A Historical Companion to Postcolonial Literatures in English [1 ed.] 9781474471718, 9780748636020

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A Historical Companion to Postcolonial Literatures in English

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Outlining the historical contexts of postcolonial literatures, the Companion provides an important key to understanding complex contemporary debates about race, colonialism and neo-colonialism, politics, economics, culture and language. Its coverage of events, figures and movements along with political, social, and economic developments makes this indispensable reading for students, teachers and general readers alike. Prem Poddar is Associate Professor in Postcolonial Studies at Aarhus University, Denmark. He is the author of Violent Civilities: English, India, Culture (Aarhus University Press, 2003) and editor of Translating Nations (Aarhus University Press, 2000) as well as of articles and book chapters in the area of postcolonial studies. His Postkoloniale Perspektiver: Immigration, Identitet, Historie (in Danish) is in press with Modtryk Forlaget. David Johnson is Senior Lecturer in the Department of Literature at The Open University. He is the author of Shakespeare and South Africa (Clarendon Press, 1996), with Richard Danson Brown, of Shakespeare 1609: Cymbeline and the Sonnets (Macmillan, 2000) and, with Steve Pete and Max Du Plessis, of Jurisprudence: A South African Perspective (Butterworths, 2001). He is the editor, with Richard Danson Brown, of A Shakespeare Reader: Sources and Criticism (Macmillan, 2000). Advisory Editors Stephen Alomes Karin Barber Shirley Chew Mahesh Daga David Day Denise DeCaries Narain Justin Edwards Laura Fair Robert Fraser Bill Freund Katie Gramich Suman Gupta Abdulrazak Gurnah

Shamil Jeppie Michelle Keown Susan Knutson Shirley Lim Geoff Nash Bill Nasson Susheila Nasta Benita Parry David Richards Minoli Salgado Mimi Sheller Kelwyn Sole Dennis Walder

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A Historical Companion to Postcolonial Literatures in English Edited by Prem Poddar and David Johnson

Edinburgh University Press

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© The contributors, 2005, 2008 Edinburgh University Press Ltd 22 George Square, Edinburgh First published in hardback by Edinburgh Univerity Press in 2005 Typeset in 10/12 Goudy by Servis Filmsetting Ltd, Stockport, Cheshire, and printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham, Wilts A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978 0 7486 3602 0 (paperback) The right of the contributors to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

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Contents

Preface Acknowledgements Chronology List of Entries Maps The Companion Contributors Index of Literary Works Subject Index

vi viii ix xxii xxviii 1 545 549 571

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Preface

The injunction ‘always historicise’ reverberates like a mantra in postcolonial literary criticism. For a variety of reasons, it is an injunction that all too often remains a gesture, with postcolonial histories relegated to peremptory footnotes. The ambition of this Companion is to provide detail of the many histories of colonialism and neo-colonialism, and to encourage critical reflection on the relation between postcolonial literary works and their historical contexts. To this end, we have assembled just over 220 entries written by 166 postcolonial scholars that survey major events, ideas, movements, and figures that constitute the historical contexts of postcolonial literatures. The Companion focuses principally on the histories of postcolonial literatures in the Anglophone world – Africa (East, Southern and West), Australia, Canada, the Caribbean, the Middle East, New Zealand, the Pacific, South Asia, and South-east Asia. For each of these parts of the former British Empire, in addition to entries on specific events, there are long survey entries on their respective historiographies and women’s histories. There are also long entries discussing the literatures and histories of those further areas that have claimed the title ‘postcolonial’, notably Britain, East Asia, Ireland, Latin America and the United States. The entries cover the period after the end of colonial rule, but as many postcolonial literary works revisit the pre-colonial and colonial periods, the Companion includes many entries on these earlier periods too. Certain events that fall outside the Anglophone world, but which have had an impact on postcolonial literatures in English, are also included. A supplementary volume to this Companion on the postcolonial literatures of Continental Europe is underway, and will elaborate these events in much more detail. We remain conscious that much of Britain’s postcolonial history has inevitably been left out, but believe that within the constraints of one volume, the vast complexity of this history is conveyed. Each entry provides a summary of the historical event/ idea/ movement/ figure, as well as bibliographies of postcolonial literary works and histories for further reading. The Companion is extensively cross-referenced and indexed. All related entries are cross-referenced, and there are two indexes at the back: the first index lists all the literary works mentioned in the Companion, and the second is a general index of names and subjects. What the Companion demonstrates vividly is the variety of historical experiences under colonialism and neo-colonialism. While certain imperial patterns of economic, political and cultural domination might have been imposed in broadly similar fashion, local conditions have guaranteed very different outcomes. These differences continue to mark contemporary postcolonial writing, as common critical terms assume different shades of meaning in the different post-colonies. Does ‘subaltern agency’ mean the same thing in Canada as it does in West Africa or South-east Asia? What are the connotations of the term ‘settler’ in the Middle East, East Africa and New Zealand? Does ‘hybrid identity’ mean the same thing in the Caribbean as it does in Britain or the United States? Does ‘nationas-imagined-community’ have the same resonance in Pakistan as Nigeria or the Pacific? Does reclaiming pre-colonial cultures mean the same thing in Australia and India? Do

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Preface

vii

‘revisionist historians’ in Ireland and Southern Africa share the same politics? Crucially, who arbitrates or ultimately determines the meanings of these contested terms? These are all difficult questions, and to answer them we need to proceed beyond abstract ideas of The Postcolonial Condition, and examine in turn the particularities of each postcolonial context and its histories. This Companion is not, however, an attempt to establish History as the master discourse against which Literature must be measured; there are clearly as many competing historical accounts as there are different literary representations of postcolonial societies. We have, however, given significantly more weight to those histories of colonialism and neo-colonialism that refuse the dominant myths of the British Empire and its aftermath. Our hope ultimately is that by studying the literatures and histories of postcolonial societies in critical juxtaposition, this Companion might inform and invigorate contemporary debates about globalisation and neo-colonialism; gender inequality; racism and nationalism; and ethnic, cultural and religious conflict. Prem Poddar and David Johnson

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Acknowledgements

Our first debt is to Jackie Jones at Edinburgh University Press, who contracted the Companion, and has supported us along the way with great patience, enthusiasm, and unstinting professionalism. Carol McDonald at Edinburgh University Press has displayed similar qualities in her editorial duties, and her hard work on much of the invisible labour is much appreciated. Nicola Wood and James Dale were conscientious and understanding in their great efforts with the copy-editing. Secondly, we are immensely grateful to our 166 contributors, who have embraced the ambition and spirit of the project, and produced excellent work to tight deadlines. We were especially pleased to have recruited contributors from such a wide range of institutions across the postcolonial world. The Companion as a result represents a fair snapshot of what postcolonial studies means for historians, critics and writers around the world. The third group to thank are our advisory editors, who helped to assemble the list of entries, track down contributors, and check the final submitted entries. We are particularly in debt to those advisory editors who helped with regions and histories way beyond our own areas of research. Our respective colleagues, too, have helped the project immensely. In Aarhus, Cheralyn Mealor’s assistance with the early stages of editing was invaluable, and Heidi Bojsen’s help with the Chronology rescued us when yet another deadline loomed. Colleagues at the Open University – Robert Fraser, Katie Gramich, Suman Gupta, Stephanie Jones, Susheila Nasta, David Richards and Dennis Walder – also had their patience tested way beyond reasonable limits with endless queries. Finally, there are many others who have given their time and consideration to our efforts, and to them our very sincere thanks: Rehnuma Ahmed, Emma Barker, Amanda Hammar, Isabel Hofmeyr, Tabish Khair, Lars Jensen, Susan Knutson, Rajesh Mohey, Rob Morrell, Rajeev Patke, Anmole Prasad, Dominic Rainsford, Lance van Sittert, Andrew Watt, and Jenny Yamamoto.

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Chronology

1497

During a voyage underwritten by Bristol merchants, John Cabot (Giovanni Caboto) claims Cape Breton Island or Newfoundland or Labrador for Henry VII of England (24 June).

1553

Earliest regular English voyages to Guinea in West Africa begin.

1564

John Hawkins begins slaving voyages.

1576

Frobisher’s first expedition to Newfoundland.

1577–80

Francis Drake circumnavigates the globe.

1584

Walter Raleigh’s expedition to Guiana.

1585

Francis Drake’s expedition to the West Indies.

1587

Chartered English trade voyage to Senegambia region of West Africa.

1600

English East India Company Charter.

1616

Dirk Hartog makes first recorded European landing on Australian continent, in Western Australia.

1627

Barbados colony established.

1637

Pequot War (‘Puritan’ massacre of the Pequots in New England).

1641

English slave trade to Barbados begins.

1658

First slaves imported to Cape.

1661

James Fort (Gambia) founded. Barbados’ slave and servant codes passed.

1667

The result of Canada’s first census lists 3,215 non-native inhabitants.

1672

Royal Africa Company chartered.

1690

English settlement at Calcutta established.

1692

Slave revolt in Barbados.

1698

End of Royal African Company’s monopoly, and slave trade officially opened to private traders.

1713

Treaty of Utrecht: in the Caribbean, Britain gains all of St Kitts and Asiento grant to import slaves into Spanish America; in Canada, Britain gains Hudson Bay, Newfoundland and Acadia (Cape Breton Island).

1730–9

First war against Jamaican Maroons.

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Chronology

1744

British take French ships. Start of hostilities in South Asia.

1749

Settlement established in Halifax, Nova Scotia.

1750

Company of Merchants takes over administration of African forts protecting the slave trade.

1755

‘Neutral’ French settlers expelled from Nova Scotia, and Britain scatters the Nova Scotia Acadians throughout other North American colonies.

1756

Nawab of Bengal captures Calcutta and the deaths in the ‘Black Hole’ follow.

1757

Clive recovers Calcutta and defeats Nawab at Battle of Plassey.

1759

Anglo-Cherokee War in North America.

1760

Tacky’s slave rebellion in Jamaica. Amherst captures Montreal and New France surrenders.

1763

End of the Seven Years War between England and France. At the Treaty of Paris, Britain is ‘ceded’ islands in West Indies and Senegal, as well as France’s North American possessions to Britain. A royal proclamation imposes British institutions on Quebec.

1767

First Mysore War (1767–9) in India.

1769

James Cook charts coast of New Zealand.

1770

Cook lands in Botany Bay, later names and takes possession of New South Wales for Britain.

1772

Somerset case in England interpreted as conferring freedom on slaves upon landing in England.

1775

Start of British war with Marathas in western India. American Revolution (ends 1783).

1780

Second Mysore War (1780–4) in India.

1783

Peace of Versailles: Britain recognises US independence, loses Tobago and Senegal.

1784

New colony of New Brunswick established.

1786

First British settlement on Malay coast at Penang.

1787

Settlement established with freed slaves in Freetown, Sierra Leone.

1788

Trial of Warren Hastings on charges of corrupt administration in India (1788–95). Captain Arthur Phillip arrives with first fleet and establishes Port Jackson penal settlement in New South Wales and later at Norfolk, Australia.

1790

Third Mysore War (1790–2) in India.

1791

Canada Act establishes colonies of Upper and Lower Canada.

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Chronology 1793

Mackenzie reaches the Pacific at Dean Channel.

1795

War against Maroons in Jamaica.

xi

Dutch surrender Ceylon to the British. The British replace the Dutch at the Cape Colony. 1798

In Santo Domingo, slave leader Toussaint L’Ouverture defeats General Maitland. Rebellion of United Irishmen led by Wolfe Tone defeated in Ireland.

1799

Death of Tipu and part of Mysore brought under British rule.

1801

British troops occupy Egypt.

1802

Peace of Amiens: Britain returns certain colonies (including the Cape) to the Dutch.

1804

Following the war of independence (1802–3), Dessaline declares Santo Domingo independent under the name of Haiti.

1806

British reoccupy the Cape Colony.

1807

British abolition of the Atlantic slave trade. Sierra Leone and Gambia become British Crown colonies.

1811

British occupy Java.

1812

The USA starts a war with Britain in Canada. The USA repelled, and war ends in 1814.

1813

East India Company Charter Act opens India trade and eases restrictions on missionaries’ access to India.

1815

Defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo, and at the Vienna Settlement, British rule of Mauritius, Cape Colony, Tobago, St Lucia and Guiana confirmed. The Dutch reclaim Ceylon, Java, and other territories they had lost to France.

1816

Barbados slave rebellion. Imperial government recommends Slave Registration Act. Britain return Java to the Dutch.

1819

East India Company establishes a settlement in Singapore.

1821

North-West Company ends Montreal fur trade. The Hudson’s Bay Company and the North West Company amalgamate, creating unemployment for a substantial proportion of their Métis workforce.

1824

First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–6). First Anglo-Asante War.

1826

First British settlements established in Western Australia.

1829

Entire Australian continent declared British.

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Chronology

1833

Legislation passed for the emancipation of slaves in British colonies on 1 August 1834, with full emancipation to follow after a lengthy apprenticeship, on 31 July 1838.

1834

Daniel O’Connell tries unsuccessfully to have Ireland’s union with Great Britain repealed.

1835

T. B. Macaulay’s Minute on Education in India.

1836

South Australia established as a colony of free settlers. Afrikaner migration northwards from British rule in the Cape in ‘The Great Trek’.

1837

Report of the Select Committee on Aborigines. Aborigines’ Protection Society formed. Revolts in Lower and Upper Canada.

1838

First Afghan War (1838–42). First indentured labourers from India arrive in the Caribbean.

1839

First Opium War between Britain and China (1839–42).

1840

First signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in New Zealand. Lower and Upper Canada united by an Act of Parliament.

1841

British sovereignty over Hong Kong proclaimed.

1843

British annexation of Natal. Maori revolts against the British in New Zealand.

1845

First British-Sikh War in India (1845–6). British forces defeat the Sikhs.

1846

Theophilus Shepstone introduces segregated administration for Africans in Natal (the template for indirect rule). Repeal of the Corn Laws ends protectionism. Beginning of free trade. Beginning of potato famine in Ireland.

1848

Second British-Sikh War (1848–9), which ends in defeat for the Sikhs, and annexation of the Punjab by the British.

1852

Second Anglo-Burmese War (1852–3) leads to annexation of Lower Burma.

1854–6

Crimean War. Eureka Stockade, the unsuccessful miners’ rebellion in Ballarat, Australia.

1856

Xhosa cattle-killing (1856–7) on eastern Cape Colony frontier. Britain begins war with Persia (1856–7). Outbreak of the Anglo-Chinese War (1856–8). Race riots in British Guiana.

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Chronology 1857

xiii

Outbreak of the Great Indian Rebellion (Indian Mutiny) (1857–8). First Indian Universities founded.

1858

Government of India Act abolishes the East India Company. Straits Settlements transferred from East India Company to the new India Office. Chinese immigrants from California arrive in British Columbia, attracted by the Fraser River Gold Rush. British campaign against tribes on north-west India frontier.

1860

Introduction of Indian indentured labourers to Natal (ends 1911). Second Maori War (1860–70).

1862

Amalgamation of Lower Burma, Arakan, and Tenasserim.

1865

Morant Bay rebellion in Jamaica.

1867

British North America Act establishes the Dominion of Canada.

1868

British forces invade Abyssinia.

1871

Britain annexes diamond-rich Griqualand West.

1873

Anglo-Asante War begins (1873–4). Famine in Bengal.

1874

British annexation of Fiji.

1877

British annexation of Transvaal, South Africa.

1879

Anglo-Zulu War, British defeated at Isandhlwana, but achieve victory at Ulundi. British invasion of Afghanistan (1879–80).

1880

First South African (Anglo-Boer) War, with British defeat at Majuba Hill in February 1881. Bushranger Ned Kelly captured and hanged in Melbourne, Australia.

1882

British forces invade and occupy Cairo.

1883

Britain evacuates Sudan because of nationalist uprising led by the Mahdi. Formation of National Association for Promoting State-Directed Emigration and Colonisation.

1885

Formation of the Indian National Congress. Berlin Africa Conference (1884–5). British protectorates declared over Niger River region, Bechuanaland and Southern New Guinea. Suppression of Riel’s rebellion in north-west Canada. Invasion of Upper Burma, followed by annexation in 1886.

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xiv 1886

Chronology Transvaal gold rush and foundation of Johannesburg. Anglo-German agreement on spheres of influence in East Africa.

1888

Sikkim War.

1892

First sitting of the Maori Parliament.

1894

Uganda becomes a British protectorate.

1896

Chimurenga uprising (1896–7) against British in Rhodesia put down.

1898

Spanish-American War. Kitchener defeats Mahdist forces in the Sudan at the Battle of Omdurman.

1899

South African War (Anglo-Boer War) (1899–1902).

1900

British invasion and annexation of Asante (Gold Coast). Violent suppression of the Boxer Rebellion after 56-day siege. Asante rebels attack Britain’s Kumasi fort in the Gold Coast. Colonial Office takes over administrative responsibility for Nigeria, and conquest of Northern Nigeria concluded with Kano and Sokoto taken in 1903. Annexation of Cook Islands by New Zealand.

1901

British concentration camps for Boer women and children in South Africa. Australian Immigration Restriction Act legislates a whites-only immigration policy. Britain annexes the Asante kingdom as part of the Gold Coast.

1902

Canada, Australia and New Zealand announce tariff preferences on British goods.

1904

Colonial Office takes over administration in Nyasaland, Uganda, East Africa protectorate, and Somaliland.

1905

British partition of Bengal, resistance by Indian National Congress. British Parliament passes Aliens’ Act.

1906

All-India Muslim League established. British troops put down protests by Tiv people against Muslim Hausa rule in northern Nigeria. Zulu rebellion (Bambatha’s rebellion) repressed.

1907

Colonial Conferences become institutionalised as Imperial Conferences: favour promotion of Empire settlement over foreign emigration.

1910

Canadian Immigration Act. Northern Nigeria Land and Native Rights Proclamation. Union of South Africa, Louis Botha the first prime minister.

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Chronology

xv

1912

Foundation of South African Native National Congress, subsequently known as the African National Congress (ANC).

1913

South Africa Native Land Act. Language tests prescribed for immigrants to South Africa.

1914

Egypt declared a British protectorate and Khedive Abbas II deposed.

1915

Uprising led by John Chilembwe in Nyasaland put down. British conquest of Mesopotamia (Iraq).

1916

Home Rule Leagues established in India. Lucknow Pact between Muslim League and Indian National Congress. Female suffrage is first granted in Canada (Manitoba). Republicans revolt against British rule in Ireland’s Easter Rising.

1917

Balfour Declaration promises British support of ‘National Home for Jews’ in Palestine. After pressure from Indian nationalists, indentured labour in the West Indies is banned by the Colonial Office (system carries on to 1921).

1919

Creation of overseas settlement schemes. Gandhi leads first all-India satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act. British troops kill 379 when they open fire on a peaceful demonstration, in Jallianwalla Bagh (Amritsar) massacre. Ceylon National Congress established. Riots in Jamaica, British Honduras, and Trinidad.

1920

Britain receives Mandate for Palestine and Iraq. Formation of National Congress of British West Africa.

1925

Dominions Office set up in Britain, and Imperial Conference in 1926 defines dominion status.

1928

Introduction of Crown colony government in British Guiana. The Supreme Court of Canada rules that the BNA Act does not define women as ‘persons’ and they are therefore not eligible to hold public office (overruled in 1929).

1929

‘Women’s war’ anti-tax protests in south-east Nigeria.

1930

Gandhi leads Salt March, major civil disobedience campaign. Conference on India in London and brief truce in 1931. Hsaya San rebellion in Burma (1930–2).

1932

Indian National Congress banned and Gandhi arrested. Protest campaign resumed in 1932, and then suspended again in 1934.

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xvi

Chronology

1935

Government of India Act provides for provincial self-government, separates Burma from India.

1937

Aden becomes a British Crown colony. Cocoa farmers in Gold Coast and Nigeria launch trade boycott (1937–8).

1938

Aborigines’ Progressive Association declares 26 January a ‘day of mourning’.

1939

Viceroy declares India at war without consulting Indian leaders. Construction of Burma Road.

1940

Idola Saint-Jean with other feminists succeed in obtaining the vote for Québecois women. Britain authorises the transfer of Arab land to Jews in Palestine.

1941

Civil disobedience campaign protesting against the war in India.

1942

‘Quit India’ movement, Gandhi and Congress leaders jailed. Defection of 55,000 Indian soldiers from the Indian Army in support of Subhas Chandra Bose, who seeks links with the Japanese. Fall of Singapore and collapse of British Empire in the Far East.

1943

Famine in Bengal (1943–4) and an estimated three million starve to death.

1944

Bretton Woods Conference establishes World Bank and International Monetary Fund.

1945

United Nations Organisation established.

1946

Philippines achieve independence.

1947

Britain announces withdrawal from Palestine, United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) proposes partition. Partition and independence of India and Pakistan. Fighting between India and Pakistan over Kashmir (1947–9). Burmese independence leader U Aung San assassinated shortly before Burma becomes a republic outside the British Commonwealth. European migration programme begins in Australia.

1948

Assassination of Gandhi. Burma gains independence and leaves the Commonwealth. Nationalist Party wins elections in South Africa. Riots in Accra, Gold Coast. British withdrawal from Palestine, State of Israel proclaimed, first ArabIsraeli War. Ceylon achieves independence (renamed Sri Lanka 1972).

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Chronology

xvii

Malayan communist rebels partially repressed by the British Army. Twelveyear war begins. 1949

Indonesia achieves independence, with Sukarno as first president. Republic declared in Ireland.

1950

Establishment of Congress of Peoples Against Imperialism. Colombo Conference of Commonwealth ministers leads to Colombo Plan for economic development in South and South-east Asia (1951–77).

1951

Pakistani Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan assassinated, Pakistan enters period of civil disorder. Muhammed Mussadegh becomes prime minister of Iran and questions Britain’s oil interests.

1952

Mau Mau rebellion in Kenya begins, and a state of emergency declared (1957–9). Repressive measures adopted, including forced resettlement. Estimates of up to 150,000 Kenyans killed. Kwame Nkrumah becomes prime minister in Gold Coast. Muhammad Neguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser seize power in Egypt, and a year later proclaim a republic. Eritrea incorporated into Ethiopia as British troops leave.

1953

Creation of Central African Federation combining Northern and Southern Rhodesia and Nyasaland. In Guyana, Cheddi Jagan’s People’s Progressive Party wins elections on a socialist, anti-colonial platform; Britain sends troops, suspends the constitution, and jails Jagan for six months.

1954

Nigerian constitution creates federal structure uniting northern, eastern and western Nigeria, along with the UN Trust Territory of the Cameroons and the federal territory of Lagos. Algerian war of independence begins (1954–62).

1955

Bandung Conference inaugurates Non-Aligned Movement committed to protecting the interests of developing countries during the Cold War. Congress of the People in Kliptown, South Africa, organised by the ANC, adopts the Freedom Charter. Sudan wins independence from Britain and Egypt.

1956

Nasser nationalises Suez Canal Company, which precipitates the Suez Crisis. In South Africa, ‘coloureds’ removed from Cape voters’ roll. Women lead mass anti-pass law demonstrations.

1957

Gold Coast achieves independence as Ghana, but remains within Commonwealth.

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xviii

Chronology Malaya achieves independence, with Abdul Rahman as first premier.

1958

West Indies Federation established. All-Africa Conference in Ghana, seeking to co-ordinate anti-colonial movements in Africa.

1959

Singapore achieves internal self-government under Chief Minister Lee Kuan Yew. Cuban revolution under the leadership of Fidel Castro. Anti-British riots in Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia, and leaders including Hastings Banda and Kenneth Kaunda arrested.

1960

Nigeria achieves independence from Britain, as do a number of other European colonies: French Congo, the Belgian Congo, Chad, Central African Republic, Togo, and Madagascar. Sharpeville Massacre in South Africa, and the banning of ANC, Communist Party and PAC. Canadian Bill of Rights approved. Native people win the right to vote in federal elections.

1961

South Africa leaves the Commonwealth to become the Republic of South Africa. Sierra Leone, Tanganyika and Zanzibar achieve independence.

1962

Uganda, Trinidad and Tobago, and Jamaica become independent within the Commonwealth. Algeria War ends and Algeria achieves independence. Commonwealth Settlement Act and Commonwealth Immigrants Act. Indo-Chinese War over border dispute. Canada revokes ethnic discrimination in immigration legislation.

1963

Formation of the Organisation of African Unity. Kenya achieves independence, and a year later becomes a republic under Jomo Kenyatta. Singapore becomes independent as part of the Federation of Malaysia.

1964

Nyasaland (as Malawi), Northern Rhodesia (as Zambia) and Malta achieve independence. Tanganyika and Zanzibar amalgamate to become Tanzania. The Palestinian Liberation Organisation is formed. Nelson Mandela and a number of other ANC leaders receive life sentences for treason.

1965

Singapore secedes from the Federation of Malaysia.

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Chronology

xix

Gambia achieves independence. Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) by minority white government in Rhodesia. Cook Islands achieve self-government in association with New Zealand. Second Indo-Pakistan War over Kashmir (1965–6). With US and British support, Suharto seizes power in Indonesia on the pretext of stemming communism, killing 700,000 and imprisoning 200,000 in the process. 1966

British Guiana (as Guyana), Barbados, Basutoland (as Lesotho) and Bechuanaland (as Botswana) achieve independence. Military coup in Nigeria. Nkrumah overthrown in Ghana.

1967

Ibo leader Odumegwu Oukwu declares the Republic of Biafra independent. Federal troops invade Biafra and reincorporate Biafra into Nigeria (1967–70). After a referendum, Aboriginal Australians win full citizenship, but not land rights.

1968

Nauru, Mauritius and Swaziland achieve independence. British decide to withdraw militarily from ‘East of Suez’. Kenya withdraws trading licences from Asians, leading to a mass exodus. Commonwealth Immigration Act in Britain imposes immigration quotas.

1970

Independence of Fiji and Tonga. They join Commonwealth along with Western Samoa. Gambia becomes an independent state within the Commonwealth.

1971

Civil war in Pakistan as Bangladesh (East Pakistan) declares independence from West Pakistan. West Pakistan troops attack Dacca, killing thousands and producing two million refugees who are decimated by cholera epidemic. India intervenes by invading Bangladesh, (the third Indo-Pakistan War), and helps East Pakistan become the independent state of Bangladesh. In Uganda, Idi Amin overthrows Milton Obote and bans all political opposition.

1972

Aborigines in Australia set up ‘tent embassy’ at Parliament House, Canberra. Bloody Sunday in Ireland when British paratroopers kill thirteen nationalist marchers on a civil rights march in Derry. In Uganda, Amin expels 50,000 Asians. In Australia, Whitlam’s Labour government scraps the White Australia immigration policy.

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Chronology The Bahamas achieve independence. Yom Kippur War as Syria and Egypt attack Israel. Israel regains the Golan Heights.

1974

Grenada achieves independence. FRELIMO in Mozambique ends Portuguese colonial rule and assumes power. Niue achieves self-government in association with New Zealand.

1975

Independence for Angola and Guinea-Bissau (from Portugal), and Papua New Guinea (from Australia). Waitangi Tribunal created in New Zealand to address Maori concerns. Indonesian troops invade East Timor as it is about to achieve independence from Portugal.

1976

Student-led revolt in Soweto, South Africa against compulsory tuition in Afrikaans. Seychelles achieve independence.

1978

Tuvalu (Ellice Islands) and the Solomon Islands achieve independence.

1979

Revolution in Iran, the Shah is forced into exile, and Ayatollah Khomeini takes over control of the armed forces. Kiribati (Gilbert Islands), St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines achieve independence.

1980

Rhodesia achieves majority rule as the independent state of Zimbabwe under Robert Mugabe’s ZANU Party. Tanzanian forces invade Uganda and overthrow dictator Idi Amin, and Milton Obote takes control again. Vanuatu (New Hebrides) achieves independence.

1981

Belize (formerly British Honduras) and Antigua-Barbuda achieve independence. US-backed contras begin covert intervention in Nicaragua.

1983

USA invades Grenada.

1984

Brunei achieves independence.

1988

Bicentenary celebration in Australia accompanied by strong Aboriginal protests. Palestinian intifada rebellion begins on the West Bank and Gaza.

1989

USA invades Panama.

1990

In South Africa, leaders and members of anti-apartheid parties, including Nelson Mandela of the ANC, are set free, and negotiations towards ending apartheid set in motion.

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Namibia achieves independence; SWAPO, led by Sam Nujoma, takes power. 1991

Elections in Zambia see Frederick Chiluba defeat Kaunda after twenty-seven years in power. First Gulf War, precipitated by Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait. Indonesian forces kill thousands of East Timorese demonstrators.

1992

Aboriginal land rights recognised in the Mabo case in Australia.

1993

Banda voted out of power in Malawi.

1994

In South Africa, ANC win the first democratic elections, and Mandela becomes president. Rwandan genocide in which approximately 900,000 Tutsi are killed by Hutu militias.

1997

Hong Kong handed over by British to China after ninety-nine year lease.

1998

Canadian federal government issues formal apology to native peoples for past injustices. USA launches missile attack on pharmaceutical factory in Sudan.

1999

In November 1999, 70,000 anti-globalisation activists protest against the neo-liberal economic polices of the G8 and the World Trade Organisation in Seattle.

2001

Following the attack on the World Trade Center on 11 September, the US president George W. Bush declares an international war on terror, and invades Afghanistan. Australia refuses to receive 433 asylum-seekers picked up from a sinking ship by the Norwegian vessel MV Tampa.

2003

A US-led coalition army bypasses UN Security Council resolutions and invades Iraq (second Gulf War).

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Entries

Algerian War of Independence Amin, Idi Anglicisation Anglo-Boer War Anglo-Burmese Wars Anglo-Zulu War Anti-colonialism and Resistance: Caribbean Anti-colonialism and Resistance: East Africa Anti-colonialism and Resistance: South Asia Anti-colonialism and Resistance: Southern Africa Anti-colonialism and Resistance: West Africa Anti-globalisation Movements Anti-war Movements: Australia Apartheid and Segregation Asante Wars Asian Expulsions: East Africa Asianisation: Australia Aung San Suu Kyi ‘Back-to Africa’ Movement Balfour Declaration Banda, Ngwazi Hastings Kamazu Bangladesh: 1971 Battle of the Plains of Abraham Bengal Famine Berlin Conference Biafran War Big Bear Black Britain Black Consciousness: Southern Africa Black Hole Boat People Border Disputes: South Asia Botany Bay Convicts Britain’s Postwar Foreign Policy British Imperialism Bumiputra Cabral, Amílcar Castes: South Asia

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Entries Cattle-Killing Chauri Chaura Incident Chimurengas Chinese Gold-diggers Colonial Cultural Cringe: Australia Coloured: Southern Africa Commonwealth Communism: South Asia Communism: South-east Asia Creolisation Cromer, Lord Cuban Revolution Decolonisation Detention Centres: Australia Diaspora: Caribbean Diaspora: Pacific Diaspora: South Asia Dutch East India Company (VOC) East Asia East India Company East Timor Emergency: India English in India: Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries Engmalchin European Exploration and Settlement: Australia, New Zealand, Pacific European Exploration and Settlement: Canada Fanon, Frantz Free Trade Frontier Wars: Southern Africa Garvey, Marcus Mosiah Genocide: Canada Genocide: Rwanda Governors-General and Viceroys Haitian Revolution Hill Stations Historiography: Australia Historiography: British Empire Historiography: Canada Historiography: Caribbean Historiography: East Africa Historiography: Middle East Historiography: South Asia Historiography: South-east Asia

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xxiv Historiography: Southern Africa Historiography: West Africa HIV/AIDS Hong Kong Handover Hudson’s Bay Company Indentured Labour: Caribbean Indian National Army Indians: Southern Africa Indigo Rebellion Indirect Rule International Monetary Fund Inuit Iranian Revolution Ireland Islam Jallianwala Bagh Massacre James, C. L. R. Japanese Internment: Canada Japanese Occupation: South-east Asia Jinnah, Mohammed Ali JVP Insurrection Kala Pani Kama Sutra Kashmir Dispute Kaunda, Kenneth David Kelly, Ned Kemalism Kenya African National Union Khama, Seretse Labour Histories: Southern Africa Land: Australia Land: Canada Land: South Asia Land: Southern Africa Languages and Ethnicities: South Asia Languages and Ethnicities: West Africa Latin America Lee Kuan Yew Levant Company Liberalism: Southern Africa Maaori Maghrebine Resistance: Algeria Maghrebine Resistance: Morocco and Tunisia

Entries

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Entries Mahdism Marcos, Ferdinand and Imelda Merdeka Mfecane Migrancy: Southern Africa Military Dictatorships: South Asia Mineral Revolution: Southern Africa Missionaries: Southern Africa Morant Bay Uprising Multiculturalism: Australia Multiculturalism: Canada Multinationals Music: Caribbean Music: East Africa Music: West Africa Mutinies in India Nasser, Abdel Gamal Nationalism(s): Arab Nationalism(s): Canada Nationalism(s): Southern Africa Native Reservations Naxalites Negritude Nehru, Jawaharlal Nkrumah, Kwame Nyerere, Julius and Ujamaa Oil: Middle East Ottoman Empire Pacific Sub-imperialism Pacific Way Pakeha Pakistan’s Subaltern Struggles Palestinian Political Movements Pan-Africanism Partition Post-apartheid Pre-colonial Histories: Australia Pre-colonial Histories: Caribbean Pre-colonial Histories: East Africa Pre-colonial Histories: South Asia Pre-colonial Histories: Southern Africa Pre-colonial Histories: West Africa Progressive Writers’ Movement Quebec Independence Movement

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xxvi Racial Discrimination Act: Australia Raj Rebellions: Australia Refugees Religions: East Africa Religions: South Asia Religions: Southern Africa Religions: West Africa Riel’s Métis Rebellion Rodney, Walter Rushdie Affair San Secessionism: South Asia Senghor, Léopold Sédar Sinhala Only Bill Slave Trade: East Africa Slavery: Caribbean Slavery: Southern Africa Slavery: West Africa Spanish-American War Sri Lankan Civil War Stolen Generations Straits Settlements Sudanese Civil War Suez Crisis Terrorism: South Asia Thomasites Tourism: Caribbean Underground Railroad: Canada United Nations United States of America Universities: East Africa Universities: West Africa Urabi Revolt Vietnam War Wabenzi Waitangi Treaty War of 1812 West Indies Federation White Australia Policy Williams, Eric Women’s Histories: Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific Women’s Histories: Canada

Entries

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Entries Women’s Histories: Caribbean Women’s Histories: East Africa Women’s Histories: Middle East Women’s Histories: South Asia Women’s Histories: South-east Asia Women’s Histories: Southern Africa Women’s Histories: West Africa World Bank World Wars I and II: African Soldiers World Wars I and II: Anzac World Wars I and II: South African Soldiers World Wars I and II: South Asian Soldiers Years of Terror Yellow Peril Zionism

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Map 1 from Historical Atlas of the British Empire, London: Macmillan and Co., 1924, p. 9. Reproduced by permission of the British Library, Maps 27.b.39.

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Maps

Map 2 from Historical Atlas of the British Empire, London: Macmillan and Co., 1924, p. 11. Reproduced by permission of the British Library, Maps 27.b.39.

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Map 3 from Historical Atlas of the British Empire, London: Macmillan and Co., 1924, p. 13. Reproduced by permission of the British Library, Maps 27.b.39.

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Map 4 from Historical Atlas of the British Empire, London: Macmillan and Co., 1924, p. 17. Reproduced by permission of the British Library, Maps 27.b.39.

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Map 5 from Denis Judd, Empire. The British Imperial Experience, 1765 to the Present, London: HarperCollins Publishers, 1996, pp. xviii–xix. Reproduced by permission of the British Library, YC.1997.114.

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Map 6 from Denis Judd, Empire. The British Imperial Experience, 1765 to the Present, London: HarperCollins Publishers, 1996, pp. xx–xxi. Reproduced by permission of the British Library, YC.1997.114.

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A Algerian War of Independence Ostensibly the armed struggle by Muslim Algerians against the French army and French colonial power for independence, it assumed a variety of meanings because the dimensions of the struggle transcended the boundaries of the colony, resulting in unforeseen consequences. It was a brutal war on both sides. The French government sought by any means to retain its hold on Algeria, whilst the creation of the Front de Libération Nationale and its declaration of war split the nationalist movement, leading to an internal power struggle that resulted in the assassination of some of its leading figures including Abane Ramdane, the organiser, with Belkacem Krim, of the 1956 Congress of Soummam. The later division between the fighters on the ground in Algeria and the exiled leadership would provoke further assassinations and the 1965 coup d’état by the former commanderin-chief of the Armée de Libération Nationale, Houari Boumedienne. The tactics used by the French army, particularly the question of whether it used torture and the policy of forced resettlement (regroupement) continue to resonate, as for example, in the torture accusations made in 2000 by the former FLN militant Louisette Ighilahriz. At a political level in France, the debate over the war and Algérie française destroyed the Fourth Republic and brought the return to power of Charles de Gaulle and a new, Fifth Republic. It also repatriated to France some one million colons, plus approximately half a million each of Algerian Jews and Algerian Muslims (harki). The resettlement of the colons in Corsica laid the foundations for the Corsican nationalist movement and their settlement in the southern French cities helped to provide a base for the growth of Jean-Marie Le Pen’s National Front. Although the expatriated Algerian Jews settled into French society, the harki, viewed as traitors by the new Algerian government, and ambivalently by the French authorities, suffered an ostracisation that still leaves them amongst the poorest of France’s immigrant communities. The open avowal of socialist principles by many of the leaders of the Algerian National Liberation Front, and the post-independence seizure of colon property by former farm labourers, saw European radicals looking to Algeria as a potential alternative model of the socialist utopia. The adoption of economic policies that appeared to reflect this commitment to socialism also helped to advance this image, which the events of the 1990s have finally unravelled. Kay Adamson Literary Works Djebar, Assia [1985] (1993), Fantasia. An Algerian Cavalcade, London: Heinemann. Feraoun, Mouloud [1962] (2000), Journal 1955–1962: Reflections on the French-Algerian War, Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.

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Histories Adamson, Kay (1998), Algeria: A Study in Competing Ideologies, London: Cassell. Ageron, Ch-R. (1991), Modern Algeria – A History from 1830 to the Present, trans. and ed. Michael Brett, London: Hurst and Company. Bennoune, M. (1988), The Making of Contemporary Algeria, 1830–1987, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Horne, Alistair [1977] (1987), A Savage War of Peace: Algeria, 1954–1962, London: Macmillan. Ottaway, David and Marina (1970), Algeria: The Politics of a Socialist Revolution, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. See also: Historiography: Middle East; Maghrebine Resistance: Algeria.

Amin, Idi Idi Amin (c. 1925–2003) was president of Uganda in the 1970s. Barely educated, in 1946 he joined the King’s African Rifles (KAR), and served in Burma, Somalia, Kenya – where he helped the British colonial forces quell the Mau Mau rebellion – and Uganda. After Uganda’s independence, Prime Minister (later President) Milton Obote appointed Amin First Lieutenant of the Ugandan army. Obote then sent him for further military training in Britain, upon completion of which he promoted him to the rank of colonel, then majorgeneral, and in 1966 made him Chief-of-Staff of the Ugandan army and air force. In 1970, Obote, sensing potential threat to his rule by Amin, who had begun using suspect means to consolidate his position within the army, stripped him of most of his powers. But Amin moved fast and overthrew Obote in a military coup, assuming the presidency on 25 January 1971. Amin’s ascent to power was initially received with enthusiasm both within and outside Uganda. He looked determined to reverse Obote’s increasingly unpopular policies. The freeing of political prisoners and the dismantling of the Ugandan secret police seemed to confirm these expectations. But a merciless military dictatorship was in the making. Amin unleashed terror on individuals and whole ethnic groups, particularly Lango and Acholi, for their real or perceived support for Obote. Obsessively, he focused on dealing with what he saw as disloyalty to him or subversion of his rule, resorting to abduction, torture and murder. He is responsible for the elimination of some 400,000 lives. Amin gained notoriety as the world learned of his execution of the Anglican Archbishop of Uganda, Janani Luwum, the chief justice, the vice-chancellor of Makerere College, the governor of the Bank of Uganda, and several ministers. However, international opinion against Amin was slow in forming. In 1972, Amin announced the expulsion from the country of some 50,000 Ugandan Asians. He described this act as ‘economic war’ on a foreign group that sought to dominate Uganda’s trade and manufacturing sectors, and to occupy the civil service. Given only three months to leave, the expellees practically abandoned their businesses, which were handed over to Amin’s supporters only to be run down. Severing diplomatic relations with Britain, Amin moved to ‘nationalise’ some British-owned businesses too. Paradoxically, in 1975, Amin became head of the Organisation of African Unity.

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In October 1978, Amin invaded Tanzania in an attempt to annex its northern province, Kagera. The Tanzanian army repulsed the aggressors, and President Nyerere subsequently assisted the Uganda National Liberation Front (UNLF) to overthrow Amin. His regime fell on 13 April 1979. Obote then returned to power. By that time, enormous damage had been done. Uganda’s economy was totally disorganised, with inflation exceeding 1,000 per cent. The profanation of human life and the all-pervasive corruption brought about a crisis in moral consciousness; hence, Amin’s widespread designation as the ‘Butcher of Uganda’. Immediately after his ousting, Amin fled into exile to Saudi Arabia, where he remained until his death. Emilia Ilieva and Lennox Odiemo-Munra Literary Works Gakwandi, Arthur (1997), Kosiya Kifefe, Nairobi: East African Educational Publishers. Ibingira, Grace (1980), Bitter Harvest, Nairobi: East Africa Publishing House. Isegawa, Moses (2000), Abyssinian Chronicles, London: Picador. Konrad, James (1977), Target Amin, London: Sphere Books. Magala-Nyago (1985), The Rape of the Pearl, London: Macmillan. Mukulu, Alex (1993), Thirty Years of Bananas, Kampala: Oxford University Press. Nagenda, John (1986), The Seasons of Thomas Tebo, London: Heinemann. Nazareth, Peter (1972), In a Brown Mantle, Nairobi: Kenya Literature Bureau. Nazareth, Peter (1991), The General is Up, Toronto: TSAR Publications. Okurut, Mary Karooro (1998), The Invisible Weevil, Kampala: Femrite Publications Limited. Osinya, Alumidi (1977), The Amazing Saga of Field Marshal Abdulla Salim Fisi (Or How the Hyena Got His!), Nairobi: Job Publications and Transafrica Books. p’Chong, Cliff-Lubwa (1977), Words of my Groaning, Nairobi: Kenya Literature Bureau. Ruganda, John (1980), Floods, Nairobi: East African Educational Publishers. Watkins, Leslie (1976); (1977), The Killing of Idi Amin, London: Everest Books; New York: Avon. Zake, S. Joshua L. (1980), Truckful of Gold, Chicago: Regenery Gateway Inc. Histories Avirgan, Tony and Martha Honey (1982), War in Uganda: The Legacy of Idi Amin, Westport, CT: Lawrence Hill; London: Zed Press. Gingyera, A. G. G. (1994), ‘The Militarization of Politics in the African State: The Case of Uganda’, in Walter A. Oyugi (ed.), Politics and Administration in East Africa, Nairobi: East African Educational Publishers, pp. 215–44. Hansen, Bernt Holger and Michael Twaddle (eds) (1988), Uganda Now: Between Decay and Development, London: James Currey. Karugire, S. R. (1980), A Political History of Uganda, Nairobi; London: Heinemann. Kasozi, A. B. K. (1994), The Social Origins of Violence in Uganda, 1964–85, Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press. Kyemba, Henry (1997), A State of Blood: The Inside Story of Idi Amin, 1977, foreword Godfrey Lule, Kampala: Fountain.

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Mamdani, M. (1983), Imperialism and Fascism in Uganda, Nairobi: Heinemann. Mazrui A. (1975), Soldiers and Kinsmen in Uganda: The Making of a Military Ethnocracy, Beverly Hills: Sage. Mudoola, Dan M. (1993), Religion, Ethnicity and Politics in Uganda, Kampala: Fountain. Museveni, Yoweri K. (1992), What is Africa’s Problem?, foreword Julius K. Nyerere, Kampala: NRM Publications. Omara-Otunnu A. (1987), Politics and the Military in Uganda, 1890–1985, London: Macmillan. Omara-Otunnu A. (1998), ‘The Currency of Militarism in Uganda’, in Eboe Hutchful and Abdoulaye Bathily (eds), The Military and Militarism in Uganda, Dakar: CODESRIA, pp. 399–428. Okoth, Godfrey P. (1995), ‘Uganda’s Foreign Policy towards the USA’, in Macharia Munene, J. D. Olewe Nyunya and Korwa Adar (eds), The United States and Africa from Independence to the End of the Cold War, Nairobi: East African Educational Publishers, pp. 105–25. See also: Asian Expulsions: East Africa.

Anglicisation Anglicisation must not be understood simply as an inevitable long-term result or byproduct of British colonial power, but as a primary strategy of domination employed to maintain and expand control. Military force was not the most efficacious means of maintaining order in the colonies: policies that promoted Anglicisation and the moulding of colonial subjects into the willing servants of Empire consolidated British power and reduced the threat of insurgency. The establishment of British colonial rule, with its administrative, legal and bureaucratic apparatus and disciplinary institutions (churches, schools, and so on), facilitated the process of Anglicisation and its devastating effects on the cultures of indigenous populations. Education played a crucial role in this process and, as in other areas of colonial governance, the rhetoric of the ‘civilising mission’ sought to legitimise this enterprise. In British India, as Viswanathan (1989) explains, the origins of colonial education lay in attempts to compensate for the behaviour of the colonisers themselves and ward off insurrection, rather than any beneficent desire to ‘enlighten’ and improve the morals of the colonised. Debates raged over educational policy between the Orientalists, who promoted native languages and literature, and the Anglicists who, fearing the corrupting influence of native culture, advocated sole instruction in Western knowledge. In 1835, English finally became the official language of instruction in India and the study of English literature was established on the curriculum – long before it was in England. Viswanathan argues that this literary education, which disseminated the belief in English cultural, intellectual and moral supremacy, assuaged missionaries’ demands for religious instruction and, through its representation of the coloniser, masked the reality of colonial subjugation. Anglicisation was successful in producing sympathetic indigenous elites in many colonies. Colonial mimicry, however, also revealed the limits of the discourses of civility, as ‘to be Anglicized is emphatically not to be English’ (Bhabha 1995, p. 87). Policies of Anglicisation have long been the site of conflict and resistance, not only from

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colonised indigenous populations but also, for example, the Afrikaner and francophone communities of South Africa and Canada. Anti-colonial and nationalist movements brought calls for the rejection of English language and culture and the ‘rediscovery’ of precolonial identities, but also led, in many cases, to the affirmation and celebration of creolisation – new hybrid linguistic and cultural forms. Whilst policies of Anglicisation were aimed at ‘civilising’ native populations, English culture, religion and language were in fact transformed by colonised peoples as they were adapted – to varying degrees – to indigenous practices and traditions. Today, this colonial legacy is witnessed by the global popularity (and commercial success) of products and people seen to represent ‘Englishness’. However, cosmopolitan, hybrid influences, intensified by postcolonial migrancy, continue to shape British as well as global culture, now influenced to a far greater extent by forces from the other side of the Atlantic. Cheralyn Mealor Literary Works Achebe, Chinua [1958] (1986), Things Fall Apart, Oxford: Heinemann. Kunzru, Hari (2003), The Impressionist, London: Penguin Books. Naipaul, V. S. [1967] (2002), The Mimic Men, London: Picador. Rushdie, Salman [1988] (1992), The Satanic Verses, Dover, DE: The Consortium, Inc. Salih, Tayeb (1970), Season of Migration to the North, trans. D. Johnson-Davies, London: Heinemann. Histories Bhabha, Homi K. (1995), The Location of Culture, London and New York: Routledge. Fanon, Frantz [1952] (1993), Black Skin, White Masks, trans. Charles Lam Markmann, London: Pluto Press. Ngugi wa Thiong’o (1986), Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature, London: James Currey. Poddar, Prem (2002), Violent Civilities: English, India, Culture, Aarhus: Aarhus University Press. Viswanathan, Gauri (1989), Masks of Conquest: Literary Study and British Rule in India, New York: Columbia University Press. See also: Anglo-Boer War; Universities: East Africa; Universities: West Africa.

Anglo-Boer War More commonly known now as the South African War, the origins of the war lay in Britain’s late nineteenth-century empire-building in Southern Africa. In complete control of the important Cape Colony since 1815, the British were confident of their regional hegemony. Starting in 1834, disaffected Boer pastoralists were even allowed to slip colonial control and trek north to establish their own independent white republics of the Orange Free State and the South Africa Republic (Transvaal). These ramshackle

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agrarian territories were mostly left to go their own way, as Britain banked on evolutionary commercial growth to bind together a divided settler minority under imperial authority. Instead, the discovery of the world’s largest single supply of gold in the Transvaal in 1886 produced a crisis. Economic power suddenly shifted to a republic opposed to British imperial designs. Moreover, by the 1890s, British mining capitalists were complaining that the Boer state was too inefficient to meet their industrial needs. British economic and strategic needs now required the removal of the Transvaal regime. High-handed imperial demands and a botched 1895 coup, the Jameson Raid, brought diplomatic breakdown in October 1899. Supported by its sister republic, the Transvaal declared war to defend its independence. Anticipating an easy victory, Britain instead experienced a costly war. Imperial armies suffered defeats and reverses in 1899 and 1900, followed by nearly two years of frustrating rural guerrilla warfare. To crush resistance to imperial occupation, the British Commander-in-Chief, Lord Kitchener, intensified a scorched earth strategy, destroying crops and cattle, and incinerating farms. In a further measure to isolate guerrillas from resources, displaced Boer civilians and African peasants were expelled from the land and pushed into badly-run concentration camps. High mortality rates there, deepening hostilities from pro-British blacks, and rising Boer collaboration with the enemy eventually forced surviving die-hards to surrender and accept peace in May 1902. Independence was ended but post-war reconstruction terms were both generous and conciliatory, for Britain needed a strong and compliant settler order. A war that had threatened the existence of an anti-imperialist Afrikanerdom had also ensured its survival. In a conflict which sucked in many thousands of blacks as well as whites, Britain had to mobilise 450,000 troops to defeat 88,000 Boer commandos. Some 22,000 imperial soldiers and 7,000 Boer combatants were killed, while almost 50,000 Boer and African civilians died in camps. Cultivated public memory of the trauma of this major colonial war became inscribed within Afrikaner nationalist culture, fertilising its political growth through post-war decades. Bill Nasson Literary Works Blackburn, Douglas (1903), A Burgher Quixote, Edinburgh: Blackwood and Sons. Joubert, Elsa (2001), Isobelle’s Journey, Johannesburg: Jonathan Ball. Le Roux, Etienne (1976), Magersfontein, O Magersfontein, Harmondsworth: Penguin. Van Der Merwe, Chris N. and Michael Rice (eds) (1999), A Century of Anglo-Boer War Stories, Johannesburg: Jonathan Ball. Histories Cuthbertson, Greg, Albert Grundlingh and Mary-Lynn Suttie (eds) (2002), Writing a Wider War: Rethinking Gender, Race, and Identity in the South African War, 1899–1902, Athens, OH: Ohio University Press. Gooch, John (ed.) (2000), The Boer War: Direction, Experience and Image, London: Frank Cass. Judd, Denis and Keith Surridge (2002), The Boer War, London: John Murray. Nasson, Bill (1999), The South African War 1899–1902, London: Arnold.

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Omissi, David and Andrew Thompson (eds) (2002), The Impact of the South African War, London: Palgrave. See also: British Imperialism; Nationalism(s): Southern Africa.

Anglo-Burmese Wars The Anglo-Burmese Wars began in 1824 with minor skirmishes between the British and Burmese, and ended in 1886 with the complete annexation of Burma, then known as the Kingdom of Ava, by Great Britain. Beginning in the late eighteenth century, Burma began to expand westward towards India, annexing Arakan in 1785. In the period immediately preceding the first Anglo-Burmese War, Burma invaded Manipur and Assam and threatened Cachar, Jaintia, and Bhutan, territories bordering British India. A series of clashes between Burmese and British forces ensued, leading the British to declare war in March 1824. Although the Burmese made some initial gains, the British soon took Rangoon by sea and advanced north towards Mandalay, reaching Pagan in 1826. The war ended only when Burma ceded Manipur and Arakan to Great Britain, as well as Tennasserim, a coastal territory bordering Siam. Burma was also required to pay a large indemnity and accommodate British merchants and colonial representatives. The second Anglo-Burmese War began in 1851 after the British blockaded Burma’s ports in response to a dispute between the governor of Rangoon and British merchants. The British demanded reimbursement for military costs, and before Burma could respond to the ultimatum, the British attacked Rangoon and other coastal cities. British forces quickly occupied Lower Burma, taking Pegu in November 1852. King Pagan was deposed, and peace was established in 1853 as the new king, Mindon, accepted British control of Lower Burma, depriving the kingdom of its remaining seaports and the agriculturally-rich Irawaddy delta. The third Anglo-Burmese War resulted from a number of factors, including the British desire to control Upper Burma economically and their fears that the kingdom would ally itself to France, which was then consolidating its control of South-east Asia. In October 1885, the British demanded control of Burma’s foreign policy, and less than one month later they invaded, quickly taking Mandalay. In early 1886, Great Britain formally annexed Burma, incorporating it into British India. Although resistance to British control continued into the twentieth century, British colonial policies quickly transformed Burma economically and socially as rice production was maximised and foreign labour was imported. British rule temporarily ended in 1942 after the Japanese, assisted by Burmese insurgents, invaded Burma. Although the British resumed control of the country immediately following World War II, Burma regained its independence in 1948 and