Europe, a new self-confidence, a need to emerge from Europe’s shadow (once European modernism had been absorbed into the bloodstream), an economic boom, the availability of equipment and cameras, a generation of artists prepared by the public funding and commissioning of the Roosevelt years, and of course the model (or counter-model) of American Hollywood cinema as a leading home-grown industrial and cultural industry. At the same time, many of the films which were made did not directly reflect the optimism and ‘new birth’ which is such a strong feature of much post-war US art, dance and music. Often they 60

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were dark and parodic, as in the psychodrama, and expressed elemental fear and anxiety. The avant-garde in part was equivalent to ‘film noir’ articulation of these themes in narrative fiction, but in a strongly subjective mode and made by individuals outside the commercial sector. This personal stance was as much material as ideological. Portable 16mm cameras with variable lenses and shooting speeds could be found on the war surplus and amateur film markets. Most major cities had laboratories and sources of filmstock. Cheap and flexible technology literally put the means of production in the film-maker’s hands. As 16mm became the regular projection format in colleges, cine-clubs and arts groups, new circuits opened for the avant-garde. Like the live poetry readings which grew in this decade, film-makers often presented and discussed the films in person. At a time when auteur theory was controversially being applied to the mainstream, the avant-garde here underlined personal and direct authorship, and audience response, to challenge the regime of commercial cinema, from production to reception. On the West Coast Oskar Fischinger presided over the revival of abstract Motion Painting, the title of his 1947 film. Like his fellow-exile Len Lye, his work became more purely absolute as his commercial career foundered (Fischinger’s watershed crisis was seemingly Disney’s rejection of his abstract designs for Fantasia). A handful of native pioneers also explored abstract animation.133 They include the pioneer of electronic visual art Mary Ellen Bute, who made her first films in the 1930s, while Douglas Crockwell and Dwinnel Grant used wax and paint respectively to construct bio-organic abstractions from the 1940s. Harry Smith handpainted his early abstract films, while the Whitney brothers turned to technology and light-play experiment to explore Duchampian ‘chance operations’. Along with the revival of synaesthetic abstraction, US film-makers reinvented the narrative film-poem. The ‘psychodrama’ (or ‘trance-film’) was modelled on dream, lyric verse and contemporary dance. Typically, it enacts the personal conflicts of a central subject or protagonist. A scenario of desire and loss, seen from the point of view of a single guiding consciousness, ends either in redemption or death. Against the grain of realism, montage-editing evokes swift transitions in space and time. The subjective, fluid camera is more often a participant in the action than its neutral recording agent. Jean Epstein’s theory of ‘photogénie’, itself an expansion of Louis Delluc’s original concept, and which refers to the specific character of camera vision by which ‘the camera transforms what it depicts’, was as it were reinvented. Narrative and abstract directions in the avant-garde have often coexisted, sometimes closely linked and at other times dividing. While abstract film can grow directly from an engagement with the plastic material of film and light projection, as it does for the basically ‘painterly’ tradition of cubism down to – in this context – Harry Smith and the Whitneys, avant-garde film narrative almost inevitably looks to non-painterly sources as well. For Deren and Anger these included anthropology and magical traditions as well as literature (Deren’s college thesis was on Yeats and symbolist imagery). Other filmmakers were poets and writers: Sidney Peterson, Willard Maas, Jonas Mekas. Brakhage, who broke most radically with narrative to inaugurate abstract montage, was strongly influenced by Pound and Stein on compression and repetition in language. Deren, Anger and Mekas were writers and journalists for much of their career, while Brakhage published at length. The literary traditions which this generation absorbed were themselves ‘cinematised’. As well as Pound, Eliot and the imagists, the key influence (on Peterson, for example) was probably Joyce. Among the proposed adaptations of his The canonical avant-garde

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novel Ulysses (Eisenstein, Ruttmann and Ford were variously mooted as directors), the poet Louis Zukofsky prepared a full scenario in 1937.134 This new narrative avant-garde was symbolised in the now-classic Meshes of the Afternoon (1943) by Maya Deren and Alexander Hammid. Its Chinese-box narrative form entraps the young protagonist (played by Deren) as much as the disjointed domestic space around her. Both evoke her alienation. An emblematic knife and key elude her grasp. Actions are interrupted; a record plays in an empty room, a phone is off the hook. A fantasised pursuit of a glimpsed figure ends in violence, perhaps suicide. Erotic, and irredeemably Freudian (despite Deren’s protestation at the label), the film combines its spiral structure with pictorialist camerawork and intricately crafted matte shots (as when the sleeping woman faces her other ‘selves’ who replicate within successive dreams). Both protagonist and spectator search for connecting threads, as the quest theme resonates equally in the film’s subject-matter and its style. The 1940s renaissance of film was part of a wider revolution in American culture. It included the rise of ‘American-type’ painting, in the sense defined by Clement Greenberg, of competing schools of post-Poundian poets and post-Joycean writers, and of the innovative Merce Cunningham and John Cage in dance and music. As Duchamp’s associate (and film composer for his contribution to Richter’s 1947 compilation film Dreams), Cage linked the European war émigrés with their younger US followers. He has a walk-on part in Deren’s At Land (1944), while Duchamp appears in her uncompleted mid-40s ‘feudal magic’ film Witches Cradle, and her last work, The Very Eye of Night (1959), employs Antony Tudor’s avant-garde choreography. Meshes of the Afternoon (Maya Deren & Alexander Hammid, 1943)

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The mixture of the arts at this point was promiscuous rather than programmatic. If some Europeans were exploring the meltdown factor in mixed-media assemblage, the Americans wished less to blur the edges between the arts than to freely discover their limits. In this light the reappearance of film drama in a cultural milieu led by purely abstract art, music and dance is less aberrant than it looks. It rehearsed the old argument between film-as-painting and as camera-eye vision, each claiming to express film’s unique property as a plastic art form. By turning to the poets and writers of experimental modernism – Pound, Eliot, Joyce, Stein – the film-makers distanced themselves from the direct drama and narrative tradition in realism. The climate, broadly, was surrealist and poetic. Some film-makers (such as Harry Smith) moved between both modes, but many held to absolute non-figuration (like the Whitney brothers) which yet others saw as denying the camera’s ability to depict ‘the way things are’ (Deren). For Deren, film had an objective aspect which the other arts innately lacked. At the same time, the manipulation of time and space was equally a property of film form, so that editing could undermine the surface realism of cinematography to create a new language that was film’s alone. If Cocteau laid down the paradigm for psychodrama in Blood of a Poet, it was found useful by less sophisticated film-makers who used basic technology to make personal statements. Psychodrama often offers a sexual as well as mythic quest. In many films this has Oedipal overtones: the struggle between the mother and the diver-son in Peterson’s The Lead Shoes (1949), the encounter between the searching woman and the bedridden patriarch in Deren’s At Land, the self-blinded youth in Brakhage’s The Way to Shadow Garden (1955). Such films turn to multiple devices which evoke splits in vision as divisions in the self (a triple matte-shot portrait of Deren in Meshes of the Afternoon; negative film used to evoke transcendence, by Brakhage and also by Deren in Ritual in Transfigured Time, 1949; the fish-eye lens to distort appearance, as by Peterson). Just as important are rapid edits to break the flow of events (Mr Frenhofer and the Minotaur; 1948 by Peterson; A Study in Choreography for Camera by Deren) and slow motion, widely used by all of these film-makers to evoke strangeness and to incarnate camera-vision. All of these tropes are found in the classic films by Cocteau and Buñuel which were now recirculated in the USA. Deren denied their initial influence on her work, but it was largely her effectiveness as promotionist and distributor of artists’ films which made them more widely seen. She founded the Film Artists Society (later the Independent Film Makers Association) in 1953, which met monthly until 1956. From 1955 to her death in 1961 she organised the Creative Film Foundation to try to secure grants for film-makers. Prints of Léger’s and Duchamp’s films had been acquired by the Museum of Modern Art under the curatorship of Iris Barry (an English-born devotee of Ezra Pound and an early member of the London Film Society). Hans Richter re-released versions of the early abstract films which he had brought to the USA from pre-war Germany. This network drew together – as in pre-war Europe, and sometimes with the same participants – the various strands of an art cinema opposed to purely commercial values. It survives today most directly in the collecting and screening policies of Anthology Film Archives, a linear descendent of the post-war revival. When Abstract Expressionism was promoted as an all-American art in the 1950s – with some of its practitioners colluding in this guise – it obscured the European roots which bound Pollock, Gorky and others to modernism. Cubism and surrealism fused in the new art. In the same way the unique ascent of the American avant-garde film grew from these baselines. The cinematic language of 1920s Europe was reinvented and The canonical avant-garde

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reshaped, as was the idea of an experimental film circuit and a vibrant journalism pioneered by Tyler, Deren and Mekas. Many of the first US psychodramas refashion not just the style but also the manner of their predecessors. Classical figures, statues and motifs are mimed, post-Cocteau, in key films by Deren, Peterson, Markopoulos and Anger. As with all movements which aim for the new, such links to pre-war surrealism provoked charges that these films simply reran the past. Their real innovations, such as intense subjectivity and the incarnation of camera as viewpoint, took longer to emerge, largely when these devices were radicalised (or ‘infantilised’, as Parker Tyler put it) from 1958 to 1968. Rejecting the refinement of myth in narrative psychodrama, an apparantly cruder but more direct mythopoeaia emerges in the dressing-up and body-painting which are hallmarks of child-play regression in Austrian performance art, the American Jack Smith and the English collage film-maker Jeff Keen – burning dolls are an iconic feature of all their live-art performances. Ironically, these films were later still to influence the structural movement, which cared less for their transgressive values than their exuberant editing and key use of film-time. The first period of post-war experimentation included films by Kenneth Anger, James Broughton, Curtis Harrington and Sidney Peterson. Their keynote was black humour and Oedipal crisis. The fleeing son of Harrington’s On the Edge (1949) is literally hauled back to mother by her knitting yarn, while in Broughton’s Mother’s Day (1948) the roles of children are played by adults. Peterson’s The Lead Shoes (1949) features a distorting anamorphic lens, a Californian Kali of a mother, her diver-suited son and a raucous ‘scratch’ rendition of old ballads (‘What’s that blood on the point of your knife, Edward?’, chants a dissonant chorus). Peterson made the film with San Francisco art students who were also war veterans and survivors. Regressive play here embraces catharsis and release. The Lead Shoes (Sidney Peterson, 1949)

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Fireworks (Kenneth Anger, 1947)

By contrast, the fantasy sailors of Anger’s Fireworks (1947) who savagely beat its hero (played by the film-maker) are culled from Eisensteinian montage as well as the US Navy, to both of which the film pays homage along with ‘American Christmas and being seventeen’. The film was shot silent at home (sound, as with most of Anger’s films, was added later, usually to re-release a print). Classic cinema is invoked in close-up faces and noir-ish scenography, as when the hero stands smoking on a balcony at night, while a street light blinks in the background. Burning illumination leads the dreaming protagonist to trauma and death, from which he is redeemed by the seminal pouring of milk over his body and the showering of light from a phallic firework. The dreamer awakes to a new consciousness, still in bed but ‘no longer alone’. Marie Menken had already taken a crucial step to free the camera from the centralised human eye assumed by all narrative film, even the most radical psychodramas. In Visual Variations on Noguchi (1945) – originally planned to accompany the Cage–Cunningham ballet The Seasons – her handheld camera pans round an abstract sculpture to create an improvised dance in film space. Fluently bridging the abstract and the figurative, it seeks lyric form without narrative mediation. Her later experiments in the transformation of ‘dailiness’ by camera, light and pixillation are compiled in Notebook (1963). She and her husband Willard Maas are the models for Martha and George in Edward Albee’s Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf ?, but ‘the mother of the Underground’ was also commemorated in Andy Warhol’s Chelsea Girls (1966), in which she stars. Menken’s liberation from film drama – unlike most of the avant-garde she was a painter, not a writer – inspired the young Stan Brakhage to adopt the free camerawork of his transitional Anticipation of the Night (1958).135 Deren and Anger also moved away from psychodrama in the 1950s. Their films The canonical avant-garde

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became more gestural and abstract. Both were drawn to magic and became experts on their founding myths, Haitian Voudoun for Deren and Aleister Crowley for Anger. However, their films were also rooted in a tradition which gave primacy to photogenic sight and montage structure. Anger stressed the first of these, most elaborately in his Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome (1954–66), which occupied him for most of the 1950s and which he issued in different versions – including triple screen projection – for twenty years. The soundtrack changed from Janácˇek to rock and back again. Even ‘unfinished’ (although less so than many of his films), Inauguration is a lavish tribute to film as the art of light and colour. Dissolves and superimpositions of the Magus’s sparkling rings and regalia lead to an orgiastic initiation rite, in which masks, bodypaint and ham acting serve to deflate and ironise the film’s high mannerist style. Myth and dance were central to both Anger and Deren. In Deren this took classical form, as in the final film of her psychodrama trilogy, Ritual in Transfigured Time, in which Anaïs Nin also appears. Here a cocktail party becomes a children’s game (by freeze-frame rhythms), statues come alive (by stop-motion) and the two female protagonists – played by Deren and the black actress Rita Christiani – change identities in an underwater closing scene, ‘the passage from widow to bride’, shown in negative. Her final films no longer psychologise the trance state. In Meditations on Violence (1953), trance is embodied in the balletic ritual gestures of a Chinese ritual boxer. His slow-building solo performance displays the sinuous geometry of unarmed combat to flute music. The pace quickens with drumbeats until a sudden montage cut from interior to rooftop shows the whirling boxer now with robes and sword. The first sequence is repeated, this time in almost imperceptible reverse-motion. Overshadowed by her early brilliance, the formal minimalism of Deren’s later films anticipate the structural film a decade later, while looking even further ahead in their hybrid mixture of cultures and in Deren’s explicit articulation of ‘a woman’s voice’. Anger’s romantic myth, by contrast, embraced mannerism and even nostalgia in the films he shot or planned after moving to Europe at Cocteau’s invitation. This followed the success of Fireworks at the important Knokke Festival of 1949. Eaux d’artifice (1953) – the title is possibly cod-French for ‘waterworks’ – is especially baroque. A figure in eighteenth-century dress, apparantly female but in fact a male dwarf, darts between the fountains and statues of a palace garden. Rhythmic montage is set to Vivaldi’s music. Shot in monochrome by daylight, the blue-toned film evokes night by ‘artifice’, a tonal effect broken only by a hand-coloured shot of a fan unfolding. A decade later, Anger made a surprising (and for him unique) turn to contemporary life – vividly mythologised – in Scorpio Rising (1964), a response to the new rock and youth culture he found back in the USA after his fifteen-year absence. This heralded for Anger an imminent Luciferian age, whose symbols were encoded in the narcissistic rites of the ‘bike boy’ cult. The film opens with a cool, documentary invocation of these demonic brothers, later seen donning Nazi-style gear and posing in hieratic shots. Slowly, the montage becomes subjective: a glue-sniffing biker ‘sees red’, scenes of Brando (The Wild One, on TV) and Christ (from a silent religious film) are intercut with comicstrips and flash-frames (Fascism and sex). After clan inititation and church desecration, the film ends in a rapid montage of racing bikes and death, sirens and police lights. Scorpio became an underground cult classic, partly due to its transgressive theme of ‘doomed Youth’. Unusually open-textured for Anger, but in the now preferred style of the underground, it incorporates found TV and film footage, stylised portraits, improvisation and documentary (within a formal structure that moves from inside to outside, 66

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opening and closing with artificial light). Above all, and preceded only by Bruce Conner’s Cosmic Ray (1961), the soundtrack is made up of contemporary rock music (including Blue Velvet, later the title for a film by David Lynch). The idea spread to the mainstream young; Scorsese saw it at a loft screening around 1966, the year that his own early films were praised by Andrew Sarris (‘a wit capable of talking features’) along with Anger and Warhol. Scorpio finally led to the birth of the music video (partly through Anger’s UK admirer Derek Jarman). Typically, a rock soundtrack in film or video both celebrates and ironises its subject, as does Scorpio Rising.

Underground The 1950s institutionalisation of modern art under its newly acquired name (‘Modernism’) bred a reaction from disestablished or oppositional artists. Aiming to keep art outside the museum and its rules, they looked back to earlier times (especially to Dada) when its ‘negative moment’ – art as a critique of reality – was most heightened.136 This movement later became the ‘counter-culture’ or, more popularly, ‘the Underground’. The shift of emphasis is telling; one military term – an ‘advanced guard’ scouting ahead of the pack – is replaced by another which reflects clandestine resistance, tunnelling rather than charging, to echo a post-war identification with partisans and prisoners. Jeff Nuttall’s punning phrase for this epoch – bomb culture – is a typically double-edged demand as well as a description.137 The underground was made up of loosely affiliated groups and individuals who mixed humour, iconoclasm and intransigence: from ‘bad painting’ (Asger Jorn) to automatic Traité de bave et d’éternité/Treatise on Slobber and Eternity (Isidore Isou, 1951)

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painting (Pino-Gallizio), the Beat Poets, aggressive performance art (the Vienna Institute of Direct Art, the Japanese Zero Dimension Group), John Latham’s burnt book constructions, the San Francisco Mime Troupe, the Berlin Commune 1, the Destruction in Art Symposium and the ‘prepared’ pianos and violins of ‘random music’ in Cage and Fluxus. Most of all, the word was spread by the ‘Underground press’, which included Residu, Now Now, Merlin, Marawannah Quarterly, City Lights, Poesie Vivante, Wild Dog, East Village Other, International Times, Berkeley Barb, Klactoveedsedsteen, My Own Mag and Fuck You – A Magazine of the Arts. The roots of the underground which flowered in the 1960s lay in the aftermath of world war. During the early 1950s films were again made in France by fringe dissidents, hostile to the ‘culture industry’. The assault on culture began with the Lettriste group in Paris, led by Isidore Isou from 1947. Its attacks on meaning and value look back to Rimbaud, Nietzsche and Dada, and anticipate William Burroughs. Among their tactics of ‘detournement’, or subversion, Isou and Maurice Lemaitre cut commercial found footage literally to pieces, scratching and painting the film surface and frame, adding texts and soundtracks to further dislocate its original meaning. These often very long works joined a Lettriste armoury of collage-poems, manifestos and provocations.138 Art as a form of social ‘intervention’ was taken further (at least theoretically) by the situationists, an international grouping which included disaffected Lettristes who followed Debord after his 1952 schism with Isou. Their journal Internationale situationniste (1958–69) influenced Godard by its unique attack on the ‘society of the spectacle’ with a mixture of collage, invective and urbanist theory. For the situationists, however, Godard was ‘just another Beatle’. Debord’s own six films (1952–78) are rigorously collaged from found footage, with added voice-overs largely made up of quotations. Rarely screened, Debord withdrew them altogether in 1984, in protest against the unsolved murder of left-wing publisher Gerard Lebovici. After Debord’s death in 1994 some surfaced again in Paris and London to commemorate (in 1998) the students’ and workers’ uprising of May ’68. Finally, in 2005, they were reissued as a DVD set by Gaumont. In Vienna, radical artists in the immediate post-war period (c. 1948–55) were similarly hostile to the ‘commodification’ of art but did not reject artistic activity (as the SI eventually did).139 One such group included the artists and film-makers Felix Radax, Peter Kubelka and Arnulf Rainer. Their experiments with formal and mathematical systems drew on the spartan music of Webern and the pre-war Vienna School, preceded by Kubelka’s sound and kinetic montage for Mosaik in Vertrauen (Mosaic in Confidence, 1954–5). This is his only semi-narrative film, interspersing ‘disaster footage’ such as a motor race crash with a highly oblique love story. His purely abstract film Arnulf Rainer (1958–60) used a graphic score to predetermine its alternating patterns of black and white frames, while Adebar (1957) and Schwechater (1958) employ cyclic repetition of small human movements and fluid colours. Several of Kubelka’s films were commissioned, in spite of their purist ambitions – Adebar, with its strobe-flattened dancers, was an advert for a café of that name and Schwechater uses brief shots of people drinking as an advert for a brand of beer. A second group of Viennese artists, led by Hermann Nitsch and Otto Muehl, explored confrontational ‘live-art’ performance under the banner of ‘Material-Action’. These became public – and notorious – between 1958 and 1968. Violent and desacrilising, but laced with pastiche, they inaugurated still current controversies on the role of self-mutilation, catharsis and transgression in art. Kurt Kren recorded Muehl’s events in films which simultaneously explore perception and film-time. He also made over thirty short 68

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TV (Kurt Kren, 1967)

films which permutate shots in a strict series (TV, 1967) or use rapid motion and cutting (48 Faces from the Szondi Test, 1960). Yet others take a new look at the everyday, as in the witty and self-explanatory Eating, Drinking, Pissing and Shitting Film (1967), or view nature through time-lapse and multiple exposure (Trees in Autumn, 1960; Asyl, 1975). Kren and Kubelka were later to influence the structural film, but US films of the later 1950s initially rejected strict form along with high art. The American underground was broader than the European and less easily defined. Avant-gardism had entered the mainstream partly with the immigration of European exiles from Nazi Europe, such as Breton, Brecht and Richter. This was combined with a native ‘tradition of the new’, the absorption of new cultural ideas, from early New York Dada (1913) to the 1940s, when Hollywood composers took instruction from the iconoclastic Schoenberg. Underground film in the USA at first encompassed a range of non- or anti-commercial activities, which challenged Hollywood’s grip and commercialism. Pennebaker, Leacock, Wiseman and Clarke reinvented documentary cinema, turning to directly social themes and ‘non-interventionist’ style. They emphasised spontaneity, as did the fiction films of John Cassavetes. In 1960 the New York artists’ avant-garde joined with these other independents to form The New American Cinema Group: ‘We don’t want false, polished, slick films – we prefer them rough, unpolished, but alive’, ran their manifesto. ‘We don’t want rosy films – we want them the colour of blood.’ The mood of the epoch is ironically cued in Cassavetes’s Shadows (1957), where street-wise toughs confront an exhibition of modern art and argue about it. The mask-like style of one neocubist sculpture evokes mixed feelings in an African-American youth. Similarly semi-improvised was Robert Frank and Alfred Leslie’s Pull My Daisy (1958), which stars the Beat poets Ginsberg and Corso (and, sheltering under a pseudonym, the The canonical avant-garde

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young Delphine Seyrig), with voice-over commentary by Jack Kerouac.140 Equally playful and anecdotal is the quasi-narrative Beat film The Flower Thief (1960) by Ron Rice, starring Taylor Mead. But even these looser narratives were soon abandoned. Rice’s Chumlum (1964) and Jack Smith’s Flaming Creatures (1963) visually celebrate the orgy as opera bouffe, shot in delirious dissolved colour (by Rice) or on grainily pallid outdated stock (by Smith). Film Culture was founded by Jonas Mekas in 1955 to support the new documentary and fiction film, and later took up the cause of the experimental film artists. In the end, these routes parted; the documentary and narrative branches of New American Cinema were committed to forms of realism which the artists’ avant-garde rejected. By 1962 the balance of forces had swung the other way for Mekas, and his magazine was thereafter devoted mainly (but not exclusively) to the experimental film, post-Deren and Brakhage, as was his influential column in The Village Voice. Mekas, a Lithuanian war refugee, made the Beat era narrative Guns of the Trees (1961) before turning to more personal film-making. In Diaries, Notes and Sketches (1964–9) fragments of New York life are glimpsed with a hand-held Bolex camera. As with Andrew Noren, David Brooks and Warren Sonbert, the ‘diary film’ maintains the quotidian spirit of the NAC; films shaped by daily life rather than by scripts. The underground’s reputation for sexual explicitness heralded the social revolution of the 1960s, but the art critic Calvin Tomkins argues that its major achievements were less to do with subject-matter than with an investigation of the film medium itself. These include the abstract collage of Robert Breer, who began making films from his paintings in Paris during the late 1940s; the mythopeoic animation of Stan Vanderbeek, Harry Smith and the Whitneys; direct documentary by Richard Leacock, Don Pennebaker and the Maysles; the fugal montage of Brakhage and Kubelka; and, later, the structural films of Michael Snow, Hollis Frampton and Ken Jacobs, whose first films all emerge from the underground ethos of improvised art. These films were also based on perception, like Flaming Creatures (Jack Smith, 1963)

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the other arts of the time. Kubelka and Tony Conrad made systematic or ‘flicker’ films which reduced film to its primary elements of light, dark, sound and silence. At the other extreme, West Coast film-makers were already exploring video and computer imaging in quest of ‘expanded cinema’ and lyric vision. Mekas’s role in all of this was crucial, in part through Film Culture and the Village Voice in which his ‘Movie Journal’ reviews praised and encouraged the new cinema. Mekas came from a rural but highly literate community in Lithuania. After forced labour in Germany he and his brother Adolfas entered the USA as ‘Displaced Persons’ in 1949 and began to make 16mm films. Mekas believed film could be a human and universal language. Living on low-pay jobs and learning English he discovered Amos Vogel’s ‘Cinema 16’ screenings (1947–63) and the Russian-born but Smith College-educated Maya Deren who led the ‘creative film’ circle. Mekas notoriously attacked this latter group in 1955 for its adolescence, shallowness, incomprehensibility and ‘conspiracy of homosexuality’. He soon recanted and ironically became a leading spokesman for experimental film, but Deren wanted to sue him and others denounced him. By 1958 Mekas was defending the avant-garde in the Voice and supporting a variety of new ideas on shoestring budgets. A new turn was taken in 1961 after Vogel, the director of Cinema 16 (a regular screening venue as well as the main theatrical distributor of artists’ films), had rejected Brakhage’s Anticipation of the Night. He disapproved of the film, and although he was prepared to accept it for rental, he was unwilling to show it himself. Angered at this, the gathering of film-makers at Deren’s funeral in 1961 led to the founding of Mekas’s Film Makers’ Cooperative, a library and distribution centre for avant-garde films. Unlike Cinema 16, there was to be no selection. Film-makers deposited the prints, set the hire fee, wrote a catalogue note and took the main part of any rentals that came in. It was set up the next year, and Vogel’s group folded soon after; in 1963 he went on to start the New York Film Festival with Richard Roud.141 Mekas’s film reviews for the Voice were as non-selective as the Co-op. He praised everything avant-garde that moved, on the grounds that only strong encouragement could make the new art grow. Even the mistakes, the out-of-focus shots, the shaky shots, the unsure steps, the hesitant movements, the underexposed and overexposed bits are part of the vocabulary [he wrote]. The doors to the spontaneous are opening; the foul air of stale and respectable professionalism is oozing out.

Within a few years the first sentence could be printed without the justifying word ‘even’, as the mistakes (here compared to the professional film) became the intention (as film slid further away from the art cinema to the art world). Later to be the hallmark of the structural film, the cinema of ‘mistakes’ first appears in the deviant ‘Baudelairian’ films of Jack Smith, Ron Rice and Ken Jacobs. Smith’s Flaming Creatures – glimpses of nudity and general orgiastic mayhem in the film had attracted obscenity charges – was banned at Knokke in 1963, and an angry Mekas was ejected from the projection booth when he tried to screen it. The next year saw Mekas, beset in New York by police raids on screenings of films by Smith and Genet, reorganising his screening programme under the title of the Film-Makers’ Cinematheque and finding ingenious ways to get them shown in theatres and lofts. The publicity around the censorship of Smith – whose films parade the very qualities of camp infantilist chaos which Mekas had denounced in the avant-garde almost a decade before – raised the profile of the underground but unwittingly gave it a reputaThe canonical avant-garde

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tion at the edge of the sexploitation market which many anti-commercial artists (including Brakhage) rejected, especially when from 1966–7 Mekas and Shirley Clarke tried to promote feature-length films by Warhol, Markopoulos and others on the arthouse circuit. Despite the financial support of Elia Kazan and Otto Preminger, this plan collapsed when Warhol decided to distribute his own films and and eventually to suppress them altogether. At the supposed height of the movement Mekas was ironically deep in debt and struggling to find a regular screening venue. But in 1970 Anthology Film Archives initiated a new phase of repertory and historical screenings (led by Mekas, Sitney, Brakhage and Kubelka). By this time, and partly in the wake of the student and anti-war movement, Millennium Film Workshop and Film Forum were regularly showing avant-garde films in new York; and so were prestigious galleries and museums like the Whitney and MOMA. ‘Part of the early battle has been won,’ Mekas said. ‘Films are more readily accepted as an art form on a formal basis.’ This was at the end of the period which began in the mid1950s when ‘Action painting’, as ‘cinematised’ by Brakhage, impelled the avant-garde film to engage with process and the act of making. This then expanded into gestural, mixed-media live art, pioneered by Jacobs, Smith and Warhol. An important link was made by the neo-Dada Fluxus movement. Fluxus films (1962–6) are typically tonguein-cheek explorations of extreme close-up (Chieko Shiomi’s Disappearing Music For Face – a slow-motion smile), permutation (Yoko Ono’s ‘Bottoms’ film), repetition (John Cale’s Police Light), cameraless films (George Maciunas), single-frame films (Paul Sharits) and banalised humour (John Cavanaugh’s The Evil Faerie).142 Some of this group peeled off to join the film avant-garde in its structural period, notably Sharits and Landow. Others turned to non-objective art-making and conceptualism, and a few kept to the original Fluxus aim of creating anarchy, jokes and games. Although he began to make films long before Fluxus, Bruce Conner worked in a similar vein. His films were all made by re-editing archive footage and putting new soundtracks to the results. His milestone work is A Movie (1958), which moves from the hilarious (crazy races, a chase scene with cars and cowboys) to the disturbing (shivering refugees, an execution, air crashes). The act of viewing is questioned by the film’s montage just as it plays on the sense of ‘a movie’ as both kinetic event and emotional affect. Conner maintains his scepticism in Report (1963–7) – on Kennedy’s assassination – to satirise the FBI, while America is Waiting (1982) lampoons the military machine (with a rock soundtrack by Brian Eno and David Byrne). Self-expression, in psychodrama’s sense, was also no longer a goal for Jacobs when he chose junk footage for Blond Cobra (1963) (which also calls for live radio soundtrack when screened) nor in Peter Kubelka’s savage montage of ‘safari’ footage commissioned from him by Austrian tourists. His Unsere Afrikareise (Our Trip to Africa, 1966) documents and subverts the voracious eye. Its complex editing system is quasi-musical, linking shots by duration, shape and analogy. But the film is far from purely formal (the aspect stressed by Kubelka himself).143 Scraps of folk-song and banal conversation are cut to images of hunted or dead animals, and universal myth (evoked by tourists admiring the moon) is undercut by neo-colonial reality. Its final sardonic line – ‘I hope I can visit your country one day, man’ – is spoken (in English) by an African, as another is seen walking off naked into the distance. The romantic strain in film-making was most strongly maintained by the prolific and influential Stan Brakhage. His first films were encouraged by Parker Tyler, Joseph Cornell (best known for his surrealist collage art) and Maya Deren. In his early psy72

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Midnight Party (Joseph Cornell, c.1940)

chodramas his typically abrupt editing style is used to elicit quasi-symbolist metaphor. In Reflections on Black (1955), a blind man ‘sees’ events behind closed tenement doors, an illicit kiss is intercut with a coffee pot boiling over, and a final hand-scratched image makes light appear to stream from the blind man’s eyes. Similarly, The Way to Shadow Garden (1955) ends with the inner vision of an Oedipally self-blinded hero, shown in the unfamiliar reverse form of negative filmstock. Sight is restored but transfigured. In Anticipation of the Night (1958) this concern for poetic myth and illumination was displaced onto the formal plane of light and colour, away from fictional diegetic space and the singular narrative subject. The break with psychodrama was not final; Anticipation evokes the suicidal state of an unseen protagonist. But the camera treats this genre theme with a fresh and painterly eye, hovering freely over the surface of domestic, daily objects. At times, diffused light and focus draw attention to the physicality of the film medium. Elsewhere, the imagined dreams of sleeping children are elicited by direct shots of ‘the real’ (a fairground, landscape, animals) and subjective point of view replaces even the vestigial reverse-field editing of the earlier films. Yet immediate empathy is punctuated by repetition, cluster-shots, darkness and erratic movement. These devices, which both construct and distance, draw on Gertrude Stein’s prose and on Menken’s camera style.144 Brakhage’s films challenge film conventions even by their extreme contrasts of length, from 9 seconds in Eyemyth (1972) to 5 hours in The Art of Vision (1965). They include intimate portraits of friends and family, film-poems, landscape films, autobiography and later collaborations with composers and writers. His personal creation myth centres on the act of shooting and editing. Equally, the objective side of his films – their rhythms, metrics, camera-style, subject-matter – make uncompromising demands on The canonical avant-garde

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the viewer to elicit and construct meaning, thus shifting attention from the author’s voice to the spectator’s eye. Viewing avant-garde film is here very close to the process of viewing modern painting.145 Lyric films – short, poetic and visual – flourished in this decade, more often on the West Coast than in the metropolis. Important centres appeared in San Francisco (Canyon Cinema) and Los Angeles. Pat O’Neill and Larry Jordan explored collage and colour, Bruce Baillie matted and superimposed the stately freight trains of Castro Street (1966), and Brakhage’s prodigious output included his ‘birth-film’ Window, Water, Baby, Moving (1959) – Anthony Balch told William Burroughs it made him faint – to films about the seasons (Sirius Remembered, 1959), childhood (The Weir-Falcon Saga, 1970) and light (Riddle of Lumen, 1972). By contrast, The Act of Seeing with One’s Own Eyes (1971) unflinchingly documents the work of a Pittsburgh morgue; the title is a literal translation of the Greek word ‘autopsy’. But the main output of these film-makers reflects the rural environment, from mountains and forest in Brakhage’s Dog Star Man (1964) to the Western desert in Pat O’Neill’s Saugus Series (1974). Nonetheless, the rural landscape of the avant-garde is industrialised and humanly shaped, often ruthlessly so. It is rarely romanticised as the sublime, although sometimes it appears as a lost arcadia. This new subgenre in the avant-garde was largely an American invention, Sirius Remembered (Stan Brakhage, shared with a native ruralist tradition in nineteenth1959) century painting and the broad sweep of landscapeformat action-painting in the 1950s.146 It also draws from poets in the line of William Carlos Williams, Charles Olson, Robert Duncan and Gary Snyder. Developing at a slight tangent to the Beat era, whose films are more in the ‘crazy capers’ mode of Pull My Daisy and The Flower Thief, some experimental filmmakers such as Bruce Baillie were similarly taken by the image of the hobo (as in his road epic Quixote, 1967) – or the cowboy-as-bum (Quick Billy, 1971). Defiantly stateside in this use of the native landscape, and filtered by earlier poetic myths which it has generated – from American Indian art and song to modern poets, painters and photographers – these films expand the avant-garde cinema in three ways. Firstly, they aesthetically recharge the near-exhausted landscape tradition, as in Brakhage’s Pudovkin-like shooting of ice and rivers in Creation (1979) and his rhythmic glimpses of tree, roads and sky in Machine of Eden (1970). The titles of these films allude to the nature myth of origin and metaphor. Secondly, they lead into the mainstream genre of ‘the road movie’ pioneered in the 1970s by German and US ‘new wave’ directors (Wenders, Jarmusch), in which plot is randomised and to a degree replaced by visual space. And finally, they evince ecological and historical themes then marginalised from, but now central to, the wider culture. 74

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But for some newer film-makers, in the run-up to ‘post-painterly abstraction’ and minimal art, both the lyric mode and Brakhage’s visibly handheld camera (index or trace of the artist’s response to experience) were too uncritically subjective. Brakhage’s daunting output since the mid-1950s dominated his contemporaries. The new structural direction drew on his modernist montage, as from his bravura collaging of mothwings, pollen and leaves for Mothlight (1963). These were printed directly as ‘found objects’ packed between layers of 16mm film. But the main mentor of structural film was Andy Warhol, whose brief filmmaking career also dated from 1963, and whose urban, disengaged and impersonal art challenged Brakhage’s Romanticism.147 Warhol’s tactics – static camera, long-take, no editing – opposed current avant-garde styles and avoided personal signature (literalised by Brakhage’s hand-scratched name on his films of this period).148 Warhol’s laconic ‘I just switched on the camera and walked away’ sums up his attack on film as dream and metaphor. In Sleep (1964), for example, Warhol Thirteen Most Beautiful Women (Andy Warhol, 1964) parodies the trance film: we see a man sleeping for 6 hours, but not his dreams. In contrast to most of the avant-garde, Warhol’s films parody the pursuit of authenticity and selfhood. Improvisation and confession, often hallmarks of realism, here undermine the certainty of seeing and knowing. By withholding (the illusion of) direct access to the real, ambiguity even leaks into Ondine’s seemingly spontaneous outburst of anger in the elaborate two-screen colour- and sound-film Chelsea Girls (1966), or Edie Sedgwick’s baiting by off-screen insults in Beauty #2 (1965). Like Gerard Malanga’s acting, cultivated by Warhol in such films as Vinyl (1965), Warhol’s films displayed a mixture of aggression and cool, camp and tough. At the same time, Warhol’s objective camera-eye inspired a turn towards the material aspect of film. With loop-printing, repetition and blank footage – devices unique to the film medium – Warhol made works of extreme duration. He also subtly manipulated time, questioning the seeming simplicity of the long-take. Empire (1965), filmed in near-darkness, provokes the eye to scan the screen for nuances of change, leading persistent viewers to examine their own experience of viewing the film. Warhol’s entry into the avant-garde, on which he had a crucial and lasting impact, was strategic and well prepared. By 1963 he was already famous (one of his favourite words) as a leading painter and pop artist. He attended screenings of films by Anger, Brakhage, Markopoulos and Jack Smith before making his own intervention. His parodies and reversals of the major tropes of the avant-garde followed his assimilation of this work. Significantly, he rejected the lyric and expressive modes, notably those of the archromantic Brakhage, and adopted a deliberate attitude of cool distance towards his subject-matter. At the same time his subject-matter was still within the well-honed world of the underground film. It focused on outsiders, on playfulness, on sexual themes and on alienation from mainstream society. Couch (1964) embodies all of these. The canonical avant-garde

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Two avant-gardes (mark 1)? Other artists besides Warhol were attending Co-op and Cinemateque screenings at this time, 1962–4, when the Judson Memorial Church in Washington Square was the centre for weekly dance-based collaborations which included Meredith Monk, Merce Cunningham, Yvonne Rainer, Steve Paxton, Lucinda Childs, Trisha Brown, James Tenney, Carolee Schneemann, Robert Rauschenberg, Cecil Taylor, LaMonte Young and Robert Morris.149 The presiding spirit was John Cage, as he had been in the Black Mountain College experiments a decade before. As part of the Judson events, the young Brian de Palma shot Woton’s Wake (1963), a 30-mimute ‘trance film’ with parodic quotations from Ingmar Bergman, Maya Deren, The Bride of Frankenstein and King Kong. A number of other young artists who went to these and similar screenings in the later 1960s and early 1970s, were soon to be the founders of mimimalist, process or conceptual art. Their first films and videos date from the end of the decade rather than its beginning. These include Robert Morris’s Mirror (1969), which blurs a landscape with its reflections, and such performance-based works with self-explanatory titles as Hand Catching Lead (Richard Serra, 1969)

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Wind (Joan Jonas, 1968)

Walking in an Exaggerated Manner Around the Perimeter of a Square (1967–8) by Nauman and Hand Catching Lead (1969) by Serra. Like the similar Adaptation Studies (1970) of Vito Acconci, Serra’s film is a ‘test’: a fixed frame shows a hand trying to catch pieces of lead dropped into the space of the image. The falling lead coincidentally imitates the activity of the filmstrip passing down through the projector gate. These process-based works are related to Warhol’s films in their grainy, rough-edged quality and their simple use of duration – most of them were shot in a single take. As such, they expand the range and concept of artists’ film, as do similar pieces by Joan Jonas and others. In Jonas’ Wind (1968), for example, a group of huddled dancers on a beach attempt to coordinate their movements against the disrupting power of a strong gale. Her films, like those of Serra and Nauman, are closer to performance art and to sculpture than to the medium-specific avant-garde. They are less concerned to explore the film medium in the narrow sense than to deploy film within a broader context of gallery and site-related art which makes up the totality of their work. Such films renew a tradition already rooted in the pre-war avant-garde with such artists as Man Ray, Moholy-Nagy and Léger, who are primarily known as photographers, sculptors and painters but who made significant films. A key difference, however, is that conceptual or process artists were now challenging the traditional divisions between media, and were working between rather than across those divisions. In this sense they stand opposed to the film avant-garde, who were precisely concerned to assert that film itself (or in itself) was a valid medium for making art. Brakhage, Deren, Sharits, Frampton and others implied that it was possible to be an artist-film-maker as such, rather than their using film to break down old barriers between art forms or to expand traditional notions of what constituted painting and sculpture. Each side of the argument could enlist Warhol’s example to their aid, because – tellingly ambiguous and The canonical avant-garde

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prodigious as ever – he could be interpreted to support either case. His insistence on playing his films at silent speed, rather than the sound speed at which they were shot, asserts film’s specificity; while by joining rolls of film end-to-end with fogging and leader he affirms the material of film as a painterly and even sculptural medium whose ‘givens’ are to be accepted, shaped and framed. The differences between the film avant-garde and other artists who used the film medium did not especially materialise in open debate in the 1960s (in some ways, the debate is more relevant to our own times than it was fifty years ago). There were several reasons for this. One is the sheer level of artistic activity in the period, one of the most prolific of the century, in which the discovery of ideas was more important than their fine tuning. Secondly, artists like Bruce Nauman, Richard Serra and Joan Jonas were making videotapes as well as films in the late 1960s and early 1970s, and this largesse cut them off from the more purist film-makers who at this stage were able to ignore the new video medium (a phase which lasted until the next decade and perhaps still lingers on). A third reason is internecine, and relates to arguments inside the two major blocs. The underground film movement was challenged by a new wave of structural film-makers, while the painters and sculptors were breaking into at least three divisions: broadly, these were Pop Art, post-painterly abstraction and the latest addition, concept art. In this vociferous and dynamic context, a confrontation about film (i.e. between medium-specific film-makers and the expanded-media pop or conceptual artists) was not on the agenda, and there was no good reason for it to be. To this extent there were ‘two avantgardes’ in film which co-existed and to some extent overlapped aesthetically and in their audiences. But while one group (roughly centred on the Co-op and Anthology) saw film itself as an avant-garde activity, the other (whose core was the Judson Church) embraced film as an aspect of being avant-garde. It was however in this climate that Michael Fried produced a crucial and muchdebated essay, ‘Art and Objecthood’ (1966), which approached that agenda, even though it was devoted to a single but large issue for the post-modern arts and, incidentally, denied that film was an artistic medium at all.150 Fried was writing from the view-point of the one group of artists who pointedly did not make films and who asserted the specific values of their own chosen media – painting or sculpture strictly defined in terms of colour abstraction (for the former) and spatial integrity (for the latter). These artists, notably Frank Stella, although seemingly close to the new minimalists such as Serra, Andre, Judd and Morris in reducing art to pure surface and support, were in fact radically divided from them, according to Fried. While his preferred ‘post-painterly abstractionists’ gave their viewers a sense of real presence and non-illusionism in art, the minimalists offered them only ‘theatre’ – because, when the barriers between painting and sculpture are broken down and objects assert themselves in space, the result is spectacle. The spectator is outside the work, a loose presence, free to roam. Here, Fried spied decadence and rejected it. Art was not entertainment. ‘Art and Objecthood’ is a complex, controversial essay and has had a longlasting effect. It alludes to ideas and obsessions in American culture which the global image-bank now makes universal: the icons of the highway (later materialised in road movies from Wenders to Lynch), the taste for ‘experience’ over contemplation, the apparent closing of distance between art and spectator and, above all in the contemporary arts, the tendency to collapse levels of media and meaning into an all-embracing theatricality. It was perhaps only in the late 1980s and through the 1990s that the full blast of Fried’s suspicions was fully manifested in the fusions of live-art, environmental 78

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art and video in a newly dominant form, ‘installation art’, which does indeed trace back its ancestry to Fried’s main culprits, Marcel Duchamp and minimalist art. It is always possible to give Fried’s negative vision a positive twist or spin and turn his vices into virtues. The important issue is not only his own far-sightedness but the pertinence of his 1967 critical manifesto for understanding art today, and the dominance of new media within it. The wide appeal of artists such as Bill Viola, for example, is easily located within Fried’s model of ‘theatricality’ and visual spectacle. And although Fried rejects film as art (whether commercial or experimental) the structural film which was flowering at the time was explicitly anti-theatrical in its own right. A current revival of interest in this phase of film-making is a similar signal that mixed-media art and installation, dominant for the last decade, are now due for re-evaluation and honing in the digital age. For structural film, from the early 1960s, asserted a new vision beyond the underground scenario; and for the first time since the 1920s it also offered a critique of film-as-vision.

Structural When structural film led the avant-garde to the high ground, after the underground’s populism, it sought to explore visual and cognitive ideas of structure, process and chance then appearing in the other arts (especially in the more conceptual side of Cage, Rauschenberg and Johns).151 It turned away from visual sensation and towards the kind of self-reflexiveness posited in the 1930s by Walter Benjamin (but in the context of Soviet montage), later glossed by Annette Michelson as ‘epistemological’ film. In structural film, form became content. The viewer’s identification with the ‘dream screen’ was disrupted. The structural film rejected the cinema of pure vision. It posited viewing as an act of reading, literally so in films by Michael Snow, Hollis Frampton and George Landow. Ken Jacobs’s Little Stabs At Happiness (1963), starring Jack Smith, expressed a tragicomic underground ‘aesthetics of failure’, but the more abstract Soft Rain (1968) looks to film as a medium for the registration of light. Jacobs took up questions unresolved since the Abstract Expressionist era which neither psychodrama nor traditional abstract film had dealt with: what was the relation between the physical filmstrip and its projected immaterial image? Together with Brakhage’s continued exploration of film colour and form (‘Imagine an eye unruled by the man-made laws of perspective’, he wrote in 1964), the experimental film shifted into new philosophical territory. Underground sensation gave way to structural investigation. Like Warhol and Breer, Jacobs had been a painter. Frampton, Snow and Gehr were photographers before they made films.152 In part, film-makers were responding to a new wave of minimalism and self-referentiality in the arts during the 1960s. This included the post-Cagean music of Philip Glass and Steve Reich, and the post-Fluxus performance art (and later film-making) of Yvonne Rainer and Meredith Monk. Michael Snow, a Canadian artist, developed a counter-montage aesthetic in films, photography and sculpture. The early New York Eye and Ear Control (1964) had sound by ‘advanced’ jazz musicians like Rosswell Rudd, Sonny Murray and John Tchicai and is intuitively shaped in comparison to the rigorous One Second in Montreal (1969), in which twentyfour static shots of that city are held for increasing lengths of time. His best-known film – Wavelength (1967) – explores the illusion of deep space. For 45 minutes, a camera The canonical avant-garde

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slowly and irregularly zooms into the far wall and windows of a loft, accompanied by a rising sine wave. The zoom is interrupted by colour changes induced by filters and filmstock, and also by some minimal sub-drama (a conversation, a hammed death, a phone call) which the lens literally passes over in a casually anti-narrative gesture. The film ends in extreme close-up – a photograph of sea waves. A decade later Snow issued its short counterpart, Breakfast (1972–6), where the moving camera physically smashes all before it; ‘a continuous zoom traverses the space of a breakfast table’, wrote Deke Dusinberre, ‘serving as a grand metaphor for indigestion.’ Snow’s taste for puns and word-picture play was elaborated in the labyrinthine Rameau’s Nephew (1974), which explores different literal structures of mapping film, drama and fiction; in one sequence, actors speak their lines backwards to imitate a tape played in reverse, in another they all use different languages. This semiotic side of Snow’s work continues in Presents (1981), where the apparent realism of the stage set is literally taken apart (by fork-lift trucks) and in So Is This (1982), which is wholly made up of words and phrases interrogating the act of watching the film. Elsewhere, Snow made strictly visual and perceptual work which underlines the phenomenology of viewing and the experience of film time. The ambitious La Région centrale (1971) consists of pans and zooms of a mountain landscape, shot with a multi-pivot remote control camera and composed in a complex matrix of alternating movements. Later films such as Seated Figures (1989) – ‘a landscape from the perspective of an exhaust pipe!’ (J. Hoberman) – similarly explore visual space close to the lens, where objects turn into fragments of texture and light. Snow’s long films between 1970 and 1978 coincided with the grand, contemplative scale of ‘Land Art’ (Smithson, De Maria), and with Brakhage’s magisterial 5-hour montage film The Art of Vision. While Brakhage’s very title celebrates the authority of the image, others used extreme duration to challenge Brakhage’s intuitionism as well as the structure of mainstream narrative. A major example is Hollis Frampton’s Straits of Magellan, unfinished by his death in 1984, conceived as an epic cycle of films (one for every day of the year).153 A late example of the American sublime (from Melville to Hart Crane and Pound), its grand scale ironically incorporates the ideas on serial minimalism Frampton discussed in 1962/3 with Carl Andre, when both young artists were seeking to undermine Pop Art. Like Snow, Frampton was drawn to systems, numbers and linguistics. Zorns Lemma (1970) – the mathematical title alludes to an ‘axiom of disorder’ – is again based on the number 24, linking film speed (24 frames per second) to the 24 letters of the Roman alphabet (without ‘j’ and ‘v’). An early American ABC – a moral as well as linguistic primer – is read over a blank screen. The film then permutates 1-second shots of the alphabet with images which gradually replace each repeated letter. Some images are static or repetitious (a tree, a shop sign) while in others a continuous action is completed at the end of the cycle (a wall painted, a tyre changed, an egg cooked). Finally, women’s voices read a mediaeval text on light, each word cued to a metronome beat, while two small human figures and a dog are seen walking across a wintry landscape until they ‘white out’ in snow and film-flare. Few film-makers approved of the term ‘structural film’, introduced in 1969 by Sitney to describe post-Warholian film-making in which ‘the film insists on its shape, and what content it has is minimal and subsidiary to its outline’.154 Perhaps fearing an onrush of academic theory over artistic practice (later justified), they were unwilling to see the parallel rise of ‘structuralism’ in ‘the human sciences’ as more than coincidence (or bad 80

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news), even as Frampton, Snow and George Landow were forging links to it by their semiotic or linguistic turn. In a 1972 statement Frampton joked that the term structuralism ‘should have been left in France to confound all Gaul for another generation’, while as late as 1994 Brakhage lamented that structuralism was the worst thing that happened to artists’ film. Like other antis, such as Steve Dwoskin, he exempts the key practitioners, notably Kren, Snow and Le Grice. Structural film proposed that the shaping of film’s material – light, time and process – could create a new form of aesthetic that was free of symbolism or narrative. It typically combined predetermination (for example, camera position, number of frames or exposures, repetition) with chance (the unpredictable events that occur at the moment of shooting). Sitney had specified four characteristics of structural film: fixed camera position, flicker effect, loop-printing and re-photography from the screen. Few structural films had all of these features and some (Snow’s La Région centrale, for example) had none. The point of the concept was to distinguish this particular direction from the broader ‘formal film’, defined as ‘a tight nexus of content, a shape designed to explore the facets of the material . . . Recurrences, prolepses, antitheses and overall rhythms are the rhetoric of the “formal”.’155 One film which contains all of Sitney’s structural hallmarks, while at the same time evoking the formal film’s ‘tight nexus of content’, which is here the act of viewing the film itself, is George Landow’s Remedial Reading Comprehension (1970). The phrase printed over a shot of a running man – ‘This is a film about you, not about its maker’ – alludes to the goal of eliminating personal expression and eliciting the active participation of the viewer in the film. The running man in this case is played by Landow, so the statement equally applies to him (as another image, or ‘you’). Landow parodies trancefilm to suggest that viewing is more like reading or thinking than dreaming.156 Up to then the avant-garde film tradition, from the cubists to Deren and Brakhage, had been essentially pictorial (‘Visionary Film’) and often silent. This made it both cheap and (so Brakhage affirmed) ‘pure’, an alternative to naturalistic sound film and ‘filmed drama’. A more demotic visuality came with the 1960s, at the underground’s height, when it broke taboos on sexual imagery, as in the much banned Flaming Creatures, dubbed by Mekas ‘Baudelairian Cinema’. Warhol (Couch, 1966), Carolee Schneeman (Fuses, 1968) and Barbara Rubin (Christmas on Earth, 1963) famously explored erotic vision. At the same time the West Coast avant-garde (Jordan Belson, Bruce Baillie, Pat O’Neill, Scott Bartlett) were celebrating Tantric symbolism and desert landscapes. Their richly pictorial colour-music was highly romantic and yet commercially adaptable, influencing mass culture from adverts (a growing genre) to mainstream film (often in ‘psychedelic’ sequences, notably Kubrick’s 2001: A Space Odyssey). For Frampton and Snow’s generation, hostile to Pop Art’s easy accommodation to the market, film’s attraction lay in its non-commodity form, as a quasi-performance art with inbuilt resistance to museum culture and the private collector. Warhol approved of patronage and significantly made no films after 1967, simply lending his now-famous name to Paul Morrissey as he had to the Velvet Underground rock group. He finally withdrew his films from circulation, perhaps because he was looking to larger-scale production and felt that the reputation of the earlier films would count against him. In the event, the big budgets were not forthcoming. Because Warhol’s films were rarely screened after the mid-1960s, they were known more by description than acquaintance. A few semi-legal prints and dupes circulated and odd clips appeared in Warhol documentaries.157 Their legendary anti-aestheticism The canonical avant-garde

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encouraged European film-makers, at the end of the decade, to explore aspects of film which did not simply reflect the American example of ‘visionary film’, then at its height. The link was made by Hollis Frampton in 1972, discussing the controversial ‘structural film’: ‘I said to Sitney at dinner in July: I have found your structuralists, P. Adams, and they are in England. Complete to the diacritical mark, influence of Warhol, the whole number.’158

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Part Two: Britain, 1966–98 English structuralists The English structuralists had in fact seen very few of Warhol’s films, and were generally not aware that many of them had been shot at sound speed but shown at slow, silent speed. This enabled them to make some interestingly creative misreadings of Warhol as a film-maker.159 For Le Grice, who argued that duration in film was a ‘counteract to illusion in the representation of time’, Warhol’s ‘nearly one-to-one equivalence between shooting and projection’ was to provoke a radical series of anti-montage investigations based on the real-time relations between maker, film and viewer. Warhol’s slowed-down projection speed, an interesting distanciation effect in its own right, actually evoked a quite different experience of film time – more like one-and-a-half to one – but the ‘false’ inference further inspired Le Grice to take an independent route on which he and others had already embarked. Duration became a hallmark of British structural film, a ‘road not taken’ by the mainstream cinema or by the lyric direction in avant-garde film, but which linked it to the advanced arts in Europe and – by way of Snow and Frampton – back to the post-Warholian film avant-garde in North America. The London Film Makers’ Cooperative grew from partly American roots between 1965 and 1969, as the Co-op principle spread from New York into Europe.160 London attracted American artists (like Steve Dwoskin and Peter Gidal), and films arrived from New York or on tour with P. Adams Sitney and other visitors. Another American expatriate, Carla Liss, ran the Co-op’s growing distribution archive. But English film-makers quickly found their own direction. The radical student movement and the campaign against the Vietnam War were a key point of focus for the London counterculture. Screenings of underground films at poet Bob Cobbing’s Better Books in Charing Cross Road, where he was manager, led to the formation of the LFMC there in October 1966. Its first aim was open screening and distribution, and early founding members included Dwoskin, Simon Hartog and film journalist Ray Durgnat. It held a ‘Spontaneous Festival’ and showed films at the UFO club on nearby Tottenham Court Road until October 1967, with loops and cut-ups played to Pink Floyd and the Soft Machine. UFO then decamped to the Roundhouse in Camden Town, a huge empty engine-shed which Arnold Wesker and others had tried to turn into an arts centre. Cobbing was sacked by the Better Books management at the same time, and the Co-op moved to the Arts Lab in Covent Garden, where new ideas were being invented, explored and disseminated by a variety of artists and activists outside the cultural establishment. Here new members like Le Grice and David Curtis gave the group a new and unique twist. Led by film-makers whose main aim was production, the Co-op set itself the task of opening access to film-making as well as film availability. Printing and processing Britain, 1966–98

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facilities were key to this, as a way of cutting costs and escaping commercial pressures. The closure of the Arts Lab in October of 1968 left the Co-op homeless for a year until it moved into successive workshop spaces in north London: Robert Street, the Old Dairy, the Old Laundry. Regular screenings resumed, and the first International Underground Film Festival was launched at the NFT in 1970. By 1975, and now centred on structural film-making, the Co-op had its first production facilities grant from the BFI, to which it had first applied in 1968. With the aid of its first (home-made) printing machine, constructed by Le Grice, the London Co-op originally took up direct film-making in the craft ethos of the art schools from which most of its film-makers came. Many films reflected the abstract, minimalist concerns of the day: Annabel Nicolson’s Slides (1971) has ‘35mm slides, light leaked film, sewn film . . . dragged through the contact printer, directly and intuitively controlled’. Others explored time-lapse, shooting systems and – in John Du Cane’s Lensless (1971) or Lis Rhodes’s Dresden Dynamo (1974) – direct light and colour. Structural film in Europe generally showed more concern for film’s ‘material substrate’ – its physical qualities – than for the image or shot, the province of the North Americans. For example, Rohfilm (Raw Film, 1968) by Wilhelm and Birgit Hein, uses collage, wandering framelines and sprocket holes to affirm ‘the film’s substance and its physical presence in the projector’ (David Curtis). As here, early structural film shared the underground’s libertarian and anarchic credo, seen in Steve Dwoskin’s 1975 book Film Is (subtitled ‘the international free cinema’), where praise of the ‘wild’ Ron Rice and Jack Smith sits alongside close analysis of structural films by Kurt Kren and Peter Gidal. Such unions were short-lived, as schism grew between the American and the European avant-gardes. Links were never severed, but were often strained. Similarly, film-makers like Jeff Keen, David Larcher and Dwoskin himself – who Rohfilm/Raw Film (Birgit & Wilhelm Hein, 1968) kept up the anarchic underground tradition – were for a time marginalised by the Co-op structuralists. It was a clash of spirit as much as of substance, signalled in the switch of name from the liberatory ‘underground’ to the more theoretical ‘avant-garde’. For some the Co-op’s turn away from the films of Dwoskin, Larcher and Keen was a sign of a new scholasticism. But celebratory cinema was not much in evidence during the post-euphoric 1970s, when the major choices for young film-makers lay between the purist avant-garde and the agit-prop collectives like Cinema Action, Politkino, the London Women’s Film Group and the Berwick Street Collective. For much of the decade the visionary film-makers of the first Co-op continued to add to their extensive bodies of work regardless, often ironically enough using the 84

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techniques and tropes of structural film, although these efforts were more often appreciated in France, Germany and Holland than at home. Internationalism – in screenings, festivals, exchanges of films – was vital to the arterial networks that made up both the ‘free’ underground and the new structural avant-garde, but one potential constellation, lurking in London, did not occur – at least, not then. For several years, during the late 1960s and early 1970s, just as the Co-op film culture was gathering around the Arts Lab and its successors, Kenneth Anger and William Burroughs were living in London (and also in Paris). Both made films there. Anger shot Invocation to my Demon Brother (1969) – with a soundtrack by Mick Jagger – and material for the ill-fated Lucifer Rising (most of the original footage was destroyed). Meanwhile, Burroughs was working with the film-maker Anthony Balch. Their best-known film is perhaps Towers Open Fire, but the more inventive is the exhaustive and semi-structural The Cut-Ups (1967). This film permutates four brief statements on its 20-minute soundtrack, along with staggered and repeated shots of a ‘medical’, a hypnotic ‘dreammachine’ whose strobe effect links back to Victorian optics, Brion Gysin drawing in single-frame shots and Burroughs walking in three cities which are ‘intercut’ as in Kuleshov’s idea of ‘creative geography’. Although Anger’s films and the Burroughs/Balch experiments have a structural edge, and Balch was in contact with the Fluxus artists while he ran some small but crucial London cinemas (which is how Yoko Ono’s Bottoms film made it to the West End), their independent worlds did not connect with the London film avant-gardes, or even with each other. Both were already alienated from the New York Film Co-op, and from Jonas Mekas. Anger’s main British supporter, the incisive critic Tony Rayns, had limited time for the earnest structuralists at the Arts Lab and Camden Town. The London Co-op and fluxfilm n16/Bottoms (Yoko Ono, 1966)

Britain, 1966–98

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its video equivalent, London Video Arts, were led by former painters (such as Le Grice) and former sculptors (such as David Hall), while the expatriate Americans and their afficianados were intensely literary – their mistrust of the word, as with Burroughs, was expressed quite differently from the visual silence which is characteristic of the structural film. Both Anger and Burroughs were inclined to the political right (sometimes in mockery, but maybe not always) while the film avant-garde were broadly (sometimes narrowly) Marxist. Some went further: Mike Dunford, one of the early structural filmmakers, rejected its aestheticism and turned to social cinema, as Stuart Marshall was to do a generation later. Temperament, taste, background, politics and even age kept these two avant-gardes apart, so that Anger and Burroughs did not connect with the new structuralists. Yet it almost happened.161 Jeff Nuttall reports Balch’s fainting-fit when he saw Brakhage’s ‘birth film’, and his sense of ‘the direct impact’ it made. Brakhage was a key if much-debated film-maker for the new Co-op. Through Balch and others, Fluxus was also close at hand in London, Paris and New York, although its founder George Maciunas had been one of the first to reject Sitney’s term ‘structural film’ in a brilliant one-page diagram of 1969, so strife was always at hand too. In the event, the meeting of the Anger and Burroughs world with its British counterparts was postponed. When it happened, it bypassed the Film Co-op of the time. The connections were made partly through Ken Russell (who admired Anger’s early films) and hence to Derek Jarman, who worked on the sets of Russell’s film The Devils while making his own neo-Brakhagian 8mm film diaries. Performance artist and musician Genesis P-Orridge, co-founder of the ‘transgressive’ group Coum Transmissions (1969– 79), and its band Throbbing Gristle, contacted Burroughs in London in 1973. P-Orridge was effectively driven out of England by police raids and prosecution threats in 1991, but has become the effective archivist of the Balch/Burroughs film legacy through his friendship with this axis of the underground. The Jarman and P-Orridge tendencies fused in the 1980s, when younger film-makers such as John Maybury were drawn to their world of free play, extremist imagery and a hallucinatory ‘dream-machine’ cinema. In 1982 David Dawson (of the B2 gallery) and P-Orridge held a four-day event called The Final Academy in London, with an offshoot at Manchester’s Hacienda club, to celebrate Burrough’s work; Nuttall took part, and Balch’s films were shown. The after-effects of this punk-era revision of the underground are taken up later, for eventually it was to lead a rebellion against the structural avant-garde which preceded it as a distinct aesthetic direction. Like many aspects of the avant-garde, however, the works which they revered (in this case, Burroughs and – less directly – Anger) circulate in diverse contexts and yield many codes of meaning. The ‘new’ punk underground had no more final claim to the old underground than the structuralists did, or indeed artists yet to come. The film Bill and Tony, for example, which dates from 1970–2, is a hilarious and crafted ‘interchange’ of voices and personalities between Burroughs and Balch, as they ‘lip-synch’ for each other while facing the camera. The film is coincident with early structural cinema, and shares its ethos even as it exceeds its technical limits (Balch was a shoestring ‘independent’ of a different ilk from the Co-op artisans). It also shares the ‘hallucinatory’ breakdown-ethos of post-punk a decade later. At the same time, and seen today, it looks forward to the taste for lip-synch and frontal cinema seen, for example, in the early videos of Gillian Wearing (though seemingly without direct influence). Experimental films can share in many contexts, none of which will completely exhaust or absorb their form and content. 86

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The early structural film was especially concerned with the relation between the form of a work and its subject-matter, often theorised as a cinematic relation – and disjunction – between signifiers and signifieds. Typically, experimentation with film’s raw substance was combined with the English landscape tradition.162 In Whitchurch Down (Duration) (1972), Le Grice alternates three views, each in different tones and colours. Gidal’s Clouds (1969) loops a shot of the sky in which a glimpse of an aircraft wing sets the scale. Chris Welsby’s Park Film (1972) uses time-lapse to compress three days on a busy walkway into six minutes of film time. River Yar (1972, with William Raban) is a two-screen study of water, light and colour. In Welsby’s Streamline (1976) a camera travels on remote wire inches above the water. Elsewhere (as in Windmill II, 1973), the camera is wind-powered by blades attached to the lens. Their mirrored surfaces add a literal ‘reverse field’ to the image obtained, including occasional glimpses of the film-maker behind the camera. Welsby’s doubling of the image was explored in a different way by William Raban’s Time Stepping (1973).163 As Le Grice described it, two cameras ‘play a rhythmic spacetime game, shooting alternately and panning away in opposite directions down the street from the same central point, two doorways at the front of an old row of houses’. The footage from both cameras is cut together and alternated to make up a single film in which gaps in shooting – when the clockwork motors ran down – are shown by blank spacing, while overlaps of shots from both cameras are superimposed. The process of making the film is visible in the act of viewing it, as with David Crosswaite’s Man With the Movie Camera (1973), which expands the image by placing a circular mirror in front of the lens, to reflect the camera-operator’s manipulation of such effects as changing focus. Gill Eatherley’s Dialogue (1973) explores two shots – from a window and inside a room – as its two camera operators engage with each other’s subjective viewpoints, just as Marilyn Halford’s Footsteps (1974) is a game of catch-and-freeze between receding performer and advancing cameraman. But the camera’s iconic image, single or double, was not in itself the central concern of the early Co-op which – with Mike Dunford, John Du Cane, Roger Hammond, David Parsons and Annabel Nicolson – took film-making further into live events, the handmade film print, procedural systems and expanded cinema (or ‘making films with projectors’) to question the given definition of film as a representation rather than, as the Co-op saw it, an investigation of its identity as a performance in which viewers as well as makers were engaged. Such films seek film equivalents for natural light and motion. They aim to renew perception by using the whole register of film language, underlining its normally invisible aspects – frame, surface, printstock – and its ‘mistakes’ (flare, slippage, double-exposure). For Le Grice this constituted a ‘politics of perception’ (he hopefully titled a series of films in the early 70s How to Screw the CIA). The ‘pure’ landscape films of Raban and of Mike Leggett (for example; The Sheepman and the Sheared, 1970– 5) also allude to the passage of historical time, later explored by Raban in the neo-documentary Thames Film (1986) and in colour-field studies of Docklands (London Film, 1992). Welsby, an ‘unrepentant dualist’, followed a more philosophical concern for eye and mind, while Gidal sought to align critical theory and formal film through ‘structural-materialism’. These films had no fictional narrative content; they seem to leap over the history of film, and back to the experiments of Demenÿ, Muybridge and Lumière. Here a line of descent is traced from the earliest cinema, with narrative as a grand detour. Bypassing the industrial norms of production and division of labour, the primitive or artisanal Britain, 1966–98

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Reel Time (Annabel Nicolson, 1973)

mode also led to ‘expanded cinema’. Le Grice’s Horror Film I (1970) is a ‘live shadow performance’ in which a naked figure in front of the screen plays with coloured light. In Guy Sherwin’s Man with Mirror (1976), live action duplicates multi-screen illusion, while in Annabel Nicolson’s Reel Time (1973) a projected loop film of the film-maker at a sewing machine is slowly destroyed by passing the film through an actual sewing-machine and re-projecting it. The film alludes neatly to the technology from which the film claw was derived. All of these films wittily expand film (a fixed medium) into the realms of chance; they underline transience and challenge the illusion that ‘real time’ is ever suspended in the act of viewing. One of the most succesful longer ventures of the period was made up of 3-minute films, mainly investigating a single perceptual event, which could be combined in any order. This was Guy Sherwin’s Short Film Series which he undertook between 1976 and 1980. Eventually he issued about thirty of them. Some are single studies of light, focused on the reflections in an eye shot in close-up. Others are domestic, as in the Portrait with Parents or Breathing (where a pregnant belly rises and falls to change the aperture and focus of the light entering the window in the background). Many deal with two rates of time measurement, as in Clock and Candle, or construct visual paradoxes, as in the shuddering stasis of Metronome – an illusion caused by the clash between the spring-wound mechanisms of the Bolex camera and of the metronome itself. In Barn Door the semi-strobe effect of light pulsations flattens the distant landscape. Sherwin’s mastery of the hand-cranked camera to perform complex manipulations (including inversions of the shot and a play on focus to register and then dissolve the image) is both a form of pure perceptual cinema and an encoding of the passage of time. Interestingly, Sherwin has recently returned to the series after almost twenty years, with studies of animals and insects (in the spirit of the classic films of Jean Painlevé) as well as further intensive scrutiny of domestic space and the human subject.164 These short films are a particularly subtle questioning of the illusionist image. 88

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Short Film Series: Portrait with Parents (Guy Sherwin, 1976)

The most extreme opponent of illusionism in this group, and with Le Grice its most articulate advocate, was Peter Gidal.165 Unlike the others, Gidal avoided landscape and multi-screen. The handheld camera is not used to expand vision but to shoot bare interiors stripped of personal domestic reference. Film rhetoric is similarly abjured, aside from the cannily rough-edged flourishes of colour, grain and print surface in a series of films that explore duration, repetition and close-up. For Gidal film has three prime moments; shooting, printing and projection. These frame his polemic and underpin his reduction of ‘content’ to images that defy fixity and registration. In Flare Out (1992), for example, the camera blurs shots, photographs of the same spaces, reversing the principle of certainty implied in the trajectory and final image of Snow’s seminal Wavelength, a photograph of the sea. ‘My arguments have been directed all along against reproduction in any form,’ he stated in 1979, but of course these ideas grew over a long period of time. Le Grice maintains that the Co-op film-makers began with no theories; theory was applied to the films after they were made, as analysis of what had been made. Ironically, both he and Gidal were associated with theory-building throughout the decade. Gidal added the word ‘materialist’ to ‘structural’ film in the mid-70s to signal his Marxist revision of Sitney’s primarily aesthetic definition. His work is a political and cultural attack on representation in its varied ideological, social, economic and sexual forms. In this context, cinema exemplifies passive consumption. Gidal’s first and in some ways most notorious expansion of his ideas came in the Structural Film Anthology, to coincide with a series of related screenings at the National Film Theatre in 1976. His polemical introduction does not mention Fried’s ‘Art and Objecthood’ essay,166 but in some ways it seems to answer Fried’s objection that ‘the cinema, even at its most experimental, is not a modernist art’. Fried did not give reasons for Britain, 1966–98

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this bold assertion, but his point is possibly that film, by its very nature, is time-based and cannot reveal itself all at once to the viewer – as can the abstract painting and sculpture he was concerned to defend. It consequently ‘absorbs’ the viewer in a negative or dominating way, and by its illusionism it lacks the real presence which was for him a condition of art.167 Gidal’s introductory essay Theory and Definition of Structural/Materialist Film of 1975 opens mildly enough by claiming that it ‘attempts to be non-illusionist’, but he unpacks this ambition in strongly didactic terms to successively attack all the major forms of cinema, including classic films, documentaries, dramas, political films and even experimental films in the ‘visionary’ mode of Brakhage. For him, film is very clearly a ‘modernist art’, defined by ‘flatness, grain, light, movement’, in a state of tension with its representational content and with the viewer. The construct or ‘shape’ of the film is not primary, but rather ‘the film is a record (not a representation, not a reproduction) of its own making’. It asserts its real duration and its ‘coming into presence’ through ‘the mental activation of the viewer’. These key points implicitly reply to Fried’s own implied objection that films are inherently illusionistic and are passively watched. Gidal’s attack on the ‘repression’ of time and space in the narrative cinema embraces all forms of fantasy identification. More radically than any other theories of the time, it proposed film as a contemporary art which politically needs to share nothing with the cinema. Far from film being a polysemic or mixed medium, Gidal’s vision asserts that its properties were as specific as those of painting or sculpture. Gidal’s iconoclasm, however, sets high demands on an audience, a risk he was perfectly willing to take. His films set up a dialectic with the viewer who must actively work at apprehending it – or who walks out. Hence in some ways the film is not as autonomous as it seems. It provokes a politicised questioning of passive consumption and leads to a degree of interaction with the viewer. Le Grice agreed with the tactic, stating that ‘my predominant concern has been with the spectator’, but by the later 70s he no longer shared Gidal’s fervent refusal of all storytelling. Rather as Frampton was to do, he asked if ‘all aspects of narrative [are] irrevocably embroiled with the repressive social function it has come to serve?’ For Gidal, there was no question that this was so. In 1979 he issued his essay ‘The Anti-Narrative’ in the leading film theory journal Screen.168 Le Grice, meanwhile, completed the second part of his narrative trilogy in Emily – Third Party Speculation.

Primitives and post-structuralists In both the USA and Europe the avant-garde’s interest in early film form coincided with a revisionist history of the primitive era.169 Historians as well as film-makers saw primitive cinema as an alternative to the mainstream, not just an ancestor. These interests coincided between 1977 and 1984, as a ‘new film history’ emerged alongside coverage of the (now intellectually respectable?) avant-garde film in journals from Screen and Afterimage to Studio International and Art Forum. Annette Michelson promoted ‘epistemological’ film-makers who sought in film ‘a metaphor for consciousness’ (primarily Brakhage, Snow, Frampton, Landow). Speculative and factual histories were written by Le Grice, Wyborny, Frampton and the Heins, and the movement attracted archivists (Peter Kubelka, Enno Patalas, John Hanhardt, Wulf Herzogenrath). From 1970 90

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Anthology Film Archives in New York built its controversial pantheon of classic and experimental film-makers. These conjunctions are heralded in Ken Jacobs’ deconstructionist Tom, Tom, The Piper’s Son (1969–71), which scrutinizes texture and motion in a 1905 Billy Bitzer film; re-shooting from the screen expands it from four minutes to two hours. Equally ambitious, Klaus Wyborny’s Birth of a Nation (1973) ironically explores pre-Griffith film space, here reduced to a few actors in a bare landscape. The viewer is kept at a distance by long-shot and ellipsis. In Brakhage’s Murder Psalm (1981), an instructional film is recut and tinted to evoke an eerie childhood dream. The austere and magisterial Eureka (1974) by Ernie Gehr simply slows down an early one-shot film, in the ‘Hale’s Tours’ genre, to 8fps. The frontal ‘view’ is taken from a streetcar heading down a busy San Francisco Street until it reaches the Terminus. Extreme slow-motion sharpens perception, just as the film distils complex metaphor (journey, history, movement, closure) from seemingly chance images. The pun in the title (‘I found it!’) hints at this. By scanning early films, bringing together the ‘primitive’ and the ‘advanced’, Jacobs and Gehr sought to unlock their meanings by a process of self-revelation. European film-makers showed less respect for the authority of early footage. Le Grice’s Berlin Horse (1970) alternates two brief shots, one of a horse running in a circle, the other a fragment from Edison’s 1896 film The Burning Stable. With colour added in the printer, the two shots merge in blended rhythm to a Brian Eno soundtrack. The film can be shown on one, two or four screens. In Kali Film (1988) Birgit Hein collages early porn with war films and sexploitation movies, finding resistance as well as oppression in films made at the anarchic fringes of ‘official’ culture. Berlin Horse (Malcolm Le Grice, 1970)

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Structural film had begun as strongly anti-narrative, as were most contemporary arts at this time. Le Grice’s first film, Castle One (The Light Bulb Film) (1966), was basic cinema. Here, a real light bulb flashes next to the projected film (showing another flashing bulb and a collage of TV documentary shots, mainly industrial or political). But a decade later, his trilogy (Blackbird Descending, 1977; Emily – Third Party Speculation, 1979; Finnegans Chin – Temporal Economy, 1983) elaborated on point of view and narrative space. The environment is domestic, the tone personal and allusive, the style more baroque in colour and vision. Le Grice has made no films since this long statement, with its implication that ‘the spectre of narrative’ (Frampton) always haunts the film medium. He has since returned to electronic video and computer-based art, areas he first explored in the 1960s, with their more open formats and pliable software systems for the manipulation of source material. The political roots of the international Co-op movement (and hence of the structural film which dominated it) lay in the campaign against the (heavily televised) Vietnam War. The ‘politics of perception’ were a weapon of politicised art to ‘demystify’ media power. In the UK the avant-garde was vocal from 1974 in campaigns for public access film workshops and innovative TV.170 Channel 4 (from 1983) was partly shaped by these debates, but by then the context had changed. The renewal of a youth-oriented mass cinema by the ‘Movie Brats’ – including such late-underground progeny as Cronenberg, Scorsese and Lynch – was followed by a ‘New Spirit’ in painting, largely atavistic and expressionist in the shape of Beuys, Clemente and Baselitz. With a combination of a powerfully boosted ‘commodity culture’, suspicion of new media in the arts and a now fractious political left, the epoch ended with the avant-garde in retreat. A tentative return to narrative signalled the avant-garde’s unease with its own reputation for obscurity. The charge was perhaps inevitable. Non-narrative styles (poetic, lyrical, abstract or structural) were never a popular genre, and groups from Cinema 16 to the Co-ops consequently sought new audiences outside the mainstream. But the tensions of this period produced some remarkable new artists, who combined the avantgarde’s formal tradition with the autobiographical twist which Le Grice’s trilogy also touched on but which was most successfully explored in Lis Rhodes’s Light Reading (1979). Among the film-makers who emerged in England in the later 1970s,171 most had been students of Gidal (at the RCA) or Le Grice (at St Martin’s): Steve Farrer, Penny Webb, Tim Bruce, Michael Mazière, Lucy Panteli, Rob Gawthrop, Joanna Millett, Nina Danino, Will Milne. Taking up some aspects of Le Grice’s films (domestic location, narrative glimpses), but not their structural implications for sound and action, they turned Gidal’s negative critique of film into positive; interior space is subtly personalised and vision is explored as a celebration of light. This is most marked in the quiet and reflective films of Nicky Hamlyn, who continues to explore quasi-musical structure and the intricate edge between the still and the moving image. By contrast, Nina Danino moved towards a more explicit encounter between camera and iconic image, often invested with highly emotive and religious associations. Her later long film Temenos (1997) turns to landscape and symbolism with a complex soundtrack of women’s voices and song. While some rejected the visibly handheld camera for the long-take and fixed tripod (Webb, Bruce), others such as Hamlyn, Mazière and Gawthrop explored new structures of shooting and editing which derive more directly from the formal side of structural film. The work corresponds to the prevailing ethos of minimalism, post-painterly 92

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abstraction, earth art, body art, performance and conceptualism. It was antiobject and anti-gallery, seeking an art of system and process rather than commodity and product. An early minimalist work by the American artist Robert Morris, Box with the Sound of its own Making (1961), set the scene – a wooden box with a tape-recorder inside it which plays the sound of the box being constructed. Later, Morris – like other sculptors and performance artists of the period – made such films as Gas Station (1969) and Mirror Displacement (1970) which explore space and perception. But the English development of the ideas implied in Box quickly took the form of film, sometimes in the sculpture-based work of David Dye, David Hall and Tony Sinden but also in such younger Co-op film-makers as Steve Farrer who showed performance and cameraless films from Light Reading (Lis Rhodes, 1979) 1975. In Ten Drawings (1976) lines are drawn over large areas of film made up of 16mm strips laid out in rows. The strips were then joined together to form the film which is projected. When lines cross into the soundtrack area of the film, the graphic marks are heard as abstract noise so that the drawing itself produces ‘the sound of its own making’. Morris’s ideas, and minimalism generally, were based on the logic of the signifier and on teasing out degrees of self-reference within the work and on its perception by spectators. The viewer is both outside the work but also completes it by participating in its production of meaning. Morris, who works in public and museum spaces, stoically accepts (in his later essays) that art is always complicit in the power relations that govern its context. Environmental art, for example, is bound up with the corporate and state ownership which permits and indeed commissions it. Gidal and others sought to move beyond the logic of the signifier to its politics. Part of this process is a severe reduction of imagery. Gidal’s most severe interdiction is on the presence of the human figure in his films, especially images of women, which he argues always provoke ideological and fantasy relations between viewer and viewed, ‘the mystery, the secret, the unknown’. Consequently in Gidal’s films images never resolve into fully fledged representations. This is achieved by extremes of close-up, camera movement and focus pulling. The aim is to confront the viewer with their assumptions about, and identification with, conventional representation. Gidal objects to these norms because they ‘re-present’, i.e. show again, the already known and familiar.172 Therefore they reinforce and reinscribe basic and unquestioned social concepts and ideologies. The task of the film-maker is to make Britain, 1966–98

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this difficult. It leads to a self-referential cinema which is not voyeuristic. At the same time these films are wholly – it might be ‘purely’ – aesthetic, as in the almost musical structures, the greenish film-stock and the grain of Room Film 1973 (a fully descriptive title). Like the colour flashes and vivid movement of his later films, they recall Brakhage – a comparison Gidal opposes, since he rejects Brakhage as myth-maker and imagemaker. Gidal’s films thus hover on the cusp of a contradiction which they also recognise. On the one hand they lead outside film itself to the rationising and cognitive world of political debate. At the same time, the films are firmly aesthetic. Providing that viewers accept the basic challenge which they offer, there is every reason for Gidal’s highly visual and abstract films – and the ideas they embody to deny those very attributes – to be shown and discussed more widely. Their main impact has often been on partisan audiences of film-makers for whom, in one respect, they are probably intended. To this extent they are also ‘internal documents’ of the avant-garde and part of its critical history. Apart from Le Grice, with whom Gidal shared ‘a concern for the spectator’, two other contemporaries drew very different conclusions from the common nexus of ‘the politics of perception’. Another migrant from New York, Steve Dwoskin, has a particular concern for both image and voyeurism. A childhood polio victim, he is severely restricted in movement. As a disabled (if extraordinarly energetic) man, he is also a visible object of attention. Two major aspects of his films spring from these facts. The first is the restricted field of vision, shooting handheld or static from one position, often hovering in close-up. The second is the image which this voyeuristic eye depicts, usually a woman who – like the film-maker – is an object of the gaze, in this case of male desire. His films explore the registers of this mutual exchange of glances, a double-reflection in which gender, spectatorship and power (over the image) are all in play. As Gidal was expunging the image of woman as sign, Dwoskin was encoding it. In Girl (1974) a naked woman Close Up (Peter Gidal, 1983)

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From 7 TV Pieces (David Hall, 1971)

returns the camera’s gaze to challenge the viewer. The shot enshrines the ‘fourth look’ elaborated by Paul Willemen from Laura Mulvey’s theory of ‘three looks in the cinema’ – camera, subject and spectator. A second film-maker (also sculptor, installation artist and seminal video-maker) in this period, David Hall, dissents from Gidal’s refusal of the image and from Dwoskin’s subjective eye. His work is resolutely ‘time-based’, a term partly transmitted through John Latham (with whom Hall had collaborated in the Artists’ Placement Group, for ‘no-strings’ location of artists in industry).173 In such films as Phased Time (1974), the limited space of a room (less purged of personal touches than Gidal’s, and more objectively shot) records the passage of time cued to rhythmical and metric sound-beats. A series of films made with Tony Sinden open up film’s realist surface by creating conceptual puzzles: repetitive actions never completed, visual paradoxes caused by the plane or angle of shooting, or figures who seem to approach each other but never meet.174 In 1971 Hall began his unique intervention into – and against – television as a dominant, broadcast medium. Invited to contribute to the opening of Scotland’s first independent channel, STV, he shot a sequence of short films (on 16mm but for TV transmission) called Seven TV Pieces. Each explores and ultimately destroys a particular visual image, using mostly time-lapse shooting or a single shot. They include a ‘rapideye’ compression of people watching a TV monitor in a gallery over several hours, a sink (the screen) impossibly filling and emptying with water at an angle, a double-image of two independent figures in the same space and, most elaborately, a ‘multi-camera’ shoot of a busy city intersection. Each film returns us to where we began, with the monitor and image, but only after it has revealed the process of making and breaking meaning which the image encodes. Britain, 1966–98

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In one piece a television on fire in a field is shown (by time-lapse) against scudding clouds until it is burnt out and only the frame remains. The forward flow of the film is linear, but is also fragmented by stop-frame shooting. Elegantly, for all its rough-hewn style, the film ends when the action is completed, so linking the metrical act of timelapse shooting with the irregular time of the event itself. The film is punctuated by occasional blank screen and a male voice announcing the word ‘Interruption’. This both defines the film, as it breaks into the normal television flow, and instantiates a second moment of rupture and absence within the film itself. Such double-reflection is typical of Hall’s rhetorical strategy, in which an event in one medium or time-frame will comment on its enactment in another. In form, content and structure it concisely prefigures the manner and the tone (often aggressive-ironic) of Hall’s later installation work.

Video stirs Contemporary with the Film Co-op, the first stirrings of video as an art medium in the UK during the 1960s had been inspired in part by news from abroad.175 This began with Korean artist Nam June Paik’s first experiments in New York with a new portable video camera in 1965, and his guerilla slogan ‘Television has been attacking us all our lives, now we can attack it back’. Like Wolf Vostell in Germany, Paik had earlier used TV sets in his Fluxus-style ‘happenings’, but now artists moved towards making video directly just as the first film avant-garde in the 1920s had adapted ‘amateur’ 35mm cine-cameras to their own devices. As many artists saw from the beginning, however, the public and corporate world of television was a very different context from the museum and gallery. From the early 1960s, British television had gained a reputation for new ideas through such directors as Ken Russell, John Schlesinger (Monitor) and Ken Loach (Wednesday Play), through the already innovative ads, Mike Hodges’ New Tempo arts programme, and music shows like Ready, Steady, Go! which – at the height of Pop Art – had already picked up visual graphics and style from the experimental cinema.176 The music link, which was central to the burgeoning ‘counter-culture’, ran through Peter Whitehead’s early Rolling Stones promos and the efforts of video activist John Hopkins (always known as ‘Hoppy’) in his pioneering rock-nightclub UFO. The video–rock fusion, which reappeared twenty years later in Manchester, London and Brighton, was seeded here. Fired by the expanding video culture he saw in New York, Hopkins founded the first British TV workshop and research centre, TVX, based in London’s second Arts Lab – the Institute for Research into Art and Technology – at its Robert Street venue from 1969. TVX proposed to ‘operate in and through electronic media . . . to relate to TV rather like the Film Co-op relates to cinema in general’. Through David Curtis the Arts Lab showed full and famous programmes of avant-garde and experimental films. It now acquired some video equipment – passed on by the Beatles! – and an early video projector, sometimes used by artists like Mark Boyle, who at the time was doing light-shows as low-budget and home-made synaesthesia. Hopkins’s vision was public access and community art. Among his umbrella organisations the Institute for Research into Art and Technology (IRAT) was close to the USbased Raindance group, whose influential journal Radical Software featured the mix of video, cybernetics and science fiction now called cyberspace from 1970. Beryl Korot, better known today for her video collages with composer Steve Reich (The Cave, 1995, Three Tales, 2002), was a member of this group. 96

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In 1975, and buttressed by a series of impressive research papers which bear a passing resemblance to the conceptualist writings of the Arts and Language group, Hopkins with Sue Hall founded the Fantasy Factory as a post-production centre for community artists. Fantasy Factory survived for over thirty years. At first the group only had limited success in gaining direct access to TV, although a notable exception was their video footage of a fruitless drugs raid on the Arts Lab in 1970 which the BBC transmitted that night – on an arts programme aptly called Late Night Line-Up. The BBC established its own Community Programmes Unit, much on the Hopkins model, in 1972. Twenty years later the unit produced Video Nation (1994) and Video Diaries (1990–5) in a direct line of descent from the TVX project of public access and programme-making. A similar impulse to escape the closed world of the art scene and the gallery, but with very different results, was seen in the Artists’ Placement Group, founded in 1966 by John Latham and Barbara Steveni, whose members have included David Hall, Stuart Brisley, Barry Flanagan, Ian Breakwell and Garth Evans. Latham’s radical cosmology was a highly personal construct, but APG collaborators shared his vision of ‘disturbances’ to the prevailing power and information sources. APG predicted the end of traditional control hierachies and looked to the empowerment of the individual. Far less ‘New Age’ than Raindance, and more sceptical of cybernetic salvation, APG’s interventionist tactics look ahead to the world of ambient and digital communication and to the ways its users can reshape it as artists. The supposed ‘formalism’ of much early British video in the 1970s was attacked as such by Stuart Marshall for a lack of social content in a much-reprinted Screen article (1985).177 But the context of the period is easily forgotten. The virtual impossibility of video editing at the time locked artists into long-takes and real-time shooting and playback. Warhol had already opened this avenue in film. ‘A nice end to a piece of work was having the tape simply wind off the spool,’ comments Steve Littman, a second-generation video artist. ‘It seemed only logical.’ The wider scene in the 1970s included Joseph Kosuth and Dan Graham placing fake advertisements in newspapers and on billboards, Gustav Metzger’s auto-destructive art events,178 Latham’s burning of his SKOOB book towers, Richard Long’s slight alterations of landscape, APG’s infiltrations. Daniel Buren pasted stripes on the hoardings of the Métro, Joseph Beuys swept streets as an art action and lectured on art to a dead hare, and Gerry Schum pioneered artists’ video through German TV, with new work by Gilbert and George, Barry Flanagan, Hamish Fulton and Richard Long. Although TV transmission seemed a ready extension of this anti-gallery and antihigh art movement, which in hindsight was proleptically post-modern, video artists in the UK were disadvantaged compared to those in the USA, with its network of noncommercial ‘public TV’ stations, and those in Germany, with its regional TV structure. The national BBC and the commercial ITV networks were harder nuts to crack, and artists’ access relied on independently minded producers such as Mark Kidel, Anna Ridley and Tom Corcoran. The video movement soon fractured into three blocs, sometimes allied but often antagonistic, much as the early film avant-gardes had been, and the question of access was a particular bone of contention. One branch were willing to be known as ‘video artists’, and concentrated on the conditions of video as a mode of perception and production. A second grouping includes those making ‘artists’ video’, as David Hall dubbed it, and was inspired by such artists as Bruce Nauman (USA) and Martha Rosler (USA), using video as a rejection of traditional media rather than as an unexplored primary medium. A third set of video-makers Britain, 1966–98

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took up the cause of community art, on the Hopkins model, in the name of content rather than form. The absence of a developed theory of video – in contrast to film – can perhaps be traced back to these splits, in which only one of the factions, namely the video artists, was concerned to develop a conceptual apparatus for video and electronic media. But their ‘formalism’ was alien to the broader type of artist and to the community groups, and this brought with it the rejection of theory as well, in favour of supposedly direct art or action. The results of this disabling lack continue to hold back critical debate and analysis of video and its digital descendants. Marshall, who did attempt to articulate the problem in the early 1980s, had begun in the milieu of video art and installation, but ultimately turned to more conventional social documentary, mainly about gay politics. His early death in 1993 deprived the community of an active and respected video-maker and polemicist. In his reply to Marshall’s attack, David Hall denied that he and others accused of ‘formalism’ were uncritical and latter-day modernists. The context of early video art was shared with events-based and anti-object tendencies in the 1970s, and was at the time construed as an attack on high modernism and museum culture (just as the library book which Latham and his students chewed and bottled, and for which St Martin’s Art School sacked him in 1966, was Greenberg’s ‘Art and Culture’, no less). Hall also dismisses the populist ideology of access and transparency, and the ‘nebulous’ notion of a broad ‘moving-image culture’. Far from self-enclosed formalism, he claims that his early installations enlist the viewer’s interaction ‘with his/her image as collaborator rather than spectator’. He accepts that broadcast TV has already shaped or ‘sited’ the viewer’s expectations of video art, but contests the process and language of that conditioning by exposing the specific properties of the medium. ‘A conscious acknowledgement of the system’s specificity here identified it as the producer of illusion which called to question dominant modes of representation.’ The recent spread of video installation into all spheres of art gallery exhibition contrasts with the 1970s when museums in the UK were less welcoming to video art, high modernist or not. An ambitious show at the Serpentine in 1975 was followed by a smaller one at the Tate in 1976, featuring Hall, Marshall and Tamara Krikorian. London Video Arts (later London Electronic Arts) was founded to promote the medium as an art form. That same year BBC’s Arena devoted a programme to the new art, and Studio International – a then leading journal to which Hall and Le Grice regularly contributed – published a special video issue. These remain the peaks of British video art in its first stage, although the video debate was to re-emerge with a new set of issues at the start of the 1980s. The questions passed on by this generation to younger film-makers in the later 1970s were therefore various and divided. Gidal proposed the most extreme position in rigorously excluding the iconic image as representation. The highly iconic films of Dwoskin (and David Larcher) blended neo-structural film with an underground tradition which expanded vision through an erotics of the eye. Le Grice further compounded elements of both, but with the erotic structure neither suppressed (as by Gidal) nor celebrated (as by Dwoskin and Larcher) but rather sublimated into the metaphors of ‘family romance’ which underpinned his structural return to narrative. Hall steps outside of these internalised and subjective scenarios to affirm temporality as measure and the iconic image as undeniable but transient. Tellingly, and unlike the structuralist tendency which treats the ‘spectator’ as an individual in a cinema, Hall’s notion of ‘the spectator’ increasingly embraced the greatest passive audience of all, who are watching TV rather than avant-garde films. 98

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Art and politics Broadly the structural tendency won out in those younger film-makers who showed their first films around 1977. It was their immediate legacy and context, although each distanced themselves from it. The underground visionary tradition (in Larcher and Dwoskin, partly in Jeff Keen and later in Derek Jarman) went further underground, and was only picked up again in the 1980s by new groups who definitively rejected structural film. These were not the only options. Political film-makers who had emerged in the wake of 1960s radicalism, and who were influenced by diverse movements from the avant-garde through to Godard and documentary cinema, were still active throughout the 70s.179 They included Cinema Action, whose origins in agit-prop later produced The Miners’ Film and the extraordinary working-class community portrait Shirley, the Poster/Film Collective and other grassroots campaign groups. The Berwick Street Collective began The Nightcleaners (1975) as a straight documentary but it ended as a highly formal film which questioned its own mode of representation and tried to break established conventions of viewing. Peter Wollen and Laura Mulvey’s Riddles of the Sphinx (1976), preceded by their more ‘writerly’ and formal filmessay Penthesilea (1974), traced the politicisation of a young woman through the themes of separation and childcare. It has a pyramidical structure with a central section of thirteen circular pans. The film attempts to construct feminist discourses in a triangulation of Marxism, semiotics and psychoanalysis. In this context, and by contrast, structural film did not produce the polysemous cinema which Wollen had earlier called for, a combination of word, image, drama and photography. It was therefore seen as essentialist, although judged by its own abstract criteria no more so than music, long regarded as the purest and most non-referential of the arts. The wider context of the English avant-garde was bordered by the general idea of an independent cinema, the role of the journal Screen in disseminating the artistic and political theories of Russian Futurism and formalism, and its promotion of theory on the broader front, and – on the horizon – the changing and expanding world of ‘cultural’ television. When the Independent Film Maker’s Association was founded in 1975 (video was added to the title in the 1980s), it resembled the unions of artists, political cinema and intelligentsia which formed in Europe between the world wars. It was a timely move, but only just, to link the factions of the radical cinema between two moments of defeat. These were the visible dissolving of the political moment of the 60s, which had stimulated film-makers globally from Rocha to Godard, and the soon-to-be visible ascendancy of the right which under Thatcher and Reagan dominated the next decade. The IFA fought on several fronts. The first was to secure funding, initially by pressure on the UK’s cultural centre for cinema, the British Film Institute. Under Peter Sainsbury, co-editor with Simon Field of the then leading avant-garde journal Afterimage, the BFI’s Production Board swung decisively to the IFA position. But with the exception of such films as The Nightcleaners and Shirley, and a clutch of experimental films by Gidal and others, the results were often disappointingly weighed down rather than liberated by the role-models of Godard, Straub and Duras. The post-Straubian costume-drama became a minor genre, usually used to revisit working-class history, and some procedural tropes – notably the long-take and an insistent screen flatness – were overvalued as direct purveyors of meaning. Brechtian dramaturgy was here taken too literally. Nonetheless, these modes were later transmuted into a more pliable moulding of television language Britain, 1966–98

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The Nightcleaners (Berwick Street Collective, 1975)

(through the early experiments of Channel 4) while regional circulation by the BFI led to active film groups well beyond the London-based centres. This regionalisation cracked open the metropolis-led BFI, and its Regional Film Theatres were often test-beds for new film ideas. Like the other main funding agency, the Arts Council of Great Britain (now split into the substates of the UK), the BFI tried to spread the network of independent film screening and even production. This was the period of the IFA-inspired ‘workshop movement’, which pioneered community and local access to film-making. Few remain in their original shape, but the systems set up during this period by the BFI and the Arts Council have survived, enabling films to be made outside the commercial framework. Here, as notably in Germany and the USA, the need to cost and secure film as a cultural and artistic ‘non-profit’ medium was recognised. David Curtis made an early (1967) case for cultural subsidy, lambasting the then recalcitrant BFI in the pages of the underground magazine The International Times. A decade later, as a Film Officer at the Arts Council, he was able to set these principles in motion. Along with Rodney Wilson, who revitalised the British art documentary and turned it into an innovative broadcast genre, he made the Arts Council into the lead funding agency for artists’ film and video production and exhibition for over twenty-five years. Its selection panels, which comprised artists, critics and curators, reflected the changing and often volatile climate in which experimental work is made and shown. It particularly promoted artists’ work on television and in the art gallery, two distinct venues which in the earlier days of the Co-op were not on the agenda but which were later vital to its survival. The IFA was a more fragile and temporary union, strung together by partisans for a ‘free cinema’ from many different and contradictory if overlapping directions: Cinema Action, the Co-op, disaffected media workers, parts of Screen, film students, documen100

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tarists and artists in loose alliance. Astonishingly its impact lingers on. Many of its members were to spread out into the wider mainstream, transmitting its key values into documentary television: John Ellis, Anne Cottringer, the late Simon Hartog, Keith Griffiths, Rod Stoneman.180 Most notably it exerted pressure on the formation of the new ‘cultural channel’ C4, arguing for flexible crewing in production (an avant-garde model later ironically adapted by the industry to cut costs) and for innovative programme-making. When C4’s own independent slot, very much of the IFA ilk, was set up by Alan Fountain and Rod Stoneman in the early 80s, they aptly called their weekly late-night programme The Eleventh Hour. It showed both historical work and new commissions. Again burdened by good intentions but flawed productions, its programme title ironises its own moment. Yet, even if its hour was almost over, the programme opened the TV airwaves to independent commissions and screenings where before, of course, there was nothing at all. A final effect of the IFA period was on the intellectual climate in which film was understood, disseminated and discussed. While Screen was by no means unanimously in favour of the (existing) independent cinema or the avant-garde – which was sceptical both about popular culture and direct political statement – it was in part sympathetic to the theory and rhetoric of the structural avant-garde. Firstly, the journal’s historical rediscoveries of the early to mid-1970s notably included Russian Futurism, a movement which coincides with the first film avant-garde and indeed is part of its own story. At the same time, structural film-makers – then at their zenith – were similarly refinding their partly constructivist ancestry. The coincidence of names – ‘structure’ appears in both – suggests as much. Secondly, the radical reconstruction of viewing and understanding film which Screen undertook can obviously be related to the deconstruction of vision pursued by Gidal, Welsby and Le Grice. The journal thus made room for Stephen Heath, Peter Wollen, Deke Dusinberre and Gidal himself to explore the adjacence of avant-garde film theory to post-structural film critique. The role of the spectator was high on the agenda of both. Emblematically, the full ideological, historical and psychoanalytic apparatus of ‘Screen-theory’ was astutely deployed by Philip Drummond in 1977 to anatomise a key film of the avant-garde, Un Chien andalou (the same film, but compared to Meshes of the Afternoon, opens Sitney’s Visionary Film). Screen and the avant-garde could group together on certain historical revisions (both could contribute, for example, to the growth of a new film history grounded in theories of film space and archival research), and via the IFA they united on a more active programme of screening and debate. They divided more severely on the issues of narrative, realism and representation, which Screen analysed critically but which the avant-garde rejected as primary goals for film. It was in this climate that Peter Wollen produced his essay ‘The Two Avant-Gardes’, which sought to draw together the political-art cinema of Godard and Straub with the artists’ cinema of Snow, Landow and Brakhage.181 It first appeared in a special ‘avantgarde film’ issue of the then leading British art journal Studio International in 1975, alongside David Curtis’s lucid and anecdotal diary of the English avant-garde and Dusinberre’s exposé of the landscape genre then emerging. A year later the essay was reprinted for the ‘other’, i.e. political, theoretical avant-garde assembled at the Edinburgh Film Festival (at that time a cultural-interventionist event rather than an industrial showcase). In this essay, and in line with Peter Bürger’s Theory of the Avant-Garde, modernism itself is seen to make up the cultural mainstream, and as such was now compromised by its own assimilation to past traditions through the long march of history – especially art Britain, 1966–98

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history. The weight of cultural critique or rupture is therefore axially shifted from the mainstream to the marginal avant-gardes which haunt the fringes of conventional modernism. These include radical film movements, whether led by political or by cultural motivations. While Bürger focused on the failure of the historical avant-gardes and their latter-day revivals to achieve their aims, Wollen was more optimistic about them. The IFA is now itself history – and barely remembered – but the dilemmas Wollen adduces still remain, adapted to new social pressures.

A cinema of small gestures182 Just as the new film theory was permeating the institutions of film culture in the UK (paralleled in the USA), so film-making emerged in art colleges as an addition to traditional media. Some younger structural film-makers (and many of the Godard–Straub drama documentarists) grouped at the RCA, where Gidal, Dwoskin and Ray Durgnat taught. Rob Gawthrop was especially prolific in the late 1970s in films about time structures, image degeneration and the physical manipulation of the filmstrip. Distancing (1979) pulls focus on a rainy window, throwing light and the shapes of objects into flux. Superimposition thickens the texture while dematerialising the image and object. The film is shot from a fixed position but no transcendental or cardinal viewpoint is implied. Lucy Panteli integrated images of women into the formal agenda, shooting time-exposures over long periods to show women knitting, making up and so on (Photoplay, 1982). The compression of time is extreme, but the film is at the edge of content that took it elsewhere, to a plane of expression where gesture becomes action. A new cinema of small gestures emerged on two adjacent fronts. The first was an elaborated rhetoric of the handheld camera, purified – via Gidal – of its more Brakhagean excesses although similarly using focus-pulls, pans, tilts, superimposed zooms and staggered repeats (as with Michael Mazière) or close-up, transition, abstracted colour and ‘serial’ editing (in Nicky Hamlyn who, with Nick Collins, was linked to this group through the LFMC). Mazière, Hamlyn and others made ‘room films’ in which space, window, exterior, camera and light are subjected to systems or processes which combine chance and predetermination. They were inspired by Gidal, but he had neutralised his rooms to become ‘a dimly lit arena in which low-powered signifieds could not flood the workings of the signifier’ (Hamlyn). The new films were more personal. In essence they were in the lyric tradition of the film poem and the art of vision. Mazière’s later work was to become even more autobiographically centred on the seeing eye (as in Cézanne’s Eye I and II, 1987/8) while Hamlyn concentrates on the cameraeye to destabilise space and to reorder the visual flux. His most compressed abstract film, Minutiae (1990), a 1-minute commission for the Late Show (BBC TV), is comprised wholly of images (notably a chair) and sounds taken from the TV studio in which the film was made. The longer and episodic White Light (1996) explores rhythmic variations on objects and reflections in close-up, a lineage that goes back to Chomette and particularly to Léger/Murphy’s Ballet mécanique. These films seek the viewers’ active participation in film as process, to revise the codes of perception which structure the visible. They expand positively on Gidal’s strategies of denial through the hallmarks of film grain, colour, light and focus. Le Grice too had turned to domestic space, in his narrative trilogy. These are built on formal patterns of point of view around icons which enigmatically evoke, but in pared102

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down variant form, the psychodrama (as in Emily, 1979, in which the film-maker appears, a table is cleaned, a lamp is lit, a record is played, recalling the tropes of Maya Deren). The trilogy descends from such films as After Lumière – L’arroseur arrosé (1974) which both inscribes the primitive cinema (through Lumière) and the Dada epoch (Satie’s music as soundtrack) within two further emblems – the film-maker’s house and garden. The actors are family and friends, as in the trilogy. Le Grice has discussed these works in terms of the psychology of space-perception, and of narrative identification achieved and exposed in the cinematic shift of attention and viewpoint. These concerns are, not accidentally, shared with cubism (Le Grice was another former painter). He has not commented on the autobiographical aspects of these films, but some of their implications for visual narrative were influential towards the end of the structural era. This comprised a second cinema of small gestures, closer to the narrative domain. It includes Tim Bruce’s Corrigan Having Remembered (1979) which has a story and vestigial drama but is projected in fragments as a multi-screen installation. Penny Webb’s Young Girl in Blue (1977) stands for a number of cryptic and minimalist narrative films, notable for their use of silence and long-shots, partly modelled on Straub as well as structural film. The absence of activity is a strategy of eknosis, or ‘emptying out’. Only a few were able to sustain and fill the founding ‘negative moment’ of this trend. Some did so by merging into the ‘room film’ subgenre, with its small human actions, domestic locale and occasional glimpses of nudity. In the films of Will Milne, one of the most talented of this circle (but who became disenchanted with film and gave up in 1987), the urge to visual poetry supersedes any impulse to fiction. Like the surrealists, he called for ‘films to get under your retina’, a clear rejection both of straight drama and concept-art. Parts (1975) comprises two black Fattendre (Will Milne, 1978)

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and white shots, one of a close-up fingertip hovering over a surface, the other a quadruple exposure of a figure in a room. Both are abstracted, resisting interpretation and even visuality in the line of Man Ray, also a film-maker of absences. By 1977 Milne was making elliptical narratives rhetorically anchored by a fixed timeframe, a predetermined number of words spoken in shot, and formal bracketing between shots such as dissolves, focus and the like. Of such neo-Cagean procedures, Milne said ‘the idea was to void text, acting, montage, etc. of drama, to emphasise the drama of decision and technology meeting the given of objects, bodies, spaces’. The culmination of Milne’s ideas in such films as Same (1980) and Meat of Other Times (1984), where space is subtly sexualised by body images, effectively but regrettably ended his career as a film-maker. In the USA Sue Friedrich (Gently Down the Stream, 1981) and Leslie Thornton (Adynata, 1983) combined elements from the trance film (dream as source), structural film (handmade process), direct performance (via Yvonne Rainer) and feminist theory. In the UK structural rigour was inflected by personal vision and memory. John Smith rivals George Landow in humour and style, crafting in Slow Glass (1988–91) an engaging personal narrative which is slowly revealed as both a filmic construction and a metaphor of urban history. He draws attention to the ephemeral and paradoxical nature of the visual world and its structuring by language. Jayne Parker, by contrast, uses elliptical metaphor and photogenic clarity to directly convey emotional states, although her long videotape Almost Out (1986) is an analytic exploration of speech, confession, nakedness and duplicity. Like Smith, some of her films in this period had TV backing (for example, Cold Jazz, 1993, and The Reunion, 1997), which begs the question of avantgarde obscurity. Other art forms in this period also sought to explore the extremes of duration and perception: an eclectic list includes Peter Brook, Peter Stein and Robert Wilson (theatre), Morton Feldman, LaMonte Young and Steve Reich (music), Christo, Robert Smithson and Carl Andre (sculpture). The passage of time is treated as a material component of the work, and essential to the viewer’s experience of it. In film, partly to escape the fictive elision of time in narrative drama, some film-makers stressed ‘decay, transience and destruction as positive features of the cinematic experience’ (Le Grice). Peter Gidal underlines his uncompromising attack on narrative in the ‘negative’ titles of his later and highly abstracted films: Denials (1986), Guilt (1988), Flare Out (1992). Although the origins of structural film lay well outside the academy (in Kren, Warhol and Fluxus), by the 1970s it was largely based in the colleges where many practitioners taught – from Buffalo and San Francisco to London, Hamburg and Lodz. Initially a strength, as education expanded, by the end of the decade structural film was charged with pedantry and élitism. For some, Gidal and Le Grice’s anti-cinema polemic ‘could not constitute a self-sufficient artistic theory’, as Hamlyn notes in reviewing the period, although it passed on lessons to film-makers who deal with perception, the eye, the relation of time to movement and the technology of film. But at this point the context was altering. The conceptual base of structural film stressed non-identity (sound and image; word and object; screen and viewer). This message was out of favour by 1979, with mainstream cinema poised for the consumer revolution and younger film-makers urged by post-punk aesthetics to break free of the structural grid. Image saturation triumphed over the interdicted image of the previous era (when Le Grice condoned representation only if it was critical, for example). There was a loss in conceptual grip and a flood of gratuitious imaging, but a gain in imaginative vigour and renewal. 104

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Rebel waves The rebellion came in the early 1980s, with a wave of low-tech 8mm and fast-cut video. ‘Scratch’ (improvised) video-makers in the UK (George Barber, the Duvet Brothers, Guerilla Tapes) re-edited TV footage with Reagan, Thatcher and the ‘military-industrial complex’ as main targets, using montage to create parody in the style of Montagu’s 1939 anti-poverty film Peace and Plenty (quoted in the Duvets’ Blue Monday to a New Order soundtrack) and the films of Bruce Conner.183 Politically astute and sharply cut (often to rock soundtracks), its devices were swallowed up by TV advertising and promos with alarming speed, especially after Scratch video was showcased at the 1985 Edinburgh Television Festival and made an immediate impact on the astonished TV executives. So were the more rigorous montage stylistics of the Polish film-maker Zbigniew Rybczynski (Tango, Steps), openly imitated by a now-famous ad for Ariston washing-machines (1985), in Pedro Romhanyi’s music video version of ‘Common People’ by Pulp (1996), and for Michel Gondry’s ‘Come Into My World’ for Kylie Minogue (2002). This direction – very much of its epoch – ‘split the movement’ and temporarily united the other parts of the avant-garde in opposition to it. This was a sure sign that something new was in the air. The structural film-makers were understandably the most hostile, given their profound antagonism to commercialism. Structural film had already undergone a major crisis in 1979, when feminist film-makers challenged what they saw as the male bias and general authoritarianism of the major retrospective of formal work, ‘Film As Film’, at the Hayward Gallery in 1979. Their withdrawal left empty spaces in the show itself (although historic figures such as Dulac and Deren were still represented) and precipitated a women’s film collective and distribution centre, Circles, under Felicity Sparrow.184 Death Valley Days (Gorilla Tapes, 1985)

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Now, however, there was a shared distaste for the after-effects as structural hegemony disintegrated. The political-narrative film-makers agreed, and the Co-op’s journal Undercut (a major achievement for the times which ran to over eighteen issues between 1981–90) reflected a serious and sombre tone well after an even newer generation was running riot in the media.185 Undercut extended the range of thought about experimental film, and by attracting contributors from across the arts scene – especially for its exemplary ‘Landscape’ issue – it maintained very high standards. It therefore became a voice, sometimes a lonely one, against the commercialisation of art. At the same time this cut it off from some of the more open directions that were emerging. This even applied to those varieties of the new romantic trend which appeared within the Film Co-op itself, partly in the person of the then cinema organiser, Cordelia Swann. Swann’s ‘New Romantics’ similarly represented a return of the repressed in the form of the post-Cocteau baroque, even though it saw itself as an artists’ group and had no direct commercial goals. The provocative epithet ‘Romantic’ suggests this, as does the persistence of avant-gardism in the term ‘New’. But this was not a war of words, except in the sense that anti-structural film-makers rebelled against theory and language. They did not write critiques or manifestos as their predecessors did, especially not for Undercut let alone Screen (that came later, especially through the mediation of Isaac Julien and gay media politics). The debate in the earlier 1980s was largely tacit. It was, however, enacted and implied in the films of different factions. In the UK ‘New Romanticism’ revived interest in Kenneth Anger, Jean Cocteau and Jean Genet as film-makers outside the structural canon. Genet’s Chant d’amour (1950) become an emblem of the radical gay film culture. Clandestine love between warder and prisoner is evoked in high symbolism (hands pass a rose between barred windows) and grainy realism (men in cells). It inspired a new ‘cinema of transgression’, promoted by the charismatic Derek Jarman and seen notably in the early films of John Maybury and Cerith Wyn Evans. Tellingly, an early compilation film from this milieu was titled The Dream Machine (1984). They share something of the baroque ‘new spirit in painting’ of Cy Twombly, Sandro Chia and Francisco Clemente. As with them, the rough look is a crafted one, exploiting 8mm beyond its limits (Steve Chivers’ technical skills were much in demand at the RCA and the Slade, before he turned to feature film and advertising cinematography). Film and video were pioneeringly fused in the edit-suite, an anti-purist gesture which was soon commercially exploited and is now standard practice. The turn to ‘low-tech’ and often to Super-8 thus coincided with the rise of a commercial fringe, pioneering the eclectic rise of rock videos and promos in which this group took part.186 By the end of the 1980s the margins had spread to the core of the new commercial rock culture. Sophie Muller’s Savage (1987), for The Eurythmics, blends avantgarde elliptical editing with comic pastiche (from Americana to Julie Andrews) and 80s urban paranoia. This new sub-cultural style drew heavily on the aesthetics of experimental film. Paradoxically, the residues of structural form (repetition, duration, flicker and blur) – never eradicated from New Romantic films – finally seeped into industrial film and video. Three currents, only loosely connected at first, had fused by the end of the decade. The first was the ‘scratch’ movement, which revived political collage and pioneered lowband video, the then equivalent to the 16mm Bolex camera. The second was the lowbudget promo, revitalising an almost lost surrealism and moving from film to video and back again in a new form of hybrid editing. This group merged into the third category, 106

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‘Salon of 1984’ – new romantic invitation card

the largely 8mm film-makers in the ‘New Romantics’ camp. Together, they sparked off a decade in which younger experimental artists and film-makers blended into the commercial sector inspired by new TV outlets and popular culture. While this shocked the traditional avant-garde by a wholesale adoption of oncetabooed imagery and style taken in part from Anger and Cocteau, the new avant-garde was a run-up to the explosion of ‘Brit Art’ over the next decade. Embracing another taboo, commercial culture, distanced it from its predecessors and drew it close to a growing distaste for high theory, partly expressed in the rise of media studies and its valorisation of popular style. It also invented new formats – the pop video was latent in Conner, Anger and Jarman but this group made it manifest – and were part of the new music culture represented by independent labels. It was to this volatile cultural economy that the avant-garde shifted its interests. The ‘youth’ link led it to directly participate in mainstream output, once the 80s led to a consumer boom in which music and youth cultures were market leaders. At the same time, many of the film- and video-makers promoted other values besides the commercial; dedicated to low technologies as well as the most advanced, this was a cinema with its own politics of the dispossessed (gays, visionaries, cardboard city) and an iconography of the bizarre and the extreme which – however recuperated in the commercial work they undertook – kept a sharp edge to the work. A compact example is the opening of Jarman’s The Last of England (the title an allusion to Ford Madox Brown’s famous Victorian portrait of poor émigrés leaving Britain, here with an antiThatcher twist) in which handheld 8mm cameras move around derelict urban landscapes while young toughs shoot heroin, desecrate the Union Flag and roam the burning wasteland. Britain, 1966–98

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Art Cinema’s odd couple: Derek Jarman and Peter Greenaway187 As structural film broke up as a coherent movement and a new wave of younger filmmakers grew beyond its margins, roughly between the late 1970s and the late 1980s, two older film artists rose into public view. They were not alone in crossing from the avantgarde fringe to a more mainstream style of production in this period. Sally Potter, for example, moved swiftly through multi-screen projection and live-art to the muchdebated feminist drama Thriller (1979) and ultimately to more expansive 35mm features such as Orlando (1992). But Derek Jarman and Peter Greenaway succeeded on a quite different scale, outside the ghetto of the Co-op but inside the art world as filmmakers on equal terms with other artists. By the end of the decade they were household names, with a clutch of feature-length films widely screened, broadcast and sold on video in mass outlets. In short, they made up – but with considerable differences between them – a fully fledged auteur-based art cinema for the first time in the history of British film-making. And like the international Art Cinema, their appeal was international, even though both of them embraced particularly British themes. This unexpected rise of the dynamic duo, who were of course wholly at odds with each other in terms of film aesthetics, was all the more remarkable since they shared the same artisan-maker and art-school base as their contemporaries such as Le Grice and Larcher. Jarman, Curtis and Le Grice all went to the Slade School of Art in the 1960s, and Larcher was at the RCA. Also like Larcher and Tom Phillips (one of Greenaway’s main collaborators), Jarman studied for a university first degree before he took up his main career as an artist. Both Jarman and Greenaway continued to work in other art forms, notably collage and painting, while they made their increasingly ambitious films. Greenaway is also a prolific designer of large-scale installations which expand his capacity for urban myth making, data catalogues and taxonomies of the body. These backgrounds and activities, which correspond so closely to the general make-up of the Co-op structuralists, and to underground film as a whole, did not lead them to identify with the structural project or the Co-op movement itself. Mutual antagonism has, rather, characterised their relation to the avant-garde more strictly defined. Although both were of the ‘first-Co-op’ generation in age, their rise to public attention dates from the later 1970s. Jarman began with 8mm diary films in the 1970s, with much use of the single-frame and of slow-motion refilming from the screen. Greenaway, who also more normatively worked for many years as an editor at the Central Office of Information, a linear descendant of Grierson’s documentary cinema, first came to prominence with such films as Vertical Features Remake (1978) – a parody of structural cinema, imbued with its style and obsessions but counter to its internalised ambitions. Both film-makers celebrated rather than denounced illusionist cinema, even as they gave it a unique and personal twist. At no point in their careers, however, did their films adopt British mainstream realism. Jarman’s films, although they were often heavily scripted and acted, are punctuated by the same formal features which appear in Greenaway’s films, notably the slow pan and the lateral track. Greenaway himself turned to full multi-media production, weaving text, image and light in a digital collage which overtly alludes to high modernism and post-cubist space, as in The Pillow Book (1996). This parallels Jarman’s enthusiasm, towards the end of his life, for breeding new cinematic cross-breeds between Super-8, 16mm and digital video editing. Such thoroughgoing anti-realism does not however bring these authors any closer to the Co-op orbit. And while it might be supposed that the high theoretical tone of Co-op debate in the late 1970s might have alienated any but 108

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the initiated, which was indeed the case, both Greenaway and Jarman were far from antiintellectual artists. But the same is true of Larcher, Keen and Dwoskin, each of them highly literate and not at all ‘structural-materialists’, but who kept closer to their Co-op roots while avoiding the ambitious drama film – such as Caravaggio or The Draughtsman’s Contract – with which Jarman and Greenaway made their names. So it remains a question as to why, in the end, two film-makers from the same background as the ‘classic’ English avant-garde had broken so free of it as to appear, in the eyes of many of their supporters and audiences, to inhabit a different space from it and to be untinged by the traditional complaints about avant-garde obscurantism even as they remained defiantly ‘arty’ and anti-populist. Neither did they split this new audience into divided factions, however deep the differences between them – despite, for example, the relentless gay politics of the one and the heterosexual (if misanthropic) masculinity of the other. For much of the 1980s Jarman-and-Greenaway appeared to be two equal sides of the same new coin, British Art Cinema, as it spun in the air. The reasons for this improbable alliance, which led to great individual success and achievements for the decidely odd couple of British cinema, are complex and various. First of all, their formidable personal energies were expressed in a prolific output of work, not just of films and television programmes but also of books, diaries, exhibitions and (as has been noted) visual work in other media such as painting and printmaking. The volume of their artistic production is impressive in itself. British film directors of comparable vigour – most of them also, incidentally, with art school training – headed to Hollywood in this generation as fast as they could go: Ridley Scott, Alan Parker and John Boorman, for example. By contrast, Jarman and Greenaway stood against the tide, and anti-Americanism was among their hallmarks. Rather than surrendering their visual talents to American commercialism, as did their peers, they stood up in favour of cinema as a fine art and gave high modernism an openly British flavour. There had been nothing like it since Ken Russell and Lindsay Anderson, older film-makers who similarly resisted the safer options and who were roundly attacked for their pains – as was Michael Powell in his time. Secondly, they rose to fame when the social and political climate was dominated by Prime Minister Thatcher’s resurgent capitalism and triumphalist heralding of free enterprise, which both of them clearly loathed. While Jarman set a new agenda for gay pride as an art form, Greenaway’s arcane savagery undermined straight society in a different way. If Mrs Thatcher was the new Elizabeth, or even Bloody Mary, here were two Jacobeans ahead of the game. Each made proleptic and caustic attacks on the new order to come, Jarman with his nightmare vision of derelict London, Jubilee (1977), and Greenaway with his troubling morality tale of private enterprise, The Draughtsman’s Contract (1978). In the long period of Tory rule from 1979 to the later 1990s, their films explored the extreme edges of the national psyche and irritated its sore spots: sexual psychosis, greed, nostalgia, corruption, madness and exploitation. This heady mixture had a ripe appeal for the disaffected liberal intellegentsia who had precious few images to identify with in the age of Essex Man. And so, in this sense, they spoke to – and against – the age, and found for themselves a ready and radical audience. But were they an avant-garde?188 Socially and culturally, yes – but artistically, less so. This was for two main reasons. In the first place, and in spite of their own protestations, both film-makers were driven towards the theatrical, the literary and the symbolic. Their films are highly text driven, and their visual impact was chained rather than liberated by the preordained shooting strategies which they adopted. While the long-take and the swooping camera were containers of focused vision in the hands of Snow, Brakhage, Le Britain, 1966–98

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Grice and Gidal, the same procedures – once they were inflated to fully crewed 35mm production by Jarman and Greenaway – seemed to lose the direct authorial touch and acquired a bombastic, overblown weight. By the mid-1980s, when these two directors had achieved high profile and seemed ready with an opinion on everything, this seemed to hold them back from the artistic freedom they craved for their films. It is perhaps this limitation which by contrast gives their smaller scale and personal work its particular freshness and resonance: Jarman’s The Garden (1990) and his film of terminal blindness and vision, Blue (1993), for example, or Greenaway’s exemplary TV profiles of composers such as John Cage and Meredith Monk (C4, 1983) where his documentary concentration on these artists subdues the aggrandisement which often overpowers his creative work. A second reason for questioning their role as an avant-garde is that they failed directly to influence the mainstream, either by questioning it to the point of aggravation (in the manner of Hall and Gidal) or by altering its visual grammar in a process of osmosis and transformation (as in the impact of structural film on the montage ad or TV sting, devices which now permeate ‘normal’ television). Both Jarman and Greenaway were pretty much sui generis. It is difficult to think of any mainstream or TV work which has been touched by their style or hand – other than the work they themselves have made for these media. Jarman’s influence has indirectly been filtered through film-makers such as John Maybury and – in the early years – Cerith Wyn Evans. Greenaway has no disciples through which to act. With no school to follow them, they remain sacred monsters of the British cinema, independent but to that degree also isolated. And this isolation, paradoxically, is what undermines their effectiveness as an avant-garde. Classic avant-gardes either stand squarely on their own ground or they influence their surroundings – with any luck, they do both. Jarman and Greenaway are wild birds in the media jungle, part of the landscape rather than divergent from it. Their impact on cinema audiences has been greater than that of their artistic contemporaries – but this is not the point insofar as their continual influence is concerned. Jarman’s canon is now sadly closed, while Greenaway’s remains vigorously open, but it is difficult at this stage to see who will take up their cinematic options as film- and video-makers. Ironically, their popular appeal may ultimately rest on what they share with the conventional British cinema, which they otherwise loathe and oppose as individual authors. Despite their anti-realism, both directors adopted the drama and acted script, with its narrative implication. Two early key works are in the ‘costume-drama’ mode, as in The Draughtsman’s Contract and Jarman’s first feature-length success Sebastiane (1977) – although this film subverts the genre by its spoken text in Latin and its wholesale nudity! But the construction of illusionist and narrative space through set design and drama, however destabilised or combined with image manipulation (frontality, digital abstraction and shooting speed), is a hallmark of their cinema films. This brings them closer to the picaresque British drama and history film than either perhaps could have wished. Perhaps nothing illustrates this more than their ambitious but very different versions of late Shakespeare, Jarman’s film of The Tempest and Greenaway’s Prospero’s Books. In a sense, both projects seek to realise Michael Powell’s long-cherished aim to film this particular and emblematic play. To do so, however, is to adapt to the overwhelming tradition of the English drama, in this case through its most visionary instance. The films of Jarman and Greenaway raise cultural questions which exceed the scope of this book, but which can’t be wholly avoided if the focused limits of the British post110

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war avant-gardes are to be made clear. And this is also the reason for perhaps unfairly yoking these directors together in this context. The key rationale is surely that both invoke the dissident Anglo-British tradition from the Elizabethans through Congreve and Gay to the dystopian satirists Wilde, Waugh and Orwell, down to Dennis Potter, Peter Reading and Iain Sinclair in our own time. This tradition, as is obvious, is based on words and not pictures. It cannot be a coincidence that, as painters, Jarman and Greenaway are closer to the expressionist and illustrative veins in English art, respectively; and that the Co-op structural avant-garde emerged (from Le Grice to Hamlyn) through colour-field abstraction. Younger artists, including the generation of Jayne Parker, John Maybury and Cerith Wyn Evans, inherited an even more flexible climate in which the territorial borders between the art media had been relaxed. This was reflected in the art education which they would have received from the 1970s and 1980s, when they graduated and made their first films. But while this relaxation – which does not exclude rigour and defined purpose – can be traced back to 1960s Pop Art from which Jarman, Le Grice, Greenaway and Gidal all emerged, there are substantial differences which complicate the picture. British Pop Art undertook the reverse task from its American version. For Warhol, Lichtenstein and Johns, Pop was an exit route from what they felt to be the narrow corridors of purist painting. What they experienced as oppressive – the high art regime of colour abstraction – was for the British a liberation, and so British Pop tended to merge abstract art with figuration in ways that at that point were blocked off to the Americans. From Bacon to Hockney and Hamilton, this gave the British a way out of their dilemma – the old choice between age-of-anxiety expressionist painting and its alternative in illustrative drawing, which dominated the post-war years through to the 1950s. The blurring between colour-field painting and mass-culture iconicity was thus a creative option for the British, even though it presented the Americans with a stark choice and no alternative at almost exactly the same time. The result of this seemingly bizarre procedure was that, arguably for the first time since the 1930s (since Read, Moore, Nicolson and Hepworth soaked up surrealist and constructivist ideas from mainland Europe), but on a massively expanded scale, British art finally and belatedly entered the modernist mainstream around 1962 and has never looked back. The recidivist elements in Jarman and Greenaway, their reliance on text and emblem in their painting as well as their films, suggest that they never achieve full parturition from the ‘native’ English tradition, and never break free of English art’s damning tendency to whimsy. The irony is that the native tradition wasn’t all that English; like the best ideas in British art it was imported. Unlike the St Ives group in the 1930s, who embraced abstraction with righteous fervour, mainstream British ‘modern art’ down to the 1950s was the product of half-absorbed French influences, from Impressionism to cubism via the Euston Road school of realists, crossed with neogothic and celtic fringe mystery-art. Pop Art gave all this a good kicking, and not before time. But arguably the jostling influences of Pop Art, Expressionism, naturalistic cinematography and hermetic art – difficult if not impossible integers – cause major weaknesses in Jarman–Greenaway avant-gardism. It perhaps explains why, ultimately, their films don’t breathe: every inch of the screen has to be filled, like an academic canvas, but there is still too little work for the eye to do. The fantastic in this case is a form of disavowal. Britain, 1966–98

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Jarman’s slow rise from the 1960s experimental fringe to virtual canonisation in the 1980s was partly due to his own engaging and polemical personality, his tireless support for young film-makers of all shades and his role in the campaign for AIDS awareness. He also contributed to climatic changes which led to a new wave of activity among younger artists, such as Damien Hirst’s 1988 ‘Freeze’ exhibition, the very name of which echoes the ‘Fridge’ video venue in Brixton which opened in 1984. By this time Art Monthly was running a regular video column (latterly by Michael O’Pray and then Catherine Elwes), although often extending it into coverage of live and performance art – genres which were to engulf the art scene in the next decade. Dance and theatre also participated in the new world of ‘expanded video’ which started in the 1980s, with work by Jeremy Peyton-Jones, Rosemary Butcher and Shobana Jeyasingh. Ideas which had originated in the desolate warehouses of East London, such as 2B Butler’s Wharf (1975–9), temporarily taken over by artists before the developers moved in, now came to public fruition.189 The Bracknell Media Centre supported artists’ and community video throughout the decade, and the BFI appointed Ben Gibson as its first video officer in 1987 to fund new work.

New pluralism190 This era was dubbed the ‘New Pluralism’ by O’Pray and Tina Keane for a seminal 1985 Tate Gallery exhibition. It indicated not only the breakdown of barriers in the film and video movement, but also the spread of new media into all contemporary art. The first of the National Review of Live Art shows in 1987 was another sign of the times, and London Video Arts became London Video Access – video was spreading more widely, as Julia Knight notes, ‘at the cost of losing its own identity’. Similar ‘hybrids’ (a favourite buzzword in cyberculture) appeared in the ‘Image and Sound’ Festival at the Hague and the Media Arts Festival in Osnabruck. The 1990 Biennalle of the Moving Image in Madrid brought together video and installation from Godard to Scratch, Snow to Larcher, and an episode of David Lynch’s Twin Peaks. Expanded descendants of this wave included ‘Spellbound’ at the Hayward Gallery, London (curated by Ian Christie and Philip Dodd) and the Los Angeles ‘Hall of Mirrors’ (curated by Kerry Brougher), to celebrate film’s 1996 centenary year. In the same period Bracknell’s Independent Video magazine started as a forum for video artists – the later switch of title to Independent Media took a step back from art. But artists’ work was expansively packaged and toured by curators and critics from London Electronic Arts (formerly LVA) and the Arts Council-funded ‘Film and Video Umbrella’, including O’Pray, Jeremy Welsh and Steven Bode. The ‘Umbrella’ began in 1983 under O’Pray, and quickly toured the new work then emerging from the fringe of the Co-op and beyond – Super-8 and Scratch – as well as the classic avant-garde, Svankmajer, Jarman, the Kuchars and a clutch of then little-known film-makers such as Patrick Keiller, Andrew Kötting, Cerith Wyn Evans, John Maybury and Jayne Parker. In 1988 Welsh expanded its video dimension. Eddie Berg of Moviola meanwhile prepared the first of the Video Positive Biennales in 1989, which featured new commissioned work and was importantly based in Liverpool – later extending to Manchester as well – rather than the metropolis. For this opening exhibition, with sites spread across the city, Steve Littman commissioned Video Wall installations at the Liverpool Tate by David Hall, Judith Goddard, Kate Meynell, Steve Partridge, Simon Robertshaw and other new and older talents. 112

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Monitor (Stephen Partridge, 1975)

Shortly afterwards, in a joint BBC and Arts Council venture, the popular arts programme The Late Show began the first of its ‘1-minute film’ commissions, a series that lasted for four years and created over fifty new pieces of artists’ work. Anna Ridley and Jane Rigby produced a new set of ‘TV interventions’ in Glasgow for Channel 4 in 1990, re-running David Hall’s originals from 1971 and a clutch of new work by younger videomakers and groups. This expanded Ridley’s Dadarama TV commissions of 1984, the title of which harks back to avant-garde roots in the 20s, with videos by David Cunningham, Rose Garrard, John Latham, Michael Nyman and Stephen Partridge. Partridge has produced an interesting and diverse body of video work beginning with Monitor (1975), a classic exploration of video logic, in which successive shots of the monitor are selfembedded within its original frame. Dialogue For Two Players (1984) reveals the process of manipulation in the context of a seemingly personal confessional drama, while the single monitor is expanded to videowall scale (a bank of thirty-four monitors) in Interrun (1989) to expose the technical construction of TV’s ‘window on the world’. In a series of works with composer David Cunningham, notably Soundtapes (1983) and Sentences (1988–93), the focus is stripped down to respectively concentrate on rhythmic image montage and on rapid manipulation of single statements (text without pictures). The potential of video remix is here given a structural twist, and taken further in electronic format between 1994 and 1998 to open up the screensaver option as an artistic device, and as an expanded ‘dialogue’ for two or more players, including the viewer. David Hall’s idea of showing short work by artists on TV unannounced and uncredited had been revived before: Lis Rhodes and other women film-makers made a few for Channel 4 in the early 1980s. For the Glasgow Festival, however, in line with the smoother flow of TV air-time in the 1990s, the work was signposted and credited. Hall’s new contribution to this event was Stooky Bill TV, in which a copy of Logie Baird’s dummy, the source of the first succesful TV image, argues with his off-screen master in Britain, 1966–98

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a comic dialogue about audience expectations and the baleful shape of TV to come. The piece was shot on a reconstruction of the inventor’s own system, using a 30-line vertical scan to render its hauntingly spectral image. Under the impact of the media revolution in the 1980s and 1990s, which spanned the artist’s film and video avant-garde as well as the freemarket economy of ‘indie’ edit-suites and rock promos, TV producer and animateur John Wyver argued the meltdown factor. TV and video art were no longer separate, let alone opposed. It was necessary, he advised, to abandon the separation of the artist and accept the new media environment which Stooky Bill TV (David Hall, 1990) made the old battles irrelevant. Even his opponents agreed that it was certainly difficult to fix the core of video art. In ten years, from 1975 to 1985, it had generated primal work with the video signal and process, low-key domestic narrative drama, the Scratch movement, a flood of special effects and edit-suite wizardry, and a shift from the single monitor to elaborate installations. Video critic Sean Cubitt responded to this optimistic vision by pointing to the conflicting pressures on creative video, with its dual proximity to popular TV and to the demands of fine art. Artists still had a contestatory role in this environment. Also picking up the classic idea that art must be difficult and challenging, Michael O’Pray replied to Wyver by arguing that the personal stance of artists’ work – especially when it uses the human body – questions the authenticity of representation. It deals with core art issues, not those of a moving-image culture. In a debate at the ICA, Jean-François Lyotard also made a succinct reply to Wyver’s case: since TV culture doesn’t deal with concepts and argument, the artist using it should aim to produce ‘an effect of uncertainty and trouble, . . . in the hope that this disturbance will be followed by reflection’. Film and video artists were not alone in resisting full assimilation to the digital universe promoted by Wyver in his punchy and pioneering TV seasons Ghosts in the Machine (Channel 4, 1986, 1988) and White Noise (BBC, 1990), but mostly showing American and European video. In 1986 London got its only brief round of guerilla television – a dream of the 1960s – with the short-lived pirate station Network 21. Its first transmission was silent footage from John Maybury’s Big Love (1985). As well as inspiring Janet Street-Porter’s Network 7 (Channel 4, 1987/8), the pirates stood for the kind of polymorphous new video wave which embraced Dora Birnbaum’s feminist deconstruction of TV style but also the rapid montage and visual flair of Bruce Conner and Len Lye. Like Scratch videos, they were mostly shown in night-clubs rather than film clubs, such as the Video Café, Digital Nation, Heaven (with Marshall as a programmer) and Brighton’s Zap Club. These were copied from New York, with its grand style Danceteria and low-scale Red Bar, but of course UFO had been there long before too. 114

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Black British191 The break-up of the structural mould coincided with the growth of militant minority cultures which succeeded the collapse of the broad political left in the USA and Europe. As well as ‘gay’ film-making, black and feminist artists also turned to forms of contestational cinema which both rebelled against ‘formalist’ structural film and (as with the pop promo) continued its iconoclasm. By turning from structural ‘purism’, the retro-garde of the 1980s paradoxically helped to spread the audio-visual language of experiment into a wider culture eager for self-renewal in the wake of a consumer boom and an expanding youth market as its visible core. In contrast – though with some connections too – the early films of Spike Lee (USA) and Isaac Julien and John Akomfrah (UK) shared this cultural milieu of the post-avant-garde, exploring fragmentation and sound montage to evoke black urban experience. The creative role of music in their work embedded the new film-video blend (achieved in the edit suite by mixing diverse kinds of footage) into fully audio-visual terms in which, as Godard and others envisaged, neither picture nor sound were privileged over their joint and dialectical engagement. Of these, the best and most influential early examples were made collectively but also authorially. Territories (1984) is a two-part film/video from St Martin’s School of Art by Sankofa/Isaac Julien. It blends diverse sources into a new mixture of voices, from 8mm footage of the Notting Hill Carnival to historical news footage from the archives, to make a collage of black culture in Britain from the 1950s to the present day. In the spirit of cinéma vérité, but more abstractly, the source material is reworked in front of the viewer on an edit-suite, while a chorus of young women chant a series of questions, quotations and fragments which emphasise the title of the film. The second part is even more abstract, and more music-led than Godardian, notably in an image of a young white policeman Handsworth Songs (Black Audio Film Collective, 1987)

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which is overlaid in video by a fluidly turning shot of two young men embracing, one black and one white. A multitrack soundmix, which includes the voice of Joan Baez, links the film to the broad civil rights movement and underscores its complex political statement. For Territories is not one-dimensional or separatist in its message and scope. Its gay subtext challenges straight machismo, while its celebration of black culture is located fairly and squarely in the British context, ‘here’ rather than ‘there’, even as it draws on critical theory to articulate rather than to alienate the underclass and the dispossesed. Handsworth Songs (1987) by Black Audio Film Collective/John Akomfrah, and focused on Midlands Birmingham rather than the metropolis, is in some respects similar – dynamic use of music, archive footage, shots of riots, montage structure – but with crucial differences. Its stance is more documentary, interspersed with interviews as well as extended footage from British documentaries which touch on class as well as race. Shots of riot police in the streets are returned to, re-commented on and reworked to evoke further layers of meaning. Some of the material is unflinching – a police car revs away backwards from an angry crowd, a young man is grabbed and beaten by police with shields and batons, and an elderly white woman memorably walks as if in a trance down a riot-littered street. The music soundtrack pulsates through, rather than overdramatises, these remarkable scenes. The direct interviews emphasise the spoken voice in a lineage that goes back to Housing Problems; some younger people speaking patois, an older black man outside his garden astonished by what he has seen, an Asian community group in conference, the eloquent and classically ‘English’ voice of a young Sikh man who simply asks for social equality. Like Territories, but more objectively for all its densely packed textures and codes, the film crosses race and class lines to emphasise more than one message – less a ‘campaign’ film than a reflection on process and meaning, including its own construction as a statement. The word ‘songs’ in the title underlines this choric and abstract intent which runs alongside its vivid eye for social detail and the powerful sense of injustice which inspires The Watershed (Alia Syed, 1994)

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and drives it. Both of these seminal films, by their stance and by their collective making, revitalised the social-political cinema to track the jagged lines that lead from Vertov through to cinéma vérité, and from Grierson’s eclectic vision to the 1968 ‘cine-tracts’ shot by the politicised French New Wave. The more subjective mode of Territories was followed by Isaac Julien in a series of more stylised portrait films, notably Looking For Langston (1989), while John Akomfrah took up the objective and documentary option in his later films for television. A generation later, Alia Syed turned the theme of race and diaspora in a uniquely personal direction with Fatima’s Letter (1992). In contrast to the films of the 1980s, it owes little if anything to the classic documentary mode but emerges directly from the tradition of the individual artist’s film. The rhythms of passing trains evoke passing traces, shadows and abstract memories; London and Pakistan blur as a woman’s voice reads a letter in Urdu. The film underscores its deliberate sense of uncertainty, forgetting and asynchrony: the letter is translated into English subtitles only much later, and set against white to enforce the difficulty of reading. Focused on difference and disconnection, it reflects its ethnic theme of conflict but eschews any simple notion of identity politics. The Watershed (1994) similarly employs overlapping voices against photogenic black-and-white shots of a woman in close-up, set on the borderline of pain, pleasure, touch and sight.

Electronic arts Ideas sown a decade or more earlier flourished with curious twists in the Thatcher– Reagan years.192 Artists based at the Slade School’s Department of Experimental and Electronic Art during the 1970s – grounded at the time in conceptual and systems art led by Anthony Hill and Kenneth and Mary Martin – now emerged as market forces, notably Chris Briscoe and Paul Brown. Founding Digital Pictures in 1981, they made the first completely computer-generated TV ad in the UK for Michelin in 1983. From a similar background, ex-architect John Lansdown of the Systems Simulation Company designed computer graphics for Ridley Scott’s Alien (1979). From the RCA, and in 1974 the first artist to have abstract computer art broadcast on TV, Peter Donebauer then founded Diverse Productions which in 1990–1 made the graphic documentary series Small Objects of Desire for the BBC. Several younger artists such as William Latham (Computer Artworks) followed in their wake, although many ex-Slade and RCA graduates who deployed technology as artists (such as the late Darrel Viner) and more specifically as video artists (for example, Judith Goddard) resolutely did not engage in commercial production. Those who did so were crucial to the media revolution of the 1980s, the distant baseline for which was seen to be Jasia Reichardt’s 1968 ICA exhibition and book, ‘Cybernetic Serendipity’. Paik’s work was included in this, for those who had not yet made the Portapak pilgrimage to New York. Coincidentally, Reichardt is the niece and archivist of Stefan and Franciszka Themerson, Polish avant-garde artists, publishers and film-makers.193 Wartime refugees in the 1940s, their spirited Gaberbocchus (Latin for ‘Jabberwocky’) Press brought Dadaconstructivist ideas under the rubric of ‘Semantic Poetry’ to grey literary London in the 1950s and 1960s. Richard Wright, also from the Slade’s experimental unit, has traced its demise in the underfunded college world during the 1980s and the rebirth of its ideas in the newly expanding commercial sector. While the eruption of glamorous computer graphics from Britain, 1966–98

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a strictly constructivist tradition may seem wayward, even as it casts an interesting light on the rise of abstract art and film in the first avant-garde of the 1920s, Wright explains the logic. He links the cool, machined and plane surface of constructivism to the smooth non-texture and gloss of computer imaging. Both constructivism and computers call on mathematical and sequential operations. Both use abstraction to engage the real – the final computer image has little obvious relation to the algorithm which made it. The constructivist tradition, still vibrant in the 1970s with such figures as artist and AI expert Harold Cohen, was also concerned with ideal and ‘virtual’ universes, although its computer-oriented descendants have shifted their attention from the pure concept to the simulated image. Constructivist radicalism, on the other hand, was ice-packed for the duration. The computer-led revolution was a key component of the new corporate culture. But it also opened new pathways for young artists and designers, signalled in the icon of Channel 4’s original ‘ident’ which drew on many talents. A mixture of goodwill, artistic sympathy and shrewd investment by the professional media industries also opened edit-suite access to inventive ex-Scratch makers such as Rik Lander of the Duvet Brothers and George Barber. Sony, Samuelsons, Samcon and other industrial companies became major sponsors of artists’ video through loans and donations of professional equipment for projects and shows.

yBa The thrusting new generation of the ‘yBa’ (Young British Artists), most of whom graduated in the 1990s, did not, however, follow this lead.194 Instead they stuck resolutely to the handmade (and sewn and stitched and cut and stacked) object. The film-makers among them turned to low-grade media like Super-8 or VHS and took to the galleries rather than the airwaves and satellites. Some made live or performance art, although this was largely the province of more ‘serious’ artists than they pretended to be.195 Many more took to installation work, and by extension to video and projected images. Distant ancestors included the astonishingly prescient 1968 Arts Lab event ‘Drama in a Wide Media Environment’, in which structural film-makers Malcolm Le Grice, Mike Dunford and others presented 24-hour closed circuit video installations and performances, with audience participation.196 In the USA in 1969 Frank Gillette and Ira Schneider showed the interactive Wipe Cycle, using CCTV, live broadcast TV and video loops playing variously on nine monitors. And in 1972 David Hall and Tony Sinden gathered 60 TV sets in Gallery House, London (for the exhibition ‘Survey of the Avant-Garde’), and systematically detuned the signals they received from all three of the channels then broadcasting. These were long forgotten by the 1990s. Their principles were discovered independently or through more immediate, but North American, examples; Bruce Nauman, Gary Hill, Bill Viola, Tony Oursler, Vera Frankel, Stan Douglas. On the whole, these artists were more interested in image and event than in perception and structure. The spectator is an observer of the work rather than an active participant. The difference is seen by comparing 1996 Turner Prize-Winner Douglas Gordon’s 24-Hour Psycho, a video copy of Hitchcock’s appropriated film at slow speed on a transparent screen visible from both sides, with a distant and presumably unrecognised ancestor, Michael Snow’s Two Sides To Every Story (1974). This work also employs both sides of the screen, in gallery installation. On one side the artist gives instructions to an actress and camera118

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operators, but the results of this can only be seen by walking round to the other side of the screen. The spectator cannot look at both events at the same time, and has to make active choices in this participatory object-lesson about narrative drama. These are two distinct approaches to the phenomenology of viewing. Gordon’s is arguably more deconstructive and iconic, in which the dramatic image (Hitchcock’s film) is a ‘given’. Snow is more constructivist and procedural, and his images enact a ‘process’. Both works lead back to the concept of film as duration (exemplified differently in Warhol’s films and Hall’s This Is a Television Receiver, 1976) and as projectionevent (the theme of much British structural film and of such American filmperformance artists as Ken Jacobs). Both of them also show that viewing is a subjective ‘psycho’-logical act which owes nothing to self-expression on the part of the artist. Much British art of the mid-1990s was built on a myth of self-expression and personality – the documentary TV programme on Sarah Lucas, Two Melons and a Stinking Fish (1996), is a wild and witty account of the milieu – but the reality is more complex. Material is often ‘appropriated’, as by Gordon, without comment or remixing. Personal trauma is registered as a trace – damaged objects, broken shapes – rather than a presence. The latter tactic was also marked in the 70s and 80s, when mirror-images or reflections were motifs of a search for the elusive self.197 In film and video this runs through Tamara Krikorian’s Vanitas (1978), Lis Rhodes’s Light Reading (1979), Tina Keane’s Shadow of a Journey (1980), Judith Goddard’s Lyrical Doubt (1984), Kate Meynell’s Hannah’s Song (1987), Mona Hatoum’s installation Hidden From Prying Eyes (1987), Breda Beban and Hvorje Horvatic’s All Her Secrets Revealed in an Image (1987), Jeremy Welsh’s installation Immemorial (1989) and Catherine Elwes’ (Wishing) Well (1991). The influence of Mary Kelly and Susan Hiller, and hence of Lacan’s formative notion of the mirror-phrase, is seen in some of this tellingly titled work, which often focuses on feminine identity and parent–child relations. By contrast, much 1990s work was up-front in both senses: flat on the screen and confrontational. Sam Taylor-Wood198 and Gillian Wearing199 each made films in which a performer dances frontally to the camera, in 16mm (1993) (with Frances McGreal) and Dancing in Peckham (1994), respectively. As this suggests, both artists began in the Warhol-inspired and low-tech end of film and video. Their context was gallery installation space rather than cinema (although both had their work broadcast on TV). TaylorWood is more self- or inner-directed in these early works, even when like Wearing she elicits performances from others, such as people miming to opera in their living rooms for the 1994 installation Killing Time. Here the artist sits in front of the video-taped results, complete with Warholian pauses and empty moments. Wearing won the 1997 Turner Prize with her humorous and revealing 1-hour statictake of uniformed police in a row facing the camera (One Hour’s Silence) – more shades of Warhol. Her 10–16 (1996) engages with fundamental and even classic aspects of experimental film. Here adult actors in a variety of streets and interiors mimic in lipsynch the words of children whose voices are heard on the soundtrack. The results are illuminating and sometimes disturbing, and not only by their confessional intimacy or the contrast of speech and performance. In this aspect, it reconnects to the underground tradition which elicits the bizarre from the everyday. But it is also an intensely linguistic and even structural piece, built on the concept of delayed time. It directly recalls the vexed issue of ‘non-synchronous sound’ which has preoccupied Soviet, surrealist and avant-garde film since the late 1920s. The apparant populism of yBa film and video was to a degree a misleading spin-off Britain, 1966–98

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from its immediate context. For the first time since Pop Art a group of ambitious and demanding UK artists forced themselves on the public mind – but with little concession to public taste – and made national and international headlines. For many of them, video was simply absorbed as ‘another medium’, updating ‘artists’ video’ as Hall defined it. Here, Damien Hirst set a weak example – unlike his other activities at the time as an artist and activist – since his only foray into film-making was Hanging Around (1996); a fullycrewed imitation of a soap-opera which is wholly conventional, fiercely misogynistic and oddly sentimental.200 By contrast, installation art rather than the single-screen drama was the major genre for many of the artists who constellated around Hirst. But the attempt to capture the popular voice – as in the ‘vox-pop’ material of TaylorWood and Wearing – also extends an old ambition of experimental film to tap into dailiness and preserve the human scale, as Jonas Mekas does in his high-speed diary films of street, family and the passing scene. It appears more mutedly in British structural film, in the street and domestic locales of John Smith, William Raban, Nicky Hamlyn and Guy Sherwin, as well as in political film and video from the 1970s (for example, Cinema Action) to the present day. The confessional mode, another return of the repressed in the 1990s, reasserted the individual and social voice against consumer-led values and assumed norms. This path runs through Warhol’s Chelsea Girls and Shirley Clarke’s Portrait of Jason in the USA, and the rawly confrontational videos of Ian Breakwell, Ian Bourn, David Critchley and Mick Hartney from 1975–9 in the UK. At that point it passed more obliquely into ‘identity politics’ and into feminist film and video, where the mother–daughter theme was paramount, as in Jayne Parker’s Almost Out (1984) and Mona Hatoum’s Measures of Distance (1988) (the first confronting the presence of the mother, the second meditating on her absence and memory). The new direct confessional mode included not just the street-wise video but also Lucy Gunning’s Climbing Round My Room (1994) (the title echoes the ‘direct’ early videos of Vito Acconci or William Wegman) and such gay psycho-fantasies as Sadie Benning’s It Wasn’t Love (1992) and Michael Curran’s Amami se vuoi (1994), the latter notorious for its unsafe shots of a young man spitting repeatedly into another’s mouth. Most yBa artists used video to expand their bank of images, but as recording or playback devices the media they employed were not often the specific core of their practice. Others took up the classic issues of the historic film avant-gardes, such as duration, camera-vision and sound-image montage. In such work the systems by which meanings are produced become central to the spectator’s apprehension of the work. The making of images is only one aspect of the whole. Sean Cubitt recently recalled this context in the example of the Russian formalists (shades of Screen?), for whom art emphasises the object as vision-in-process rather than the subject of simple recognition. Duration, for example, reveals perception as an act of ‘becoming’ rather than as the presentation of what has already ‘become’. Wearing took one route to this goal by subverting video’s supposed immediacy. Steve McQueen used highly iconic images in the spirit of Maya Deren, Jayne Parker and Isaac Julien to question the gendered and racialised gaze by repeated, alternated shots (as in Stage, 1996). Tacita Dean turned to expanded cinema in using film loops and emblematic images of light and landscape.201 Her 1996 Tate Gallery installation was based on the work of ‘Foley’ artists, who make complex sound effects for the movies by an engagingly inventive use of simple, household materials. In this documentary cross-section of sound-image relations, Dean employed sound and video tapes, objects, interviews and 120

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graphic charts to investigate the hidden backbone of film realism. In contrast, Douglas Gordon, among many others, recycled narrative cinema as a given iconic fact to question relations of consumption but not of production.

‘Where are we now?’ (1999) (The Cut-Ups, Balch/Burroughs, 1966) For some, the digital revolution and the convergence of technologies put into question not just the old divisions between media but the survival of art as a separate sphere. They see TV, fibre-optics and the global satellite system as the key to the future of art – if it has one. Others resist the consumer ideology which is latent or blatant in the digital vision. They reject technological determinism to defend the critical function of art and culture in advanced and advancing societies. But to pit the mega-media culture against the lone artist is misleading. Without jumping into futorology – how late is late capitalism and how post is postmodernism? – the question requires greater nuancing where the arts are concerned. For example, it is a mistake to crudely polarise the ‘handmade’ ethic of the formalstructural avant-garde, which argued that film or video are art media with specific properties, as simply the opposite of currently converging multi-media technologies. The polarity is more subtle. These new technologies were, in the first place, partly shaped by the avant-gardes. As so often the USA gives the first examples, as in the Whitney brothers. Their abstract electronic experiments in the 1940s, based on Duchampian chance operations, eventually led to the rebirth of lyrical and mythic abstraction and to their own later role in the corporate culture of industrial computer research. Gene Youngblood, whose seminal Expanded Cinema (1970) analysed this approach, has had a similar career.202 His very terminology in this book bridges the forty-year gap between past and the present: ‘Paleocybernetics’, ‘The Intermedia Network’, ‘Popular Culture and the Noosphere’, ‘The Artist as Design Scientist’, ‘Oceanic Consciousness’, ‘Global Closed Circuit’, ‘Synaesthetics and Synergy’, ‘Image-Exchange’, and even, proleptically, ‘The New Nostalgia’. Lenny Lipton, who wrote the instructively libertarian Independent Film-Making (and the song ‘Puff the Magic Dragon’!) became a leading figure in the computer industries. Perhaps more surprisingly, Maya Deren was a consultant for computer program research in the later 1950s before her untimely death in 1961. While some of this interchange between art and technology recalls such UK events as the spin-off into media-land by Slade School and RCA artists during the 1980s, other British perspectives show less direct but illuminating links over a similar period. Le Grice – the very image of the ‘hard-line’ structural film-maker by most accounts – made his first experiments in computer-based art in the 1960s, picking up the medium again in the 1990s.203 Likewise, but totally outside the academic frame, Gustav Metzger, the avatar of ‘auto-destructive art’ in the 1960s, was at the same time a pioneer of computer-generated art. As with the machine-style art of Eduardo Paolozzi in his early printmaking series (for example, ‘As Is When’, 1965), it was the ‘post-modernity’ of these media, and their insistently automatic processes which sidestep the artist’s personal signature, that were the central lures of electronic image-making.204 The 1970s disputes between experimental film-makers and the then new video-art movement have long abated for most artists. These former antagonisms were in part the Britain, 1966–98

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result of different generations pursuing different ideas. But this is only a partial reason; David Hall, former sculptor and former film-maker, stolidly defended the video-making faction against the prior claims of the film avant-garde who were, in the main, his own contemporaries or younger. He argued that there were major differences between the two media. These were institutional – the relation of video to television rather than the cinema, for example – as well as ‘formal’. The real-time aspect of video, its directness as a medium and its basis in electronic signals rather than (as with film) photo-chemical images, were among these formal characteristics which made up the distinctive character of video as an art practice. Within two decades, from the 1960s to the 1980s, video expanded massively as a medium in the wider culture. The cumbersome Portapak – the first portable camera which so inspired Paik, Hopkins and Hall himself – was replaced by the lightweight camcorder. The format of video changed from spooled tape, of variable gauges for the TV and the non-broadcast sectors, to the compact cassette. As George Barber describes, the rise of Scratch video depended on new and flexible editing systems devised by Sony in the early 1980s, which made rapid video cutting possible for the first time. The avantgarde, notably in Jarman’s circle, thought nothing of shooting on 8mm or 16mm film, editing on tape and printing back to film again. This is now a ‘normal’ industry procedure, and artistically was seen in such films by Greenaway as Prospero’s Books (1989) and The Pillow Book (1995). Here source material which ranges from film to drawing was combined on high-definition video and scanned back onto 35mm negative film for cinema release – and then to domestic VHS tape (and later DVD) for home distribution.

Points of resistance Film-maker (and video-digital promoter) Michael Mazière argues against the media meltdown theory to show that the new digital environment is able to expand the options for artists without reducing them to one megamix culture indiscriminately shared with TV and popular culture. It is the opposite of John Wyver’s position, although it should be added that Mazière’s own personal work is firmly film-based (8mm and 16mm) in the tradition of lyrical structuralism. Many film-makers of the first underground and structural avant-garde, far from rejecting video and digital media per se, have embraced them. The majority still work – in ‘the tradition’ – as artisans rather than directors. Post-film media give them a greater degree of control over the final product than the labour- and time-intensive procedures associated with film-making. Video gives the artist direct access to image manipulation and production. It is also cheaper, an important consideration for those who are selffunded with the aid of limited grants and commissions. They are less anxious about video and digital media as such than about the social, cultural and economic applications of high technology. The desire not to be swamped by mass media culture is a principled and not a reactionary objection. In this sense, the post-film media provide points of resistance for artists to the bland new world of ‘infotainment’. Among the film-makers whose careers go back to the 1960s and 1970s but who later used video and digital media for all or part of their work are Malcolm Le Grice, Lis Rhodes, Jeff Keen, David Larcher, Nicky Hamlyn, George Saxon, the late Tony Sinden. At the same time most of these are probably still better described as film-makers than given any other label. Others whose first work dates from the 1970s and 1980s have made videos 122

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and other work specifically for television, but are still essentially film-makers: John Smith, Jayne Parker, Phil Mulloy, John Maybury, Chris Newby. In a class of his own is hard-line video spokesman David Hall who, surprisingly (?), made a number of short and pungent pieces for MTV in 1993.205 At the same time, a smaller number of artists – notably Peter Gidal and Guy Sherwin – have followed none of these routes, and argue the aesthetic or philosophical primacy of the film medium as a vital element of their practice. For the first time in its long and intermittent history, the experimental film and video movement in the UK in the mid-1990s had four active generations at work.206 At the older end of the spectrum were Jeff Keen and Margaret Tait, then in their seventies. Behind them were such film- and video-makers as Le Grice, Larcher, Gidal and Hall, and a younger middle generation of film-makers in their forties. The largest but most various grouping was made up of young artists in their twenties. The middle generation was partly associated with the rise of British art in the 1980s, which included film and video exhibition in such touring exhibitions of new work as ‘The British Art Show’. In some ways these mixed exhibitions foreshadowed the later ‘Goldsmiths’ generation by seeding the roots of a new approach to art: less formal, more allusive, oblique, and strangely blending concept-art with symbolism. Among artists who began to reach a new gallery, rather than cinema or film theatre, audience for film and video at this time were Mona Hatoum, Jayne Parker, John Smith, Catherine Elwes, Kate Meynell and Judith Goddard. This new work included both single screen and installation film or video. Film-makers in the 1960s and 1970s, with some older experiments going back to the Bauhaus, had sought an ‘expanded cinema’. Some wanted just that, an art of expanded vision beyond the single image. Jeff Keen’s performances and Stan Vanderbeek’s multi-screen films are part of this celebratory wave. A closely related strategy expands the film by sheer duration, so that time rather than space is unpacked, as in the 5-hour Art of Vision by Brakhage or Michael Snow’s 4-hour La Région centrale. British structural film had downplayed the elements of grand myth in this form of visionary cinema, but reworked the idea to focus on perception, landscape and duration, as in multi-screen films by Le Grice, Raban and Welsby.207 David Larcher had merged both the underground and the structural film in his performance-based installations. For the Channel 4 late-night broadcast of EETC in 1986 he played out-takes and variants on an assembly of monitors in a mock-domestic setting at the LFMC, together with ‘live’ transmission on a central screen. A maker of such early extra-long travel and diary underground films as Mare’s Tale (1969), Larcher has explored digital and multi-layered imaging since EETC and Granny’s Is (1990). The first centres on his sister, the second on his grandmother; each is highly visual, personal and challenging. ‘From the trace produced by a single drop-out [says Larcher] is created a series of digital landscapes that provide the backgrounds for the flight of the Zenoian arrow towards void.’ The transition from film to electronic media taken by Larcher was aided by TV commissions such as the ‘Experimenta’ series backed by Channel 4 and the Arts Council. Similar schemes in Europe encouraged video work by ‘the other avantgarde’ – Godard, Ruiz, Marker – and by artists-in–transit like Bill Viola and Derek Jarman (in his final work, Blue, 1993, the pure film colour of the title is crafted electronically). John Maybury, of a younger generation, was close to Larcher in spirit. His Remembrance of Things Fast is, like Videovoid, a TV commission of 1993. Like Larcher, his early films seek an interface between the maker and the medium. The work is free, indirect autobiography Britain, 1966–98

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which focuses on the film-maker’s clubworld milieu. Maybury’s first world was grainy, hand-printed and gestural with rock-and-voice-over intonation in the manner of William Burroughs. His iconography of hunched figures, mirror-play and thwarted narcissism was part of the revival of an image-making avant-garde film in the post-structural era. Maybury’s films are closer to bricolage than collage; they eschew formal unity and stress fragmentation. Remembrance includes camp sequences, sex-scenes, cut-up news programmes, re-edited confessions, hospital sequences, fast graphics, imaginary creatures from ‘TV-Land’ and a battery of visual stylistics which evoke a post-television sense of broken flow. Larcher, by contrast, uses fluid collage and repeated tropes to loosely draw together the large structures which have characterised his films since the 1960s. While none of Larcher’s films use actors, Maybury had explored drama and text since Big Love (1984). In this respect his films link back to Steve Dwoskin’s explorations of acting and personae and also the breaking of sexual taboo, in Maybury’s case the prohibition on showing homosexual sado-masochism. His feature-length production about Francis Bacon, Love is the Devil (1998), took him for the first time into the fully narrative drama cinema. His career had led him from 8mm club, loft and college screenings through to pop promos with Boy George and Sinead O’Connor and then to high-grade electronic imaging whose main themes are visual, optical and physical ‘breakdown’. Self, persona and myth are overlaid in complex structures. Between his early work and his first and literal ‘art film’, with Bacon as its emblematic core, Maybury’s prolific output scanned the field of options which made up the contemporary artists’ cinema of his generation, but in the following decade he turned exclusively to feature film production with The Jacket (2005) and The Edge of Love (2008). At another extreme Jayne Parker explores personal and sexual imagery but in a classical and stark style which contrasts to the electronic flux of Maybury and Larcher. A contemporary of Maybury whose first films date from the early 1980s, Parker takes the human figure as her main subject, as in Crystal Aquarium (1995). Here she links up with contemporary performance art and its photographic documentation, as when her films depict, in fine-grained and stark detail, the human body swimming, dancing, eating and – in K. (1989) – even knitting a garment from a tangle of animal guts. In these films, a protagonist’s inner crisis is shown and controlled by an underlying sense of visual order. Parker’s early films, some made while she was a sculpture student in the 1970s, inhabit the hinterland between animation and performance; stark moral tales with women, cats, fish and blood. I Dish (1982) explores narrative space through an oblique narrative in which an alienated young man and woman enact rites of washing and cooking, but in a direct naturalistic style which carries through to the final sequence of change as the woman sifts stones by the sea at the edge of the frame. Dramatic space is implied but also subtly disrupted by montage. Her direct and confrontational video Almost Out (1984) slowly reveals its manipulation of the image as film-maker and mother – both naked – face the camera. She then abandoned speech and language in film to make fully pictorial works. They centre on the act of making and the search for source, and explore evocative icons (like fish, flesh or water) which recur from film to film. Her themes – the naked body, personal space, sexual identity – link her to the contemporary visual arts as much as her eye for oblique but sharp-edged connections. At the same time her language of gesture, her concept of the artist as performer and her use of metaphor also evoke the cinema of Cocteau and the later surrealists. But in some ways she goes further: her icons are never pre-existing symbols, and meaning only emanates from the relation of shot to shot, 124

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image to image, to bypass verbal translation. If the result is indeed metaphor, which is arguable, it is in the way her flowing imagery – the metonymic chain of assocation – is punctuated by a poetics of emblem, alterity and montage, for the viewer to intuit and interpret. The rhythm in Crystal Aquarium is set by a female percussionist, seen in impassive, photogenic close-up (the film is in black and white). Her drumming is intercut with a series of performers, whose actions (the montage implies) are interconnected. Parker herself ‘impossibly’ eats and drinks underwater, as in a circus act, while a second woman performs underwater gymnastics and a third dances on ice into which – in breathtaking close shots – she digs with her skates. These actions are cut against a fragmented scenario, in which a young woman ritually burns the bed on which she finally lies. Parker’s films emphasise the idea of the interior in at least three ways. The interiority of the performers is made objective in the form of gesture. All action takes place inside rooms, pools and – in some works made for TV – stage and concert room. Finally, the films are shaped to their necessary conditions of viewing, in the dark of cinemas or galleries. Her films are structured around this taut control of the medium and its viewing space, to evoke a sense of contemporary classicism. This is especially evident in her Thinking Twice (1997). In this 10-minute film the pianist Katharina Wolpe plays short pieces by her father, the composer Stefan Wolpe (innovator and mentor of the New York School). The film concentrates on the pianist and the piano itself, weaving a text of light, sound and movement from these sparse elements. The rapid flow of hands in close-up, in a blur of vertical motion, recalls the strict but rich tradition of the German abstract film, just as the film itself attains the goal of ‘pure cinema’ to which that tradition aspired. This led to a series of further Wolpe pieces, and to short, punctual films with the cellist Anton Lukoszevieze (playing Feldman, Cage, Oehring, Heyn). The intense demands of the music and the physicality of its performance are embodied in the abstract clarity Crystal Aquarium (Jayne Parker, 1995)

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and rhythm of the shots. By 2008 she took her theme further into visuality with ‘Trilogy – Kettle’s Yard’, which graphically pitches the cellist in filmic dialogue with the spare shapes, textures and angles of modernist sculpture in this famous Cambridge museum. Each film is a portrait of this encounter.208 Among film-makers of the structural cinema who have also expanded their work in new directions is William Raban. Unlike Welsby, Le Grice and Gidal – who have refined their work more or less in line with their first base – Raban has blended the structural film with the documentary. Island Race (1996) was partly shot in east London, with racist scrawls on streets and walls. The rise of ultra-nationalism (shot outside a polling station) contrasts with the everyday scenes of daily life in street and market. Public events such as a marathon run, a navy flotilla, the Kray funeral, and a Victory Day street party are scanned and silently questioned (there is no commentary). Montage and rhythm govern the film. Blurs of traffic flatten the screen, light on the Thames is seen in reverse-motion. The soundtrack comprises ambient sound, radio clips and David Cunningham’s vivid score for the framing device which opens and closes the film, a speeded-up cross-Channel car journey. Raban’s recent films revive the spirit of lyric documentary associated with Humphrey Jennings and Free Cinema, but his background was in early structural film. In the 1970s he used film to ‘record changes in the landscape’ and to document the passage of time. Raban was then one of a group of young artists at St Martin’s and the London Film Makers’ Co-operative, for whom film was not a narrative medium but one which extended ‘process’ and ‘systems’ painting and music to explore perception, time and chance procedures. Landscape was Raban’s main subject, so that the English realist tradition, and its eye for detail and place, seeped into this advanced outpost of conceptual art. At the time, however, the new movement was better known for its minimalist and quasi-scientific approach to art, notoriously rejecting lyric abstraction and Romanticism in the US underground cinema. Raban’s single and multi-screen films of the 1970s investigate natural light and movement, using time-lapse and variable speeds or lenses to explore the paradoxes of camera vision, with the viewer as a participant observer. After the 3-screen Thames Barrier (1977) Raban took up some themes which the landscape film had neglected up to that point. Scenes of urban decay and blight begin to appear in his work. This reflected a growing politicisation of the structural film-makers. Chris Welsby too was troubled by the seemingly pure landscape genre he had earlier explored; the soundtrack of Skylight (1988) is accordingly made up of Geiger counter readings. Since the mid-1990s, and his move to Canada, he has made large-scale video and digital installations of natural images that interact with the spectator’s presence to shift focus, sequence or sound, as in Lost Lake (1998) and Changing Light (2004). For Tree Studies (2006), live weather information is relayed by the internet from global weather stations to animate pre-recorded trees on three screens in a flickering equilibrium between data and nature.209 A late formal film by Raban showed this new social concern in the urban dereliction of Autumn Scenes (1978). With Marilyn Halford he then made his only narrative drama, the lyrical Black and Silver (1981). A stylish play on painterly and cinematic illusionism, it heralded the ‘New Romanticism’ of the early 80s, although Raban himself rejected this in favour of documentaries about London’s rivers. This direction bore new results with the one-minute Sundial (1992) which briefly sums up his London documentaries such as Thames Film (1986) and A13 (1994). Centred in the frame, but seen from many different viewpoints, the giant Canary Wharf Tower becomes a gnomon to mark the hours 126

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A13 (William Raban, 1994 )

of the day. Raban’s innate eye for formal shape and the passing scenes of daily life have led him to mastery of the city-based film poem; a lyric mode underpinned by structural shape, colour and light. At the same time, the urban subject-matter echoes the social aspiration which runs through the historic avant-gardes. Among the image-based (as opposed to ‘process’-centred) film-makers currently active, John Smith stands between Parker’s personal stance and Raban’s social focus. Structural film was at its peak in the mid-70s when he made his first films. His generation of ‘second-wave’ structuralists already saw the movement with a more distant and critical eye, although Leading Light (1975) and Blue Bathroom (1979) are classic explorations of colour and space to reveal perceptual change. But Smith’s most original hallmark is the use of humour to evoke but also to question film narrative. In The Girl Chewing Gum (1976) the commanding voice-over of a film director appears to control the traffic and people in a busy London street as if they were actors in a movie. But they are not: in fact the commentator is describing, not prescribing, a scene of daily life. A second and final sequence ambiguously locates the commentator in a distant field. By reversing the logical order of the drama film – where the script and not the shot comes first – Smith deconstructs its truth claims by exposing its fantasies of control and its illusionist bias. Later Smith embraced the ‘spectre of narrative’ (suppressed by structural film), to play word against picture and chance against order. This early work anticipates the more elaborate scenarios to come, and like them is ghosted by the narrative impulse which drives the film medium. Shepherd’s Delight (1984) is a quasi-narrative film of language games in which shaggy-dog stories scan the dark side of humour to deliberately confuse deception with confession. The narrator of The Black Tower (1987) becomes obsessed with a mysterious building which he sees wherever he looks – an illusion created by tour de force editing. The brooding ‘dark tower’ of the British poets is here sited in the flow of daily life, while the changing face of street and skyline is charted by time-lapse. The final pan (in a film Britain, 1966–98

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made largely of still shots) evokes continuity even as a new narrating voice, that of a woman, subtly disrupts it. The rich visual surface and engaging voice-over of Slow Glass (1991) convey an extended metaphor which links light, glass and lens. The film is framed by an ‘opening’ shot (a smashed windowpane) and a ‘closing’ one (the window bricked up). As it slowly reveals its own artifice, the realist surface is interrupted, as when a car mirror shows reflections of a different journey than the one visible through the windscreen. These constructed ‘mistakes’ which break the flow are so crafted as to invade the image and unsettle the word. Direct evocation of the past – a 1950s childhood – allows the film to question its depiction of the present. Unlike The Girl Chewing Gum, which turns casual passers-by into screen stars, the participants in this film mainly act or reconstruct the scenes in which they appear, a factor masked by an apparent surface realism. Smith brings formidable skill to bear in a film which scrutinises the very ‘speculations’ it incites. These films offer the pleasures of camera-eye vision, often fooling the eye when distinct time-sequences are ‘matted’ to make up complex illusions within the frame (as in the changing seasons seen in the two halves of a single window in The Black Tower). They can be enjoyed as stories; films for everyone, especially in their humour. They comprise a personal topography of East London, blighted but alive. Echoes of British documentary in Slow Glass allude to (and perhaps mourn) the passage of time which all films encode. Blight (1996) was a TV commission with the composer Jocelyn Pook. A stunning montage depicts the destruction of a London street to make way for new roads. The rhythmic, emotive soundtrack is partly musical and partly a collage of the resident’s voices. Shots and sounds echo and cross-link in the film’s 14 minutes to (like Raban) reinvent a radical documentary tradition which goes back to Housing Problems and Coal Face, both made in 1935. Smith, Raban and Parker were among artist film-makers who reached new audiences in the 1990s, when TV took such films beyond traditional venues (which continue to thrive) like clubs, co-ops, film workshops and artists’ galleries or studios. This trend began with such schemes as the ‘1-minute film’ series for the BBC’s Late Show, 1991–4, the ‘Midnight Underground’ series and other direct commissions by TV companies, the Arts Council and the BFI. Ideas like these brought avant-garde film into the TV schedule, although in very different ways from the ‘interventionist’ strategy which is also occasionally revived and which inserts artist’s work between programmes without scheduling, commentary or introduction. At the same time both these systems avoided the ‘arts ghetto’ of specific cable or satellite channels for new art, a tactic explored in continental Europe and the USA. The presence of artists’ film and video within the ‘normal’ TV broadcast flow in this period was almost an emblem of the avant-garde’s doubleedged relation to the mass media, to question the semi-narrative sequencing in which it participates. Channel 4, originally a great promoter of artists' film on TV, retains a vestige of this kind of support, but the commercial directions taken by all the major channels in the late 1990s, and the closure of the Arts Council and BFI funding schemes and departments that made it all possible, effectively wiped it out.210 Art gallery exhibition was also transformed during this period by a media explosion impelling artists of all kinds to use installation and video projection, much of which drew – albeit often unawares – on avant-garde predecessors dating back to the Bauhaus. But some important gallery shows focused specifically on artists for whom film, video and digital media were not primarily ways to expand painting and sculpture, but made 128

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Slow Glass (John Smith, 1992)

a practice in its own right. Simon Field inaugurated a polemical Biennale of artists’ film at the ICA, which provoked very mixed selections indeed – from structural film to TV ads – by curators Tilda Swinton (1990), Peter Wollen (1993), John Wyver (1995) and Ruby Rich (1997).211 The ‘Spellbound’ exhibition curated by Ian Christie and Philip Dodd at the Hayward Gallery in film’s centenary year of 1996 celebrated a constellation of artists and film-makers from mainstream to margin (including Ridley Scott, Peter Greenaway, Eduardo Paolozzi and Terry Gilliam), but also newer artists associated with the yBa such as Douglas Gordon, Fiona Banner and Steve McQueen. At the same time, other younger film and video artists were to be seen en masse at the ‘Pandaemonium’ ICA festival curated by Michael Mazière. But for some, programmes such as these, however diverse, were limited by jury selection and official imprimatur. In response, groups like the Exploding Cinema and festivals such as ‘Volcano’ in London continued to promote the classic underground principles of non-selected, open screenings and avoided the more high-profile venues. Middle-generation artists such as Paul Bush, Patrick Keiller, Lis Rhodes, Chris Newby, Nina Danino, Jayne Parker, John Smith and Guy Sherwin continued to question the boundaries of fiction, documentary and the artistic film. In a sense they made up one half of a new British Art Cinema, the other half consisting of narrative, drama-documentary films by young directors, such as Trainspotting, in which overheated subculture themes met up with a social realist tradition going back to the 1950s. Unlike other periods in the history of experimental and innovative cinema, however, these two halves did not connect. They were radically divided by aesthetic doctrine and by production methods. It was not likely that the underworld genre and the underground film would, in this instance, have fused.212 Britain, 1966–98

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The state of experimental film at the approach of the millennium defied summary. While it lacked the clear profile which the classic avant-gardes attained in their various heydays, from cubism to structural film, those privileged moments are themselves the products of historical hindsight as well as of unique conjunctions between artists’ film and wider cultural tendencies. Commercial media culture – rarely able to generate new ideas by itself – avidly drew from the reservoir of experimental art. Rock videos, which at the end of the century needed continual transfusions of new ideas, sometimes turned back to structural film as a graphic source. At the same time a generation of film- and video-makers disaffected by endless rock-blatz looked to structural film for traces of resistance. Consequently, the hybrid and voracious nature of the mass media impelled reactions that – among the older generation – ranged from ‘ultra’ rejection (Gidal), calls for intervention (Hall) and almost full participation (Greenaway, Wyver). While the avant-garde was and is often declared dead, most of the living artists mentioned here (and many more unlisted) continue to make films and videos regardless, as do large numbers of younger film-makers. The European scene is scattered (most avantgardes anywhere are loose collections of individuals), but the USA sustained such important journals as Millennium Film Journal and October, often devoted to the contemporary ‘iconology of the body’ pioneered by film-makers from Menken to Dwoskin. Even Film Culture, long dormant, produced a special issue in 1992, notable for reminiscences of a now disappearing generation (Jack Smith and Harry Smith among them) and for an analysis of pasta by former film-maker and present cook Peter Kubelka. As the electronic media fill the gap between the mega-budget feature film and the low-budget experimental film, it may be that these two extremes of cinema will be the sole survivors of the film era (the gap being filled by varieties of hybrid and digital media). If so, they will continue to confront each other in newly heightened ways, across the cultural divisions which the next century of film will necessarily inherit from its past. Film and video also permeated the gallery-based arts, carving space for site-specific installations and for regular screenings by film and video artists. No single tendency characterised the work of the decade, which was organised around clusters of activity rather than by a single or even dominant movement. Some artists pursued complex imaging with digital technologies, such as Judith Goddard’s Garden of Earthly Delights (1991), a densely collaged triptych which plays on the symbolic codes of femininity and visuality. A more occult digital vision is pursued by Simon Biggs in videos such as Alchemy (1990), whose symbolist impulse is shared by a broad span of artists from Paul Bush and Kathleen Rogers to the Brothers Quay. Film as an electronic art is differently pursued in Graham Wood’s Cowgirl (1994) with text and image loops (and sound by Underworld) and a hand-made style to imitate digital forms. By contrast David Larcher’s Ich Tank (1998), made for TV, constructs illusionistic but impossible spaces which warp and twist within the moving frame to create Larcher’s ‘video metaphors’. But during the same period Chris Newby’s Stromboli (1997) stunningly rediscovered the visual power of the 16mm film lyric, cutting from colour to black and white (its underlying matrix) to evoke fusion and separation, while Matt Hulse’s Take Me Home (1997, edited by Greg Allen), reworks the structural tropes of flicker and repetition in the context of an early avant-garde context, the comic-burlesque mode. This random cross-section of the period shows no unity but a great deal of vitality. As for the digital media themselves, where the possibility of new fusions of text and image carry the promise of new concepts too, the media-specific arts were far from rendered redundant by them. Because the digital state is a hybrid, constructed on a notional 130

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and virtual space-time code which relies entirely on electronics and not on any medium of material support as traditionally conceived, it has no choice but to engage with the media – including film and video – which comprise its output forms and modes. Here the experimental arts are in a good position, since the critique of drama, visuality, identification and non-linear thought have been its hallmarks across its wayward and contradictory history. And these will be the way forward for digital innovation too. The same combinations of art and technology which made up the activity of the first decades of artists’ films are still at work – even down to the very images which are explored in digital forms (images of the body, dance, abstraction, rolling text, multi-space, non-naturalistic sound, dissolves and superimpositions, even the windows which echo on screen the early films of the abstract avant-garde).213 It might even be said that the role of media artists in this environment is, at last, to be an avant-garde.

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Conclusion: In the gallery and on the air In the mid-1990s, a new generation of ‘young British artists’ took up film- and videomaking in ways that implicitly challenged – or blatantly ignored - the tradition of experimental cinema. It was more pictorial than materialist, and often derived its themes and images from the sounds and icons of TV and mainstream cinema. It was also more comfortable and acceptable in gallery space than the structural avant-garde had ever been.214 Strikingly, the welcome accorded by galleries was in high contrast to the negative reception of the first wave of video artists in the 1970s, whose sombre overtones of politics and feminism were – so the legend goes – hallmarked by small black-and-white monitors, visible roll-bars and unedited grey images. This is of course a parody, and an inaccurate one,215 but it had a crude truth about it for aspiring mid-1990s artists who admitted to making films (or more accurately videos) but did not want to call themselves ‘film- and video-makers’ as such. Rather, in a frequently repeated self-description, they were ‘artists who made films’. Many resisted media-specific labels, now that art – which had been downplayed in the highly commercialised 1980s – was redefined as a multi-faceted and career-orientated activity that again dared to speak its name. In fact, much ‘serious’ video art of the 1980s, when advanced technology was spreading into the UK art schools, had been as up-front and brash as anything in the next decade, while work by Stephen Partridge, Catherine Elwes, Kate Meynell, Mineo Aayamaguchi, Graham Young and Scratch Video aspired to an allusive and visual wit that also characterised the new generation. What the older context lacked, however, was the populist touch, as well as strong promotion by galleries and collectors. Curators – a relatively new profession in the contemporary arts – became increasingly important mediators between art and public, reflecting a primary concern of the era about how audiences encountered new media work, i.e. its reception as well as its practice. In the earlier 1990s, media funding bodies spent much effort getting experimental work on TV, and a number of overlapping schemes for this were devised between the Arts Council, the BFI, the BBC and Channel 4.216 Hundreds of classic and less-known films and videos were screened in series such as ‘Midnight Underground’ (1993–7), and included new commissions that spanned one-minute films for the BBC’s Late Show to durational ‘long-form’ work. For the most part they were presented with minimal introduction, although some were thematically packaged. Even when transmitted in the late night ‘graveyard slot’, the advent of the videocassette recorder (VCR) meant that they could be downloaded and seen at any time. Video copies often found their way illicitly into college classrooms, ignoring the licensing rules, and were shown to students when film hire was expensive and increasingly hard to arrange. In this way, a whole generation was educated in film art. Arguably, this development was more democratic than the turn away from TV to the gallery as the film or video artist’s prime site. TV, by definition, is available to far wider audiences than can attend gallery shows, which have limited runs and local venues, leaving aside all other questions of social and cultural access. And film or video art is also, by definition, suited to mass media transmission, as is the cinema in all its variety. 132

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Nonetheless, this brief but important moment was soon over, for three major reasons. The first was the control exerted by commercial interests on the major cultural TV companies, most notably Channel 4, whose commitment to innovation was transformed into simpler entertainment priorities by the end of the 1990s. The iron grip of Thatcherism at last and belatedly strangled C4’s radical remit. Secondly, the UK Arts Councils were regionalised, central film funding ceased and – after twenty-five years of major activity – the Film and Video Department of the Arts Council England was abolished in 1999. Responsibility for artists’ film and video was dispersed to the regions, with the Film London Moving Image Network made responsible for the metropolis, but leaving in limbo the major national funding and exhibition of new work that ACE had sustained. The BFI went through similar management ‘restructuring’ at this time; its Production department was curtailed, also in 1999, and shunted into the new Film Council but stripped of its cultural remit. Direct support for individual film-makers effectively ceased, at least in the short term. The new Film Council that succeeded the former national arts and media agencies had no interest in non-commercial cinema, although towards the end of its short life (falling to government cuts in 2010/11) it funded artists such as Steve McQueen and Sam Taylor-Wood to make feature-length dramas for theatrical release. More importantly for artist-filmmakers, from 2007 the National Lottery arts budget began to fully fund the ACE’s ‘open to all’ Grants For the Arts scheme (begun in 2003) for both organisations and individuals, and artists’ film was thrown a new lifeline.217 But before then, in 2002, the LUX centre, funded by both the BFI and the ACE since 1997 as a cinema and gallery, and which also housed the former film and video collections of the LFMC and LEA, collapsed when it could no longer afford the rising costs of rent in the now-fashionable Hoxton Square in East London where it was based. After a few months of incessant crisis it reopened, on a reduced scale and in cheaper premises, without its production workshop or cinema. To compensate for the shift in funding and taste, the LUX for several years has allied itself with the rise of gallery video, for example, by programming films and installations in large-scale annual arts festivals such as the Frieze Art Fair. It also commissioned short films for the mainstream or art-house cinema circuit (a long-held aspiration of avant-gardes since the 1920s), and opened an important and informative website packed with information about UK film art and its makers.218 Meanwhile, the original film printing equipment of the LFMC was presciently saved from the scrapheap by two activists and film-makers, Brad Butler and Karen Mirza, who re-installed and enhanced it in their workshop and screening space, no.w.here.219 Here it provides an invaluable resource for artist-film-makers who – despite all predictions to the contrary – have persisted in making new work with older media. Ironically, the decade ended in 2010 with countless 16mm film loop projections in galleries across the world, as artists of all stripes took to these supposedly archaic technologies with a vengeance. The third and final aspect of the late-1990s meltdown in funding and practice was in part this very expansion of new gallery venues, but also the growth of its apparent opposite in the form of electronic and web-based media. Access to film and video art was split into two parts: the fixed space of the gallery and the fluid time of the Internet. The first required the viewer to ‘be there’ to experience the work, while the second opened nonlinear access to a virtual experience that had ‘no there there’ at all. Whatever their many virtues, however, both of these modes of reception encouraged the viewer to sample the work rather than to participate in more engaged kinds of attention. The gallery and the Conclusion: In the gallery and on the air

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net do not foster the kinds of post-screening discussion and dialogue between makers and audiences that still characterises the experimental movement. Intriguingly, when galleries do screen films in programmes, rather than as installations, often with the artist present to answer questions, they instantly transform themselves (with a white wall, temporary seats and the projector in the room) into spaces that closely resemble the clubs and Co-ops where experimental films have been shown for most of the last century.220

The migrating frame from film to video Experimental media artists and critics had long predicted the electronic explosion of the late-1990s. In North America, from the 1970s, they included Stan Vanderbeek, Gene Youngblood, Michael Snow and Hollis Frampton. Like later media theorists, they focused on the implications for communication in the wider field, as well as on the new aesthetics that might emerge. Lev Manovich pursued this line in his influential 2001 book The Language of New Media, stating that in the digital age ‘the avant-garde became materialized in a computer.’221 Manovich focuses on Vertov’s Man with a Movie Camera – a seminal film for experimental and many other kinds of cinema - as a ‘data-base’ work that heralds non-linear post-cinema. He cites many avant-garde films as precursors of new media visual design, from the abstract graphic interface (echoing the form-language of early modernism) to the play of onscreen text and image. His account swerves between the sheer celebration of new media art and a residual critique of its ideological complicity with spectacle. The book’s insightful take on the avant-garde shifts the debate from purely ‘hi-tech’ concerns, but risks fixing experimental cinema in history as a mere predecessor, which digital software imitates in tropes and effects stripped of reference to their aesthetic source, rather than as part of a continuing trajectory. Frame-based thinking in avant-garde film and video in fact re-emerged in Austria during the 1990s, as part of – and sometimes in critique of – the digital revolution. The prior examples of Kren and Kubelka hover over this work, but the new film and video struck out independently from them. Martin Arnold and Peter Tscherkassky, working exclusively with the film medium, turned to found footage, which had rarely been explored by their Austrian ancestors. Both, however, acknowledge the presence of Freud in the background of Viennese contemporary art. Arnold’s ‘family romance’ trilogy begins with pièce touchée (1989), in which a few shots from a Hollywood drama – a man entering a room, a woman walking - are reprinted, inverted, overlaid and flipped (tonerow style) in a sequence of rhythmic patterns to make graphic cinema. In Passage á l’acte (1993), a domestic scene round the family table – culled from To Kill a Mocking Bird (1962) – becomes a psycho-sexual drama of single-frame repetition-compulsion, with patriarchal and sibling rivalry extracted from frantic bursts of staggered words and images. The third film, Alone (1998), loops a young Judy Garland singing the plaintive single word of the film’s title, and entices Oedipal crisis from an Andy Hardy comedy. While the last film was made digitally, for the others Arnold had constructed a primitive optical-printer on which he slowly built his film from one frame to the next. The rigid discipline of this process underlies and shapes the mounting hysteria that the films enact. Tscherkassky also devised a home-made ‘primitive’ process, though of a more elaborate kind. He made contact prints from found footage with the aid of an adapted enlarger, frame-by-frame, and burnt-in to the sound and picture tracks with a laser pen. In Outer Space (1999), for example, he selected a sequence from the horror film The 134

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Outer Space (Peter Tscherkassky, 1999)

Entity (1982) with the emblematic image of a woman alone in a house.222 The attack on her by the invisible ‘entity’ of the original film is heightened and literalised by Tscherkassky’s graphic retreatment of image and sound, flipping and overlaying the film, in positive and negative, in a massive expansion of Man Ray’s photogram technique for his 1923 film, Return to Reason. While the source film unquestioningly exploits female terror and male aggression, Tscherkassky and his critics argue that his version subverts that one-track theme by exploding its material construction.223 The film-maker spent the 1980s honing his montage skills with recycled or ‘détourned’ ads. His recent Coming Attractions (2010) explicitly alludes to cubist-era classics by Henri Chomette, Léger and others, and to ‘the cinema of attractions’ in early cinema and the avant-garde espoused by film theorist Tom Gunning. By contrast, the loose group of digital video-makers and installation artists known in the 1990s as ‘the Austrian Abstracts’ make generative art from mainly electronic sources and sound, rather than film footage.224 In Norbert Pfaffenbichler’s Santora (1998) an anonymous walking figure in shallow space (from a surveillance video) is cycled and looped across framed inner screens, to a sparse abstract track by Christian Fennesz. 36 colours (2001) with Lotte Schreiber (and sound by Stefan Németh), analyses digital colour in a coded grid. Another creative duo, reMI (Renate Oblek and Michael Pinter), construct abstractions from degraded video sources in a crackling miasma of colour flicker and pulsation for uta zet (2001). In airE (2001), Maia Gusberti traces the lines of overhead power tracks and turns them into fragmented video drawing, while the industrial subject matter subtly questions utopian modernity. Annja Krautgasser adopts a different kind of fragmentation with landscape and architectural motifs. The sound for this new digital visual art is also electronically sourced, and is integral to the image even when not directly produced by it. More recently, Pfaffenbichler – like others, including Tscherkassky – has reworked appropriated cinema footage in new cycles, such as Notes on Film 02 (2005), for gallery installation. Among the many veteran and middle-generation UK film-makers discussed in the second part of this book who have continued to make work, Malcolm Le Grice himself returned to abstract computer art in the 1990s, exploring colour and sound after a decade of quasi-narrative and autobiographical films. He has also performed again his early liveprojection pieces, notably Horror Film 1, at numerous festivals and screenings that adduce a growing awareness of UK expanded film and video of the 1970s.225 In contrast to site-specific installation, and much gallery video, Le Grice’s multi-projection events transform the spaces in which they are seen, to re-situate the audience and allow for the role of chance. Conclusion: In the gallery and on the air

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At the same time, he has reworked some early multi-projection films that can no longer be easily seen in their previous 16mm formats. The new digital versions of the six-projector colour field film Matrix (with its original 1973 electronic sound) and the three-screen Threshold (1972) are not simply transcripts of the originals, which in any case had no rigid format (for example, the three projectors in Threshold are moved in the course of the performance so that the images superimpose). While they convey a strong sense of the films’ primary colour and material form, the digital versions restructure the sequence and layering of the images. In this way, they adhere to the principles of open form and non-linear order that governed their first composition. For Le Grice, they are ‘different versions of the same piece’. Few attempts to re-think older media in new ways have been so creative and experimental.226 Also widely known as a theorist, Peter Gidal issued a new film, Volcano (2002), that explores his recurrent themes of recognition and representation. Hand-held shots of a stunningly barren and heavily striated landscape of volcanic rock are here a naturally given abstraction. At times the camera hovers perilously close to the lava edge, at others it sweeps the desolate scene. A metrical pulse of ‘breaks’ and ‘interruptions’ (as Gidal calls them) punctuates these emblematic shots with black and clear frames that allude to the materiality of film time. The dialectic of light and dark carries over to the final flare, and a framing citation from Dante’s Inferno.227 Gidal’s cinema remains ‘crystal hard, intransigent, and film in extremis’, as Michael O’Pray described the earlier Close Up (1983).228 Gidal remains a strong presence through his books and essays. The Structural Film Anthology, which he edited in 1977, is a foundational text for many experimental filmmakers and theorists. Since his summative Materialist Film (1989), he has written about Samuel Beckett, Gerhard Richter and Andy Warhol.229 Some of these strands were drawn together, at an oblique angle, for his performative lecture at the Chisenhale Gallery in 2009 titled ‘Theatre theory for film, or not: Brecht (an interrogation/ performance: a ghost trio for two).’ Here he showed two films (Denials, 1985, and Volcano), and responded with seeming spontaneity to a series of quotations from Brecht on drama read by a speaker (Karen Mirza). The Brecht citations, and many others, with Gidal’s written (not spoken) commentary, were printed in freeform style on broadsheets for the audience and pasted on the walls.230

Topologies The politics of representation, and audience, appear in a different way through the recent work of William Raban. Like Le Grice, Raban has presented his earlier multiscreen projections to new viewers.231 In 2008 he re-made 2’.45” (1973), in which different audiences were filmed over successive days, so that the overlaid shots (which eventually ‘white-out’) are a recorded palimpsest of the film’s events and duration. The new version is in 35mm, using a new roll of film for each day like the 16mm original, and is now called 4’.22”.232 Raban also used 35mm for his latest urban-landscape film, About Now MMX (2010). Shot from two facing windows in an east London tower block (Balfron Tower, an iconic example of post-war modernism), Raban tracks and scoops the vast expanse. Different lenses focus on anonymous office blocks at night, or a road streaked with time-lapse traffic, or on vivid close-up details of daily life in miniature. Throughout, descending shots of the sun and moon – often seen through trails of pollution – lend a diurnal structure. David Cunningham’s powerful soundtrack under136

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scores the film’s crisis theme, in which the topology of the city is displayed as a grid of light and motion. London was similarly the theme and title of Patrick Keiller’s 1994 film, also in 35mm, and the first of his films to reach a wider public. Originally trained as an architect, Keiller became more interested in photography and took an MA in the experimental Environmental Media course at the RCA in the early 1980s. There, he began to make enigmatic studies of English suburbia and dailiness, accompanied by engagingly seminarrative commentaries that paradoxically distanced the viewer from the scene. Keiller’s seemingly melancholic topography was vitalised by an informed political and social intent. Like Raban, his films recall the complex and troubled modernism of Humphrey Jennings. London hit a complex of nerves. A static camera reveals the city in long, evenly paced and carefully sequenced shots. The opening emblem of Tower Bridge soon turns to lesser-known destinations, tracking such figures as Poe and Apollinaire in their London adventures. Actor Paul Scofield reads in voice-over the dry observations of the urban explorer Robinson, as narrated through an equally invisible companion. The film is a cross-cut of ‘the problem of London’ as a web of political and literary connection and intrigue. Each shot is a hieroglyph as well as a pictorial fact. A second film, Robinson in Space (1997), takes the wanderer across the UK, in search of Britain’s supposed economic decline, only to find a complicated network of megacorporations and financial dealings at work in anonymous and unobserved business parks and blank-walled factories. A formidable grasp of the social economy is expressed in a wealth of statistics and analysis, while Robinson’s absorbed progress to the North is reflected in a series of personal misadventures.233 The film ends in close-up shots of undecipherable rock carvings made by prehistoric nomads. Keiller’s next projects included archival research for The City of the Future (2007), realised as a multi-media interactive work. Images of surviving streets and buildings in the earliest cinema also afford spectral glimpses into our own time. By contrast, Londres/Bombay (2006), depicting on over thirty screens the Empire-period Indian railway station where it was shot, expands the frame into physical rather than virtual space.234 In 2008, Keiller (by then also known as a critical writer and commentator on cinema, city and architecture) began a study of landscape and the moving image that led to a third Robinson film, this time set mainly in the countryside, but whose interior time-scale is mapped through the emblematic renovation of a derelict town house. Robinson in Ruins (2011) is dense with information about meteorites, lichen, military and industrial land deals, labourers’ uprisings and hidden monuments. The narrative (spoken by Vanessa Redgrave) unravels complex strands of power and exchange in a largely depopulated rural economy, and traces popular resistance to the enclosure of common land then and now. It is also the most rigorously pictorial of the three Robinson films, exploring space and depth in long sequences of machine-harvesting, close-ups of the natural scene and (memorably) a weaving spider. Keiller builds his antithetical film practice on a ‘data-base’ of culled news items that yields patterns of association for the themes of the film, which (as with all his films) is shot before the narrative is written. Under the assured surface, chance-based and surrealist traces underpin Keiller’s independently experimental cinema. Leading UK film-makers such as John Smith, Guy Sherwin, Jayne Parker, as well as Le Grice, Raban and Keiller, exhibit to greater and lesser degrees in galleries or equivalent spaces, as well as in cinema screenings. Some, like Le Grice, Sherwin and Raban, have done so since the 1970s, with ‘expanded’ multi-projections and live performances. But none of them are identified mainly with the gallery, and only one or two have gallery Conclusion: In the gallery and on the air

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representation. Rather, their context is cinema as a time-based art, for which the gallery (or more often the open performance space) is only one option. Among these, several have significantly expanded their work from the 1990s to the present day. Nicky Hamlyn (whose earlier films are noted above) is prominent among these. In addition he has become a leading theorist and commentator on experimental film, writing extensively about such ‘classics’ as Stan Brakhage and Peter Kubelka, but also – in Film Art Phenomena (2003) – citing many younger and lesser-known artists.235 Hamlyn lucidly analyses such work from the position of an accomplished film-maker, fully attuned to the craft of his art. As described by Montreal film-maker Mike Rollo: Hamlyn’s films, mostly silent and shot using a Bolex 16mm film camera, focus on the relationship between camera and place. They incorporate various in-camera techniques such as lap dissolves, exposure variables, focus shifts, single frame sequences and time-lapse photography that alter and expand our perception of common objects such as a garden trellis, a bathroom faucet, a water hose, and shadows.236

Matrix (1999) fragments close-up rapid shots of a trellis fence and a web of branches by shifts of focus and in-camera editing rhythms, yielding an intense scrutiny of dailiness that links frame structures in the given scene with those of the recording camera. Pistino (2003) compresses an Umbrian landscape in time-lapse, evoking the shadow play that characterises many of these films. In Object Studies (2005), flicker and motion materialise from time-lapse alternations of shadow and light, such as those on the opposite sides of a wall, scaled additionally by the colour temperature and hues of 16mm film. Sequence 13 and Interruption XIV (both 2008) extract their colour and form from a painting and drawing by Angela Allen, in the spirit of Kurt Kren’s 11/65 Bild Helga Philip (1965) and Marie Menken’s Mood Mondrian (1965). Penumbra (2003) takes up Hamlyn’s constant theme of interior space; here, squared bathroom tiles (another homologue of film and frame) shift from flatness to the shallow-depth illusion caused and punctuated by superimposing in-and-out alternate zooms. Panni (2003) depicts drying sheets in a yard, whose single-framed ghost-images fluctuate between presence and transparency. These and other studies of the everyday (such as Zoetrope, 2008, Tobacco Shed, 2010, and Double Fence, 2010) offer a delicately observed but rigorous encounter between objects and their depiction, whose motifs embrace spaces (windows, rooms, landscape, gardens) that parallel the camera frame in both senses – i.e. screen shape and single frame exposures.237 Four Toronto Films (2007) exemplifies these features. Paving stones are shot vertically and singly as patterns of light and shade, a studio skylight in timelapse depicts the day in shifting angled shadows, while a similar diurnal study of a lake creates powerful illusory movement from the optical contrast between two fixed points – a foreground jetty and a distant shore – and the liquid flow of water and cloud. The final piece tracks a lane of small houses in sequenced lateral shots, whose frontal symmetries anticipate each other. Leafy suburban space gives way to graffito on rough walls, tracing a social passage, just as glimpses of speeded-up traffic and human movement reveal that the evenly paced shots are woven from single-frame exposures. Like Nick Collins and William English, who also observe the daily scene as a framed field of personal vision, Hamlyn refines the structural film into new and distinct modes. A new generation of artist film-makers has emerged since 2000 from the broadly structural lineage of critical cinema. Karen Mirza initially showed loop-and-projector installations (focused on paradox and absence in the illusionist image). In 1999, she and 138

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Brad Butler made Non-Places, a study of disassociated urban spaces and voices, and then The Space Between (2007, sound by David Cunningham). Shots of a tower block in India are interspersed with near-flicker images of a corridor. Successive and chance-based reprinting and layering of this sparse but emblematic material intensifies the flicker effect and its vivid colour mixture, with moments of pause. The film shifts between iconic representation and abstract surface, as its source images are both traced and dispersed. It followed their installation The Glass Stare (2006), an optical work in which two inverted positive and negative film projections are bounced back from double mirrors in the audience space to make up a composite portrait on a single screen. Mirza and Butler also energetically foster film and cultural intervention through their no.w.here workshop and forum, with extensive programmes of screenings and visiting artists, and have lately developed the ‘museum of non-participation’, an international experiment in documentary and exhibition. Simon Payne also explores optics and illusion, in a wholly digital format, but deeply informed by the tradition of visual music and abstract film. Generated directly with the computer colour palette, without intervention of a camera, such works as Thirds (2006) invoke optical mixture from – in this case – the central overlap between two adjacent projections of colour fields and strips. Frame-by-frame structure is explored in the brief but vivid New Ratio (2007), in which alternating inner rectangles produce colour flicker and mixture, matched to electronic sound-tones in a phased loop effect. The longer and more elaborate Iris Out (2008) constructs its visual or retinal metaphor by sequencing elliptic and square colour fields, again with rhythmic sound blips in rapid succession. By contrast, Point Line Plane (2010) – a Kandinsky-like title – has a restricted palette of black, white and grey, to subtly build layers of surfaces and grids that slowly interlace as they approach flicker fusion. In his critical writing, Payne elaborates the cultural matrix of his and other ‘colour field’ films and videos, and their roots in abstract cinema or visual music.238 Samantha Rebello also alludes to optics and vision, but in her case with a 16mm camera, characteristically hand-held so close to the object filmed that it loses scale and recognisability. In her first film The Surface of Residual Matter (2005), the camera hovers over an undefined but clearly organic surface, whose markings and textures merge into the film grain. In The Object Which Thinks Us (2007) – whose title perhaps alludes to the film medium itself – extreme close-ups of washing, or brushing teeth, are intercut with more disturbing sequences (insects, red fluids, a syringe) to evoke the uncanny in the everyday. These and other films, such as In Suspension (2008), emphasise the physicality of the film-print, whose graininess and fugitive colour are ‘pushed’ into dissolution. A dialectical conflict between nameable object and glimpsed subject is enacted in Forms are Not Self-Subsistent Substances (2010) through an imaginary bestiary of illuminated manuscripts, Romanesque stone carvings, film grain, fish and birds. Rebello has a musician’s awareness of rhythmic structure in these uncompromising and intuitive films, each of which evokes the process of vision as a form of embodiment, which she calls a ‘visceral cinema’ of ‘affective materiality’.239

The origins of the avant-garde and current practice The decade from 2000-10 saw a flowering of experimental and expanded film and projection art. In addition to the UK film-makers noted here, festivals and screenings in London, Leeds (Lumen), Dundee (Kill Your Timid Notion), Edinburgh (Diversions) Conclusion: In the gallery and on the air

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and many other venues showed work by established and new artists. While the galleries were filled with large-scale wall projections, these other venues explored the live art of expanded cinema. Guy Sherwin made wholly new work in this vein (with Lynn Loo), as in the cascading flow of letterforms for Vowels and Consonants (2007) and other multiprojector work, as well as re-enacting his now classic Man with Mirror and Paper Landscape. Performance films by Le Grice, Lis Rhodes and Raban were similarly shown for the first time in at least twenty years, joining a new crop of UK and international liveart projection by Emma Hart and Benedict Drew, Greg Pope, Luis Recoder and Sandra Gibson (USA), Metamkine (France) and Bruce McClure (USA).240 The onset of digital formats ushered in the question of medium-specificity, falsely associated by many critics with formalist modernism and its supposed ills. In the new millennium, that simplistic equation could no longer be made. Artists’ film as a major category variously includes neo-documentary essay films, found-footage compilations, ‘treated’ or remade feature films, interactive installations and immersive projections. Within this, and arguably distinct from other kinds of artists’ film-making, is the kind of investigative work described here as ‘experimental’, that interrogates its own means of representation and which – in David Hall’s words – ‘asks questions rather than tells stories’. It tends to be abstract, but not in the narrow sense. Some (by no means all) is ‘medium-specific’ in that it explores work that could not be made in any medium whatsoever; film, digital video, live-installation and mobile phones each have different properties with which to generate experimental art.241 In some cases the output medium is also specific to the work – as in 1970s video made for the TV monitor – and its refit for digital projection is a contentious issue in current exhibition. Other kinds of experimental practice are not medium-based in this sense at all. It makes little difference to some works, such as Bruszewski’s conceptual-analytical Matchbox (1975), if they are shown in different formats as long as the frame-rate is reasonably accurate – in this case, the versions include the original 35mm film, its 16mm reduction, and video or digital copies of these, screened in the auditorium, the gallery or on computer. Each output produces a different object but preserves the same meaning, and each version is as valid as its ‘original’ source. Successive avant-gardes have long challenged medium-specificity in other ways. The promiscuous merging of technologies goes back at least to Stan Vanderbeek, Carolee Schneemann and others in the 1960s and 1970s who mixed film, video, live events, slides and sound in their multi-media practice. Expanded Cinema as a whole is inclusive in this way, by taking film, video and other technologies into multi-screen dynamic space. The history of experimental film began with similar attempts to combine media in new ways. The Futurist manifestos in 1916, at the dawn of the movement, predicted a fusion of the arts in ‘poly-expressive’ cinema (‘dynamic, synthetic, free-wording’), while El Lissitzky in 1925 predicted virtual imaging as a ‘non-material materialism’. Around 1912–16 came the first attempts to create a graphic cinema that put painting into motion, which was finally achieved from 1921–8. At the same time, from around 1923, surrealist and other new waves in France exploited photogenie and montage to expand drama forms or (with Bunuel/Dali) to undermine them. New kinds of avant-gardes emerged in and around the documentary movements of the 1930s, and drew politically committed artists into their orbit. At mid-century, Maya Deren, Sidney Peterson and Stan Brakhage affirmed a new position that film was an independent art form, rather than an extension of painting, sculpture or photography.242 This attitude was deepened rather than abandoned with the rise of video and com140

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puter art in the 1970s, in the expanded field of time-based media. For conceptual artists at the time, however, the relationship was the other way round: new media were available to the artist, but did not constitute a practice that was independent of their other activities. Some who primarily used video as a recording medium, such as John Baldessari and Vito Acconci, located it in gallery and site-specific contexts rather than venues for experimental film, with which indeed it had little in common. But equally, conceptual artists’ video was a different trend from the kinds of video art that grew in parallel throughout the 1970s and 1980s. Here, the medium was the message, in that video art explored its own condition as an electronic as well as an image-gathering device, which could sustain unique forms of multi-monitor installation inside and beyond the gallery. In the 1990s all these technologies were reconfigured by a digital revolution that embodied many – but not all – of their key features in software programmes. Apart from the general democratisation of media that resulted (long predicted by Gene Youngblood among others), it added dramatically to the toolkit of new artists and at last opened the expanding world of galleries to the projected image. But here events diverge again. For some, the new media technologies heightened the options for ‘post-cinema’ installation art.243 For others, it bridged the gulf between cinema and the art world, literally so in the direct citation or re-enactment of feature films (Douglas Gordon, Pierre Huyghe, Matthias Müller, Christian Marclay) or TV shows (Gillian Wearing, Phil Collins) in the gallery. This trend ran parallel to the making of films for galleries – documentaries, short narratives, diaries – as an alternative venue to the cinema. Here, the themes are often more personal and observational, but the films rarely interrogate their means of production, so that the camera image is taken to be authentic or descriptive in ways that the experimental tradition has long questioned. At the start of a new decade, there are signs that gallery video is itself under scrutiny, both for reproducing (or simply accepting) the norms of cinematic drama, but at the same time for failing to accommodate the viewing conditions of time-based art.244 Films playing to empty rooms, or glimpsed for a few moments by the passing visitor, cannot be experienced in any meaningful way. The rise of many (often temporary) venues for film and video screenings and performances has created another informal network for artists’ cinema, extending a long line of such locations that extends back to 1930s avantgarde film societies through to co-operatives, collectives and clubs from the 1960s to the 1990s, many of which – as now – were housed in converted factories and warehouses. Added to these is the liberal online circulation of both classic and new artists’ and avantgarde film and video, and – at the professional end – the archiving and restoration of experimental films to projection and DVD standards.245 While gallery video took centre-stage in the last decade, film- and video-making of other kinds massively expanded through digital technology. Information sites such as Frameworks (mainly but not exclusively USA, hosted from Paris by Pip Chodorov) list hundreds of new films and screenings each week, and of independent film festivals that receive thousands of entries. This culture, and the web-based outlets that support it (YouTube generally, Vimeo more exclusively), rarely intersects with the gallery world. But its diversity and productivity are not matched by reviews and debate, so that too much work falls into a critical vacuum. At the other end of the scale, as a space opens again for film-making beyond the gallery walls, the distinction between artists’ film (in general) and experimental cinema (in particular) is back on the agenda. The return of single-screen film from the backConclusion: In the gallery and on the air

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woods – as seen from the gallery point of view – signifies a resurgence of artists’ filmmaking as an independent practice. By extension, this will reactivate the cinema’s ‘dark space’ as a major screening venue, rather than as a black box in the gallery’s white cube. Curators may again turn into programmers. But none of this will answer the question of what kind of artists’ film and video will emerge, and how experimental it will be. A key difference is whether or not a work is predetermined, is already made, as the record of an event that has previously taken place, and recognised or absorbed independently of its projected instantiation; or conversely, whether it is made in and through its projection, ‘initiating the drama in the film process’, as Annabel Nicolson wrote in 1972.246 This applies not only to films and videos themselves, but crucially and simultaneously to their effect on the spectator. Does the work confirm, or conversely disrupt and question, the viewing experience? If it does not question, it cannot be experimental, but reflects prior mediations that go unchallenged. Acknowledging mediation, by itself, is not a sufficient criterion, but only a modernist and post-modernist device that can be drafted or factored into any art work, without necessarily undermining the process of making and viewing that the experimental attitude puts under pressure and scrutiny.247 Abstract definitions cannot be rigidly applied to the flux and contradictions of new work in film, video and related media. The distinction roughed out here intends only to distinguish genuinely experimental practices – where makers typically affirm that they cannot predict the events and experiences generated – from the broader, influential and culturally pervasive arena of artists’ film-making, whether for screen or gallery, whose dominant tropes include self-defensive irony (often expressed in voice-over), cultural tourism, willed eccentrism and the outsider cult, superficial structural traces and fetishised technology (from big-screen projection to projectors-as-sculptures). Most problematically, the viewer’s identification and response is effectively predetermined or assumed, as in normative film and TV. Cultural boundaries remain firmly in place. Nonetheless, where boundaries exist they can also be broken. In the Introduction to this book, I tried to situate experimental film and video between the mainstream cinema and the contemporary arts, the latter now massively expanded by gallery projection and artists’ cinema (which I want to distinguish from experimentation in the more specific sense). But I conclude by turning briefly to a neglected aspect of film and video art – its relation to sound and visual music. The avant-garde cinema begins, in the ‘silent’ era, as a fully musical form. Ruttmann and Fischinger synchronised abstract animation to sound-scores, and others alluded to music in their film titles (e.g. Richter’s Rhythm series, Ruttmann’s Opus I-IV, Eggeling’s Diagonal Symphony, Léger’s Ballet mécanique). Visual Music as a major theme in experimental film and video derives from this tradition.248 Many UK veteran and younger film- and video-makers discussed above have integrated sound into their practice. They include Le Grice’s early use of a sound synthesiser (the Zinovieff ‘Putney’ for Matrix) and his later collaborations with AMM’s Keith Rowe; Lis Rhodes’ generation of direct sound from the filmstrip in Light Music; David Cunningham’s soundtracks for films by William Raban and Mirza/Butler, noted above;249 or Sam Rebello – a trained musician – working with violinist Angharad Davies in live and recorded performance. For others, music is analogised in the rhythm of editing, as in the vividly observational Super-8 films of Helga Fanderl (Frankfurt, Paris), who edits exclusively in-camera, as does Rose Lowder (Avignon) in 16mm, where the filmstrip is almost a preconfigured tone row for the shots that fill its frames. These examples could be multiplied internationally, from the Austrian Abstracts of the 1990s, 142

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Violin Power (Steina Vasulka, 1978)

their predecessors in ‘systems’ film by Kren and Kubelka, and the pioneering soundtracks of Paul Sharits and of Woody and Steina Vasulka (the latter also a musician). In part this represents the fusion of sound and image in electronic media, where both signals share the same coded source, as filtered through a filmic tradition based on the frame and the interval.250 More immediately, it connects projection practice to the sonic arts, which, in the first decade of the twenty-first century, have enjoyed a huge expansion in theorisation, near-global circulation through digital media and – most recently – a place in the gallery as ‘sound installation’. This last begins with LaMonte Young and Alvin Lucier, and more recently embraces sound artists like Ryoji Ikeda, Bill Fontana and Florian Hecker.251 Sonic art occupies a roughly similar place, in relation to conventional music and its institutions, as does avant-garde film and other experimental media to their own wider contexts in cinema, gallery and the post-modern arts.252 At times, sound art seems to fuse with its surrounding major worlds (by the integration of electronics into concert performance, as with Stockhausen, Nono and Xenakis), and like experimental film it has often been purloined by, or been party to, aspects of mass culture (from film soundtracks to music videos), but it has also maintained a strongly independent and networked culture that divides it off from both high culture as currently defined and from the commercial mainstream. John Cage remains a crucial figure for experimentalists in all media, and if the time-based and sonic arts are to further fuse, or bounce off each other, it may well be through working through and even ultimately against his powerful example. Cage himself provided a key statement about the (non) definition of experiment in art, typically in the form of a question. ‘What is the nature of an experimental action?’ he asked in 1959. His own reply was that ‘It is simply an action the outcome of which is not foreseen.’253 This stands as a motto or device for the avant-garde aspiration in film, video and digital media. Conclusion: In the gallery and on the air

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Notes General This short history draws from many previous studies which are acknowledged, where possible, in the notes. Most of the books and articles on experimental film mentioned here are to be found in the British Film Institute Library. Journals and other material from the Dada, surrealist and constructivist period can be consulted in the Victoria and Albert Museum Library. Many of the films and videos mentioned in the book can be hired from LUX, which houses the former London Film-Makers’ Cooperative and London Electronic Arts collections, and which also shows and distributes new moving-image art (www.lux.org.uk). Some key historical films, from early abstract films to the 1950s, are available from the BFI. Revoir/Light Cone in Paris issue many avant-garde films on VHS and DVD, and others are now issued on DVD by foundations like the Center for Visual Music (USA) and many other sources, including film museums and art galleries. BFI Southbank, Tate Modern, Tate Britain and the ICA in London regularly show film, video and digital art, as do galleries across the UK. The former LFMC film printing and processing equipment is now housed at the artists’ workshop No.w.here, which offers courses and forums for new film-makers (www.no-w-here.org.uk). Luxonline (www.luxonline.org.uk) in the UK and the Video Data Bank (www.vdb.org) in the USA contain copious clips, extracts, articles and information on film and media art. Large collections are also found on UBUWEB (www.ubu.org), and many artists have individual websites where their work can be studied and sampled. The Oasis archive initiated by Woody Vasulka offers ‘video analysis tools’ (www.oasis-archive.org). The Vasulkas’ extensive archive of work and texts by artists is hosted by the Daniel Langlois Foundation (www.vasulka.org). In the UK, the British Artists’ Film and Video Study Collection, based at Central St. Martins College of Art and Design, is an invaluable research resource that can be consulted online (www. studycollection.co.uk). Rewind is a major archival project about UK video artists in the 1970s and 1980s, based at the University of Dundee, with restored work, documentation and interviews (www.rewind.ac.uk). Frameworks, founded by Pip Chodorov in Paris, is ‘an international forum on experimental film, avant-garde film, film as art, film as film, or film as visual poem…’, with regular bulletins of discussion, information and screenings (subscription details from [email protected]). References The Notes try to guide the viewer to the sources quoted or referred to in the main text, supplemented by further reading in or around the key topic. The text is mainly based on secondary sources, and this is reflected in the notes which refer to them for ease of access (for example, by citing recent or more easily found editions). References to primary materials are kept to a minimum in the main text, but not in the Notes. Many of the principal books cited contain good bibliographies on their subject. Most of the major books and articles referred to are available in film and university libraries and many are in print. Texts cited are mostly listed in the Bibliography, with publishing details. A few such details are given in the Notes themselves, where appropriate. In general, the Bibliography contains books and other material with direct film references; other texts (social, philosophical, etc.) are cited in the Notes only. Journals, pamphlets and ephemera (all categories) are mainly listed with publication details in the Notes rather than in the Bibliography.

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Introduction to the 2nd Edition 1 UK Since the first edition of this book, three valuable new major publications have given much detail about older and current experimental artists’ film in the UK: the extensive and thoroughly illustrated survey by David Curtis, A History of Artists’ Film and Video in Britain (London: BFI, 2007); the anthology of artists’ writings edited by Jackie Hatfield, Experimental Film and Video (Eastleigh: John Libbey, 2006); and the international but also UK-focused accounts by Catherine Elwes, Video Art: a Guided Tour (London: I.B. Tauris, 2005) and Chris Meigh-Andrews, A History of Video Art: the Development of Form and Function (Oxford: Berg Publishing, 2006). 2 art gallery AHEFV, 1999 edition, p. 91. I noted that in the mid-1990s ‘Art gallery exhibition was also transformed by a media explosion impelling artists to use installation and video projection, most of which drew – albeit unawares – on avant-garde predecessors dating back to the Bauhaus’ (p. 128), and that film and video had ‘permeated the gallery-based arts’ (p. 120). 3 different phenomenon Also see my essay ‘Projecting Back: Film and Video Installation in Britain in the 1970s’, Millennium Film Journal no. 52, Winter 2009/10. 4 postproduction Nicolas Bourriaud, Postproduction – Culture as Screenplay: How Art Reprograms the World (New York: Sternberg Press, 2005, first published 2002). 5 Rhythym 21 See note 111. 6 unseen cinemas For the UK, these include Curtis (2007), Hatfield (2006) and Elwes (2005). For the US, see Bruce Posner ed., Unseen Cinema: Early American Avant-Garde Film 1893-1941 (New York: Black Thistle Press/Anthology Film Archives, 2001); David James, The Most Typical Avant-Garde: History and Geography of Minor Cinemas in Los Angeles (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005); Scott MacDonald, Cinema 16: Documents Toward a History of the Film Society (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2002): Art in Cinema: Toward a History of the Film Society (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2006), and Canyon Cinema: The Life and Times of an Independent Film Distributor (Berkeley: California University Press, 2008); Clayton Patterson, Captured: a film/video history of the lower east side (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2005); Woody Vasulka and Peter Weibel eds, Buffalo Heads: Media Study, Media Practice, Media Pioneers 1973-1990 (Cambridge MA: MIT Press and ZKM, 2007); Branden Joseph, Beyond the Dream Syndicate: Tony Conrad and the Arts after Cage (New York: Zone Books, 2008); Steve Anker, Kathy Geritz, Steve Seid eds, Radical Light: Alternative Film and Video in the San Francisco Bay area, 1945-2000 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010). Ted Perry ed., Masterpieces of Modernist Cinema (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006), is an international anthology of essays including Tom Gunning on early cinema and modernism, Anton Kaes on Expressionism, Yuri Tsivian on Vertov, John Pruitt on Maya Deren, P. Adams Sitney on Brakhage, Branden Joseph on Warhol, Bruce Jenkins on Bruce Conner and Gilberto Perez on Ernie Gehr. 7 media culture In the first edition I tried to summarise this critical view via David Hall, who (I wrote) ‘dismisses the populist ideology of access and transparency, and the “nebulous” notion of a broad “moving-image culture” ’ (p. 91). 8 See p. 24. 9 international writing Among perceptive essays by new authors about the avant-garde are Eric Faden, ‘Chronophotography and the Digital Image’, in Stop-Motion, Fragmentation of Time, F. Albera, M. Braun, A. Gaudreault eds, (Lausanne: Editions Payot Lausanne, 2002); Donato Totaro in essays on Kurt Kren, Peter Tscherkassky and many others for the online journal Offscreen (www.offscreen.com); Federico Windhausen, ‘Historiographic Returns: Reviewing British Avant-Garde Film of the 1970s’, Grey Room no. 30, Winter 2008; Jonathan Walley, ‘The Material of Film and the Idea of Cinema: Contrasting Practices in Sixties and Seventies AvantGarde Film’, October 103, Winter 2003, and ‘The Paracinema of Anthony McCall and Tony Conrad’, in Alexander Graf and Dietrich Scheunemann eds, Avant-Garde Film (Amsterdam and New York: Rodopi, 2007); Noam Elcott, ‘Darkened Rooms: a Genealogy of Avant-Garde Filmstrips from Man Ray to the London Film-Makers’ Co-op and Back Again’, Grey Room no. 30, Winter 2008; Lucy Reynolds, ‘Magic Tricks? Shadow Play in British Expanded Cinema’, Afterall no. 23, Spring 2010; and many writings on ‘intermedia’ by Yvonne Spielmann, including her book Video: The Reflexive Medium (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2010). Notes

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10 Mark Kishlansky, London Review of Books, vol. 33, no. 4, 17 February 2011, attributed as a ‘Russian proverb’ that I have not been able to trace.

Preface Interview with Clement Greenberg by Edward Lucie-Smith (originally published in Studio International, January 1968) from The Collected Essays of Clement Greenberg vol. IV; Modernism with a Vengeance, 1957–1969, ed. John O’Brian (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), p. 281. For further comment, see pp. 10–11 above. 11 Arnheim Rudolf Arnheim, Film As Art (London: Faber & Faber, 1958). The ‘distinguished predecessors’ (and some contemporaries) include Vachel Lindsay, The Art of the Moving Picture (1915, revised 1922); Hugo Munsterberg, The Film – A Psychological Study (1916); Roman Jakobson, ‘Is the Cinema in Decline?’ (1933); Erwin Panofsky, ‘Style and Medium in the Motion Pictures’ (1936, revised 1947); Maurice Merleau-Ponty, ‘The Film and the New Psychology’ (1947); Béla Balászs, Theory of the Film; the Character and Growth of a New Art (1952); Siegfried Kracauer, Nature of Film – the Redemption of Physical Reality (1961); André Bazin, What is Cinema?, (2 vols, 1967/1971). These books and essays make up one half of the serious tradition of film writing in the cinema’s first half-century, the other half comprising texts by film-makers such as Dreyer, Eisenstein, Vertov, Epstein, Dulac and others. 12 non-linear aspect See Manuel DeLanda, A Thousand Years of Non-linear History, Swerve Edition (series editor, Jonathan Crary; New York: Zone Books, 1997). Manuel DeLanda is a former avant-garde film-maker who now writes about digital systems, war and society; see interview with Scott MacDonald, A Critical Cinema, 1988. 13 after Le Grice ‘London Film Co-op After Le Grice’, Monthly Film Bulletin, vol. 51, no. 609, October 1984. Contains feature article on the LFMC by Michael O’Pray, and reviews of recent film releases. One of a series of MFB avant-garde film profiles published between 1983 and 1987, edited by Richard Combs. 14 the international perspective Probably the most serious omission is any detailed discussion of the continental European avant-garde during and after the structural era. France, Germany, Holland, Yugoslavia, Poland and even (in its latter days) Soviet Russia all produced substantial experimental film-makers in the 1970s and down to the present day, as has Japan. In the context of this book, reference to Klaus Wyborny, Birgit and Wilhelm Hein, Karl-Heinz Emigholz, Margaret Raspé, Dore O., Werner Nekes, Valie Export (in Germany) or to Guy Fihman, Claudine Eizykman, Rose Lowder, Yann Beauvais, Jean-Michel Bouhours, Maria Klonaris and Katerina Thomadeki (in France) or to Ryszard Wasko, Jozef Robakowski, Zbigniew Rybczynski, Wojciech Bruszewski (in Poland) – and many others in these and other countries – would have been intolerably superficial. The reader is referred to earlier books which mention these film-makers’ works between 1967 and 1979 (Curtis, Dwoskin, Le Grice and Film as Film) and to later documentation. For Germany, see catalogues including The German Experimental Film of the Seventies, ed. Ulrich Gregor (in English, Munich: Goethe Institute, 1980); Videokunst in Deutschland 1963–83 ed. Wulf Herzogenrath (Stuttgart, 1982); and Video-Art in the Federal Republic of Germany since 1976 curated by Wolfgang Preikschat (in English; Munich: Goethe Institute, 1986). Also see After the Avant-Garde: Contemporary German and Austrian Experimental Film, eds, Randall Halle and Reinhold Steingröver (Rochester, NY: Camden House, 2008). For France, see the copious catalogues and screenings organised through the Beaubourg Centre and Light Cone, Paris, together with the critical research and curating of Dominique Noguez and Alain Sudre. See Dominique Noguez, Eloge du cinéma experimentale: définitions, jalons, perspectives (Paris: Centre d’art et culture Georges Pompidou, 1979); for historical and new work in sound, see Musique film, eds/curated Yann Beauvais and Deke Dusinberre (Centre d’art et culture Georges Pompidou; Paris: Scratch/Cinématheque Française, 1986); for video, see Video et aprés: la collection video du Musée Nationale d’art Moderne ed. Christine Vassche (Paris: Centre Georges Pompidou, 1992); and for a fully comprehensive film catalogue, see L’Art du Mouvement: la collection cinématographique du Musée Nationale d’Art Moderne 1919–1996, ed. Jean-Michel Bouhours (Paris: Centre Georges Pompidou, 1996), as well as the French/English catalogue The 146

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Movement of Images/Le mouvement des images. ed. Philippe-Alain Michaud (Paris: Centre Georges Pompidou, 2006). 15 John Cage Peter Greenaway’s hour-long TV documentaries on Cage, Meredith Monk, Philip Glass and Robert Ashley were produced by Channel 4 in 1987. 16 define the terms For a concise and contentious summary of major terms and book titles on the avant-garde, see Anne Friedberg, Window Shopping (1993), notes 15–17 (pp. 268–9).

Introduction Siting the avant-garde 17 innovative film-makers For the general relation between the pre-Second World War avantgarde and the mainstream, see David Curtis, Experimental Cinema (1971) and for the postwar period Art and Film Since 1945: Hall of Mirrors ed. Kerry Brougher (1996). Passing remarks on the underground film are made by Scorsese on Scorsese (1989), Cronenberg on Cronenberg (1992) and Lynch on Lynch (1997) (London: Faber & Faber). The influence of the avant-garde on the ‘movie brat’ generation is a topic in itself. Scorsese’s early The Big Shave (1967), an anti-Vietnam War statement, is also an exercise in montage, with imagistic shades of Cocteau–Eisenstein in its editing as well as its young male actor, and has a Bunny Berigan soundtrack in a direct line of descent from Bruce Baillie’s 1966 All My Life (song by Ella Fitzgerald). Mean Streets (1975) opens with a brief reduction of the classic psychodrama shot in blue tones – a young man wakes, restlessly moves round the room in front of a window and a mirror (tropes found in Deren’s Choreography and Anger’s Fireworks) and returns to his bed where his head hits the pillow in a three-shot montage which is cut to a rock soundtrack. The next sequence opens with a projector beam and 8mm footage. This was to be his most radical film formally until The Last Temptation of Christ (1988) and even more so The Age of Innocence (1993) which took his film rhetoric in new semiotic directions. For Oliver Stone, see JFK (1991) – especially the scenes where Kennedy’s assassination is analysed in scenes that blur documentary and fiction through abrupt montage of diverse kinds of footage, recapped in the courtroom scene with its similar sequence. Despite the ponderous naturalism of the acting in this and other films by Stone (and indeed Scorsese), this is a very different approach to narrative than in the classic Hollywood film, where non-realist sequences are confined to special-effects, dream scenes and inter-syntagmatic montage (superimposed clocks, newspaper headlines and the like) to depict the passage of time or changes of space. For the later generation, avant-garde style entered into the full body of the film drama and was not restricted to its margins. David Lynch, the most independent in this direction, was also the most thorough in his surrealist displacement of the normal film codes, while his 1986 Arena BBC2 TV presentation focuses exclusively on surrealist and abstract film of the 1920s to the 1940s, presumably the films he saw at art school. (2010 note: This claim seems less valid now than in the 1990s, when some feature films appropriated the avant-garde in ways that were linked to forms of realism [heightened in Lynch], and so produced an intriguing clash of opposites. Since then, rather than seeping further into the drama film as such, 'avant-garde' sequences seem to have reverted to their traditional role of providing dream and subjective-state sequences, in other words to provoke disturbances that reinforce the norm. The same limitation applies to non-linear drama films that explicitly evoke mental states [e.g. Memento, 2000] and are anti-realist by intent. Stripped of critical meaning, ‘subjective’ avant-garde techniques [flicker, slowed footage, rotating camera, flash frames etc.] appear episodically in much arthouse and cult cinema [as in Ringu, Japan, 1998, and its 2002 and 2005 US remakes] and in the wholly reactionary films of Gaspar Noé. Mainstream drama trailers, title sequences and special effects continue to be influenced by classic experimental cinema, as they have always been). 18 ways of seeing The title of a well-known Granada TV series and book by John Berger (1972), but here taken from p. 58 of the ‘cubism’ section in his 1965 book on Picasso (see Bibliography). 19 formalist tricks See S. M. Eisenstein, Film Form (New York: Publisher, 1949) pp. 43–4. An account of the Eisenstein–Vertov dispute is in Jay Leyda’s Kino, and Annette Notes

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21 22 23

24

Michelson’s introduction to Kino-Eye: Writings of Dziga Vertov (Berkeley: University of California, 1984). Eisenstein’s grumbles at the avant-garde are in his biographical notes, Immoral Memories trans. H. Marshall, re-translated and expanded in the BFI Selected Works (vol. 4); Beyond the Stars – the Memoirs of Sergei Eisenstein ed. Richard Taylor (London: BFI, 1995). conjunctions These issues, and a political reading of the underground and avant-garde film, are taken up by David James in his Allegories of Cinema and Power Misses. Also see Dana Polan, Politics and the Avant-Garde Film. For an important (uncollected) essay on documentary and the avant-garde (which opens with a comparison between Bazin and Greenberg on aesthetic autonomy), see Paul Arthur, ‘On the Virtues and Limitations of Collage’, Documentary Box #11, 1997, (http://www.yidff.jp/docbox/11/box11-1-e.html). negative element Sitney, Avant-Garde Film: A Reader of Theory and Criticism, p. vii, quoted in Friedberg, Window Shopping, p. 269. The theme is developed by Peter Gidal – but in a different sense – in Materialist Film. deconstructed Bürger’s Theory of the Avant-Garde and its aftermath are discussed in Friedberg’s Window Shopping, pp. 163–4, in relation to the avant-garde film. outrage Carl Andre’s Equivalent VIII, but dubbed ‘the bricks’ by the mass media, was purchased by the Tate Gallery in 1972. A major show of ‘young British Art’ (from the Saatchi collection) was held at the Royal Academy, London, in 1997, and titled Sensation. Also see Peter Wollen’s review in London Review of Books 30, Oct. 1997 v19 n2, ‘Thatcher’s Artists’ and (from the hard right) by George Walden in TLS no. 4930, 26 September 1997. Baudelairian The phrase was used by Jonas Mekas about Jack Smith, suggesting a cinema of excess and self-willed decadence – and perhaps camp irony too. The 1980s mode can be traced – in Smith’s wake – through US post-punk films, influenced by film-makers like Beth and Scott B., and journals such as Semiotext(e) which drew from Bataille and Nietzsche. Also see, for example, Cinematograph – A Journal of Film and Media Art, vol. 3, 1987–88 (includes ‘The Body Lost and Found’, John Muse, pp. 9–23). The ‘body theme’ grew in this period for a further decade, also looking further back to (non-Baudelairian) European artists like the Vienna Direct Action Group in the 1950s (Nitsch, Muehl) and ahead to yet more different and diverse artists such as Helen Chadwick, Orlan, Mona Hatoum and Judith Goddard. More recent accounts of the body in avant-garde cinema include Laura U. Marks, Touch: Sensory Theory and Multisensory Media (Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press, 2002) and The Skin of the Film: Intercultural Cinema, Embodiment, and the Senses (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2000); Jennifer M. Barker, The Tactile Eye: Touch and the Cinematic Experience (Berkeley: University of California, 2009).

Vision machine 25 continuum For Greenaway’s vision of ‘expanded cinema’ see, for example, ‘Beyond Cinema’ in ‘The Art of Cinema’ supplement to Sight and Sound, July 1994; and the essay on Greenaway by Thomas Elsaesser in the Spellbound catalogue (1996). Paul Virilio’s views of film are in The Vision Machine and the Aesthetics of Disappearance. 26 In the Dark See Spellbound catalogue for description of this work. It is also discussed in David Pascoe, Peter Greenaway – Museums and Moving Images (London: Reaction Books, 1997). 27 Bergson Visual and cinematographic analogies recur in Bergson’s writings. See Matter and Memory (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1896). His best-known film metaphors are in Creative Evolution (London: Macmillan, 1907). Also, see M. Antliff ’s Inventing Bergson: Cultural Politics and the Parisian Avant-Garde (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993), for the impact of his thought on the artistic avant-garde and cubism. Bertrand Russell’s influential and widely translated Our Knowledge of the External World (Chicago: Open Court, 1914), which helped to spread the ‘new physics’ to the Russian Futurists, among others, was written to refute Bergson’s subjectivism (as the title implies). Also see Russell’s The Philosophy of Bergson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1914). In the event,

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Bergson’s philosophical psychology and the new physics of Einstein expounded by Russell were seen at the time as parallel pathways to understanding the ‘modern age’. Both of them stressed the dynamic qualities of ‘flow’, the interaction of time and space (which they judged differently) and a new sense of relativist values. Also see Stephen Kern, The Culture of Time and Space, 1880–1918 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1983). For an excellent analysis of these issues, including Bergsonianism and cubist painting – and hence relevant to the whole of the first half of this book – see ‘Time in the Visual Arts: Lessing and Modern Criticism’, Jeoraldean McLain, Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, vol. 44, Fall 1985, pp. 41–58. For later stimulating accounts, see Francois Zourabichvili, ‘The Eye of Montage: Dziga Vertov and Bergsonian Materialism’, in Gregory Flaxman (ed.), The Brain is the Screen: Deleuze and the Philosophy of Cinema (Minneapolis: Univerity of Minnesota Press, 2000): and Paul Douglass, ‘Bergson and Cinema: Friends or Foes?’ in John Mullarkey (ed.), The New Bergson (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1999).

Time base 28 time that

From a ‘structural film’ or ‘abstract avant-garde’ perspective, Malcolm Le Grice writes

the language or discourse of cinema is fundamentally altered – philosophically and in the socio/cultural arena – by emerging forms which first establish the screen as surface then reverse the symbolic space from behind to before the screen. Even more fundamentally, the relationship of the spectator to the work is transformed when the time of the action is reversed from being the ‘once-upon-a-time’ of the mythic past to the critical arena of the present. This becomes the time in which the spectators individually live – it is their time, their present based on a material experience of the presentation event. The conditions for this, like establishing the screen as surface, must be achieved in the FORM of the work, not … reinvested in the narrative, if the work is to change the experiential relationship with the spectator away from the that of the passive, surreptitious viewer. (Le Grice,‘Mapping in Multi-Space’, in Experimental Cinema in the Digital Age (London: BFI, 2001)).

29 moment of cubism See John Berger’s collection The Moment of Cubism and Other Essays (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1969). The title essay is reprinted in his collection The Look of Things (New York: Viking Press, 1971). For a related and extended account, see his Success and Failure of Picasso (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1965).

Point of view 30 Benjamin This essay is collected in Illuminations (London: Jonathan Cape, 1970). Many of his most important ideas about film are in the notes to the main text. For newer translations of the two major versions (1936, 1939) of this important essay, now known (more accurately) as ‘The Work of Art in the Age of its Technological Reproducibility’, see vols 3 and 4 of Walter Benjamin, Selected Writings, edited by Howard Eiland and Michael W. Jennings (Harvard: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2002). 31 regime of vision See Krauss, Bryson, Bois, Mitchell, Rose, Mulvey. The quotations from Bois are in his catalogue essay for Piet Mondrian: 1872–1944 (London: Little, Brown, 1994). Also see his Painting as Model (London: MIT Press, 1990). The issues are discussed at length in W. Rubin and K. Varnedoe, Picasso and Braque: A Symposium (New York: MOMA, 1992). Also see Vision and Visuality (1988), ed. Hal Foster, with contributions by Krauss, Jacqueline Rose and Jonathan Crary. A full historical survey is Martin Jay’s excellent Downcast Eyes, supplemented by Modernity and the Hegemony of Vision ed. Michael L. Levin. 32 misrecognition See Jacqueline Rose, Sexuality in the Field of Vision; Laura Mulvey, Fetishism and Curiosity; and the prolific Slavoj Zˇizˇek.

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Modernisms 33 modernity Key founding texts of the contemporary debate include Fredric Jameson, Postmodernism (London: Verso, 1991); A. Huyssen, After the Great Divide and D. Harvey, Conditions of Postmodernity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989). Also, see Peter Wollen, Raiding the IceBox. For a sociological and political perspective see Anthony Woodiwiss, Post-Modernity USA: the Crisis of Social Modernism in Postwar America (London: Sage Publications, 1993) (with extensive bibliography); Zygmunt Bauman, Liquid Modernity (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2000). 34 ‘How to Read’ This essay (1927/8) is in Literary Essays of Ezra Pound ed. T. S. Eliot (London: Faber & Faber, 1954). 35 quotation Benjamin is quoted from Friedberg, Window Shopping, p. 50. For a full account of the Arcades Project see Susan Buck-Morss, The Dialectics of Seeing (London: MIT Press, 1989). 36 ‘otherwise involved . . .’ Friedberg, Window Shopping, p. 162. 37 Richard Abel See his French Cinema 1915–1929, supplemented by the two volumes of selected and edited contemporary writings, French Film Theory and Criticism 1907–1929 (with full bibliographies). Abel’s argument is concisely prefigured by Ian Christie, ‘French Avant-Garde Film in the Twenties; From “Specificity” to Surrealism’, in Film As Film (1979). 38 Barbara Rose How to Murder an Avant Garde was published in Artforum, November 1965. This quotation is extracted from Janet Malcolm’s ‘A Girl of the Zeitgeist’ (1986), p. 29, in The Purloined Clinic (London: Macmillan, 1992). For her later views and selected writings, see the aptly titled Autocritique: Essays on Art and Anti-art, 1963–1987 (New York: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1988). 39 Clement Greenberg The essays ‘Where is the Avant-Garde?’ (1967) and ‘Avant-Garde Attitudes’ (1969) are reprinted in Collected Essays vol. 4; Modernism with a Vengeance. 40 J. Hoberman ‘After Avant-Garde Film’ in Art After Modernism ed. B. Wallis, pp. 59–73. 41 Hal Foster The Return of the Real, p. 54 42 Robert Morris Continuous Project Altered Daily, Chapter 13, ‘Three Folds in the Fabric and Four Autobiographical Asides as Allegories (or Interruptions)’. 43 Rosalind Krauss See ‘Grids’ in The Originality of the Avant-Garde and Other Modernist Myths (1985). For Krauss’s semi-autobiographical revisionist account, see The Optical Unconscious (1993). For the ‘matrix’, see Formless: A User’s Guide (with Y-A. Bois, 1997). 44 theorists of art For the major earlier views, see Michael Podro, The Critical Historians of Art (London: Yale University Press, 1982), and Moshe Barasch, Modern Theories of Art vol. 1: from Winkelmann to Baudelaire (London: New York University Press, 1990). For later revisions of classical art theory, see Visual Theory eds Bryson, Holly and Moxey, which includes essays by Podro, Krauss, Nochlin, Bryson and others; and Visual Culture ed. Chris Jenks (1995). 45 little lozenges Dali in Art in Cinema eds Richter and Stauffacher (San Francisco: San Francisco Museum of Art, 1947). 46 Kuleshov The ‘experiment’ was to cut in the same shot (such as a close-up of a face) to different sequences, and to observe that the interpretation of the shot, i.e. the facial expression, was apparently modified by the surrounding montage. See Kuleshov on Film ed. R. Levaco (London: University of California Press, 1974); Jay Leyda, Kino; The Film Factory eds Ian Christie and Richard Taylor. 47 a new concept See Noel Burch, In and Out of Synch, on Eisenstein and ‘intellectual montage’, p. 49: ‘This concept derives from the dialectical intuition – also felt to differing degrees by Pudovkin, Kuleshov and Vertov – that the juxtaposition of two heteroclite images (drawn, in other words, from two distinct spatial-temporal continuums) produces “a third image”: inherent, mental, but pre-eminent. An intuition of cardinal importance.’ 48 triadic See Annette Michelson, ‘Reading Eisenstein Reading Capital’, October, no. 1, Summer 1976: Throughout his working life … Eisenstein was at pains to ground his conceptions of montage in the dynamics of the dialectic and, further, to specify the manner in which the former is the concrete film form of the latter. Although he will ultimately declare that ‘montage thinking is inseparable from the general content of thinking as a whole,’ he works, in the 1920s, towards an articulation of montage as the formal instantiation of cinema’s triadic rehearsal of the dialectic. 150

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4 For formal analysis of Eisenstein’s montage methods, see Kristin Thompson, Eisenstein’s ‘Ivan the Terrible’: a Neoformalist Analysis (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press); David Bordwell, The Cinema of Eisenstein (London: Harvard University Press, 1993); J. Aumont, Montage Eisenstein (London: BFI, 1987); Robert Robertson, Eisenstein on the Audiovisual: The Montage of Music, Image and Sound in Cinema (London: I.B.Tauris, 2009). For musical structures, see M. Nyman, Experimental Music (London: Studi Vista, 1971) and Kyle Gann, The Music of Conlan Nancarrow (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). The most sustained development of the idea in recent times is by Morton Feldman; see (and hear) Triadic Memories (1981) and T. diLio, The Music of Morton Feldman (London: Greenwood Press, 1996). 49 forms … planes These terms are loosely adapted from the Danish linguist Louis Hjelmslev. 50 Warhol For analysis of Warhol’s screenprints by Peter Gidal, see ‘Different and the Same’, ACT, 3 (Art, Criticism and Theory Journal), 1997, pp.11–21.

Part One: The canonical avant-garde Origins of the moving image This and the next section – on photography – are indebted to Martin Kemp’s compendious study The Science of Art: Optical Themes in Western Art from Brunelleschi to Seurat (London: Yale University Press, 1990), which summarises the relations between art, perspective and colour systems from the Renaissance to modern times. It has a full bibliography. Useful studies of pre-cinema and primitive or early cinema include C. W. Ceram, The Archaeology of the Cinema (London: Thames & Hudson, 1965); A Technological History of Motion Pictures and Television ed. Raymond Fielding (1976/1983); Barry Salt, Film Style and Film Technology (1983; revised 1993); and Steve Neale, Cinema and Technology: Image, Sound, Colour (1985). Further references to the theory of early film and the avant-garde are found below. 51 Debussy Quoted in Edward Lockspeiser, Music and Painting – A Study in Comparative Ideas from Turner to Schoenberg (London: Cassell, 1973), p. 30. For a more recent account of music and modern visual art, with major sections on light-play and abstract film, see Peter Vergo, The Music of Painting: Music, Modernism and the Visual Arts from the Romantics to John Cage (London: Phaidon Press, 2010). Illuminating accounts are also in Simon ShawMiller, Visible Deeds of Music: Art and Music from Wagner to Cage (London: Yale University Press, 2002) and his forthcoming Eye hEar: Sensing the Visual in Music: Art, Music, Film and the Culture of Synaesthesia. 52 Cézanne ‘We have to develop an optics, by which I mean a logical vision … Art is a personal apperception, which I embody in sensations and which I ask the understanding to embody in a painting.’ Reported in E. Bernard, Souvenirs sur Paul Cézanne (Paris: Michel,1912), as quoted in ‘Cézanne’s Doubt’, M. Merleau-Ponty, Sense and Non-Sense (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1964), p.13. 53 triangulation For this and the next section, see Aaron Scharf ’s pioneering Art and Photography (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1974) and Arnold Gassan’s A Chronology of Photography (Athens, Oh: Handbook Company, 1972). Contemporary debates on the role of photography include Ron Burnett, Cultures of Vision; Fugitive Images ed. Patrice Pedro; and Deconstruction and the Visual Arts eds P. Brunette and D. Wills. 54 Chevreul See William Innes Homer, Seurat and the Science of Painting (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1964/1978), supplemented by ‘Seurat and Colour Theory’ in John Leighton and Richard Thomson, Seurat and the Bathers (London: National Gallery, 1997) and John Gage, Colour and Culture: Practice and Meaning from Antiquity to Abstraction (London: Thames & Hudson, 1993). 55 clouds In addition to Kemp et al., see – on meteorology and the structural film – Peter Wollen’s essay for Chris Welsby Films (London: Arts Council of Great Britain, n.d. [c. 1980]), reprinted in Millennium Film Journal, nos 16/17/18, Fall/Winter 1986-7. 56 roped together Speaking of his major period of collaboration with Picasso (1909–14), Braque said in 1954 that Notes

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it was as if we were two mountaineers roped together. We worked a great deal the two of us … museums did not interest us any more. We went to exhibitions, but not as much as people have said. We were above all very concentrated … We lived in Montmartre, we saw one another every day, we talked. During those years Picasso and I discussed things which nobody will ever discuss again, which nobody else would know how to discuss, which nobody else would know how to understand … things which have given us so much joy … all that will end with us. (Quoted (with ellipses as given) in John Richardson, Georges Braque (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1954)).

57 climbing see Picasso as quoted in Françoise Gilot and Carlton Lake, Life with Picasso (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1966), pp. 69–71: We were trying to move in a direction opposite to Impressionism. That was the reason we abandoned colour, emotion, sensation, and everything that had been introduced into painting by the Impressionists, to search again for an architectonic basis in the composition, trying to make an order of it … At that time our work was a kind of laboratory research from which every pretension or individual vanity was excluded … [The] canvas is made to be a painting, not an optical illusion … You see, one of the fundamental points about Cubism is this: not only did we try to displace reality; reality was no longer in the object. Reality was in the painting.

Also see Picasso Anthology: Documents, Criticism, Reminiscences ed. Maureen McCully (London: Thames & Hudson, 1981).

Photography 58 Jonathan Crary The Techniques of the Observer sparked a lively debate which can be traced through Foster, Vision and Visuality, Jay, Downcast Eyes and Friedberg, Window Shopping. 59 fluid-panning See Charles Musser, History of the American Cinema, Vol 1: The Emergence of Cinema – The American Screen to 1907 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1990), and Friedberg, Window Shopping. 60 Tom Gunning See ‘The Cinema of Attractions – Early Film, its Spectator and the AvantGarde’ in Early Cinema – Space, Frame, Narrative ed. Thomas Elsaesser (1990). Also see note 171 for further details. 61 ‘avant-garde’ This outline of early uses of the term is taken from Linda Nochlin, The Politics of Vision, Chapter 1, ‘The Invention of the Avant-Garde’ (London: Thames & Hudson, 1990), as is the idea of removing the quotation marks (p. 12). Also see her Realism (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1971). 62 Cézanne For classic texts on his theory of art, see his Letters ed. John Rewald (New York: Da Capo, 1976/1995); Joachim Gasquet’s Cézanne: a Memoir with Conversations (London: Thames & Hudson, 1991); K. Badt, The Art of Cézanne (London: Faber & Faber, 1965); essays by Gowing and others in Cézanne: The Late Work ed. William Rubin (London: Thames & Hudson, 1977); and the important collection of documents and essays edited by Michael Doran, Conversations with Cézanne (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001). For further debate, see Picasso and Braque: A Symposium ed. William Rubin (New York: MOMA, 1992), and bibliographies in the Tate Gallery Exhibition Catalogue, Cézanne (London: Tate Gallery, 1997). 63 enthusiasts See Berger on cubism and cinema for a concise view of this, e.g. his Picasso book of 1965, p. 70 (‘The cinema is the art form of the first half of our century’). For specific references to films made by artists, see Standish Lawdor, The Cubist Cinema. For a recent account, see Picasso, Braque and Early Film in Cubism ed. Bernice Rose (New York: Pace Wildenstein, 2007).

Art and the avant-garde: summary 1909–20 64 artists Virginia Spate’s Orphism: the Evolution of Non-figurative Painting in Paris 1910–1914 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979) is a comprehensive study of the many groups which made 152

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65 66

67 68

69 70 71

up the cubist movement at its broadest. Also see Christopher Green, Cubism and its Enemies: Modern Movements and Reactions in French Art 1916–1928 (London: Yale University Press, 1987). 1890-1914 See Kern, ‘The Culture of Space and Time’ and ‘Klee I and II’ in David Sylvester, About Modern Art (London: Chatto & Windus, 1996), pp. 36–47. ‘paintings in motion’ The most comprehensive selection of Apollinaire’s criticism in English is Apollinaire on Art ed. L. C. Breunig (New York: Da Capo, 1972/1988). Texts by Aragon, Raynal and others in their Dada or early surrealist phase are published in Abel, French Film Theory and the equally invaluable anthology of surrealist film criticism, The Shadow and its Shadow ed. Paul Hammond. Quotations are from these sources. Survage See Film as Film and The Cubist Cinema by Standish Lawder. Aragon The quotations from Aragon, Raynal and others in the next pages are from Richard Abel, French Film Theory and from Paul Hammond, The Shadow and its Shadow (see Bibliography). The argument which follows can also be traced through the early Soviet cinema, which was much influenced by cubism and by the visual arts. For an early example, see L. Kuleshov: ‘The whole point of cinema lies in its great degree of cinematic specificity.’ Rejecting the idea that film must ‘overcome’ its ‘non-stereoscopic quality, its contraction of depth into a flat and colourless screen’, he says: ‘It seems to me that we must make use of the non-stereoscopic quality of cinema and make the flatness of the image into a method of communicating the artistic impression … We must think of the individual frames of a film as if they were images akin to the flat and primitive painting on classical vases’. (From ‘The Art of Cinema’ (1918), in The Film Factory, p. 45.) For the contemporary impact of Western art (and relativity theory) on Russian formalism see ‘Futurism’ (1919) and ‘Dada’ (1921) by Roman Jakobson in the collection Language in Literature (see below, note 103). Marinetti See under ‘Futurists’, p. 26. Kantian See Kahnweiler, The Rise of Cubism (New York: Wittenborn, 1949, originally 1916– 20), and Yve-Alain Bois, ‘Kahnweiler’s Lesson’, in Painting as Model, pp. 65–100. visual culture For a less formal account of proto- and early cinema, see Stefan Themerson, The Urge to Create Visions (1983).

The cubists 72 Braque and Picasso See Picasso and Braque: A Symposium for a full analysis (from different viewpoints) and a chronology. 73 Norman Bryson Quoted from a review, ‘The Commonplace Look’, subtitled ‘objects and culture: still life from Cubism to the conference room’ in TLS, no. 4933, 17 October 1997, p. 20. 74 ‘retinal art’ Duchamp discusses his ideas of ‘retinal art’ – i.e. art which appeals to the eye only – in Pierre Cabanne, Dialogues with Marcel Duchamp (London: Thames & Hudson, 1971). Pontus Hulton, Marcel Duchamp (London: Thames and Hudson, 1993), is a compendious catalogue with a day-to-day account of Duchamp’s life (including many references to film). Krauss analyses his optical theory in her books The Originality of the Avant-Garde, The Optical Unconscious and Formless. Also see Discussions in Contemporary Culture ed. Hal Foster (Seattle: DIA/Bay Press, 1987). For an extended discussion of art and language, see P. Adams Sitney’s ‘Image and Title in Surrealist Cinema’ in Modernist Montage. 75 Gertrude Stein David Lodge discusses Stein and early modernism in The Modes of Modern Writing: Metaphor, Metonymy and the Typology of Modern Literature (London: Edward Arnold, 1977). The Stein quotation on cinema (used by Lodge) is from ‘Lectures in America’ (1935), in Look At Me Now and Here I Am (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1971), pp. 103–6. The statements by Bergson and James are also found in Lodge, p. 145. The same Stein quotation is discussed in Marjorie Perloff, The Poetics of Indeterminancy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981) p. 69. Also see note 77. A thorough and illuminating account of Brakhage and Stein is in P. Adams Sitney, Eyes Upside Down: Visionary Filmmakers and the Heritage of Emerson (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), Chapter 15.

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76 Susan MacCabe notes that one of Stein’s supervisors at Harvard was Hugo Münsterberg, who in 1916 authored one of the first books on film theory. Stein’s essay on ‘Motor Automatism’, published in 1896, suitably enough, discussed experiments in disconnected consciousness that, says McCabe, ‘anticipate the kinesthetic vertigo of anti-narrative cinema’; a shade too proleptic perhaps, but nonetheless an engaging idea. See S. McCabe, Cinematic Modernism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), p. 74. 77 Cage gave it extra spin See the techniques of writing and composition used in his books from Silence (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1967), through to Lectures I–VI (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), which develop the methods of Stein. 78 Stan Brakhage See his lecture ‘Gertrude Stein: Meditative Literature and Film’, Council on Research and Creative Work, The Graduate School, University of Colorado at Boulder, Fall 1990, reprinted in ‘The Essential Brakhage’. The film Anticipation of the Night (1958) is discussed in Visionary Film, Sitney. 79 vortex See Ezra Pound’s ‘cinematographic’ Gaudier-Brzeszka (1916; New York: New Directions, 1970), his Literary Essays ed. T. S. Eliot and Guide to Kulchur (London: Faber, 1938).

Primitives and pioneers (1880–1915) 80 was it art? Méliès’ lecture and writings by Gance and Canudo are in French Film Theory by Abel, who discusses them in French Cinema. 81 primitive stage Elsaesser, Fell, Brewster, Burch, Hanson and Salt are among the key writers on early film form. 82 Elie Fauré His 1922 book was translated (by Walter Pach) as The Art of Cineplastics (Boston: Four Seasons, 1923). 83 Maxim Gorky This much-quoted description can be consulted in Noel Burch’s Life to those Shadows, p. 23. 84 philosophers For Bergson, see note 27. Moore discusses time, motion and the film in his Commonplace Book ed. by Casimir Lewy (London: Routledge, 1962; repr. Bristol: Thoemmes Press, 1993), sections 14, 15 and 16 (pp. 139–43). These date from the late 1930s to 1940. Wittgenstein refers to film throughout his works, including Philosophical Investigations, Culture and Value and Philosophical Occasions. For example, see Philosophical Grammar, item 28, p. 171, a remark from c. 1933: when we intend, we are surrounded by our intention’s pictures and we are inside them. But when we step outside intention, they are mere patches on a canvas, without life and of no interest to us. When we intend, we exist among the pictures (shadows) of intention, as well as with real things. Let us imagine we are sitting in a darkened cinema and entering into the events on the screen. Now the lights are turned on, though the film continues on the screen. But suddenly we see it ‘from outside’ as movements of light and dark patches on the screen.

This note could be compared to Le Grice’s Castle 1 – the lightbulb film, where this is precisely what happens when a light suspended in front of the screen flashes on and off. 85 flipbook Cubist animation is only hinted at in Kahnweiler’s Juan Gris: His Life and Work (London: Lund Humphries, 1947), p. 88, where he mentions Picasso’s ideas for sculpture ‘which would be set in motion mechanically’, around 1912, and ‘the idea of pictures which would begin to “move” like targets at a fair when a switch was pressed’. These rather Pop Art notions are perhaps quite close to the more purist ‘audio-visual’ art envisaged by Mondrian and Moholy-Nagy a dozen or more years later, which are also on the verge of cinema (in which all these artists were interested). Picasso would certainly have known of his friend Survage’s abstract film designs, around 1913/14 (see Film as Film). In the same note, Kahnweiler is sceptical of the Futurists and Duchamp’s painting of motion. In the Nude Descending a Staircase he sees simultaneous and hence static images, in distinct stages – literally, the nude is depicted in three steps; by contrast, ‘in the case of the Stroboscope and

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the cinema the illusion is created by the fact that the images are presented successively; hence, all subsequent images are seen in relation to the original image, which thereby begins to “move” ’. Whether or not this is correct, or represents Duchamp’s intention, this is the same problem which vexed Moore, Wittgenstein and later Merleau-Ponty. ‘A film is not a sum total of images but a temporal gestalt’, he wrote in 1947 (Sense and Non-Sense, p. 54), just as Moore a few years earlier was pondering the same issue with the Gestalt psychologist Koffka as his own starting point. Similar issues are implied in Krauss’s notion of the ‘pulse’ in motion art – including the rotor-reliefs of Duchamp – and for her analysis in this context of Picasso’s late ‘flipbooks’, based on motifs from Manet drawings, see her contribution ‘The im/pulse to see’ in Vision and Visuality ed. Foster, pp. 70–4. Eggeling’s first experiments in motion-art apparently also took a flipbook form. 86 David Sylvester The essay quoted dates from 1952 and is reprinted in his collection On Modern Art (1996). 87 Bergson … influence Münsterberg’s ‘psychological study’ The Film is published by Dover, New York, 1970 (originally 1916). Panofsky’s 1936 essay is in the collection Three Essays on Style ed. Irving Lavin (London: MIT Press, 1997). For Bazin, see What is Cinema vol. 1 (Berkeley: University of California, 1967). Deleuze’s Cinema 1: the Movement-image and Cinema 2: The Time-image were published by the Athlone Press, London in 1986 and 1989 respectively. Baudry’s influential essay on ‘The Apparatus’ is in Camera Obscura 1, 1976. It is reprinted – along with texts by Barthes, Metz, Vertov, Straub-Huillet and Deren (her ‘Anagram of Ideas on Art, Form and Film’) – in the exceptional anthology Apparatus edited by Theresa Hak Kyung Cha (New York: Tanam Press, 1980). It is more easily available, with many other related essays, in Narrative, Apparatus, Ideology: a Film Theory Reader ed. Philip Rosen (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986). Metz’s main work in this sphere is in Psychoanalysis and Cinema (London: Macmillan, 1982). Also, see The Cinematic Apparatus eds Teresa De Lauretis and Stephen Heath (London: Macmillan, 1980). The topic of ‘the apparatus’ is discussed in Friedberg, Window Shopping.

Futurists 88 Futurists Futurist film, performance and writing is detailed in such source-books as Futurist Performance ed. Michael Kirby (1971) and Futurist Manifestos ed. Umbro Apollonio (1973). Birgit Hein succinctly summarises Futurist cinema in Film As Film. For recent studies see the writings of Gunter Berghaus, especially Theatre, Performance and the Historical AvantGarde (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006). Berghaus also writes about performance and electronic media, e.g. Avant-Garde Performance: Live Events and Electronic Technologies (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005).

Abstract film 89 handpainted film See Experimental Cinema by David Curtis and entries in Film As Film (on Lye, Survage and the Futurists) for more detail. Survage’s ‘Colored Rhythm’ is also in Abel, French Film Theory. Len Lye’s writings and recollections are published as Figures of Motion eds W. Curnow and R. Horrocks (Auckland: Auckland University Press/OUP, 1984). More techniques are explained in Stan Brakhage, ‘The Moving Picture Giving and Taking Book’ (reprinted in Brakhage, Scrapbook). 90 McLaren See David Curtis’s catalogue (Bibliography) and Deke Dusinberre in Traditions of Independence, ed. D. Macpherson. For a recent and thorough account, see Terence Dobson, The Film Work of Norman McLaren (Barnet: John Libbey, 2007). 91 Canudo For this essay, see Abel, French Film Theory.

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The Art Cinema and its circuit 92 Art Cinema This ur-version of the ‘two avant-gardes’ argument is detailed in Abel, French Cinema. Also see The Cubist Cinema, Standish Lawdor; and Ian Christie in Film As Film (note above). For details of Peter Wollen’s influential ‘Two Avant-Gardes’ essay (about the political and experimental traditions), see note 181 below. 93 G is published in English translation with notes and essays as G: An Avant-Garde Journal of Art, Architecture, Design and Film, ed. Detlef Mertins and Michael W. Jennings (London: Tate Publishing in association with the Getty Research Institute, 2011). 94 Close-Up For more detail, see Roland Cosandey, ‘On Borderline’, in Afterimage, no. 12, Autumn 1985, reprinted (with bibliography) in The British Avant-Garde Film ed. M. O’Pray. The French journals are discussed in Abel, French Cinema. The novelist Dorothy Richardson also wrote for Close-Up from 1927 to 1932. For a critical anthology, see James Donald, Anne Friedberg, Laura Marcus (eds), Close Up 1927-1933: Cinema and Modernism (London: Cassell, 1998). Also see Laura Marcus, The Tenth Muse: Writing about Cinema in the Modernist Period (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007). Reviewing Kristin Bluemel’s study of Pilgrimage (1915–38), Experimenting on the Border of Modernism (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1998), Jean Radford notes that this novel’s ‘narrative technique – the use of close-ups, montage, segmentation (where a blank space separates one scene from another), flashbacks and dissolves – can be likened to the techniques of experimental film. Cinema seems to have provided Richardson with an image of what she tried to achieve in language’. (TLS, 27 March 1998). 95 For a detailed account of the inter-war European avant-gardes, journals and film societies see Malte Hagener, Moving Forward, Looking Back: The European Avant-Garde and the Invention of Film Culture, 1919–1939 (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2007). 96 La Sarraz Full documentation of these important congresses is in Travelling, no. 55, but they are discussed in many books about the period, partly because Eisenstein was present at the first congress. See ‘Introduction’ by A. L. Rees to Hans Richter, The Struggle for the Film. 97 The New Photography For W. Graeff ’s book, see the translation in Germany – The New Photography 1927–33 ed. David Mellor (London: Arts Council of Great Britain, 1978). 98 For an analysis of Kipho, and an outstanding example of new scholarship in avant-garde film history, see Michael Cowan, ‘Advertising, Rhythm and the Filmic Avant-Garde in Weimar: Guido Seeber and Julius Pinschewer’s Kipho film’, October 131, Winter 2010. 99 collaboration On Léger–Murphy’s Ballet mécanique, see Cubist Cinema, Standish Lawdor. For contemporary writing by Ezra Pound on the composer of the film’s musical score, George Antheil, see Ezra Pound on Music ed. R. Murray Schafer (London: Faber & Faber, 1978). For archival information, see Tribute to Anthology Film Archives’ Avant-Garde Film Preservation Program, dedicated to Frederick Kiesler, and including material on Léger, Murphy, Ruttmann, Cornell, Deren and Leslie, MOMA/AFI (New York: Anthology Film Archives, 1977). Judy Freeman, ‘Léger’s Ballet mécanique’, in Dada and Surrealist Film ed. R. Kuenzli is a detailed account of the film’s making. For a recent and provocative study of the issues, which contends Léger’s authorship of the film, see William Moritz, ‘Americans in Paris: Man Ray and Dudley Murphy’ in Lovers of Cinema – The First American Avant-Garde 1919–1945 ed. Jan-Christopher Horak (1994). 100 Manhatta See essay in Lovers of Cinema – The First American Avant-Garde 1919–1945 ed. Jan-Christopher Horak (1994). 101 Borderline See note 94 concerning Close-Up, above. 102 Enthusiasm See ‘Dziga Vertov – A Russian [Soviet] Film-maker and his Legacy’, Anthology Film Archives programme documents, Collective For Living Cinema, eds F. Canosa, S. Field and A. Michelson, April–May 1984; and Lucy Fischer ‘Enthusiasm; From Kino-Eye to RadioEye’, in Theory and Practice of Film Sound eds Elisabeth Weis and John Belton (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), pp. 36–8. Also See John MacKay’s extensive essay ‘Disorganised Noise: Enthusiasm and the Ear of the Collective’, Kinokultura 7, January 2005 (online at kinokultura.com). Other excellent recent accounts and documentation, mainly of Vertov’s silent-era films, are in Yuri Tsivian ed., Lines of Resistance (Gemona, Italy: Le Giornate de Cinema Muto, 2004) and Thomas Tode and Barbara Wurm eds, Dziga Vertov: the Vertov Collection at the Austrian Film Museum (Vienna: Synema, 2006). The Austrian Film Museum also issues Enthusiasm in DVD (with the Kubelka version), and other films by Vertov. 156

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Cine-poems and lyric abstraction 103 Jakobson’s See Roman Jakobson (with Morris Halle), ‘Two Aspects of Language’ (1956), in Language and Literature ed. K Pomorska and S. Rudy (London: Harvard University Press, 1987), pp. 111–12. A salient example from the history of painting is the manifestly metonymical orientation of Cubism, where the object is transformed into a set of synecdoches [i.e. in which a part or fragment implies – ‘stands in for’ – the whole]; the Surrealist painters responded with a patently metaphorical attitude … Ever since the productions of D. W. Griffith, the art of the cinema, with its highly developed capacity for changing the angle, perspective and focus of shots, has broken with the tradition of the theatre and ranged an unprecedented variety of synecdochic close-ups and metonymic set-ups in general. In such motion pictures as those of Charlie Chaplin and Eisenstein, these devices in turn were overlayed with a novel metaphoric montage with its lap dissolves – the filmic similes.

Also, see his essay ‘Is the Cinema in Decline?’ (1933), reproduced in the same collection and also in Semiotics of Art ed. L. Mtejka and I. R. Titunik (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1976/1984). For some later views on film, see the 1980 ‘Dialogue on Time in Language and Literature’, Verbal Art, Verbal Sign, Verbal Time, eds Krystyna Pomorska and Stephen Rudy (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1985). See Lodge, The Modes of Modern Writing, for further explanation of metaphor and metonymy, and Roland Barthes, Elements of Semiology (London: Jonathan Cape, 1967), which is probably the main source for the spread of the metaphor– metonym idea (pp. 60–1). Jakobson’s binary concept is widely discussed in many contexts: see, for a further application to film, Linda Williams, Figures of Desire. The Shklovsky essay is translated in Russian Poetics in Translation vol. 9 (see R. Taylor, Bibliography), but the quotation here is taken from, Maya Turokovskaya, Tarkovsky – Cinema as Poetry (London: Faber & Faber, 1989), p. 10. 104 Henri Chomette See Abel, French Cinema and Film As Film for more detail on these films. 105 Film as Film: formal experiment in film 1910-1975 (London: Hayward Gallery, 1979), p. 73. For an alternative translation by Stanley Appelbaum of Chomette’s text ‘Second Stage’, see Richard Abel, French Film Theory and Criticism 1907-1939 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988), vol. 1: p. 371.

Origins of abstract film 106 abstract film See S. Lawdor, The Cubist Cinema; Film As Film; D. Curtis, Experimental Cinema; S. Dwoskin, Film Is; M. Le Grice, Abstract Film and Beyond. Also, see Der Deutsche Avant-Garde Film Der 20er Jahre/The German Avant-Garde Film of the 1920s (Eng/Ger), eds Angelika Leitner and Uwe Nitschke (Munich: Goethe-Institut, 1989). For a reassessment of modernism and the avant-gardes, see Malcolm Turvey, The Filming of Modern Life: European Avant-Garde Film of the 1920s (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2011).

The absolute film 107 Viking Eggeling See the monograph Viking Eggeling by Louise O’Konor. For a recent assessment, see Peter Wollen, ‘Lund celebrates Dada child’, PIX 2 (London: BFI, 1997). 108 music See Peter Wollen, ‘Tales of Total Art and Dreams of the Total Museum’, in Visual Display – Culture Beyond Appearances eds L. Cooke and P. Wollen (Seattle: Bay Press, 1995). 109 A full account of this episode, and an exemplary biography of Fischinger, is given in William Moritz, Optical Poetry: the Life and Work of Oskar Fischinger (Eastleigh: John Libbey, 2004). 110 abstract film-makers See the website for the Center for Visual Music (in Los Angeles), which contains a huge range of material on Fischinger and other kinds of abstract cinema, and includes the archive of William Moritz: www.centerforvisualmusic.org. Notes

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111 Richter In addition to the historical studies of the abstract film in Lawdor and Sitney, Richter’s two English-language books – Dada, Art and Anti-Art and The Struggle for the Film – should be consulted along with the monograph by Cleve Gray. The rolling dispute on Richter’s reliability as historian and archivist can be traced through O’Konor (on Eggeling) and the entries under ‘Hans Richter’ and ‘Werner Graeff ’ in Film As Film. Also, see ‘Introduction’ to The Struggle for the Film. The dating of Richter’s abstract films would be best left to specialists if Richter’s own misleading dates were not so widely reproduced. Louise O’Konor first challenged them in her exhaustive 1971 catalogue of the work of Viking Eggeling, Richter’s erstwhile friend and collaborator, in which she documents the dating and authenticity of scrolls and films, and scrutinizes Richter’s exploitation of Eggeling’s legacy. Richter’s claim to priority confuses the succession of events that led from the Richter/ Eggeling scroll-experiments in 1919 to film-making a year or two later, with the support of progressive film critics in Germany and journals such as De Stijl in Holland. Richter’s assertion that he made the first abstract film in 1921, i.e. Rhythm 21, is repeated by nearly everyone who discusses the period or his films. The revisionist claim is that Richter in 1921–4 only had fragments of the two films now known as Rhythm 21 and Rhythm 23, including brief test shots made by UFA technicians c.1921 (shown as Film is Rhythm), plus extra material made in 1922 with the young Werner Graeff. The one-minute version of Film is Rhythm was shown in Paris in 1923 and then at the Berlin Absolute Film screening in 1925, when Diagonal Symphony had already been completed and Ruttmann had concluded the Opus cycle of four films on which he had been working since 1919. By 1927 Richter had added another 30 seconds shot with Erna Niemeyer, Eggeling’s partner and assistant on Diagonal Symphony, now married to Richter (1927–9). Renamed Rhythm for a London Film Society screening in 1927, the now 90-second film probably survives in Rhythm 23, which contains earlier experiments and wholly new sequences. According to William Moritz, Rhythm 23 was finished, and all of Rhythm 21 was made, with Niemeyer in 1927/8 while she was preparing Film Study, another film that Richter backdated to 1926. But this may go too far: Richter illustrated his journal G from 1923/26 with real or simulated filmstrips, two of them named Rhythm 24 (sic) and Rhythm 25, that seem to correspond to parts of what are now confusingly known as Rhythm 21 and Rhythm 23. His films were certainly in progress – if far from completed – in the mid1920s, but Richter’s comprehensive vision of abstract film, which he vigorously promoted throughout this period, took longer to realise in practice than in principle. As for the ur-history of these films, the published 1921 critical reviews of Richter’s and Eggeling’s abstract experiments only speak of the scrolls they had worked on together since 1919, which they hoped to shoot or animate but had not yet achieved beyond very basic tests. Van Doesburg’s famous visit to the pair over Christmas 1920 probably lasted for three days and not the three weeks often claimed, perhaps conflated with a second meeting in Weimar, May 1921, that led to his progress report on their work in June for De Stijl (Van Doesburg too discusses only the scrolls, and colour, not yet realised in film form). In some early reports, Richter is described as a pupil or assistant to Eggeling, surely an overstatement but one that focuses attention on Eggeling’s senior status and his major project, Horizontal-Vertical Orchestra. Richter and Eggeling quarrelled in late 1921 and had no further contact, despite Richter’s claims to the contrary. Working solo, Eggeling abandoned his earlier scroll project after unsatisfactory shooting in 1922/3, but – with the guidance of Bauhaus student Niemeyer – completed the more dynamic Diagonal Symphony in late 1924. Nothing is known of the reason for the split between Eggeling and Richter, apart from a dispute (reported by Richter) about the sale of a painting. They may have argued when Richter published the essay ‘Principles of the Art of Motion’ in De Stijl under his own name, even though Eggeling wrote its second half (it remains his most substantial theoretical statement). Richter was an important film-maker and activist during his ‘forty years of experiment’ (his own words) in radical avant-garde cinema in Europe and the US, but he slewed the historical record. Despite the occasional bow to O’Konor’s forensic study, most current as well as older accounts, however scholarly in other respects, still say that Rhythm 21 is ‘the first abstract film’ and that it was made in the year indicated by its title. The main documents and arguments are in O’Konor 1971, Lawdor 1975 and others listed in the main bibliography. The Richter 1921 essay ‘Principles of the Art of Motion’, which contains Eggeling's ‘Theoretical presentations of the art of movement’, is in Hans Jaffe,

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De Stijl (London: Thames and Hudson, 1970): The ‘explanatory note’ and sections II and III are by Eggeling. For later and recent writings see: ‘Restoring the Aesthetics of Early Abstract Films’, William Moritz [1991], A Reader in Animation Studies. Jayne Pilling ed., (Sydney: John Libbey, 1997); ‘Theo van Doesburg and Writings on Film in De Stijl’, Ansje van Beusekom, Avant-Garde Critical Studies vol. 21, ed., K. Beekman and J. de Vries (Amsterdam and NY: Rodopi, 2007); ‘A Universal Language for the Arts: Interdisciplinarity as a Practice, Film as a Model’, Gladys Fabre; Van Doesburg and the International Avant-Garde, G. Fabre and D.W. Hötte eds (London: Tate Publishing, 2009); The Music of Painting; music, modernism and the visual arts from the Romantics to John Cage, Peter Vergo (London: Phaidon Press, 2010), chapter VI, ‘Music and Movement’; The Filming of Modern Life, Malcolm Turvey (2011); G: An Avant-Garde Journal of Art, Architecture, Design and Film 1923-1926, Martins and Jennings eds (2011). 112 shorn of sound A situation now remedied by the digital restoration of colour and original music to the Opus series, on the excellent DVD of Berlin, die Sinfonie der Grosstadt and other films by Walther Ruttmann (Munich: Edition Filmmuseum, 2009). For details of Edmund Meisel, who composed the music for the German version of The Battleship Potemkin (broadcast on BBC TV with sound, 1988) and for Ruttmann’s later documentary film Berlin – Symphony of a Great City, also see Der Stummfilmmusiker Edmund Meisels ed. Werner Sudendorf, Kinematograph, no. 1 (Frankfurt am main: Deutsches Filmmuseum, 1984). For a later fascinating account of sound and the abstract film, see Thomas Y. Levin, ‘Tones from out of Nowhere: Rudolph Pfenninger and the Archaeology of Synthetic Sound’, Grey Room 12, Summer 2003, pp. 32–79, and at www.centerforvisualmusic.org/LevinPfen.pdf.

Dada and surrealist film 113 Surrealism In addition to Abel’s French Cinema and the source material in his French Film Theory and in Hammond’s The Shadow and its Shadow, see Dada and Surrealist Film ed. R. Kuenzli for later critical studies. The work of Dulac is analysed in To Desire Differently by Sandy Flitterman-Lewis. 114 Dada Major source material is collected in The Dada Painters and Poets ed. R. Motherwell, with full bibliography. Also see Dada, another early collection edited by W. Verkauf, and Dada and Surrealist Performance, Annabelle Melzer (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994). 115 Ball This diary is published as Flight Out of Time (New York: Viking Press, 1974/1996). 116 Eurhythmics For more detail on this aspect of Dada and modern art, see Melzer and Peter Wollen’s essay on Eggeling in PIX (see note 107) and his essay in Visual Display – Culture Beyond Appearances (see note 108). Taylor Downing’s BFI Film Classic on Riefenstahl’s Olympia (London: BFI, 1992) is also recommended for further details on dance and culture in the Third Reich. 117 The manifesto itself does not survive, but Albert Einstein received one and replied that the ‘idea of showing imaginary figures in their cinematographic development seems absolutely auspicious and legitimate to me..., transposing the nature of melody, in particular of melody with several voices, to the visual realm’. Einstein's letter to Richter, dated 3 February 1921, is in the Albert Einstein Archives, Hebrew University of Jerusalem. I owe this information to Claudia Müller-Hermann who located the letter and had it translated for her research thesis ‘Spatial Spheres’ at the RCA in 2005. 118 Man Ray The films of Man Ray are discussed, with new historical research in the catalogue Man Ray ed. J-M. Bouhours (Paris: Centre Georges Pompidou, 1997). It contains essays by Bouhours, Deke Dusinberre and others, with a selection of documents spanning Man Ray’s career. A further recent account is Kim Knowles, A Cinematic Artist: The Films of Man Ray (Bern: Peter Lang, 2009). 119 Language games in Anémic cinéma and Man Ray’s Étoile de mer are discussed in Chapter 1, ‘Image and Title in Surrealist Cinema’, P. Adams Sitney, Modernist Montage: the Obscurity of Vision in Cinema and Literature (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990).

Notes

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The French avant-garde 1924–32 120 major French films The films discussed here are analysed in Lawdor, Cubist Cinema. For two contrasting views of Un Chien andalou, see Linda Williams, Figures of Desire and Philip Drummond ‘Textual Space in Un Chien andalou’, Screen, vol. 18, no. 3, Autumn 1977. Drummond’s argument is summarised in his introduction to the accompanying screenplay and notes for the VHS reissue of the film (BFI, 1995). For L’Age d’or, see the vivid and detailed BFI Film Classic by Paul Hammond (London: BFI, 1997). 121 Kirsanov Little is known of this under-researched film-maker, who persisted with independent art films alongside a later more commercial career, though with increasing difficulty on both counts. P. Adams Sitney writes of Menilmontant that ‘there is not a moment in the entire film when metaphor does not merge with narrative, when montage, superimposition or dissolves do not reflect the thoughts of the protagonists, at the same time recording their action’ (Cinema: A Critical Dictionary, ed. Richard Roud, Viking Press, New York, 1980). Despite the lack of historical study of this neglected master, several of his films – including the two discussed here – are available on the first two DVDs of the Avant-Garde set issued by Kino Video (2005 and 2007), USA.

Voice and vision in the pre-war avant-garde 122 legendary conflict For the Artaud–Dulac debate, see Antonin Artaud Selected Works vol. III: On Cinema (London: Calder and Boyars, 1972); and Abel, French Cinema. The issue is fully aired by S. Flitterman-Lewis in her article for Kuenzli’s Dada and Surrealist Film, and – slightly toned down and focused on Dulac – in her To Desire Differently. 123 conscious hallucination Quotations from the texts by Goudal and Dali from The Shadow and its Shadow ed. Paul Hammond. 124 For analysis of Las Hurdes, see Vivian Sobchak, ‘Synthetic Vision: The Dialectical Imperative of Las Hurdes’, Millennium Film Journal nos 7/8/9, Fall/Winter 1980–81, and Catherine Russell, Experimental Ethnography: the work of film in the age of video (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1999). 125 optics For Benjamin, see ‘The Work of Art’, including the footnotes which carry much of the argument. For Artaud, see his writings on film, but most of the quotations here are from Flitterman-Lewis’s annotated article in Kuenzli’s collection. For the broadest and most thorough account of the question of visuality (including the surrealist film) see Martin Jay, Downcast Eyes. 126 parataxis For Richter on the role of editing, see his The Struggle for the Film, written in the late 1930s but not published until the 1960s. Adorno’s authoritative (1963) essay on parataxis is in his Notes to Literature, vol. 2, trans. Sherry Weber Nicholson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992), esp. pp. 109–49. Compare Adorno’s definition (in relation to Hölderlin) to Richter’s: ‘artificial disturbances that evade the logical hierachy of a subordinating syntax’ (p. 131). It is possible that Benjamin may be the link between the different kinds of montage theory current in these cultural and artistic avant-gardes. Benjamin had translated an essay by Tzara on photography for one of Richter’s journals, G, published in 1924 (G, issue 3: Tate, 2011, p. 141). As an extension to the topic of parataxis, see Peter Quartermain, Disjunctive Poetics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), which discusses the Poundian model, and his more specialist study ‘Parataxis in Basil Bunting and Louis Zukovsky’, Durham University Journal, Special Basil Bunting Supplement, 1995.

Transition: into the 1930s and documentary 127 problems For an early overview of the Soviet cinema, see Kino by Jay Leyda. The British debate over Grierson is unending. For early source materials, see E. Sussex, The Rise and Fall of British Documentary (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975) and the BFI collection Traditions of Independence ed. D. Macpherson. More recently, see Ian Aitken, Film and Reform: John Grierson and the Documentary Film Movement (London: Routledge, 1990), 160

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and Jamie Sexton, Alternative Film Culture in Inter-War Britain (Exeter: Exeter University Press, 2008). The copious literature on Jennings includes The Humphrey Jennings Reader ed. Kevin Jackson (Manchester: Carcanet, 1993) and the curiously titled Humphrey Jennings – More than a Maker of Films eds Hodgkinson and Sheratsky. Also see his montage-book of the Industrial Revolution, Pandaemonium, compiled in the same period and with a similar method to Benjamin’s ‘The Arcades Project’. On Joris Ivens, see R. Delmar, Joris Ivens. For Germany, see Germany: The New Photography 1927–33 ed. David Mellor. For the USA, see William Stott, Documentary Expression and Thirties America (London: University of Chicago Press, 1986); and William Alexander, Film on the Left: American Documentary Film 1931–1942 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981).

Reviewing the first avant-garde 128 European borderlands For a concise overview, see Deke Dusinberre’s article on ‘the other avant-gardes’ in Film As Film. The Polish avant-garde, which was far more extensive than indicated here (although almost all the films it produced are lost, except for the Themersons’) are given more detail in A. L. Rees, ‘The Themersons and the Polish Avant Garde’ in PIX 1, London, 1994. Reprinted in Michael O’Pray and Kamila Kuc eds, The Polish Avant Garde Film (London: Wallflower Press, forthcoming). 129 See Scott MacDonald, Art in Cinema: Toward a History of the Film Society (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2006). 130 Jonas Mekas Mekas remembered Richter’s generosity: ‘like a father standing on the side … an inspiration to all of us’. Hans Richter; Activism, Modernism and the Avant-garde, ed. Stephen C. Foster, (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998), p. 178, note 1.

Origins of the post-war avant-garde 131 in the 1950s For the Lettristes and situationists, Jean-Paul Curtay, Letterism and Hypergraphics: the Unknown Avant-Garde 1945–1985 (exhibition catalogue; New York: Franklin Furnace, 1985), and Situationist International Anthology ed. Ken Knabb (Berkeley, CA: Bureau of Public Secrets, 1981). A full, annotated bibliography (1972–92) is Simon Ford, The Realization and Suppression of the Situationist International (Edinburgh: AK Press, 1995). For film, see the exhibition catalogue On the Passage of a few people through a rather brief moment in time: the Situationist International 1957–1972 ed. E. Sussman (Boston: MIT and Institute of Contemporary Art, 1989), esp. T. Y. Levin on the films of Debord, pp. 148–53, which is reprinted in Tom McDonough (ed.), Guy Debord and the Situationist International: Texts and Documents (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2004). Also see the filmscripts of Guy Debord (Bibliography). Lipstick Traces (1989) by Greil Marcus is a ‘wild’ account of the period which seeks to link it to the punk era, but contains much factual and atmospheric detail. 132 new waves The American avant-garde in the 1940s and 1950s is given extensive detailed treatment in Sitney’s Visionary Film, with chapters on Anger, Brakhage, Deren and many other key artists. There is a concise overview in Curtis, Experimental Cinema. Parker Tyler’s The Three Faces of the Film (1960) gives a contemporary view of films by Deren, Anger, Markopoulos and others at a key moment for avant-garde cinema. Among the many memoirs of the period by film-makers, Sidney Peterson’s The Dark Side of the Screen (1970) is highly recommended, and the lively Coming Unbuttoned by James Broughton (San Francisco: City Lights, 1993) is exactly what its title says it is. Quotations from the writings of Maya Deren are found at length in Sitney, but her earlier work up to 1947 is thoroughly documented (in two volumes) in the uncompleted group project The Legend of Maya Deren. Jonas Mekas’s film reviews are collected as his Movie Journal, and are put in context in To Free the Cinema (on Mekas) ed. by D. James. The Underground Film by S. Renan is still a good introduction to the period and beyond, and Steve Dwoskin’s Film Is remains an illuminating guide to the avant-garde into the 1960s. Also see (in German) Birgit Hein, Film im Underground (Frankfurt: Verlag Ullstein, 1971). The later career of Fischinger is detailed in Moritz, Film Notes

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Culture and in his major biography Optical Poetry: The Life and Work of Oskar Fischinger (New Barnet: John Libbey, 2004). The Film Culture Reader ed. P. Adams Sitney, contains other important sources about the avant-garde and the New American Cinema. Nearly all the material in this part of the book is taken from these publications. 133 abstract animation In addition to Sitney, Visionary Film (Chapter 10) and Curtis, Experimental Cinema, see Articulated Light – the Emergence of Abstract Film in America (with filmography), exhibition document, eds Gerald O’Grady and Bruce Posner (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Film Archive/Anthology Film Archives, 1996). 134 Zukovsky … scenario For the Zukovsky Ulysses scenario, prepared with Jerry Reisman, see ‘The Reisman–Zukovsky Screenplay’ in Joyce at Texas, eds D. Oliphant and T. Zigal (Austin: Austin Humanities Research Center, 1983), pp. 69–77. This is discussed in Peter Quartermain, Disjunctive Poetics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 67, p. 104 and passim. Joyce seems to have approved of the script, and suggested that John Ford direct it. Compare ‘Notes for a Film of Capital’, S. M. Eisenstein, October, no. 2, 1976, and contextual essay by Annette Michelson. Eisenstein’s ‘Notes’ (but not Michelson) are reprinted in October – The First Decade, 1976–1986 (Cambridge, MA: MIT, 1987). 135 Critical neglect of Menken's films has been remedied by P. Adams Sitney in 'Marie Menken and the Somatic Camera', Chapter 1, Eyes Upside Down: Visionary Filmmakers and the Heritage of Emerson (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008).

Underground 136 outside the museum Critical and other writing from and about this period, roughly the 1960s, dovetails with the preceding section: so Sitney, Curtis, Renan and Dwoskin are as useful for this era as for the last. In addition, Gene Youngblood’s Expanded Cinema gives an early vision of cyber-culture (and is referred to later in relation to digital technologies). 137 bomb culture From the British perspective, Jeff Nuttall’s Bomb Culture (London: Jonathan Cape, 1968) is a breathless but richly detailed ‘I was there’ history of the UK underground in its heyday. For further detail on the situationists in this period, also see note 131 above. Barry Miles’s biography William Burroughs: El Hombre Invisible (London: Virgin Books, 1992) – who looms large for Nuttall, as for the whole era – adds detail to the information about this milieu, as does Jack Sargeant’s informative book of interviews and investigation, Naked Lens (Berkeley, CA: Soft Skull Press, 2009), revised edition. 138 Lettriste films by Gil Wolman, Isidore Isou and Maurice Lemaitre are issued by Re-voir, Paris. Isidore Isou's ‘Treatise on Venom and Eternity’ is also on the DVD Avant Garde 2, Experimental Cinema 1928–1954, Kino Video, USA. 139 in Vienna An excellent – but purely formal – account of the Vienna Group films by film-maker Peter Weibel is in Film As Film. Kren’s films are analysed in M. Le Grice, Abstract Film and Beyond and in Dwoskin’s Film Is. Kubelka’s films are given detailed description and readings in Visionary Film by Sitney. Kubelka’s powerful interview with Jonas Mekas is in The Film Culture Reader ed. Sitney. His film Arnulf Rainer is composed entirely of black and white frames which also generate the soundtrack; in principle, anyone can remake the film from Weibel’s description of the mathematical system which generated it (in English translation, Film As Film, p. 112) and from the diagram reproduced in the original German-language catalogue, Film als Film, p. 217. The same is true of some diagrammed films by Kurt Kren (Film als Film, p. 211), installations by Taka Iimura (Film als Film, p. 209) and – using the photo-diagram on the front and back covers of Film As Film which reproduce a complete work – of Paul Sharits. The films of the Vienna Action Group, some of whose actions were also shot by Kurt Kren, are discussed in Stephen Barber, The Art of Destruction: the films of the Vienna Action Group (London: Creation Books, 2004). 140 Beat For an account of Beat generation films, see Sargeant, Naked Lens, which includes Harry Smith, Jack Smith, Robert Frank, Taylor Mead, Jonas Mekas, Anthony Balch, Genesis P. Orridge and beyond. Also recommended is Laura Hoptman, Brion Gysin: Dream Machine (New York: Merrell Publications, 2010) and Andrew Perchuk and Rani Singh eds, Harry Smith: the Avant-Garde in the American Vernacular (Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute, 2010). 141 For a full account of Cinema 16, see Scott MacDonald, Cinema 16: Documents toward a History of the Film Society (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2003). 162

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142 The Evil Faerie (Fluxfilm No. 25) is often credited to George Landow, who took part in some Fluxus film events, but Landow thinks that it was actually made by John Cavanaugh. See Mark Webber (ed.), Two Films by Owen Land [formerly known as George Landow] (London: LUX in association with Österreichisches Filmmuseum, 2003), p. 123. Cavanaugh also made the fascinating ‘flicker film’ Blink (Fluxfilm No. 5, 1966), discussed in Hannah Higgins, The Fluxus Experience (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002). Fluxus films are available as Fluxfilm Anthology on DVD from Re-Voir, Paris. 143 In his 1967 interview with Mekas, published in Film Culture no. 44, Kubelka mainly discussed the formal aspect of the film, but in a 1999 interview with Scott MacDonald he explicitly describes its background and social context. See interview with Peter Kubelka in Scott MacDonald, A Critical Cinema 4: Interviews with Independent Filmmakers (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California, 2005). 144 Brakhage’s later relation to Stein in his four-part film Visions in Meditation, 1989/90 (titled after GS) is thoroughly discussed in P. Adams Sitney, Eyes Upside Down (New York: OUP, 2008), Chapter 15, ‘Brakhage: Meditative Cinema’. Anticipation is available on VHS from Revoir, Paris, and Visions is on the DVD Criterion collection of Brakhage films. 145 Ironically or not, Brakhage – who met some of the original abstract expressionists in his youth – worked almost exclusively with handpainted stock in the last decade of his life, when he could no longer afford to shoot and edit film (he died in 2003, aged 70). See his interviews with Scott MacDonald, A Critical Cinema 4, 2005. 146 For detailed analysis of the landscape theme in US avant-garde cinema, see Scott MacDonald, The Garden in the Machine: a field guide to independent films about place (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001). 147 Warhol Steven Koch’s study of Warhol’s films, Stargazer, is still unique and invaluable. Peter Gidal’s Andy Warhol is similarly a good introduction to both film-makers, and contains the roots of Gidal’s later ideas about film time. These early studies should be supplemented by Andy Warhol – The Film Factory ed. Michael O’Pray, which contains much historical and critical material from a wide range of contributors; and the likewise broad anthology (which covers fashion and style as well as films), Who Is Andy Warhol?, eds C. MacCabe, M. Francis and P. Wollen. The most important and astonishingly detailed addition to the literature is Callie Angell, Andy Warhol Screen Tests (New York: Abrams and the Whitney Museum of American Art, 2006), volume 1 of the Warhol films catalogue raisonné. Volume 2 was near completion at the time of Callie Angell's lamented death in 2010. 148 Warhol’s tactics Sitney’s Visionary Film deals with these in detail; its final chapters are devoted to the structural film and its makers, including Frampton, Snow, Gehr, Sharits and Landow. The latest edition of 2002 restores the 1974 chapter on Markopoulos, missing since the second edition of 1978 when the film-maker withdrew permission to quote from his writings.

Two avant-gardes (mark 1)? 149 Other artists For the Judson Church events (from the point of view of dance and choreography) see Sally Banes, Writing Dancing in the Age of Post-Modernism (Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press, 1994), which also traces the term ‘post-modernism’ from the early 1960s, as used by Yvonne Rainer to distinguish the new work from its predecessor, ‘modern dance’ (although today this direction would probably be called ‘late-modernist’). ‘Moteur!’ by Rosalind Krauss in Formless: A User’s Guide (pp. 133–7) discusses Serra’s film-viewing and his own early films: the remark about ‘the projector gate’ on p. 77 above is taken from this entry. Serra discusses his films in a 1979 interview with Annette Michelson: see Hal Foster (ed.), Richard Serra (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000), pp. 21–58. Also see Films by American Artists, the catalogue to a touring show by Regina Cornwell with essays and notes (London: Arts Council of Great Britain, 1981). The major monographs on Nauman, Morris, Serra et al. also discuss their films and videos. 150 ‘art and objecthood’ Michael Fried’s seminal essay, originally published in Artforum, 5, 1967, is anthologised in Minimal Art ed. Gregory Battcock (New York: Dutton, 1968). It is reprinted with his other art criticism of the period, and a memorable new introduction, in Michael Fried, Art and Objecthood – Essays and Reviews (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998). Also see note 167. Notes

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Structural 151 high ground This era generated some key books, largely by film-makers, but sadly few are in print so they will have to be consulted in libraries. Luckily, some important articles are reprinted in Michael O’Pray’s anthology, The British Avant-Garde Film. The final chapter of Sitney’s Visionary Film, which happily is also still available, started the ‘structural’ ball rolling. Some reactions to his first version of the structural tendency, in the late 60s, can be traced in The Film Culture Reader and the equally invaluable reader (also edited by Sitney), The AvantGarde Film. As for the British structural film, the later sections of Curtis and Dwoskin give early insights into this ‘new wave’, which was in formation while their books were being written. The thorough Structural Film Anthology edited by Peter Gidal, and which went into two editions (1976, 1978), should be consulted for its introduction, reviews, interviews and articles by key film-makers. Similarly, Le Grice’s Abstract Film and Beyond, which has the additional virtue of being illustrated (Gidal’s anthology was tellingly not), has succinct analyses of films by the British and European avant-gardes. Further material is in Film As Film, the catalogue to a major Hayward Gallery exhibition which coincided with the close of this era in 1979. A comprehensive broadsheet for his round-up of the LFMC from 1966–76 was compiled by Mark Webber for the Tate Modern symposium Shoot Shoot Shoot, May 2002, and published by LUX, who issue a DVD selection of early LFMC work also called Shoot Shoot Shoot. 152 Frampton … Snow Frampton gave excellent interviews (see Scott MacDonald, A Critical Cinema, vol. 1) and his own writings – many appeared first in ‘Art Forum’ under Annette Michaelson’s editorship – were collected as Circles of Confusion (1983), now expanded in Bruce Jenkins (ed.), On the Camera Arts and Consecutive Matters: the writings of Hollis Frampton (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2009). An early insight is given in the 12 Dialogues 1962–1963 between Frampton and Carl Andre, ed. Benjamin Buchloh (Halifax and New York: Press of the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design/New York University Press, 1980). Snow is one of the few film-makers of this era to have received full documentation: Snow Seen by Regina Cornwell is especially recommended. Snow’s own photo-books such as Cover to Cover are worth looking at in specialist art libraries. The four volumes of The Michael Snow Project (Art Gallery of Ontario, 1994/5) include Presence and Absence: the films of Michael Snow 1956-1991. Also see the exhibition catalogue Michael Snow: Almost Cover to Cover (London: Black Dog Publishing, 2001). Brakhage’s later writings, which cover this period, are collected in Scrapbook (ed. R. Haller) and in Bruce McPherson (ed.), The Essential Brakhage, (New York: McPherson Press, 2001). 153 For an account of this project, see Michael Zryd ‘History and Ambivalence in Hollis Frampton’s Magellan’, October 109, Summer 2004. 154 This controversial term first appeared in an essay for Film Culture 47, Summer 1969, and was subsequently revised and expanded for Visionary Film (first published 1974). 155 ‘tight nexus’ This formulation is in the first two editions of Visionary Film (1974, p. 407 and 1979, p. 368), but is omitted in the third edition (2002). 156 viewing as reading This is discussed by Federico Windhausen, ‘Words into Film: Toward a Genealogical Understanding of Hollis Frampton’s Theory and Practice’, October 109, Summer 2004. Apart from the earlier books noted above, the US film avant-garde of the 1960s–70s has been well-served by an increasing number of studies, which include William Wees’ Light Moving in Time, Scott MacDonald’s Avant-Garde Film and James Peterson’s postBordwellian Dreams of Chaos, Visions of Order. MacDonald has also published five volumes of interviews with American (and some European) film-makers and a further collection of texts and documents which give valuable insight into their working methods and ideas, Screen Writings: Scripts and Texts by Independent Filmmakers (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). Wheeler Winston Dixon’s The Exploding Eye: a Re-Visionary History of 1960s American Experimental Cinema records ‘the work of lesser-known experimental film-makers whose work has been excluded from the dominant film canon’. All of these ‘area studies’ should therefore be consulted for US and some international experimental cinema from the 1960s to the 1980s. Further recent examples are listed in the new Introduction and notes to this book (p. 145). 157 This situation, which lasted for over twenty years, has since been much remedied by major 164

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retrospective screenings of the original films, and by the availability of DVDs such as 13 Most Beautiful... Songs for Andy Warhol's Screen Tests (Andy Warhol Museum, Pittsburgh, 2009). 158 I said to Sitney Letter from Frampton to Peter Gidal (August 1972), Structural Film Anthology, p. 77. He also makes the remark quoted later about leaving structuralism ‘to confound all Gaul’. This anthology also contains an interview with Gidal. A longer version is printed in the Hollis Frampton Memorial Issue of October, no. 35, Spring 1985.

Part Two: Britain, 1966–98 English structuralists 159 creative misreadings Le Grice quotations are from the Structural Film Anthology, pp. 22– 7. This article is extracted from Le Grice’s Abstract Film and Beyond. 160 London Co-op David Curtis’s witty and lucid diary of the English avant-garde first appeared in a special issue of Studio International, Nov./Dec. 1975, devoted to ‘Avant-Garde Film in England and Europe’ with key articles by Wollen (‘Two Avant-Gardes’), Gidal (‘Structural/Materialist Film’), Deke Dusinberre, Ron Haseldon, Birgit Hein, Malcolm Le Grice, Barbara Meter, Annabel Nicolson, Alan Sheridan and Peter Weibel. The diary has since been reprinted, with new comments, most recently in The British Avant-Garde Film ed. M. O’Pray. This is supplemented by Duncan Reekie’s concise and thought-provoking account of the Co-op in Filmwaves, 1, Summer 1997, though without his polemical conclusions. These are now expanded in his book Subversion (London: Wallflower, 2007). Issue 1 of Tony Rayns’s short-lived but vivid Cinema Rising, April 1972 (title after Kenneth Anger) contains photographs and a checklist of underground film-makers in the UK. Also see David Parson’s memoir of the LFMC in Filmwaves, 2, Nov. 1997. For a more critical theoretical account of the period, see David Bordwell, Making Meaning, ‘Picture Planes’ section, esp. pp. 53–60 (US structural film) and 60–4 (UK structural film). For a sample of 1960’s and 1970’s UK reviews and articles on experimental film, see the online archive of the magazine International Times at www.internationaltimes.it/. 161 it almost happened In addition to Nuttall, Bomb Culture, and Sargeant, Beat Cinema, for a different perspective on this period see Peter Wollen on Performance (1970) (‘Possessed’, Sight and Sound, vol. 5, no. 9, September 1995) and, in the same issue, the recollections of the film’s designer, Christopher Gibbs (‘Tuning into Wonders’). Also see Colin MacCabe, Performance (London: BFI, 1998). 162 landscape tradition The most thorough and illuminating account of this tendency in LFMC film-making is by Deke Dusinberre, who wrote many articles and screening notes on this topic. Interested readers should consult Dusinberre’s ‘On British Avant-Garde Landscape Film’, Undercut, no. 7/8, Landscape Issue, Spring 1983, which contextualises these notes (originally written for a series of Tate Gallery screenings, March 1975). Excerpts from this and other essays are in A Perspective on English Avant-Garde Film, the catalogue to a touring exhibition by Curtis and Dusinberre and an important source-book of the period with critical writings and film-makers’ essays (London: Arts Council of Great Britain, 1978). Also, see his ‘St George in the Forest: the English Avant-Garde’ in Afterimage, no. 6, 1976, and his brilliant ‘swansong’ to the British Avant-Garde, ‘See Real Images’, Afterimage, nos 8/9, 1981. Landscape and avant-garde film are also discussed by P. Adams Sitney in ‘Landscape in the Cinema: the Rhythms of the World and the Camera’, in Landscape, Natural Beauty and the Arts eds Salim Kemal and Ivan Gaskell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993). 163 explored in a different way These notes are indebted to Le Grice’s descriptions in Abstract Film and Beyond, where much more detail can be obtained on these and related works. 164 The later films of Sherwin are mentioned in the new Conclusion. 165 extreme opponent More detail on Peter Gidal’s films is in Nicky Hamlyn’s article for The British Avant-Garde Film anthology (ed. M. O’Pray), based on an earlier essay for Undercut, 19, 1990 – ‘From Structuralism to Minimalism: Peter Gidal and his influence in the 1980s’ – which should also be consulted. An early photostat collection of essays on Gidal appeared as Independent Cinema Documentation File No 1: Peter Gidal, compiled by Paul Willemen (London: BFI, 1979). Notes

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166 polemical introduction Peter Gidal’s introduction to the Structural Film Anthology is also reprinted in the British Avant Garde Film Reader. 167 Michael Fried See above, note 150. The issues are complex, and – insofar as they to relate to cinema – so far untraced. Fried’s (negative) references to the sculptor Tony Smith’s emblematic car-ride on the New Jersey Turnpike (where Smith experienced ‘a reality there that had not had any expression in art’) looks ahead to the rise of the road movie and via Robert Smithson and Richard Long, back into art. At the same time (and just shortly before ‘Art and Objecthood’ was published), Fried’s main examplar of pure painting was not immune from technology: ‘The seminal Nine Evenings of Art and Technology in the USA in 1966, a collaboration between a number of visual artists and research technologists mainly from Bell Laboratories, even saw austere abstract painters like Frank Stella flirting with electronics’ (Malcolm Le Grice, ‘Mapping in Multi-Space’, Experimental Cinema in the Digital Age [London: BFI, 2001]). The saga works its way back into film theory, despite Fried’s strictures, by way of his intellectual association with the philosopher and cineaste Stanley Cavell: see Chapter 11, ‘Excursus: Some Modernist Painting’, of his The World Viewed – Reflections on the Ontology of Film (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979). Fried's 1967 rejection of film as a modernist art ‘even at its most experimental’, made in the same year as Wavelength, contrasts to his recent championing of gallery video, as in his Why Photography Matters as Art as Never Before (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008). His book Four Honest Outlaws (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011) includes chapters on Douglas Gordon and Anri Sala. 168 ‘The Anti-Narrative’ Peter Gidal’s essay of this title is in Screen, vol. 20, no. 2, Summer 1979, with an afterword by Stephen Heath. In the same issue, also see ‘Notes on Reading of Avant-Garde Films’ by Felix Thompson.

Primitives and post-structuralists 169 primitive era Books and articles by Burch, Gunning, Fell and others document the link between the avant-garde film and the early film. Of these, Gunning (‘An Unseen Energy Swallows Space’) takes a positive view that early film is ‘inspirational’ on the avant-garde, while Burch (‘Primitivism and the Avant-Garde Film’) is more sceptical of attempts to ‘conscript [early] film into the modernist logic’; these essays are anthologised in Fell (ed.) Film Before Griffith (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983) and in Rosen, Narrative, Apparatus, Ideology respectively. However, it is important that such seminal historians of early film as Noel Burch, Ben Brewster, Tom Gunning, Barry Salt and David Bordwell shared a more than passing interest in the experimental cinema, although their thoughts on this are very diverse. Among the film-makers who took up historical issues in this period – preceded by such independent books as Stefan Themerson’s ‘imaginary’ film history The Urge to Create Visions – were (most idiosyncratically) Brakhage’s Film Biographies, in which he reinvents Griffith and Eisenstein, among others; Klaus Wyborny’s ‘Random Notes on the Conventional Narrative Film’, Afterimage, nos 8/9, Spring 1981, pp. 112–33; Frampton’s essay ‘Towards a Meta-History of Film’ in Circles of Confusion (1983) and On the Camera Arts (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2009); P. Adams Sitney’s short monograph on Ernie Gehr, Ernie Gehr (Minneapolis: Walker Arts Centre, 1980); Ernie Gehr’s ‘Notes’ (obliquely) in Films of Ernie Gehr, retrospective catalogue p. 30 (San Francisco: San Francisco Cinematheque, 1993); interview with Ernie Gehr in Scott MacDonald, A Critical Cinema 5: Interviews with Independent Filmmakers (Berkeley: Univerisity of California Press, 2006); Malcolm Le Grice’s essay ‘The History We Need’, in Film As Film (reprinted in O’Pray’s The British Avant-Garde Film) and in Malcolm Le Grice, Experimental Cinema in the Digital Age (London: BFI, 2001). Valuable also is Bart Testa, Back and Forth – Early Cinema and the AvantGarde (Ontario: Art Gallery of Ontario, 1992). The most recent and extensive contribution is Wanda Strauven (ed.), The Cinema of Attractions Reloaded (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2006). Some current works by experimental film-makers continue to draw from the ‘early cinema’ debate, for example Peter Tscherkassky's Coming Attractions (2010), which directly addresses Gunning’s ‘Unseen Energy’ essay in order to bring together ‘commercials, early cinema and avant-garde film’. This film also has a section called 'Cubist Cinema' and a hommage to Henri Chomette's 'pure cinema'. 166

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170 innovative TV For an account and analysis of UK broadcasting, see John Ellis, Visible Fictions (London: Routledge, 1992). Also see note 176. 171 later 1970s This section, and many of the later remarks on the British avant-garde film from 1975 onwards, is indebted to Nicky Hamlyn’s careful analysis of the ‘late-structural’ film, which is gratefully acknowledged. Many of his ideas and phrases are incorporated directly. His views can easily be found in their own right in an article for The British AvantGarde Film ed. M. O’Pray, in his book Film Art Phenomena (London: BFI, 2003), and in his many essays on film- and video-makers in the broadly structural tradition. Similarly important to discussion of the period is Peter Gidal’s Materialist Film, which covers the ‘structuralmaterialist’ idea. Worth consulting too is the compendious 20th Anniversary issue of Millennium Film Journal, nos 16/17/18, Fall/Winter 1986–7, which reprints Wollen’s ‘Landscape, Meteorology and Chris Welsby’ and has a transcript of Sitney and Le Grice debating ‘Narrative Illusion vs. Structural Realism’. 172 the already known ‘It all boils down to the question of unrecognition, of disallowing the viewer the recognition of the known. The viewer must be placed as unknowing. If an artwork represents the already known it voids its own necessity.’ This variant of Gidal’s position is taken from the 1991 Preface to the original text of his Andy Warhol. Readers vexed by Gidal’s prose style are advised to read this lucid, short and autobiographical account as a summary. For Gidal’s prose style, see Deke Dusinberre, ‘Consistent Oxymoron – Peter Gidal’s Rhetorical Strategy’, Screen, vol. 18, no. 2, Summer 1977. 173 APG For the Artists’ Placement Group, see John A. Walker, John Latham (London: Middlesex University Press, 1995) which gives a rich and detailed account of Latham’s career (with Barbara Steveni) as artist and art activist. 174 David Hall Sean Cubitt gives a valuable analysis of Hall’s work in his excellent Videography. For a more recent account of Hall's work and ideas, see Duncan White, ‘British Expanded Cinema and the “Live Culture” 1969-79’, Visual Culture in Britain vol. 11, no. 1, March 2010.

Video stirs 175 first stirrings For the history and theory of British video art, see Cubitt, Videography and especially Julia Knight’s full and aptly titled Diverse Practices, a collection of key source texts and new articles – with bibliography and chronology – on British video. This and the later sections on digital art are indebted to Julia Knight’s invaluable anthology. Also, see the special ‘Video Art’ issue of Studio International ed. David Hall, May–June 1976. 176 For an account of radical British TV, including Ken Russell, see Jamie Sexton, ‘From art to to avant-garde? Television, formalism and the arts documentary in 1960’s Britain’, and Kay Dickinson, ‘Ken Russell, national culture and the possibility of experimental television at the BBC in the 1960s’, Laura Mulvey and Jamie Sexton eds, Experimental British Television (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2007). 177 ‘formalism’ The Marshall–Hall debate, and its aftermath down to John Wyver’s revisionist polemic in the 1990s, can be traced through Knight, Diverse Practices, which contains the key texts. 178 Gustav Metzger Essays by Metzger on ‘auto-destructive art’ and other matters are in his damaged nature, auto-destructive art (London: Coracle/workfortheeyetodo, 1996). Also see Gustav Metzger: Decades 1959-2009 (Cologne: Walter König, 2009).

Art and politics 179 diverse movements The history of political cinema in the late 1970s to the early 1980s can be traced through the ‘independent cinema’ issues of Screen and in Ellis, Visible Fictions. A substantial and important collection is Margaret Dickinson (ed.), Rogue Reels: Oppositional Film in Britain, 1945-1990 (London: BFI, 1999). The BFI Production Board Catalogues for the whole period are a further source, since they contain ‘contextualising’ essays and aspirations for the films which were funded. Colin MacCabe’s introduction to his Theoretical Notes

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Essays: Film, Linguistics, Literature, reviews the growth of ‘independent cinema’ more critically, and sets out a different political agenda for radical film culture. 180 For a full account of the IFA and related groups, see Margaret Dickinson ed., Rogue Reels: Oppositional Film in Britain, 1945-90 (London: BFI, 1999). 181 ‘The Two Avant-Gardes’ Peter Wollen’s essay, first published in 1975 can be found most easily in his collection Readings and Writings. It might be compared to Paul Willemen’s ‘An Avant-Garde for the 80s’ (Framework, 24, Spring 1984), which similarly looked to an antipurist rejection of film as ontology or investigation, in favour of ‘semantic expansion’ into heterogeneity, mixed media, and a montage of codes, signs and registers. Semiotic reductionism is allied here to an attack on Greenberg’s ideas, seen as a search for essence and high art. For an update of Willemen’s ideas, see ‘An Avant-Garde for the 90s’ in his Looks and Frictions.

A cinema of small gestures 182 small gestures The phrase is from Derek Jarman, but it applies especially well to the domestic scale of much late-structural UK film and video in the 1970s and 1980s. This section draws gratefully and liberally on Nicky Hamlyn’s ‘Structural Traces’ in O’Pray (ed.), British Avant-Garde Film and on his other writings about this period. Several of the films discussed in this section are also analysed in Peter Gidal, Materialist Film.

Rebel waves Documentation for this period is sparse. In reacting against the structural avant-garde, younger film- and video-makers also rejected the theory-laden context of structural work. This is not to impugn anyone’s motives, intelligence or reading habits – younger film- and video-makers in this period probably saw as much and talked as much as any other group of artists, but they were more reluctant to write about it than their elders (who were often also their tutors, giving them a double reason for steering clear of the written word). Not coincidentally, there was a move away from linguistics and hard (i.e. Freudian) psychoanalysis as theoretical models in this period, and a shift towards the more subjective and personal writing of Kristeva, Baudrillard and Blanchot. This swung the balance more towards literature than classical theory as understood to that point. The joint result is a dearth of essay writing by film-makers in the 1980s and a move towards ephemera from handbills and postcards to posters, just as venues shifted to clubs, warehouses, squats and a few galleries. A few more formal and hence available catalogues are noted in this and the following sections. For more detailed reference on films and screenings, the reader is advised to consult back issues of Performance magazine (edited at this time by Rob Le Fresnais) and Art Monthly (reviews by Michael O’Pray and others) from around 1983/4. This too tells its own story of what occured at this time in terms of the avant-garde ambience. For a later summary of the era by Michael O'Pray, see his essay ‘Expanded Cinema and the New Romantic Film Movement of the 1980s’ in Rees, Curtis, White and Ball (eds), Expanded Cinema (London: Tate Publications, 2011). 183 Scratch See George Barber’s essay ‘Scratch and After’ in Culture, Technology and Creativity ed. Philip Hayward. See Hayward’s own essay in the same volume for the impact of video art on music videos. 184 empty spaces ‘Film As Film’ was based on an exhibition, ‘Film als Film – 1910 bis heute’ organised by Birgit Hein and Wulf Herzogenrath in 1977. The withdrawal of the women and Peter Gidal from ‘Film As Film’ is documented in the catalogue, and the women’s statement is also reprinted in The British Avant-Garde Film ed. M. O’Pray. 185 An anthology is now available in The Undercut Reader: critical writings on artists' film and video, Nina Danino and Michael Mazière eds (London: Wallflower Press, 2003). 186 commercial fringe In retrospect, the 1980s blurring of rock videos and avant-garde style – which so antagonised the structural film-makers – might have come as less of a shock had local conditions been different. The downplaying of the underground mode for a decade in 168

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the 1970s was partly responsible for the return of the rock-based repressed ten years later. In the wider perspective, this mode can be traced back to the late 1940s, when Harry Smith synchronised his Abstraction #2 to Dizzy Gillespie and then reissued all his Early Abstractions in the 1960s accompanied by Beatles songs. Bruce Conner cut Ray Charles to Cosmic Ray in 1961 and Kenneth Anger expanded the genre with Scorpio Rising in 1963. Warhol’s Vinyl of 1965 cuts in rock music, and later he filmed Nico and the Velvet Underground. His clubland events, ‘The Exploding Plastic Inevitable’, featured lightshows and mixed media with live music. The 1967 structural film Wavelength by Michael Snow incorporates a Beatles song (played from a radio) and a rising sine wave on its soundtrack. David James in Power Misses updates the story through the artist Robert Longo’s contribution to a mid-1980s New Order video, Substance, while Robert Breer and William Wegman imaged the same band’s song ‘Blue Monday’ for a promotional video (compare the Duvet Brothers’ UK video of the same title and date, available on Scratch Video – Greatest Hits volume 2). Conner later used soundtracks composed by David Byrne and Brian Eno for America is Waiting. Eno had much earlier composed the soundloop for Le Grice’s 1970 Berlin Horse and later produced sound for many films, including Derek Jarman’s 1977 Jubilee. The 1970s–80s gap in this aspect of experimental film was not just the product of structuralist puritanism: the US punk film, exemplified by Beth and Scott B., was likewise not a music-based form, strangely enough. When music re-entered the frame, with the rock video, it brought with it vestiges of the old war between synchronised sound (i.e. realism) and contrapuntal sound (Eisenstein’s concept of sound ‘against’ picture). The general rule was that the less lip-synch was used, the more radical the video became. Richard Heslop’s videos are a good example, as is Jarman’s video for The Smiths’ The Queen is Dead (1986), which shows no footage of the band at all. The current position is much more complex and sophisticated – and now incorporates the structural style itself as another component of the visual mix. Film-makers such as Matt Hulse in the UK have taken post-pop-video montage back into the domain of the personal artists’ film, as in the aptly titled Take Me Home (1998). (This 1999 note was written at the peak of radicalism in the pop video, which had drawn in class acts by Bruce Weber for The Pet Shop Boys and had generated exciting and allusive work by Sophie Muller for the Eurythmics/Annie Lennox and Pedro Romhanyi for Pulp, respectively. After the late 1990s the genre went into seemingly terminal decline, presumably because of internet rather than video/DVD access to rock music with images. Occasional signs of life can still be seen, for example in the laser-imaged cameraless data-capture video ‘House of Cards’ for Radiohead, 2008, although this relied more on inventive technicians at UCLA than creative film-making).

Art Cinema’s odd couple: Derek Jarman and Peter Greenaway 187 Jarman and Greenaway These film-makers have attracted much more critical writing than any other British film- and video-makers discussed or mentioned in this book. For key examples, see Michael O’Pray, Derek Jarman (London: BFI, 1996), Derek Jarman: a Portrait ed. Roger Wollen (London: Thames & Hudson, 1996), and David Pascoe, Peter Greenaway – Museums and Moving Images (London: Reaktion Books, 1997). Media theorist Yvonne Spielmann has published a German-language study, Untermedialität: Das System Peter Greenaway (Munich: Wilhelm Fink, 1998). 188 avant-garde? Independently of the negative judgements about Greenaway in this section, the artist and critic Julian Bell reviewed Pascoe’s book and Amy Lawrence’s The Films of Peter Greenaway (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997) in the TLS (no. 4952, 27 February 1998, p. 36). Sympathetic but firmly independent, Bell’s review is also troubled by the films. Admitting Greenaway’s ‘craft’ and ‘brilliance’, Bell writes that ‘far-ranging external allusions and intricate internal cross-references can induce the viewer to abandon the sequential expectations of naturalistic cinema. In their sheer ingenuity, Greenaway’s pictorial contraptions have given avant-garde cinematic practice a new popular viability.’ Impressed by Greenaway’s use of actors, he notes that ‘the formal discipline imposed by his regimented décor and long static shots seems to stimulate rather than constrain his cast’ – the reverse view to the one taken here. But then Bell turns to the ‘stridently banal’ premises of the films, rooted in the propositions that ‘humans are bodies, driven by biology’ and (especially in the Notes

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early works) that representations (such as maps) are inadequate to their referents. Bell calls these truisms or half-truths: Clearly, we have to exist as something other than ‘bodies’ to be able to conceive of ‘biology’, and clearly we can’t criticize our representations of reality without reaching for further representations – such as films. Yet Greenaway has very little to assert, in his non-naturalistic cinema, apart from this codDarwinism and this dissatisfaction with fiction; and so he tries to invest these factors with an emotional weight they won’t carry. This is where the films become stupid.

Bell explains Greenaway’s rise as a European auteur to both his ‘formal resourcefulness’ and his ‘vogueishness’. These he links to Greenaway’s origins, so that he ‘belongs with an intellectual culture that has staked out its discursive base on the Western tradition of painting’. Hence, Bell says that the model for Greenaway’s major films from The Draughtsman’s Contract to The Baby of Mâcon is Foucault’s discussion of Velazquez’s Las Meniñas. But like Foucault, as they ‘stride their way into the imaginative interiors bequeathed by the Old Masters’, the films hover between subverting that tradition and fascination with it; which ‘makes Greenaway’s films monuments to a kind of contemporary double standard: crudely essentialist about nature, evasively relativist about culture’. Bell alludes to the early extremism of The Falls (‘an uncirculated, three-hour pseudo-documentary’) as preferable to Greenaway’s most recent ‘lapse into bathos’, but inventively concludes that the glittering surface rather than the evaporating sense makes the films most rewarding – rather like the critical writing which Greenaway attracts from his admirers. Greenaway is finally ‘a showman, a crowd-puller for the institutionalized avant-garde; but a resourceful one, always worth turning to watch’. As a locus of Greenaway’s contemporary role, Bell’s essay is also worth turning to read, and not just because its terms of reference – from outside the avant-garde – overlap with but differ from those adopted here. Greenaway’s most recent foray into art and cinema is the garishly high-tech multiscreen installation ‘Leonardo’s Last Supper: A Vision by Peter Greenaway’, exhibited at Park Avenue Armory, New York in December/ January 2010/11. 189 For an impressively illustrated account, see David Critchley, 2B Butlers Wharf, online at BAFVSC (www.studycollection.co.uk).

New pluralism 190 New Pluralism This was the title for an important exhibition of new and diverse work selected by Tina Keane and Michael O’Pray. See catalogue with this title, British Film and Video 1980–1985: The New Pluralism (London: Tate Gallery, 1985). For a related but more historical exhibition and catalogue, see The Elusive Sign: British Avant-Garde Film and Video 1977–1987 (London: Arts Council of Great Britain, 1987), selected by Michael O’Pray, Tamara Krikorian and Catherine Lacey and organised by David Curtis. The video aspect of this era is also discussed in Diverse Practices ed. Knight.

Black British 191 Black British See ‘Aesthetics and Politics; Working on two Fronts’ (Martine Attille, Reece Auguiste, Peter Gidal and Isaac Julien) in The British Avant-Garde Film for a debate which conveys the flavour of this period. For a later reassessment, see Kodwo Eshun and Anjalika Sagar (eds) The Ghost of Songs: The Film Art of the Black Audio Film Collective (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2007).

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Electronic arts 192 curious twists This section draws especially on Richard Wright’s informative essay in Diverse Practices ed. Knight, together with other contributions by Peter Donebauer and Michael Mazière. For a later and important collection of essays by participants in the fusion between conceptual and electronic art in this period, see Paul Brown, Charlie Gere, Nicholas Lambert and Catherine Mason (eds), White Heat Cold Logic: British Computer Art 1960-1980 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2008). Also see note 203. 193 the Themersons See pp. 58–9 above.

yBa 194 thrusting Matthew Collings’s Blimey! (Cambridge: 21 Publishing, 1997), is an excellent and more critical review of young (and older) British art than it is reputed to be. It is therefore a good introduction to ‘the tone of the times’, but focuses on painting and sculpture as the key media rather than video and film. For a more negative account of this movement, see Julian Stallabrass, High Art Lite: British Art in the 1990s (London: Verso, 2001). The ‘installation’ debate which rolled through the journal Art Monthly in 1996–7, mainly by Ian Hunt and Catherine Elwes, is worth consulting (for example, no. 196, May 1996; no. 199, September 1996; no. 203, February 1997) as is Michael O’Pray’s review of the artists’ cinema (Art Monthly, no. 210, October 1997). During this period, a large number of art journals published special issues on film and video as art forms, but for the most part they featured the high-profile US artists Gary Hill and Bill Viola (who had major exhibitions in the UK during the 1990s) and on the ‘art cinema’ led by Greenaway and Jarman. The avant-gardes as understood in this book were largely missing, except of course where they merged with yBa film-makers such as Gordon, Wearing and Taylor-Wood (all of whom have had their film work catalogued). For an important grouping, see, for example, Scream and Scream Again: Film in Art (Oxford: MOMA, 1996), exhibition (including Sadie Benning, Douglas Gordon, Isaac Julien, Tony Oursler and others), ed. with an extensive essay by Chrissie Isles (1996). 195 some made … performance art Performance art in the UK has still to be tracked through the journals for its history, but the key US texts are Rose Lee Goldberg’s Performance Art: from Futurism to the Present (London: Thames & Hudson, 1988), and Henry Sayre, The Object of Performance (London: University of Chicago Press, 1992). For an account of a related topic, see Claire Bishop, Installation Art (London: Tate Publishing, 2005). 196 distant ancestors See Diverse Practices ed. Knight for further details. 197 elusive self The examples here are liberally taken from Catherine Elwes’s article in Diverse Practices although without her interpretation of their import for feminist art. 198 Taylor-Wood See essay by Michael O’Pray in the catalogue Sam Taylor-Wood (London: Chisenhale Gallery/White Cube, 1996). 199 Wearing The Sensation catalogue has a bibliography, but also see Gillian Wearing, with essays by Russell Ferguson and Donna di Salvo (London: Phaidon, 1999). 200 Hirst See catalogues for Spellbound and Sensation Young British Artists for the Saatchi Collection (London: Thames Hudson/Royal Academy of Arts, 1997) for more details on Damien Hirst. 201 Dean See the exhibition pamphlet Foley Artist, with text by Sean Rainbird (London: Tate Gallery, 1996), and the discussion ‘Talking about Tacita Dean’s Foley Artist’ between Bartomeu Mari, curator, Simon Field, the then director of the International Film Festival Rotterdam, and art critic Michael Tarantino, in Cahier, no. 6, Witte de With Gallery, Centre for Contemporary Art (Düsseldorf: Rotterdam/Richter Verlag, 1996). A later work shown at the Frith Street Gallery, 1997, took the form of a complex film-loop projection/installation, a genre in gallery art that Dean continued to explore over the next decade.

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‘Where are we now?’ 202 Youngblood See his Expanded Cinema. The essays by Wright and others in Diverse Practices extend this area of study, as does Electronic Culture ed. Timothy Druckrey. 203 Le Grice … computer-based A ‘subjective set of comments and recollections based on my early involvement with computer or digital art’ by Le Grice is Never the Same Again, in P. Brown, C. Gere, N. Lambert and C. Mason (eds), White Heat Cold Logic: British Computer Art 1960-1980. The Victoria and Albert Museum held an exhibition of ‘Digital Pioneers’ in 2010, and its collection of early computer art can be accessed at www.vam.ac.uk/collections/ prints_books/features/computer-art/index.html. For Le Grice’s later thoughts on digital art, see his essays ‘Mapping in Multi-Space – Expanded Cinema to Virtuality’ (1996) and ‘A NonLinear Tradition – Experimental Film and Digital Cinema’ (1997) in Le Grice, Experimental Cinema in the Digital Age (2001). The second essay is an especially lucid analysis of narrative (and perspective) forms, with their social implications, and the alternative model which can be traced back through the history of underground, abstract and avant-garde film. Also, see Millennium Film Journal, no. 28, Spring 1995, for articles on non-linear interactivity and experimental film by Andrew Cameron, Grahame Weinbren, Richard Wright and Malcolm Le Grice. For other views on electronics, film and art, see essays by A. L. Rees (‘Digital Daze’), Joan Key (‘Painting and Cyberspace’) and others in ACT (Art, Criticism and Theory), no. 4, ed. John Gange (London: Pluto/KIAD, 1998). For post-1999 developments in digital thinking and the avant-garde, see the new Conclusion and notes. 204 For a full account of this era, see Paul Brown, Charlie Gere, Nicholas Lambert and Catherine Mason eds, White Light Cold Logic: British Computer Art 1960-1980.

Points of resistance The title is taken from Lauren Rabinovitz, Points of Resistance: Women, Power and Politics in the New York Avant-garde Cinema 1943–71, focused on Maya Deren, Shirley Clarke and Joyce Wieland. The content of this section acknowledges Michael Mazière’s illuminating article in Diverse Practices. 205 MTV A cultural and economic analysis of MTV, and the plagiarism of avant-garde film by the advertising industry (this includes imitations of Maya Deren) is in David James, ‘AvantGarde Film and Music Video: A View from Zurich’, Power Misses, using American examples. 206 active generations The current UK film-makers discussed here were included among over 100 UK artists whose work is described in Directory of British Film and Video Artists, ed. David Curtis (1996). This directory contains biographical notes, critical assessments, film and videographies, bibliographies. See for further details on Larcher, Maybury, Parker, Raban, Smith, and over 120 others. However, with the exception of Tacita Dean, it included none of the emerging artists associated with the yBa who were about to dominate the film and video projection scene for the next ten years. 207 See D. Curtis, A.L. Rees, D. White and S. Ball eds Expanded Cinema: art, performance, film (London: Tate Publications, 2011). 208 For Jayne Parker's films from 1979-2000, see Jayne Parker Filmworks 79-00, with essays by Joan Key, A.L. Rees and Anthony Howell (Exeter: Spacex Gallery, 2000). 209 flickering equilibrium Welsby elaborates on the complex relations between natural images, science and art – and his own ecological concerns – in two recent essays: ‘Cybernetics, Expanded Cinema and New Media’, in Expanded Cinema: Art, Performance, Film (2011); and ‘Technology, Nature, Software and Networks: Materializing the Post-Romantic Landscape’, Leonardo, vol. 44, no. 2, April 2011. 210 See A.L. Rees, ‘Experimenting on air; UK artists’ film on television’, Experimental British Television (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2007). 211 polemical Biennalle Catalogues with selectors’ introductions and notes were published for each of the Biennales by the Institute of Contemporary Arts, London. Short catalogues of the first ‘Pandaemonium’ festivals were also published by the ICA and then by the Lux. The 172

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Exploding Cinema issues an impressive amount of ephemera to promote its informal and open screenings. It was researched by Stefan Szczelkun for his PhD (Exploding Cinema 1992–1999, culture and democracy: 2002) at the Royal College of Art, School of Communications. 212 Although something like this did happen in the next decade beyond the UK – in the US, continental Europe and Japan – with cult/fringe films such as Irreversible, Ringu/The Ring, The Bourne Ultimatum, Triangle and others by Philippe Grandrieux, Darren Aronofsky and Michel Gondry, where underground and experimental cinema ‘style’ is exploited as a source for memory and fantasy themes – or melodrama. 213 A curious twist here was, and still is, digital software that can add or imitate film scratch, flicker, dust particles, frame slippage and other ‘signs’ of 16mm and 8mm footage. Ironically, these inadvertent signs of film decay are must-have emblems for some kinds of music video and ‘arty’ home-movies.

Conclusion 214 comfortable, acceptable Over the next ten years, most of the yBa’s became firmly part of the art establishment, and – in the cases of Tracey Emin and Damien Hirst – national treasures or sacred monsters. Those who continued to make films largely turned to features or biopic (Sam Taylor-Wood, Emin, Steve McQueen, Hirst) and leading gallery artist Douglas Gordon latterly made his first feature-length documentary, Zidane: a 21st Century Portrait (with Philippe Parreno) in 2006. The most promising from the avant-garde film point of view was Gillian Wearing, whose mainly film-related solo exhibition at the Serpentine Gallery in 2000 had as its centrepiece the extraordinary three-screen projection Drunk (1997–9), a structured choreography acted out by a group of alcoholic people who she had worked with closely in making the video. Since this fierce, controversial and intense piece, Wearing has returned to more conventional neo-documentary re-enactments of TV drama on family themes familiar from her earlier work. There are monographs on many of these and other related artists e.g. Gillian Wearing (Donna De Salvo, Russell Ferguson, John Slyce; London: Phaidon Press, 1999); The Film Art of Isaac Julien (David Frankel and David Deitcher; Anandale-on-Hudson, NY: Bard College Publications, 2000); Douglas Gordon (Russell Ferguson; Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001); Sam Taylor-Wood (Michael Bracewell and Jeremy Millar; London: Hayward Gallery Publishing, 2002). 215 inaccurate parody But not an invention. A recent example of this viewpoint claims that ‘Media installation’s early years were largely characterized by modest 16mm films displayed across one or more surfaces and ungainly video monitors featuring blurry black-and-white imagery’: Kate Mondloch, Screens: Viewing Media Installation Art (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010), p. xii. 216 overlapping schemes For a description and analysis of funding and commissioning details, see my essay in Experimental British Television (Laura Mulvey and Jamie Sexton; Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2007). Further details are on the website of the British Artists’ Film and Video Study Centre (Institutional Support for Artists’ Film and Video in England 1966-2003, Michael Mazière: www.studycollection.co.uk/maziere/paperintro.html). 217 lifeline Although with some restrictions and complications. Film London’s FLAMIN scheme focuses on ‘production development’ for relatively large-scale and ambitious artists’ films, totalling about ten annual commissions. Metropolitan and regional experimentalists can apply for smaller individual awards to the national ACE Grants For the Arts scheme, but they must describe themselves as ‘artists working with the moving image’, not as ‘film-makers’! This is because film-making is meant to be the remit of organisations like Film London or (until recently) the Film Council. Film artists must define themselves accordingly, in this climate of flux, and many awards have in fact been made by Grants for the Arts to individuals and small groups. Further change was expected in 2011, when the responsibilities of the axed Film Council transferred to the BFI, i.e. from its wholly commercial base back to the cultural sector. These curious and complex events give bite and purpose to seemingly arid arguments about what constitutes an artist’s film, since the definitions determine the funding, exhibition and context of works made by numerous individuals, and the decisions of the Arts Council staff (no longer with external or advisory panels) who assess them. Notes

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218 Lux www.luxonline.org. 219 no.w.here no.w.here.org. 220 galleries For gallery video, see Tanya Leighton ed., Art and the Moving Image (London: Tate Publishing, 2008); Stuart Comer ed., Film and Video Art (London: Tate Publishing, 2009); Stan Douglas and Chrstopher Eamon eds, The Art of Projection (Berlin: Hatje Cantz Verlag, 2009); Maeve Connolly, The Place of Artists’ Cinema: Space, Site and Screen (Chicago: Intellect/University of Chicago Press, 2009); Kate Mondloch, Screens: Viewing Media Installation Art (Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press, 2010); Tamara Trodd (ed.), Screen/Space: the projected image in contemporary art (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2011). The BFI Gallery, opened in 2007 at BFI Southbank in association with Arts Council England, closed in early 2011. See Elisabetta Fabrizi (ed.), The BFI Gallery Book (London: BFI, 2011). 221 new media Lev Manovich, The Language of New Media (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001); p. 306. His insights into the links between experimental film and digital media were preceded by Maureen Turim’s ‘Artisanal Prefigurations of the Digital’ in Yvonne Spielmann and Gundolf Winter eds, Bild-Medium-Kunst (Munich: Wilhelm Fink, 1999), originally in Wide Angle vol. 21, no. 1, 1999, and Vivian Sobchak, ‘Nostalgia for a Digital Object’, Millennium Film Journal, no. 34, Fall 1999. Also see my essay ‘Frames and Windows: Visual Space in Abstract Cinema’ in Avant-garde Film, eds Dietrich Scheunemann and Alexander Graf (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2007). 222 emblematic Coincidentally, Gidal’s Materialist Film (1989) cites women activists who called the film irredeemably sexist and boycotted its original screenings in London. 223 Tscherkassky See Alexander Horwath and Michael Loebenstein eds, Peter Tscherkassky (Vienna: Synema/Austrian Film Museum, 2005). Also see the review of the Austrian film avant-garde by Mark Webber, ‘Counting the Waves’, Senses of Cinema issue 28, 2003 (online). 224 Austrian Abstracts For a full account of this work, including essays by Lev Manovich and others, see N. Pfaffenbichler and S. Droschi eds, Abstraction Now (Vienna: edition Camera Austria, 2004). For a recent review of new Austrian work, see Simon Payne, ‘Vienna Report’, Sequence no. 1, Summer 2010 (UK). 225 growing awareness This trend began in the UK with the Live in Your Head show at the Whitechapel. See Clive Phillpot and Andrea Tarsia, Live in Your Head: Concept and Experiment in Britain 1965-75 (London: Whitechapel Art Gallery, 2000). 226 media transit The problem of media in transit is discussed in Le Grice’s collection of essays, tellingly titled Experimental Cinema in the Digital Age (London: BFI Publishing, 2001). Also see his contribution to Expanded Cinema (2011). The LUX DVD of his work contains the single-screen version of Threshold. Here, I refer to his separate reworking of the threescreen ‘performance’ version into a single-screen digital presentation. 227 different versions Gidal discusses Volcano, and the question of ‘ending’, in an interview with Cerith Wyn Evans and Hans Ulrich Obrist, Conversations 24 (Berlin: Walther König, 2010). Wyn Evans also discusses his ‘video opera’, No Night No Day (2009, with Florian Hecker), whose title is taken from an earlier Gidal film and whose images are sampled and reworked from One/11 (1992), a late composition for lighting rig by John Cage. 228 in extremis Michael O’Pray, Close Up, Monthly Film Bulletin, vol. 51, January 1984. 229 Warhol Andy Warhol: Blow Job (London: Afterall Books, 2008). 230 Brecht A version is printed in Sequence no. 1, Spring 2010. The performative lecture is available on DVD from Lux (2011) as ‘Performance of sorts with Brecht (2009) + Films: Denials (1985) and Volcano (2002)’. 231 multi-screen For a survey of interest in this revival, see Mathias Michalka ed., X Screen: Film Installations and Actions of the 1960s and 1970s (Cologne: Walther König Verlag, 2003); and Expanded Cinema (London: Tate Publishing, 2011). 232 2'45" The new version was made for the Expanded Cinema event at BFI Southbank in April 2008. Both films are discussed by Noam Elcott and others in Expanded Cinema (2011). 233 Robinson For the fully detailed book of the film, see Patrick Keiller, Robinson in Space (London: Reaktion Books, 1999). 234 Londres/Bombay This installation, which features the Gothic-revival style Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, formerly Victoria Terminus, in Mumbai, was shown in 2006 at Le Fresnoy: Studio National des Arts Contemporains, Lille, France.

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235 Nicky Hamlyn See his essay on Stan Brakhage’s Roman Numeral Series of films in David James ed, Stan Brakhage: Filmmaker (Philadelphia, PA: Temple Universiy Press, 2004) and on Peter Kubelka’s Arnulf Rainer in Graf and Scheunemann eds, The Avant-Garde Film (Amsterdam: Rodopi Press, 2007). Film Art Phenomena was published by the BFI in 2003. 236 Mike Rollo Offscreen, vol. 12 no. 1, January 2008 (available online at Offscreen.com). 237 Hamlyn Hamlyn summarises this in his notes on Four Toronto Films: ‘The suite of four short films explores ideas about framing, centred round the attempt to find a necessary correspondence between the facts of the camera apparatus; fixed, rectangular frame and aspect ratio, and the work’s subject matter. A related idea concerns the figuration within the films of the manner in which the camera creates its own pro-filmic. To this end, there is a more or less recurring theme of frames within frames’. 238 critical writing See, for example, ‘Full Colour Video’, Leonardo vol. 41 no. 6, 2008: and ‘Edgy Colour: Digital Colour in Experimental Film and Video’, Inflexions, no. 4, ‘Transversal Fields of Experience’, 2010, online at www.inflexions.org. 239 affective materiality Samantha Rebello and Simon Payne are discussed (with Jennifer Nightingale and Neil Henderson) in my essay Four Film and Video Makers, Sequence no. 1, Summer 2010. 240 live-art projection For further detail on this tendency and its background, see Expanded Cinema (2011). 241 medium specific See Nicky Hamlyn, ‘Medium Practices’, presented at the Toronto International Media Centre, 2010, published in Public journal (Toronto: York University, 2011). It discusses screen performance by Chris Kennedy (Tape Film, 2007), Cathy Rogers’ Super-8 time-exposure films, Neil Henderson’s combination of Polaroid and ciné film in Polaroid (2006) and Callum Cooper’s single frame Victoria, George and Thatcher (2010), shot on a cellphone. Each medium determines the specific shape of the work described. 242 independent art form This was broadly true, but in a reminiscence about the early San Francisco film scene in the mid-1950s before its full flowering, veteran film-maker and artist Bruce Conner nuances this aspect of the era: ‘It was possible, through diligent search, to see films, but filmmakers were disheartened, dispersed, or reclusive. There were occasional showings in such places as apartments, artists’ studios, artist-run galleries, rented halls, and North Beach bars. Most of the active San Francisco filmmakers I met at that time, such as Jane Belson, Jordan Belson, Hy Hirsh, Patricia Marx, Christopher Maclaine, and Dion Vigne, had a mystical bent to their work. Their intent was not to produce art films but to use film as just another tool, along with other graphic arts, the written word, music, and so on. They were definitely underground.’ Radical Light (2010: p. 93). 243 post-cinema See P. Weibel and J. Shaw eds, Future Cinema: The Cinematic Imaginary after Film (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003). 244 viewing conditions This debate began at the end of 2010 with two essays: Sophia Phoca, ‘Filming the Alternative: on independent artist filmmakers’ and Maria Walsh ‘Believable Fictions: Artist filmmakers should look beyond reflexivity’, Art Monthly, December–January 2010–11. Walsh’s essay critiques artists who restage or recycle feature films – notably Hitchcock – without realising that classic films ‘are already littered with what we might now call reflexive moments’, and are complex entities long before artists get to them. Also see interview with Stuart Comer, curator of film at Tate Modern, Modern Painters, March 2011, p. 19: ‘Galleries are geared to passing traffic and distracted viewers... in a black box gallery with an uncomfortable bench and poor projection quality. Cinema screenings offer terms of engagement that demand more of a commitment, but the rewards are tangible and limitless’. 245 archiving Among these are Mark Toscano and the Academy Film Archive, William Fowler at the BFI National Archive, Cindy Silver at the Center for Visual Music, and archivists at the Munich and Vienna Film Museums and many other organisations. 246 film process Art and Artists, December 1972. Nicolson distinguished artists who made films (e.g. Dan Graham, David Dye, John Hilliard) from artist film-makers (Carolee Schneemann, Tony Conrad, Paul Sharits and the UK structural film-makers), all of whom deployed two or more screens. While conceptual artists extended into film the methods and concerns of the other current arts, structural film-makers adopted ‘multi-screen work as a projection expanded event’. Her phrase ‘initiating the drama in the film process’ deliberately echoes Paul Sharits’ call to ‘abandon imitation and illusion and enter directly the higher

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drama’ of frames, filmstrips, emulsion, projection, screen, shutter, surface and the retinalpsychological data of the film machine’. (This essay is available on Luxonline). mediation A review of Pat O’Neill’s Horizontal Boundaries (2007) – shot in Los Angeles – implicitly recalls and enhances the lineage of experimental film. David Phelps cites O’Neill’s own statement that ‘the “boundaries” in question turn out to be frame lines, the divisions between two images, one above the other on a strip of 35mm film. The projector gate is adjustable up or down in order to produce a single uninterrupted image: in this film the frame line is integrated into the compositional language of the piece.’ David Phelps adds: ‘[T]here are no boundaries: images are swept together into TV static, seasons merge, and the static’s swept away off-screen. Emphasizing the passage of time as places (and weather) change, Horizontal Boundaries makes them simultaneous; everything’s glimpsed, fragmented in bits… but collaged together at once,… all times collapsed and glued together. The film itself looks like a scroll, with the images mounted on each other as if to emphasize their lack of height (we’re looking down on the scroll, not up at the screen) and their presence as contiguous objects laid flat. Images don’t develop in space or time on their own, but in context with each other. They play as abstract two-dimensional photographs whose space is that of the film strip canvas on which they’re laid; their time is only seasonal, in relation to the others, but never determinate as a particular point in time.’ David Phelps, 2008 NYFF review, mubi.com/notebook/posts/366. visual music See the catalogue Visual Music: Synaesthesia in art and music since 1900 (Los Angeles: Museum of Contemporary Art, 2005) for the exhibition organised by Kerry Brougher and Judith Zilczer; and the compendious website of the Center for Visual Music, Los Angeles: www.centerforvisualmusic.org. soundtracks In addition to his own practice as a composer and gallery/events artist, David Cunningham, a graduate of Maidstone’s Time-Based Media course under David Hall, has worked with many of the artists listed (and others unlisted) in this book, including Stephen Partridge, Gillian Wearing, Tracey Emin, John Latham, Ken McMullen, Martin Creed, Sam Taylor-Wood, Karen Mirza and Brad Butler, Susan Hiller. intervals Vertov remains a founding figure here, as a pioneer of recorded sound as well as for his seminal ’theory of the interval’ in film. See the essay on his first sound film, Enthusiasm, by John McKay, ‘Disorganised Noise’ (2005), and October 121, Summer 2007, ‘New Vertov Studies’, including essays by Malcolm Turvey, John McKay, and Simon Cook’s ‘ “Our Eyes, Spinning Like Propellers”: Wheel of Life, Curve of Velocities, and Dziga Vertov’s “Theory of the Interval” ’. Vertov’s key definition was that ‘intervals (the transitions from one movement to another) are the material, the elements of the art of movement, and by no means the movements themselves. It is they (the intervals) which draw the movement to a kinetic resolution.’ What remains contentious is the source of the filmic interval: is it derived from experimental psychology (which Vertov had studied), from music (with which he was deeply engaged), from science (to which he was committed), or an amalgam of these? And is the interval between the frames (as claim his US interpreters such as Annette Michelson) or between the shots (to which, theorist Alexander Graf affirms, Vertov always refers in his own writings). In Russian the same word – kadr – stands for both, depending on the context, which here is exactly what remains to be clarified. An important essay on the frame as basic material unit is Werner Nekes, ‘Whatever happens between the pictures’, Afterimage (USA), November 1977 (online at www.vasulka.org/archive/4-30c/AfterimageNov77(3002).pdf). sonic For recent books on sonic art, mostly in relation to the visual arts as well as music, see Michael Chanan, Repeated Takes; A Short History of Recording and its Effects on Music (London: Verso, 1995); Douglas Kahn, Noise, Water, Meat: A History of Sound in the Arts (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001); Brandon LaBelle, Background Noise: Perspectives on Sound Art (London and New York: Continuum Press, 2006); Alan Licht, Sound Art (New York: Rizzoli, 2007); Kim Seth-Cohen, In the Blink of an Ear: Towards a Non-Cochlear Sonic Art (London and New York: Continuum, 2009); Frances Dyson, Sounding New Media: Immersion and Embodiment in the Arts and Culture (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2009); Caleb Kelly, Cracked Media: the Sound of Malfunction (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2009); Salome Voegelin, Listening to Noise and Silence: Towards a Philosophy of Sound Art (New York and London: Continuum, 2010); Mika Vainio, Time Examined (Chemnitz, Germany: Raster-Noton, 2010); David Toop, Sinister Resonance: the Mediumship of the

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Listener (London and New York: Continuum, 2010). I am grateful to Jon Wozencroft and Daniel Campbell-Blight for help in compiling this list of suggested reading in sonic art. 252 music This theme is explored by Steven Ball in his essay for Expanded Cinema (2011), ‘Conditions of Music: Contemporary Audio-Visual Spatial Performance Practice’, where he argues that ‘contemporary practice follows a trajectory that takes it beyond many of its ancestral practices and positions and, as a spatial performance, has as much in common with the production and reception of forms of music as it does with the cinematic’. He traces this idea through the spatial projections of Guy Sherwin and Lynn Loo, Emma Hart and Benedict Drew, Sandra Gibson and Luis Recoder, Karen Mirza and Brad Butler, Simon Payne, Greg Pope and Anna Thew. 253 not foreseen John Cage, Silence (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1967), p. 69.

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Cornwell, Regina Snow Seen – the Films and Photographs of Michael Snow (Toronto: Peter Martin, 1980). Crary, Jonathan Techniques of the Observer: On Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1994). Cubitt, Sean Timeshift: on Video Culture (London: Routledge, 1991). Cubitt, Sean Videography: Video Media as Art and Culture (London: Macmillan, 1993). Curtis, David Experimental Cinema: a Fifty-year Evolution (London: Studio Vista, 1971). Curtis, David, A History of Artists’ Film and Video in Britain (London: BFI, 2007). Curtis, David (ed.) Directory of British Film and Video Artists (Luton: John Libbey/Arts Council, 1996). Danino, Nina and Mazière, Michael (eds) The Undercut Reader (London: Wallflower, 2003). Debord, Guy Complete Cinematic Works, trans and ed. Ken Knabb (Oakland, CA: AK Press, 2003). De Lauretis, Teresa and Heath, Stephen (eds) The Cinematic Apparatus (London: Macmillan, 1980). Deleuze, Gilles Cinema 1: the Movement-Image and Cinema 2: the Time-Image (London: Athlone Press, 1986/1989). Delmar, Rosalind Joris Ivens: 50 Years of Film-Making (London: BFI, 1979). Deren, Maya The Legend of Maya Deren Parts 1 and 2, 1917–1947 (2 vols) (New York: Anthology Film Archives, 1984 and 1988). Deren, Maya Essential Deren ed. Bruce McPherson (Kingston, NY: Documentext, 2005). Dixon, W. Wheeler The Exploding Eye: a Re-Visionary History of 1960s American Experimental Cinema (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997). Druckrey, Timothy (ed.) Electronic Culture: Technology and Visual Representation (New York: Aperture, 1996). Drummond, Phillip (ed.) Un Chien andalou (script with Vigo preface) (London: Faber, 1994). Dusinberre, Deke and Rees, A. L. (eds) Film as Film (London: Arts Council/Hayward Gallery, 1979). Dwoskin, Stephen Film Is – The International Free Cinema (London: Peter Owen, 1975). Ehrenstein, David Film: The Front Line 1984 (Denver: Arden, 1984). Elsaesser, Thomas (ed.) Early Cinema – Space Frame Narrative (London: BFI, 1990). Elwes, Catherine Video Art: a Guided Tour (London: I.B.Tauris, 2005). Fielding, Raymond (ed.) A Technological History of Motion Pictures and Television (London: University of California Press, 1983). Film als Film 1910 bis heute eds Birgit Hein and Wulf Herzogenrath (Cologne: Kölnischer Kunstuerein, 1977). Film und Foto Documents and exhibition of the 1929 exhibition (in German) ed. Jan-Christopher Horak (Stuttgart: Württembergischer Kunstuerein, 1979). Flitterman-Lewis, Sandy To Desire Differently – Feminism and the French Cinema (Chicago: University of Illinois, 1990). Foster, Hal The Return of the Real (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996). Foster, Hal (ed.) Vision and Visuality (Washington: DIA/Bay Press, 1988). Foster, Stephen C. (ed.) Hans Richter: Activism, Modernism and the Avant-Garde (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998). Frampton, Hollis On the Camera Arts and Consecutive Matters: the writings of Hollis Frampton ed. Bruce Jenkins (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2009). Friedberg, Anne Window Shopping: Cinema and the Postmodern (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993). Frisby, David Fragments of Modernity: Theories of Modernity in the Work of Simmel, Kracauer and Benjamin (Oxford: Polity Press and Basil Blackwell, 1985). Gidal, Peter Andy Warhol (London: Studio Vista, 1971; New York: Da Capo, 1991). Gidal, Peter Materialist Film (London: Routledge, 1989). Gidal, Peter (ed.) Structural Film Anthology (London: BFI, 1976). Graf, Alexander and Scheunemann, Dietrich (eds), Avant-Garde Film (Amsterdam and New York: Rodopi, 2007). Graham, Dan Rock My Religion – Writings and Art Projects 1965–1990 ed. B. Wallis (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1993). Bibliography

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Hagener, Malte Moving Forward, Looking Back: The European Avant-Garde and the Invention of Film Culture, 1919-1939 (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2007). Hamlyn, Nicky Film Art Phenomena (London: BFI, 2003). Hammond, Paul L’Age d’or (London: BFI, 1997). Hammond, Paul (ed.) The Shadow and its Shadow – Surrealist Writing on the Cinema (London: BFI, 1978; Edinburgh: Polygon, 1991). Hatfield, Jackie (ed.) Experimental Film and Video (Eastleigh: John Libbey, 2006). Hayward, Philip (ed.) Culture, Technology and Creativity (Luton: Arts Council/ John Libbey, 1991). Hodgkinson, Anthony W. and Sheratsky, Rodney E. (eds) Humphrey Jennings – More Than a Maker of Films (Hanover: University of New England Press, 1982). Horak, Jan-Christopher Lovers of Cinema: The First American Avant-Garde 1919–45 (London: University of Wisconsin Press, 1995). Horrocks, Roger Len Lye: A Biography (Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2001). Huyssen, Andreas After the Great Divide: Modernism, Mass Culture and Postmodernism (London: Macmillan, 1986). Iles, Chrissie Into the Light: The Projected Image in American Art, 1964-1977 (New York: Whitney Museum of American Art, 2001). James, David Allegories of Cinema: American Cinema in the Sixties (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989). James, David Power Misses (New York: Verso, 1997). James, David (ed.) To Free the Cinema – Jonas Mekas and the New York Underground (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992). James, David (ed.) Stan Brakhage: Filmmaker (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2005). Jay, Martin Downcast Eyes: the Denigration of Vision in Twentieth-century French Thought (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993). Jenks, Chris (ed.) Visual Culture (London: Routledge, 1995). Joseph, Branden Beyond the Dream Syndicate: Tony Conrad and the Arts after Cage (New York: Zone Books, 2008). Keller, Marjorie The Untutored Eye – Childhood in the Films of Cocteau, Cornell and Brakhage (Toronto: Farleigh Dickinson University Press, 1986). Kern, Stephen The Culture of Time and Space 1880–1918 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983). Kirby, Michael (ed.) Futurist Performance (New York: Dutton, 1971). Knight, Julia (ed.) Diverse Practices – A Critical Reader on British Video Art (Luton: Arts Council/John Libbey, 1996). Koch, Stephen Stargazer: Andy Warhol’s World and His Films (London: Calder and Boyars, 1974). Krauss, Rosalind The Optical Unconscious (Cambridge, MA: MIT, 1993). Krauss, Rosalind The Originality of the Avant-Garde and other Modernist Myths (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1985). Krauss, Rosalind and Bois, Yve-Alain Formless: A User’s Guide (New York: Zone Books, 1997). Kuenzli, Rudolf (ed.) Dada and Surrealist Film (New York: Willis Locker and Owens, 1987). Lawdor, Standish The Cubist Cinema (New York: New York University Press, 1975). Le Grice, Malcolm Abstract Film and Beyond (London: Studio Vista, 1977). Le Grice, Malcolm Experimental Cinema in the Digital Age (London: BFI, 2001). Levin, Michael L. (ed.) Modernity and the Hegemony of Vision (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993). Leyda, Jay Kino – A History of the Russian and Soviet Film (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1973). Lye, Len Figures of Motion: Selected Writings eds W. Curnow and R. Horrocks (Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1984). MacCabe, Colin Theoretical Essays: Flm, Linguistics, Literature (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1985). 180

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MacCabe Colin, Francis, Mark, and Wollen, Peter, (eds) Who is Andy Warhol? (London: BFI, 1997). MacDonald, Scott Avant-Garde Film: Motion Studies (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993). MacDonald, Scott A Critical Cinema – Interviews with Independent Filmmakers (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988/1992/1997/2005/2006). MacDonald, Scott Screen Writings – Scripts and Texts by Independent Filmmakers (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). McDonough, Tom (ed.), Guy Debord and the Situationist International: texts and documents (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2004). Macpherson, Don (ed.) Traditions of Independence – British Cinema in the Thirties (London: BFI, 1980). Manovich, Lev The Language of New Media (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001). Manvell, Roger (ed.) Experiment in the Film (London: Grey Walls, 1949). Marcus, Greil Lipstick Traces: A Secret History of the Twentieth Century (London: Secker & Warburg, 1989). Meigh-Andrews, Chris A History of Video Art: The Development of Form and Function (Oxford: Berg Publishing, 2006). Mekas, Jonas Movie Journal – The Rise of a New American Cinema 1959–1971 (New York: Collier, 1972). Mellencamp, Patricia Indiscretions: Avant-Garde Film, Video and Feminism (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990). Mellor, David (ed.) Germany: The new Photography 1927–33 (London: Arts Council of Great Britain, 1978). Melville, Stephen and Readings, Bill (eds) Vision and Textuality (London: Macmillan, 1995). Melzer, Annabelle Dada and Surrealist Performance (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994). Michalka, Matthias (ed.) X-Screen: Film Installations and Actions in the 1960s and 1970s (Cologne: Walther König, 2004). Michelson, Annette (ed.) New Forms in Film (Montreux, 1974). Moritz, William Optical Poetry: the Life and Work of Oskar Fischinger (Eastleigh: John Libbey, 2004). Morris, Robert Continuous Project Altered Daily: The Writings of Robert Morris (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990). Motherwell, Robert (ed.) The Dada Painters and Poets – an Anthology (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, Harvard University Press, 1989); original, George Wittenborn, NY, 1951). Mulvey, Laura Fetishism and Curiosity (London: BFI, 1996). Münsterberg, Hugo The Film – A Psychological Study (1916) (New York: Dover, 1970). Neale, Steve Cinema and Technology: Image, Sound, Colour (London: BFI, 1985). Nowell-Smith, Geoffrey (ed.) The Oxford History of World Cinema (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996). Nuttall, Jeff Bomb Culture (London: MacGibbon and Kee, 1968). Nyman, Michael Experimental Music (London: Studio Vista, 1971). O’Konor, Louise Viking Eggeling 1880–1925 (Stockholm: Alkqvist and Wiksell, 1971). O’Pray, Michael (ed.) Andy Warhol – Film Factory (London: BFI, 1989). O’Pray, Michael Avant-Garde Film: forms, themes and passions (London: Wallflower, 2003). O’Pray, Michael (ed.) The British Avant-Garde Film 1926–1995 (Luton: Arts Council/John Libbey, 1996). Pedro, Patrice (ed.) Fugitive Images: from Photography to Video (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995). Penz, François and Thomas, Maureen (eds) Cinema and Architecture: Méliès, Mallet-Stevens, Multimedia (London: BFI, 1997). Perry, Ted (ed.) Masterpieces of Modernist Cinema (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006). Peterson, James Dreams of Chaos, Visions of Order: Understanding the American Avant-garde (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1994). Peterson, Sidney The Dark of the Screen (New York: Anthology Film Archives/New York University Press, 1970). Poggioli, Renato The Theory of the Avant-Garde (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1968). Polan, Dana The Political Language of Film and the Avant-Garde (Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1985). Bibliography

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Rabinowitz, Lauren Points of Resistance: Women, Power and Politics in the New York Avant-garde Cinema 1943– 71 (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1991). Rees, A.L., Curtis David, White Duncan, Ball, Steven (eds) Expanded Cinema: art, performance, film (London: Tate Publications, 2011). Renan, Sheldon The Underground Film (London: Studio Vista, 1968). Richter, Hans Dada: Art and Anti-Art (London: Thames & Hudson, 1965). Richter, Hans The Struggle for the Film (London: Scolar, 1986). Rose, Jacqueline Sexuality in the Field of Vision (London: Verso, 1986). Rosen, Philip (ed.) Narrative, Apparatus, Ideology: a Film Theory Reader (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986). Rosenbaum, Jonathan Film: The Front Line 1983 (Denver: Arden, 1983). Salt, Barry Film Style and Technology: History and Analysis (London: Starword, 1983). Sargeant, Jack Naked Lens: Beat Cinema (Berkeley, CA: Soft Skull Press, 2009). Sayre, Henry The Object of Performance: The American Avant-Garde since 1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989). Sitney, P. Adams The Essential Cinema – Essays on the Films in the Collection of Anthology Film Archives (New York: New York University Press Anthology, 1975). Sitney, P. Adams Eyes Upside Down: Visionary Filmmakers and the Heritage of Emerson (New York: OUP, 2008). Sitney, P. Adams Film Culture Reader (London: Secker & Warburg, 1971). Sitney, P. Adams Modernist Montage: the Obscurity of Vision in Cinema and Literature (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990). Sitney, P. Adams Visionary Film – the American Avant-Garde (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974); 2nd edition 1979; 3rd edition 2002. Sitney, P. Adams (ed.) The Avant-Garde Film: A Reader of Theory and Criticism (New York: New York University Press Anthology, 1978). Snow, Michael Cover to Cover (Halifax: The Press of the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design, New York University Press, 1975). Spielmann, Yvonne Video: the Reflexive Medium (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2008). Stott, William Documentary Expression and Thirties America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986); original, 1973. Suleimen, Susan Subversive Intent: Gender, Politics and the Avant-Garde (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990). Taylor, Richard (ed.) Russian Poetics in Translation vol. 9, The Poetics of Cinema (Somerset: RPT Publications, 1982). Teitelbaum, Matthew (ed.) Montage and Modern Life 1919–1942 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992). Themerson, Stefan The Urge to Create Visions (in English; Amsterdam: Gaberbocchus/Die Harmonie, 1983). Tomkins, Calvin The Scene: Reports on Post-Modern Art (New York: Viking, 1976). Turovskaya, Maya Tarkovsky: Cinema as Poetry (London: Faber, 1989). Turvey, Malcolm The Filming of Modern Life: European Avant-Garde Film of the 1920s (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2011). Tyler, Parker The Three Faces of the Film (New York: Thomas Yoseleff, 1960). Tyler, Parker Underground Film (1969) (London: Secker & Warburg, 1971). Vasulka, Woody and Weibel, Peter (eds) Buffalo Heads: Media Study, Media Practice, Media Pioneers 19731990 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press and ZKM, 2007). Vergo, Peter The Music of Painting: music, modernism and the visual arts (London: Phaidon, 2010). Verkauf, Willy (ed.) Dada: Monograph of a Movement (London: Academy, 1975). Virilio, Paul The Aesthetics of Disappearance (New York: Semiotext(e), 1991). Virilio, Paul The Vision Machine (London: BFI, 1994). 182

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Wallis, Brian Art After Modernism (New York: The New Museum of Contemporary Art, 1984). Wees, William Light Moving in Time: Studies in the Visual Aesthetics of Avant-Garde Film (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992). Willemen, Paul Looks and Frictions: Essays in Cultural Studies and Film Theory (London: BFI, 1994). Williams, Linda Figures of Desire: A Theory and Analysis of Surrealist Film (Berkeley: University of California, 1981). Wollen, Peter Raiding the Icebox: Reflections on Twentieth-Century Culture (London: Verso, 1993). Wollen, Peter Readings and Writings (London: Verso, 1982). Wollen, Peter Signs and Meaning in the Cinema, expanded edition (London: BFI, 1998). Youngblood, Gene Expanded Cinema (New York: Dutton, 1970).

Bibliography

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Index

A À propos de Nice 33 A13 126–7, 127 Aayamaguchi, Mineo 132 Abel, Richard 10, 30 About Now MMX 136 absolute film 21, 36, 37–40 see also abstract film; pure cinema abstract art 7, 36, 54, 58, 63, 90, 111 abstract constructivism 53 Abstract Expressionism 60, 63, 79 abstract film 1, 2, 27–9, 50–1, 59, 60, 92 German 125 origins 36 in Soviet Russia 36 abstraction 12, 25, 31 post-painterly 75, 78, 92–3 Abstraction #2 169n Academic Still Life (Cézanne) 2 Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences 25 Accaio 40 Acconci, Vito 27, 77, 120, 141 The Act of Seeing with One’s Own Eyes 74 action painting 9, 45, 72 Action-Art 60 Adaptation Studies 77 address of power 12 Adebar 34, 68 Adorno, Theodor viii, 9, 11 Adventures of a Good Citizen 57, 58 advertising 4, 6, 38, 40, 45, 80, 105, 106–7, 129 computer-generated 117 aesthetics of failure 79 After Lumière – L’arroseur arrosé 103 Afterimage 99 L’Age d’or 31, 48 agit-prop collectives 84, 99 airE 135 Akomfrah, John 116, 117 Albee, Edward, Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf? 65 Albera, François viii Alchemy 130 Alexeieff, Alexander 33 Alien 117 All her Secrets Revealed in an Image 119 All My Life 34, 147n Allégret, Marc 32 Allen, Angela 138 Allen, Greg 130 Almost Out 104, 120, 124 Alone 134

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Amami se vuoi 120 America is Waiting 72, 169n American film 46, 48, 54 underground 67–75 see also Hollywood American Indian art 74 AMM 142 Anderson, Lindsay 109 Andre, Carl 4, 78, 80, 104 Equivalent VIII 148n Andrews, Julie 106 ‘Andy Hardy’ films 134 Anémic cinéma 38, 44–5, 44, 51 Anger, Kenneth 1, 32, 59, 61, 64, 65, 65–6, 67, 75, 85, 86, 106, 107, 147n animation 38, 124 abstract 20, 29, 39, 40, 61, 70, 142 Cubist 154 Anstey, Edgar 54 Antheil, George 46 Anthology Film Archives 63, 72, 78, 90 anthropology 61 anti-Americanism 109 anti-illusionism 6 anti-montage 83 anti-realism 108, 110 anti-war movement 72 Anticipation of the Night 24, 65, 71, 73 Apollinaire, Guillaume 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 137 The Cubist Painters 20 apparatus (dispositif) viii, 10 apperception 51 Appia, Adolphe 36 Aragon, Louis 20, 21, 41–2, 48 architecture 57 Arena 59, 98, 147n Ariston 105 Arnheim, Rudolf, Film as Art x Arnold, Martin 134 Arnulf Rainer 68, 162n Aronofsky, Darren 173n Arp, Jean 42, 57 art abstract 7, 36, 54, 58, 63, 90, 111 binary model of 12 commodification of 68 method in 20 point of view 7–8, 92 politics and 99–102, 120 see also cubism; Pop Art Art Cinema 30–3, 41, 49 ‘Art in Cinema’ 59 Art Cinema 108, 171n Art Forum 90 Art Monthly 112 art nouveau 20, 21

The Art of Vision 73, 80, 123 Artaud, Antonin 4, 9, 42, 45, 49, 51–2, 53 arthouse circuits 31, 49, 133 artists’ cinema 141, 142 Artists’ Placement Group 95, 97 arts, mixture of 62–3 Arts Council England (ACE) Film and Video Department 133 Grants for the Arts scheme 133, 173n Arts Council of Great Britain 100, 112, 123, 128, 132 regionalisation of 133 Ashley, Robert 147n assemblages 23 Asyl 69 At Land 62, 63 Auden, W. H. 54, 55 Auric, Georges 46 Austria 60, 64, 134 Austrian Abstracts 135, 142 auteur theory 61, 108 author, death of 3 Autumn Scenes 126 avant-garde art and 19–21 death of 3 definitions of 8, 11, 18–19 film American 32, 60–7 French 46–9 post-war, origins 59–67 and modernism 12 narrative 30–4 see also narrative cinema political links 26, 53 as term 1–4 avant-gardes, two 76–9, 86 B B., Beth and Scott 12, 148n, 169n The Baby of Mâcon 170n Bach, Johann Sebastian 38 Bacon, Francis 111, 124 Baez, Joan 116 Baillie, Bruce 34, 74, 80, 147n Baird, John Logie 113–14 Balázs, Béla 36, 53 Balch, Anthony 6, 74, 85 Baldessari, John 141 Ball, Hugo 36, 42 Flight out of Time 42 Balla, Giacomo 27 Ballet mécanique 32, 38, 43, 46, 46, 52, 102, 142 Balzac, Honoré de 18

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Banner, Fiona 129 Barber, George 6, 105, 122 Barker, George 54 Barn Door 88 Barron, Charles and Bebe 33 Barry, Iris 63 Barthes, Roland 15 Bartlett, Scott 80 Baselitz, Georg 92 Basic Instinct 8 Bataille, Georges 13, 42, 45, 46 Bataille, Sylvia 45 Battleship Potemkin 54 Baudelaire, Charles 4, 15, 71 Baudelairian cinema 4, 71, 81 Baudrillard, Jean 168n Baudry, Jean-Louis 26 Bauhaus vii, 19, 36, 37, 57, 145n, 158n Bazin, André viii, 5, 26 BBC 59, 98, 102, 113, 117, 132, 147n Community Programmes Unit 97 Beat era 1, 69–70, 74 Beat poets 69 The Beatles 96, 169n Beauty #2 75 Beauvais, Yann 146n Beban, Breda 119 Beckett, Samuel 136 Belgium 53, 57, 59 Belson, Jane 175n Belson, Jordan 80, 175n Benjamin, Walter viii, 4, 9, 15, 42, 45, 51, 52, 53, 79, 160n ‘The work of art in the age of mechanical reproduction’ 7 Benning, Sadie 120 Benoît-Lévy, Jean 25 Berg, Eddie 112 Berger, John 8 Ways of Seeing 147n Bergman, Ingmar 9, 76 Bergson, Henri viii, 6, 15, 16–17, 20, 23, 24, 25–6, 37 Berigan, Bunny 147n Berkeley Barb 68 Berlewi, Henryk 57–8 Berlin: Symphony of a City 40 Berlin 36, 59 Berlin Commune 1 68 Berlin Horse 91, 91, 169n Berwick Street Collective 84, 99 Beuys, Joseph 92, 97 Big Love 114, 124 The Big Shave 147n Biggs, Simon 130 ‘bike boy’ cult 66 Bill and Tony 86 Birmingham 116 Birnbaum, Dora 114 Birth of a Nation (Wyborny) 91 Bitzer, Billy 91 Black artists 115–17 Black Audio Film Collective 116 Black Mountain College 76 Black and Silver 126 The Black Tower 127–8 Black-Grey-White 57 Blackbird Descending 92 Blakeston, Oswell 33 Blanchot, Maurice 168n blank footage 75, 96 Blight 128

Index

Blond Cobra 72 Blood of a Poet 31, 46, 48–9, 63 Blue 110, 123 Blue Bathroom 127 Blue Monday 105, 169n Blue Velvet 67 blur 89, 106 Bode, Steven 112 body cinema of the 59 iconology of 130 body art 93 Body Double 8 body theme 148n Bois, Yve-Alain 7–8 bomb culture 60, 67 Boorman, John 109 Borderline 32, 33 Bordwell, David, and Thompson, Kristin, Film Art x Borowczyk, Walerian 44 Bossuet, Jacques-Bénigne 20 Bottoms 72, 85, 85 Bouhours, Jean-Michel 146n Bourn, Ian 120 The Bourne Ultimatum 173n Bourriaud, Nicolas vi–vii Box with the Sound of its own Making 93 Boy George 126 Boyle, Mark 96 Bracknell Media Centre 112 Bragaglia, Anton Giulio 27 Brakhage, Stan 2, 72–4 as artist 8, 77, 101, 140 camerawork 6, 65, 73, 75, 109–10 as classic film-maker vi, viii, 90, 138 and Co-op 87 colour and form 79 and Gidal 90, 94, 102 and handpainted stock 163n and Kirsanov 48 length of films 73, 80, 123 Mekas and 70 montage 70 output 74, 75 and Pound 61 and psychodrama 63, 73 Romanticism 75 and silent film 81 and Stein 24, 61, 73 on structuralism 81 and Vogel 71 and Warhol 5, 75 as writer 61 Brando, Marlon 66 Braque, Georges 9, 16–17, 19, 21–2, 23, 35, 39, 46 Breakfast 80 Breakwell, Ian 97, 120 Breathing 88 Brecht, Bertolt 51, 53, 54, 55, 69, 99 Breer, Robert 70, 79, 169n Breton, André 42, 48, 69 Brewster, Sir David 17 The Bride of Frankenstein 76 Brighton, Zap Club 114 Briscoe, Chris 117 Brisley, Stuart 97 Brit Art 107 Britain 59, 83–131 British Art Cinema 109, 129

‘The British Art Show’ 123 British Film Institute x, 100, 112, 128, 132–3, 173n Production Board 99 Regional Film Theatres 100 Britten, Benjamin 54, 55 Brook, Peter 104 Brooks, David 70 Brothers Quay (Stephen and Timothy Quay) 44, 130 Brougher, Kerry 112 Broughton, James 29, 64 Brown, Ford Madox, The Last of England 107 Brown, Paul 117 Brown, Trisha 76 Bruce, Tim 92, 103 Bruguière, Francis 33 Brumes d’Automne 48 Brunius, Jacques 60 Bruszewski, Wojciech 140, 146n Bryher 33 Bryson, Norman 7, 22 Buñuel, Luis 1, 5, 31, 32, 33, 44, 46, 48, 49, 51, 54, 63, 140 Buren, Daniel 97 Bürger, Peter viii, 10, 11, 12, 60 Theory of the Avant-Garde 3, 101–2 The Burning Stable 91 Burroughs, William 68, 74, 85, 86, 124 Bush, Paul 129, 130 Butcher, Rosemary 112 Bute, Mary Ellen 61 Butler, Brad 133, 138–9, 142, 176n, 177n Byrne, David 72, 169n C The Cabinet of Dr Caligari 30 Cabiria 25 Cage, John xi, 24, 59, 62, 65, 68, 76, 79, 104, 110, 125, 143 Cale, John 72 California 60 Calling Mr Smith 58 Cambridge, Kettle’s Yard 126 camera hand-cranked 88 handheld 65, 70, 75, 89, 136, 139 portable 122 position of 81 rapid movement 7, 93 remote control 80 rotating 147n static 75 camera obscura 17 camera-eye vision 120, 128 cameraless films 72, 93, 139, 169n Camerawork 54 Canudo, Ricciotto 25 The Birth of a Sixth Art 29 ‘Plastic Art in Motion’ 24 Canyon Cinema 74 capitalism 48, 109, 121 Caravaggio 109 Card Players 16 carnivalesque 33 Cassavetes, John 69 Castle One (The Light Bulb Film) 92, 154n Castro Street 74 Cavalcanti, Alberto 53, 56 Cavanaugh, John 72

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The Cave 96 CCTV 118 Central Office of Information 108 Cézanne, Paul 7, 15, 16–17, 19, 20, 21, 23, 51, 52 Card Players 16, 16 Cézanne’s Eye I and II 102 Chadwick, Helen 148n chance procedures 57, 61, 81, 88 Changing Light 126 Channel 4 92, 100, 101, 113, 118, 123, 128, 132–3, 147n Chant d’amour 106 Chaplin, Charles 19, 46 Charles, Ray 169n Chelsea Girls 65, 75, 120 Chevreul, Michel-Eugène 16, 20 Chia, Sandro 106 Un Chien andalou 13, 46–7, 47, 48, 49, 51, 101 Childs, Lucinda 76 Chisenhale Gallery 136 Chivers, Steve 106 Chodorov, Pip 141 Chomette, Henri 34–5, 37–8, 41, 102, 135 Choreography 147n Christiani, Rita 66 Christianity 48 Christie, Ian 112, 129 Christo 104 chronophotography 59 Chumlum 70 cine-poems 33–5, 38, 41 Cinéa 31 ‘Cinema 16’ 71, 92 cinema artists’ 141, 142 of mistakes 71, 87 of transgression 106 as vision machine 5–6 see also expanded cinema; narrative cinema Cinema Action 84, 99, 100, 120 cinéma pur see pure cinema cinéma vérité 115, 117 cinematography 63 cinematology 57 ‘Cineorama’ 18 Cinq minutes du cinéma pur 34–5 Circles 38 Circles (collective) 105 Citizen Kane 9 The City of the Future 137 City Lights 68 cityscapes 2 civil rights 1 Clair, René 29, 32, 34, 35, 37, 41, 43, 46, 60 Clarke, Shirley 2, 6, 69, 72, 120 classicism and romanticism 13 Clemente, Francesco 92, 106 Climbing Round My Room 120 Clock and Candle 2, 88 A Clockwork Orange 3 Close Up (film) 136 Close-Up (magazine) 31, 33, 94 close-up, extreme 72, 93, 102 Clouds 87 Co-op movement 92, 93 see also Film Makers’ Cooperative; London Film Makers’ Cooperative

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Coal Face 55–6, 56, 128 Cobbing, Bob 83 Cocteau, Jean 1, 31, 32, 46, 48–9, 59, 63, 64, 66, 106, 107, 124, 147n Cohen, Harold 118 Cold Jazz 104 Coldstream, Sir William 54 collage 64, 91, 115, 124, 128 abstract 70 and cubism 20, 22, 23, 41, 57 digital 108, 130 lyric 40, 74 political 106 situationist 69 and structuralism 84, 92 surrealist 72 video 96 Collins, Nick 102, 138 Collins, Phil 141 colour 16, 56, 74 abstracted 102 digital 135 raw 60 Colour Box 28, 56 colour field 136, 139 painting 111 colour music 17, 80 ‘Come Into My World’ 105 comic strips 66 comic-burlesque 29–30, 130 see also humour Coming Attractions 135 commercials see advertising commodification of art 68 commodity culture 92 ‘Common People’ 105 communism 42, 53 computer art 117–18 Computer Artworks 117 conceptual/process artists 12, 93, 117, 119, 141 concrete poetry 36 confessional mode 120 Congreve, William 111 Conner, Bruce 6, 67, 72, 105, 107, 114, 169n, 175n Conrad, Tony viii, 71, 175n Constable, John 16 Constructivism vii, 13, 19, 31, 36, 37, 57, 101, 111, 117, 118 constructivist radicalism 118 Corcoran, Tom 97 Cornell, Joseph 72 Corra, Bruno 27, 28, 29 Abstract Film – Chromatic Music 27 Corrigan Having Remembered 103 Corso, Gregory 69 Cosmic Ray 67, 169n costume drama 110 costume-drama 99, 110 Cottringer, Anne 101 Couch 75, 80 Coum Transmissions 86 counter-culture 96 counter-narrative 52 Courbet, Gustave 18, 19 Cowgirl 130 Crane, Hart 80 Crary, Jonathan 18 Creation 74 Creative Film Foundation 63 creative geography 85

Creed, Martin 176n Critchley, David 120 Crockwell, Douglas 61 Cronenberg, David 92 Crosswaite, David 87 Crowley, Aleister 66 Crown Film Unit 55 Crystal Aquarium 124–5, 125 cubism 7, 10, 13, 16, 19–24, 30, 36, 37, 50, 56–7, 59, 80, 103, 111, 135 analytical 25 and avant-garde 30 and British modern art 111 as cinematographic 16 Duchamp and 59 Eggeling and 37 fragmented vision of 7 Le Grice and 103 moment of 6, 8, 13, 22 orphic 19 and popular film 40–1 and ‘purity’ 21, 56 and surrealism 50 Tscherkassky 135 Cubitt, Sean 114, 120 cubo-Futurism 19, 26, 40 Cunningham, David 113, 126, 136–7, 139, 142, 176n Cunningham, Merce 62, 65, 76 Curran, Michael 120 Curtis, David 83, 84, 96, 100, 101, 108 Experimental Cinema xi cut-ups 6, 57, 83, 124 The Cut-Ups 85 cutting 69 ‘Cybernetic Serendipity’ (exhibition) 117 cyberspace 96 Czechoslovakia 57, 59 D Dada and artists’ films 19, 37, 60 as classic art form vii, xi, 3, 12, 59, 67, 103 Dada-constructivism 117 improvisational 46 influence of 4 and irrationality 29, 35 journals 31 Klee and 36 Lettristes and 68 and modernism 9 and surrealist film 41–5, 57 see also neo-Dada Dada-futurism 58 Dadarama 113 Daguerre, Louis Jacques 17–18 Daguerreotype 15, 16 dailiness 65 Dalcroze, Émile Jaques- 36 Dalí, Salvador 13, 31, 33, 42, 44, 46, 48, 49, 50, 53, 140 Abstract of a Critical History of the Cinema 50–1 dance 36, 42, 46, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 112 Dancing in Peckham 119 Danino, Nina 92, 129 Dante, Inferno 136 Daumier, Honoré 19, 46 David, Jacques-Louis 18 Davies, Angharad 142

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Dawson, David 86 de Loutherbourg, Philippe 18 De Maria, Walter 80 de Palma, Brian 8, 76 The Dead 2 Dean, Tacita vii, 120 Death Valley Days 105 Debord, Guy 60, 68 Debussy, Claude 15 deconstructionism 9, 91 Degas, Edgar 15 Dekeukelaire, Charles 57 Delacroix, Eugène 7, 16, 20 Liberty Guiding the People 18 Delaunay, Robert and Sonia 19 Deleuze, Gilles viii, 26 Delluc, Louis 10, 20, 30, 41, 61 dematerialisation of the art object 52 Demenÿ, Georges 87 Denials 104, 136 Derain, André 20, 21, 37, 39 Deren, Maya vi, viii, 6, 8, 29, 32, 34, 59, 61–6, 70, 71, 72, 76, 77, 80, 105, 120, 121, 140, 147n Desnos, Robert 44 Destruction in Art Symposium 68 détournement 68 The Devils 86 Diaghilev, Serge 19 Diagonal Symphony 30, 37–8, 37, 38, 39, 42, 46, 142, 158n Dialogue 87 Dialogue for Two Players 113 Diaries, Notes and Sketches 70 diary films 108, 120, 123 Dick, Vivienne 12 Dickens, Charles 18 digital abstraction 110 Digital Nation 114 Digital Pictures 117 digital technology vii, 6, 121–2, 130–1, 134, 140, 141 video editing 108 dioramas 17–18, 21, 52 Disappearing Music for Face 72 disassociated sensibility 47 disaster footage 68 discontinuity principle 52 Disney, Walt 38, 61 dissolves 8 extended 6 Distancing 102 Diverse Productions 117 documentary 1, 53–6, 58, 59, 66, 70, 108, 116–17, 126, 128, 129 political 1 Dodd, Philip 112, 129 Dog Star Man 74 Donebauer, Peter 117 double consciousness 47 double exposure 87 Double Fence 138 double image 95 double reflection 96 Douglas, Stan 6, 118 Dovzhenko, Alexander 36 Drama of the Futurist Cabaret 29 ‘Drama in a Wide Media Environment’ 118 dramatic unities 6 The Draughtsman’s Contract 109, 110, 170n

Index

‘Dream of Hawks’ 40 dream images/sequences 44, 50, 57, 61, 65, 86, 91, 104, 147n The Dream Machine 106 dream screen 79 Dreams 62 Dreams That Money Can Buy 59 Dresden Dynamo 84 Drew, Benedict 140, 177n Dreyer, Carl Theodor viii, 30 Drummond, Philip 101 Drunk 173n Du Cane, John 84, 87 Duchamp, Marcel 9, 13, 23, 29, 32, 38, 43, 44, 45, 51, 59, 61, 62, 63, 79, 121 Nude Descending a Staircase 46, 154n Dulac, Germaine 6, 10, 30, 33, 35, 37, 38, 41, 45, 49, 105 Duncan, Robert 74 Dundee, Kill Your Timid Notion (festival) 139 Dunford, Mike 86, 87, 118 Duras, Marguerite 99 duration 6, 23, 37, 52, 83, 104, 106, 119, 120, 123 Durgnat, Ray 83, 102 Dusinberre, Deke 80, 101 Duvet Brothers 6, 105, 118, 169n DVDs 122 Dwoskin, Steve 2, 81, 83, 94–5, 98, 99, 102, 109, 124, 130 Film Is 84 Dye, David 93, 175n E Eames, Charles and Ray 33 Early Abstractions 169n earth art 93 East Village Other 68 Eastlake, Sir Charles 16 Eatherley, Gill 87 Eating, Drinking, Pissing and Shitting 69 Eaux d’artifice 66 The Edge of Love 124 Edinburgh Diversions (festival) 13 Film Festival 101 Television Festival 105 Edison, Thomas 91 edits, editing 8, 75, 114 rapid 63 serial 102 systems 122 EETC 123 Eggeling, Viking vii, 20, 25, 30, 37–9, 42–3, 46, 57–8, 142, 155n Ehrenburg, Ilya, And Yet It Moved 36 ‘Eidophusikon’ 18 8mm film 105, 107, 108, 122, 124 Einstein, Albert 20, 25, 149n Eisenstein, Sergei viii, 1, 13, 24, 29, 30, 36, 41, 52, 53, 54, 62, 65, 147n, 169n Eisler, Hanns 54 Eizykman, Claudine 146n Elcott, Noam viii electronic arts 117–18, 121, 130 11/65 Bild Helga Philip 138 The Eleventh Hour 101 Eliot, T. S. 9, 35, 54, 61, 63 Ellis, John 101 Eluard, Paul 42, 48

Elwes, Catherine 112, 119, 123, 132 Emak Bakia 44, 45 Emigholz, Karl-Heinz 146n Emily – Third Party Speculation 90, 92, 103 Emin, Tracey 173n, 176n Empire 75 English, William 138 Enlightenment 9 Eno, Brian 72, 91, 169n Enthusiasm 33, 33, 53 The Entity 134–5 Entr’acte 29, 35, 41 environmental art 93 Epstein, Jean viii, 10, 30, 47, 52, 61 Bonjour, Cinéma 31 Ernst, Max 50, 57, 59 Étoile de mer 44 Étude cinégraphique sur un arabesque 49 Eureka 91 Eurhythmic dance 42 The Eurythmics 106, 169n Euston Road school 111 Evans, Garth 97 ‘The Evening of the Bearded Heart’ 44 Everyday 29 The Evil Faerie 72 exhibitions, film and video 5, 31, 112, 117, 129, 148n expanded cinema 123, 135, 140 ‘Experimenta’ series 123 Experimental Film 31, 54 Exploding Cinema 129 Expressionism 12, 27, 30, 36, 111 The Eye and the Ear 58, 58 Eyemyth 73 F Faden, Eric viii fake synch 6 The Falls 170n Fanderl, Helga 142 Fantasia 38, 61 Fantasy Factory 97 Fantomas serials 19 Faraday, Michael 17 Farrer, Steve 92, 93 Fascism 26, 53, 66 Fatima’s Letter 117 Fattendre 103 Faure, Élie 24, 25 Fauves 7, 21–2, 23 FBI 72 feature films, recycled vi, 140, 141, 175n Feeding Baby 16 Feldman, Morton 104, 125 Fellini, Federico 9 feminist film-makers 5, 99, 104, 105, 108, 114, 115, 120 Fennesz, Christian 135 fiction film 6, 8, 25, 45, 69, 70 Field, Simon 99, 129 Fihman, Guy 146n Le Film 20, 31 film absolute 21, 36, 37–40 abstract, see also abstract film American 46, 48, 54 see also Hollywood definition of 25

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film cont. festivals 13, 33, 66, 71, 84, 101, 112, 113, 129, 139 French 31, 68, 140 see also France, films and filmmakers as independent art form 140 industry xii, 17, 18, 25, 30, 60, 68, 122 societies and clubs vii, 2, 31, 33, 141 see also funding; journals Film Art 31 Film Artists Society 63 Film Council 133, 173n Film Culture 70, 71, 130 ‘Film as Film’ 105 Film Forum 72 Film London FLAMIN scheme 173n Moving Image Network 133 Film Makers’ Cooperative 71, 75, 78, 85 film noir 61, 65 Film Study 40 ‘Film und Foto’ Exhibition (Stuttgart) 31 ‘Film and Video Umbrella’ 112 film workshops, public access 92 Film-Makers’ Cinematheque 71, 76 Les Films d’Art 25 filmstock, outdated 6 filmstrip 102 Filmstudie 40 The Final Academy 86 Finnegans Chin – Temporal Economy 92 Fireworks 61, 65, 65, 66, 147n Fischinger, Elfriede 38 Fischinger, Oskar vii, 1, 2, 38, 39, 61, 142 fish-eye lens 63 Fitzgerald, Ella 147n Five Year Plan 33 Flaherty, Robert J. 56 Flaming Creatures 70, 70, 71, 80 Flanagan, Barry 97 flare 87 Flare Out 89, 104 flash-frames 66, 147n flicker effects 6, 80, 106, 138, 139, 147n flow 149n The Flower Thief 70, 74 fluxfilm n16/Bottoms 72, 85, 85 Fluxus 60, 68, 72, 79, 85, 86, 96, 104 focus pulling 93, 102 Foley artists 120 Fontana 143 Footsteps 87 Ford, John 62 formalism 1, 12, 36, 60, 80, 97, 98, 99, 140 Russian 120 in video 97, 120 Forms Are Not Self-Subsistent Substances 139 48 Faces from the Szondi Test 69 Foster, Hal 12, 13, 45 The Return of the Real 12 Foucault, Michel 170n found footage 6, 60, 68, 140 found objects 75 Fountain, Alan 101

188

Four Toronto Films 138 4.22” 136 fourth look 95 Fox Talbot, William Henry 17 fragment, fragmentation 6, 7, 9, 20, 34, 80, 91, 96, 103, 115, 124, 125, 135, 138, 176n frame-by-frame structure 139 frame-printing 28 framelines, wandering 84 frames viii, 13–14 Frameworks 141 Frampton, Hollis viii, 2, 70, 77, 79, 80, 80–1, 82, 83, 90, 92, 134 France artists in 16, 25, 111 see also Impressionists avant-garde in 46–8, 60 films and film-makers in 10, 31, 41, 45, 46, 68, 85, 117, 140, 146n intellectual thought in 45 journals in 31 structuralism in 81 video in 140 Franju, Georges 49 Frank, Robert 69 Frankel, Vera 118 Free Cinema 41 Free Radicals 28 ‘Freeze’ exhibition 112 freeze-frame 66 Frege, Gottlob 20 French Revolution 18 Freud, Sigmund 8, 20, 29, 30, 45, 62, 134, 168n ‘Fridge’ video venue 112 Fried, Michael, ‘Art and Objecthood’ 78–9, 89–90 Friedberg, Anne viii, 12 Window Shopping 9–10 Friedrich, Sue 104 Frieze Art Fair 133 frontal cinema 86, 110 Fuck You – A Magazine of the Arts 68 Fulton, Hamish 97 funding, films xi, 32, 60, 99 agencies 100, 128, 132–3 non-commercial 52 sponsored 56, 58 state or corporate 53 Fuses 80 Futurism and avant-garde art 30, 41 and avant-garde cinema 3, 32, 34 in Italy 25, 26–7 manifestos 140 Marinetti and 20 and modernism 9 in Russia 19, 26–7, 99, 101 see also cubo-Futurism; neoFuturism The Futurist Cinema 27 G G (journal) 31 Gaberbocchus Press 117 Gablik, Suzi 45 gallery art 77, 132–4, 137–8, 141 see also installation art gallery video vi–vii, 2, 98 Gance, Abel 10, 24, 30, 43 Ganz, Bruno 36

The Garden 110 Garden of Earthly Delights 130 Garland, Judy 134 Garrard, Rose 113 Gas Station 93 Gascoyne, David 55 Gaumont 68 Gawthrop, Rob 92, 102 Gay, John 111 gay film culture 106, 109, 115, 116, 120 Le Gazette des septième arts 31 Gehr, Ernie 2, 79, 91 Genet, Jean 71, 106 Gently Down the Stream 86 Germany artists 25 Dada in 42 Expressionism 30 film in 29, 31, 36, 37, 40, 43, 47, 50, 53, 54, 63, 71, 74, 85, 100, 125, 146n nationalism 53 television in 97 video in 96 gestalt 155n gesture 25, 45, 66, 125 anti-narrative 80 language of 124–5 small, cinema of 102–4 Ghosts Before Noon (Vormittagspuk) 29, 38 Ghosts in the Machine 114 Gibson, Ben 112 Gibson, Sandra 140, 177n Gidal, Peter and Brakhage 94 as iconoclast 90 in London 83, 99 and Pop Art 111 recent work 136 refusal of image 95, 98, 102, 130 as structuralist 5, 84, 87, 126 students of 92 technique 93, 102, 110, 6.89 as writer and theorist viii, 89–90, 101, 104, 123 The Anti-Narrative 90 Materialist Film 136 (ed.) The Structural Film Anthology 136 ‘Theatre theory for film, or not: Brecht (an interrogation/ performance: a ghost trio for two)’ 136 Theory and Definition of Structural/Materialist Film 90 Gilbert and George 97 Gillespie, Dizzy 169n Gillette, Frank 118 Gilliam, Terry 44, 129 Ginna, Arnaldo 27, 28, 29 Ginsberg, Allen 69 Girl 94–5 The Girl Chewing Gum 127, 128 La Glace à trois faces (The Mirror Has Three Faces) 31 Glasgow 28, 113 Festival 113 School of Art 55 Glass, Philip 79, 147n The Glass Stare 139 Glumov’s Diary 29

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Godard, Jean-Luc xi, 1, 68, 99, 101, 102, 112, 115, 123 Goddard, Judith 112, 117, 119, 123, 130 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang 13, 17 Theory of Colour 16 The Golem 30, 36 Gondry, Michel 105, 173n Gordon, Douglas 6, 118–19, 121, 129, 141, 171n, 173n Gorky, Arshile 63 Gorky, Maxim 25 Goudal, Jean 50 GPO 54, 55 Graeff, Werner 39, 158n Here Comes the New Photography! 31 Graf, Alexander 176n Graham, Dan 97, 175n grain, film 7, 139 Granada TV 147n Grandrieux, Philippe 173n Granny’s Is 123 Grant, Dwinnel 61 Greenaway, Peter xi, 5, 6, 108–11, 122, 129, 130, 147n, 171n Greenberg, Clement x, 8, 13, 50, 62 ‘Art and Culture’ 98 ‘Avant-Garde Attitudes’ 11 ‘Where is the Avant-Garde?’ 11 Greene, Graham 54 grid 12–13, 14 Grierson, John 28, 54–5, 56, 108, 117 Griffith, D. W. 25, 33, 41, 91 Griffiths, Keith 101 Grimion-Samson, Raoul 18 Guerilla Tapes 105 Guilt 104 Gunning, Lucy 120 Gunning, Tom 18, 135 Guns of the Trees 70 Gusberti, Maia 135 Gysin, Brion 85 H H. D. 33 Habermas, Jürgen 10 haiku 34 Halford, Marilyn 87, 126 Hall, David 6, 12, 86, 93, 95–6, 97, 98, 110, 112, 113, 118, 119, 122, 123, 130, 140, 145n, 176n Hall, Sue 97 Hamilton, Richard 111 Hamlyn, Nicky 92, 102, 104, 111, 120, 122, 138 Film Art Phenomena 138 Hammid, Alexander 62 Hammond, Roger 87 Hand Catching Lead 76, 77 handheld camera 65, 70, 75, 102, 136, 139 handmade film 5, 56, 87, 104, 118, 121 handpainted film 7, 28–9, 52, 61 Handsworth Songs 116–17 Hanging Around 120 Hanhardt, John 90 Hannah’s Song 119 happenings 96 Harrington, Curtis 59, 64 Hart, Emma 140, 177n Hartney, Mick 120 Hartog, Simon 83, 101 Hatoum, Mona 119, 120, 123, 148n

Index

Heath, Stephen 101 Heaven (club) 114 Hecker, Florian 143 Hein, Birgit 84, 90, 91, 146n Hein, Wilhelm 84, 90, 146n Helmholtz, Hermann von 15, 17, 20 Hennings, Emmy 42 Hepworth, Barbara 54, 111 Herzfelde, Wieland 42 Herzogenrath, Wulf 90 Heslop, Richard 169n Heyn, Volker 125 Hidden from Prying Eyes 119 Hill, Anthony 117 Hill, Gary 118, 171n Hiller, Susan 119, 176n Hilliard, John 175n Hilton, Stuart 28 Hirschfeld-Mack, Ludwig 37 Hirsh, Hy 175n Hirst, Damien 4, 112, 120, 173n Hitchcock, Alfred 8, 44, 118–19 Hitler, Adolf 53 Hoberman, J. 80 ‘After Avant-Garde Film’ 12 Hockney, David 111 Hodges, Mike 96 Holland 57, 59, 146n Hollywood 9, 10, 27, 30, 41, 60, 69 Honegger, Arthur 46 Hopkins, John (‘Hoppy’) 96–7, 98, 122 Horizontal Boundaries 176n Horizontal-Vertical Orchestra 158n Horner, William George 17 Horror Film I 88, 135 Horvatic, Hvorje 119 ‘House of Cards’ 169n Housing Problems 54, 55, 116, 128 How to Screw the CIA 87 Howard, Luke 16 Howe, Irving 10 Huelsenbeck, Richard 42 Hughes, Robert 4 Hulme, T. E. 13 Hulse, Matt 130, 169n humour 34, 49, 64, 72, 104, 106, 114, 126, 127 comic-burlesque 29–30, 130 of Dada 35 of Fluxus 72 of modernism 29 of Underground 67, 79 Hungary 57 Las Hurdes 51, 51 Husserl, Edmund 20 Huxley, Aldous 54 Huyghe, Pierre 141 Huyssen, Andreas 11 After the Great Divide 10 hybrids 112, 130 I I Dish 124 Ich Tank 130 iconic image 98 identity, mistaken 8 identity politics 120 Ikeda, Ryoji 143 illusionism 5–6, 15, 34, 41, 51, 88, 89, 90, 108, 110, 127, 130, 139 illustrative drawing 111 image manipulation 110

Image and Sound Festival 112 imagism 24, 33, 34, 61, 147n Immemorial 119 immersive projection 140 Impressionism 7, 9, 10, 15, 20, 21, 23, 30, 43, 50, 111 ‘Impressionists’ (film-makers)’ 41, 43 In the Dark 5 In Suspension 139 Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome 66 Independent Film Makers Association 63, 99, 100–1 Independent Video (later Independent Media) 112 India 139 Industrial Britain 56 informe 13 innovation/consolidation/reaction cycle 13 installation art explosion of 3, 60 film and video 79, 96, 98, 112, 118– 19, 119–20, 123, 126, 128–9, 135, 138–9 Greenaway and 108 interactive 140 loop-and-projector 138 performance-based 123 intermittent projection 6 International Times 68, 100 International Underground Film Festival 84 Internationale situationniste 68 internationalism 85 Internet 133 culture vii Interrun 113 Interruption XIV 138 intervals, theory of 52, 176n interventionist strategy 128 Intolerance 25 Invocation to my Demon Brother 85 Iris Out 139 Irreversible 173n Irzykowski, Karol 24 Island Race 126 Isou, Isidore 60, 68 It Wasn’t Love 120 Ivens, Joris 41, 54 J The Jacket 124 Jacobs, Ken vi, 6, 70, 71, 72, 79, 91, 119 Jagger, Mick 85 Jakobson, Roman 34, 37 James, David 169n James, William 23 Janácek, Leos 66 Jancsó, Miklós 42 Japan 59 Japanese Zero Dimension Group 68 Jarman, Derek 1, 67, 86, 99, 106, 107, 108–10, 112, 122, 123, 169n, 171n Jarmusch, Jim 74 Jarry, Alfred 23 Jennings, Humphrey 54, 55, 126, 137 Jeux des réflets, de lumière et de la vitesse 35, 35 Jeyasingh, Shobana 112 JFK 3, 147n Johns, Jasper 79, 111

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Jonas, Joan 77, 78 Jordan, Larry 74 Jorn, Asger 67 Le Journal de ciné-club 31 journals xi, 13, 20, 31, 33, 42, 57–8, 68, 71, 90, 96, 98, 99, 101, 106, 130 Joyce, James 20, 54, 63 Finnegans Wake 45 Ulysses 61–2 Jubilee 109, 169n Judd, Donald 78 Julien, Isaac 106, 115, 117, 120 jump-cuts 8 Jünger, Ernst 27 K Kahnweiler, Daniel-Henri 22, 25, 27, 154n kaleidoscope 17 Kali Film 91 Kandinsky, Wassily 36, 37, 39, 139 On the Spiritual in Art 38 Kant, Immanuel 20 Kaufman, Mikhail 33 Kazan, Elia 72 Keane, Tina 112, 119 Keen, Jeff 64, 84, 99, 109, 122, 123 Keiller, Patrick 2, 112, 129, 137 Kelly, Mary 119 Kennedy, John F. 72, 147n Kerouac, Jack 70 Keystone Cops 29 Khlebnikov, Velimir 36 Kidel, Mark 97 Killing Time 119 ‘Kine-Foto’ trade fair 31 King Kong 76 Kinugasa, Teinosuke 30 Kipho 31 Kirsanov, Dmitri 47–8 Klactoveedsedsteen 68 Klee, Paul 7, 26, 36 Klonaris, Maria 146n Knight, Julia 112 Knokke Festival 66, 71 Koffka, Kurt 155n Korean War 60 Korot, Beryl 96 Kosuth, Joseph 97 Kötting, Andrew 112 Kranz, Kurt 39 Krauss, Rosalind 12–13, 45 Krautgasser, Annja 135 Kren, Kurt 68–9, 81, 84, 104, 134, 138, 143 Kriemhild’s Revenge 40 Krikorian, Tamara 98, 119 Kristeva, Julia 168n Kruchenykh, Aleksei 36 Kubelka, Peter 34, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 90, 130, 134, 138, 143 Kubin, Alfred 36 Kubrick, Stanley 3, 80 Kuchar, George and Mike 112 Kuleshov, Lev 30, 36, 52, 85, 150n Kuleshov experiment 13 Kupka, Frantisek 19 L La Sarraz 31, 53 Laban, Rudolf 36, 42 Lacan, Jacques 45, 119

190

‘Land Art’ 80 Land without Bread 54 Lander, Rik 118 Landow, George 72, 79, 81, 90, 101, 104 landscape 2, 74, 80, 87, 105, 123, 126, 135, 138 Lang, Fritz 1, 40 language 10, 22, 23, 39, 61, 80, 104, 106, 124 of art 40, 52 of avant-garde 12 of film 2, 25, 36, 41, 42, 45, 49, 54, 63, 139n games 127 of gesture 124–5 of modernism 4, 134 of television 99 universal 38, 42, 71 verbal 56 Lansdown, John 117 Larcher, David 34, 84, 98, 99, 108, 109, 112, 122, 123–4, 130 The Last of England 107 The Last Temptation of Christ 147n Late Night Line-Up 97 The Late Show 102 ‘1-minute film’ series 113, 128, 132 Latham, John 6, 68, 95, 97, 98, 113, 176n Latham, William 117 Lausanne 31 Le Grice, Malcolm viii, 2, 5, 81, 83, 84, 86–92, 94, 98, 101, 102–3, 104, 108–11, 118, 122, 123, 126 recent work 135–6, 137, 140 and sound synthesiser 142 Leacock, Richard 69, 70 The Lead Shoes 63, 64, 64 Leading Light 127 Lebovici, Gerard 68 Lee, Laurie 55 Lee, Spike 115 Leeds, Lumen festival 139 Lef group 19 Léger, Fernand 8, 31, 32, 36, 37, 38, 43, 46, 59, 63, 77, 102, 135, 142 Leggett, Mike 87 Lemaître, Maurice 60, 68 Lemon 2 Lenin, V. I. 42 Lennox, Annie 169n lens, out-of-focus 6 Lensless 84 Leonardo da Vinci 17 Leslie, Alfred 69 Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim 13, 21 L’Estaque 21 Lettrisme 60, 68 Lewis, P. Wyndham 27 L’Herbier, Marcel 10, 43 Lichtenstein, Roy 111 Light Music 142 Light Reading 92, 93, 119 lightplay 19 Lindsay, Vachel 24 lip-synch 86, 169n Lippard, Lucy 52 Lipton, Lenny, Independent FilmMaking 121 Liss, Carla 83 Lissitzky, El 36, 140

literature 8, 9, 20, 27, 46, 50, 61, 168n Little Stabs of Happiness 79 Littman, Steve 97, 112 Liverpool 112 Tate Liverpool 112 Loach, Ken 96 logical philosophy 20 London 68, 137, 139 Arts Lab 83–4, 85, 97, 118 B2 gallery 86 Baltron Tower 136 Better Books 83 Canary Wharf Tower 126–7 Gallery House 118 Goldsmiths College 123 Hayward Gallery 5, 105, 112, 129 ICA 114, 117 Biennale 129 ‘Pandaemonium’ festival 129 Institute for Research into Art and Technology 96, 97 LUX centre 133 National Film Theatre 84, 89 Roundhouse 83, 85 Royal Academy 16, 148n Royal College of Art (RCA) 92, 102, 106, 108, 117, 121, 137 St Martin’s School of Art 92, 98, 115, 126 Serpentine Gallery 98, 173n Slade School of Art 106, 108, 121 Department of Experimental and Electronic Art 117 Tate Gallery 98, 112, 120, 148n Tower Bridge 137 TVX 96 UFO Club 83, 96 Zoo 57 London Film 87 London (film) 137 London Film Makers’ Cooperative 83–90, 96, 100, 102, 105–6, 108, 109, 111, 112, 123, 126, 133 London Film Society 32, 63 London Video Arts (later London Video Access, then London Electronic Arts) 86, 98, 112 London Women’s Film Group 84 Londres/Bombay 137 Long, Richard 97 long-takes 6, 7, 75, 103, 109 Longo, Robert 169n Loo, Lynn 140, 177n Looking for Langston 117 loop-printing 75, 80 Lorentz, Pare 54 Los Angeles 60, 74 ‘Hall of Mirrors’ 112 Lost Highway 3 Lost Lake 126 Love is the Devil 124 low-tech 105–7 Lowder, Rose 142, 146n Lubetkin, Berthold 57 Lucas, Sarah 119 Lucie-Smith, Edward x, 11 Lucier, Alvin 143 Lucifer Rising 85 Lukoszevieze, Anton 125 Lumière, Auguste and Louis 15, 16, 19, 87, 103 Lunacharsky, Anatoly 36

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Lundemo, Trond viii Lye, Len 6, 28, 28, 29, 30, 32, 52, 56, 61, 114 Lynch, David xii, 1, 3, 44, 59, 67, 78, 92, 112, 147n Lyotard, Jean-Francois 114 lyric film 74–5, 83, 92, 102 Lyrical Doubt 119 M Maas, Willard 61, 65 McAllister, Stewart 55 McClure, Bruce 140 McGreal, Frances 119 Machine of Eden 74 Maciunas, George 72, 86 Maclaine, Christopher 175n McLaren, Norman 28, 38, 56 McMullen, Ken 176n McPherson, Kenneth 33 McQueen, Steve 120, 129, 133, 173n Madge, Charles 55 Madrid, Biennale of the Moving Image 112 Maidstone College of Art, Time-Based Media course 176n Malanga, Gerard 75 Malebranche, Nicolas 20 Malevich, Kazimir 12, 57 Mallarmé, Stéphane 20 Man with Mirror 88, 140 Man with a Movie Camera 40, 87, 134 Man Ray 5, 8, 29, 31, 32, 43–4, 45, 47, 48, 51, 52, 59, 77, 104, 135 Manchester 112 Hacienda club 86 Mandelstam, Osip 21 Manet, Édouard 15, 18–19, 155n Bar at the Folies-Bergère 19 Manhatta 2, 2, 33, 54 mannerism 66 Manovich, Lev, The Language of New Media 134 Manvell, Roger (ed.), Experiment in the Film 60 Marawannah Quarterly 68 Marc, Franc 36 Marclay, Christian 141 Mare’s Tale 123 Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso 4, 12, 20, 26, 29 ‘Futurist Cooking’ 26 Marker, Chris xi, 123 Markopoulos, Gregory 6, 64, 72, 75 Marshall, Stuart 86, 97, 98 Martin, Kenneth and Mary 117 Marx, Patricia 175n Marxism 4, 86, 89, 99 neo-Hegelian 13 mass culture 10, 11, 80, 111, 122, 143 Matchbox 140 ‘Material-Action’ 68 materiality of the medium 52 Matisse, Henri 7, 9, 19, 21, 23 matrix 12–13, 14 Matrix 136, 138, 142 Mayakovsky, Vladimir 4, 21, 26, 29 Maybury, John 86, 106, 110, 111, 112, 114, 123–4 Maysles, Albert and David 70 Mazière, Michael 92, 102, 122, 129 Mead, Taylor 70

Index

Mean Streets 3, 147n Measures of Distance 120 Meat of Other Times 104 Media Arts Festival 112 Meditations on Violence 66 medium-specificity 140 Mekas, Adolfas 71 Mekas, Jonas 6, 59, 61, 64, 70–2, 80, 85, 120, 148n Méliès, Georges 21, 24, 29, 41 Melody of the World 53 meltdown factor 63, 114 Melville, Herman 80 Memento 8, 147n Menilmontant 48, 160n Menken, Marie 6, 65, 73, 130, 138 Meredith, George 9 Merlin 68 Meshes of the Afternoon 62, 62, 63, 101 Metall 53 Metamkine 140 method, in art 20 Metronome 2, 88 Metz, Christian 26 Metzger, Gustav 97, 121 Meyerhold, Vsevolod 36 Meynell, Kate 112, 119, 123, 132 Michelin 117 Michelson, Annette 79, 90, 176n Midnight Party 73 ‘Midnight Underground’ series 128, 132 Millennium Film Journal 130 Millennium Film Workshop 72 Miller, Lee 48 Millet, Jean-François 19 Millett, Joanna 92 Milne, Will 92, 103–4 The Miners’ Film 99 Minimalism 9, 12, 13, 75, 76, 78, 79, 92, 93, 103, 126 Minutiae 102 Mirror 76 Mirror Displacement 93 mirror phase 119 Mirza, Karen 133, 136, 138–9, 142, 176n, 177n Misère au borinage 54 mistakes, cinema of 71, 87 Mitchell, Eric 12 mixed-media assemblage 63, 72 modernism 7, 8–14, 67, 90, 108, 140, 142 élitist 9, 54 and modernity 8–9 Moholy-Nagy, László 57, 77, 154n Dynamic of the City 36 Mondrian, Piet 7, 10, 13, 154n Broadway Boogie-Woogie 10 Monet, Claude 7, 16 Monitor 96, 113, 113 Monk, Meredith 76, 79, 110, 147n montage abstract 61 compared to haiku 34 and Dada 60 definition 52 disruptive 51 Eisenstein and 65 in France 140 inter-syntagmatic 147n

montage cont. and irrationality 29 methods and theories 13, 41, 47, 52, 54, 57, 66, 72, 113, 128 Parker and 124 Scratch video and 105 sound-picture 56, 120 Soviet 36, 79 and surrealism 140 montage-editing 31, 41 Montagu, Ivor 53, 105 Monthly Film Bulletin xi Mood Mondrian 138 Moore, G. E. 25, 155n Moore, Henry 54, 111 Moritz, William 39 Morris, Robert 13, 76, 78, 93 Continuous Project Altered Daily 12 Morrissey, Paul 81 Mosaik in Vertrauen 68 Mother’s Day 64 Mothlight 75 motion as concept 18 rapid 69 Motion Painting 38, 61 Moussinac, Léon 53 movement, simulated 17 A Movie 72 Movie Brats 1, 92 moving image culture of 98, 114, 145n origins 15–17 Moviola 112 Mr Frenhofer and the Minotaur 63 MTV 123 Muehl, Otto 68, 148n Müller, Matthias 141 Muller, Sophie 106, 169n Mulloy, Phil 123 multi-camera shot 95 multi-layered imaging 123 multi-media production 108, 121 multi-projection films 135–6, 140 multi-screen installation 103, 123, 126, 140 multitracking 116 Mulvey, Laura 95, 99 Munich 59 Chamber Theatre 36 Munich–Berlin Walk 2 Münsterberg, Hugo 24, 153n, 154n Film – A Psychological Study 26 Murder Psalm 91 Murnau, F. W. 30 Murphy, Dudley 32, 102 Murphy, Katherine 46 Murray, Sonny 79 museum culture 98 museum of non-participation 139 music 62, 63, 68 random 68 serial 54 visual 142–3 music videos 1, 105, 107 Musil, Robert, ‘Notes toward a dramaturgy of film’ 36 Muybridge, Eadweard 87 My Own Mag 68 Les Mystères du château de Dés 31, 44

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myth 39, 45, 63, 66, 73, 94, 123, 124 cubist 23 film as 5 poetic 73, 74 in psychodrama 64 urban 108 N narrative cinema 8, 30–4, 41, 92, 98, 129, 135 drama x, 47, 104, 119, 124, 126, 127– 8 film-poem 61 see also avant-garde, narrative narrative identification 103 narrative space 92, 110 National Lottery arts budget 133 National Review of Live Art 112 nationalism, German 53 naturalism 53 critique of 47 Nauman, Bruce 27, 77, 78, 97, 118 negative discourse 12 negative film 63, 73 negative moment 103 Nekes, Werner 146n Németh, Stefan 135 neo-avant-garde 12, 60 neo-constructivism 4 neo-Dada xi, 60, 72 neo-documentary 140 neo-Futurism 42 neo-structuralism 98 Network 7 114 Network 21 114 Neubauer, Vera 28 New American Cinema 1, 59, 70 New American Cinema Group 69 New Deal films 54 New Image painting 45 New Order 105, 169n ‘New Pluralism’ 112–14 New Ratio 139 ‘New Romantics’ 106, 126 New School for Social Research 59 New Spirit 92 New Tempo 96 New Wave 117 in France 41, 140 German and US 74 New York 60, 70, 94, 96 Danceteria 114 Film Festival 71 Judson Memorial Church 76, 78 Museum of Modern Art 63, 72 Red Bar 114 Underground 12 Whitney Museum of American Art 72 ‘New York Dada’ 43, 54, 69 New York Eye and Ear Control 79 New York School 125 New Zealand 32 Newby, Chris 123, 129, 130 Newton, Isaac 16 Nicholson, Ben 54, 111 Nico 169n Nicolson, Annabel 84, 87, 88, 142 Niemeyer, Erna 37, 158n Niépce, Nicéphore 17 Nietzsche, Friedrich 29, 42, 68 Night Mail 54

192

The Nightcleaners 99, 100 Nin, Anaïs 33 Nitsch, Hermann 68, 148n Noailles, comte de 31–2, 48 Nochlin, Linda 18 Noé, Gaspar 147n ‘noise-music’ 27, 33 Nolan, Christopher 8 Non-Places 139 Nono, Luigi 143 Noren, Andrew 70 Notebook 65 Notes on Film 02 135 Notting Hill Carnival 115 November Group 31, 37 Now Now 68 no.w.here 133, 139 Nuttall, Jeff 67, 86 Nyman, Michael 113 O O., Doré 146n Object Studies 138 Oblek, Renate 135 O’Connor, Sinead 126 October (film) 13 October (journal) viii, 13, 130 Oehring, Helmut 125 Olson, Charles 74 Olympia 36 On the Edge 64 One Hour’s Silence 119 One Second in Montreal 79 O’Neill, Pat 74, 80, 176n Ono, Yoko 72, 85 O’Pray, Michael 112, 114, 136 optical toys 17 opticality 52 optics 15, 20, 51, 52, 139 Opus I–IV 142 Opus IV 39 Opus series 37, 39–40 Orlan 148n Orlando 108 Orwell, George 111 Oursler, Tony 118 Outer Space 134–5, 135 P P-Orridge, Genesis 86 pacifism 42 Paik, Nam June 96, 117, 122 Painlevé, Jean 88 painted or scratched film 6 Panni 138 Panofsky, Erwin 26 panoramas 17, 20, 52 Panteli, Lucy 92, 102 Paolozzi, Eduardo 129 ‘As Is When’ 121 Paper Landscape 140 Paris 9, 21, 23, 59, 60, 68, 70, 141 Commune 18 Métro 97 ‘Paris Dada’ 43, 44 Park Film 87 Parker, Alan 109 Parker, Claire 33 Parker, Jayne 2, 104, 111, 112, 120, 123, 124–6, 127, 128, 129, 137 Parker, Kayla 28 parody films 30

Parreno, Philippe 173n Parsons, David 87 Partridge, Stephen 112, 113, 132, 176n Parts 103 Passage à l’acte 134 Pastrone, Giovanni 25 Patalas, Enno 90 Paxton, Steve 76 Payne, Simon 139, 177n Peace and Plenty 105 Pennebaker, D. A. 69, 70 Penthesilea 99 Penumbra 138 perception 20–2, 26, 47, 52, 68, 70, 91, 93, 97, 102, 118 of colour and light 16 and duration 104, 120, 123 of nature 19 politics of 87, 92, 94 of space 103 Péret, Benjamin 48 performance art 64, 68, 76–7, 93, 118, 140 permutation 72 Pet Shop Boys 169n Peterson, Sidney 29, 59, 61, 63, 64, 140 Peyton-Jones, Jeremy 60 Pfaffenbichler, Norbert 135 phantasmagorias 18 phantasmascope 17 Phased Time 95 phenomenology 20 of viewing 119 Phillips, Tom 108 photo-essays 31 photogénie 61, 140 photogram 135 photography 15–16, 17–19 Photoplay 102 physics 20 Picabia, Francis 29, 35, 43 Picasso, Pablo 12, 16–17, 19, 20, 21–2, 23, 25, 35, 46, 48, 155n After Manet 25 pièce touchée 134 The Pillow Book 108, 122 Pink Floyd 83 Pinot-Gallizio, Giuseppe 68 Pinter, Michael 135 Piscator, Erwin 53 Pissarro, Camille 9, 19 Pistino 138 Planck, Max 20 ‘Plastic Art in Motion’ 29 Plateau, Joseph 17 Poe, Edgar Allan 137 Poesie Vivante 68 poetry 33–5, 50, 61, 92 Poggioli, Renato viii, 10 Point Line Plane 139 point of view 7–8, 14, 92 Poland 57–8, 59, 146n Polanski, Roman 57 Police Light 72 politics 12 and art 99–102, 120 avant-garde, links 53 film-makers and 126 and radicalism 9 politics of perception 92 Politkino 84 Pollock, Jackson 63

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Pook, Jocelyn 128 Pop 177n Pop Art 12, 78, 80, 96, 111, 120 British 111 Pope, Greg 140 porn, early 91 Portapak camera 117, 122 Porter, Edwin 18, 41 portrait 2, 3, 63, 66 in art 21, 24, 48, 107 portrait films 99, 117, 126, 139 Portrait of Jason 120 Portrait with Parents 88, 89 Post Office Film Unit 28 post-cubism 47, 108 post-impressionism 15 post-modernism 3, 10, 121, 142 post-punk 86, 104, 148n post-structuralists 90–6, 101 post-surrealism 4 post-symbolism 58 post-war avant-garde 59–67 Poster/Film Collective 99 Potter, Dennis 111 Potter, Sally 108 Pound, Ezra 19, 24, 33, 34, 35, 54, 61, 62, 63, 80 ‘How to Read’ 9 Powell, Michael 109, 110 Power Misses 169n Praxinoscope 17 predetermination 81 Preminger, Otto 72 Presents 80 Prévost, Pierre 17 primitive cinema 24–6, 40, 44, 87–8, 90–6, 91 process/conceptual artists 76–9 projection, imaginary 7 promos 31, 96, 105, 114, 115, 126 low-budget 106–7 prose, and poetry 34, 50 Prospero’s Books 110, 122 protest, social and cultural 60 proto-cinema 17–18 proto-structuralism 57 psychedelic sequences 80 Psycho 118–19 psychoanalysis 20, 99, 168n psychodrama 61, 63, 64, 65, 66, 73, 79, 103, 147n Pudovkin, Vsevolod 30, 53, 74, 150n Pull My Daisy 69–70, 74 Pulp 105, 169n punk underground 86, 169n pure cinema 34–5, 41, 50, 56, 80 Q The Queen is Dead 169n Quick Billy 74 Quixote 74 R Raban, William 87, 120, 123, 126–7, 128, 136–7, 140, 142 Radax, Felix 68 Radical Software 96 radicalism, cultural and political 9 Radiohead 169n Raindance group 96, 97 Rainer, Arnulf 68 Rainer, Yvonne 5, 76, 79, 104

Index

Rameau’s Nephew 80 Raspé, Margaret 146n rationalism 17, 37, 57 Rauschenberg, Robert 76, 79 Raynal, Maurice 20, 23 ‘The Intentions of Cubism’ 22 Raynaud, Charles-Émile 17 Rayns, Tony 60, 85 Rayonnisme 19 re-photography 80 Read, Herbert 55, 111 Reading, Peter 111 Ready, Steady, Go! 96 Reagan, Ronald 99, 105 Realism 54, 63, 70, 106, 147n Rebello, Samantha 139, 142 Recoder, Luis 140, 177n Redgrave, Vanessa 137 Reel Time 88, 88 Reflections on Black 73 La Région centrale 2, 80, 123 Reich, Steve 79, 96, 104 Reichardt, Jasia 117 Cybernetic Serendipity 117 relativity 20, 25 Remedial Reading Comprehension 80 Remembrance of Things Fast 123–4 remote control camera 80 Renoir, Jean 60 repeats, staggered 102 repetition 72, 75, 95, 106 Report 72 Residu 68 Return to Reason 43–4, 135 Revolt of the Fishermen 53 Rhodes, Lis 5, 84, 92, 113, 119, 122, 129, 140, 142 Rhythm 21 vii, 39, 158n Rhythmus 23 38, 158n Rhythmus series 38, 142 Rice, Ron 6, 70, 71, 84 Rich, Ruby 129 Richter, Gerhard 136 Richter, Hans vii, 29, 37, 38–9, 42–3, 46, 51, 52, 53, 54, 58–9, 62, 63, 69, 142 Enemies of the Film Today, Friends of the Film Tomorrow 31 The Struggle for the Film 58–9 Riddle of Lumen 74 Riddles of the Sphinx 99 Ridley, Anna 97, 113 Riefenstahl, Leni 36 Rien que les heures 56 Rigby, Jane 113 Rimbaud, Arthur 20, 68 Rimington, A. Wallace 17 Ringu 147n, 173n Ritual in Transfigured Time 63, 66 River Yar 87 road movies 74, 78 Robakowski, Jozef 146n Robertshaw, Simon 112 Robeson, Paul 33 Robinson in Ruins 137 Robinson in Space 137 Rocha, Glauber 99 rock videos 105, 106, 130 Rogers, Kathleen 130 Roh, Franz and Tschichold, Jan (eds), Photo-Eye 31 Rohfilm/Rawfilm 84, 84

Rolling Stones 96 Rollo, Mike 138 romance, family 98, 134 Romanticism 75, 126 Romhanyi, Pedro 105, 169n Room Film 1973 94 room films 102, 103 Rose, Barbara 10–11 Rosler, Martha 97 Roud, Richard 71 Rouen 7 Rouget, Charles Marie Benjamin 17 Roughton, Roger 55 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 23 Rowe, Keith 142 Rubin, Barbara 80 Rudd, Rosswell 79 Ruiz, Raúl 123 Russell, Bertrand 20, 25–6, 149n Our Knowledge of the External World 25 Russell, Ken xii, 86, 96, 109 Russia formalism in 120 Futurism in 19, 26–7, 99, 101 see also Soviet Union Russolo, Luigi 26 Ruttmann, Walther vii, 6, 25, 37, 38– 40, 52, 53, 62, 142, 158n Rybczynski, Zbigniew 105, 146n Le Rythme coloré 20 S Saatchi Collection 148n Sainsbury, Peter 99 St Ives group 111 Saint-Simon, Claude Henri, comte de 18 Samcon 118 Same 104 Samuelsons 118 San Francisco 59, 60, 64, 74, 91 Mime Troupe 68 Sankofa Television 115 Santora 135 Sarris, Andrew 67 Satie, Erik 29, 46, 103 Saugus Series 74 Saussure, Ferdinand de 22 Savage 106 Saxon, George 122 Schlemmer, Oskar, Triadic Ballet 36 Schlesinger, John 96 Schneemann, Carolee 76, 80, 140, 175n Schneider, Ira 118 Schoenberg, Arnold 20, 69 Schreiber, Lotte 135 Schum, Gerry 97 Schwechater 68 science 20 Scofield, Paul 137 Scorpio Rising 66 Scorsese, Martin 3, 67, 92, 147n Scott, Ridley 109, 117, 129 Scratch video 105, 106, 112, 114, 118, 122, 132 Screen 90, 97, 99, 100, 106, 120 screen, blank 75, 96 screen space viii screensaver 113 scroll-drawings 37

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The Seashell and the Clergyman (La Coquille et le clergyman) 45, 49, 50 The Seasons 65 Seated Figures 80 Sebastiane 110 Sedgwick, Edie 75 Seeber, Guido 26 self-referentiality 79, 94 self-reflexiveness 79 ‘Semantic Poetry’ 117 Semiotext(e) 148n semiotics 99 Sensation (exhibition) 148n Sentences 113 Sequence 13 138 Serra, Richard 77, 78 Seurat, Georges 15, 20 7 TV Pieces 95, 95 Severini, Gino 19 sexploitation movies 91 sexual imagery 80, 98 Seyrig, Delphine 70 Shadow of a Journey 119 Shadows 69 Shakespeare, William, The Tempest 110 Sharits, Paul viii, 58, 72, 77, 143, 175n Shaw, George Bernard 9 Sheeler, Charles 2, 33, 54 The Sheepman and the Sheared 87 Shepherd’s Delight 127 Sherwin, Guy 2, 88, 120, 123, 129, 137, 140, 177n Shiomi, Chieko 72 Shirley 99 Shklovsky, Victor, ‘Poetry and Prose in the Cinema’ 34 shock 4, 21, 49, 51–2 The Shock of the New 4 Short Film Series 88, 89 Shub, Esfir 30, 36 Signac, Paul 20 signifiers and signified 87, 93, 102 silent cinema 47, 59, 142 simultaneity 20 Sinclair, Iain 111 Sinden, Tony 93, 95, 118, 122 single framing 6, 72, 85, 108, 134, 138 single-screen film 18, 120, 123, 139, 141 Sirius Remembered 74, 74 Sitney, P. Adams 3, 48, 59, 72, 80, 81, 82, 83, 86, 89 Visionary Film 80, 101 situationism 1, 68 16mm film 108, 119, 122, 136, 138, 139, 140 SKOOB book towers 97 Skylight 126 slapstick 29, 41 Sleep 75 Slides 84 slippage 87 Slow Glass 104, 128, 129 slow motion 63, 72, 83, 91, 108, 147n small gestures, cinema of 102–4 Small Objects of Desire 117 Smiling Madame Beudet 49 Smith, Harry 28, 61, 63, 70, 130, 169n Smith, Jack 64, 70, 71–2, 75, 79, 84, 130 Smith, John 104, 120, 123, 127–8, 129, 137 The Smiths 169n

194

Smithson, Robert 80, 104 Snow, Michael vi, 2, 34, 58, 70, 79–80, 81, 83, 89, 90, 101, 109, 112, 118– 19, 123, 134, 169n Snyder, Gary 74 social cinema 86 social realism 129 socialism 53 society of the spectacle 68 Soft Machine 83 Soft Rain 79 Les Soirées de Paris 20 Sonbert, Warren 70 sonic art 142–3 Sony 118, 122 sound, non-synchronous 119 sound cinema 59, 65, 142–3 Soundtapes 113 soundtrack 53, 66, 67 Soviet Union film-makers in 9, 26, 27, 30, 36, 53, 79, 119, 146n, 153n Five Year Plan 33 radical art in 27 The Space Between 139 space-perception 103 Spanish Civil War 55 Spare Time 55 Sparrow, Felicity 105 spatial projections 177n special effects 147n spectator all-seeing 35 consumption and reception vi identification 8 immobile 9 interactive 126 model of 17 role of 25–6, 31, 47, 49, 74, 78, 90, 93–6, 101, 119, 120, 142 and time 52 see also point of view speed, shooting 110 speeds 83 variable 30 ‘Spellbound’ (exhibition) 5, 112, 129 Spielmann, Yvonne viii sprocket holes 84 Stage 120 Stampfer, Simon von 17 Stein, Gertrude 20, 54, 61, 63, 73 The Making of Americans 23–4 Stein, Peter 104 Stella, Frank 78 Steps 105 stereoscope 17 Steveni, Barbara 97 De Stijl vii, 31, 158n still life 2, 7, 19, 21 Stockhausen, Karlheinz 143 Stone, Oliver 3, 147n Stoneman, Rod 101 Stooky Bill TV 113, 114 stop-frame motion 30, 96 Storck, Henri 41, 54 Straits of Magellan 80 Strand, Paul 2, 33, 54 Straub, Jean-Marie 99, 101, 102, 103 Straub-Huillet (Jean-Marie Straub and Danièle Huillet) xi Stravinsky, Igor 19, 20, 48 Streamline 87

Street-Porter, Janet 114 strobe effects 85 stroboscope 17 Stromboli 130 structural film 78, 79–82, 103, 104, 105, 115, 123, 127, 129, 130 second-wave 127 Structural Film Anthology 89 structuralism 80–1, 82, 92, 101, 108, 121 lyrical 122 in UK 83–90 student movement 72 Studio International 90, 98, 101 A Study in Choreography for Camera 34, 63 Der Sturm group 36 STV 95 Substance 169n Sundial 126 Super-8 106, 108, 112, 118, 142 superimposition 102 The Surface of Residual Matter 139 Surrealism 1, 2, 9, 13, 19, 29, 32, 41, 41–5, 48, 50, 53, 55, 56–7, 60, 103, 111, 119, 124, 140 Survage, Léopold 20, 27, 29, 154n ‘Survey of the Avant-Garde’ 118 Svankmajer, Jan 112 Swann, Cordelia 106 Sweden 38 Swinton, Tilda 129 Switzerland 42, 53 Syed, Alia 2, 117 Sylvester, David 25, 45 symbolism 22, 27, 39, 47, 61, 123 Tantric 80 synaesthesia 21, 29, 37, 38, 61 systems film 143 Systems Simulation Company 117 Szczuka, Mieczyslaw 57–8 Szymanowski, Karol 58 T Tait, Margaret 123 Take Me Home 130, 169n Tango 36, 105 Tanguy, Yves 50 Taris 33 Taylor, Cecil 76 Taylor-Wood, Sam 119, 120, 133, 171n, 173n, 176n Tchicai, John 79 technology 11, 41, 61, 104 see also digital technology television 12, 92, 95–6, 96–101, 110, 118, 132–3, 141 ‘cultural’ 99, 101 Temenos 2, 92 The Tempest 110 temporality 52, 98 Ten Drawings 93 10-16 119 Tenney, James 76 Territories 115–16 text-driven films 109 Thais 27 Thames Barrier 126 Thames Film 87, 126 Thatcher, Margaret 99, 105, 107, 109, 133 theatre 112

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Theatre of Cruelty 49 theatricality 79 Themerson, Stefan and Franciszka 57, 58, 117 Thèmes et variations 38 theory of intervals 52, 176n thesis/antithesis/synthesis triad 13 Thew, Anna 177n Thinking Twice 125 Thirds 139 36 colours 135 This is a Television Receiver 119 Thomadeki, Katerina 146n Thomas, Dylan 54 Thornton, Leslie 104 Three Tales 96 Threshold 136 Thriller 108 Throbbing Gristle 86 time base 6–7, 50, 90, 95, 138, 141, 143 passage of 17, 87, 95, 104 photographic 15 and space 149n structures 102 Time Stepping 87 time-lapse 87, 95, 96, 127, 138 title sequences 147n To Kill a Mocking Bird 134 Tobacco Shed 138 Tom, Tom, The Piper’s Son 91 Tomkins, Calvin 70 tonality 39 Totaro, Donato viii Towers Open Fire 85 trade shows 31 Trade Tattoo 28, 28, 56 trailers 147n Trainspotting 129 trance film 61, 66, 76, 80, 104 transgression, cinema of 106 transition 102 Tree Studies 126 Trees in Autumn 69 Triangle 173n trick-film 41, 44 ‘Trilogy – Kettle’s Yard’ 126 Trotskyism 42 Tscherkassky, Peter 134–5 Tudor, Antony 62 Turner, J. M. W. 7, 17 Light and Colour (Goethe’s Theory) – the Morning after the Deluge 16 Turner Prize 118, 119 Turrell, James vii Tusalava 30, 32 TV 68, 69 TVX 96, 97 24-Hour Psycho 118 Twin Peaks 112 Two Melons and a Stinking Fish 119 Two Men and a Wardrobe 57 Two Sides To Every Story 118–19 2’.45” 136 2001: A Space Odyssey 80 Twombly, Cy 106 Tyler, Parker 64, 72 typography, modernist 31 Tzara, Tristan 9, 43, 48

Index

U UFA 42, 158n Undercut 106 underground 67–75 cinema 1, 83, 123 press 68 Underworld 130 Unik, Pierre 51 union of all the senses 41 United Artists 25 United States of America 59, 100 Unsere Afrikareise 72 uta zet 135 V Valéry, Paul 21 Valie Export 146n Van Doesburg, Theo 158n Vanderbeek, Stan 70, 123, 134, 140 Vanitas 119 Vasulka, Steina and Woody 143 Velazquez, Diego, Las Meninas 170n Velvet Underground 81, 169n Verhoeven, Paul 8 Vertical Features Remake 108 Vertov, Dziga viii, 1, 32, 33, 33, 36, 40, 48, 52, 53, 59, 117, 134, 150n The Very Eye of Night 62 VHS 118, 122 video 3, 5, 8, 78, 86, 96–8 art 121–2, 132 basic 60 expanded 112, 135 fast-cut 105 loops 118, 120 low-band 106 music 1 narrative 114, 118–19 rise of 140–1 and television 122 yBA and 118–21 Video Café 114 Video Diaries 97 Video Nation 97 Video Positive Biennale 112 Video Wall installations 112 video-rock fusion 17 videocassette recorder 132 Videovoid 123 Vidor, King 1 Vienna 68 Direct Action Group 148n Institute of Direct Art 68 Vienna School 68 Vietnam War 83, 92, 147n viewing, phenomenology of 119 Vigne, Dion 175n Vigo, Jean 33, 48 The Village Voice 70, 71 Villot, Frédéric 16 Vimeo 141 Viner, Darrel 117 Vinyl 75 Viola, Bill vii, 79, 118, 123, 171n Violin Power 143 Virilio, Paul 5 virtual imaging 140 vision, persistence of viii, 17 vision-in-process 120 visionary film 80, 81, 84, 90, 99 visual field 41 visual music 50

visual symphony 35 Visual Variations on Noguchi 65 Vita Futurista 27, 29 vitalism 26 Vivaldi, Antonio 66 Vogel, Amos 71 voice-over 48, 51, 58, 68, 70, 124, 127, 128, 137, 142 Volcano 136 ‘Volcano’ festival 129 Vollard, Ambroise 19 Vostell, Wolf 96 Voudoun, Haitian 66 Vowels and Consonants 140 voyeurism 94–5 W Wagner, Richard 21, 38, 46 Walking in an Exaggerated Manner Around the Perimeter of a Square 77 Walley, Jonathan viii war films 91 Warhol, Andy 2, 3, 6, 14, 23, 24, 65, 67, 72, 75–81, 83, 97, 104, 111, 119, 120, 136 Wasko, Ryszard 146n The Watershed 116, 117 Watson, James Sibley 33 Waugh, Evelyn 54, 111 Wavelength 79–80, 89, 169n The Way to Shadow Garden 63, 73 Wearing, Gillian 2, 6, 86, 119, 120, 141, 171n, 173n, 176n Webb, Penny 92, 103 Webber, Melville 33 Weber, Bruce 169n Webern, Anton 68 Wednesday Play 96 Wegman, William 27, 120, 169n Weill, Kurt 54 The Weir-Falcon Saga 74 Wells, H. G. 9 Welsby, Chris 2, 87, 101, 123, 126 Welsh, Jeremy 112, 119 Wenders, Wim xi, 74, 78 Wesker, Arnold 83 Whitchurch Down (Duration) 87 White, James 18 White Light 102 White Noise 114 Whitehead, Peter 96 Whitney, John and James 61, 63, 70, 121 Wigman, Mary 42 Wild Dog 68 The Wild One 66 Wilde, Oscar 111 Willemen, Paul 95 Williams, William Carlos 74 Wilson, Robert 104 Wilson, Rodney 100 Wind 77, 77 Windhausen, Federico viii Windmill II 87 Window, Water, Baby, Moving 74, 86 Wipe Cycle 118 Wiseman, Frederick 69 (Wishing) Well 119 Witches Cradle 62 Wittgenstein, Ludwig 20, 25, 155n Wölfflin, Heinrich 13

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Wollen, Peter 99, 101, 129 ‘The Two Avant-Gardes’ 101, 102 Wolpe, Katharina 125 Wolpe, Stefan 125 Wood, Graham 130 Worringer, Wilhelm 13 Woton’s Wake 76 Wright, Richard 117–18 The Wrong Man 8 Wyborny, Klaus 90, 91, 146n Wyn Evans, Cerith 106, 110, 111, 112 Wyver, John 114, 122, 129, 130

196

X Xenakis, Iannis 143 Y Yeats, W. B. 61 Young, Graham 132 Young, LaMonte 76, 104, 143 Young British Artists (yBa) 1, 118–21, 129, 132, 171n Young Girl in Blue 103 Youngblood, Gene 134, 141 Expanded Cinema 121 youth culture 107, 115 YouTube 141 Yugoslavia 146n

Z Zidane: a 21st Century Portrait 173n Zinovieff, Peter 142 zoescope 17 Zoetrope 17 Zoetrope 138 Zola, Émile 18, 48 L’Oeuvre 19 Zorns Lemma 80 Zukofsky, Louis 62 Zurich 42, 43 Cabaret Voltaire 42, 43, 60 Galerie Dada 36

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