A Handbook of Persian Calligraphy and Related Arts (Handbook of Oriental Studies / Handbuch der Orientalistik, Section 1: The Near and Middle East, 109) (English and Persian Edition) [Bilingual ed.] 9004277471, 9789004277472

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A Handbook of Persian Calligraphy and Related Arts

Handbook of Oriental Studies Handbuch der Orientalistik Section one

The Near and Middle East Edited by Maribel Fierro (Madrid) M. Şükrü Hanioğlu (Princeton) Renata Holod (University of Pennsylvania) Florian Schwarz (Vienna)

volume 109

The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/ho1

A Handbook of Persian Calligraphy and Related Arts By

Hamid Reza Ghelichkhani Translated by

Rebecca Stengel Edited, Revised and Extended by

Shervin Farridnejad

LEIDEN | BOSTON

Cover illustration: A copy (mašq-e naqlī) by Mīrʿemād of Mīrʿalī al-Kāteb (poem also by Mīrʿalī al-Kāteb), University of Istanbul Library, no. 1426. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Qilīchʹkhānī, Ḥamīd Riz̤ā, author. | Farridnejad, Shervin,  editor. | Stengel, Rebecca, translator. | Qilīchʹkhānī, Ḥamīd Riz̤ā.  Farhang-i vāzhagān va iṣṭilāḥāt-i khvushnivīsī va hunarhā-yi vābastah. Title: A handbook of Persian calligraphy and related arts / by Hamid Reza  Ghelichkhani ; edited, revised and extended by Shervin Farridnejad ;  translated by Rebecca Stengel. Other titles: Farhang-i vāzhagān va iṣṭilāḥāt-i khūshnivīsī va  hunarhā-yi vābastah. English Description: Leiden ; Boston : Brill, [2022] | Series: Handbook of Oriental  studies. Section 1, The Near and Middle East, 0169-9423 ; volume 109 |  Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2021034002 (print) | LCCN 2021034003 (ebook) |  ISBN 9789004277472 (hardback) | ISBN 9789004432895 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Calligraphy, Persian—Dictionaries—Persian. | Islamic  calligraphy—Dictionaries—Persian. |  Calligraphy—Dictionaries—Persian. | Illumination of books and  manuscripts, Iranian—Dictionaries—Persian. | Miniature painting,  Iranian—Dictionaries—Persian. Classification: LCC NK3639.P4 Q54913 2022 (print) | LCC NK3639.P4 (ebook)  | DDC 745.6/1030955—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021034002 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021034003 Typeface for the Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic scripts: “Brill”. See and download: brill.com/brill-typeface. ISSN 0169-9423 ISBN 978-90-04-27747-2 (hardback) ISBN 978-90-04-43289-5 (e-book) Copyright 2022 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Nijhoff, Brill Hotei, Brill Schöningh, Brill Fink, Brill mentis, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Böhlau Verlag and V&R Unipress. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Requests for re-use and/or translations must be addressed to Koninklijke Brill NV via brill.com or copyright.com. This book is printed on acid-free paper and produced in a sustainable manner.

Contents Editor’s Preface vii Author’s Note xii Translator’s Note xiii List of Illustrations xiv Notes on Alphabetical Order, Pronunciation, Transcription and Dates xxiii Transcription Tables xxv Abbreviations xxvi The Persian Treatises as Primary Sources on Iranian Calligraphy 1

‫ آ‬15 ‫ ا‬24 ‫ ب‬51 ‫ پ‬57 ‫ ت‬64 ‫ ث‬92 ‫ ج‬95 ‫ چ‬108 ‫ ح‬118 ‫ خ‬125 ‫ د‬148 ‫ ذ‬159 ‫ ر‬161 ‫ ز‬175 ‫ س‬180 ‫ ش‬194 ‫ ص‬205 ‫ ض‬214 ‫ ط‬216 ‫ ظ‬219 ‫ ع‬221 ‫ غ‬224 ‫ ف‬226 ‫ ق‬229 ‫ ک‬251 ‫ گ‬271

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Contents

‫ ل‬278 ‫ م‬285 ‫ ن‬314 ‫ و‬330 ‫ ه‬333 ‫ ی‬338 Appendix 1: Map of Greater Iran 341 Appendix 2: Map of the Persianate World 342 Appendix 3: Major Islamic Dynasties 344 Bibliography of Cited, Selected Related Works, and Abbreviations 345 Index of Technical Notions, Materials and Terms 367 General Index 380

Editor’s Preface The Art of Calligraphy – ḫaṭṭāṭī or ḫōšnevīsī in New Persian – is still very much a living tradition in Iran. It is undoubtedly one of the fundamental characteristics of Iranian, specifically Persianate as well as Islamicate societies during the past fourteen hundred years. After Arabic, it soon became the main vehicle for writing first New Persian, then Pashto, Kurdish, Baluchi, Urdu, Sindhi, Kashmiri, Malay and many other languages, for both Muslims and non-Muslims. This derives from the centuries-long maintenance of its classical instruction and practice and the presence and use of calligraphy as an artistic medium in everyday life for everything from commercial logotypes and urban signs to modern typography, graphic design, and painting. Therefore, many technical terms used in calligraphy and some related arts still feature in the active vocabulary of Persian speakers. Hence, the varying popularity of techniques, styles, and methods and the varying development of the traditional art of calligraphy in different schools over time has led to a heterogeneous understanding of these terms. Although there are several good general monographs dealing with Arabic manuscript tradition, palaeography, codicological phenomena and the arts of the book, there is no comprehensive introduction to the various aspects of Persian codicology and specifically Persian calligraphy. The major reference works on Arabic and Islamic codicology and palaeography are the volume Manuel de codicologie des manuscrits en écriture arabe (MC), compiled by a number of scholars under the direction of François Déroche in 2000 and made available in English and Persian (see bibliography), as well as the three seminal publications by Adam Gacek, namely The Arabic manuscript tradition (AMT) and its supplement (AMTS), the first comprehensive monographs on the codicology of manuscripts in Arabic script, and Arabic manuscripts: a vademecum for readers (AMVR), a general summary of the various elements or aspects of Arabic manuscript studies. Sheila S. Blair’s Islamic Calligraphy of 2006 (IC), also available in Persian translation, provides an excellent and exhaustive study of Islamic calligraphy in general, in which Persian calligraphy has its own place. Blair combines various individual studies and her own work into a coherent narrative, which also sketches the historical development of Perso-Arabic calligraphy. Alī Ṣafarī Āq-Qalʿe‘s recently published monograph entitled Nosḫe-šenāḫt: pažūhešnāme-ye nosḫe-šenāḫtī nosaḫ-e ḫaṭṭī-ye fārsī (= A Handbook of Persian Codicology: An Introduction to the Study of Persian Manuscripts, 2011) is specifically dedicated to the study of Persian codicology. Despite the undoubted interest in the art of Persian calligraphy and numerous related publications in the field the need for a handbook

viii

Editor ’ s Preface

with a collection of the most important technical terms in Iranian calligraphy is greater than ever. Most of the terms included here specifically concern the Persian calligraphy and manuscript tradition. As the title indicates, this handbook contains the most important termini technici as well as expressions connected to the traditional art of calligraphy (mostly nastaʿlīq) and such related fields of the arts of the book as taẕhīb (illumination) and tašʿīr (historiated painting). A handbook of expressions, definitions and techniques will be of use to scholars of Iranian and Islamic calligraphy and to artists who seek to learn the terminology of classical Iranian and Islamic calligraphy. Whereas some of the entries concern newly coined terms, the majority are traced to their medieval usage. Entries are based on classical Persian treatises written on classical Persian calligraphy, the so-called resālāt dar ḫōšnevīsī “treatises on calligraphy”, which will be introduced below (see: “Introduction to primary sources on Iranian calligraphy”). This genre of treatises, which focuses primarily on nastaʿlīq, the main Iranian calligraphic style, has a rich tradition in Persian literature. A continuous stream of Persian calligraphic tradition flowed from the late 6th/12th c. through the following centuries. The Timurid and Safavid periods bore special witness to the blossoming of a very popular genre of instructional treatises for scribes, calligraphers, painters, illuminators, bookbinders, paper makers, etc., written not only in Persian but also in Arabic, Urdu, and Turkish, etc. The quality of these treatises and the information they contain varies widely. Treatises that were personally composed by the experts in each field display a level of accuracy, knowledge and expertise different from those that were written by students or authors who were not artists themselves. The treatises on calligraphy can be divided into the literary subgroups of prose and verse. Most treatises on calligraphy cover the same range of subjects, that is, the invention and development of the scripts. They combine legendary and historical stories; they explain the names and meanings of the calligraphic scripts; they enumerate the great calligraphy masters, and occasionally add accounts of their lives including mystical/mythical aspects. Naturally, the main body of these treatises is dedicated to the tools and objects related to calligraphy. They describe the characteristics, preparation and use of the nib, līqe (wadding), ink, and paper. Further themes are the calligraphic principles and the calligrapher’s moralmystical advancement coinciding with his progress as an expert calligrapher. Many historical treatises on calligraphy use classical Persian poetry as a vehicle to convey concepts and explain the origins of the terminology. Coupled with the scope and importance of calligraphic art in Iran, this has ensured that many technical terms became anchored in the corpus of Persian poetic vocabulary. This can especially be said of the longstanding schools of poetry, namely

Editor ’ s Preface

ix

sabk-eʿerāqī “Iraqi-Style” from the late 6th/12th c.–9th/15th c. and sabk-e hendī “the Indian style” beginning in the 9th/15th c. Especially in the case of the latter, the use of calligraphy terms is one of the characteristic features, which forms part of the poetic imagination. In several entries, the reader will find one or several verses of poetry falling into two groups. The first group is made up of exemplary verses mentioning the technical terms of calligraphy and related arts. These are documented here as historical evidence for their use in literature. They often reflect a literary or allegorical use of the terms and do not provide any technical explanation. In this respect, the handbook will also be useful for scholars and translators of classical Persian literature. The second group consists of excerpts from the original treatises on calligraphy which used poetry as a medium for pedagogical purposes. The technical information was expressed in verse to make it more popular and easier to memorise. They combine both technical information and advice but, given its poetic nature, also features play with language and rhyme. Both the author and the editor of this volume are trained calligraphers who learned the art of calligraphy through extensive traditional study under experts in this art. The editor also practices the art of classical Iranian-Islamic illumination taẕhīb. For this reason, both are in the position to explain the classical and historical meanings and usages of the terms and objects and to integrate today’s understanding of them. Most of the present expressions and techniques are used and practiced by masters and students of calligraphy and illumination. Hence, the author and the editor base their explanations both on classical calligraphy treatises representing the traditional usage of the terms and practices and on their personal experience, which covers the living tradition of calligraphy and illumination. The editor and translator have designated a normative equivalent in English for each term. In cases where the classical connotations and the essential meaning of the terms differ vastly, both have been recorded. The entries in this handbook are generally based on two different types of sources. The first consists of a body of classical Persian treatises, some of which are edited and published, some of which are only available in original manuscript form. Each entry contains specific references to the pertinent classical treatises. The second source is the living tradition of calligraphy and illumination. The information in the entries thus combines materials from classical treatises (still in use) and personal knowledge and experience, i.e., “oral tradition”. The handicraft and techniques related to the art of calligraphy, to illumination and to traditional papermaking or bookbinding are still transmitted in the traditional learning structure of ostād-šāgerdī, the relationship of master and disciple, which implies a prolonged process of practical learning

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Editor ’ s Preface

and working together with an expert. This means that it is not always possible to separate the information in the entries in an exact manner. Both sets of sources are understood as “original sources”.

…

The structure of the work at hand is widely based on the second and expanded edition of Farhang-e vāžegān-o eṣṭelāḥāt-e ḫōšnevīsī-o honarhā-ye vābaste “A Dictionary of Calligraphy and the Related Arts” (Tehran, Rozane Publishers, 1994, 2009). For the present English version, the editor has added entries on technical calligraphy vocabulary that are of interest to European scholars but are common sense for Persian readers. Further additional entries concern the arts of taẕhīb (illumination) and tašʿīr (historiated painting), as well as terms pertaining to related disciplines. By contrast, general historical explanations of specific art-historical epochs, the history of Iranian writing in the pre-Islamic era found in the Persian edition, have been omitted because of want of precision. Several entries have been rewritten and/or supplemented to meet the needs of an Anglophone audience. Persian calligraphy and related arts cannot be studied in isolation. They share many practices, tools and phenomena connected with the Arabic, Turkish, Indian manuscript traditions, as well as the Hebrew, Greek and Latin traditions. Therefore, for the sake of convenience and quick reference, the series editors and I found it appropriate to add several important cross references to the corresponding and related entries in MC, AMT, AMTS, AMVR and to related chapters in IC and PPB. This will allow the readers to consult all these reference volumes more easily and effectively. The Persian original contains limited in-depth references to scholarly secondary sources. In its present edition, the handbook does not claim to provide exhaustive encyclopaedic references to the secondary literature, an endeavour that certainly needs to be undertaken in the future. Nevertheless, the editor has added a bibliography with a special focus on the literature written in Persian, Arabic, Turkish, and European languages on various aspects of the Perso-Arabic calligraphy, oriental manuscript traditions and the art of books. Other extensive bibliographies on the greater realm of Islamic calligraphy and arts of the book, partly arranged by subject can be found most notably in AMT, AMTS & AMVR, IC and PPB. The present work is richly illustrated with specimens from calligraphy pieces, monuments, manuscripts, drawings and photos of instruments and materials specifically taken for this purpose. The Persian letters marking the beginning of each section are in the script of the most celebrated Iranian nastaʿlīq calligrapher Mīrʿemād al-Ḥasanī (ca. 961–1024/1554–1615).

Editor ’ s Preface

…

xi

Last but not least, the author and editor owe a particular debt of gratitude to Rebecca Stengel for her outstanding and hard work. Her task was clearly more than that of a simple translator. Notably worth mentioning is her untiring search for English equivalents despite all obstacles. She also designed the layout and saw to all the internal referencing – something that had been lacking in the Persian original. Her meticulous attention greatly enhanced the quality of the present edition. I would also like to thank my colleagues and friends, Khodadad Rezakhani (Princeton), who graciously advised me on historical and chronological issues, and Adam Benkato (Berkeley) who kindly assisted me in the transcriptions of Arabic words. I also wish to express my gratitude to my calligrapher friend and colleague Daryoush Mohammad Poor (London) for his helps and a wide range of suggestions. Additional thanks go to my beloved friend and brother Aidin Farridnejad (Tehran), who always has a solution for my endless technical queries and requests. On behalf of the author, translator, and myself I would also like to express gratitude to Kathy van Vliet-Leigh and Abdurraouf Oueslati, acquisitions editors of Middle East, Islam & African Studies at Brill Publishing as well as Teddi Dols, the editor of Middle East and Islamic Studies (MIA) at Brill Academic Publishers. Most specifically Abdurraouf Oueslati deserves credit for his valuable suggestions and the plan of procedure to make this volume camera ready. I am deeply thankful to Florian Schwarz (Vienna), the co-editor of the series Handbook of Oriental Studies (HdO), The Near and Middle East, for his thoughtful and extremely helpful engagement and intellectual support, without which this work would most probably not have seen the light of day. I would like also to express my gratitude to Christine Nölle-Karimi (Vienna) for her readiness to engage critically with my work. Finally, I would also like to thank the unknown reviewer who provided valuable feedback that allowed me to address important issues. In compiling this work we aim to place for the first time, a dictionary style manual of Persian calligraphy at the disposal of students and researchers, who are at a loss to understand the traditional technical language pertaining to Persian calligraphy and related arts. It is surely not free of mistakes and could be greatly improved and I sincerely hope that this will be undertaken in the near future. Shervin Farridnejad Vienna, November 2021

Author’s Note Calligraphy is one of the most important Iranian arts. For eleven centuries, from Ebn-e Moqle Šīrāzī (d. 328/940) to the present, Iranian calligraphy has not only been inextricably linked to literature and painting, but has always been present in hand-written manuscripts, inscriptions and on coins. The works of many Iranian artists in libraries and museums around the world are testament to the prominent role that Iranians have played in calligraphy in the Islamic world. The instruction of calligraphy and arts such as illumination (taẕhīb) and paper-tinting in Iran has become increasingly popular in the last three decades and has been taken up by thousands of students. This book is the first technical dictionary style handbook on Islamic calligraphy with a specific focus on Iranian calligraphy. It was first published in Tehran in 1994 and followed by a revised version in 2009. For the present revised and extended English version, the editor of this volume Shervin Farridnejad, has reconsidered, rewritten, and added numerous entries and explanations with a wider English reader audience in mind. As a result, many unnecessary entries were removed and certain explanations modified. Thus, the result is not a simple translation of the Persian version, but also in many respects a new compilation of the former data and specifically new written materials by the editor. The editor has also added a bibliography on various aspects of the Iranian calligraphy, oriental manuscript traditions and the art of books and made useful cross references to the corresponding entries in MC, AMT, AMTS, AMVR and to related chapters in IC. This handbook has attempted to bring words and expressions together that were current up to hundreds of years ago among calligraphers, scribes, illuminators, and those involved the creation of manuscripts, mainly based on classical Persian treaties. As a teacher of calligraphy and practicing calligraphers, to these the editor and I have added expressions in use in contemporary calligraphy. Each entry is followed by a succinct explanation, often accompanied by an image. Many expressions appear in old pedagogical treatises on calligraphy and were sometimes also used in Persian poetry. Supporting evidence is to be found in relevant entries. Finally, the editor and I would like to express our gratitude to all the museums, libraries, and private collection holders both in Iran and abroad for allowing us to use many of the images present in this volume. Hamid Reza Ghelichkhani Portland, Oregon, USA, April 2014

Translator’s Note Translating this book was an immense pleasure and huge challenge. It also posed many challenges, not least of which due the fact that Persian and Islamic calligraphy, as a unique, indigenous and highly-developed art necessarily contains concepts and tools, etc. that often have no ready English equivalents. The nature classical calligraphy treatises, the primary source material used in this book, also adds complications. At times these exhibit a certain degree of ambiguity in the terminology that can make translation difficult. One such term is kāteb (‫ )کا ِتب‬which in Persian today is understood simply as “scribe” but in classical texts is variously used to refer to scribes, calligraphers, or both. This is due to the blurred lines that existed between the scribal work and the art of calligraphy. Here I have tried to choose the one that seemed most applicable (and sometimes used both), keeping in mind that scribes were often also calligraphers and vice versa. A knottier issue is the word zāj (‫ )زاج‬which refer to vitriol or alum. It is for this reason that all the various “colors” of zāj, as well as ālūme (‫)آلومه‬, a newer term to Persian and also present in this work, have been referred to ‫ زاج‬and the definition of the two given there. The whole translation was created using the word processor Mellel, without which working with the two scripts would have been much more difficult. I would like to extend my immense gratitude to my Iranian friends, in particular the editor of this volume Shervin Farridnejad, for their help regarding my endless questions.

Illustrations 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Figures Ādāb-ol-ḫaṭṭ, by ʿAbdollah Ṣeyrafī, Islamic Consultative Assembly Library, Tehran, no. 15361 3 Ādāb-ol-ḫaṭṭ, by ʿAbdollah Ṣeyrafī, Islamic Consultative Assembly Library, Tehran, no.1/9409 4 Oṣūl-o qavāʿed-e ḫoṭūṭ-e sette, by Fatḥollah Sabzevārī, Islamic Consultative Assembly Library, Tehran, no. 642 5 Resāle-ye taʿlīm mofradāt-e nastaʿlīq attributed to Mirʿalī Tabrīzī, UCLA Library 6 Ādāb-e ḫaṭṭ, (Ṣerāṭ-os-soṭūr) by Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī, Russian National Library, St. Petersburg 8 Ādāb-ol-ḫaṭṭ, by Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī, UCLA Library 9 Calligraphy Treatise by Moḥammad Amīn, Oriental Manuscripts Library Hyderabad, India, no. 282 12 Ādāb-ol-mašq, Bābāšāh Eṣfahānī, University of Punjab Library, Lahore 14 Doublure, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran, no. 2204 17 Mirrored script by Moḥammad Šafīq, 1286/1869/70 21 ‘Bismallah’, Reza Abbasi Museum, Tehran 22 The letters in abjadī order of s̱ols̱ by Šōqī Efendī 25 The letters in abjadī order of s̱ols̱ by ʿAlāʾ-od-Dīn Tabrīzī, written in Qazvīn in 1001/1592/3, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran 25 The letters in abjadī order of s̱ols̱ by Šōqī Efendī 26 The letters in abjadī order in nastaʿlīq by Mīrʿalī Kāteb, 944/1537/8, University of Istanbul Library 26 The letters in abjadī order in nastaʿlīq by Ġolāmreżā Eṣfahānī, Reza Abbasi Museum, Tehran 27 A page from Saʿdī’s Būstān with marbled borders by ʿAlī al-Ḥoseynī al-Kāteb, 932/1525/6, private collection in London 28 Simple elements of ejāze (Baġdādī 1989: 75) 30 Eslīmī-ye sāde (Nīkbīn 1383š/2004: 30) 34 The spiral baseline with the pattern of eslīmī-ye dahān-aždarī (Ḥaṣuri 1381š/2002: 109) 34 Eslīmī-ye mārī/abrī 35 Eslīmī-ye bargī (Nīkbīn 1383š/2004: 56) 36 Eslīmī-ye pīčak-dār (Nīkbīn 1383š/2004: 56) 36 A combined eslīmī-ḫatāyī pattern. The seperation and different level of both eslīmī and ḫatāyī bands (ʾĀqāmīri 1386š/2007: 21–22) 37

Illustrations 25

xv

Kufic Eslīmī stone inscriptions, Minaret on the Qobbat-ol-Eslām Mosque, Dehli 38 26 Stone mosaic with eslīmī patterns, ʾEʿtemād-ud-Daule Tomb, Agra, India 39 27 A combined eslīmī-ḫatāyī pattern (Ḥaṣuri 1381š/2002: 41) 40 28 A page from Saʿdī’s Būstān by ʿAlī al-Ḥoseynī al-Kāteb with gold sprinkled borders, 932/1525/6, private collection in London 44 29 A page from the pañcatantra by Bahrāmšāhī, in the hand of Moḥammad-Hoseyn Šīrāzī known as Kāteb-os-solṭān, 1295/1878, Malek National Library, Tehran 46 30 Colophon from the Ḫājū-ye Kermānī Mas̱navī, Mīrʿalī b. Elyās Tabrīzī al-Bāvarčī, 798/1395/6, British Library, no. 18113 47 31 A moraqqaʿ page by Moḥammad Hoseyn al-Tabrīzī, University of Istanbul Library 48 32 A verse written in nastaʿlīq by ʿAbdorrašīd ad-Deylamī, National Museum of Iran, Tehran 54 33 Examples of panjes 59 34 Page of the Quran in pīr-āmūz by ʿOs̱mān b. Hoseyn al-Varrāq al-Ġaznavī, 484/1091/2, Topkapı Palace Museum, Istanbul 61 35 Outlined calligraphy in s̱ols̱ by Kamāl-od-Dīn Moḥammad b. ʿAbdolhaq al-Sabzevārī, 928/1521/2, University of Istanbul Library, no. 1422 66 36 A piece in nastaʿlīq by ʿAbdoljabbār (a student of Mīrʿemād) with illumination, National Museum of Iran, Tehran 68 37 The various parts of a pen 1. tongue 2. slit 3. diameter 4. vaḥšī 5. ensī 6. field 73 38 The steps for carving a pen 74 39 Colophon in Monājāt-nāme-ye Ḫāje ʿAbdollah Anṣārī, calligraphy by ʿAlī Reżā ʿAbbāsī 1008/1599/1600, Āstān-e Qods Rażvī Library, Mashhad 75 40 Colophon in Dīvān-e torkī-ye navāyī, calligraphy by Solṭān Moḥammad Ḫandān, National Museum of Iran, Terhan 76 41 Simple compositon: the sole elongation is ‫ هر‬from the first hemistich 78 42 Toranj with sar-toranj attached to the top and bottom, at the beginning of a collection of poems, University of Istanbul Library, no. 497 79 43 Toranj with sar-toranj attached to the top and bottom, Ḫamse Neẓāmī, 933/1526/7, National Museum of Iran 80 44 A page with historiated borders, Rūże al-anvār, by Ḫājū-ye Kermānī, 927/1520/1 Golestān Palace Library, Tehran, no. 2204 82 45 Colophon on a moraqqaʿ page written in taʿlīq by Eḫtīār Monšī 949/1542/3, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran, no. 1616 84 46 A moraqqaʿ page in taʿlīq by Eḫtīār Monšī 970/1562/3, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran 85 47 “Red seal” design, d. 726/1325/1326, Fārs Provence (Šahrestānī 1381š/2002: 17) 87

xvi 48

Illustrations

An endowment deed in tōqīʿ ordered by the Savafid Shah Solṭān Ḥoseyn, Āstān-e Qods Rażavī Library, Mashhad 89 49 S̱oʿbānī (Baġdādī 1989: 10) 92 50 Sīāh-mašq in šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq by Mīrzā Ġolāmreżā Eṣfahānī (1246–1304/1830–1886), copied from ʿAbdolmajīd Ṭāleqānī. Golestān Palace Library, Tehran, no. 1470 97 51 Šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq by ʿAlīakbar Golestāne (d. 1319/1901) signed by ʿAbdolmajīd, private collection, Tehran 98 52 Cover of a Quran with lacquered binding, Islamic Consultative Assembly Library, Tehran 101 53 Outside cover of a Quran, burnt and mosaic, 10th/16th c., Islamic Consultative Assembly Library, Tehran, no. 12274 102 54 Inside cover of a Quran, mosaic, 10th/16th c., Islamic Consultative Assembly Library, Tehran, no. 12274 105 55 Large saṭr by Hamid Reza Ghelichkhani, 1384š/2005. Copied from Ġolāmreżā Eṣfahānī 106 56 A lithographic print in nastaʿlīq by Moḥammad-Reżā Kalhor (d. 1310/1892) 109 57 A moraqqaʿ page written in čap-nevīsī, University of Istanbul Library, no. 1422 111 58 The stages of spin or turning the pen when writting the letter be (‫ )ب‬112 59 A page from the Golšan Album, čalīpā in nastaʿlīq by ʿAlī al-Kāteb, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran 116 60 Engraved seal of Moḥammad-Šāh Qajar (1808–1848), d. 1250/1834/35 (Mīrzā-Abolqāsemī 1393š/2014: 17) 123 61 Two different types of gol-e šāh-ʿabbāsī (Ḥaṣuri 1381š/2002: 108) 127 62 Barg-e bādbezanī (Ḥaṣuri 1381š/2002: 108) 127 63 Šāh-ʿabbāsī-ye anārī (Ḥaṣuri 1381š/2002: 108) 127 64 Ḫatāyī-flower gol-pīč in combination with ḫatāyī-leaf šāḫe-šekaste (Ḥaṣuri 1381š/2002: 108) 127 65 Composition with barg-e ḫatāyī and ḫatāyī-buds (Nīkbīn 1383š/2004: 36) 128 66 Composition with barg-e ḫatāyī and ḫatāyī-buds (Nīkbīn 1383š/2004: 37) 129 67 A combined eslīmī-ḫatāyī pattern. The seperation and different level of both eslīmī and ḫatāyī bands (ʾĀqāmīri 1386š/2007: 26) 129 68 Quran in bāborī, Āstān-e Qods Rażavī Library, no. 50 130 69 An example of bargardān Moṣṭafā Rāqem, tranlational practice by ʿOmar Vaṣfī Efendī (1880–1928), from the collection of Ali Reza Ozcan Ozel, Turkey 131 70 “Playful script” by Moḥammad Qazvīnī, 1250/1834/5, Čehel-Sotūn Museum, Qazvin 133 71 “Playful script” by Moḥammad Qazvīnī, 1250/1834/5, Reżā Abbāsī Museum, Tehren 133 72 Nāḫonī, created by contemporary calligrapher Nāṣer Javāherpūr, Tehran 135

Illustrations 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92

93

94

xvii

An illustration of how to create a nāḫonī 136 ‘Bismallah’ in the shape of a bird, 1279/1862/3, Reżā Abbāsī Museum, Tehran 137 ‘Bismallah’ in the shape of a bird, Moḥammad ʿAlī Ḫīārejī, 1131/1718/9, Čehel-Sotūn Museum, Qazvin 138 Pictoral writing the shape of a lion in praise of Imam ʿAlī, Univeristy of Istanbul Library 138 Pictoral writing the shape a lion in praise of Imam ʿAlī, Resālat-ol-ḫaṭṭ-ol-ʿarabī 139 Sīāh-mašq in nastaʿlīq by Mīr Ḥoseyn, Museum of Decorative Arts, Esfahan 140 Sīāh-mašq in nastaʿlīq, written by Moḥammad Hoseyn ʿEmād-ol-kottāb while in prison in 1338/1919/20. Archive of the Iran Calligraphers’ Association 142 Čalīpā in nastaʿlīq by ʿAlī Reżā ʿAbbāsī, Museum of Decorative Arts, Esfahan 146 Dandān-mūšī, čalīpā in nastaʿlīq, by Mīrʿalī al-Kāteb al-Solṭānī, Bukhara, 945/1538/9, Reza Abbasi Museum, Tehran 151 An example of davāyer-e mozdavaj (‫ ن‬and ‫ )خ‬in a s̱ols̱ inscription by Jalāl Jaʿfar, 841/1437/8, Herat, Afghanistan 153 A dahe, from a Quran written by ʿOs̱mān b. al-Ḥoseyn al-Varrāq al-Ġaznavī, 484/1091/2, Topkapı Palace Museum, Istanbul 156 Single elements of small dīvānī, (Baġdādī 1989: 57) 157 Single elements of large dīvānī, (Baġdādī 1989: 63) 157 A piece in reqāʿ by Zīn al-ʿĀbedīn, Esfahan 1222/1807/8, Islamic Consultative Assembly Library, Tehran, no. 5099 162 Single elements in roqʿe (Baġdādī 1989: 68) 163 A colophon prayer, Aḥmad al-Neyrīzī, 1121/1709/10, University of Tehran Library 164 A colophon prayer (the last two lines of text), by Aḥmad al-Neyrīzī, 1113/1701/2, Malek National Library, Tehran 165 A Quran colophon written in reyḥān by Yāqūt Mostaʿṣemī, Baghdad 685/1286/7, National Museum of Iran, Tehran 173 Binding with a flap, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran 176 An example of sajʿ-e melkī. According to the roundel and upper stamp this belonged to Shah Abbās. The note informs us that it was then bought by Maḥyā-od-Dīn Ḫān in 1152/1739/40 in Šāhjahān Ābād. In the University of Istanbul Library, no. 1481 181 A page from the Quran written in nasḫ by Dūst-Moḥammad b. Soleymān al-Herāvī, Herat 946/1539/40, with sura headings in reqāʿ. Islamic Consultative Assembly Library, Tehran 183 Sarak, stone inscription in s̱ols̱, in the script of Jallāl Jaʿfar, 841/1437/8, Herat, Afghanistan 184

xviii 95

Illustrations

Sar-mašq in nastaʿlīq by Moḥammad Kāẓem Tehrānī, private collection in Tehran 185 96 Roundness and Straightness in nastaʿlīq 185 97 Three saṭrs in nastaʿlīq by Mīrzā Ġolāmreżā Eṣfahānī, Malek National Library 187 98 Sīāh-mašq in nastaʿlīq by Mīrzā Ġolāmreżā Eṣfahānī, University of Tehran Library, no. 4119 191 99 Šarafe 195 100 Šekārī 196 101 Šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq by Moḥammad Šafīʿ al-Ḥoseynī, 1076/1665/6, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran, no. 1535 197 102 Šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq, by Mīrzā Ġolāmreżā Eṣfahānī, 1298/1880/1 University of Tehran Library, no. 4119 198 103 Šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq, by Morteżā Qolī Šāmlū 1077/1666/7, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran, no. 1535 199 104 Šamare 200 105 Roundels 201 106 A ṣādī ʿeyn (‫ )ع‬s̱ols̱ and in nastaʿlīq 205 107 Elements of a cover type II (Gruber 2009: 16, Fig. 2.11) 206 108 Elements of the cover and the bound type II (AMVR 26, Fig. 16) 207 109 Three major types of bookbinding, Type I, II and III (MC 258, 260, 262) 208 110 True ascent and virtual ascent in nastaʿlīq 210 111 Thinness and thickness in nastaʿlīq 214 112 Tughra, ‘yā ḥażrat-e Šeyḫ Solṭān ʿAbdolqāder Gīlānī’ His Excellency Šeyḫ Solṭān ʿAbdolqāder Gīlānī, Moḥammad ʿAzīz, 1343/1924/5 217 113 A piece in nastaʿlīq with an ʿakkāsī border, University of Istanbul Library, no. 1427 222 114 An example of a fenjānī ʿeyn (‫ )ع‬in s̱ols̱ and nastaʿlīq 227 115 A piece created with paper-cutting, Mehdī Šarīf Šīrāzī 1316/1898/9, Oveys Vafsī private collection, Tehran 231 116 Nastaʿlīq by ʿEmād al-Ḥasanī (Mīrʿemād), National Museum of Iran, Tehran 234 117 Šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq by Seyyed Golestāne, Islamic Consultative Assembly Library, Tehran, no. 2196 235 118 Qolloq, Šāhčerāq Museum, Shiraz 235 119 Single and double-blade penknives, from the H.R. Gelichkhani private collection, Tehran 238 ِ ‫ ) َب ْر‬238 120 Spear blade (‫ )تیغه‌ی َی ْحیایی‬and sheep foot blade (‫گ بیدی‬ 121 Metal tiralinee with a plastic handle 239 122 Metal penbox, H.R. Ghelichkhani private collection, Terhan 241

Illustrations

xix

123 Penbox made of used paper prior to painting and decoration. Made by H.R. Ghelichkhani 241 124 Nastaʿlīq writing by Moḥammad Hoseyn Šīrāzī, Tehran 1305/1887/8, Monājāt-nāme-ye Ḫāje ʿAbdollah Anṣārī, Āstān-e Qods Rażvī Library, Mashhad 253 125 Inlay-style grave inscription on the grounds of Qobt-od-Dīn Baḫtīār Kākī, Dehli 255 126 Inscription in s̱ols̱ and geometric Kufic, entrance portico at the tomb of Ḫāje ʿAbdollāh Ansārī, Herat, Afghanistan 256 127 Mosaic inscription in s̱ols̱, portico in the Shah Mosque in Esfahan, 1025/1616 ʿAlī Reżā al-Abbāsī 258 128 An example of a kamand, University of Istanbul Library, no. 1526 263 129 A Kufic inscription discovered in Ommoljamāl, 6th/12th c. (Friedrich 1368š/1989: 327) 265 130 A Kufic inscription discovered in Jerusalem, 72/691 (Friedrich 1368š/ 1989: 327) 266 131 Kufic without dot markers but with red dots to serve as diacritics, National Museum of Iran, Tehran 266 132 Kufic with dots markers and red dots to serve as diacritics, National Museum of Iran, Tehran 267 133 Pīr-āmūz style Kufic, National Museum of Iran, Tehran 267 134 Pīr-āmūz style Kufic, ʿOs̱mān b. Ḥoseyn al-Varāq al-Ġaznavī, 484/1091/2, Topkapi Museum, Istanbul 268 135 Kufic from the book al-Abnīa ʿan ḥaqāʾeq al-adwīa of Abū Manṣūr Mowaffaq Heravī, copied by Asadī Ṭūsī, 447/1055/6, Vienna National Library 269 136 Holding the pen 272 137 lacquered binding with a gol-o-morġ design, end of the 13th c., Islamic Consultative Assembly Library, Tehran 275 138 Čalīpā in nastaʿlīq with two lačakī, Yārī al-Heravī, 988/1580/1, Herat, private collection of Mehdī ʿAtīqī, Tehran 280 139 From the pañcatantra by Bahrāmšāhī with an epithet: in the hand of Moḥammad-Hosseyn Šīrāzī known as Kāteb-os-solṭān, 1295/1878, Malek National Library, Tehran 282 140 Some calligraphy supplies: inkwell (‫ ) َدوات‬with ink (‫ ) ُم َرکَّب‬and wadding (‫)لیقه‬, reed pens (‫ ) َقلَم‬of various size; penknives (‫ ) َقل َْمتَراش‬and nibbing block (‫َقط‬ ‫ ) َزن‬282 141 Unused raw silk wadding (‫ )لیقه‬283 142 Motalāṣeq Kufic, Salāmat-ol-ensān fī ḥefẓ-el-lesān, Resālat-ol-ḫaṭṭ-ol-ʿarabī 286 143 Moḥaqqaq by Aḥmad b. as-Sohravard, 706/1306/7, National Museum of Iran, Tehran 288

xx 144 145

Illustrations

Morġī 290 A page from the Golšan Album, Moḥammad Ḥoseyn Kašmīrī, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran 291 146 ‘Bismallah’ in mosalsal by Aḥmad al-Qara Ḥeṣārī 295 147 A copy (mašq-e naqlī) by Mīrʿemād of Mīrʿalī al-Kāteb (poem also by Mīrʿalī al-Kāteb), University of Istanbul Library, no. 1426 299 148 Quran Manuscript written in reyḥān with florets marking the end of verses by Arġūn al-Kāmelī, 745, National Museum of Iran, Tehran 301 149 Reticulated geometric Kufic, ‘al-molko lellāh’, kingship belongs to God 303 150 Geometric Kufic from the tile mosaics on Pīr Bakrān in Esfahan, 1303 303 151 Geometric Kufic repeating ‘Allah valī ottōfīq’, God is the arbiter of success, the Amir Chakhmaq Complex, Yazd 304 152 Geometric Kufic reading ‘Hamid Reza Ghelichkhani’, designed by Hamid Reza Ghelichkhani, 2000 304 153 Moġlaq in nastaʿlīq by Ġolām Reżā, part of an inscription on the Sepahsālār mosque in Tehran 305 154 Simple elements of ejāze, (Baġdādī 1989: 75) 306 155 Simple elements of nasḫ-e yāqūtī (Baġdādī 1989: 27) 306 156 Simple elements of nastaʿlīq, by Moḥammad Ḥoseyn Seyfī Qazvīnī. From the collection of Nāṣer Javāherpūr, Karaj, Iran 307 157a–b Simple elements in nastaʿlīq, Mīrʿalī Kāteb, 944/1537/8 University of Istanbul Library 309–310 158 ‘Ḥū’ written in nastaʿlīq with an example of malfūf 311 159 True descent and virtual descent in nastaʿlīq 314 160 Čalīpā in nastaʿlīq by Mīrʿalī Kāteb Tabrīzī, Mīrʿemād Museum, Tehran 318 161 Iranian nasḫ, Aḥmad Neyrīzī 1122/1710/1, Morteżā Tadayyon Collection, Qazvin 321 162 Nasḫ-e yāqūtī, ʿAlāʾoldīn Moḥammad al-Tabrīzī, 957/1550, Malek National Library, Tehran, no. 5948 322 163 Simple elements of nasḫ-e yāqūtī (Baġdādī 1989: 27) 322 164 Calligraphy painting by Mīrzā Moḥammad ʿAlī b. Mīrzā Ġolām Rasūl, 1134/1721/2, Reza Abbasi Museum, Tehran 324 165 Calligraphy painting by Mīrzā Moḥammad ʿAlī b. Mīrzā Ġolām Rasūl, 1134/1721/2, Reza Abbasi Museum, Tehran 324 166 Calligraphy painting with s̱oʿbānī by ʿAlī al-Hoseynī ʿAbdolvahāb, University of Istanbul Library, no. 1422 325 167 Calligraphy painting by contemporary artist Mohammad Ehsaee 326 168 Dezful reeds (‫ ) َقلَم‬328 169 An example of hā-ye ẕūṣādeyn 333

Illustrations

xxi

170 Hā-ye modavvar in the words ‫( دیده‬top) and ‫( پسندیده‬bottom); from a čalīpā in nastaʿlīq by ʿAlī Reżā al-ʿAbbāsī Tabrīzī, 1025/1616, Reza Abbasi Museum, Tehran 334 171 An example of an inverted yā 338

1

Plates

“Simple elements of nastaʿlīq”. A page from the Golšan Album, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran 23 2 A page from the Golšan Album, poem and calligraphy by Mīrʿalī Kāteb, 944/1537/8, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran 50 3 A page from a Quran written in moḥaqqaq by Aḥmad b. Sohrevard (d. 741/1340/1) 56 4 A page from a Quran written in moḥaqqaq by Aḥmad b. Sohrevard (d. 741/1340/1) 63 5 Inscription of Ṣofē-ye Šeyḫ on Pīr Bakrān in Esfahan, 712/1305/6 (Photo by Moḥammad-Reżā ʿAmūzād) 91 6 A page from an Album, nasḫ calligraphy by Moḥammad-Qāsem, tōqīʿ calligraphy by Yaḥyā al-Jamālī (746/1339/40) in Shiraz, University of Istanbul Library 94 7 Inscription on a stone slab in the courtyard of ʿAbdollāh Anṣārī’ Mausoleum in Herat, calligraphy by Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī, 882/1475/6 (The oldest known dated and signed nastaʿlīq inscription) 107 8 Colophon from the Saʿdī’s Būstān, calligraphy by Mīrʿalī Kāteb, 944/1537/8 in Bukhara, Islamic Consultative Assembly Library, Tehran 117 9 A page from the Golšan Album, poem and calligraphy by Mīrʿalī Kāteb, 940/1533/4, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran 124 10 A moraqqaʿ page in taʿlīq by Eḫtīār Monšī 970/1562/3, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran 147 11 A Sīāh-mašq in taʿlīq script, Islamic Consultative Assembly Library, Tehran (This is a rare sample of using taʿlīq script to calligraphy Quranic verses. For the sake of eligibility, taʿlīq and šekaste scripts are seldom used to write Quran) 158 12 A page in taʿlīq calligraphy by Darvīš ʿAbdollah al-Monvsī al-Solṭānī, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran 160 13 Colophon written in Šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq by Darvīš ʿAbdolmajīd Ṭāleqānī, 1184/1770/71, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran 174 14 A mixture of taʿlīq and šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq, calligraphy attributed to Darvīš ʿAbdolmajīd Ṭāleqānī (1150–1185/1737/8–1771/2), Golestān Palace Library, Tehran 179

xxii 15

Illustrations

A page in šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq, 1317/1889, calligraphy by Seyed ʿAlīakbar Golestāne (1274–1319/1858–1901), Ezzat Malek Soudavar private collection in Tehran 193 16 Colophon of a Quran, reqāʿ, calligraphy by Aḥmad Neyrīzī, 1122/1711/2, nasḫ calligraphy by Moḥammad Hāšem, 1200/1789, Islamic Consultative Assembly Library, Tehran 204 17 Colophon of a Quran, reqāʿ, calligraphy by Aḥmad Neyrīzī, 1141/1730/1, Esfahan, National Museum of Iran, Tehran 213 18 The s̱ols̱ inscription by ʿAlī Reżā al-ʿAbbāsī Tabrīzī, 1025/1616, Shah Mosque in Esfahan 215 19 The s̱ols̱ stone inscription in Persian by ʿAbd-ol-Ḥaq Šīrāzī (ʾAmānat-Ḫān), 1022/1613, Akbar’s tomb, Agra, India 218 20 Colophon of the moʿarraq s̱ols̱ inscription by ʿAbd-ol-Ḥaq Šīrāzī (ʾAmānat-Ḫān), 1048/1639, Taj Mahal, Agra, India 220 21 Čalīpā in nastaʿlīq by ʿEmād al-Ḥasanī (Mīrʿemād), 1007/1598, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran 223 22 Čalīpā in nastaʿlīq by ʿEmād al-Ḥasanī (Mīrʿemād), 1024/1615, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran 225 23 Čalīpā in nastaʿlīq by Seyed-ʿAlīḫān Javāherqalam, 1097/1688, from the collection of Nāṣer Javāherpūr, Karaj, Iran 228 24 Čalīpā in nastaʿlīq, mašq-e naqlī (translational practice) from ʿEmād al-Ḥasanī (Mīrʿemād) by Valī-ad-Dīn Afandī, 1122/1713, University of Istanbul Library 250 25 Čalīpā in nastaʿlīq, mašq-e naqlī (translational practice) from ʿEmād al-Ḥasanī (Mīrʿemād) by Moḥammad-Asʿad Al-Yasārī, University of Istanbul Library 270 26 A page in nasḫ, calligraphy by Veṣāl-aš-Šāʿer, 1254/1845, from the collection of Moḥammad-Javād Jeddī, Tehran 277 27 Sīāh-mašq in nastaʿlīq, calligraphy by Mīrzā Ġolāmreżā Eṣfahānī (1246–1304/ 1830–1886), Čehel-Sotūn Museum, Qazvin 284 28 Sīāh-mašq in nastaʿlīq, calligraphy by Mīrzā Ġolāmreżā Eṣfahānī (1246–1304/ 1830–1886), from the collection of Moḥmūd Vaṭančī, Esfahan 313 29 Prayer in nasḫ, calligraphy by Moḥammad Šafīʿ Tabrīzī (d. 1264/1847/8), Āstān-e Qods Rażvī Library, Mashhad 329 30 S̱ols̱ inscription, 891/1482, Jameʿ Mosque of Yazd 332 31 S̱ols̱ inscription, Ġīyās̱-ad-Dīn ʿAlī Joharī, 1028/1619, Jameʿ Mosque of ʿAtīq, Shiraz 337 32 Besmele “in the name of God” by Malek-Moḥammad Qazvīnī, 1250/1641, Museum of Decorative Arts, Esfahan 339

Notes on Alphabetical Order, Pronunciation, Transcription and Dates 1

Alphabetical order

As a Persian-English dictionary, the lemmas in this book are in alphabetical order according to the Persian. Therefore, the pronunciation of the word that appears in as a transcription next to the lemma is not an indication of the alphabetical order, which in Persian does not take short vowels into consideration. Thus, for example the letter alef (‫ )ا‬at the beginning of a word always proceeds be (‫ )ب‬regardless of its vocalization as /a/, /e/ or /o/, and tarkīb (‫ ) َت ْرکیب‬comes before toranj (‫ )ت َُرنْج‬because t – r - k comes before t – r - n. The Alphabetical order is as follows:

‫آ‬ ‫ا‬ ā a, e, o ‫غ ع‬ ʿ ġ

‫خ ح چ ج ث ت پ ب‬ b p t s̱ j č ḥ ḫ

2

Pronunciation

‫د‬ d

‫ذ‬ ẕ

‫ظ ط ضصش س ژ ز ر‬ r z ž s š ṣ ż ṭ ẓ

‫ی ه و ن م ل گ ک ق ف‬ f q k g l m n v, ū, h, e y, ī ō

The pronunciation of Persian words is given between forward slashes /…/ directly following the lemma. In addition, diacritics indicating Persian short vowels, which are only occasionally used in real life.

‫ َقلَم‬/qalam/ pen….. Among originally Arabic lemma, of which there are many, there are several with multiple pronunciation options. In cases where the dictionary offers a traditionally Arabic pronunciation that differs from the accepted and current pronunciation in Iran, the Iranian pronunciation was chosen. Thus for example ‫ م ّله‬is given as malle, not mallah; Also Arabic language sources (not Persian texts with an Arabic title) are transcribed according to Arabic transcription norms, a table for which is also presented below.

xxiv 3

Notes

Definition

The definition of the lemma appears directly following its pronunciation in clearcut cases this appears in bold. Where an exact translation is lacking, a literal translation in quotation marks (lit. “…”) is often given followed by the rest of the entry. These literal translations are often very visual and can say not only a lot about the Persian language, but how certain things are conceived. Sometimes this definition is proceeded by an abbreviation to indicate the lemma’s specificity as a tool (to.), related to bookbinding (bb.) or illumination (illum.), etc. Numbers in bold mark various definitions of the lemma.

‫ َافْشانْگَ ری‬/afšāngarī/ illum. gold sprinkling….. ‫ ُج ْنگ‬/jong/ 1 anthology….. 2 album….. 4

Transcription

Transcriptions in this book follow the Persian and Arabic transcription methods employed by the Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft (DMG) with a mere modification regarding using j instead of ǧ for ‫ج‬. Exceptions include some personal and place names which are spelled according to the English convention e.g. Tehran not Tehrān, and Mashhad not Mašhad. All lemmas follow Persian transcription. Where an Arabic-language work is referenced (as opposed to a Persian-language text with an Arabic title) Arabic transcription is employed. 5

Dates

There are three calendar systems represented in the following work, the lunar Islamic calendar, the Iranian solar calendar, and the Gregorian calendar. All dates that appear alone (i.e. 1487) refer to a date in the Gregorian system. Dates in the lunar Islamic calendar are given first followed by a / and the Gregorian equivalent i.e. (d. 696/1296/7), with the second slash appearing when necessary to indicate the overlap. All dates given in the Iranian solar calendar are indicated with a (š) followed by the Gregorian equivalent (i.e. 1372š/1993).

Transcription Tables

‫أء‬ ‫ب‬ ‫پ‬ ‫ت‬ ‫ث‬ ‫ج‬ ‫چ‬ ‫ح‬ ‫خ‬ ‫د‬ ‫ذ‬

Persian Transcription ʾ b p t s̱ j č ḥ ḫ d ẕ



‫أء‬ ‫ب‬ ‫پ‬ ‫ت‬ ‫ث‬ ‫ج‬ ‫چ‬ ‫ح‬ ‫خ‬ ‫د‬ ‫ذ‬

‫ر‬ ‫ز‬ ‫ژ‬ ‫س‬ ‫ش‬ ‫ص‬ ‫ض‬ ‫ط‬ ‫ظ‬ ‫ع‬ ‫غ‬

r z ž s š ṣ ż ṭ ẓ ʿ ġ

‫ف‬ ‫ق‬ ‫ک‬ ‫گ‬ ‫ل‬ ‫م‬ ‫ن‬ ‫و‬ ‫ه‬ ‫ی‬ ◌َ

f q k g l m n v h y a

◌ِ ◌ُ ‫آ ـا‬ ‫ـو او‬ ‫ـه‬ ‫ايـ ی‬

e o ā ū (ō) h, e ī

◌ْ ◌ّ

(no vowel) (double consonant)

‫ف‬ ‫ق‬ ‫ک‬ ‫گ‬ ‫ل‬ ‫م‬ ‫ن‬ ‫و‬ ‫ه‬ ‫ی‬ ◌َ

f q k l m n w h y a

◌ِ ◌ُ ‫آ ـا‬ ‫ـو او‬

i u ā ū

‫ايـ ی‬

ī

◌ْ ◌ّ

(no vowel) (double consonant)

Arabic Transcription ʾ b t ṯ j ḥ ḫ d ḏ

‫ر‬ ‫ز‬ ‫ژ‬ ‫س‬ ‫ش‬ ‫ص‬ ‫ض‬ ‫ط‬ ‫ظ‬ ‫ع‬ ‫غ‬

r z s š ṣ ḍ ṭ ẓ ʿ ġ

Abbreviations For Abbreviations used in bibliographic citations for periodical titles, standard reference books, and series see Bibliography. a. alive in Ar. Arabic arch. archaic b. born (always followed by a date) b. Persian ben/ebn; Arabic bin/ibn bb. bookbinding c. century call. calligraphy d. died illum. illumination (taẕhīb) L. Latin lit. literally nas. nastaʿlīq no. number NP New Persian pl. plural r. ruled sc. script š hejrī šamsī to. tool ☞ refer to

ĀD Ādāb ĀḪ AM BS ČM

Abbreviations of the Consulted Persian treatises on Calligraphy Āyīn-e dabīrī / dastūr-e dabīrī, Moḥammad b. ʿAbdolḫāleq Meyhanī, 6th/12th c. Ādāb-ol-ḫaṭṭ, ʿAbdollah Ṣeyrafī, first half of the 8th/14th c. Ādāb-ol-ḫaṭṭ, Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī, 930/1523/4. Ādāb-ol-mašq, Bābāšāh Eṣfahānī, second half of the 10th/16th c. Bayān-oṣ-ṣanāʿāt, Ḥobīš b. Ebrāhīm b. Moḥammad Teflīsī, second half of the 6th/12th c. Čahār maqāle (Majmaʿ-on-navāder), Neẓāmī ʿArūżī Samarqandī, 1157/522.

Abbreviations Dastūr DMBŠ

xxvii

Dastūr-ol-kāteb fī taʿīīn-el-marāteb, Šams-e Monšī, 767/1365/6. Dībāče-ye moraġġaʿ-e bahrām mīrzā ṣafavī, Dūst-Moḥammad Gavāšānī Heravī 951/1544/5. DMŠT Dībāče-ye moraġġaʿ-e Šāh Tahmāsb, Qoṭb-od-Dīn Moḥammad Qeṣṣeḫān, 964/1556/7. Eḥyāʾ Eḥyāʾ-ol-ḫaṭṭ, Zīn-ol-ʿābedīn b. Faṭḥʿalī Ḫoyī, 1322/1904/5. FḪ Favāyed-ol-ḫoṭūṭ, Darvīš Moḥammad b. Moḥammad Boḫārī, 995/1587. GS Golzār-e ṣafā, ʿAbdollāh b. Maḥmud-e Ṣeyrafī Tabrīzī, 950/1543/4. Ḥelīat Ḥelīat-ol-kottāb, author unknown, end of the 10th/16th c. ḪS Ḫaṭṭ va savād, Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī, after 940/1533/4. J Jōharīye, Sīmī-ye Neyšābūrī, 837/1433/4. Kāġaẕ Kāġaẕ, ranghā-ye alvān, morakkab, ḫaṭṭ-e avhal va mošajjer, unknown author, 9th/15th c. Kašf Kašf-ol-ḥorūf, ʿEnāyatollah Šūštarī, ‌11th/17th c. KṢ Kašf-oṣ-ṣanāyeʿ va maḫzan-ol-beżāʿe, Mīrzā Moḥammad Šīrāzī, 1322/1904/5. Mofradāt Resāle-ye taʿlīm mofradāt-e nastaʿlīq, falsely attributed to Mirʿalī Tabrīzī, first half of the 9th/15th c. MSQ Poems of Moḥammad Hoseyn Seyfī Qazvīnī (ʿEmād-ol-kottāb), Moḥammad Hoseyn Seyfī Qazvīnī, first half of the 14th/20th c. Nafāyes Nafāyes-ol-funūn fī ʿarāyes-el-ʿuyūn, ʿAllāme Šams-od-Dīn Moḥammad Āmolī, first half of the 8th/14th c. Oṣūl Oṣūl-o qavāʿed-e ḫoṭūṭ-e sette, Fatḥollah Sabzevārī, mid-9th/15th c. QḪ Qavānīn-ol-ḫoṭūṭ, Maḥmūd b. Moḥammad, 960/1553. RA Resāle-ye Moḥammad Amīn, Moḥammad Amīn, 1139/1726/7. RḪ Rasm-ol-ḫaṭṭ, Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī, 940/1533/4. Rīyāż Rīyāż-ol-abrār, Ḥoseyn ʿAqīlī Rostmadārī, 979/1571/2. RṢ Rāḥat-oṣ-ṣodūr va āyat-os-sorūr, Moḥammad b. ʿAlī b. Soleymān ar-Rāvandī, 599–603/1202/3–1206/7. ṢS Ādāb-e ḫaṭṭ (known as Ṣerāṭ-os-soṭūr), Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī, ‌920/1513/4. Taʿlīm Taʿlīm-ol-ḫoṭūṭ, ʿAlī b. Ḥasan-e Ḫōšmardān, 926/1520. TM Toḥfat-ol-moḥebbīn, Yaʿqūb b. Ḥasan-e Serāj-e Šīrāzī, 858/1454.

The Persian Treatises as Primary Sources on Iranian Calligraphy Treatises that have been written in Persian on the calligraphic principles, their instruction and the related arts are some of the best available windows into understanding the calligraphic tradition in Iranian lands. Generally, these texts address such issues as the origins of a script, the calligraphy masters, the etymology of script names, their characteristics, rules governing simple and compound elements, and basic calligraphy tools such as the reed pen, paper, and ink. Sometimes special rites and spiritual etiquette that go hand and hand with this art are also addressed. Because calligraphers were all literate and many also literary – maintaining close contact with poets and frequenting court libraries – calligraphers were more familiar with books and writing than other categories of artists. Almost half of all known Persian texts on calligraphy are written in verse, providing further confirmation of the calligrapher’s affinity to literature. In Persian there are more extant primary sources devoted to calligraphy instruction and related arts than to any other art including architecture, music, or even painting, and all can serve to enlighten the scholar of this Irano-Islamic field of study. Among treatises on calligraphy written in Persian, the works of Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī, Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī and Bābāšāh Eṣfahānī are of particular significance. It is to these that most reference is made in the present book. Instructional texts, either in book form or as independent treatises on calligraphy complete unto themselves, are introduced here chronological order. Where these aspects apply each text will be introduced, where possible as follows: – Name of the treatise or book and its author, both in original and transcription – Date of composition – Format (verse or prose) – Type of text (independent treatise, part of a book, album preface, miscellaneous) – Original chapter/section titles This introduction only covers texts and treatises written in Persian on Iranian calligraphy and does not include those that were composed in Arabic, Urdu, or Turkish, etc.

© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_002

2 1

The Persian Treatises as Primary Sources

A Brief Introduction to the Persian Treatises on Calligraphy

1. Āyīn-e dabīrī / ‫آئین َدبیری‬ (dastūr-e dabīrī / ‫)دستور دبیری‬, Moḥammad b. ِ ʿAbdolḫāleq Meyhanī (‫محمد بن عبد‌الخالق میهنی‬ ّ ) of the 6th/12th c. Independent treatise in prose in two parts: on titles and hierarchy in the royal court and then on letters and orders of the king. The important aspects of court letters is discussed, how letters are begun and how they are written from the king’s court and in the presence of the king. (ĀD) 2. Čahār maqāle / ‫( چهار مقاله‬Majmaʿ-on-navāder / ‫)مجمع ال ّنوادر‬, Neẓāmī ʿArūżī Samarqandī (‫ )نظامی عروضی سمرقندی‬552/1157. Book partly in prose. It is made up of four articles, the first of which addresses the nature of scribal work and the quality of a scribe who has attained perfection. (ČM) 3. Bayān-oṣ-ṣanāʿāt / ‫الصناعات‬ ّ ‫بیان‬, Ḥobīš b. Ebrāhīm b. Moḥammad Teflīsī (‫) ُحبیش بن ابراهیم بن محمد تفلیسی‬, second half of the 6th/12th c. Book partly in prose. Three of its twenty chapters address paint-making, mixing inks (ḥebr ☞ ‫ ِحبْر‬and medād ☞ ‫) ِمداد‬, that which is befitting a scribe, and various kinds of encrypted writing. (BS) 4. Rāḥat-oṣ-ṣodūr va āyat-os-sorūr / ‫‌الصدور و آیة السرور‬ ّ ‫راحت‬, Moḥammad b. ʿAlī ‫اوندی‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ال‬ ‫سلیمان‬ ‫‌بن‬ ‫ی‬ ‫عل‬ ‫بن‬ ‫محمد‬ b. Soleymān ar-Rāvandī ( ) 599–603/1202/3–1206/7. Part in prose and part in verse. After a general description of the formation of letters in geometrical shapes, it explains the rules governing the letters of the alphabet (in the Six Pens ☞ ‫) َاقْال ِم ِششگانه‬, from the letter alef (‫ )ا‬to the letter ye (‫)ی‬, in prose and in verse. (RṢ) 5. Nafāyes-ol-funūn fī ʿarāyes-el-ʿuyūn / ‫نفایس الفنون فی عرائس العیون‬, ʿAllāme Šams-od-Dīn Moḥammad Āmolī (‫)عالمه شمس‌الدین محمد آملی‬, first half of the 8th/14th c. Part in prose and part in verse. On carving the pen (☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫) َتر‬, ّ ‫) ُح ْس ِن َخ‬, and the general rules governing the letters. It the beauty of script (☞ ‫ط‬ also makes short mention of script-specific variation in letter shape. (Nafāyes) 6. Ādāb-ol-ḫaṭṭ / ‫‌آداب‌الخط‬, ʿAbdollah Ṣeyrafī (‫)عبدال َّله صیرفی‬, first half of the 8th/14th c. Independent treatise in prose (Figs. 1–2). Introduction; On the virtue of calligraphy; On the attributes of ink-making (☞ ‫ ;) ُم َرکَّب ☞ ِمداد‬On the reed pen and carving it (☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫ ;) َتر‬On the knowledge of script and the names of the scripts; On the principles of calligraphy and the limits of each

The Persian Treatises as Primary Sources

Figure 1

Ādāb-ol-ḫaṭṭ, by ʿAbdollah Ṣeyrafī, Islamic Consultative Assembly Library, Tehran, no. 15361

3

4

Figure 2

The Persian Treatises as Primary Sources

Ādāb-ol-ḫaṭṭ, by ʿAbdollah Ṣeyrafī, Islamic Consultative Assembly Library, Tehran, no. 1/9409

ِ ‫ ) ُح‬following Ebn-e Moqle; On the prinindividual simple letter (☞ ‫روف ُمف َْرد‬ ciples of two-letter compounds, compounds of more than two letters, compounds with elongation (☞ ‫) ِکشیده‌ ِنویسی‬, On the beginning and end of letters. Epilogue on holding the pen and how to guide it while writing. (Ādāb) 7. Dastūr-ol-kāteb fī taʿīīn-el-marāteb / ‫دستور الکاتب فی‌تعیین المراتب‬, Šams-e Monšī (‫)شمس منشی‬, 767/1365/6. Part in prose and part in verse. The first chapters cover the virtue of the scribe, his position and honor, a calligrapher’s etiquette, his tools and the where to write calligraphy. (Dastūr)

The Persian Treatises as Primary Sources

Figure 3

5

Oṣūl-o qavāʿed-e ḫoṭūṭ-e sette, by Fatḥollah Sabzevārī, Islamic Consultative Assembly Library, Tehran, no. 642

8. Resāle-ye taʿlīm mofradāt-e nastaʿlīq / ‫رساله‌ی تعلیم مفردات نستعلیق‬, falsely attributed to Mirʿalī Tabrīzī (‫)میرعلی تبریزی‬, the inventor of nastaʿlīq, first half of the 9th/15th c. (Fig. 3) A short, independent treatise on simple elements (☞ ‫) ُمف َْردات‬. Addresses the size of simple elements and how they are written. (Mofradāt) 9. Jōharīye / ‫جوهریه‬ , Sīmī-ye Neyšābūrī (‫ )سیمی نیشابوری‬837/1433/4. Independent ّ treatise in prose. This treatise covers the scribe and secretarial etiquette, describes the morals of temperament of scribes, pen carving (☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫) َتر‬,

6

Figure 4

The Persian Treatises as Primary Sources

Resāle-ye taʿlīm mofradāt-e nastaʿlīq attributed to Mirʿalī Tabrīzī, UCLA Library

ink (☞ ‫ ) ُم َرکِّب‬and paint making, and working with emulsified gold (☞ ‫) َز ْر َح ّل‬. ِ ‫ )ا ُْو‬is then The time and place the most suitable for calligraphy (☞ ‫تابت‬ َ ‫قات ِک‬ addressed. The treatise also makes mention of some calligraphy-related beliefs and superstitions. (J) 10. Oṣūl-o qavāʿed-e ḫoṭūṭ-e sette / ‫اصول و قواعد خطوط س ّته‬, Fatḥollah Sabzevārī (‫)فتح‌ال َّله سبزواری‬, mid-9th/15th c. Independent treatise in prose (Fig. 4). Introduction: On the virtue of script and when it was developed; On the calligraphy tools; On carving the pen and how to hold it. The main body: A presentation of simple elements (☞ ‫ ;) ُمف َْردات‬On the combination of letters; A description of the essential rules in calligraphy; On the characteristics of nasḫ (☞ ‫ ;)ن َ ْسخ‬On the characteristics of tōqīʿ (☞ ‫ )توقیع‬and reqāʿ (☞ ‫)رِقاع‬. Epilogue:

The Persian Treatises as Primary Sources

7

On the origins and Rules governing nasḫ-taʿlīq (☞ ‫ ;)ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬On the origins and rules of taʿlīq (☞ ‫) َت ْعلیق‬. (Oṣūl)

‫تحفة‬, Yaʿqūb b. Ḥasan-e Serāj-e Šīrāzī (‫یعقوب بن‬ 11. Toḥfat-ol-moḥebbīn / ‫‌المحبین‬ ّ ‫ )حسن سراج شیرازی‬858/1454. Independent treatise in prose and verse. This treatise was published in book form. Introduction to the virtue of calligraphy and the fact that calligraphy is the most noble of the arts. Introduction to the invention and writing of the scripts. Part 1. On the characteristics of the pen and quality of pen-carving (☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫ ;) َتر‬On the carving of the pen; On the pen, holding it, the angles at which it should be place on the paper and how to guide it while writing; On ink-making (☞ ‫ ;) ُم َرکَّب‬On the etiquette of calligraphy and its tools. Part 2. On calligraphic scripts; On the script names; On the principles ِ ‫) ُح‬ of calligraphy and the limits of each individual simple letter (☞ ‫روف ُمف َْرد‬ according to Ebn-e Moqle and Ebn-e Bavvāb; On the principles of combining ِ ‫ ;) ُح‬On the names of the letters based on their compound letters (☞ ‫روف ُم َرکَّب‬ ِ ‫ُح‬ shapes and on how they combine; On all the forms of simple letters (☞ ‫روف‬ ‫ ) ُمف َْرد‬and their best forms; On the starting point and ending point of letters; Mention of several points on calligraphy heard from the author’s calligraphy teacher. Epilogue: On the differences between some scripts; On some letters that do not have a particular shape. (TM) 12. Kāġaẕ, ranghā-ye alvān, morakkab, ḫaṭṭ-e avhal va mošajjer / ‫ رنگ‌های‬،‫کاغذ‬ ‫ خط اَو َهل و ُم َش ّجر‬،‫ مر ّکب‬،‫الوان‬, author unknown, 9th/15th c. Treatise partly in prose. It contains a short introduction on paper and then explains how to obtain primary and secondary colors. How to work with emulsified gold (☞ ‫) َز ْر َح ّل‬, ink-making (☞ ‫ ) ُم َرکَّب‬and the amounts of its different components. This is followed by a description of the ideal pen, and finally two coded scripts, avhal and mošajjer. (Kāġaẕ) 13. Ādāb-e ḫaṭṭ / ‫( آداب خط‬known as Ṣerāṭ-os-soṭūr /‫السطور‬ ّ ‫)صراط‬, Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī (‫‌‌ )سلطان‌علی‌مشهدی‬920/1513/4. Independent treatise in verse (Fig. 5). This is Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī’s most famous work and is comprised of more than three-hundred verses. A copy of the treatise in his own hand is in the Russian National Library in Saint Petersburg. The treatise begins with the link between Kufic (☞ ‫ )کوفی‬and ʿAlī, the sonin-law of the Prophet Mohammad. On the definition and virtue of calligraphy; On myself (the author) and beginning calligraphy practice; On becoming a ّ ‫ ;) ُح ْس ِن َخ‬On the pen; On ink-making calligrapher; On the beauty of script (☞ ‫ط‬ (☞ ‫ ;) ُم َرکَّب‬On paper and paper-tinting (☞ ‫ ;) َرنْگ‌آمیزی کا َغذ‬On making sizing (☞ ‫)آهار‬, applying it to paper and burnishing (☞ ‫ ;) ُم ْهره َز َدن‬On the penknife (☞ ‫) َقل َْمتَراش‬, carving the pen (☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫ ) َتر‬and nibbing (☞ ‫ ;) َقط َز َدن‬On the

8

Figure 5

The Persian Treatises as Primary Sources

Ādāb-e ḫaṭṭ, (Ṣerāṭ-os-soṭūr) by Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī, Russian National Library, St. Petersburg

The Persian Treatises as Primary Sources

9

Figure 6 Ādāb-ol-ḫaṭṭ, by Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī, UCLA Library

devisor of nasḫ-taʿlīq (☞ ‫ ;)ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬On the composition (☞ ‫ ) َت ْرکیب‬and principles of calligraphy; On transmitting calligraphy; On calligraphy instruction and teaching the calligraphic principles; On teaching the letters and the prohibition of making corrections (with a blade); On the temperament of a calligrapher and advantages of seclusion which is necessary for calligraphy. (ṢS) 14. Taʿlīm-ol-ḫoṭūṭ / ‫تعلیم الخطوط‬, ʿAlī b. Ḥasan-e Ḫōšmardān (‫)علی‌بن حسن خوشمردان‬ 926/1520. Independent treatise in verse. On the great masters; On the carving of the pen (☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫ ) َتر‬and ink-making (☞ ‫ ;) ُم َرکَّب‬On the rules governing simple elements (☞ ‫ ;) ُمف َْردات‬On the number of points (☞ ‫ ) َبنای ُحروف‬that ِ ‫ ;) ُح‬On the names of should exist between two compound letters (☞ ‫روف ُم َرکَّب‬ the letters; On compounds of more than two letters; On the beginning and end of letters; On how to hold the pen and put it to paper. (Taʿlīm)

10

The Persian Treatises as Primary Sources

15. Ādāb-ol-ḫaṭṭ / ‫آداب‌الخط‬, Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī (‫ )مجنون رفیقی هروی‬930/1523/4. Independent treatise in prose (Fig. 6). Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī was very skilled in čap-nevīsī (☞ ‫ )چپ‌نویسی‬and also claims to be the inventor of the so-called “twin” script (☞ ‫)توأمان‬. This work contains: On the inventors and of each of the scripts from ʿAlī, the Prophet’s son-in-law, to Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī; On the calligraphic tools; On ink-making (☞ ‫) ُم َرکَّب‬, emulsifying gold (☞ ‫) َز ْر َح ّل‬, making vermillion (☞ ‫) َش ْنگَ ْرف‬, the fineness of paper, the color pink, yellow and ultramarine (☞ ‫الج َو ْردی‬ َ ), recognizing (good) pens and how to determine the length of the tongue of the nib, the penknife (☞ ‫) َقل َْمتَراش‬, carving the pen (☞ ‫اشید ِن‬ َ ‫َتر‬ ‫) َقلَم‬, on the bamboo nibbling block (☞ ‫ ;) َقط َزن‬On points (☞ ‫ ) َبنای ُحروف‬and ِ ‫ ) ُح‬in nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫ ;)ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬On the shapes, names, simple letters (☞ ‫روف ُمف َْرد‬ ligatures (☞ ‫ ) َو ْصل‬and determining the importance of each letter; On ligatures, distances and elongations (☞ ‫) ِکشیده‌ ِنویسی‬. (ĀḪ) 16. Rasm-ol-ḫaṭṭ / ‫رسم الخط‬, Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī (‫ )مجنون رفیقی هروی‬940/1533/4. Independent treatise in verse. On the characteristics of good ink (☞ ‫) ُم َرکَّب‬, inkmaking and understanding its components; On preserving ink and keeping it free of contamination; On indicators of fine paper; On recognizing a (good) pen and how to carve one (☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫ ;) َتر‬On determining the best times for ِ ِ ‫ ;)ا ُْو‬On the conditions of the best places for calligraphy; calligraphy (☞ ‫تابت‬ َ ‫قات ک‬ On the point as the calligraphic unit of measurement (☞ ‫ ;) َبنای ُحروف‬On the characteristics of letters in s̱ols̱ (☞ ‫)ثُ ْلث‬, moḥaqqaq (☞ ‫ ) ُم َحقَّق‬and tōqīʿ (☞ ‫;)توقیع‬ ِ ‫ ;) ُح‬On simple elements (☞ ‫) ُمف َْردات‬. (RḪ) On compound letters (☞ ‫روف ُم َرکَّب‬ 17. Ḫaṭṭ va savād / ‫خط و سواد‬, Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī (‫)مجنون رفیقی هروی‬, after 940/1533/4. Independent treatise in prose. The beginning of the treatise which is titled Madād-ol-ḫoṭūṭ and is attributed to Mīrʿalī Kāteb has been printed many times. The main body of the treatise covers the following: On the scripts from geometric Kufic (☞ ‫ ) َم ْع ِقلی‬to nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫)ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬, their etymologies, and the straightness and roundness (☞ ‫ ) َسطْح و دور‬in each; On calligraphy masters and devisors and their rank form Ebn-e Moqle to Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī; On calligraphy etiquette: places of calligraphy written, recognizing vermillion (☞ ‫) َش ْنگَ ْرف‬, green rubiginous (☞ ‫ ) َزنْگار‬and gold inks, good paper and paper-tinting (☞ ‫) َرنْگ‌آمیزی کا َغذ‬, on knowing a pen and its nib (☞ ‫ ;) َق ِط َقلَم‬On the rules governing nastaʿlīq; On the shapes of each letter and their etymolّ ‫) ُح ْس ِن َخ‬, ligatures (☞ ‫ ) َو ْصل‬and elongations ogy; On the beauty of script (☞ ‫ط‬ (☞ ‫) ِکشیده‌ ِنویسی‬. (ḪS) 18. Golzār-e ṣafā / ‫گلزار صفا‬, ʿAbdollāh b. Maḥmud-e Ṣeyrafī Tabrīzī (‫عبدال َّله بن‬ ‫ )محمود صیرفی تبریزی‬950/1543/4. Independent treatise in verse. Only two pages are directly related to calligraphy. These are on attaining beauty of script (☞ ‫ُح ْس ِن‬

The Persian Treatises as Primary Sources

11

ّ ‫ ) َخ‬and the characteristics of paper in various regions that have a direct use in ‫ط‬ calligraphy. Then on paints and emulsification (☞ ‫) َز ْر َح ّل‬. (GS) 19. Dībāče-ye moraġġaʿ-e bahrām mīrzā ṣafavī / ‫دیباچه‌ی مرقع بهرام‌میرزا صفوی‬, Dūst-Moḥammad Gavāšānī Heravī (‫ )دوست‌محمد گواشانی هروی‬951/1544/5. Part of the introduction is in prose. The main body of the text names calligraphers of nasḫ (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْسخ‬and then speaks of masters of nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫)ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬, painters and illuminators (☞ ‫ ) ُم َذ ِّهب‬of the top library. (DMBŠ) 20. Qavānīn-ol-ḫoṭūṭ / ‫قوانین الخطوط‬, Maḥmūd b. Moḥammad (‫)محمود بن محمد‬ 960/1553. Independent treatise in prose. On recognizing a (good) pen; On carving the pen (☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫ ;) َتر‬On holding the pen, guiding it over the paper and the movements of the fingers; On the rules governing script on the basis the point ِ ‫َق‬ and circle (☞ ‫ ;) َبنای ُحروف‬On the calligraphic principles (☞ ‫واع ِد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی‬ ‫ )خوشْ ِنویسی‬and the limits of simple elements (☞ ‫) ُمف َْردات‬. Here he treatise also addresses the principles of s̱ols̱ (☞ ‫ )ثُ ْلث‬and moḥaqqaq (☞ ‫) ُم َحقَّق‬, and notes that he does not discuss nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬because Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī has already done so in verse. In the two-part conclusion he mentions the masters of the main scripts and then the masters of nastaʿlīq. (QḪ) 21. Dībāče-ye moraġġaʿ-e Šāh Tahmāsb / ‫دیباچه‌ی مرقع شاه‌تهماسب‬, Qoṭb-od-Dīn Moḥammad Qeṣṣeḫān (‫قصه‌خوان‬ ّ ‫‌ )قطب‬964/1556/7. Part of the introّ ‫‌الدین محمد‬ duction is in prose. It contains a brief history beginning with Ebn-e Moqle and Ebn-e Bavvāb through to scribes such as Amīr Manṣūr and Ḫāje Jebrīīl. The work continues on the subject of painting and painters. A copy of this work in the hand of Šāh Maḥmūd al-Nesābūrī (964/1556/7) is in the Malik National Library (no. 6022). (DMŠT) 22. Rīyāż-ol-abrār / ‫ریاض االبرار‬, Ḥoseyn ʿAqīlī Rostmadārī (‫)حسین علیقلی رستمداری‬ 979/1571/2. A book partly in prose. The chapters are as follows: Introduction on why Imam Ali invented to art of calligraphy; On nibbing (☞ ‫ ) َقط َز َدن‬and recognizing a (good) pen; On the rules governing s̱ols̱ (☞ ‫)ثُ ْلث‬, and moḥaqqaq (☞ ‫ ;) ُم َحقَّق‬On combining two letters; On the names and principles of each letter; On compounds with more than two letters; On the beginning and ending of the letters; On holding and guiding the pen; On the characteristics of nasḫ-taʿlīq (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬and taʿlīq (☞ ‫ ;) َت ْعلیق‬An introduction on taking ink (☞ ‫َّب َ‌ب ْرداری‬ ْ ‫) ُم َرک‬, ink-making (☞ ‫ ) ُم َرکَّب‬and on the scripts; On paper; On yellowing paper and miscellaneous; On the color red; On the color black; On dark blue; On green rubiginous (☞ ‫ ;) َزنْگار‬On brown; On blackish and green; On the ِ ‫ ;) َر‬On the color orange; On various colors. color pink; On bleu-vert (☞ ‫نگ َفریسه‬ ‫د‬ ‫ن‬ ‫دا‬ ‫آهار‬ An introduction to sizing (☞ َ ) An introduction to emulsifying gold and

12

The Persian Treatises as Primary Sources

Figure 7 Calligraphy Treatise by Moḥammad Amīn, Oriental Manuscripts Library Hyderabad, India, no. 282

silver (☞ ‫) َز ْر َح ّل‬, lapis lazuli (☞ ‫الج َو ْردی‬ َ ), green rubiginous (☞ ‫) َزنْگار‬, cinnabar (☞ ‫) َش ْنگَ ْرف‬, mica, orpiment, and red Hormuz clay. (Rīyāż) 23. Ādāb-ol-mašq / ‫آداب المشق‬, Bābāšāh Eṣfahānī (‫)بابا‌شاه اصفهانی‬, second half of the 10th/16th c. Independent treatise in prose (Fig. 7). This treatise has also been attributed to Mīrʿemād Qazvīnī and has been printed many times. The contents are as follows: On the fact that scribes should avoid using bad language; On the components of calligraphy: learned (☞ ‫ )ا َْجزای َت ْحصیلی‬and nonِ ‫َق‬ learned (☞ ‫ )ا َْجزای غی ِر َت ْحصیلی‬and the calligraphic principles (☞ ‫واع ِد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی‬ ‫ ;)خوشْ ِنویسی‬On mašq (☞ ‫) َم ْشق‬, types and etiquette; On carving the pen (☞ ‫اشید ِن‬ َ ‫َتر‬ ‫ ;) َقلَم‬On ink-making (☞ ‫ ;) ُم َرکِّب‬On paper preparation. A copy of this work in nastaʿlīq in the hand of Bābāšāh Eṣfahānī is in the University of the Punjab Library (Lahore, Pakistan). (AM) 24. Favāyed-ol-ḫoṭūṭ / ‫فواید الخطوط‬, Darvīš Moḥammad b. Moḥammad Boḫārī (‫ )درویش محمد بن محمد بخاری‬995/1587. Independent treatise in prose and verse. This is the longest independent treatise on calligraphy and is a combination of several treatises including Ādāb-ol-ḫaṭṭ (ʿAbdollah Ṣeyrafī), Rasm-ol-ḫaṭṭ (Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī) and others that are never credited. This work includes: Introduction; On the invention of calligraphy and its virtue and honor; On calِ ‫ ;)ا ُْو‬On the pen and everything related ligraphy tools and times (☞ ‫تابت‬ َ ‫قات ِک‬ to the pen; On recognizing and burnishing (good) paper. On the fathers and inventors of calligraphy; On simple (☞ ‫ ) ُمف َْردات‬and compound elements;

The Persian Treatises as Primary Sources

13

ِ ‫ ) ُح‬and points (☞ ‫) َبنای ُحروف‬, the characterisOn simple letters (☞ ‫روف ُمف َْرد‬ tics of nasḫ (☞ ‫( )ن َ ْسخ‬without reference to a specific script), s̱ols̱ (☞ ‫ )ثُ ْلث‬and ِ ‫ ) ُح‬in two moḥaqqaq (☞ ‫ ;) ُم َحقَّق‬On simple and compound letters (☞ ‫روف ُم َرکَّب‬ and three-letter words; On nasḫ-taʿlīq (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬and the rules governing its letters; On taʿlīq (☞ ‫ ) َت ْعلیق‬and its letters. Epilogue on general information of the art of calligraphy. (FḪ) 25. Ḥelīat-ol-kottāb / ‫حلیة‌ال ُک ّتاب‬, author unknown, end of the 10th/16th c. This is chapter thirty of the book Majmūeʿt-oṣ-ṣanāyeʿ. On how to treat paper so that ink does not bleed; On removing ink and oil from paper; On Yāqūt Mostaʿṣemī’s use of ink as he could write three lines that were all utmost clear; On removing soot; On another type of ink; On making beautiful ink (☞ ‫ ;) ُم َرکِّب‬On another type of ink; On mixing vermillion (☞ ‫) َش ْنگَ ْرف‬, green rubiginous (☞ ‫ ) َزنْگار‬and arsenic paint. (Ḥelīat) 26. Kašf-ol-ḥorūf / ‫کشف الحروف‬, ʿEnāyatollah Šūštarī (‫)عنایت‌ال َّله شوشتری‬, ‌11th/17th c. Independent treatise in prose. This work discusses pen-carving (☞ ‫اشید ِن‬ َ ‫َتر‬ ‫) َقلَم‬, the letters, letter-size, the letters in nasḫ (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْسخ‬and s̱ols̱ (☞ ‫)ثُ ْلث‬. (Kašf) 27. Resāle-ye Moḥammad Amīn / ‫رساله‌ی محمد امین‬, Moḥammad Amīn (‫محمد‬ ‫ )امین‬1139/1726/7. Independent treatise in prose (Fig. 8). On the principles of nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬and on calligraphers from the first inventors of the scripts to time of Moḥammad Šāh, the king of India. (RA) 28. Eḥyāʾ-ol-ḫaṭṭ / ‫إحیاء الخط‬, Zīn-ol-ʿābedīn b. Faṭḥʿalī Ḫoyī (‫زین‌العابدین بن فتحعلی‬ ‫ )خویی‬1322/1904/5. Independent treatise in prose. This short treatise discusses the rules governing Kufic (☞ ‫ )کوفی‬letters and compounds. It is the only treatise that addresses Kufic letter-shape and ligatures. It was printed in Tehran as an appendix to a lithograph Quran written in Kufic in the hand of the author. (Eḥyāʾ) 29. Kašf-oṣ-ṣanāyeʿ va maḫzan-ol-beżāʿe / ‫کشف‌الصنایع و مخزن‌البضاعه‬, Mīrzā Moḥammad Šīrāzī (‫ )میرزا محمد شیرازی‬1322/1904/5. A book partly in prose. Of thirty chapters, three are on ink-making (☞ ‫) ُم َرکِّب‬, bookbinding, marbled paper (☞ ‫ )ا َْبری‬and paint-making. (KṢ) 30. Poems of Moḥammad Hoseyn Seyfī Qazvīnī (ʿEmād-ol-kottāb / ‫)عماد‌ال ُک ّتاب‬, Moḥammad Hoseyn Seyfī Qazvīnī (‫)محمد‌حسین سیفی قزوینی‬, first half of the 14th/20th c. Part of a book on calligrapher poetry comprised of about fifty rhymed verses on an introduction of calligraphy, ink-making (☞ ‫) ُم َرکِّب‬, characteristics of a (good) pen, pen-carving (☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫) َتر‬, the baseline (☞ ‫)ک ُْرسی‬. (MSQ)

14

Figure 8

The Persian Treatises as Primary Sources

Ādāb-ol-mašq, Bābāšāh Eṣfahānī, University of Punjab Library, Lahore

‫ آب چین‬/āb-čīn/ ☞ ‫آب ُخ ْشک کُن‬ ‫ آب ُخشْ ک کُ ن‬/āb-ḫošk-kon/ to. lit. “water dryer”. A fuzzy paper used to dab ink dry.‎(FF s.v. ‫)آب ُخ ْشک کُن‬ ‫ آب َدوات کُ ن‬/āb-davāt-kon/‎ to. A small metal spoon, also called a qāšoq (‫)قاشُ ق‬ ِ or mesqāt (‫) ِم ْسقاة‬, with a narrow, drawn-out end used to insert liquid (☞ ‫آب‬ ‫ ) ُم َرکَّب‬into the inkwell (☞ ‫ ) َدوات‬and stir the wadding (☞ ‫)لیقه‬. ☞ ‫‌ َدوات آشور‬ ِ ‫َرن‬ ‫ آ ْب َر ْنگ‬/ābrang/ watercolor. ☞ ‫ْگ روحی‬ ‫آب َزر‬ ِ /āb-e zar/‎ illum. gold ink. Ink that is made from powdered gold and is used in calligraphy or illumination (☞ ‫) َتذْ هیب ☞ َز ْر َح ّل‬ ‫ آب طَال‬/āb-ṭalā/‎illum. gold ink. ☞ ‫آب َزر ☞ َز ْر َح ّل‬ ِ ‫آب ُم َرَّکب‬ ِ /āb-e morakkab/ call. Distilled water or a liquid such as essence of rose, sweet basil, oak-apple tannin (Yūsefī 1990: 22) or tea which is added to the ink (☞ ‫ ) ُم َرکَّب‬in the inkwell (☞ ‫ ) َدوات‬with a small spoon (☞ ‫)آب َدوات کُن‬ to replenish evaporated fluid. This temporarily lightens the ink such that if one adds water in the while writing, before resuming the wadding (☞ ‫)لیقه‬ should be stirred and squeezed until the ink sediments reintegrate with the liquid. Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī Rasm-ol-ḫaṭṭ (RḪ: 38) ‫دو می‌باید دوات ای پاک منظر‬ ‫کتابت را بدان از یک سیاهی‬ ‫سیاهی را شود غلظت پدیدار‬ ‫بباید ریخت بر وی اندکی آب‬ ‫همان ساعت نوشتن کی توانی؟‬ ‫دواتی دیگر آنگه سر گشادن‬ ‫سیاهیِّ دگر آسوده باشد‬ ‫وز آن یک کردن آغاز کتابت‬

‫… ولیکن کاتبان را در برابر‬ ‫ز بهر آن که چون پیوسته خواهی‬ ‫ضرورت چون کتابت گشت بسیار‬ ‫برای دفع آن بر قول اصحاب‬ ‫ولیکن آب چون در وی چکانی‬ ‫ضرورت یک زمان باید نهادن‬ ‫چو این را وقت غلظت بوده باشد‬ ‫درین یک نیز باید ریخت آبت‬

© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_003

16

‫آ‬ But in front of the scribes two inkwells they need, o you clear-sighted one! Because if you wish to keep doing calligraphy with one inkwell only, the ink will be too thick. As the masters say, in order to avoid this one has to add a little water. But once you add some water to the ink, you will not be able to start using it immediately. Therefore, one should wait some time. Meanwhile open another inkwell. When this one (begins to) thicken, the other will be settled. Now pour water in this one, and begin writing with the first one.

‫ آ ْبنوس‬/ābnūs/ ebony. A tree that belongs to the Diospyros family and grows in India, Madagascar, and on the island of Mauritius. Ebony’s dense, black wood is very valuable and has been used since ancient times in wood mosaْ ‫) َق‬. ics and for nibbing blocks (☞ ‫ط َزن‬ ‫ آراب ِْسک‬/ārābesk/ ☞ ‫ ِا ْسلیمی‬-‫َختایی‬ ‫آستَ ِر َب ْد َرقه‬ ْ /āstar-e badraġe/ bb. doublure. (Fig. 9) In a book, an ornamental lining of leather, silk (Thomson 2003: 347). Paper doublure or endsheets were often were bespeckled (☞ ‫ ) َافْشانْگَ ری‬or marbled (☞ ‫َص ّحافی ☞ )ا َْبری‬ (AMVR 96–97) ‫آستَر َبنْدی‬ ْ /āstar-bandī/ The process of making and adhering a doublure or endsheet (☞ ‫آست َ ِر َب ْد َرقه‬ ْ ). ☞ ‫َص ّحافی‬ ِ ‫) َرن‬ ‫ آل‬/āl/ morinda. A medium red similar to that of alizarin (☞ ‫ْگ ریشه‌ی روناس‬ produced from the root of the Aal or Indian Mulberry (Morinda tinctoria L.) and which is used as a textile dye and in medicines and inks. (Tabrīzī 1362š/1983 s.v. ‫ ;آل‬Barkeshli 2016: 60–61; BBP 39–43) ‫ آل ت َْمغا‬/āl-tamġā/ āl: red + tamġā: seal = red seal. An originally Turkic/ Mongolian expression that refers to the command and seal of the king. ☞ ‫َقرا َت ْمغا ☞ آلْتون َت ْمغا ☞ َت ْمغا‬ ‫ آلْتون ت َْمغا‬/āltūn-tamġā/ āltūn: gold + tamġā: seal = golden seal. Because seals were painted with gold paint, they were referred to as gold seals by the Moghuls. ☞ ‫َقرا َت ْمغا ☞ آل َت ْمغا ☞ َت ْمغا‬ ‫ آل ط َْمغا‬/āl-ṭamġā/ ☞ ‫آل َت ْمغا‬ ‫ آلومه‬/ālūme/‎alum. ☞ ‫زاج‬

17

‫آ‬

Figure 9 Doublure, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran, no. 2204

‫ آهار‬/āhār/ sizing, size. A liquid obtained from starch, gum tragacanth, gum arabic (☞ ‫ ) َص ْم ِغ َع َربی‬or gum alcea (Alcea rosea L.), etc. that is applied to textiles, paper, and other materials to make them stiff and glossy. Traditionally, āhār used in Islamic paper-making was made from a mixture of egg white, quince kernels, starch, and rice powder. Sizing was useful for calligraphers as it allowed them to correct mistakes by wiping or scraping away undesired marks or rough edges (IC 47; BBP 27–28, 48, 50, 119). ☞ ‫آهار دا َدن‬ ‫ آها ِر اِسپَ ْرزه‬/āhār-e esparze/ psyllium starch/sizing. The necessary amount of psyllium is added to water to release the mucilage. This takes two to three days, at which point paper is placed in the mucilage for one hour. The paper is then removed and allowed to dry in the shade before it is placed under a press to be smoothed. (Mojarrad-Tākestānī 1372š/1993: 24)

18

‫آ‬

‫پوست‬ ْ ‫ آها ِر‬/āhār-e pūst/ parchment size. Like gelatin, this protein compound is a kind of animal collagen. Parchment size is made from animal skins (parchment), not from other parts of the animal, and its purity is dependent on the quality of the parchment and method with which it was made. One of the approved formulas for making parchment size is to keep small pieces and cuts of parchment immersed in cold water for ten hours. These pieces are then removed from the water, and the water poured into a pot. Clean water with a neutral pH is then added until the container is three quarters full and kept over low heat but without boiling for eight hours. Water is occasionally added to prevent the solution from becoming too thick. The solution is then passed through a sieve and allowed to cool. The resulting solution is thick and can be kept in the refrigerator for several weeks until use, at which point it can be thinned and readied for use by adding warm water. Another formula given to obtain parchment gelatin requires soaking 100 grams of parchment (5mm square pieces) in one liter of water for twelve hours. Using a heating mantle to avoid direct contact with the heat source, this mixture is then cooked for 3–6 hours. It should not be brought to a boil. The resulting solution is then poured through a sieve and left to cool. The result is a gel that can be stored in the freezer or refrigerator until needed. To use, combine roughly one cup of the gel with fifteen cups of water and heat to 40°C. This should create a solution suitable for sizing. Egg whites were sometimes used to surface size the paper of some Islamic books. (Moqbel-Eṣfahānī 1380š/2001: 134) ‫ آهار دا َدن‬/āhār dādan/ to size. A sheet of handmade paper that has been formed and dried is referred to as lit. “sheet containing water” (varaq-e ābdār ‫ ) َو َرقِ ْآبدار‬meaning uncoated. Without sizing these thin sheets made of cork-like fibers are unable to receive ink, paint or any other liquid on their surface without spreading, becoming absorbed or ballooning. However, because printing inks are harder and more adhesive, uncoated paper is often preferred in printing. This was also the case for eight centuries among the Chinese who, like some artists today, use unsized paper. Uncoated paper absorbs water like a sponge because the cellulosic fibers of the paper are hydrophilic. The application of any type of liquid to a piece of uncoated paper wets first its fibers and then has a tendency to spread throughout the whole body of paper by capillary action, a property that exists between neighboring fibers. Sizing is achieved by way of a substance and process that gives paper the ability to repulse water, making it hydrophobic. Historically the word āhār was used to describe any kind of chemical substance that was added to the mortar and or pulp to increase the quality of the paper. Today,

19

‫آ‬

the goal is to select a substance that will seal the paper without having an adverse effect on the paper or what is written/painted on it. Adhesives are added to the pulp while it is being beaten and are referred to as sizing stock (āhār-māye ‫)آهار مایه‬. Others that are not used until after the paper has already been formed are called surface sizing (āhār-e saṭḥī ‫)آها ِر َسطْحی‬. Rice or wheat starch, the serums of various plants, gelatin, milk albumin, animal glue, compound resins and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) are some of the many substances that can be used for sizing. In the 19th c. rosin, an adhesive obtained from the oil produced while distilling crude turpentine, began to be used for sizing stock. Later paper was sized by immersing it in this liquid. The easiest way to size paper is to place one and a half sheets of gelatin in 0.5 liters of water until they have tripled in thickness. The mixture is then poured into an insulated heating pot and the heat gradually increased until the gelatin has dissolved in the water. This solution is added to 3.25 liters of water and mixed well. This is then poured into a large tub (larger than the paper that is to be sized). Five sheets of paper at a time are then floated and removed from in the sizing solution. The pieces of paper are gently pressed, separated and placed on a glass plate. (Moqbel-Eṣfahānī 1380š/2001: 130)

‫ آهار َز َدن‬/āhār zadan/ The earlier practice of applying a mixture of rice flour, starch, quince seeds, egg whites, and other substances to the paper until it permeated the body of the paper, rendering it soft and smooth so that a pen could easily glide over its surface. (Schimmel 1368š/1989: 76) ☞ ‫آهار دا َدن‬ ‫ آها ِر ِسریشُ م‬/āhār-e serīšom/ fish glue sizing. Isinglass, also known as fish glue, is an adhesive obtained from the swim bladders of fish and used for this type of sizing. The process is like that of starch sizing (☞ ‫شاسته‬ ْ ِ‫)آها ِر ن‬. Ṣayrafī, Golzār-e ṣafā (GS: 67) ‫فرقه‌ای رسم دگر بنهادند‬ ‫داده آهار به خاطر خواهی‬ ‫بنهادند که تا گشت لعاب‬ ‫ نمودند آهار‬،‫چون که شد نرم‬

‫بعضی آهار بدین‌سان دادند‬ ‫ز سریشم که بود از ماهی‬ ‫که سریشم سه شبان روز به آب‬ ‫نرم کردند به آتش در کار‬

Some apply starch (sizing)in this way, while others established a different method, using serīšom from fish. Remember, three days and three nights they placed it in water until it became mucilaginous. They softened it over fire, and when it was soft, they applied the starch (sizing).

‫ آها ِر َسطْحی‬/āhār-e saṭḥī/ surface sizing. ☞ ‫آهار دادن‬

20

‫آ‬

‫ آها ِر ُگ ِل َختْمی‬/āhār-e gol-e ḫatmī/ Alcea sizing. The correct amount of Alcea rosea (Hollyhock) flowers are allowed to soak in water for a minimum of 24 hours. Paper is then dipped in the resulting liquid and placed in the shade until it has set. Before drying completely the paper is burnished (☞ ‫) ُم ْهره َز َدن‬. At this stage, if more durable paper is desired, two or three sheets of sized paper can be pasted together. Eremurus glue should be used as this will prevent the paper from ballooning or becoming uneven. In the past, this method was used to make papier-mâché (☞ ‫) ُم َق ّوا‬, for which a press was used to smooth the paper once it had dried. (Mojarrad-Tākestānī 1372š/1993: 23) ‫ آهار مایه‬/āhār-māye/ sizing stock. ☞ ‫آهار دادن‬ ‫ آهار ُم ْهره‬/āhār-mohre/ The act of sizing paper and then burnishing it with a hard, polished stone (☞ ‫) ُم ْهره‬. (FF s.v. ‫)آهار ُم ْهره‬ ‫ آهار ُم ْهره‌دار‬/āhār-mohre-dār/ This describes paper that has been sized (☞ ‫آهار‬ ‫ )دادن‬and burnished (☞ ‫) ُم ْهره َز َدن‬. ‫شاسته‬ ْ ِ ‫ آها ِر ن‬/āhār-e nešāste/ starch sizing. White starch is dissolved in cold water and then brought to a boil. The solution is then stirred until it condenses. After it has boiled for bit, a drop of the solution is rubbed between two fingers. If the fingers stick together, the sizing has achieved the desired consistency; if not it must boil longer. With a cloth sack over the hand, the cooled sizing is spread gently over the surface of the paper. Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī’, Ādāb-e ḫaṭṭ (ṢS: 22) ‫یاد گیر این ز پیر پخته سخن‬ ‫پس بجوشش َدمی به آتش تیز‬ ‫صاف سازش نه نرم و نه محکم‬ ‫تا که کاغذ نیوفتد از جای‬ ‫مال آبی به روی او زنهار‬

‫ساز آهار از نشاسته کن‬ ‫اوال کن خمیر و آب بریز‬ ‫پس لعاب سرش بدو کن َض ْم‬ ‫رو به کاغذ بمال و سعی نمای‬ ‫کاغذ خویش چون دهی آهار‬

Begin the processing with starch, learn this from the experienced master! First prepare dough, add water and bring it over a hot fire to a boil. Remove then the top layer of mucilage, make it smooth, neither too soft nor too hard. Apply the starch onto the paper, ensuring that the paper does not move. Once you have applied the starch, make sure you splash some water on it. In his treatise Golzār-e ṣafā, Ṣayrafī wrote of the properties of starch sizing (GS: 66).

21

‫آ‬ ‫طلبم ناز تو هر دم به نیاز‬ ‫شیره‌ی گندم صافی باشد‬ ‫پس بپاالی و ببر باز به کار‬ ‫بشنو از من صفت آن دلکش‬ ‫نمد افگن به سرش یا کرباس‬ ‫قدحی آب همان پیش آور‬ ‫کاغذ ای سرو روان ِده آهار‬ ‫پس به آهار بمالش چاالک‬ ‫صفحه زین قاعده هموار شوی‬

‫ای مرا دیده و دل سوی تو باز‬ ‫حال آهار که وافی باشد‬ ‫طبع کن شیره‌ی گندم بسیار‬ ‫چونکه آهار کنی ای مهوش‬ ‫تخته‌ای پیش ِنه از روی قیاس‬ ‫قدحی پر کن از آهار دگر‬ ‫جزوی آهار به پنبه بردار‬ ‫َتر کُن از آب دگر پنبه‌ی پاک‬ ‫که همان ُمصلح آهار شوی‬

(O beloved), to (you) are my eyes and heart open, (yours) the affections I desire. With sizing sufficient and wheat extract strained, prepare, filter and use. How should you size, o you, with moon-like beauty? Hear from me the properties of its splendidness: a board take of proper size, in burlap wrap or felt. A dish with sizing fill, another bring with water. Cotton in the sizing dip smearing on the paper. A clean piece of cotton with water wet and over sizing wipe so that evenly spread the sizing and the paper smooth.

‫ آ ْینه‌لی‬/āyna-lī/ sc. mirrored. (Figs. 10–11) An expression used by Ottoman calِّ ‫ط َب ْرگَ ْردان ☞ ) َخ‬ ِّ ‫َخ‬ ligraphers for mirrored script (ḫaṭṭ-e āyeneī ‫ط آینه‌ای‬

Figure 10 Mirrored script by Moḥammad Šafīq, 1286/1869/70

22

Figure 11 ‘Bismallah’, Reza Abbasi Museum, Tehran

‫آ‬

Plate 1

“Simple elements of nastaʿlīq”. A page from the Golšan Album, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran

‫ َا ْبتَث‬/abtas̱/ abtas̱. The idiomatic term for the hejāʾī order of the Arabic alphabet beginning with alef (‫)ا‬, be‎(‫)ب‬, te (‫)ت‬, s̱e (‫)ث‬, etc. and ending with ye (‫)ی‬ (☞ ‫)ا َْب َجد‬. The order is as follows: ‫ا ب ت ث ج ح خ د ذ ر ز س ش ص ض ط ظ ع غ‬ ‫ف ق ک گ ل م ن و ه ی‬. To this Iranians added the letters pe (‫)پ‬, če (‫)چ‬‎že (‫)ژ‬‎ and gāf (‫( )گ‬FF s.v. ‫ )ا َْب َتث‬to accommodate sounds not present in the Arabic language. This is the current method of ordering the Arabic and Persian alphabets and sees letters with the same base forms placed together. (EI2, I, 97–98; AMT 3; AMTS 3; AMVR 11–13) ☞ ‫ا َْب َجد‬ ‫ َا ْب َجد‬/abjad/ abjad. (Figs. 12–16) The first of eight groups of letters in the Arabic alphabet in their abjadī order that are vocalized to form words usually used by Arabic speakers as mnemotechnical terms to remember their order. These eight words into which all Arabic letters are divided are ‫ ا َْب َجد‬/abjad/, ‫ َه َّوز‬/havvaz/, ‫ ُحطّی‬/ḥoṭṭī/, ‫ َکل ََمن‬/kalaman/, ‫ َس ْع َفص‬/saʿfaṣ/, ‫ َق َر َشت‬/qarašat/, ‫ثَ َخذ‬ /s̱aḫaẕ/, ‫ َضظ َْغ‬/żaẓaġ/. The first six of these groups are based on the ordering of the Phoenician, Hebrew, and Aramaic alphabets, while the last two groups are comprised of letters specific to the Arabic alphabet which has more letters. Like the Greeks, the Arabs had assigned a numeric value to each letter of the alphabet in abjadī order:‎ 1=‫ا‬ 2=‫ب‬

 6 = ‫و‬  7 = ‫ز‬

20 = ‫ک‬ 30 = ‫ل‬

 70 = ‫ع‬  80 = ‫ف‬

300 = ‫ش‬ 400 = ‫ت‬

 800 = ‫ض‬  900 = ‫ظ‬

3=‫ج‬ 4=‫د‬

 8 = ‫ح‬  9 = ‫ط‬

40 = ‫م‬ 50 = ‫ن‬

 90 = ‫ص‬ 100 = ‫ق‬

500 = ‫ث‬ 600 = ‫خ‬

1000 = ‫غ‬

5=‫ھ‬

10 = ‫ی‬

60 = ‫س‬

200 = ‫ر‬

700 = ‫ذ‬

These letters, referred to as abjad numerals, were used to represent numbers and were therefore also used in calculations. This type of calculation ِ ‫) ِح‬. Before is known as lit. “calculation with words” (ḥesāb-e jommal ‫ساب ُج َّمل‬ the advent of the Arabic numerals, abjad numerals were used in Islamic societies among astronomers and accountants, and was thus the norm in the formulation of both astrologic and mathematical tables. Today however,

© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_004

‫ا‬

figure 12 The letters in abjadī order of s̱ols̱ by Šōqī Efendī

figure 13 The letters in abjadī order of s̱ols̱ by ʿAlāʾ-od-Dīn Tabrīzī, written in Qazvīn in 1001/1592/3, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran

25

26

figure 14 The letters in abjadī order of s̱ols̱ by Šōqī Efendī

figure 15 The letters in abjadī order in nastaʿlīq by Mīrʿalī Kāteb, 944/1537/8, University of Istanbul Library

‫ا‬

27

‫ا‬

figure 16 The letters in abjadī order in nastaʿlīq by Ġolāmreżā Eṣfahānī, Reza Abbasi Museum, Tehran

with the exception of certain occult practices (such as in talismans, etc.), its use is limited to the composition of isopsephic chronograms (☞ ‫)مادِّه تاریخ‬ and by some for numbering in book introductions and tables of contents. (DF s.v. ‫ ;ا َْب َجد‬EI2, I, 97–98; AMT 3; AMTS 3; AMVR 11–13) ☞ ‫ا َْب َتث‬

‫ َا ْبر و باد‬/abr-o-bād/ ☞ ‫ا َْبری‬ ‫ َا ْبری‬/abrī/‎marbling. (Fig. 17) A type of paper tinting (☞ ‫ ) َرنْگ‌آمیزی کا َغذ‬that can be achieved with various colors. Preparation: Starch is dissolved in warm water to make a solution with a milk to yogurt-like consistency. This is then poured into a shallow tray roughly 4cm deep. Oil paint is thinned with a solvent such as paint thinner or gasoline, and in case of impurities, it is strained through a silk cloth. A few drops of the desired color or colors are added to the starch solution. The surface of the solution is then slowly stirred with something resembling a comb. Because oil paints always remain on the surface of a water-based solution, once they have taken on the desired form, a

28

figure 17 A page from Saʿdī’s Būstān with marbled borders by ʿAlī al-Ḥoseynī al-Kāteb, 932/1525/6, private collection in London

‫ا‬

29

‫ا‬

sheet of paper is gently placed onto the surface of the liquid and immediately removed. Ideally the whole surface of one side of the paper comes into even contact with the solution. Because the paper is dry it attracts the liquid and the paint floating on its surface is transferred to the paper. No traces of starch should remain on the surface and the paper is then hung up to dry. Writing: the surface of this paper is not suitable for writing because the oil paints used for marbling may prevent the ink from sticking to its surface. Therefore, prior to writing a damp cloth can used to clean the surface of the paper and then rub it with powdered softener to break down the oils. The paper should then be cleaned with a dry cloth. (MC 249–250; AMT 3; AMVR 156; IC 50–57; BBP 45–49, 112, 118, 122, 161)

‫ َا ْبزا ِر َمشْ ق‬/abzār-e mašq/‎☞ ‫لَوا ِز ِم َم ْشق‬ ‫ اِ ِّتصال‬/etteṣāl/‎☞ ‫َو ْصل‬ ّ ‫ُح ْس ِن َخ‬ ‫ اِ ْتمام‬/etmām/‎☞ ‫ط‬ ‫ اِجازه‬/ejāze/‎ sc. (Fig. 18) The ejāze script was popularized by Turkish calligraphers, who elaborated on tōqīʿ (☞ ‫ )توقیع‬by adding to it elements from the reqāʿ (☞ ‫ )رِقاع‬and nasḫ (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْسخ‬scripts, as well as serifs and embellishments. This intricate script is now widespread in Arabic countries. It is written with a pen with a sharp-angled moḥarraf (☞ ‫ ) ُم َح َّرف‬nib which is also used for tōqīʿ and s̱ols̱ (☞ ‫)ثُ ْلث‬. This scrip got its name, which literally means “permission” or “authorization”, because it was used by calligraphy masters to write certificates (☞ ‫ ) ِاجازه نامه‬awarded to students of calligraphy. (Faẓāʾelī 1370š/1991: 294; MC 332–334; AMVR 129) ‫ اِجازه نامه‬/ejāze-nāme/ call. certificate, authorization. The current tradition of giving and receiving authorization to receive a diploma as an indicator of having achieved an academic rank in university systems was historically one of the most important traditions and cultural phenomena in the fields of jurisprudence and literature among the elite. Although receiving this permission in Ḥadīs̱ and theology was necessarily more prevalent (Baġdādī 1357/1938/9: 317–26; Suyūṭī 1379/1959/60: 255–56, 265–67 sq. 3), it was common in all scientific and arts fields where there was a need for structured instruction, acquisition of knowledge and lessons from experienced professors. Artisans and tradesmen also granted a kind of work authorization to those who had achieved a level of mastery and skill in professions that required an apprenticeship and instruction. Authorization was granted by

30

‫ا‬

figure 18 Simple elements of ejāze (Baġdādī 1989: 75)

elders and leaders of the appropriate guild over the course of an ancient ceremony. According to custom – which has been noted in particular in texts on gentlemanliness and manners (Lévi-Provençal 1955: 120, 130) – candidates had to demonstrate their knowledge by listing the “patrons” of the respective guild or craft, ending with a religious leader or saint, in order to be admitted into the circle of master craftsmen. Sometimes however authorization from master craftsmen, along with a certificate from the town qāżī (religious judge) and confirmed by the town leader, was given to the apprentice artisan along with some money collected from the public (Ḏaḫā᾿īr, folio 75B). A tradition of receiving authorization for calligraphy developed among Ottoman calligraphers. Mention of a request for authorization is repeated in these calligraphers’ works, in particular on plaques and inscriptions (☞ ‫) َکتیبِه‬. This practice was never popular in Iranian calligraphic culture although some great masters gave verbal authorization to their students. The verbal method also existed in academia. Here authorization was not always written but rather granted through avowal and thus seen as sufficient and trusted (Yaḥaṣubī 1970: 88). Authorization given by Ottoman calligraphers amounted to permission for a student to sign his work. This could only be granted by a master to his own students, but did not necessarily grant prestige. According to the Naqšbandī Sufi sect, nothing calligraphy in particular, or art generally is absolute and one cannot attain prestige through association. Rather it is through every line of script that the quality and essence of calligraphy is revealed to the expert and discerning eye. This kind of authorization certificate, which contains valuable information on

‫ا‬

31 the order of masters, elites of this art and the keepers calligraphic legacy is rare. Because they were generally not compiled or collected most have been lost. In a collection compiled by Moṣṭafā Ḥelmī (1266/1849/50), the sole copy of which is kept in the Mōqūfe-ye ʿAlī Amīrī Library (no. 134) in Turkey, and a facsimile of which is available at the Central Library of Tehran University, Ḥelmī cited authorization documents that are invaluable to the study of the history and culture of calligraphy. These documents may not be one of a kind yet finding other such examples is not easy. In his book, Ḥelmī Ḥakkākzāde also presented the text of a prayer for granting authorization that expressed the candidate’s gratitude towards divine grace, past masters, and the sanctity and exalted spiritual value that the noble art of calligraphy had for society. (Baḫtīār 1383š/2004: 22; AMVR 51–56)

‫ ا َْجزای َت ْحصیلی‬/ajzā-ye taḥṣīlī/ call. learned components. The twelvefold calligraphic principles, which, according to the seventeenth-century author of Ādāb-ol-mašq, Bābāshāh Iṣfihānī, play a primary role during calligraphic ِ ‫ا َْجزای غی ِر َت ْحصیلی ☞ َق‬ instruction and practice. ☞ ‫واع ِد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ ِنویسی‬ ّ ‫ ا َْجزای َخ‬/ajzā-ye ḫaṭṭ/ call. script components. The general calligraphic ‫ط‬ principles are divided into two groups: learned principles (☞ ‫)ا َْجزای َت ْحصیلی‬ (requiring instruction), and non-learned principles (☞ ‫( )ا َْجزای غی ِر َت ْحصیلی‬not requiring instruction). ‫ ا َْجزای ِس ِّته‌ی َقلَم‬/ajzā-ye sette-ye qalam/ call. six components of the pen. The pen has six components: revealing the heart of the reed (☞ ‫) َف ْتح‬, creating the slit in the nib (☞ ‫)فاق‬, the lower corner of the nib (☞ ‫) ِان ْسی‬, the higher corner of the nib (☞ ‫) َو ْحشی‬, the heart of the reed (☞ ‫) َم ْغ ِز َقلَم‬, and the cut (☞ ‫) َق ِط َقلَم‬. ☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫َتر‬ ‫غیر َت ْحصیلی‬ ‫ ا َْجزای‬/ajzā-ye ġeyr-e taḥṣīlī/ call. non-learned components. ِ Calligraphic principles, that according to Yāqūt Mostaʿṣemī (610–698/1213– 1298) and Bābāšāh Eṣfahānī, are naturally acquired while learning the learned components (☞ ‫ )ا َْجزای َت ْحصیلی‬and therefore do not require direct instruction. These are “blackness and whiteness” (☞ ‫) َسواد و َبیاض‬, virtual ِ ‫) ُص‬, true ascent (☞‫عود َحقیقی‬ ِ ‫) ُص‬, and descent ascent (☞ ‫ تَشمیر‬/‎ ‫عود َمجازی‬ ِ ِ ِ (☞ ‫)نُزول‬. ☞ ‫َقواعد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ نویسی‬ ‫ اِدْمان‬/edmān/ Constantly and consistently practicing calligraphy. (FF s.v. ‫) ِا ْدمان‬

32

‫ا‬

‫ اِ ْرسال‬/ersāl/ call. exit/extension. lit. “release”. Made with a quick movement or flourish of the pen, allowing the pen to move freely at the ends of letters such as dāl (‫)د‬, re (‫)ر‬‎ and vāv (‫)و‬, and at the ends of words such as MR (‫)مر‬ and SR (‫)سر‬, and generally at the end of a line. Although extension flourishes exist in nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬as in other scripts, some calligraphy masters such as SoltānʿAlī Mašhadī believed otherwise (ṢS: 25): ‫ نیست قیل و مقال‬،‫کاندرین باب‬ ‫این بدان و ازین سخن بگذر‬

‫نسختعلیق را مجو ارسال‬ ‫هست ارسال در خطوط دگر‬

Do not search extension in nastaʿlīq, there is no debate on this. Extension exists in other scripts, know this and move on.

ِ ‫َق‬ ☞ ‫واع ِد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ ِنویسی‬ ‫ اَز َقلَم ُا ْفتا َدن‬/az qalam oftādan/ lit. “to fall from the pen”. To be left out of the text as a result of being forgotten during writing. (FF s.v. ‫)اَز َقلَم ُافْتا َدن‬ ‫باب کِتا َبت‬ ِ ‫ ا َْس‬/asbāb-e ketābat/ ☞ ‫لَوا ِز ِم َم ْشق‬ ‫ اِ ْسپَ َرک‬/esparak/ dyer’s rocket (Reseda luteola L.). A grass-like shrub with bright yellow flowers and smooth, green stems. All parts of this plant, in particular its roots and flowering tops, yield a good ink or dye. Relative to other colors, the yellow-colored ink that is obtained from this plant has a high degree of stability in light. Various types of dyer’s rocket, also known as yellow weed or weld, grow wild in Iran. Its ink has been used since ancient times and even today, despite the large number of color compounds available, it has not lost its importance due to its quality, abundance and price. Dyer’s rocket is commonly cultivated in Iran. (Moqbel-Eṣfahānī 1380š/2001: 119) ‫ ُا ْستاد‬/ostād/ call. master. An artist who has achieved mastery of the theoretical and practical realms of calligraphy through diligent work and striving for perfection. A master has his own style and produces nothing less than the finest and most excellent calligraphy. Due to his abundant experience, he possesses a deep understanding of the foundation and evolution of art, and calligraphy in particular and its various applications. Having prominent students is also considered a condition for master status. Masters are divided into classes based on their style, innovations, script, and pen type (There are seven types of calligraphy pens, or qalam that vary on the width of their nibs: qalam-e ġobār ☞ ‫ َق َل ِم غُبار‬, qalam-e mašqī ☞ ‫ َق َل ِم َم ْشقی‬, qalam-e ketābat

33

‫ا‬

☞ ‫تابت‬ َ ‫ َق َل ِم ِک‬, qalam-e katībe ☞ ‫ َق َل ِم َکتیبِه‬, qalam-e jalī ☞ ‫ َق َل ِم َجلی‬and qalam-e sarfaṣlī ☞ ‫) َق َل ِم َس ْر َف ْصلی‬. In this way are subject to review and comparison.

‫ اِ ْس ِتجازه‬/estejāze/ ☞ ‫ِاجازه نامه‬ ‫ اِس ِت ِکتاب‬/esteketāb/ to write, to write calligraphy. (Farhang s.v. ‫) ِاس ِت ِکتاب‬ ‫ اِ ْس ِت ْنساخ‬/estensāḫ/ to reproduce (a text). To make a copy from another copy. The more correct the source-copy and the closer its historical proximity to the poet or author, the greater the literary and academic value of the work copied from it. ‫ اِ ْستی ِل ایرانی‬/estīl-e īrānī/ ☞ ‫شیوه‌ی ایرانی‬ ‫ اِ ْسالمی‬/eslāmī/ ☞ ‫ِا ْسلیمی‬ ‫ اِ ْسلیمی‬/eslīmī/ illum. (Figs. 19–26) One of two categories of the arabesque (☞ ‫ َختایی‬-‫ ) ِا ْسلیمی‬patterns that make up Iranian/Islamic illumination (☞ ‫) َتذْ هیب‬. As opposed to ḫatāyī (☞ ‫ ) َختایی‬patterns, which are abstractions of plants, eslīmīs are mainly seen as abstractions of the animal world. Perhaps due to its affinity to Kufic letters, painters in the 8th–9th/14th–15th c. maintained that the first Shiite Imam Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib invented eslīmī patterns, deriving them from Kufic (☞ ‫)کوفی‬. Moreover eslīmī was understood to be the same as eslāmī, i.e. “Islamic”, as opposed to ḫatāyī designs (☞ ‫) َختایی‬, which were largely influenced by Chinese patterns that were widly used in Iran from the Mongol period. Eslīmīs are based mainly on repeating linear patterns of spirals and interlacing foliage and tendrils. A spiral pattern is the main compositional structure on which the eslīmī motifs and leaves are placed or from which they grow. Secondary spirals branch out from each spiral, which then become the base for yet further spirals. The base form of eslīmī is called “simple-eslīmī” (eslīmī-ye sāde ‫لیمی ساده‬ ِ ‫) ِا ْس‬. Other types of eslīmī include one that is inspired by the slithering of the snake or the shapes of clouds and is thus called either “snake-eslīmī” (eslīmī-ye mārī ‫لیمی ماری‬ ِ ‫ ) ِا ْس‬or “cloud-eslīmī” (eslīmī-ye abrī ‫لیمی ابری‬ ِ ‫) ِا ْس‬. Eslīmī-ye mārī or abrī has an independent form and does not sit on a baseline called a band (☞ ‫) َب ْند‬. Another type inspired by the shape of a dragon’s mouth is called “dragon-mouth-eslīmī” (eslīmī-ye dahān-aždarī ‫ ) ِا ْسلیمی دهان‌اژدری‬and “leafyeslīmī” (eslīmī-ye bargī ‫لیمی برگی‬ ِ ‫ ) ِا ْس‬consists of shapes similar to those of “ḫatāyī-leaf” (barg-e ḫatāyī ‫) َختایی ☞( )برگ ختایی‬.

34

figure 19 Eslīmī-ye sāde (Nīkbīn 1383š/2004: 30)

figure 20 The spiral baseline with the pattern of eslīmī-ye dahān-aždarī (Ḥaṣuri 1381š/ 2002: 109)

‫ا‬

35

‫ا‬

figure 21 Eslīmī-ye mārī/abrī

Another from of eslīmī, called “ivy-leaf eslīmī” (eslīmī-ye pīčak-dār ‫لیمی‬ ِ ‫ِا ْس‬ ‫پیچک‌دار‬ َ ) is composed of a body, which can be a simple eslīmī, or any another type with additional ivy-leaf shaped elements. Sometimes two or more types of eslīmī are combined to form a map or chart called naqše (‫)نَقْشه‬. (DF s.v. ‫ )نَقْشه‬In illumination eslīmī can be used alone or in combination with ḫatāyī patterns. When the two are used together in an eslīmī-ḫatāyī pattern some scholars interpret this as a visual rendering of the Sufi-inspired idea of cosmic unity (Komaroff 2014). Combined eslīmī-ḫatāyī patterns usually adhere to very strict rules. For example, the spiral baselines of the ḫatāyī (☞ ‫ ) َب ْند‬are not allowed to cross the main body of the eslīmī. In addition, ḫatāyī patterns are always depicted spatially lower than eslīmī as inspired by the Sufi mystical doctrine that places plants below animals in the hierarchy of beings. Fig. 24 shows the seperation and different level of both eslīmī and ḫatāyī bands in a combined pattern. The baseline of bands of ḫatāyī are shown with thick lines in the linkd and middle image, completed in the right image. (MC 202, 242, 254, 247, 271, 298, 304; AMVR 10, 179–183, 185, 287; PPB 109–110, 115, 123) ☞ ‫َتذْ هیب‬ ☞ ‫ ِا ْسلیمی ☞ َختایی‬-‫َختایی‬

‫لیمی اَبری‬ ‫ اِ ْس‬/eslīmī-ye abrī/ ☞ ‫ِا ْسلیمی‬ ِ ‫لیمی َبرگی‬ ‫ اِ ْس‬/eslīmī-ye bargī/ ☞ ‫ِا ْسلیمی‬ ِ

36

‫ا‬

figure 22 Eslīmī-ye bargī (Nīkbīn 1383š/2004: 56)

figure 23 Eslīmī-ye pīčak-dār (Nīkbīn 1383š/2004: 56)

‫ا‬

37

figure 24 A combined eslīmī-ḫatāyī pattern. The separation and different level of both eslīmī and ḫatāyī bands (ʾĀqāmīri 1386š/2007: 21–22)

‫پیچک‌دار‬ ‫ اِ ْس‬/eslīmī-ye pīčak-dār/ ☞ ‫ِا ْسلیمی‬ ِ َ ‫لیمی‬ ‫خَتایی‬-‫ اِ ْسلیمی‬/eslīmī-ḫatāyī/ illum. Arabesque. (Fig. 27) The term arabesque, used in European terminology as a generic term for a plethora of essentialy different ornaments in Islamic and Iranian art, has never been well differentiated. In the context of Iranian/Islamic design, notably in Iranian/ Islamic illumination (☞ ‫) َتذْ هیب‬, Arabesque reffers to two main patterns of biomorphic motif types, each of which has its own unique characteristics and follows different strick rules. These two are ḫatāyī (☞ ‫) َختایی‬, plant floral based-inspired motifs, and eslīmī (☞ ‫) ِا ْسلیمی‬, animal based-inspired motifs. Even where both motifs generally occur in combination with one another and together form a compositional unit, they are not mixed and the baseline of each arabesque group remains separate from the other. Arabesques are important ornamental patterns in Islamic and Iranian design that have been used in almost all apparitions of architectural design, painting, illumination, carpets, tile-making, plasterwork, ceramics, faience, weaving, engraving, woodcarving, bookbinding, etc. (Kühnel 1957: 558–561). The wide-spread use of arabesques can be designated as the most characteristic and important feature of all Islamic and Iranian ornamental art forms (Ettinghausen 1977; Akimushkin and Ivanov 1979; MC 225–251; AMVR 10, 181). The distinctive character of arabesques as unique to Islamic design and decorative art can be defined in the denaturalised vegetal ornament consisting forms of shoots, and split or bifurcated leaves on inorganic tendrils (Riegl 1893; Kühnel 1949; 1977). The leaves may be flat or curved, pointed, round or rolled, smooth or rough, feathered or pierced, but never isolated

38

figure 25 Kufic eslīmī stone inscriptions, Minaret on the Qobbat-ol-Eslām Mosque, Dehli

‫ا‬

39

‫ا‬

figure 26 Stone mosaic with eslīmī patterns, ʾEʿtemād-ud-Daule Tomb, Agra, India

and must always be joined to the stalk for which they serve as an adjunct or a terminal. The origin of arabesques can be traced back to the rich diversity of Iranian Pre-Islamic, most notably Zoroastrian and Sasanian art as well as late Antique and early Byzantine art, foliate scrollwork, architectural forms and scrolling vines (e.g. mosaics and stuccos), and textiles, etc. There are also hints of Chinese influences in some motifs. (MC 202, 242, 254, 247, 271, 298, 304; Komaroff 2014; AMVR 181) The mode of the arabesque is based not only on abstract, repeated patterns of branches, leaves, flowers and sometimes fruits that merely echo their natural forms, but also abstracted forms inspired from the animal world. Arabesque patterns have been made of geometric shapes or twisting lines and can include abstract forms of animals or even humans. Branch designs can rise and fall in repeating waves or can be twisted together; sometimes they pass through one leaf and emerge from a second, but they always remain connected to leaves. Leaves may at times be straight, at times curved, round, pointy or twisted; they may have holes or two stems, at times they are smooth or may be rough, but they are never separated from a branch. Arabesque designs always follow two general principles: first, elements of the original form are symmetrically repeated to create total balance and harmony within the overall image, and second, the entire surface area of

40

‫ا‬

figure 27 A combined eslīmī-ḫatāyī pattern (Ḥaṣuri 1381š/2002: 41)

the image is filled with these repeated, symmetrical and ornamental forms. The balanced twists and turns of arabesque designs do not evoke agitation, but rather, have a calming effect on the viewer. Already behind most of the arabesque patterns, whether ḫatāyī (☞ ‫ ) َختایی‬or eslīmī (☞ ‫) ِا ْسلیمی‬, there is a spiral pattern on which the motifs and leaves are placed or from which they grow. Secondary spirals branch out from each spiral, which then become the base for yet further spirals. While the both categories of patterns can be used seperatley, in the Iranian and Islamic decoration, it is very common that motifs of both pattern types appear together in an eslīmī-ḫatāyī pattern. Hence, in such combined designs they follow strict rules. For example, bands (☞ ‫ ) َب ْند‬the spiral baselines of the ḫatāyī, are not allowed to cross the main body of the spiral base of eslīmī. In addition, the ḫatāyī patterns are always depicted spatially lower than eslīmī. In Fig. 24 the double-lined bands of eslīmīs are clearly distinguishable from the single-lined bands of the ḫatāyīs. ☞ ‫ ِا ْسلیمی‬/‫َختایی‬ The simply-designed arabesques from the period of the Umayyad Caliphate advanced under the Abbasids and Muslim rule in Spain, until finally they reaching perfection under the Seljuks, Fatimids and Moors. From this time on a multitude of arabesque designs became so prevalent throughout the Muslim world that a historical classification of the countless types, or their division on the basis of nation or country is virtually

41

‫ا‬

impossible. The gradual transformation and appeared of the so-called unique patterns of Islamic arabesques has been dated to between the late 1st/7th and 4th/10th c. Three stages in the development of vegetal designs, including the arabesque, can generally be detected (Bear 1998; Komaroff 2014): a formative phase, from the 1st/7th c. to the 4th/10th c. which is found in paterns from the central Islamic lands extending from southern Spain to Afghanistan (Herzfeld 2002; Kühnel 1977); a period of integration, characterised by a geometric regularity, from the 4th/10th to the 7th/13th c.; and a final stage, from the 8th/14th to the 11th/17th c., characterised by the integration of East Asian plants motifs (Komaroff 2014). Iranian, Arab, Turkish, and Indian draftsmen were all skilled in the creation of arabesque designs, and for centuries they competed with one another to create ever more types and patterns. In the fifteenth century, arabesque design found its way to European countries through Spain, and since then European draftsmen have also advanced in the creation of arabesque patterns. (AMVR 10; 179–183; 185; 287)

‫لیمی دهان‌اژدری‬ ‫ اِ ْس‬/eslīmī-ye dahān-aždarī/ ☞ ‫ِا ْسلیمی‬ ِ ‫لیمی ساده‬ ‫ اِ ْس‬/eslīmī-ye sāde/ ☞ ‫ِا ْسلیمی‬ ِ ‫لیمی ماری‬ ‫ اِ ْس‬/eslīmī-ye mārī/ ☞ ‫ِا ْسلیمی‬ ِ ‫ َاشْ باع‬/ašbāʿ/ ☞ ‫ِاشْ َبع‬ ‫ َاشْ َبع‬/ašbaʿ/ Letters or words that are “fatter” than normal. ‫ اِشْ پون‬/ešpūn/ 1 leading. A narrow strip of lead that was used in a printing press ِ ) on a page. 2 A unit of meato establish interlinear space (☞ ‫فاصله‌ی َسط ْ ْرها‬ surement to define the length of a line of text. (FF s.v. ‫) ِاشْ پون‬ ‫ َاشْ خار‬/ašḫār/ 1 A name for the base black zāj (☞ ‫ )زاج‬used in dyeing. 2 Ammonium chloride, a saltlike substance used by whitesmiths. (Tabrīzī 1362š/1983 s.v. ‫)اَشْ خار‬ ّ ‫ُح ْس ِن َخ‬ ‫ ا َْصباغ‬/aṣbāġ/ ☞ ‫ط‬ ّ ‫الح َخ‬ ‫ط‬ ِ ‫ اِ ْص‬/eṣlāḥ-e ḫaṭṭ/ script touch-up. Elimination of imperfections in the script and removal of excess ink (☞ ‫ ) ُم َرکَّب‬with a blade or another tool. Solṭān Ἁli Mašhadī, Ādāb-e ḫaṭṭ (ṢS: 27)

42

‫ا‬ ‫نزد استاد نیست سنجیده‬ ‫که به اصالح باشد آن دربند‬ ‫دور می‌باش لیک از الحاحش‬ ‫جراح‬ ّ ‫کاتبان را چه کار با‬

‫ پسندیده‬،‫نیست اصالح خط‬ ‫مد و حرفی چند‬ ّ ‫گر ُب َود ریش‬ ‫بالضرور از قلم کن اصالحش‬ ّ ‫نکنی از قلمتراش اصالح‬

For a master, it is inappropriate to touch up the calligraphy. Should a madd or some letters be defective and in need of touching up, use by all means the pen, but do not overdo it. Do not touch up with a penknife, surgery is not the job of the scribe!

‫ ُاصول‬/oṣūl/ call. lit. “principles”. The tenth calligraphic principle. According to Bābāšāh Eṣfahānī, the author of Ādāb-ol-mašq, by learning nine of twelve calligraphic principles (composition ☞ ‫ َت ْرکیب‬, baseline ☞ ‫ک ُْرسی‬, proportion ☞ ‫ناسب‬ ُ ‫ َت‬, thinness ☞ ‫ َض ْعف‬, thickness ☞ ‫ق َُّوت‬, straightness ☞ ‫ َسطْح و ُدور‬, roundِ ‫ ُص‬, true descent ☞ ‫ )نُزولِ َحقیقی‬a ness ☞ ‫ َسطْح و ُدور‬, virtual ascent ☞ ‫عود َمجازی‬ quality of work will automatically have been attained which in reality is this ِ ‫َق‬ tenth principle. Any calligraphic work with this principle is of value. ☞ ‫واع ِد‬ ‫َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ ِنویسی‬ ِ ‫َق‬ ‫ ُاصو ِل خوشْ ِنویسی‬/oṣūl-e ḫōšnevīsī/ ☞ ‫واع ِد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ ِنویسی‬ ِ ‫َق‬ ‫ ُاصو ِل َدوازْ َده گانه‬/oṣūl-e davāzdah-gāne/ ☞ ‫واع ِد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ ِنویسی‬ ‫ اِ ْع ِتدا ِل َقلَم‬/eʿtedāl-e qalam/ call. A reed pen that is straight and not bowed and whose diameter is as close to equal as possible at both ends. ‫ اِ ْعجام‬/eʿjām/ Punctuation of the letters of the Arabic alphabet with their respective points. Eʿjām sometimes refers also to the restriction of letters or words with diacritical marks (☞ ‫ ) ِا ْعراب‬or points. ‫ اِ ْعراب‬/eʿrāb/ diacritical marks. Diacritics that represent vowels, i.e. fatḥe (◌َ), żamme (◌ُ) and kasre (◌ِ), referred to in Arabic as šekl (‫) ِشکْل‬. Vocalized words in Arabic are called maškūl (‫) َم ْشکول‬. Also called ḥarakāt (‫) َح ِرکات‬. (MC 219– 234; AMVR 144–145, 288–290) ‫ َا ْفشان‬/afšān/ illum. An adjective describing manuscripts whose pages are speckled with tiny spots, within which golden or colored hues are visible. (DF s.v. ‫ ; َافْشان‬AMT 8) ☞ ‫َافْشانْگَ ری‬

‫ا‬

43

‫شان ُغبار‬ ِ ‫ َا ْف‬/afšān-e ġobār/ illum. lit. “gold dust sprinkling”. Gold sprinkling (☞ ‫ ) َافْشانْگَ ری‬that is so small and fine that it resembles dust. ☞ ‫َافْشانْگَ ری‬ (PPB 45–50) ‫ َا ْفشا ْنگَ ری‬/afšāngarī/ illum. gold sprinkling. (Fig. 28) A type of decoration by which paper is embellished with sprinklings of gold. This type of paper was first imported to Iran from China and then produced by Iranians themselves beginning in the early fifteenth century. Techniques were elaborated under the Timurids (881–911/1370–1506) and their successors in the early Safavid Period (Blair 2000: 30). While in some cases whole books were written on gold sprinkled pages, this treatment was more common in albums (☞ ‫) ُم َر َّقع‬ or on page borders. Sprinkles could range in size from small to large, the smallest being very tiny, dust-like specks called zarafšān-e ġobār (☞ ‫ْشان‬ ِ ‫َز ْر َاف‬ ‫)غُبار‬. Larger specks appear as flecks of gold or color in the paper. Large black flecks that appear occasionally in books on the text itself and or on the border are silver sprinkles (☞ ‫ )سیم َافْشانی‬that have oxidized over time (Bayānī 1353š/1974: 23; Jokar/Ġaffārpūrī 1396š/2017). The various types of gold speckles have been named according to their size (AMT 8; Jokar/Ġaffārpūrī 1396š/2017). ☞ ‫ْشان َپ ْرپَشه‌ای‬ ِ ‫ َزر َاف‬/‎ ‫ْشان ِچ ْش ِم موری‬ ِ ‫ َز ْر َاف‬/‎ ‫ْشان َز َرک‬ ِ ‫ َز ْر َاف‬/‎ ‫ْشان لینه‬ ِ ‫َز ْر َاف‬ (BBP 45–51) ‫ َا ْقالم‬/aqlām/ pens. Arabic broken plural of qalam (☞ ‫) َقلَم‬. ‫ َا ْقال ِم ِستّه‬/aqlām-e sette/ ☞ ‫َاقْال ِم ِششگانه‬ ‫ َا ْقال ِم َس ْبعه‬/aqlām-e sabʿe/ ☞ ‫َهفْت َقلَم‬ ‫ َا ْقال ِم ِششگانه‬/aqlām-e šeš-gāne/ call. the Six Pens. These six scripts, which were prevalent beginning in the 4th/10th c., are thought to have arisen out kūfī (☞ ‫ )کوفی‬and old nasḫ (☞ ‫)ن َ ْسخ‬. 1. s̱ols̱ (☞ ‫ )ثُ ْلث‬has a straightness measure of four dāngs (☞ ‫ )دانگ‬and roundness (☞ ‫ ) َسطْح و دور‬of two dāngs; used for instruction and practice. 2. Nasḫ (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْسخ‬is a function of s̱ols̱ and is reserved for the Quran, exegesis and Ḥadīth. 3. Moḥaqqaq (☞ ‫ ) ُم َحقَّق‬has a straightness measure of four-and-a-half dāngs and a roundness measure of oneand-a-half dāngs. It is used to write odes and poetry. 4. Reyḥān (☞ ‫ )رِیحان‬is a type of muḥaqqaq and is used to write Quran manuscripts (☞ ‫ ) ُم ْص َحف‬and prayers. 5. Tōqīʿ (☞ ‫ )توقیع‬has a straightness and roundness measure of three dāngs; used for orders and charters. 6. Reqāʿ (☞ ‫ )رِقاع‬is a type of tōqīʿ used

44

‫ا‬

figure 28 A page from Saʿdī’s Būstān by ʿAlī al-Ḥoseynī al-Kāteb with gold sprinkled borders, 932/1525/6, private collection in London

45

‫ا‬

for correspondences and letters. (Bayānī 1353š/1974: 21) Unknown author (Ānandrāj s.v. ‫) َاقْال ِم ِش ْشگانه‬

‫به غایت خوب و دلکش می‌نویسد‬ ‫رقاع و ثلث هر شش می‌نویسد‬

‫نگار من خط خوش می‌نویسد‬ ‫ نسخ و ریحان‬،‫مناشیر و ُم َحقَّق‬

My beloved writes exceedingly well, manāšīr and moḥaqqaq, nasḫ and reyḥān, reqāʿ and s̱ols̱, all six he/she writes. AMVR 251

‫ َا ْقال ِم َه ْفتگانه‬/aqlām-e haft-gāne/ ☞ ‫َهفْت َقلَم‬ ّ ‫ُح ْس ِن َخ‬ ‫ اِکْ مال‬/ekmāl/ ☞ ‫ط‬ ‫ َالْ َع ْبد ُالْفانی‬/alʿabd-ol-fānī/ lit. “the mortal servant”. An appellative used by the ِ ‫لَ َق‬ author of a book or letter an an expression of humility. ☞ ‫المذْ ِنب‬ ُ .☞‫ب‬ ِ ‫خوشْ نویس‬ ‫َلم ْذ ِنب‬ ُ ‫ ا‬/almoẕneb/ guilty, transgressor. An appellative written by an an author or calligrapher at the end of a piece or book before his name to show humilِ ‫لَ َق‬ ity. ☞ ‫الع ْبد َالْفانی‬ َ . ☞ ‫ب خوشْ ِنویس‬ ‫موأمرات‬ َّ ْ‫ َال‬/al-mōʾammarāt/ call. An expression used for the fourfold scripts prevalent in the early Islamic period: madanī, makkī, baṣrī and kūfī (☞ ‫)کوفی‬. (Māyel Heravī 1353š/1974: 88) ‫ ُامُّ الْ ُخطوط‬/omm-ol-ḫoṭūṭ/ sc. lit. “mother of scripts”, a designation ascribed to the s̱ols̱ script (☞ ‫ )ثُ ْلث‬because it provided the base for the straightness and roundness (☞ ‫ ) َسطْح و ُدور‬and narrowness of form found in other Islamic scripts. (Māyel Heravī 1353š/1974: 70) ‫حان َقلَم‬ ِ ‫ اِ ْم ِت‬/emteḥān-e qalam/ ☞ ‫َت ْج ُربه‌ی َقلَم‬ ‫ اِ ْمضاء‬/emżāʾ/ signature. 1 A mark or symbol written on the back of a mandate or deed. (Farhang s.v. ‫ ) ِا ْمضاء‬2 The name of the writer or calligrapher and the date the book or piece was completed. ☞ ‫َر َقم َز َدن‬ ِ ‫َرن‬ ‫ اَنار‬/anār/ ☞ ‫ْگ اَنار‬ ‫ اَناری‬/anārī/ ☞ ‫َختایی‬

46

figure 29 A page from the pañcatantra by Bahrāmšāhī, in the hand of MoḥammadHoseyn Šīrāzī known as Kāteb-os-solṭān, 1295/1878, Malek National Library, Tehran

‫ا‬

47

‫ا‬

figure 30 Colophon from the Ḫājū-ye Kermānī Mas̱navī, Mīrʿalī b. Elyās Tabrīzī al-Bāvarčī, 798/1395/6, British Library, no. 18113

‫ َا ْنجامه‬/anjāme/ colophon. (Fig. 30, Plates 8, 13, 16, 20) In manuscripts, colophons appear at the very end of a book, segment or sheet of paper and usually contain the name of the work, the date and where it was completed. (Afshar 2003; MC 180–184, 318–330) ☞ ‫َت ْرقیمه‬ ‫ َا ْن َزروت‬/anzarūt/ A bitter resin used mostly in ointments. Its Arabicized form is ʿanzarūt (‫)عنزروت‬. (Tabrīzī 1362š/1983 s.v. ‫) َان َْزروت‬ ‫ اِنْسی‬/ensī/ call. With the pen on the paper, the left side of the nib is shorter than the right side. This shorter side is called the ensī or sinn-ol-yosrā (‫ری‬ ٰ ‫) ِسنُّ‌ال ُی ْس‬. The higher right side is the vaḥšī (☞ ‫) َو ْحشی‬. ʿĀlī (LD s.v. ‫)انسی‬ ‫این هر دو جهان انسی و وحشی است قلم را‬

‫ رقم را‬،‫زد کاتب صنع از پی ایجاد‬

The Scribe of creation created two worlds. In the same manner, the pen has two different sides: the ensī (left side of the nib) and vaḥšī (right side of the nib). In creating an upstroke (☞ ‫) ُصعود‬, more pressure is on the ensī than on the vaḥšī. The ensī does touch the paper when the line is at half nib (☞ ‫ )نیم‌ َقلَم‬or nib point (‫) َو ْحشی ☞( )نیش َقلَم‬‎

‫ اِ ْن ِطباع‬/enṭebāʿ/ printing. To be written, painted; imprinted, printed. (pl. ‫) ِان ِْطباعات‬. (FF s.v. ‫) ِان ِْطباع‬ ‫ َا ْنگ‬/ang/ illum. (Fig. 31) 1 A type of painting in the margins of manuscripts (☞ ‫ )ن ُْسخه‌ی َخطّی‬or broadsides (☞ ‫ ) ِقطْعه‬similar to historiated painting (☞ ‫)ت َ ْشعیر‬. First, a floral design is drawn on a piece of paper and cut out with a penknife to create a stencil. This stencil is then placed on the border of the page and the desired color is splattered over it with a kind of handmade

48

figure 31 A moraqqaʿ page by Moḥammad Hoseyn al-Tabrīzī, University of Istanbul Library

‫ا‬

49

‫ا‬

airbrush (☞ ‫)فو َتک‬. In the past this effect was created by striking the end of a paint-covered paintbrush causing it to splatter. The stencil is removed and the design outlined gold (☞ ‫) َقل َْمگیری‬. Sometimes it is left un-outlined.‎ 2 An eslīmī (☞ ‫ ) ِا ْسلیمی‬or gol-o-morġ (☞ ‫ ) ُگل و ُم ْرغ‬design was used to create a historiated border on the page. After painting within the design, it was outlined in gold.‎3 As in the first two a design was created, however, instead of painting within the design, only the space around it was painted as in illumination (☞ ‫) َتذْ هیب‬. After the paint had dried, the design was then filled in with gold.‎ 4 A toranj design (☞ ‫ )ت َُرنْج‬painted onto and then cut out of a piece of colored paper and pasted to a lighter-colored piece of paper (☞ ‫) َقطّاعی‬. This is then outlined in gold. (Mojarrad-Tākestānī 1372š/1993: 88) ☞ ‫َعکاسی‬

‫ اِ ْن ِمجاج‬/enmejāj/ The dripping of ink from the nib (☞ ‫ ) َق ِط َقلَم‬of a pen to correct corners or curves or for aesthetic reasons. ِ ‫وقات کِتا َبت‬ ‫ ُا‬/ʾōqāt-e ketābat/ times for calligraphy. It is important that calligraphy is carried out in suitable weather conditions. Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī, Rasm-ol-ḫaṭṭ (RḪ: 39) ‫به غایت معتدل باید هوایی‬ ‫ز گرمی خشک گردد کاغذ نرم‬ ‫ تر‬،‫ ریش و انگشت از عرق‬،‫شود خط‬ ‫ز کاغذها شود ّتری پدیدار‬ ‫کتابت نیز از کاغذ کند نشو‬ ‫ لیک وقت چاشتگاهی‬،‫زمستان‬

‫ولی بهر کتابت بی دوایی‬ ‫برای آن که گر باشد هوا گرم‬ ‫سیاهی را شود غلظت فزون‌تر‬ ‫وگر دارد هوا سردی بسیار‬ ‫سیاهی هم ز بدرنگی شود حشو‬ ‫به تابستان نکو باشد پگاهی‬

For any flawless writing, the weather must be very moderate. If the weather is too hot, subtle paper will dry in the heat, ink will thicken, and script becomes smudged and fingers will become moist from sweat. If the weather is too cold, the result will be moist paper. The ink will change its color and become worthless, and the writing may soak the paper. In summer the best time is at daybreak, in winter at noontime.

plate 2

A page from the Golšan Album, poem and calligraphy by Mīrʿalī Kāteb, 944/1537/8, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran

‫بادامک‬ /bādāmak/ illum. lit. “little almond”. Bādāmak is the shape formed َ when two arabesque (☞ ‫ َختایی‬-‫ ) ِا ْسلیمی‬čangs (☞ ‫) َچنگ‬, or “hooks” (which are shaped like curved teardrops) are put together so that one čang is curved upwards and the other downwards. During the Safavid period, painters and illuminators (☞ ‫ ) ُم َذ ِّهب‬used this design around the borders of illuminated book covers, calligraphic works and paintings. (Afshar 1357š/1978: 13f.) ‫ بازو َبنْدی‬/bāzū-bandī/ ☞ ‫َقطْع‬ ‫بامزه‬ َ /bāmaze/ ☞ ‫َمزه‬ ِ ‫ بر‬/barg-e bādbezanī/ ☞ ‫َختایی‬ ‫گ بادب َِزنی‬ ِ ‫ َب ْر‬/barg-e bīdī/ ☞ ‫َقل َْمتَراش‬ ‫گ بیدی‬ ِ ‫ َبر‬/barg-e ḫatāyī/ ☞ ‫َختایی‬ ‫گ خَتایی‬ ِّ ‫َخ‬ ‫ َب ْگَر ردان‬/bargardān/ ☞ ‫ط َب ْرگَ ْردان‬ ‫ َب ْز َرک‬/bazrak/ ☞ ‫رو َغ ِن َب ْز َرک‬ ‫ بُ ْستان َا ْفروز‬/bostān-afrūz/ Amaranth. A red, scentless flower that in Persian is also called Peacock’s crown (tāj-e ḫorūs ‫تاج ُخروس‬ ِ ) and Josef’s flower (gol-e ِ ِ‫) ُگل‬. Some kinds of Amaranth can be used as an herb similar yūsef ‫یوسف‬ to basil, and in Persian some varieties of basil are also called bostān afrūz (‫)بُ ْستان َافْروز‬. (Tabrīzī 1362š/1983 s.v. ‫)بُ ْستان َافْروز‬ ‫ بُ ْس ِتج‬/bostej/bostaj/ frankincense. Bostej is the Arabicized form of pestag (‫) ِپ ْس َتگ‬, a resin also known as frankincense. Some believed that frankincense was resin from the pistachio tree (Tabrīzī 1362š/1983 s.v. ‫ )بُ ْستج‬as pistag is also the Middle Persian word for pistachio (NP peste ‫( ) ِپ ْسته‬CPD: 69). ‫ بَ ْس ِتمان‬/bastemān/ binding medium. Binding mediums such as resin, glue, honey, grape extract and melon juice were traditionally used to increase the adhesiveness of pigments, and gold and silver ink (☞ ‫) َز ْر َح ّل‬. © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_005

52

‫ب‬

‫ ب ِْس ِملَه‬/besmele/ An abbreviated expression referring to the phrase ‫بسم ال َّله‬ ‫الرحمن الرحیم‬ ّ , “in the name of God, Most Merciful, Most Compassionate”. This is recited before each sūra except the ninth and also as a part of the daily prayers. It is also commonly rendered in calligraphy. ‫ َبطانه‬/baṭāne/ undercoat, primer, backing. The application of an undercoat or primer with a special kind of clay is necessary in many types of traditional arts. (Qomī 1366š/1987: 129) ☞ ‫واشور َزنی‬ ‫ َب َغلی‬/baġalī/ ☞ ‫َقطْع‬ ‫ َبقَم‬/baqam/ logwood (Haematoxylon campechianum L.). An Arabicized version of Persian bakam (‫) َب َکم‬, a red-colored wood used as a dye. (Tabrīzī 1362š/1983 s.v. ‫) َب َقم‬ ‫ َبنای ُحروف‬/banā-ye ḥorūf/ letter base. In calligraphy instruction dots (noqṭe ‫ )نُقْطه‬or half-dots turned to form diamonds are placed next to letters to measure their length and width, the distance between letters and from the baseline (☞ ‫ )ک ُْرسی‬in a process called noqṭe-goẕārī (‫)نُقْطه ُگذاری‬. As such the the dot is a unit of measurement and is considered by some to be the buildingِ ‫) ُح‬. For example, the letter alef (‫ )ا‬is three block of simple letters (☞ ‫روف ُمف َْرد‬ ‫لیق‬ ‫ع‬ points long in nastaʿlīq (☞ ْ ‫ )ن َ ْس َت‬and seven points long in s̱ols̱ (☞ ‫)ثُ ْلث‬. Dots are roughly square with sides equal in length equal to the width of the nib and are created when the pen is held at a 90° angle. It is important to keep in mind that the diagonal of the square-shaped dot is longer than its sides and therefore the width of the nib. Dots created with a pen of the same nib-width are not all the same. Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī, Rasm-ol-ḫaṭṭ (RḪ: 39) ‫که خط از نقطه مأخوذ است حاصل‬ ‫بداند هر که او اهلِ تمیز است‬ ‫ افاعیل و تفاعیل‬،‫چو اندر شعر‬

‫ کامل‬،‫فنون فضل‬ ‫بدان ای در‬ ِ ‫چو دانستی که اصل خط چه چیز است‬ ‫ نقطه میزان است بی قیل‬،‫که در خط‬

Know, o (you), knowledgeable in the arts, that calligraphy is derived from dots. Once you have understood the basis of writing, every discerning person will know that the function of the dot in calligraphy is like that of meter for poetry. The circle, into which three shapes are drawn – a triangle, a square and a pentagon – is also considered by some to be the basis for the shapes of letters. According to the circle theory, circular letters (☞ ‫ ) َدوایِر‬in calligraphy

53

‫ب‬

are considered to be half of the circumference of the circle, while the length of alef is equal to its diameter. The shapes of all the letters are justified by the circle and the three shapes within it. (AMVR 144–145; 286)

‫ َبنایی‬/banāyī/ ☞ ‫َم ْع ِقلی‬ ‫ َبنْد‬/band/ illum. Symmetrical curved lines, like spiral baselines that form the basis of both ḫatāyī and eslīmī designs in illumination (☞ ‫ ) َتذْ هیب‬as well as historiated painting (☞ ‫)ت َ ْشعیر‬. See. ‫ َختایی ☞ ِا ْسلیمی ☞ َختایی‬-‫ِا ْسلیمی‬ ‫ بوم‬/būm/ 1 Any primed surface for painting such as a canvas, etc. 2 The painted surface of pages in a book. 3 Paper. (FF s.v. ‫)بوم‬ ‫ بو ِم َز َرک‬/būm-e zarak/ zarak canvas. Fine strands of gold and silver that can be bought from craft stores are called zarak. These are broken up into tiny pieces and poured into something like a saltshaker with holes large enough for the pieces to pass through. Sandarac varnish (☞ ‫ )رو َغ ِن َکمان‬is then applied to a prepared canvas and zarak is sprinkled over it. After it has dried, oil is applied again and again zarak is added and allowed to dry. This is repeated several times at which point enough oil is applied to make the surface completely smooth. Any varnish with the same effect as sandarac varnish can be used e.g. as a sealer, etc. (Mojarrad-Tākestānī 1372š/1993: 34) ‫ بوم کِش‬/būm-keš/ to. canvas/stretching pliers. A tool with a broad head resembling pliers that is used to stretch the edges of a canvas around the bars, or canvas frame, before being nailed in place. (Karāmatī 1370š/1991 s.v. ‫)بوم ِکش‬ ‫ بو ِم َم ْر َقِش‬/būm-e marqeš/moraqqaš/ marcasite canvas. Marcasite (marqaš), or Iron Sulfide (FeS2), is a mineral said to be found in abundance in the Anārak district in central Iran, south of Tehran. To make a marcasite canvas, a canvas is colored and varnish (sandarac ☞ ‫ )رو َغ ِن َکمان‬applied, in which ground marcasite is sprinkled. This is repeated several times. Once the canvas has dried, it must be sanded until completely smooth. Varnish is then reapplied and allowed to dry. The canvas is sanded once again, and varnish is applied until the surface is glossy and smooth. Before the surface can be painted it must first be de-greased and primed with a layer of thinned-down glue (☞ ‫واشور َزنی‬ ). A more modern technique is to rub the surface with a potato as ْ taught by Master Maḥmūd Farščīyān. For this method, a potato is cut in half and rubbed over the canvas, which is then wiped cleaned with a damp rag at which point the canvas is ready for use. (Mojarrad-Tākestānī 1372š/1993: 31)

54

‫ب‬

figure 32 A verse written in nastaʿlīq by ʿAbdorrašīd ad-Deylamī, National Museum of Iran, Tehran

‫ َبیاض‬/bayāż/ final draft. lit. “whiteness”. The equivalent of NP pāk-nevīs “final draft” in today’s administrative language. This is in contrast to savād (☞ ‫) َسواد‬, lit. Ar. “blackness”, a sketch or rough draft, in NP pīš-nevīs. Beyhaqī writes: ‫بونصر قلم دیوان برداشت و نسخت کردن گرفت و مرا پیش بنشاند تا بیاض می‌کردم‬. Būnaṣr picked up the pen of the tribunal and began to write and sat me down in front [of him] to write the final draft (‫)بیاض میکردم‬. Later on the same page he writes: ‫ امروز بیاض کنند‬٬‫گفت سوادی کردم‬. He said I made a draft (‫)سوادی کردم‬ [and] today they will rewrite it (‫( )بیاض کنند‬Tārīḫ: 148). (Anvarī 1373š/1994: 173) ☞ ‫ َسواد و َبیاض‬/‎‫َقطْع‬ ‫ َبیاضی‬/bayāżī/ ☞ ‫َقطْع‬ ‫ ِب ْیت‬/beyt/ verse. (Fig. 32) In traditional calligraphy instruction, the first template from which to practice words is in the form of a simple verse. A verse is a unit of poetry composed of two hemistichs (☞ ‫ ) ِم ْص َرع‬with the same meter (vazn ‫ ) َو ْزن‬e.g.: Ṣāʾeb (Qahremān 1375š/1996: 2831) ‫در چشم خود سوار ولیکن پیاده‌ایم‬

‫ به میدان اختیار‬،‫چون طفلِ نی سوار‬

[Like a child riding a long reed, pretending it is a horse, in the field of free will we assume that we are riding but we are indeed on foot]

55

‫ب‬

‫بیر ْنگ‬ َ /bī-rang/ lit. “without color”. A simple, preliminary design that was executed by the artist with pencil, etc. and then outlined (☞ ‫) َقل َْمگیری‬. ‫ بینِ ُسطور‬/beyn-e soṭūr/ illum. The white space left between the lines of text. Ta‌ʾs̱īr Tabrīzī (Ta‌ʾs̱īr Tabrīzī 1373š/1994: 427) ‫شرط است میانجی غرض آلوده نباشد‬

‫چون بین سطوری که ز مکتوب سفیدست‬

Just as the space between the (lines of) writing is white, an intermediary must also be purified of ulterior motives.

plate 3

A page from a Quran written in moḥaqqaq by Aḥmad b. Sohrevard (d. 741/1340/1)

ّ ‫ پاشانی َخ‬/pāšānī-ye ḫaṭṭ/ Writing largely and loosely to increase the end vol‫ط‬ ume of the work. Ta‌ʾs̱īr Tabrīzī (Ta‌ʾs̱īr Tabrīzī 1373š/1994: 95) ‫پاشانی خط‌ها سبب حجم کتاب است‬

‫افزونی قدرست پریشانی خاطر‬

Too much pressure on pen while writing reflects distress and too much splashing in the script will make the writing more voluminous.

‫ پاشْ نه‌ی ُحروف‬/pāšne-ye ḥorūf/ call. The final segment of letters that can end on ِّ ‫ )ک ُْرسی ☞( ) َخ‬are called the pāšneh, or “heel” of the letter. the baseline (‫ط ک ُْرسی‬ ‫ پاشْ نه‌ی َقلَمو‬/pāšne-ye qalamū/ heel. The part of the hairs of a paintbrush that are joined in the ferrule (☞ ‫) َگلویی َقل َْم مو‬. (Karāmatī 1370š/1991 s.v. ‫نه َقلَمو‬ ٔ ْ‫)پاش‬ ‫ پاکْ ِنویس‬/pāk-nevīs/ final draft. A text that is written from a proof-read and corْ /‎‫ ُم ْس َّو ِده‬/‎‫َسواد‬ rected rough or intermediate draft. (FF s.v. ‫☞ )پا ْک ِنویس‬‎‫پیش ِنویس‬ ☞ ‫َبیاض‬ ‫ِش ُم َرَّکب‬ ِ ‫ پاالی‬/pālāyeš-e morakkab/ refining the ink. The removal of the wadding (☞ ‫ )لی ِقه‬from the inkwell (☞ ‫ ) َدوات‬and its subsequent cleaning. Once the wadding has dried, ink (☞ ‫ ) ُم َرکَّب‬is poured into the inkwell and writing can begin. Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī, Rasm-ol-ḫaṭṭ (RḪ: 38) ‫بپاالید دوات خویشتن را‬ ّ ‫که از وی دور سازد‬ ‫غل و غش را‬

‫ دانا‬،‫ولی باید به هر چل روز‬ ‫بشوید پاک و صافی لیقه‌اش را‬

But every wise man must clean the inkwell every forty days and wash the wadding thoroughly to remove any residue or impurity.

‫ ُپ ْخته‬/poḫte/ call. lit: “cooked, mature”. An adjective describing good calligraphic handwriting. Calligraphic script that has achieved a harmony through steady practice and has reached maturity can be described as such. The writing of Mohammad Ḥoseyn Šīrāzī in Kalīleh va Demne which is kept in the Malik National Library could be described as poḫte. ☞ ‫خام‬ © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_006

58

‫پ‬

‫ َپ ْرداز‬/pardāz/ illum. An artistic technique in traditional Iranian painting by which tiny hatches or points are used to depict beards and shading on faces, landscapes, and clothes, etc. This differs from cross-hatching in that the the lines are never crossed yet neither are they parallel. Depth is created by the shift in density of the dots or hatches. There are various kinds of pardāz: 1. Creating points using a “blunt” round brush (☞ ‫) َقلَموی ُدم کُل‬. The size of the painting has to be taken into account when selecting the size of the brush used. 2. While making points with a blunt round brush, slight pressure is applied so that both a dot and a line are created. 3. Creating dots with a brush whose point is still intact was historically the most common variation and had numerous applications in portraiture, in particular when depicting beards. These points would appear cone-shaped if enlarged. 4. Creating very short, slightly curved lines, a variation of which is used to depict the ground and grass and uses longer curved lines that also vary in direction depending on the direction the grass is supposed to face. Some artists use dry brushes for this technique while others prefer wet ones. In an effort to lend individuality to their works and to make the face appear more delicate, ِ ‫ ) َرن‬in combination with a bit of the some artists use watercolor (☞ ‫ْگ روحی‬ ِ ‫) َرن‬. This color used for the face in portraiture; others use gouache (☞ ‫ْگ جِ ْسمی‬ means that the shadows are subtly painted in on the face with very diluted watercolor (or gouache) prior to pardāz. Because the traditional medium in classical Persian painting was gouache for both painting and pardāz, pardāz was traditionally done with gouache, while watercolor was used for outlinِ ‫ َرن‬/‎‫ْگ روحی‬ ِ ‫َرن‬ ing (☞ ‫) َقل َْمگیری‬. (Mojarrad-Tākestānī 1371š/1992: 2) ☞ ‫ْگ جِ ْسمی‬ ‫ ُپ ْر َر ْنگ‬/por-rang/ ☞ ‫َغلیظ‬ ‫ َپ ْرگار‬/pargār/ to. drafting compass. An instrument used to draw circles and measure distances particularly on maps. A basic compass is made of two equally-long arms that are joined by a hinge and end in a sharp point. Sometimes one of the arms has a pencil sleeve and a fine point protrudes only from the other. (DF s.v. ‫َص ّحافی ☞ ) َپ ْرگار‬ ‫ پُشْ ت‌ َب ْرداری َقلَم‬/pošt-bardārī-ye qalam/ ☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫َتر‬ ‫ پُشْ ت‌کوبی‬/pošt-kūbī/ bb. backing. In bookbinding, backing is the process of creating a shoulder (☞ ‫ )شانه‬that takes place after rounding (☞ ‫ ) ِگ ْرد َک ْر َدن‬and before attaching the doublure (☞ ‫آست َ ِر َب ْدرقه‬ ْ ) to the cover boards. In order ْ to curve the spine (☞ ‫ ) َعطف‬in hand-binding, the sewn quires (☞ ‫ ) ُج ْزو‬are hammered backwards and forwards from the middle of the textblock using

59

‫پ‬

figure 33 Examples of panjes

a mallet (☞ ‫) ُم ْشته‬. This creates a ridge on each side of the spine to which the cover boards are attached. Backing helps maintain the curvature of the textblock spine (☞ ‫)شیرازه‬, preventing pages from gradually popping forward with use. ☞ ‫َص ّحافی‬

‫ پُشْ ت ِنویسی‬/pošt-nevīsī/ endorsement, endorsing. Writing on the back of a document so that it can be transferred to another (person). (FF s.v. ‫)پُ ْشت‌ ِنویسی‬ ☞ ‫َهرن ِویسی‬ ْ ‫ظ‬ ِ ‫ َپ ْن ْج دا ْن‬/panj-dāng-e mašqī/ ☞ ‫دانْگ‌های َم ْشقی‬ ‫گ َمشْ قی‬ ‫ َپنْجه‬/panje/ lit. “quintuple, fist”. (Fig. 33) A symbol such as a rosetta that was placed after every fifth verse in Quran manuscripts. This was used to keep count before the numbering of verses. Also called ḫamse (‫) َخ ْمسه‬. ☞ ‫َدهه‬ ‫ َپنْط‬/panṭ/ point. A unit of measurement equal to 1/72 in (0.0139 in/0.35mm) used for fonts in typesetting. (Karāmatī 1370š/1991 s.v. ‫) َپ ْنط‬ ‫پوست‬ ْ /pūst/ bb. skin, hide. Goatskin/Morocco leather (tīmāj ‫)تیماج‬, sheep leather (mīšan ‫میشن‬ َ ) and shagreen/chagreen (sāġarī ‫ )سا َغری‬from horse or onager hide are leathers that were used for various kinds of bookbindِ ِ‫)ج‬, burnt (☞ ‫لد سو ْخت‬ ِ ِ‫ )ج‬and mosaic or ِ ‫لد‬ ings. These could be simple (☞ ‫ساده‬ ِ inlaid (☞ ‫)جِ لد ُم َع َّرق‬. Of these, the most durable of these is shagreen, followed by goatskin and then sheep leather. (Māyel Heravī 1369š/1990: 62) In Iran

60

‫پ‬ goatskin was traditionally the most commonly used leather. (Haldane 1989: 263; PPB 122–123) ☞ ‫َص ّحافی‬

ِ ‫پوس‬ ‫ت گِ ْردو‬ ْ /pūst-e gerdū/ walnut hulls. Green walnut hulls can be used to make ِ ‫َرن‬ a brown ink and dye used for paper tinting (☞ ‫) َرنْگ‌آمیزی کا َغذ‬. ☞ ‫ ُم َرکَّب‬/‎ ‫ْگ‬ ِ ِ ‫پوست گ ْردو‬. ‫ َپ ْهنای َقلَم‬/pahnā-ye qalam/ ☞ ‫َد ِم َقلَم‬ ِ ‫َرن‬ ِ ‫پوس‬ ‫ پیاز‬/pīāz/ ☞ ‫ت پیاز‬ ْ ‫ْگ‬ ‫ پیرآموز‬/pīr-āmūz/ sc. (Fig. 34) One of the most important types of eastern, or Iranian or Persian-style Kufic (☞ ‫ )کوفیِ ایرانی‬scripts is pīr-āmūz. Kufic pīr-āmūz (kūfī-ye pīr-āmūz ‫)کوفی پیرآموز‬, a modern term, is mentioned in some early sources such as Ebn al-Nadīm’s al-Fehrest, and the script today has elements that make this name suitable as well, nonetheless the connection between pīr-āmūz and this type of Kufic script is uncertain. The most important feature of this beautiful script is the separation of all the letters even if they are connecting letters. Instead, these connecting letters are written apart and joined with hair-thin lines so fine that careful attention is required to see them. With regards to the letters’ visual and geometric appearance, pīr-āmūz marks a departure from traditional Arabic Kufic (☞ ‫)کوفی‬: 1. The space between the letters within a word in Arabic Kufic have disappeared in pīr-āmūz and even the non-connecting letters in a word are written very closely together, e.g. when alef (‫ )ا‬precedes lām (‫ )ل‬anywhere in the word the space between the two appears as a mere sliver of white. 2. Letters that in Arabic Kufic are rounded, in pīr-āmūz appear angular, mostly triangular, square or variously quadrilateral in shape, e.g. the head of the mīm (‫)م‬, vāv (‫)و‬, fe (‫ )ف‬and qāf (‫)ق‬. In other words, pīr-āmūz is based on straight lines and angular planes; rounded arcs only appear in LĀ (‫)ال‬, the “circle” in ʿeyn (‫ )ع‬and ḥe (‫ )ح‬in final position, and occasionally in the head of ṣād (‫)ص‬. 3. The letter nūn (‫ )ن‬and the dāman (☞ ‫دامن‬ َ ) of sīn (‫)س‬, ṣād (‫ )ص‬and ye (‫)ی‬ are completely different from Arabic Kufic and bear greater resemblance to the edge of a blade. 4. The uppermost main line in many letters e.g. ḥe (‫)ح‬, dāl (‫ )د‬and re (‫)ر‬, is parallel to the center of many letters in the form of oblique lines, which, in the extension of the script, form forty degree angles with the baseline (☞ ‫)ک ُْرسی‬. This feature has led to beautiful compositions of connecting and non-connecting letters by calligraphers. The balance and symmetry of countless triangular planes, good ratio of narrow to wide letters, precision in the delineation of the squares that form

‫پ‬

figure 34 Page of the Quran in pīr-āmūz by ʿOs̱mān b. Hoseyn al-Varrāq al-Ġaznavī, 484/1091/2, Topkapı Palace Museum, Istanbul

61

62

‫پ‬ the heads of fe (‫ )ف‬and qāf (‫)ق‬, and the very delicate parallel sword-like lines, both small and large that form the dāman of sīn (‫)س‬, šīn (‫)ش‬, ṣād (‫)ص‬, żād (‫)ض‬, nūn (‫)ن‬, ye (‫)ی‬, mīm (‫ )م‬and re (‫)ر‬, as well as many other artistic features have made pīr-āmūz one of the most beautiful and legible Iranian, or Eastern Kufic scripts. In an effort to save time calligraphers gradually stopped writing the letters apart and joining them with fine lines, and began instead to connect connecting letters as in Arabic Kufic and other scripts. However, this was done in such a way that despite the joining, every letter remained clearly distinct. This method survived and continued to be used over several centuries. Despite the evolution of the script over a long period of time (4th– 7th/10th–13th c.) and in various cities and governments, the variations are still generally considered Iranian or Eastern Kufic. Numerous Quran manuscripts and books in Persian written in various forms of Iranian Kufic exist in manuscript collections in Iran and around the world. In comparison to Arabic Kufic, the ease with which Iranian Kufic can written and read can be see as a key reason for its prevalence and survival. Whereas it is difficult for a beginning reader to distinguish between the letters ṭāʾ (‫)ط‬, ẓāʾ (‫)ظ‬, kāf (‫)ک‬, dāl (‫)د‬, ṣād (‫ )ص‬and żād (‫ )ض‬in Arabic Kufic, in Iranian Kufic and the Kufic famous as pīr-āmūz – both of which have the same root – each one of these letters has a completely distinct appearance; dāl (‫ )د‬took on the shape of a triangle, and ṭāʾ (‫ )ط‬can be distinguish from kāf (‫ )ک‬through the slope and curve of its vertical component. Neither can vāv (‫ )و‬and re (‫ )ر‬be confused, unlike in Arabic Kufic. (Moḥammad 1936: 5f.) ☞ ‫کوفی‬

‫ پیش ِنویس‬/pīš-nevīs/ draft, copy; a piece of paper specifically for writing a rough draft. (FF s.v. ‫پا ْک ِنویس ☞ )پیش ِنویس‬

plate 4

A page from a Quran written in moḥaqqaq by Aḥmad b. Sohrevard (d. 741/1340/1)

‫ تاج‬/tāj/ illum. lit. “crown”. A crown-shaped design used in illumination (☞ ‫ ) َتذْ هیب‬on the title page or first page of the text (☞ ‫ ) ُم َقطَّع‌ ِنویسی‬of an illuminated book. (Māyel Heravī 1353š/1974: 128; AMVR 119–120; 131) ‫ تألیف‬/ta‌ʾlīf/ 1 to compile; to write a book. 2 to write connecting letters in their connected form e.g. ‫ ب‬+‎ ‫= ه‬‎ ‫ به‬when written together. (FF s.v. ‫)تألیف‬ ّ ‫ُح ْس ِن َخ‬ ☞‫ط‬ ‫ َت َت ّمه‬/tatamme/ remainder, remanent. (FF s.v. ‫ ) َت َت ّمه‬The terms “tatamme remaining” (tatamme bāqī ‫ ) َت َت ِّمه باقی‬or “tatamme tomorrow” (tatamme fardā ‫ ) َت َت ِّمه َف ْردا‬were sometimes written after a hemistich (☞ ‫ ) ِم ْص َرع‬in a verse used for instruction (☞ ‫ ) َسطْر‬to indicate that a hemistich was still missing and the full meaning had not yet been conveyed. The word was also added to short hemistichs to extend the line of text and improve its composition (☞ ‫) َت ْرکیب‬. ‫ َت ْج ُربه‌ی َقلَم‬/tajrobe-ye qalam/ call. testing the pen. After a reed pen has been carved (☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫ ) َتر‬its trueness is tested by making a point by pressing the nib against the paper (noqṭe-ye tajrobe ‫)نُقْطه‌ی َت ْج ُربه‬, and sometimes by drawing a line with the very tip of the nib (☞ ‫ ) َو ْحشی‬to the right of the point. (AMVR 208) Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī (ṢS: 24) ِ ‫پشت خامه مالیدی‬ ‫خاک بر‬ ‫بشنو این حرف نو ز پیر کهن‬ ‫ شاید‬،‫خوشنویسی اگر کنی‬

‫کاتبا چون قلم تراشیدی‬ ‫آن قلم را به نقطه تجربه کن‬ ‫از قلم نقطه چون درست آید‬

O scribe, once you have carved the pen and polished it with sand, test it by (making) a dot – hear these novel words from an old master! If you can make a fine dot with a pen, you will be able to do calligraphy with it. Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī, Ādāb-ol-ḫaṭṭ (ĀḪ: 186)

‫اول به نُ َقط بیازمایی‬ ‫چون خشت مربع و مض ّلع‬ ‫رصع آید‬ َّ ‫بنویس که خط ُم‬ ‫مجنون قلمی ز سر تراشد‬

‫چون تجربه‌ی قلم نمایی‬ ‫مربع‬ ّ ‫نقطه چو بود خطی‬ ‫هر گه که نقط مربع آید‬ ‫وان نقطه مربع ار نباشد‬

© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_007

65

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When testing the pen first test the dot. If the dot is like a square, like a square polygonal brick – whenever dots are square, you may write (with this pen), the writing will be embellished. If those dots are not square, Majnūn will re-carve the pen.

‫ َت ْجرید‬/tajrīd/ abstraction. The representation of simplified shapes from the natural world as conventional, recognizable forms. (Karāmatī 1370š/1991 s.v. ‫ َختایی ☞ ) َت ْجرید‬-‫ِا ْسلیمی‬ ‫ َت ْجلید‬/tajlīd/ To bind a book. ☞ ‫َصحافی‬ ‫ َت ْحریر‬/taḥrīr/ (Fig. 35) 1 To write; to cleanse; to purify. 2 The process by which ِ ‎/ ‫ ) َز ْر َح ّل‬or other designs or words that have been written in gold ink (☞ ‫آب زر‬ ِ ‫ب‬ ‫ر‬ ‫س‬ ‫فیداب‬ ‫س‬ pigments like ceruse (☞ ْ ُ ِ ) are outlined in very fine black ink with a reed pen so that they stand out. (Bayānī 1353š/1974: 24; PPB 50, 52, 60–61, 68) ‫ َت ْحریر َک ْر َدن‬/taḥrīr kardan/ to write calligraphically. ☞ ‫َقلَمی َک ْر َدن‬ ‫ َت ْحریری‬/taḥrīrī/ sc. A type of script born out of cursive and nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫)ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬ and practical for the ease and speed with which it can be written. It is particularly suitable for writing letters and orders. Poets such as Ṣāʾeb used for their works. ‫ َت ْحریر یا ْفتَن‬/taḥrīr yāftan/ ☞ ‫َت ْحریر‬ ‫ َت ْحریف‬/taḥrīf/ call. When the nib of the pen (☞ ‫ ) َق ِط َقلَم‬is at a 35–45° angle. A pen with such a nib is called moḥarraf (☞ ‫) ُم َح َّرف‬. ☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫َتر‬ ‫ َت ْحشیه ِنگاری‬/taḥšīe-negārī/ ☞ ‫حاشیه ِنگاری‬ ‫ َت ْحوی ِل َقلَم‬/taḥvīl-e qalam/ call. lit. “transition of the pen”. When executing a line that is drawn from top to bottom, e.g. alef (‫)ا‬, pressure should be placed on the part of the nib called the vaḥšī (☞ ‫) َو ْحشی‬, whereas for lines that are drawn from the bottom up, pressure is placed on the ensī (☞ ‫) ِان ْسی‬. To form the “teeth” (dandāne ‫ ) َدنْدانه‬of some letters e.g. sīn (‫)س‬, šīn (‫ )ش‬pressure is placed on the sīne (☞ ‫)سینه‌ی َقلَم‬. (Heravī Māyel1353š/1974: 44) ‫ َت ْحویق‬/taḥvīq/ The circular section, or “eye”, at the beginning of the letters fe (‫)ف‬, qāf (‫ )ق‬and vāv (‫)و‬, mīm (‫)م‬, żād (‫ )ض‬and ṣād (‫)ص‬.

66

figure 35 Outlined calligraphy in s̱ols̱ by Kamāl-od-Dīn Moḥammad b. ʿAbdolhaq al-Sabzevārī, 928/1521/2, University of Istanbul Library, no. 1422

‫ت‬

‫ت‬

67

‫ َت ْخته‌ی صیقَل‬/taḫte-ye ṣeyqal/ bb. polishing block ☞ ‫َص ّحافی‬ ‫ َت ْخته‌ی َمشْ ق‬/taḫte-ye mašq/ 1 A wooden board upon which one can practice calligraphy that can be washed for reuse. 2 A thick piece of papier-mâché (☞ ‫ ) ُم َق ّوا‬upon which a piece of paper was placed for calligraphy practice (☞ ‫) َم ْشق‬. ‫ َت ْخته‌ی ُم ْهره‬/taḫte-ye mohre/ to. burnishing block. A smooth board ideally made from the wood of a pear tree and upon which paper is placed for burnishing (☞ ‫) ُم ْهره َز َدن‬. The block keeps the paper smooth, strong, and holds it in place. ‫ َت ْخریق‬/taḫrīq/ call. The rendering of the “eyes” of the letters ṣād (‫)ص‬, żād (‫)ض‬, ʿeyn (‫ ﻌ‬/ ‫)ﻊ‬, ġeyn (‫ ﻐ‬/ ‫)ﻎ‬, fe (‫)ف‬, qāf (‫ )ق‬mīm (‫)م‬, he (‫)ه‬, and vāv (‫ )و‬as white or hollow. ‫ ت َْذهیب‬/taẕhīb/ illumination. (Fig. 36) The art of decorating the pages of handwritten books and manuscripts. Two main categories of Iranian/Islamic illumination are eslīmī (☞ ‫ ) ِا ْسلیمی‬and ḫatāyī (☞ ‫) َختایی‬. Eslīmī patterns are primarily abstractions of the animal world, whereas the ḫatāyī patterns are abstract depictions of plants. In illumination these two categories can be used separately or in combination with one another (☞ ‫ َختایی‬-‫) ِا ْسلیمی‬. With Islamic culture in Iran books were written, reading spread and flourished, scholars and elites alike established libraries, the art of bookmaking became greatly esteemed and illumination made huge advances. Pages of the Quran manuscripts and books were decorated with gol-o-bote and Iranian style designs (☞ ‫ )شیوه‌ی ایرانی‬in diverse colors and gold. Frontispieces (☞ ‫ ) َس ْرلوح‬were adorned with great care to draw the reader’s attention to the text. The spirit of every period is reflected in the illumination of that period. Illuminations from the 4th/10th c. are simple and austere; those from the 5th and 6th/11th and 12th c. are cohesive and dignified; the 8th/14th c. is magnificent and powerful; while illuminations from the 9th and 10th/15th and 16th c. are delicate, ornamental and luxurious. Many illuminated books are dated, facilitating research on the chronology of this art form. Illumination can therefore be considered representative of the evolution of ornamental art in Iran. With the spread of the print industry, book illumination became obsolete. Today this art form only continues among painters of miniatures in Tehran and Esfahan to decorate the borders of their paintings.

68

figure 36 A piece in nastaʿlīq by ʿAbdoljabbār (a student of Mīrʿemād) with illumination, National Museum of Iran, Tehran

‫ت‬

‫ت‬

69 If an image has been drawn on light brown paper, generally nothing more is done to add to the color of the text. However, if white paper is used, the text is primed (☞ ‫ )بوم َک ْر َدن‬with ultramarine (☞ ‫الج َو ْردی‬ َ ). Sometimes the text of the illumination is also painted over with gold and polished with a smooth, hard stone (☞ ‫) ُم ْهره‬. An eslīmī, ḫatāyī or other gol-o-bote floral design is sketched onto the paper’s smooth, shiny surface. Regardless of the original text, the shapes are outlined (☞ ‫ ) َقل َْمگیری‬with a fine pen and ink ِ ‫) َرن‬ (☞ ‫) ُم َرکَّب‬. Then the text receives an underpainting in watercolor (☞ ‫ْگ روحی‬ ِ and ultramarine gouache (☞ ‫) َرنْگ جِ ْسمی‬. At this stage, the edges of all the ‫ ) ِس‬and ِ flowers are delicately highlighted with ceruse gouache (☞ ‫فیداب ُس ْرب‬ the base of every petal is painted with a darker shade of the color in use, creating a dāġī (☞ ‫)داغی‬. (DF s.v. ‫ ; َتذْ هیب‬MC 225–251; AMVR 179–183; BBP 109–113) ☞ ‫ َختایی‬-‫َختایی ☞ ِا ْسلیمی ☞ ِا ْسلیمی‬

‫ تَذییل‬/taẕyīl/ To addend, to add something to the bottom of the page of a book, to write a footnote. (FF s.v. ‫) َتذییل‬ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫ َتر‬/tarāšīdan-e qalam/ carving the pen. (Figs. 37–38) The qalam, or reed pen, is the most valuable writing tool and the way it is carved is of utmost importance. To carve a pen two types of penknives (☞ ‫ ) َقل َْمتَراش‬are typically used: a broad, rigid knife for the first and fourth steps, and a second knife with a narrow blade for tapering (step 2) and sharpening (Yūsefī 1990: 22). It is best to begin cutting at the head of the reed i.e. where it is narrower and where there was a band of new growth. Carving is done in five steps: 1. Carving the front of the pen which is the side that faces the paper when writing, or opening its meydān (‫ ) ِمیدان‬lit. “scope, field” in such a way that the meydān of the pen, as well as the heart of the reed are exposed. This is referred to as faṭḥ (☞ ‫) َفطْح‬. Ideally, the length of the meydān (from where the knife entered the reed to its exit at the tip) is equal to the circumference of the reed. The reed is carved away down to the firm heart and the fibers are removed. At this point, if the pen is placed horizontally with the tip to the left, the profile of the angle of the cut should roughly equal the angle of the outer edge of the initial part of the letter be (‫ )ب‬in nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫)ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬. For pens that are soft or weak, the fiber that is cut away still has to ensure that the pen strong enough to withstand the pressure of writing and at the same time reach the stronger outer skin at the tip. 2. Tapering both sides near the tip of the pen. This step is called naḥt (☞ ‫ )نَ ْحت‬and involves tapering both sides of the meydān so that the width becomes progressively narrower towards the tip. The width

70

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3.

of the nib should equal the pen’s radius. Historically, some believed ِ ‫ِک ْل‬ that the tip of the pen should be shaped like a fish or dove tail (☞ ‫ک‬ ‫) َکبو َتر ُدم‬. This resulted in a nib that was wider at its tip than at its sides. Creating a vertical slit in the nib of the pen, referred to as šaq (‫) َشق‬ or fāq (☞ ‫)فاق‬. The slit is made in the middle of the nib using the tip of the penknife in a process called šaq zadan (‫ ) َشق َز َدن‬or fāq zadan (☞ ‫)فاق َز َدن‬. This allows for the better flow of ink (☞ ‫ ) ُم َرکَّب‬but can lead to the cracking or breaking of the pen if excessive pressure is applied while writing. This slit used be be more common. Today splits are used in smaller pens such as those with a width of less than two dāngs (☞ ‫)دانْگ‬. Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī does not place much importance in the practice (ṢS: 23):

‫د ِر تشویش خویش را دربند‬

‫شق گشاده مکن که نیست پسند‬

It is inappropriate to make the slit too wide. Close the doors of your worries (keep the slit narrow so that it won’t cause you trouble). 4.

5.

Clipping the nib. This step is called qaṭ zadan (☞ ‫ ) َقط َز َدن‬and is one of the most important steps in carving the pen. When the nib is ready to be cut, the tongue (zabāne ‫ ) َزبانه‬of the pen (the upper part of the ْ ‫) َق‬. The nib meydān) is firmly held flat on the the nibbing block (☞ ‫ط َزن‬ is then cut with a knife at a specific angle with pressure from the index finger. The clipping emits the sound “qaṭ”. Ebn-e Moqle (d. 328/940) said that the blade should not be held vertically (at 90°) when cutting the nib, but instead should cut slightly inwards towards the meydān. This prevents the nib from becoming too sharp. After the nib has been cut the width of the nib should be about one-sixth of its length to ensure that circular letters (☞ ‫ ) َدوایِر‬in final position and numbers can be easily written. The angle of a nib varies depending on the script. There are three main types nibs: a) flat, 0–10° including angle types jazm (☞ ‫) َج ْزم‬ and mostavī (☞ ‫) ُم ْس َتوی‬. b) middle, 15–25° including angle type tōsīṭ (☞ ‫)توسیط‬. c) sharp, 35–45° including angle type moḥarraf (☞ ‫) ُم َح َّرف‬. Angles can also fall in between these groupings. Paring the back of the pen (pošt-bardārī ‫)پُ ْشت َ‌ب ْرداری‬. Some of the reed is shaved away from the back side of the pen from one-fourth to one-fifth the length of the meydān to the tip of the nib. This forms a fingernail-like shape and facilitates the flow of the ink and softens

71

‫ت‬

the zabāne. This step was rarely addressed in old treatises because the pens used were often small enough that they did not require this treatment. Instead calligraphers rubbed the the back of the nib with a fine, dry sand to remove the oils from the outer skin of the reed thus ensuring that the ink would not bead up at the tip (☞ ‫)خاک بیز‬. Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī (d. 926/1520) and Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī (d. mid-10th/16th c.) were among the many calligraphers who described methods for carving the pen. (RḪ: 38) Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī (ṢS: 23)

‫د ِر تشویش خویش را دربند‬

‫شق گشاده مکن که نیست پسند‬

It is inappropriate to make the slit too wide. Close the doors of your worries (keep the slit narrow so that it won’t cause you trouble).

‫دیر بتراش و خویش را مخراش‬ ‫ ختم سخن‬،‫بهر خط خوب نیست‬ ‫بشنو این نکته و دلیل مجو‬ ‫با برون قلم نداری کار‬ ‫َد ِر تشویق خویش را دربند‬ ‫ورنه می‌دان که کرده‌ای بیکار‬ ‫چار دانگ و دو دانگ گشته کهن‬

‫تا توانی قلم روان متراش‬ ‫خانه‌های قلم دراز مکن‬ ‫نیز و کوته مکن که نیست نکو‬ ‫اندکی از درون او بگذار‬ ‫شق گشاده مکن که نیست پسند‬ ‫شیوه‌ی اعتدال مرعی دار‬ ‫وحشی و انسی‌اش برابر کن‬

If you can do not (re)carve the pen too often, but wait, and do not distress yourself. Do not make the nib of the pen too long. This is not good for writing; end of story! Nor make it too short, which is also not good. Hear this point and do not argue. Pass over (the pen) a little from the inside but with the outside you have no business. Don’t make the slit too large, it is unacceptable. Close the doors of your worries (keep the slit narrow so that it won’t cause you trouble). Be moderate or you will have wasted the job. Make the left (ensī) and right (vaḥšī) corners (of the nib) equal – four sixths / two sixths are now old fashioned.

‫که درو عکس روی بنماید‬ ‫ کردم فاش‬،‫بهر قط بهتر است‬

‫نیِ قط صاف و پاک می‌باید‬ ‫از ستبری نی ملول مباش‬

The nibbing slab must be so clean and smooth that it reflects like a mirror. Do not be afraid of a thick reed, it is better suitable for the cut; I have revealed this secret.

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‫ت‬ ‫هر که دانست مرد کار بود‬ ‫نیی احول‬ ِ ‫با نیِ قط اگر‬ ‫گر بگیری قلم به ا َْص َبع به‬ ‫تا که در قط زدن نگردد ریش‬ ‫دویمی گر نکو بود شاید‬ ‫متوسط کنی روا باشد‬ ِّ ‫غافل از ق‬ ‫ط آن قلم نشوی‬ ‫بل صدای ندای ع ّلت اوست‬ ِ ‫دست تو کاری‬ ‫تا برآید ز‬

‫شرط قط دان که بیشمار بود‬ ‫گیر محکم قلمتراش اول‬ ‫قلم خویش بر نیِ قط ِنه‬ ‫ناخن خویش‬ ‫ساز محکم قلم به‬ ِ ِ ‫قط اول نکو نمی‌آید‬ ‫ خطا باشد‬،‫قط ُم َح َّرف کنی‬ ِ ‫تا صدای‬ ‫قط قلم شنوی‬ ‫گه صدای قط قلم نه نکوست‬ ِ ‫صاف باید‬ ‫قط قلم باری‬

Be aware that there are countless rules for cutting the nib, a master is the one who knows them all. If you have proper vision, first of all hold the penknife fast with the nibbing slad in your hand. Place your pen on the slab. Ideally hold the pen with your finger. Fix the pen with your fingernail so that it does not become rugged in cutting. If the first cut is not good, a second cut may be result well. A slant cut is a mistake, a midway cut is permissible. To hear the sound of cutting well, cut the pen attentively. Sometimes the sound of cutting the pen is not good, which suggests that there is a defect in it. You will have a good result only if you make a clean cut of the pen. In Rasm-ol-ḫaṭṭ Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī provides the following instructions for carving the pen (RḪ: 38)

‫بگویم بر تو یک سر بیش و کم را‬ ‫که قدر بند انگشتی نماید‬ ‫که ماهی ُدم نماید نزد دانا‬ ‫که او نازک‌تر از وحشی نماید‬ *‫بلی َخ ُیر االمور افتاد ا َْوسط‬

‫اگر خواهی که بتراشی قلم را‬ ‫َق ِد نوک قلم زان گونه باید‬ ‫تهی کن هر دو پهلوی قلم را‬ ‫ولیکن جانب انسیش باید‬ ‫نه َج ْزم و نه ُم َح َّرف باشدش قط‬

If you want to carve a pen, let me tell you a few secrets. The nib must be of the size of a finger. Carve out both sides of the pen until to the trained eye it looks like a fish tail. But the left (ensī) sied should be thinner than the right (vaḥšī) side. It must neither be cut off nor slanted. The best work is always a moderate one. * The verse has a literary allusion to a famous Ḥadīs̱ by Prophet Moḥammad: ‫“ َخیْ ُر األ ُ ُمو ِر أَ ْو َسط ُ َھا‬Following the middle path is a virtue/the best choice is the middle ground” (lit. “Best of things is their center”).

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figure 37 The various parts of a pen 1. tongue 2. slit 3. diameter 4. vaḥšī 5. ensī 6. field

‫ ت َْرصیع‬/tarṣīʿ/ illum. lit: “inlaying (of gems)”. A type of illumination that uses not ِ ), but also cinnabar (☞ ‫) َش ْنگَ ْرف‬, ultramarine (☞ ‫الج َو ْردی‬ only gold (☞ ‫آب َزر‬ َ ), ِ ‫) َرن‬, ‫ ) ِس‬green rubiginous (☞ ‫ ) َزنْگار‬and saffron (☞ ‫ْگ َزع َفران‬ ِ ceruse (☞ ‫فیداب ُس ْرب‬ etc. (Haldane 1366š/1987: 208). “Bejeweled” or inlaid (moraṣṣaʿ ‫ ) ُم َر ٌصع‬designates illuminated works with these other colors in addition to gold, and painting where one color blends into another. A bejeweled piece is typically also illuminated (☞ ‫) ُم َذ َّهب‬, but not every illuminated work is bejeweled. (Bayānī 1353š/1974: 24; Jokar/Ġaffārpūrī 1396š/2017) ّ ‫ُح ْس ِن َخ‬ ‫ ت َْرصیف‬/tarṣīf/ ☞ ‫ ک ُْرسی‬/‎‫ط‬ ‫ ت َْرقیم‬/tarqīm/ signature. The name of the author signed at the bottom of a work. ‫ ت َْرقیمه‬/tarqīme/ colophon. (Figs. 39–40) Literally to write or embellish, and to place dots that are part of the Arabic script. Among scribes, tarqīme refers to the passage at the end of a manuscript after the prayer, that is written by the scribe recording the time and place of the manuscript’s completion and by whom (Māyel Heravī 1369š/1990: 122; Afshar 2003). In the calligraphic tradition, colophons begin with an expression such as maššaqaho (☞ ‫) َمشَّ َق ُه‬, savvadaho (☞ ‫) َس َّو َد ُه‬, namaqa (☞ ‫ )نَ َم َقه‬or katabaho (☞ ‫) َک َت َب ُه‬, followed by the name the calligrapher and expressions of humility. Sometimes, along with the date, the place where the work was written is also mentioned, e.g. Bedār-os-salṭane-ye Herāt, “in the court of the Sultan of Herat”, or Bedār-olʿelm-e Šīrāz, “in the University of Shiraz”. ☞ ‫َانْجامه‬ ‫ ت َْرقین‬/tarqīn/ call. 1 A line that is drawn between two letters that cannot be elongated (☞ ‫ ) ِکشیده‌ ِنویسی‬e.g. dāl (‫)د‬, re‎ (‫ )ر‬in order extend the length of a

74

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figure 38 The steps for carving a pen (from top to bottom)

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figure 39 Colophon in Monājāt-nāme-ye Ḫāje ʿAbdollah Anṣārī, calligraphy by ʿAlī Reżā ʿAbbāsī 1008/1599/1600, Āstān-e Qods Rażvī Library, Mashhad

75

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figure 40 Colophon in Dīvān-e torkī-ye navāyī, calligraphy by Solṭān Moḥammad Ḫandān, National Museum of Iran, Terhan

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short line of text to match other longer lines. This is mostly seen in verse. According to some, it is also a line that is drawn around a section of text to indicate that it is wrong or void. 2 To adorn a book. 3 A line that is drawn through a written account to indicate that it has been noted and payed back. (Āmolī 1377/1957/8) 4 Among expressions and names in his writings and notebooks, Ḫārazmī says that tarqīn is a line that is used in histories or letters to fill in an empty space in a line of text so as to maintain the order of the notebook. According to him a tarqīn is equal to zero in geometry and ḥesāb-e jommal (☞ ‫)ا َْب َجد‬, and it is derived from reqān (‫)رِقان‬, a Nabatean word that means “empty” or “free (of)”. 5 To blacken a spot in an accounting book so that is not thought that the space was left white to write in a credit. According to Nafāyes-ol-fonūn, tarqīn is also a line that is drawn through an entry to indicate that it has been taken into account and payed back. (Anvarī 1373š/1994: 84)

‫ ت َْرکیب‬/tarkīb/ call. composition. Composition is the first of the twelve calliِ ‫) َق‬. It refers to the balanced and graphic principles (☞ ‫واع ِد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه خوشْ ِنویسی‬ compatible compilation of letters, words, sentences, lines of text, two lines of text together and on a page, and the correctness of their overall positions and adherence to the principles of calligraphy. Composition is made up of the following ten elements: 1. the composition of letters and words 2. sentences and lines 3. lines and pages 4. maintaining the correct distance and proximity, the balance of “blackness and whiteness” (☞ ‫) َسواد و َبیاض‬ 5. testing the qalam in its domain 6. maintaining the correctness/beauty of proximity, order and balance 7. observing the rules for the elongation of letters (‫ ) ِکشیده‌ ِنویسی ☞( ) َم ّدات‬8. knowing fragments of poetry or short poems for practice 9. placing diacritics and other orthography signs as appropriate e.g. tanvīn (ً, which sounds like “n”) and sokūn (ْ, which indicates that a consonant is not vocalized) 10. observing grammatical notation. (Faẓāʾelī 1370š/1991: 81) ‫کیب پیچیده‬ ِ ‫ ت َْر‬/tarkīb-e pīčīde/ call. complex composition. When a calligrapher uses all means available in letters and words to make the composition of a piece more complex, resulting in the overlap and stacking of the the letters and words in question. e.g. this verse by Ḥāfeẓ (Neysārī 1377š/1998: 396): ‫به عذر نیم شبی کوش و گریه‌ی سحری‬

‫می صبوح و شکر خواب صبحدم تا چند‬

‫صبو‬,‎ ‫شکر‬,‎ ‫صبحد‬,‎ ‫چند‬,‎ ‫عذ‬,‎ ‫شبی‬,‎ ‫ ش‬and‎ ‫ سحری‬are all elongated (☞ ‫) ِکشیده‌ ِنویسی‬ ِ ‫َت ْر‬ and stacked on top of one another. ☞ ‫کیب ساده‬

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figure 41 Simple composition: the sole elongation is ‫ هر‬from the first hemistich

‫کیب ُج ْزوی‬ ِ ‫ ت َْر‬/tarkīb-e jozvī/ call. composition of parts. The arrangement of letters and words. 1 The composition of the various parts of a letter, e.g. kāf (‫)ک‬ which is formed by combining alef (‫)ا‬,‎ be (‫ )ب‬and a final stroke from the top. 2 The configuration of several letters to form a word, e.g. “‫ ”ملک‬which is made of up of the letters mīm (‫)م‬,‎lām (‫ )ل‬and kāf (‫)ک‬. ‫کیب ساده‬ ِ ‫ ت َْر‬/tarkīb-e sāde/ call. simple composition. (Fig. 41) When a line of text or a page is written with a minimum of elongated letters and words (☞ ‫) ِکشیده‌ ِنویسی‬, complex baselines (☞ ‫)ک ُْرسی‬, or stacking of letters and words. Simple composition is illustrated in the following verse by Ferdōsī (Ḥamīdīyān 1384š/2005: 13): ‫به دانش دل پیر برنا بود‬

‫توانا بود هر که دانا بود‬

The two words ‫ هر‬and ‫ پیر‬are elongated, while the remaining letters and words are written with a normal baseline.

‫ ت َْرکیب َک ْر َدن‬/tarkīb kardan/ ☞ ‫َت ْرکیب‬ ‫کیب کُ لّی‬ ِ ‫ ت َْر‬/tarkīb-e kollī/ call. general composition. Page and line composition which include observing the principles of elongation (☞ ‫( ) ِکشیده‌ ِنویسی‬in number, placement and type), balance, interliteral and interlinear space ِ ), etc. (☞ ‫فاصله‌ی َسط ْ ْرها‬ ‫ ِت ْرلینْگ‬/terlīng/ ☞ ‫َقل َْم َج ْد َول‬ ‫ ُت َر ْنج‬/toranj/ illum. mandorla. (Figs. 42–43) An ovoid, or citrus-shaped medallion design traditional of the Iranian-style (☞ ‫ )شیوه‌ی ایرانی‬that is usually filled with floral (☞ ‫ ) ُگل و َب ْرگ‬or eslīmī (☞ ‫ ) ِا ْسلیمی‬designs and is located in the middle, but independent of other surrounding images. Sometimes they resemble a chandelier. A smaller, symmetrical design is sometimes added to

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figure 42 Toranj with sar-toranj attached to the top and bottom, at the beginning of a collection of poems, University of Istanbul Library, no. 497

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figure 43 Toranj with sar-toranj attached to the top and bottom, Ḫamse Neẓāmī, 933/1526/7, National Museum of Iran

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81

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either side of the toranj, called sar-toranj (‫) َس ْرت َُرنْج‬. In some toranj designs on printed cloth, wall tiles and carpets, the two sar-toranj elements are asymmetrical. When this is the case, the smaller, upper element is called a sartoranj. Sometimes small triangles, called lačakī (☞ ‫ )ل ََچکی‬are drawn in each of the four corners of a composition with toranj. Toranj designs are used primarily in book illumination (☞ ‫ ) َتذْ هیب‬and Persian carpet weaving. To decorate a manuscript (☞ ‫)ن ُْسخه‌ی َخطّی‬, a toranj design was drawn on the back of the first page. This was “bejeweled” (☞ ‫ ُم َر َّصع‬/‎‫ ) َت ْرصیع‬and illuminated (☞ ‫ ُم َذ َّهب‬/‎ ‫ ) َتذْ هیب‬and the title of the book, the name of the person for whom the book was written and or a table of contents was written in ‫) ِس‬. (Bayānī ِ its center (DF s.v. ‫)ت َُرنْج‬, generally in gold or ceruse (☞ ‫فیداب ُس ْرب‬ 1353š/1974: 29; AMTS 9; AMVR 151–152; PPB 113)

‫ ت َْرویس‬/tarvīs/ ☞ ‫َس َرک‬ ّ ‫ُح ْس ِن َخ‬ ‫ ت َْسطیر‬/tasṭīr/ ☞ ‫ط‬ ‫ ت َْسفیر‬/tasfīr/ ☞ ‫َص ّحافی‬ ‫ ت َْسوید‬/tasvīd/ To blacken, to write (☞ ‫ ;) ُم َس َّوده‬to write a rough draft. (FF s.v. ‫َبیاض ☞ َسواد ☞ )ت َ ْسوید‬ ‫ تَشْ عیر‬/tašʿīr/ historiated painting. (Fig. 44) Hairpin representations of flowers, shrubs, or sometimes animals that are used to to adorn the pages of books. The occasional depiction of animals differentiates tašʿīr from the floral golo-bote (☞ ‫ )شیوه‌ی ایرانی‬This was typically done in gold, though sometimes also in other colors. Excellent examples of tašʿīr depicting birds animals and humans can be seen in fragments of the Golšan Album (☞ ‫ ) ُم َر َّقع‬which is kept in the Golestān Palace Library, Tehran. A portrait in the Reza Abbasi Museum signed by Kamāloddīn Behzād features borders illustrated with a lion hunting an ostrich. If a historiated image depicts a fighting animal or bird it is called gereft-o-gīr (☞ ‫) ِگ ِرفْت و گیر‬. (Mojarrad-Tākestānī 1372š/1993: 91) ‫ ت َشْ میر‬/tašmīr/ call. lit. “to withdraw”, “to renounce”. In calligraphy tašmīr is ِ ‫) ُص‬. This is the narrowanother expression for virtual ascent (☞ ‫عود َمجازی‬ ing and curving of the final segment of the circular letters (☞ ‫) َدوایِر‬, and is created when the pen travels from bottom to top, forming a curved rather than straight line. Examples can be seen in the letters lām (‫)ل‬, nūn‎ (‫)ن‬, ِ ‫ُص‬ ye‎ (‫ )ی‬and ṣād (‫)ص‬, etc. in the nastaʿlīq script (☞ ‫)ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬. ☞ ‫عود َمجازی‬ ِ ‫َق‬ ☞ ‫واع ِد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ ِنویسی‬

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figure 44 A page with historiated borders, Rūże al-anvār, by Ḫājū-ye Kermānī, 927/1520/1 Golestān Palace Library, Tehran, no. 2204

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83

‫ ت َْصدیر‬/taṣdīr/ Writing the header and title of a book. ‫ تَعادُل‬/taʿādol/ ☞ ‫َتوا ُزن‬ ‫ ت َْعلیق‬/taʿlīq/ sc. (Figs. 45–46, X–XII, XIV) 1 This script developed after the emergence of the tōqīʿ (☞ ‫ )توقیع‬and the reqāʿ (☞ ‫ )رِقاع‬scripts and contained elements of the tōqīʿ, reqāʿ and nasḫ (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْسخ‬scripts (Yūsefī 1990: 13). Some consider it to be one of the Six Pens (☞ ‫) ِاقْال ِم ِششگانه‬, making it the seventh. Although there are examples of the taʿlīq script from the 5th and 6th/11th and 12th c., it was not codified until the 9th/15th c. This was accomplished by Ḫāje Tāj Salmānī Eṣfahānī. Taʿlīq was then perfected by Ḫāje ʿAbd-ol-ḥay Monšī Astarābādī and Ḫāje Eḫtīār Monšī. Literally “hanging”, taʿlīq was initially conceived as a “writing” (☞ ‫) َت ْحریر‬ script used for correspondence and writing books because letters that are usually detached could be joined allowing for faster writing. Its proper name during this early phase is šekaste-ye taʿlīq (☞ ‫( ) ِش َک ْسته‌ی َت ْعلیق‬lit. “broken” i.e. truncated or simplified taʿlīq), and it was also sometimes referred to ِّ ‫) َخ‬, “correspondence script” (Yūsefī 1990: 13). Later as ḫaṭṭ-e tarassol (‫ط َت َر ُّسل‬ taʿlīq became more important as it developing into beautiful and independent script that would lay the foundation for the emergence of nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫)ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬. One of the last Iranian calligraphers to use this script was the famous poet Moḥammad Kāẓem Vāle Eṣfahānī (d. 1229/1814/5) whose epitaph was also written in taʿlīq. Among teachers, taʿlīq meant “to instruct” (‫ ) َت ْعلیق‬in the sense of “to note” or “annotate”. Beyhaqī writes: ‫آنچه گویم از معاینه گویم و از تعلیق که دارم و از تقویم‬ That which I say, I say from experience (‫ ) ُمعای ِنه‬and from the notes (‫ ) َتعلیق‬which I have, and out of assessment (☞ ‫) َتقْویم‬. (Tārīḫ: 150) When taʿlīq spread and was adopted by the Ottomans and Egyptians, various changes were introduced reflecting their tastes. Their style of script came to be called dīvānī (☞ ‫ )دیوانی‬because of its use for official business. Two forms, large (☞ ‫ ) َجلی‬and small (☞ ‫) َخفی‬, are still in use in Arab countries. (Yūsefī 1990: 14) 2 šekaste (☞ ‫( ) ِش َک ْسته‬India). ّ ‫ُح ْس ِن َخ‬ ‫ َت ْفصیل‬/tafṣīl/ ☞ ‫ط‬ ‫خامت‬ َ ‫ َت ْقسی ِم ِض‬/taqsīm-e żeḫāmat/ call. division of thickness. Maintaining the appropriate thickness at the various sections of a letter or word. For example if the word MR (‫ )مر‬is written in nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬script, the end of the letter re (‫ )ر‬is thinner (☞ ‫ ) َض ْعف‬than the upper part of the letter. ☞ ‫چاق‬/‫ال َغر‬ ‫ َت ْقویم‬/taqvīm/ Pricing and estimating the value of a manuscript.

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figure 45 Colophon on a moraqqaʿ page written in taʿlīq by Eḫtīār Monšī 949/1542/3, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran, no. 1616

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figure 46 A moraqqaʿ page in taʿlīq by Eḫtīār Monšī 970/1562/3, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran

85

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‫ تمام‌ َقلَم‬/tamām-qalam/ full pen. When writing a letter, word or part of a word, the whole nib of the pen is used, such as in necessary for the letters alef (‫)ا‬, be (‫)ب‬, and nūn (‫ )ن‬in the nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬script. It is worth noting that “full pen” does not always appear thick. For example, the both alef (‫)ا‬ and the lower part of mīm (‫ )م‬are written with full pen despite their narrow appearance. ‫ت‬ ْ ‫ ت ََّم‬/tammat/ ☞ ‫َت َّمه‬ ‫ ت َْمغا‬/tamġā/ seal. (Fig. 47) The Mongolian Ilkhanate called a seal (NP ‫ ) ُم ْهر‬by its Turkic name dāmgā, which was then pronounced tamġā by speakers of ِ /‎ ‫ ) َز ْر َح ّل‬it Persian and Arabic. If the seal was painted with gold ink (☞ ‫آب َزر‬ was called a āltūn tamġā (☞ ‫)آلْتون َت ْمغا‬, or “golden seal”; if it was painted with vermillion (☞ ‫ ) َش ْنگَ ْرف‬or black ink, it was called āl tamġā (☞ ‫)آل َت ْمغا‬, or “red seal”, and qarā-tamġā (☞ ‫) َقرا َت ْمغا‬, or “black seal” respectively. Tamġā also means tax or tribute. This was attributed to the seal that was stamped onto goods after the tax or tribute had been exacted. Among poets tamġā was also called tamġāj (‫) َت ْمغاج‬. ‫ ت ََّمه‬/tamma/ finished, completed. This word was sometimes written at the end of a line or passage. ِ ‫َق‬ ‫َناسب‬ ُ ‫ ت‬/tanāsob/ call. proportion. One of the principles of calligraphy (☞ ‫واع ِد‬ ‫) َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ ِنویسی‬, proportion can be seen to encompass all of the calligraphic principles. This is because the harmony of the other principles is measured according to their symmetry and proportion to one another. For example, the balance of what is “hidden and visible”, “empty and full” (☞ ‫ ) َخ ْل َوت و َج ْل َوت‬also needs to be proportionate. In calligraphy this refers to positive and negative space i.e., blackness and whiteness (☞ ‫) َسواد و َبیاض‬. Given the breadth of the spectrum, the definition of proportion is often very ubiquitous; however, in old treatises proportion referred to the proportion that was to be maintained between the size of the letters/words, the breadth ِ ), etc. Proportion of the nib (☞ ‫ ) َد ِم َقلَم‬and interlinear space (☞ ‫فاصله‌ی َسط ْ ْرها‬ means that “identically or similarly shaped letters, whether detached or joined, should be of the same size in all contexts.” (Yūsefī 1990: 4) ‫ ُتنْدی‬/tondī/ illum. Refers to the thinness of the script. ‫ َتنْمیق‬/tanmīq/ To write. To adorning a page with writing.

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‫ت‬

figure 47 “Red seal” design, d. 726/1325/1326, Fārs Provence (Šahrestānī 1381š/2002: 17)

‫ تَوازُ ن‬/tavāzon/ call. equilibrium, balance. The proportion and balance between what is “hidden and visible” (☞ ‫ ) َخ ْل َوت و َج ْل َوت‬and the “blackness and whiteness” (☞ ‫ ) َسواد و َبیاض‬in a letters, words, lines of text and on a page that results in the evenness and overall balance of a work on the page. ِ ‫َق‬ ☞ ‫واع ِد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ ِنویسی‬ ‫ توأمان‬/tōa‌ʾmān/ sc. lit. “twins”. 1 A type of writing in which a text, written from right to left and in the form of an animal or human, etc., is then written as a mirror image from left to right, meeting the first in the middle. In his treatise Ḫaṭṭ va savād, Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī credits himself with the invention of ِّ ‫ َخ‬/‎‫( چپ‌نویسی‬ḪS: 256) this script. ☞ ‫ط َب ْرگَ ردان‬ ‫کز قلم چهره‌گشایی‌ها کرد‬ ‫خطکم صورتکی پیدا کرد‬

‫توأمان مخترع مجنون است‬ ‫تا شدم مخترع صورتکش‬

Tōa‌ʾmān’s inventor was Majnūn* (i.e. Majnūn Heravī), who painted many wonderful patterns with a nib. Since devising this script, my calligraphy has matured in its shape.

88

‫ت‬ * The epithet majnūn has also a metonymy to the literary meaning of the word “crazy”; i.e. the inventor of tōa‌ʾmān script was ‘crazy’ enough to design it.

2 According to the Ānandrāj (s.v. ‫ )توأمان‬tōʾamān is when two different text images are drawn onto separate pieces of paper such that when one is placed on top of the other the true, meaningful text appears in the resulting negative space. However, according to Mehdī Bayānī and others, this is the definition of the šekaste-baste (☞ ‫ ) ِش َک ْسته ب َ ْسته‬script. ☞ ‫چپ‌نویسی‬

‫ توسیط‬/tōsīṭ/ call. When the nib of a pen (☞ ‫ ) َق ِط َقلَم‬had an angle of 15–25°. ☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫َتر‬ ّ ‫ُح ْس ِن َخ‬ ‫ توفیه‬/tōfīe/ ☞ ‫ط‬ ‫ توقیع‬/tōqīʿ/ sc. (Fig. 48) One of the Six Pens (☞ ‫ ) ِاقال ِم ِششگانه‬and has three dāngs (☞ ‫ )دانْگ‬in both “straightness and roundness” (☞ ‫) َسطْح و دور‬. Ebn-e Moqle (d. 328/940) has been credited with devising tōqīʿ, though it is in fact the script’s codification that can attributed to him. Tōqīʿ is derived from s̱ols̱ (☞ ‫)ثُ ْلث‬. At the time of Yāqūt Mostaʿṣemī (610–698/1213–1298) it was used for writing colophons (☞ ‫ َت ْرقیمه‬/‎‫ ) َانْجامه‬for the Quran manuscripts and other books. tōqīʿ has been used to mean “under/bottom” to denote what today would be a signature (☞ ‫) ِا ْمضاء‬. A signature at the bottom of a page confirmed its authenticity, therefore tōqīʿ kardan (‫)توقیع َک ْر َدن‬, “to sign”, meant that the approval of the king or ruler had been placed on a document through his signature or seal. Accordingly, the tōqīʿ script was used for “decrees, dispatches, and diplomas to be signed by caliphs or viziers, though sometimes also for more ordinary documents” (Yūsefī 1990: 12). When Beyhaqī says “adorn with tōqīʿ” he means “to sign” (Tārīḫ: 268). In some cases it seems the tōqīʿ was insufficient and it became necessary that the actual text of the letter, order or decree be written in the sultan’s own hand. (Tārīḫ: 152f.; AMVR 263–265) The following are the tōqīʿs of the Seljuk and Ghaznavid sultans: Maḥmud of Ghazni (Maḥmud b. Saboktagīn): ‫ وال َّله هو المحمود‬wa-allāh huwa al-maḥmūd “for God is the praised one”. Moḥammad b. Maḥmud: ‫َّلت علی ال َّله‬ ُ ‫ َت َوک‬tawakkaltu ʿala-allāh “I rely on God”. Ebrāhīm b. Masʿūd: ‫ بال َّله الکریم یثق ابرهیم‬bi-ʾllāh al-karīm yaṯiq ibrahīm “May God the most generous secure Ebrāhīm”. Masʿūd b. Ebrāhīm: ‫ سعد بال َّله مسعود‬saʿad bi-ʾllāh masʿūd “Masʿūd prospered in God”. Arsalān b. Masʿūd-e S̱ānī: ‫ بال َّله المنان یثق ارسالن‬bi-ʾllāh al-mannān yaṯiq arsalān “May God the munificent secure Arsalān”.

‫ت‬

89

figure 48 An endowment deed in tōqīʿ ordered by the Savafid Shah Solṭān Ḥoseyn, Āstān-e Qods Rażavī Library, Mashhad

90

‫ت‬ Bahrāmšāh b. Masʿūd: ‫ اعتصم بال َّله بهرامشاه‬iʿtaṣam bi-ʾllāh bahrāmšāh “Bahrāmšāh took refuge in God”. Toġrol Seljūqī: ‫ اعتمادی علی ال َّله‬iʿtimādī ʿala-allāh “My reliance is on God”. Alb-Arslān: ‫ اعتصمت بال َّله‬iʿtaṣamtu billāh “I sought refuge in God”. Malekšāh Seljūqī: ‫ اعتمادی علی ال َّله‬iʿtimādī ʿala-allāh “My reliance is on God”. Barkiyāraq: ‫ استعنت بال َّله‬istaʿantu billāh “I sought help in God”. Moḥammad b. Malekšāh: ‫ توکلت علی ال َّله‬tawakkaltu ʿala-allāh “I rely on God”. Sanjar b. Malekšāh: ‫ اعتضدت بال َّله‬iʿtażadtu bi-’llāh “I beseeched God”. Anvarī 1373š/1994: 174ff.

The rules governing tōqīʿ are similar to those of s̱ols̱; the letters, however, are smaller, letter combinations more compact, and the words are joined together more often. Letters are of uniform thickness and are rounder and deeper than in s̱ols̱. The “eyes” of fe (‫)ف‬, qāf (‫)ق‬, mīm (‫)م‬, vāv (‫ )و‬and LĀ (‫)ال‬ are ideally left open but can be closed if necessary. Because the size of tōqīʿ is relatively small, it is also easier to write than s̱ols̱ (Yūsefī 1990: 12). In Iran tōqīʿ was replaced by reqāʿ (☞ ‫)رِقاع‬.

‫ توقیعی‬/tōqīʿī/. A document that had received the approval of the sultan and carried the sign and certification of the king. (Anvarī 1373š/1994: 167) ☞ ‫توقیع‬ ‫ ت ْ‌َه َبنْدی‬/tah-bandī/ ☞ ‫شیرازه َب ْندی‬ ‫ ت َْه ُت َر ْنج‬/tah-toranj/ ☞ ‫ت َُرنْج‬ ‫ ت َْه َر ْنگ‬/tah-rang/ illum. underpainting. Assuming that more layers will follow, the first layer of paint that is applied to a painting surface. (Karāmatī 1370š/1991 s.v. ‫) َت ْه َرنْگ‬ ّ ‫ُم‬ ‫ َته‌طَالیی‬/tah-ṭalāyī/ ☞ ‫طلسازی‬ ‫ تیر‬/tīr/ Mercury. The planet Mercury was considered to be the scribe of the heavens, instructor of scholars and sheikhs and the Master of the Pen. (Panaino 1995: 62–85) ‫ تی ْز ُبر‬/tīz-bor/ ☞ ‫َقل َْمتَراش‬ ‫ تیغه‌ی َی ْحیایی‬/tīġe-ye yaḥyāyī/ ☞ ‫َقل َْمتَراش‬ ‫ تیماج‬/tīmāj/ bb. Morocco leather ☞ ‫پوست‬ ْ

plate 5

Inscription of Ṣofē-ye Šeyḫ on Pīr Bakrān in Esfahan, 712/1305/6 Photo by Moḥammad-Reżā ʿAmūzād

‫ ُث ْعبانی‬/s̱oʿbānī/ call. lit. “dragon-like”. (Fig. 49) This refers to an ʿeyn (‫ )ع‬written in s̱ols̱ (☞ ‫ )ثُ ْلث‬whose top section is vertically elongated so that the first movement to create the letter connects it to another ascending letter such as alef (‫)ا‬. ☞ ‫صادی ☞ ِف ْنجانی‬ ‫ ُث ْلث‬/s̱ols̱/ sc. lit. “one-third”. (Plates 18–20, 30–31) At the same time that nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬was developing in Iran, s̱ols̱ was also being refined and reaching the height of its glory at the hands of calligraphers such as Yaḥyā al-Jamālī al-Ṣūfī, Jamāl b. Maḥmūd b. Jaʿfar (a. 848/1444/5), Šams Bāysonġorī (a. 850/1446/7), ʿAbdollah Ṭabbāḫ Heravī (d. 873/1468/9 or 885/1480/1), Kamāloddīn Ḥoseyn Ḥāfeẓ Heravī (d. 974/1566/7), ʿAlāʾoddīn Tabrīzī (d. 1010/1601/2), ʿAlī Reżā ʿAbbāsī (a. 1038/1628/9), ʿAbdolbāqī Tabrīzī (a. 1039/1629/30), Ḫāndān Amānī (11th–12th/17th–18th c.) and ʿAbdorraḥīm Jazāyerī (a. 1121/1709/10). Aḥmad Qara Ḥeṣārī (873–963/1468–1555), who was a student of Asadollah Kermānī, was among the most able Ottoman s̱ols̱ calligraphers. Alongside nasḫ (☞ ‫)ن َ ْسخ‬, s̱ols̱ has had the longest lifespan among scripts in Iran and continues to be used today. Today s̱ols̱ is prevalent in virtually all Muslim countries and is used to write inscriptions (☞ ‫ ) َکتیبه‬on porticos and in mosques along the edges of the meḥrāb or prayer niche, etc. There are various opinions as to why this script was called lit. “one-third”. One explanation is that one-third of the letters are straight while two-thirds are round. Special characteristics of s̱ols̱ include making the ends of final flourishes sharp and hair-thin by using the edge of the nib (tašʿīr). Another is to put a serif (☞ ‫ ) َس َرک‬at the top of a detached alef (‫)ا‬, dāl (‫)د‬, and ẕāl (‫)ذ‬, a detached or initial jīm (‫)ج‬, ṭā (‫)ط‬, kāf (‫)ک‬, lām (‫)ل‬, and initial be (‫)ب‬, te (‫)ت‬,

figure 49 S̱oʿbānī (Baġdādī 1989: 10)

© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_008

93

‫ث‬

etc. The “eyes” of ṣād (‫)ص‬, ṭā (‫)ط‬, ʿeyn (‫)ع‬, fe (‫)ف‬, qāf (‫)ق‬, mīm (‫)م‬, vāv (‫)و‬, he (‫)ه‬, and LĀ (‫ )ال‬must be left open. The fundamental characteristic of s̱ols̱ is the predominance of “round” components. Ends of letters have thin and delicate “tails” that slope downِ ward, either with a final flourish or pīčīdegī (‫پیچیدگی‬ ) (☞ ‫) َم ْلفوف‬. These can ِ also be left free (☞ ‫)ا ْرسال‬. The bows and bowls are sometimes deepened to facilitate historiated painting (☞ ‫)ت َ ْشعیر‬. The letters and words in s̱ols̱ are large but compact. In Iran s̱ols̱ was and still is used for headings of sūras of the Koran, titles on spines of books, frontispieces (☞ ‫) َس ْرلوح‬, and chapter headings, and above all for inscriptions (☞ ‫ ) َکتیبه‬and tile work. (Yūsefī 1990: 11f.; AMT 20; AMTS 9–10; AMVR 274–275)

ِ /s̱ols̱-e qalam/ ☞ ‫ی ِک ِس ُوم َقلَم‬ ‫ثلث َقلَم‬

plate 6

A page from an Album, nasḫ calligraphy by Moḥammad-Qāsem, tōqīʿ calligraphy by Yaḥyā al-Jamālī (746/1339/40) in Shiraz, University of Istanbul Library

‫ جانَمازی‬/jā-namāzī/ ☞ ‫َقطْع‬ ‫ َج ْد َول‬/jadval/ illum. lit. “grid”. Straight lines that are drawn to form frames around the writing on a page. These sometimes form columns (Afshar 2005) and depending on the composition of the text these borders may or may not only be parallel to the edges of the actual page. Decorative book jadvals were usually made up of more than one line of varying colors, one or two of which were wider than the others. The simplest kind of jadval tended to be a wider line in gold (☞ ‫ )آب َزر‬with two finer, closely-set black lines on either side. More than one jadval could be drawn on a page. In this case the lines of the other jadvals were usually ultramarine (☞ ‫الج َو ْردی‬ َ ), vermillion (☞ ‫) َش ْنگَ ْرف‬ or minium (☞ ‫ )سیلو‬with a finer line in gold or black (Bayānī 1353š/1974 :25f.). Today a ruling pen (☞ ‫ ) َقل َْم َج ْد َول‬is used to draw these borders with colored ِ ‫ ) َرن‬The color and width of the lines depend on the color gouache (☞ ‫ْگ جِ ْسمی‬ and size of the page and the type of calligraphy and illumination (☞ ‫) َتذْ هیب‬ employed. Multiple jadvals can be woven to form “knots” (☞ ‫) ِگ ِره‬. Jaʿfar Bāysonġorī (Ğong): ‫چون عطا نبود دگر جدول کش از‬ ‫خون جگر‬

‫بجان گشت خط منسوخ و صورتگر‬ ‫درمانده است‬

(With the death of the Timurīd prince Bāysonġor (1397–1433), a great patron of the arts and architecture) calligraphy became outdated and artists became disappointed; now with generosity gone, draw the grid in grief! MC 159–184; AMT 21; AMVR 38–39, 157, 203–204, 229–230; PPB 59–61

‫ َج ْد َول َبنْدی‬/jadval-bandī/ pn. Using a system of grids to enlarge or reduce the size of a design or image, etc. A grid with evenly-spaced, vertical and horizontal parallel lines is drawn onto the page with the image. This is also called ḫāne-kešī (‫)خانه ِکشی‬. A white piece of paper onto which the image is to be transferred is then fitted with a similar grid. If it is to be enlarged the squares on the second piece of paper should be proportionately bigger © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_009

96

‫ج‬ than those on the original page; if the image is to be reduced, they should be proportionately smaller. The lines of the image are then drawn onto the grid on the second piece of paper just as they are in the original until the image has been completely transferred. (MC 159–184; AMT 21; AMVR 38–39, 157, 203–204, 229–230; PPB 59, 61, 120)

‫ َج ْد َول کِش‬/jadval-keš/ illum. ruler. A person who specializes soley in drawing the jadvals (☞ ‫ ) َج ْد َول‬for illuminations (☞ ‫) َتذْ هیب‬. (Qomī 1366š/1987: 200; PPB 59, 61, 120) ‫ َج ْد َو ِل ُم َح َّرر‬/jadval-e moḥarrar/ illum. When a jadval (☞ ‫ ) َج ْد َول‬is drawn in gold ِ ), burnished (☞ ‫ ) ُم ْهره َز َدن‬and is then outlined with a very fine black (☞ ‫آب َزر‬ line on both sides. ‫ َجزع‬/jazʿ/ to. onyx. An agate-like stone that is used to burnish paper (☞ ‫ُم ْهره‬ ‫) َز َدن‬. It is characterized by its parallel bands of colors that in the case of sardonyx are composed of shades of red, coral and white. Black and green onyx also exist. (LD s.v. ‫) َجزع‬ ‫ ُجزء‬/jozʾ/ ☞ ‫سی‌پاره‬ ‫ َج ْزم‬/jazm/ call. When the nib of a pen (☞ ‫ ) َق ِط َقلَم‬is flat and not angled. ☞ ‫اشید ِن‬ َ ‫َتر‬ ‫ُم ْس َتوی ☞ َقلَم‬ ‫ ُج ْزو‬/jozv/ bb. quire. Every two leaves (four pages) of a codex or book is one larger piece of paper that is folded in half to form bifolios. These are sewn together to form a quire. Quires are then assembled into a complete work. Parchment quires produced in Islamic lands were made with an uneven amount of folios – typically five – as versus in Europe where they were always even in number. (MC 5–101; IC 103; AMVR 104–105) ☞ ‫َص ّحافی‬ ‫ ُج ْز ْو َبنْدی‬/jozv-bandī/ ☞ ‫شیرازه َب ْندی‬ ‫ َج ْعل‬/jaʿl/ call. forgery. (Figs. 50–51) The oldest examples of forged calligraphic works date from the 2nd–3rd/8th–9th c. when some scribes (☞ ‫)کا ِتب‬, having completed a Kufic (☞ ‫ )کوفی‬manuscript of the Quran, would add the names of religious leaders or imams to the end. Although this was done more out of religious zeal than with any hope of material profit, it was nonetheless a forgery. With the spread of calligraphy in the 7th/13th c., calligraphers

‫ج‬

figure 50 Sīāh-mašq in šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq by Mīrzā Ġolāmreżā Eṣfahānī (1246–1304/ 1830–1886), copied from ʿAbdolmajīd Ṭāleqānī. Golestān Palace Library, Tehran, no. 1470

97

98

figure 51 Šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq by ʿAlīakbar Golestāne (d. 1319/1901) signed by ʿAbdolmajīd, private collection, Tehran

‫ج‬

99

‫ج‬

such as Yāqūt Mostaʿṣemī (610–698/1213–1298) gained widespread fame and forging the works of the masters (☞ ‫ )ا ُْستاد‬became increasingly common. When an art student reached a level in his calligraphic exercises in which he could copy the works of his teacher (☞ ‫) َم ْش ِق نَقْلی‬, it was possible that he also thought of forging a work. The book Manāqeb-e Honarvarān refers to some examples of forgers such as Ebrāhīm Solṭān (son of Šāhroḫ), who forged the script of Mostaʿṣemī and sold it (Afandī 1369š/1990: 49). Some artists were forged so often that recognizing their actual works and particular style became virtually impossible. Forgers were primarily interested in forging the works of a select few calligraphers including Yāqūt Mostaʿṣemī, Mīrʿalī Heravī, Mīrʿemād, Neyrīzī and ʿAbdolmajīd Ṭāleqānī. One forger from the Safavid period was Maḥmūd b. Esḥāq Šahābī (d. ca. 993/1585), whose father, Ḫāje Esḥāq Šahābī Sīāvašānī, was magistrate in Herat. Naturally therefore, Mīrʿalī (d. 951/1544/5) was obliged to teach and train him. Maḥmūd b. Esḥāq became one of the best adherents of Mīrʿalī’s style. Unfortunately his morals were lacking and even during his teacher’s lifetime he forged Mīrʿalī’s works. While Mīrʿalī was aware of Maḥmūd b. Esḥāq’s actions, he remained silent for a time until, in language befitting of poetry, he bemoans his impudent and rather ungrateful student (ʿAlavī 1392š/2013: 160):

‫بود شاگرد این حقیر فقیر‬ ‫آنچه دانستم از قلیل و کثیر‬ ‫تا خطش یافت صورت تحریر‬ ‫گر چه او هم نمی‌کند تقصیر‬ ‫جمله را می‌کند به نام حقیر‬

‫خواجه محمود آن که یک چندی‬ ِ ‫یاد دادم به او ز ِق ّل‬ ‫ت عقل‬ ‫بهر تعلیم او دلم خون شد‬ ‫در حق او نرفته تقصیری‬ ‫می نویسد هر آنچه از بد و نیک‬

Ḫāje Maḥmūd was the apprentice of this humble one for a while. I taught him, out of my dumb wits, everything I knew. By the time his script became worthyof proper calligraphy, I suffered a great deal to train him. There was no shortcoming in training him nor does he fall short of gratitude. Whatever he writes, good or bad, he attributes it to this humble one! Maḥmūd b. Esḥāq is said to have heard this and replied: ‫موالنا نیک و بد را غلط‬ ‫ من [هر] آنچه می‌نویسم به نام او می‌کنم‬/ ‫ گفتهه‬Molānā (Mīrʿalī), said both good and bad incorrectly; what[ever] I write I do in his name. (Torkemān 1382š/ 2003: 170ff.) Ġolāmreżā Eṣfahānī (1246–1304/1830–1886) and ʿAlīakbar Golestāne (1274–1319/1858–1901) are considered to be two of the last great calligraphy masters of the Qajar period who copied and occasionally forged the

100

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šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫ ) ِش َک ْسته‌ی ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬works of ʿAbdolmajīd Ṭāleqānī (1150–1185/1737/8–1771/2). Interestingly, modern forgers have shown great ِّ ‫َخ‬ interest in forging precisely these two Qajar masters. ☞ ‫ط ُم َز َّور ☞ َم ْش ِق نَقْلی‬

ِ ‫َرن‬ ‫ ُج ْفت‬/joft/ ☞ ‫ْگ ُجفْت‬ ‫ جِ ْلد‬/jeld/ book cover. Any papier-mâché-like (☞ ‫ ) ُم َق ّوا‬material used to bind the pages of a book. (FF s.v. ‫( )جِ ْلد‬AMVR 29–34; PPB 121–123) ☞ ‫َص ّحافی‬ ‫ جِ ْلد َبنْدی‬/jeld-bandī/ ☞ ‫َص ّحافی‬ ِ ِ‫ج‬ ‫ جِ ْل ِد دو الیی‬/jeld-e dō-lāyī/ ☞ ‫لد ِسجاف‌دار‬ ‫ جِ ْل ِد روغَنی‬/jeld-e rōġanī/ bb. lacquered binding. (Fig. 52) A type of book cover that became prevalent in Iran in the 9th/15th c. and continued to gain in intricacy and beauty until perfected in the the 12th/18th and 13th/19th c. In lacquered binding, the book cover is treated with thick layers of lacquer and tinting compounds with painted designs. A very popular theme for lacquered bindings were gol-o morġ (☞ ‫ ) ُگل و ُم ْرغ‬patterns, illuminations (☞ ‫ ) َتذْ هیب‬or a combination of the two. Lacquereworks were usually created on pasteboard, papier-mâché or sometimes on cotton cloth or even wooden boards wrapped in pieces of leather. The surface (e.g. papier-mâché) for a lacquered binding is first prepared with an underpainting in a simple color on which a miniature is painted. It is then illuminated or something is written in decorative script. This is then covered with multiple layers of sandarac varnish (☞ ‫ )رو َغ ِن َکمان‬or shellac (☞ ‫)الک‬, creating a protective layer over the painting like an enamel or clear cover. (Bayānī 1353š/1974: 39; Afshar 2005; MC 265, 264, 270) ☞ ‫َص ّحافی‬ ☞ ‫الکی‌سازی‬ ‫ جِ ْلدسازی‬/jeld-sāzī/ ☞ ‫َص ّحافی‬ ِ ِ‫ ج‬/jeld-e sejāf-dār/ bb. hemmed binding. ☞ ‫َص ّحافی‬ ‫لد ِسجاف‌دار‬ ‫ جِ ْل ِد سو ْخت‬/jeld-e sūḫt/ bb. “burnt” binding. (Fig. 53) This type of binding is referred to as sūḫt or sūḫte (lit. “burnt”) because of the mild scorching the goat leather received (Haldane 1989). Intricate designs cut out of separate pieces of leather were then pasted into the openings cut out of the browned cover, and the surface around these ornamental pieces was tinted orange,

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101

figure 52 Cover of a Quran with lacquered binding, Islamic Consultative Assembly Library, Tehran

102

figure 53 Outside cover of a Quran, burnt and mosaic, 10th/16th c., Islamic Consultative Assembly Library, Tehran, no. 12274

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103 red, green, or blue to make the designs stand out. (Afshar 2005; AMVR 252– 253; 280) ☞ ‫َص ّحافی‬

‫سوزن ِی بو ِم َچ ْرمی‬ ‫ جِ ْل ِد‬/jeld-e sūzanī-ye būm-e čarmī/ bb. embroidered leather َ binding. The lightweight strength of leather and ease with which it can be carved, twisted and folded, dyed and embossed fostered greater artistic creativity and innovation with leather among bookbinders. One product of this creativity was fine embroidered leather binding. The design was transferred onto the leather and then embroidered in colored silk thread. When embroidering the needle should not pierce through to the other side of the leather, but rather pass through the middle and reemerge to complete the stitches. Stitches should be fine and evenly sized and spaced to create a harmony within the overall design. (Afshar 1357š/1978: 43) ☞ ‫َص ّحافی‬ ‫ جِ ْل ِد َض ْربی‬/jeld-e żarbī/ bb. embossed binding. Less intricate than “burnt” binding (☞ ‫)جِ ْل ِد سو ْخت‬, embossing was the result of a process by which metal designs were pressed into damp leather. Whole designs were engraved in single metal plates. These designs were often gilded (☞ ‫ ) َتذْ هیب‬in which case the leather was first covered with gold leaf then metal plate hammered or screwed into it (Haldane 1989: 364). Floral designs were typical for embossing but also the toranj (☞ ‫ )ت َُرنْج‬medallion for the center of the cover, with the sar-toranj (‫)ت َُرنْج ☞( ) َس ْر ت َُرنْج‬, which was connected to the top and bottom of the toranj medallion, and the triangular-shaped lačakī (☞ ‫ )ل ََچکی‬in each of the cover’s four corners. Sometimes the edge of the cover was decorated further with inscriptions (☞ ‫) َکتیبه‬. Depending on the subject of the book, verses from the Quran or poetry were written in calligraphic script (Māyel Heravī 1369š/1990: 111f.). The metal used for embossing was typically brass onto which designs were first drawn and then made to stand out by hammering in the negative space around them. This was then heated and pressed into the dampened leather. (Afshar 1357š/1978: 3f.; AMVR 252–253; 280) ☞ ‫َص ّحافی‬ ‫ جِ ْل ِد طَالپوش‬/jeld-e ṭalā-pūš/ bb. “gold-covered” binding. leather book cover with large parts of its designs gilded with emulsified gold (☞ ‫) َز ْر َح ّل‬. (Afshar 2005: 5) ☞ ‫َص ّحافی‬ ‫ جِ ْل ِد کاغَذی‬/jeld-e kāġaẕī/ bb. paper binding. This kind of book cover became popular in the Qajar period. It was a simple cover that used marbled (☞ ‫)ا َْبری‬ or colored paper mounted on pasteboard instead of leather. (Māyel Heravī 1369š/1990: 115) ☞ ‫َص ّحافی‬

104

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‫ جِ ْل ِد کوبیده‬/jeld-e kūbīde/ ☞ ‫جِ ْل ِد َض ْربی‬ ‫ جِ ْلد ُگذاری‬/jeld-goẕārī/ ☞ ‫َص ّحافی‬ ِ ِ‫ج‬ ‫ جِ ْل ِد الیی‬/jeld-e lāyī/ ☞ ‫لد ِسجاف‌دار‬ ‫ جِ ْل ِد الکی‬/jeld-e lākī/ ☞ ‫جِ ْل ِد رو َغنی‬ ‫ جِ ْل ِد الکی‌روغنی‬/jeld-e lākī-rōġanī/ ☞ ‫جِ ْل ِد رو َغنی‬ ‫ جِ ْل ِد لوالدار‬/jeld-e lōlā-dār/ hinged binding. ☞ ‫َص ّحافی ☞ َزبانه‬ ‫ جِ ْل ِد ُم َع َّرق‬/jeld-e moʿarraq/ bb. mosaic binding. (Fig. 54) Similar to “burnt” binding (☞ ‫ )جِ ْل ِد سو ْخت‬with the difference that cut designs of colored leather are inlaid and patterned like a mosaic into the goatskin or shagreen (☞ ‫پوست‬ ْ ) cover. The inlaid pieces are made to lie flush with the surrounding pieces and background, creating a single piece of soft leather. (Afshar 1357š/ 1978: 4f.) ☞ ‫جِ ْل ِد سو ْخت ☞ َص ّحافی‬ ِ ِ‫ج‬ ‫ جِ ْل ِد َمغْ زی‬/jeld-e maġzī/ ☞ ‫لد ِسجاف‌دار‬ ‫ جِ ْل ِد َمنْگَ نه‬/jeld-e mangane/ ☞ ‫جِ ْل ِد َض ْربی‬ ‫ َج ْل َوت‬/jalvat/ ☞ ‫َخ ْل َوت و َج ْل َوت‬ ‫ َجلی‬/jalī/ call. large; clear. (Fig. 55) An adjective used to describe script. The opposite of ḫafī (☞ ‫) َخفی‬. ☞ ‫َق َل ِم َجلی‬ ‫لی َص ْفحه‬ ِ ‫ َج‬/jalī-ye ṣafḥe/ A calligraphic specimen written with a large pen with a nib width of 6–20mm (☞ ‫ ) َق َل ِم َجلی‬on a page no larger 35×50cm because this is the size of the writing pad (☞ ‫زیر َد ْستی‬ ْ ). ‫ َج ْمع َک ْر َد ِن َسطْر‬/jamʿ kardan-e saṭr/ call. to draw in/furl the lines of text. At the end of a line written in nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬the last words or letters incline upwards towards the second baseline (☞ ‫)ک ُْرسی‬. As a result, the end of the lines is curved. In other scripts such as s̱ols̱ (☞ ‫ )ثُ ْلث‬or nasḫ (☞ ‫)ن َ ْسخ‬, this expression refers instead to the ending a line on the axis baseline (‫سی‬ ِ ‫ک ُْر‬ ِ ‫ ) ُح‬such as alef (‫ )ا‬or ‫ )ک ُْرسی ☞( ) ِم ْح َوری‬with a vertical letter (☞ ‫روف َعمودی‬ lām (‫)ل‬.

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figure 54 Inside cover of a Quran, mosaic, 10th/16th c., Islamic Consultative Assembly Library, Tehran, no. 12274

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106

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figure 55 Large saṭr by Hamid Reza Ghelichkhani, 1384š/2005. Copied from Ġolāmreżā Eṣfahānī

‫ ُجنْگ‬/jong/ 1 anthology. A group of manuscripts that contain a collection of selected poems or subject matter. 2 album. lit. “ship”, jong is the Persian equivalent of the Arabic moraqqaʿ (☞ ‫) ُم َر َّقع‬. (Blair 2000: 30) ☞ ‫َم ْجموعه‬ ‫ جو َهر‬/jōhar/ ink. A kind of synthetic liquid ink of various colors i.e. green, red, blue and purple, that can be used with a fountain pen. This differs from morakkab (☞ ‫ ) ُم َرکَّب‬which is produced with soot or carbon (☞ ‫ )دوده‬and plant gum (☞ ‫) َص ْم ِغ َع َربی‬, etc. (LD s.v. ‫ِمداد ☞ ِحبْر ☞ ُم َرکَّب ☞ )جو َهر‬ ِ ‫َرن‬ ‫ جو َه ِر روناس‬/jōhar-e rōnās/ ☞ ‫ْگ ریشه‌ی روناس‬

plate 7

Inscription on a stone slab in the courtyard of ʿAbdollāh Anṣārīʾ Mausoleum in Herat, calligraphy by Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī, 882/1475/6 (The oldest known dated and signed nastaʿlīq inscription)

‫ چاپ نویسی‬/čāp-nevīsī/ call. lit. “print writing”. (Fig. 56) During the reign of Fatḥʿalī Šāh (r. 1797–1834) two types of printing were prevalent in Iran: typo­ graphy and lithography. At this time book production had been the work of scribes and calligraphers who wrote manuscripts (☞ ‫)ن ُْسخه‌ی َخطّی‬. Although this group of artists did not play an influential role in the development of typographic book production, the tradition of manuscript writing contin­ ued in lithography, however, with a few differences. Instead of resinous ink (☞ ‫) ُم َرکَّب‬, printing ink was used, and instead of one copy, five-hundred cop­ ies were made. The lithographic process also meant that books could be illustrated, some of which were colored after printing. (Ardakānī 1352š/1973: 219) Lithographic books became so popular that it took several generations for typographic and offset printing to prevail. Most lithographic books were either written and printed in nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬or nasḫ (☞ ‫)ن َ ْسخ‬. Some calligraphers, including Moḥammad-Reżā Kalhor (1245–1310/1829–1892) and his students, made the letters “fatter” (☞ ‫ )چاق‬and more compact in an attempt to preserve the quality of nastaʿlīq in lithography. ‫ چاق‬/čāq/ call. fat. An adjective used to describe a letter, word or page of callig­ raphy that is written utilizing a greater than normal pen width, thus render­ ing every part of the letter, word or text plump; e.g. the šamare (☞ ‫) َش َمره‬, or ِ ‫) ُح‬, is written with a width final section of the circular letters (☞ ‫روف دایِره‌‌ای‬ equal to one-fourth of the total pen width instead of one-sixth. ☞ ‫ ال َغر‬/‎‫َتقْسی ِم‬ ‫خامت‬ َ ‫ِض‬ ‫ چاقو‬/čāqū/ ☞ ‫َقل َْمتَراش‬ ِ ‫َس ْن‬ ‫ چاقو تیزکُ ن‬/čāqū-tīz-kon/ ☞ ‫گ َقل َْمتَراش‬ ‫ چاقوسازی‬/čāqū-sāzī/ ☞ ‫َقل َْمتَراش‌سازی‬

© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_010

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figure 56 A lithographic print in nastaʿlīq by Moḥammad-Reżā Kalhor (d. 1310/1892)

109

110

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‫ َچپ ِنویس‬/čap-nevīs/ call. 1 lit. “left-writer”. Someone who can write from left to right reversing the letters accordingly. 2 An adjective describing Persian or Arabic text that would normally be written from right to left but has been ِّ ‫ َخ‬/‎‫توأمان‬ written as a mirror image from left to right. ☞ ‫ چپ‌نویسی‬/‎‫ط َب ْرگَ ردان‬ ‫ چپ‌نویسی‬/čap-nevīsī/ sc. lit. “left-writing”. (Fig. 57) When a calligrapher writes something from left to right instead of from right to left. Historically this was ِّ ‫) َخ‬, seals (☞ ‫ ) ُم ْه ْر َکنی‬and engraving very useful for inverted script (☞ ‫ط َب ْرگَ ْردان‬ (☞ ‫ ) َح ّکاکی‬and revealed a calligrapher’s skill. There are examples of this that when held up in front of a mirror it is perfectly readable (e.g. that of Šāh Tahmāsb of the Safavid Dynasty that is held in the University of Istanbul ِّ ‫َخ‬ Library) in some albums (☞ ‫) ُم َر َّقع‬. ☞ ‫ط َب ْرگَ ْردان‬ For this, the nib of the pen (☞ ‫ ) َق ِط َقلَم‬is cut in the opposite direction (☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫ ) َتر‬so that the vaḥšī (☞ ‫ ) َو ْحشی‬is on the left when the pen is ِّ ‫َخ‬ applied to paper. ☞ ‫ توأمان‬/‎‫ط َب ْرگَ ردان‬ ‫ َچ ْربه‬/čarbe/ A piece of oiled paper that was used like tracing paper (☞ ‫کا َغ ِذ‬ ‫پوستی‬ ْ ) to make a copy of a design or inscription (☞ ‫ ) َکتیبه‬in a process called čarbe-bardārī (‫) َچ ْربه َب ْرداری‬. This died out with the invention of the camera and copy machine. ‫ َچ ْربه َب ْرداری‬/čarbe-bardārī/ ☞ ‫َچ ْربه‬ ‫ َچ ْرب ِی دوده‬/čarbī-ye dūde/ carbon black grease. Carbon black, produced by burning petroleum products, naturally contains a grease which must elimi­ nated to make ink (☞ ‫ ) ُم َرکَّب‬or paint. This was achieved by making a paste and cooking it in an oven. ☞ ‫دوده‬ ‫ َچ ْرخ‬/čarḫ/ call. spin. (Fig. 58) This can also be referred to as virtual curvature (dōr-e majāzī ‫)دو ِر َمجازی‬. Whereas roundness (☞ ‫ ) َسطْح و دور‬or true curvature (dōr-e ḥaqīqī ‫ )دو ِر َحقیقی‬exists in circular letters (☞ ‫) َدوایِر‬, čarḫ is a slight rise or curve at the end of otherwise straight strokes. A čarḫ is created any time the movement of the pen leads to a change in the angle of the two sides of the nib, the vaḥšī (☞ ‫ ) َو ْحشی‬and ensī (☞ ‫) ِان ْسی‬, in other words when it moves from right to left. This can be seen the letters be (‫ )ب‬ḥe (‫)ح‬, dāl (‫ )د‬and fe (‫ )ف‬in initial position. For example, to begin the letter be (‫ )ب‬the nib should be at an angle of 4.4° from vertical. This is called a positive angle because it is measured on the right side of the hypothetical ruling known as the vertical baseline (korsī-ye ʿamūdī ‫سی َعمودی‬ ِ ‫)ک ُْرسی ☞( )ک ُْر‬. As the pen continues the stroke, the

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figure 57 A moraqqaʿ page written in čap-nevīsī, University of Istanbul Library, no. 1422

111

112

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figure 58 The stages of spin or turning the pen when writing the letter be (‫)ب‬

angle decreases with each segment of the letter until two-thirds of the letter has been completed, at which point the angle of the nib is at 0° and thus parallel to the vertical line. This is the widest and lowest part of the letter be (‫)ب‬. According to an old saying, this is where water would collect if it were poured into the letter. The importance of the čarḫ becomes more apparent as the angle of the pen increases in the ascent of the stroke from the lowest point and at the end of the letter when, it is necessary for a well without it, the letter would be poorly proportioned. The čarḫ completes the letter and contributes to its beauty. It is created when the angle of the pen is increased by a few degrees just before ascending. This angle acts to harmonize the positive angle at the beginning of the letter with the letter as a whole, lend­ ing it balance and thus fulfilling the calligraphic principle of proportion ِ ‫☞ ُص‬‎‫عود َحقیقی‬ ِ ‫☞ ُص‬‎‫☞ نُزولِ َمجازی‬‎‫نُزولِ َحقیقی‬ (☞ ‫ناسب‬ ُ ‫) َت‬. ☞ ‫عود َمجازی‬

‫ َچ ْرخان‬/čarḫān/ ☞ ‫ط ُ ْغرا‬ ‫ َچ ْرغان‬/čarġān/ ☞ ‫ط َُ ْغرا‬ ‫ َچ ْسب‬/časb/ to. binder, paste, adhesive, glue. Used in painting, bookbinding (☞ ‫) َص ّحافی‬, to prime paper, to bind paper to wood or mixed with paint, there are three general types of adhesives: 1. plant-based glue called serīš (☞ ‫ریش‬ ِ ‫ِس‬ ‫)ایرانی‬‎2. animal-based glue called serīšom-e taḫteī (‫ریش ِم َت ْخته‌ای‬ ُ ‫ ) ِس‬made from the hide, hooves, bones and antlers or horns of animals 3. glue from artificial materials polymer resins. (Īnānlū et al. 1367š/1988: 10; AMVR 7; PPB 92) ‫ب ْآرد‬ ِ ‫ َچ ْس‬/časb-e ārd/ flour glue. Occasionally used in painting, it is made by mixing flour with cold water. It is important that clumps of flour remain while the mixture is forming. (Īnānlū et al. 1367š/1988: 13)

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113

‫ َچ ْسبا ْن َد ِن َو َرقِ طَال‬/časbāndan-e varaq-e ṭalā/ applying gold leaf. Historically ‫ ) ِس‬mixed ِ Iranian artists used a paste made from white lead (☞ ‫فیداب ُس ْربی‬ with egg whites as an adhesive to apply gold leaf. This paste was spread onto a surface with a knife and sanded until smooth. Areas that were supposed to receive gold leaf were then dampened and the gold leaf was placed on top. This had to sit for one to two days until the gold had completely adhered to the surface. Sandarac varnish (☞ ‫ )رو َغ ِن َکمان‬was also used. It was spread onto the surface and left until tacky to the touch. Gold leaf was then applied using a soft paintbrush (☞ ‫ ) َقل َْم مو‬to gently exert pressure. After drying, the sandarac varnish was reapplied and again allowed to dry in preparation for painting. Oil lacquer or varnish can also be used. A potato that has been cut in half is rubbed over the surface to rid it of grease from the varnish that has been applied on top of the gold leaf. After this has dried a damp cloth is used to remove the grease and the surface is ready to accommodate water­ ِ ‫ ) َرن‬or gauche (☞ ‫ْگ جِ ْسمی‬ ِ ‫) َرن‬. (Jokar/Ġaffārpūrī 1396š/2017; colors (☞ ‫ْگ روحی‬ Mojarrad-Tākestānī 1372š/1993: 61) ‫ب ُا ْستُخوان‬ ِ ‫ َچ ْس‬/časb-e ostoḫān/ bone glue. An adhesive made from cow, horse, or other animal bones. The bones are separated from the flesh and fat, are cleaned, broken and boiled over medium heat. After it the liquid has thick­ ened, it is passed through a strainer and left until it has the consistency of gel at which point it is cut into strips and laid to dry. This type of glue was unknown in Iran in ancient times, however, painters did use a type of glue made by boiling cow ears and pizzle. (Īnānlū et al. 1367š/1988: 11) Glues made from bone were traditionally used in the bookmaking arts. ‫ب ِب ِر ْنج‬ ِ ‫ َچ ْس‬/časb-e berenj/ rice glue. Made by either boilng a mixture of water and rice flour for one minute or by boiling rice and then separating the rice from the liquid. In the latter case the liquid is left to sit over night and then used as a rice glaze. (Īnānlū et al. 1367š/1988: 13) Rice glue was used in classi­ cal Persian miniature painting as well as illumination (☞ ‫) َتذْ هیب‬. ‫پوست‬ ِ ‫ َچ ْس‬/časb-e pūst/ hide glue. An adhesive made from pieces of scrap ْ ‫ب‬ or otherwise useless skins such as cat or rabbit skin, pieces of suede or old leather gloves, etc. Hide glue has been known in Iran since ancient was tra­ ditionally used in the bookmaking arts. It is the best kind of glue for priming ِ ‫ ) َرن‬paper and mixed with gold a surface for oil painting, watercolor (☞ ‫ْگ روحی‬ for gilding watercolors (☞ ‫) ُمط َّلسازی‬. To prepare the glue the skins must first be cleaned of all blood, flesh and fur and soaked in limewater. It is produced using the same methods as bone ِ ‫) َچ ْس‬. The result is a very pure, fine glue that is sold in thin glue (☞ ‫ب ا ُْس ُتخوان‬

114

‫چ‬

strips. Before use the glue is mixed with water at a ratio of two parts water to one part glue and allowed to sit for twenty-four hours. The mixture is then placed over a flame inside a second container that is partly filled with boil­ ing water. The container with the mixture should remain in the water until its contents are warm. Direct heat from the flame should be avoided as it will destroy the glue’s properties. Water is added to the mixture until it has the consistency of thin jelly. At this point it is removed from the heat and allowed to cool. When used as a primer a few drops of glycerin, honey or grape syrup should be added to avoid making the canvas brittle. The best kind of glue is ِ ‫پوس‬ rabbit skin glue (serīšom-e pūst-e ḫargūš ‫ت َخ ْرگوش‬ ُ ‫) ِس‬. Litmus paper ْ ‫ریش ِم‬ can be used to check the pH of the glue which should neither be too alkaline nor too acid. (Īnānlū et al. 1367š/1988: 11)

‫ب ماهی‬ ِ ‫ َچ ْس‬/časb-e māhī/ fish glue, isinglass. Fish glue is made from the swim bladders of fish, in particular the sturgeon. The swim bladders are cleaned, allowed to dry and their skin removed. This is the primary component of fish glue which is then dissolved in boiling water. It is sold in strips and is dis­ ِ ‫ ) َچ ْس‬and bone tinct because of its strong fishy smell. Unlike hide (☞ ‫پوست‬ ْ ‫ب‬ ِ ‫) َچ ْس‬, fish glue does not taste bad, nor does it swell much glues (☞ ‫ب ا ُْس ُتخوان‬ in water. This kind of fish glue becomes transparent after it has soaked in water for 24 hours. For use it should be placed in a container which is then placed in a second container so it does not come into direct contact with the heat source. The larger of the two should be filled with water which is brought to a boil causing the glue to dissolve. (Īnānlū et al. 1367š/1988: 12) Isinglass was traditionally used in the bookmaking arts. ☞ ‫آها ِر ماهی‬ ‫شاسته‬ ِ ‫ َچ ْس‬/časb-e nešāste/ starch glue. The production of starch glue is simi­ ْ ِ‫ب ن‬ ِ ‫ ) َچ ْس‬except that water and starch are com­ lar to that of flour glue (☞ ‫ب ْآرد‬ bined in equal amounts and boiled until the appearance of clear gelatin is attained. Starch glue must be used within three days preparation. (Īnānlū et al. 1367š/1988: 13) was traditionally used in the bookmaking arts. ‫ َچلیپا‬/čalīpā/ call. lit. “slanted, oblique, intersecting”. (Figs. 59, 80–81, 138, 160, 170, II, XXI–XXV) In calligraphy, however, čalīpā refers to the writing of two or several verses (☞ ‫ ) ِب ْیت‬or four hemistichs (☞ ‫ ) ِم ْص َرع‬of verse with a com­ mon theme and a single message diagonally across one rectangular piece of paper. This is written within the framework of the classical calligraphic ِ ‫) َق‬, and it is thought that the calligra­ principles (☞ ‫واع ِد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه خوشْ ِنویسی‬ pher’s artistry, zeal, innovation and skill of execution manifested itself in a čalīpā. Having reached an advanced level, to create a čalīpā a calligraphy

115

‫چ‬

student has to both apply the fundamental aspects of good composition (☞ ‫ ) ُح ْس ِن ت َ ْشکیل‬and beauty of disposition (☞ ‫ ) ُح ْس ِن َو ْضع‬that he has learned by writing single and double lines of text, and harmonize four hemistichs that might be awkwardly shaped or contain unharmonious and unbalanced letters and words. This should be accomplished without detracting from the ideal proportions (☞ ‫ناسب‬ ُ ‫ ) َت‬of each line; at the same time the common ratio should preserve both the cohesiveness and unity of the entire piece as well as each of the four lines. All of the principles of beauty should be respected including symmetry, proportion, balance (☞ ‫ ) َتوا ُزن‬and rhythm without affectation or artifice. (Čalīpā: no. 1, 73) The distance between čalīpā hemis­ tichs depends on their length. Lines that are neither long nor short should be separated by 10 to12 dots (☞ ‫ ) َبنای ُحروف‬of the same pen that is being used for the calligraphy. For longer hemistichs this can reach up to 15 dots. Short hemistichs should contain one elongated word (☞ ‫) ِکشیده‌ ِنویسی‬, while a long hemistich is better suited for two elongated words. Elongated words are best placed across from one another. That is, the elongated word in the second hemistich should be located either just below or slightly to the right of the elongated word in the hemistich above it.

ِ ‫هار دا ْن‬ ‫گ َمشْ قی‬ ْ ‫ َچ‬/čahār-dāng-e mašqī/ ☞ ‫دانْگ‌های َم ْشقی‬ ‫ ِچ ْهره َپ ْرداز‬/čehre-pardāz/ portraitist; painter. Also called čehre-gošā (‫) ِچ ْهره ُگشا‬. ‫ ِچ ْهره َپ ْردازی‬/čehre-pardāzī/ portraiture; painting. Also called čehre-gošāyī (‫ِچ ْهره‬ ‫) ُگشایی‬. Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī (ḪS: 256) ‫کز قلم چهره‌گشایی‌ها کرد‬ ‫خطکم صورتکی پیدا کرد‬

‫توأمان مخترع مجنون است‬ ‫تا شدم مخترع صورتکش‬

Tōa‌ʾmān’s inventor was Majnūn* (i.e. Majnūn Heravī), who painted many wonderful patterns with a nib. Since devising this script, my calligraphy has matured in its shape. * The epithet majnūn has also a metonymy to the literary meaning of the word “crazy”; i.e. the inventor of tōa‌ʾmān script was ‘crazy’ enough to design it.

‫ ِچ ْهره ُگشا‬/čehre-gošā/ ☞ ‫ِچ ْهره َپ ْرداز‬ ‫ ِچ ْهره ُگشایی‬/čehre-gošāyī/ ☞ ‫ِچ ْهره َپ ْردازی‬

116

figure 59 A page from the Golšan Album, čalīpā in nastaʿlīq by ʿAlī al-Kāteb, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran

‫چ‬

plate 8

Colophon from the Saʿdī’s Būstān, calligraphy by Mīrʿalī Kāteb, 944/1537/8 in Bukhara, Islamic Consultative Assembly Library, Tehran

‫ حاشیه‬/ḥāšīye/ margin. ḥāšīye can also refer to what is written or painted in the margins or page borders. (AMVR 38–39; 156–157) ☞ ‫ها ِمش ☞ حاشیه ِنگاری‬ ‫ حاشیه ِنگاری‬/ḥāšīye-negārī/ call. margin writing. Writing in verse or prose in the margins or borders (☞ ‫ )حاشیه‬of a book or treatise. This was typically done by calligraphers who were knowledgable on the subject of the book or treatise and the added text was always relevant the work, e.g. a calligrapher poet might write something the margins of another poet’s work. (AMVR 38–39; 156–157) ‫ حالِک‬/ḥālek/ deep black. ☞ ‫ُم َرکَّب‬ ‫ ِحبْر‬/ḥebr/ to. ink (☞ ‫ ;) ُم َرکَّب‬soot (☞ ‫ ;)دوده‬black ink (☞ ‫) ِمداد‬. Ḥebr originally referred to tannate inks which were typically made from gallnuts and ferrous compounds, and were dark brown in color. Ḥebr is not water soluble and reacts chemically with the writing surface eventually leading to corrosion. After the eleventh century ḥebr began to be used synonymously with medād (☞ ‫ ) ِمداد‬which originally designated soot inks. This is probably due to the eventual mixing of the two types. Recipes for preparing ḥebr ink are given by eleventh-century Ebn-e Bādīs in the third chapter of his book ʿOmdat al-Kottāb. (AMT 27–28; AMTS 14; AMVR 132–135; IC 61f.) ☞ ‫ُم َرکَّب‬ ☞ ‫☞ ِمداد‬‎‫جو َهر‬ ‫ َح ّجار‬/ḥajjār/ ☞ ‫َس ْن ْگتَراش‬ ‫ َح َّر َره‬/ḥarrarah/ lit. “written”. A word sometimes written by scriveners preceding their name at the end of a work. ‫ َح ْرف‬/ḥarf/ letter. Each of the alphabetic units i.e. alef (‫)ا‬, be (‫)ب‬, pe (‫)پ‬, te (‫)ت‬, etc. It is pluralized ḥorūf (‫( ) ُحروف‬FF s.v. ‫) َح ْرف‬. Instruction of the letters is the first step when learning calligraphy. (AMT 31–32; AMVR 10–11) ‫ َح َرکات‬/ḥarakāt/ ☞ ‫ِا ْعراب‬ © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_011

‫ح‬

119

ِ ‫ ُح‬/ḥorūf-e bargardān/ lit. “reversed letters”. Script that has been ‫روف َب ْگَر ْردان‬ printed on the back side of a sheet of thin, transparent material such as mica that can be transferred onto a piece of paper by rubbing the tip of ِ ‫ُح‬ a pencil or other hard object over the sheet (Karāmatī 1370š/1991 s.v. ‫روف‬ ‫) َب ْرگَ ْردان‬. There are a number of scripts that make use of this such as kūfī (☞ ‫)کوفی‬, nasḫ (☞ ‫)ن َ ْسخ‬, type letters and numbers. Sizes can vary. Ḥorūf-e bargardān is also the Persian term given to the British trademark Letraset, which produces lettering sheets for dry transfer, including special sheets for Persian and Arabic calligraphy. ِ ‫ ُح‬/ḥorūf-e taḫt/ call. flat/plain letters. Letters whose body consists ‫روف َت ْخت‬ primarily of horizontal “straightness” (☞ ‫ ) َسطْح و دور‬and that are written on the korsī baseline (☞ ‫)ک ُْرسی‬. They are drawn with a horizontal movement of the pen (within a letter or a word) such as in the letters be (‫)ب‬, fe (‫)ف‬, kāf ِ ‫ُح‬ )‫)ک‬. ☞ ‫روف َعمودی ☞ َدوایِر‬ ِ ‫ ُح‬/ḥorūf-e tarṣīf/ ☞ ‫ک ُْرسی‬ ‫روف ت َْرصیف‬ ‫ ُحرو ْفچین‬/ḥorūf-čīn/ typesetter, compositor. A person who sets lead type for printing. ِ ‫ ُح‬/ḥorūf-e dāyereī/ ☞ ‫َدوایِر‬ ‫روف دا ِیره‌ای‬ ِ ‫ ُح‬/ḥorūf-e derāz/ lit. “long letters”. Letters that can be elongated, i.e. sīn ‫روف ِدراز‬ (‫ )س‬and be (‫)ب‬. ☞ ‫ِکشیده‌ ِنویسی‬ ِ ‫ ُح‬/ḥorūf-e došvār/ difficult letters. Letters that are difficult for even ‫روف ُدشْ وار‬ experienced calligraphers (☞ ‫ )خوشْ ِنویس‬such as jīm (‫)ج‬, ṣād (‫)ص‬, ṭāʾ (‫)ط‬, ʿeyn (‫)ع‬, mīm (‫)م‬, he (‫)ه‬, and ye (‫ )ی‬in nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫)ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬. Altogether as when writing circular (☞ ‫ ) َدوایِر‬and curved letters in most Islamic scripts, they require a lot of concentration on the part of the calligrapher to maintain their proportion and symmetry (☞ ‫ناسب‬ ُ ‫) َت‬. ِ ‫ ُح‬/ḥorūf-e ʿamūdī/ vertical letters. Letters whose body consists ‫روف َعمودی‬ primarily of a vertical stroke such as in the letters alef (‫ )ا‬or mīm (‫)م‬. The stroke can drawn both with virtual downstroke (☞ ‫ )نُزولِ َمجازی‬and a virtual ِ ‫) ُص‬, i.e. a stroke with a tašmīr (☞ ‫)ت َ ْشمیر‬. ☞ ‫روف ☞ َدوایِر‬ ِ ‫ُح‬ upstroke (☞ ‫عود َمجازی‬ ‫َت ْخت‬

120

‫ح‬

ِ ‫ ُح‬/ḥorūf-e ṭelesmāt/ talisman script. A script that was used on tal‫روف ِطلِ ْسمات‬ ismans and for magic that was written so as not to be understood by others. ِ ‫ُح‬ ِ ‫روف‬ (Māyel Heravī 1353š/1974: 72) ☞ ‫کاشف ☞ ا َْب َجد‬ ِ ‫ ُح‬/ḥorūf-e kāšefī/ A type of talisman script (☞ ‫روف ِط ِل ْسمات‬ ِ ‫روف‬ ِ ‫ ) ُح‬that ‫کاشفی‬ was used by physicians or medicine men to write out some prescriptions or spells so as not to be understood by others. (Māyel Heravī 1353š/1974: 73) ِ ‫ ُح‬/ḥorūf-e motašābe/ analogous letters. Letters with the same basic ‫روف ُمتَشابه‬ shape that differ only in the number and placement of their dots, e.g. ḥe (‫)ح‬, jīm (‫)ج‬, če (‫ )چ‬and ḫe (‫ ;)خ‬dāl (‫ )د‬and ẕāl (‫ ;)ذ‬and re (‫ )ر‬and ze (‫ ;)ز‬be (‫ )ب‬pe (‫ )پ‬te (‫)ت‬, s̱e (‫)ث‬. These are variations of different “base letters” (ḥorūf-e ِ ‫) ُح‬. ☞ ‫روف ُمفْرد‬ ِ ‫ُح‬ pāye ‫روف پایه‬ َ ِ ‫ ُح‬/ḥorūf-e morakkab/ compound letters. Letters that are composed ‫روف ُم َرَّکب‬ of one or more simple components, e.g. mīm (‫)م‬, fe (‫)ف‬, lām (‫)ل‬, he (‫ )ه‬and kāf (‫)ک‬. For example the letter kāf (‫ )ک‬is made with the alef (‫ )ا‬stroke, followed by the be (‫ )ب‬stroke and completed with the head-stroke (☞ ‫) َس ْر ِکش‬. ِ ‫ُح‬ ☞ ‫فرد‬ َ ‫روف ُم‬ ِ ‫ ُح‬/ḥorūf-e mofrad/ 1 uncompounded letters. Letters that are com‫روف ُم ْف َرد‬ ِ ‫ ُح‬‎ posed of one simple part or stroke, i.e. alef (‫)ا‬, be (‫ )ب‬and re (‫روف ُم َرکَّب ☞ )ر‬ 2 singular letters. Letters that are unique in their basic shape and have no ِ ‫ُح‬ analogues, i.e. lām (‫)ل‬, mīm (‫ )م‬and vāv (‫روف ُم َتشابه ☞ )و‬ ‫ ِح ْزب‬/ḥezb/ ☞ ‫سی‌پاره‬ ‫ساب ُج َّمل‬ ِ ‫ ِح‬/ḥesāb-e jommal/ ☞ ‫ا َْب َجد‬ ‫ ُح ْس ِن ت َشْ کیل‬/ḥosn-e taškīl/ well-shaped, beauty of formation. According to Ebn-e Moqle, the principles of calligraphy can be divided into two groups, the beauty of formation and beauty of disposition (☞ ‫) ُح ْس ِن َو ْضع‬. These principles are respected in individual letters and how they are joined together in ِ ‫َق‬ a word. ☞ ‫واع ِد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ ِنویسی‬ ّ ‫ ُح ْس ِن َخ‬/ḥosn-e ḫaṭṭ/ beauty of script. Calligraphy that is well written and ‫ط‬ pleasing to the eye. This is achieved when the principals of calligraphy ِ ‫ َق‬Solṭān ʿAli Mašhadī considered are respected. ☞ ‫واع ِد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ ِنویسی‬ ḥosn-e ḫaṭṭ to lie in its legibility (☞ ‫( )خوانا‬ṢS: 21):

121

‫ح‬ ِّ ‫آن اشارت بود به خ‬ ‫ط نکو‬ ‫نه که در خواندنش فرومانند‬ ‫نتوان خواندنش به آسانی‬ ‫ دیده را کند گلخن‬،‫ُبح خط‬ ِ ‫ق‬

ِ ‫شهرت او‬ ‫خط که مایقرأست‬ ‫ که برخوانند‬،‫به ِر آن است خط‬ ‫ای که مایقرأش همی خوانی‬ ‫ چشم را کند روشن‬،‫سن خط‬ ِ ‫ُح‬

Any handwriting described as legible reflects a hint at its beauty. Script is meant to be read, not to puzzle the reader. You cannot call a script legible, when no one can read it easily! The beauty of script illuminates the eye, ugly script makes the eye (burn) like a furnace. According to the Nōrūz-nāme (Ḥakīm ʿŌmar Ḫayyām Neyšāpūrī), “Three good things must be present in good calligraphy. If one of these is missing, even if the calligrapher is a master, his work will not be beautiful. The first is the pen, the second the ink, and the third the paper.” In the introduction to his book, Ebn-e Ḫaldūn (808/1405/6) writes, “In every city, the beauty and quality of its calligraphy is a function of the society and prosperity of its citizens as well as their efforts to progress and attain perfection. This is because calligraphy is an art whose progression is dependent on the state of a nation’s civilization and prosperity.” Ebn-e Moqle says that, “ḥosn-e ḫaṭṭ is the product of four things: the blackness of the ink, respecting the methods and principles of good penmanship, a good pen that is well carved, and the appropriate paper, high in quality and supple.” (Faẓāʾelī 1370š/1991: 72) In order to achieve beauty of formation for the letters the following aspects are necessary: 1. tōfīe (‫)توفیه‬: maintaining the correct straightness and roundness (☞ ‫ ) َسطْح و ُدور‬proportionate to the width of the pen (☞ ‫) َد ِم َقلَم‬ 2. etmām (‫) ِاتْمام‬: maintaining correct proportion the length, width and height of the letters 3. aṣbāġ (‫)ا َْصباغ‬: maintaining the correct concentration of ink while writing 4. ekmāl (‫) ِاکْمال‬: respecting all of the principles while writing 5. ersāl (‫) ِا ْرسال‬: the exit or flourish of the pen as the end of letters such as dāl (‫)د‬, vāv (‫)و‬, re (‫ِارسال ☞ )ر‬ In order to achieve ḥosn-e vażʿ (☞ ‫) ُح ْس ِن َو ْضع‬, the following points must be respected: 1. tarṣīf (‫) َت ْرصیف‬: maintaining the correct placement of a letter or word in relation to other letters and words 2. tasṭīr (‫)ت َ ْسطیر‬: maintaining a harmony between all the letters and words on a given line

122 3. 4.

‫ح‬ ta‌ʾlīf (‫)تألیف‬: maintaining beauty in the joining of letters within a word tafṣīl (‫) َتفْصیل‬: maintaining the beauty in the elongation (☞ ‫) ِکشیده‌ ِنویسی‬ of individual letters and words

‫ ُح ْس ِن ُمجاو َِرت‬/ḥosn-e mojāverat/ ☞ ‫ُح ْس ِن َه ْم َجواری‬ ‫ ُح ْس ِن َوضْ ع‬/ḥosn-e vażʿ/ call. beauty of positioning. To achieve the correct positioning of a line of text the following points should be respected: the composition of the line, the distance between lines, beauty of proximity (☞ ‫ُح ْس ِن‬ ‫ ) َه ْم َجواری‬and harmony among the words, baseline (☞ ‫ )ک ُْرسی‬and elongation ِ ‫) َق‬. (☞ ‫واع ِد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ ِنویسی ☞ ِکشیده‌ ِنویسی‬ ‫ ُح ْس ِن َه ْم َجواری‬/ḥosn-e hamjavārī/ call. beauty of proximity. Maintaining the symmetry and harmony within the placement of the letters and words. The calligrapher is careful to select the appropriate interliteral space, respect the baseline (☞ ‫ )ک ُْرسی‬and symmetry within a line and on the page. ‫ َحک َک ْر َدن‬/ḥak kardan/ to engrave, carve. In book decoration this expression is used to refer to the scraping away of a scribal mistake. This was sometimes achieved with the tip of a penknife (☞ ‫ ) َقل َْمتَراش‬or gezlak (☞ ‫ِگ ْزلَک‬ ّ ‫الح َخ‬ ☞‫ط‬ ِ ‫) ِا ْص‬. ‫ َحکّ اکی‬/ḥakkākī/ engraving. (Fig. 60) The work of an engraver (ḥakkāk ‫) َح ّکاک‬ was often to engrave seals or stamps. The first stamps were made in clay and were used to leave a relief image in wax. One of the major changes that took place in the stamp engraving happened with the elimination of images in the Islamic periods. With the spread of Islam engraved images gave way engraved calligraphy. Stamp engraving also underwent major changes in particular during the Ilkhanate and Safavid periods. Artist engravers were not only masters in the art of engraving, calligraphy and painting, but also had a deep understanding of letter proximity (☞ ‫) ُح ْس ِن َه ْم َجواری‬, composition, symmetry and alliteration. Yet, making stamps was just one product in the art of engraving. Other uses for artistic engraving include coin faces and the lead moulds used in the minting of coins, and the preliminary impressions in steel and stones such as jasper for gold inlay. Famous engravers who played an important role in the development of artistic engraving and calligraphy include Sayyed ʿAlī Ḥakkāk Tehrānī (the father of Mīr Ḥoseyn Ḫōšnevīsbāšī and teacher of Mīrzā Ġalāmreżā Eṣfahānī), Mīrzā Moḥammad Ḥoseyn Ḥakkākbāšī and Mīrzā Moḥammad-Ṭāher Ḥakkākbāšī.

123

‫ح‬

figure 60 Engraved seal of Moḥammad-Šāh Qajar (1808–1848), d. 1250/1834/35 (Mīrzā-Abolqāsemī 1393š/2014: 17)

‫ َح ْلقه‌ی ُحروف‬/ḥalqe-ye ḥorūf/ ☞ ‫َدوایِر‬ ‫ َحل کاری‬/ḥal-kārī/ ☞ ‫َز ْر َح ّل‬ ‫ َحل َک ْر َدن‬/ḥal kardan/ illum. lit. “to dissolve”. To create solutions of gold and silver for use in book ornamentation (☞ ‫) َتذْ هیب ☞ َز ْر َح ّل‬. (Jokar/Ġaffārpūrī 1396š/2017) ‫ َحمای ِلی‬/ḥamāyelī/ ☞ ‫َقطْع‬ ‫ َحنایی‬/ḥanāyī/ Paper that has been stained with henna. ☞ ‫ خو ْد َرنْگ‬Kalīm Hamadānī (Qahremān 1369š/1990: 228; Barkeshli 2016: 64–67) ‫تا به یاد او دهم چشم به خون پرورده را‬

ِ ‫کاغذ غمنامه را کردم حنایی از سرشک‬

The letter I wrote describing my pain was dyed in the colour of henna to remind the beloved of the eyes which are dipped in blood. BBP 32, 38, 40–44, 64

plate 9

A page from the Golšan Album, poem and calligraphy by Mīrʿalī Kāteb, 940/1533/4, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran

‫ خاتَم‬/ḫātam/ seal. lit. “finisher”. A ring seal that was used to stamp the end of letters. Najīb Kāšānī (Dādbeh 1382š/2003: 252) ‫سرمه هر کس خورد در عالم بلندآواز شد‬

‫همچو خاتم کز سیاهی نام برمی‌آورد‬

Just as ink made a seal produce a name, every mute person in the world regained their voice.

‫ خا ِتمه‬/ḫāteme/ lit. “end, final”. The end of a letter or text. The last page or several pages of a manuscript generally contain colophons (☞ ‫) َانْجامه ☞ َت ْرقیمه‬, stamp and seal of the calligrapher, illuminator, etc. ‫ خا ِت َم ُة الْ ِکتاب‬/ḫātemat-ol-ketāb/ ☞ ‫خا ِتمه‬ ‫ خاک بیز‬/ḫāk-bīz/ to. A small sieve or container into which fine, dry sand was poured. Historically, this sand was rubbed on the the back of a freshly carved nib (☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫ ) َتر‬to remove the oils from the outer skin of the reed so that the ink would not bead up at the tip and potentially ruin the script. This is no longer a common practice. (Faẓāʾelī 1370š/1991: 55) Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī (ṢS: 24) ‫خاک بر پشت خامه مالیدی‬

‫کاتبا چون قلم تراشیدی‬

O scribe, once you carved your pen, rub sand on the back of the pen.

‫ خاکِ ْستَ ِر ط َْرح‬/ḫākestar-e ṭarḥ/ lit. “design ashes”. Ashes or fine coal dust that was used to transfer images by poking tiny holes in a piece of paper (☞ ‫)سو َزن َز َدن‬. ‫مالیدن َبر َقلَم‬ ‫ خاک‬/ḫāk mālīdan bar qalam/ ☞ ‫خاک بیز‬ َ

© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_012

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‫ خام‬/ḫām/ call. lit. “raw”. An adjective that describes script that is weak and lacking in substance such as when a calligrapher fails to adhere to all the ِ ‫) ُپ ْخته ☞ َق‬ principles of calligraphy (‫واعد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ ِنویسی‬ ‫ خامه‬/ḫāme/ ☞ ‫َقلَم‬ ‫ خامه َبر َت ْخته نَها َدن‬/ḫāme bar taḫte nahādan/ To prepare the tools for writing. ‫ خامه بَ ْستَن‬/ḫāme bastan/ pn. Making a paintbrush (☞ ‫ ) َقل َْم مو‬with animal hairs (‫)مو‬. (‫)سا ْخت َ ِن َقلَمو ☞‌خامه‬ ‫ خامه ُجنْبان‬/ḫāme-jonbān/ writer, scribe, calligrapher. ‫ خامه َز َدن‬/ḫāme zadan/ ☞ ‫قاق َز َدن‬ ْ ‫َق‬ ‫ خامه َزن‬/ḫāme-zan/ ☞ ‫ط َزن‬ ‫ خامه َسر َک ْر َدن‬/ḫāme sar kardan/ call. Carving the tip of a reed pen or ḫāme (‫)خامه‬. ☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫َتر‬ ‫ خامه‌ی فوالد‬/ḫāme-ye fūlād/ A pen with a metal tip that is thought to have been commonly used for writing beginning in the 10th/16th c. ‫ خامه‌ی مو‬/ḫāme-ye mū/ ☞ ‫َقلَمو‬ ‫ خانه کِشی‬/ḫāne-kešī/ ☞ ‫َج ْد َول َب ْندی‬ ‫ خَتایی‬/ḫatāyī/ illum. lit. “Khitai” or “chinoiserie”. (Figs. 61–67) One of two categories of patterns of arabesque (☞ ‫ َختایی‬-‫) ِا ْسلیمی‬, that make up Iranian/ Islamic illumination (☞ ‫) َتذْ هیب‬. As opposed to eslīmī (☞ ‫) ِا ْسلیمی‬, which is comprised of patterns that are primarily abstractions of the animal world, ḫatāyī (☞ ‫ ) َختایی‬patterns are supposed to express abstractions of plants. Two major categories of ḫatāyī patterns are “ḫatāyī-flowers” (gol-e ḫatāyī ِ ‫) َبر‬. There are different ‫ ) ُگلِ َختایی‬and “ḫatāyī-leaves” (barg-e ḫatāyī ‫گ َختایی‬ types of ḫatāyī-flowers such as gol-e šāh-ʿabbāsī (‫) ُگلِ َعباسی شاه‬, also known ِ ‫)بر‬, šāhas nīlūfar-e šāh-ʿabbāsī (‫)نیلوف ِر شاه َ‌عباسی‬, barg-e bādbezanī (‫گ بادب َِزنی‬ ʿabbāsī-ye anārī (‫ )عباسی اَناری شاه‬and gol-pīč (‫)پیچ ُگل‬. Among ḫatāyī-leaves particulary mentionable are “simple-ḫatāyī-leaf” ِ ‫ )بر‬as well as “broken-branch” šāḫe-šekaste barg-e ḫatāyī-ye sāde (‫گ ختاییِ ساده‬ (‫)شاخه ِ‌ش َکسته‬.

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figure 61 Two different types of gol-e šāh-ʿabbāsī (Ḥaṣuri 1381š/2002: 108)

figure 62 Barg-e bādbezanī (Ḥaṣuri 1381š/2002: 108)

figure 63 Šāh-ʿabbāsī-ye anārī (Ḥaṣuri 1381š/2002: 108)

figure 64 Ḫatāyī-flower gol-pīč in combination with ḫatāyī-leaf šāḫe-šekaste (Ḥaṣuri 1381š/2002: 108)

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figure 65 Composition with barg-e ḫatāyī and ḫatāyī-buds (Nīkbīn 1383š/2004: 36)

In order to create harmony in a ḫatāyī design, of the thousands of ḫatāyī-style flowers, leaves and buds, generally two to six types of flowers, three to four types of leaves, and two to three types of buds were chosen and mixed together in the composition. Elegant curved baselines are characteristic of this style, each of which is referred to as a band (☞ ‫ ) َب ْند‬These bands cover the whole surface. Ḫatāyī and eslīmī (☞ ‫ ) ِا ْسلیمی‬combine to form a type of arabesque called ḫatāyī-e eslīmī (‫) َختاییِ ِا ْسلیمی‬. The main compositional structure, which the ḫatāyī motifs, flowers and leaves are places on it or grow up from it, is a spiral pattern, from which, each spiral branches away further secondary spirals. Again each of them could be source of more additional spirals. In illumination which ḫatāyī is depicted in combination with eslīmī patterns they must adhere to strict rules. For example, the spiral baselines of the ḫatāyī are not allowed to cross the main body of the eslīmī. In addition, the ḫatāyī patterns are always depicted spatially lower than eslīmī as inspired by the Sufi mystical doctrine that places plants below animals in a hierarchy of beings. Fig. 67 shows the seperation and different level of both eslīmī and ḫatāyī bands in a combined pattern. The baseline of bands of ḫatāyī are shown with cardioid thick lines in the link image, completed in the right image with different ḫatāyī flowers. (Kadoi 2018; AMVR 10; 179–183; 185; 287; PPB 110–111, 115, 145) ☞ ‫ َختایی ☞ َتذْ هیب‬-‫ِا ْسلیمی ☞ ِا ْسلیمی‬

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figure 66 Composition with barg-e ḫatāyī and ḫatāyī-buds (Nīkbīn 1383š/2004: 37)

figure 67 A combined eslīmī-ḫatāyī pattern. The seperation and different level of both eslīmī and ḫatāyī bands (ʾĀqāmīri 1386š/2007: 26)

129

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figure 68 Quran in bāborī, Āstān-e Qods Rażavī Library, no. 50

‫ خَتای ِی اِ ْسلیمی‬/ḫatāyī-e eslīmī/ ☞ ‫َختایی‬ ّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ/ lit. “line”. Also script, handwriting. Sometimes ḫaṭṭ refers to calligra‫ط‬ phy in general or a calligraphic specimen. (AMT 42–43) ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e āyeneī/ ☞‎‫ط َب ْرگَ ْردان‬ ِّ ‫َخ‬ ‫ط آی ِنه‌ای‬ ّْ ‫َخ‬ ‫ َخطّاشی‬/ḫaṭṭāšī/ ☞ ‫ط نَقاشی‬ ‫ َخطّاط‬/ḫaṭṭāṭ/ ☞ ‫خوشْ ِنویس‬ ُّ ُ ‫الریاسی‬ ّ ‫ خَط‬/ḫaṭṭ-or-rīāsī/ ☞ ‫الریاسی‬ ّ ‫َق َلم‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e bāborī/ sc. (Fig. 68) Ẓahīroldīn Moḥammad Bābor (888– ‫ط با ُبری‬ 937/1483–1530), who laid the foundations for the Mughal Dynasty devised the bāborī script in an effort to bring the Arabic and Hindi scripts closer together. Writing on the events of 910/1504/5 in the Baburnama, Bābor says that he invented bāborī in Kabul (Thakston 1996: 186 [folio 145], 223 [folio 179], 422 [folio 357b]). Contrary to Bābor’s expectations, the script did not become popular and was forgotten within a century of its introduction. In ʿAjāʾeb-oṭ-ṭabaqāt written in 1055/1645/6 by Moḥammad Ṭāher b. Qāsem, Qāsem describes the 29 letters in bāborī when discussing other alphabets.

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131

figure 69 An example of bargardān Moṣṭafā Rāqem, translational practice by ʿOmar Vaṣfī Efendī (1880–1928), from the collection of Ali Reza Ozcan Ozel, Turkey

Given that bāborī did not include the Persian letters pe (‫)پ‬, že (‫)ژ‬, če (‫)چ‬ and gāf (‫ )گ‬it can be assumed that Bābor intended it be used to write the Quran and other Arabic texts. Experts believe that a Quran in the Āstān-e Qods Rażavī Library in Mashhad written in the hand of an unknown scribe is bāborī. The Quran however, bears no resemblance to the letters described ʿAjāʾeb-oṭ-ṭabaqāt. Abdul Hai Habibi, a prominent Afghan historian (1910– 1984), compared the works and is of the opinion that the Quran in the Āstān-e Qods Rażavī Library is not in fact written in bāborī but rather a different script. (Azimdzhanova 1964; Ḥabībī 1349š/1970)

ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e bāṭel/ void line. A line which was drawn above a line of text or ِ ‫ط‬ ‫باطل‬ verse (☞ ‫ )بِیت‬to indicate it as null and void. ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e bargardān/ sc. lit. “reversed script”. (Fig. 69) Calligraphy that ‫ط َب ْگَر ْردان‬ is written from both left to right and right to left to form two symmetrical sides that meet in the middle. This type of writing can be used to form geometrical designs, people, animals or plants and represents playful side of calligraphy. All scripts including geometric Kufic (☞ ‫) َم ْع ِقلی‬, Kufic (☞ ‫)کوفی‬, nasḫ (☞ ‫)ن َ ْسخ‬, s̱ols̱ (☞ ‫ )ثُ ْلث‬and nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫)ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬. Also called “mirrored script”

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ِّ ‫) َخ‬, “reflected script” (ḫaṭṭ-e moteʿākes ‫ط ُم ِتعا ِکس‬ ِّ ‫ ) َخ‬and (ḫaṭṭ-e āyeneī ‫ط ای آینِه‬ ِّ ‫) َخ‬. “reciprocal script” (ḫaṭṭ-e moteqābel ‫ط ُمقابِل‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e borīde/ ☞ ‫َقطّاعی‬ ‫ط ُبریده‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e boṭlān/ ☞ ‫باطل‬ ِّ ‫َخ‬ ِ ‫ط‬ ‫ط ُبطْالن‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e banāyī/ ☞ ‫َم ْع ِقلی‬ ‫ط َبنایی‬ ‫ ُخطْبه‬/ḫoṭbe/ lit. “sermon, speech”. Sentences written at the beginning of a text or treatise in praise of God and the Prophet and offering advice and council. ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e poḫte/ ☞ ‫ُپ ْخته‬ ‫ط ُپ ْخته‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e pīrāmūz/ ☞ ‫پیرآموز‬ ‫ط پیرآموز‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e taḥrīrī/ ☞ ‫َت ْحریری‬ ‫ط َت ْحریری‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e tarqīn/ ☞ ‫َت ْرقین‬ ‫ط ت َْرقین‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e tazīīnī/ sc. decorative/ornamental script. ☞ ‫ُگ ْلزار‬ ‫ط تَزیینی‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e taʿlīq/ ☞ ‫َت ْعلیق‬ ‫ط ت َْعلیق‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e tafannonī/ sc. lit. “playful script”. (Figs. 70–71) Nāḫonī (☞ ‫ط‬ ِّ ‫َخ‬ ‫ط َت َف ُّننی‬ ِّ ‫ ) َخ‬as well as pictorial writ‫)نا ُخنی‬, tōa‌ʾmān (☞ ‫ )توأمان‬bargardān (☞ ‫ط َب ْرگَ ْردان‬ ّْ ‫ ) َخ‬are all considered playful scripts. In all of these the value ing (☞ ‫ط نَقاشی‬ of the work lies in the end image and its overall appearance rather than the ِ ‫) َق‬. calligraphic principles (☞ ‫واع ِد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ ِنویسی‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e tōa‌ʾmān/ ☞ ‫توأمان‬ ‫ط توأمان‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e s̱ols̱/ ☞ ‫ثُ ْلث‬ ‫ط ُث ْلث‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e čap nevīs/ ☞ ‫چپ‌نویسی‬ ‫پ ِنویس‬ ْ ‫ط َچ‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e čalīpā/ ☞ ‫َچلیپا‬ ‫ط َچلیپا‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e ḥāmel/ ☞ ‫ک ُْرسی‬ ‫ط حا ِمل‬

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133

figure 70 “Playful script” by Moḥammad Qazvīnī, 1250/1834/5, Čehel-Sotūn Museum, Qazvin

figure 71 “Playful script” by Moḥammad Qazvīnī, 1250/1834/5, Reżā Abbāsī Museum, Tehren

ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e dorošt/ lit. “large script”. A non-technical term to describe ‫ط د ُُرشْ ت‬ ِّ ‫)دانْگ ☞ َخ‬ script that has been written with a two-dāng pen or larger (☞ ‫ط ریز‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e dīvānī/ ☞ ‫دیوانی‬ ‫ط دیوانی‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e reqāʿ/ ☞ ‫رِقاع‬ ‫ط رِقاع‬

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ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e roqʿe/ ☞ ‫ُرقْعه‬ ‫ط ُر ْقعه‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e ravān/ ☞ ‫خوانا‬ ‫ط َروان‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e reyḥān/ ☞ ‫ر ِْیحان‬ ‫ط ِر ْیحان‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e rīz/ lit. “tiny script”. A non-technical term to describe script that ‫ط ریز‬ has been written with a pen with a nib width of 0.75–1.5mm (☞ ‫تابت‬ َ ‫ ) َق َل ِم ِک‬or ِّ smaller. ☞ ‫َخط ُد ُرشْ ت‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e zamīne/ ☞ ‫ک ُْرسی‬ ‫ط َزمینه‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e sāye-rōšan/ ☞ ‫کسته بَ ْسته‬ ‫ط سایه روشَ ن‬ ْ ‫ِش‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e ṭoġrā/ ☞ ‫ط ُ ْغرا‬ ‫ط طُغْ را‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e ṭūmār/ sc. lit. “scroll script”. When any of the Six Pens (☞ ‫َاقْال ِم‬ ‫ط طومار‬ ‫ ) ِششگانه‬is written very large (☞ ‫) َجلی‬. ☞ ‫َق َل ِم َجلی‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e ġobār/ ☞ ‫َق َل ِم غُبار‬ ‫ط ُغبار‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e korsī/ ☞ ‫ک ُْرسی‬ ‫ط کُ ْرسی‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e kūfī/ ☞ ‫کوفی‬ ‫ط کوفی‬ ّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-goẕār/ scribe, writer, calligrapher. ☞ ‫کا ِتب‬ ‫ط ُگذار‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e golzār/ ☞ ‫ُگ ْلزار‬ ‫ط ُگ ْلزار‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e moteʿākes/ ☞ ‫ط َب ْرگَ ْردان‬ ِّ ‫َخ‬ ‫ط ُم ِتعاکِس‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e motaqābel/ ☞ ‫ط َب ْرگَ ْردان‬ ِّ ‫َخ‬ ‫ط ُم َتقابِل‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e moḥaqqaq/ ☞ ‫ُم َحقَّق‬ ‫ط ُم َح َّقق‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e mozavvar/ call. lit: “hypocrite script”. A script that has been forged ‫ط ُم َز َّور‬ from a master. In Persian literature it is a metaphor for a lover’s hair. ☞ ‫َج ْعل‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e mosalsal/ ☞ ‫ُمس ْلسل‬ ‫ط ُم َس ْل َسل‬ َ َ

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135

ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e maʿqelī/ ☞ ‫َم ْع ِقلی‬ ‫ط َم ْع ِقلی‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e mīzān/ ☞ ‫ک ُْرسی‬ ‫ط میزان‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e nāḫonī/ sc. lit. “fingernail script”. (Figs. 72–73) This is a way of ‫ط نا ُخنی‬ creating calligraphy by using one’s nail to create a relief on paper. No ink or color is used for this technique, instead the three-dimensionality of the script renders it visible with the shadows it creates. Examples of Qajar-era pieces in nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬are in the Golestān Palace Library, Tehran. Nāṣer Javāherpur (b. 1322š/1943) is a contemporary master who uses this style. It is made by placing the paper between the nail of the thumb and ring finger and exerting pressure. ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e nastaʿlīq/ ☞ ‫ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬ ‫ط ن َْس َت ْعلیق‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e nasḫ/ ☞ ‫ن َ ْسخ‬ ‫ط ن َْسخ‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e nešaste/ lit. “sitting script”. Calligraphy that is “mature” ‫ط ن ِ َش ْسته‬ (☞ ‫خته‬ ْ ‫ ) ُپ‬and legible. ☞ ‫َق َل ِم ِچرا‬

figure 72 Nāḫonī, created by contemporary calligrapher Nāṣer Javāherpūr, Tehran

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figure 73 An illustration of how to create a nāḫonī

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137

ّْ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-naqqāšī/ sc. pictorial writing. (Figs. 74–77) When calligraphy is ‫ط َن ّقاشی‬ used to depict animals or plants, etc. Pictorial writing has a very long history but increased in popularity beginning in the 10th/16th c. Birds written in the phrase ‫“ بسم ال َّله الرحمن الرحیم‬in the name of God the merciful and compassionate” is a favorite among calligraphers. ّْ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-nevīs/ ☞ ‫خوشْ ِنویس‬ ‫ط ِنویس‬ ِ ‫ ُخ‬/ḫoṭūṭ-e sette/ ☞ ‫َاقْال ِم ِششگانه‬ ‫طوط ِستّه‬ ِ ‫ ُخ‬/ḫoṭūṭ-e šeš-gāne/ ☞ ‫َاقْال ِم ِششگانه‬ ‫طوط ِششگانه‬ ِ ‫ ُخ‬/ḫoṭūṭ-e haft-gāne/ ☞ ‫َهفْت َقلَم‬ ‫طوط َه ْفتگانه‬ ِّ ‫ َخ‬/ḫaṭṭ-e halālāne/ ☞ ‫ط ُ ْغرا‬ ‫ط هالالنه‬ ‫ خَفی‬/ḫafī/ call. tiny. lit. “hidden”. The opposite of jalī (☞ ‫) َجلی‬. ☞ ‫َق َل ِم َخفی‬ ‫ ِخ ْل َعت دا َدن‬/ḫelʿat dādan/ ☞ ‫ِخ ْل َعت دا َد ِن ُحروف‬

figure 74 ‘Bismallah’ in the shape of a bird, 1279/1862/3, Reżā Abbāsī Museum, Tehran

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figure 75 ‘Bismallah’ in the shape of a bird, Moḥammad ʿAlī Ḫīārejī, 1131/1718/9, Čehel-Sotūn Museum, Qazvin

figure 76 Pictoral writing the shape of a lion in praise of Imam ʿAlī, Univeristy of Istanbul Library

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139

figure 77 Pictoral writing the shape a lion in praise of Imam ʿAlī, Resālat-ol-ḫaṭṭ-ol-ʿarabī

‫ َخ ْل َعت دا َد ِن ُحروف‬/ḫalʿat dādan-e ḥorūf/ lit. “to dress letters in a robe”. A line that a calligraphy master will draw with the tip of his pen underneath or around a letter or word that written by a student to show that these are better and more beautiful than the rest. ‫ َخ ْل َوت و َج ْل َوت‬/ḫalvat-o-jalvat/ call. lit. “expansion and contraction”, “hidden and visible”, “empty and full”. (Figs. 78–79) In calligraphy ḫalvat-o-jalvat ِ ‫) َق‬ is one of the twelve calligraphic principles (☞ ‫واعد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ ِنویسی‬ and is related to “blackness and whiteness” (☞ ‫) َس ّواد و َبیاض‬. However, unlike “blackness and whiteness”, ḫalvat-o-jalvat only plays a role in the overall balance on a page. Elements such as baseline (☞ ‫ )ک ُْرسی‬and composition (☞ ‫) َت ْرکیب‬, etc. must be respected so that the positive and negative space on the page remains balanced and no area appears too densely covered or busy. Therefore for example elongated words (☞ ‫ ) ِکشیده‌ ِنویسی‬should not be placed directly above or below each other to avoid too much ḫalvat. Excess in either ḫalvat or jalvat naturally results in excess of the other, i.e. if one side of the page has too much jalvat it will give rise to too much ḫalvat on the other side of the page. Maintaining balance between the two is an important aspect of the principle of proportion (☞ ‫ناسب‬ ُ ‫) َت‬. ☞ ‫َبیاض َس ّواد و‬ ‫ خ َْمسه‬/ḫamse/ ☞ ‫َپ ْنجه‬

140

figure 78 Sīāh-mašq in nastaʿlīq by Mīr Ḥoseyn, Museum of Decorative Arts, Esfahan

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141

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‫ َخ ْن َجری‬/ḫanjarī/ 1 nas. When the letter re (‫ )ر‬is written with a narrow, sharp shape following the letter dāl (‫ ِشکاری ☞ )د‬‎2. to. ☞ ‫َقل َْمتَراش‬ ‫ خوانا‬/ḫānā/ legible. An adjective describing writing that is easy to read. Also described as ravān (‫ ) َروان‬lit. “flowing”. In treatises on calligraphy legible script is also referred to as māyaqra‌ʾ (☞ ‫مای ْقرأ‬ َ ). (ṢS: 21) ‫ خود َْر ْنگ‬/ḫōd-rang/ lit. “self-dyeing”. To tint paper (☞ ‫ ) َرنْگ‌آمیزی کا َغذ‬with henna whole henna leaves are placed in warm water. After twenty-four hours the leaves are removed and the liquid strained. The ratio of henna leaves to water should be ten to one. (Māyel Heravī 1353š/1974: 11; Barkeshli 2016: 64–67) ّ ‫خوش َخ‬ ‫ط‬ ‌ْ /ḫōš-ḫaṭṭ/ lit. “good script”. Used to describe a person whose handwriting is good and beautiful. It order to achieve this the calligraphic principles ِ ‫) َق‬. should be respected. ☞ ‫َب ْد َخظ‬ (☞ ‫واع ِد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ ِنویسی‬ ْ ‫خوش َقلَم‬ /ḫōš-qalam/ lit. “good pen”. Used to describe good quality paper on which one can easily and fluidly write. ‫ خوشْ ِنویس‬/ḫōšnevīs/ calligrapher. lit. “good writer”. Someone who writes well calligraphically as taught in calligraphic instruction. Also called ḫaṭṭāṭ (‫) َخطّاط‬, maššāq (‫) َم ّشاق‬. (LD s.v. ‫( )خوشْ ِنویس‬AMVR 235–236; 238–243; PPB 155–156) ‫ خوشْ ِنویس ُش َدن‬/ḫōšnevīs šodan/ to become a calligrapher. On determining the times and temperament of a scrivener Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī says (ṢS: 27): ‫َخلق را مونس و انیس شوی‬ ‫عالمی پر ز نام خود سازی‬ ‫وین زعهد شباب باید کرد‬ ‫زین علم روز و شب نیاسود‬ …‫وز َر ِه حرص و آز برگشتن‬ ‫که صفای خط از صفای دلست‬ ‫هرزه گشتن نه کار پاکان است‬ ‫یاد گیر این سخن ز پیر کهن‬

‫ای که خواهی که خوشنویس شوی‬ ‫ مقام خود سازی‬،‫ِخطه‌ی خط‬ ‫ترک آرام و خواب باید کرد‬ ‫سر به کاغذ چون خامه فرسود‬ ‫ز آرزوهای خویش بگذشتن‬ ‫داند آن کس که آشنای دلست‬ ‫خط نوشتن شعار پاکان است‬ ‫گوشه‌ی انزوا نشیمن کن‬

If you wish to become a calligrapher, socialize and be friendly with the people; if you want to make the land of writing your home and fill the world with your name; from a young age on one must forego rest and sleep. As pen on paper is worn down, you must not lay your head day or night down. One must forego (worldly) wishes and abandon the path of

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figure 79 Sīāh-mašq in nastaʿlīq, written by Moḥammad Hoseyn ʿEmād-ol-kottāb while in prison in 1338/1919/20. Archive of the Iran Calligraphers’ Association

greedn and avarice. He who knows the heart, knows that purity of writing reflects purity of the heart. Calligraphy is a habit of the pure, not licentiousness. Find a solitary retreat, mind this advice from an old master. AMVR 235–236; 238–243

‫ خوشْ ِنویسی َدر ایران‬/ḫōšnevīsī dar īrān/ calligraphy in Iran. (Fig. 80) During the first five centuries of Islamic Era and almost until the beginning of the 7th/13th c., Kufic (☞ ‫ )کوفی‬and the Six Pens (☞ ‫ ) ِاقْال ِم ِششگانه‬which were made up of s̱ols̱ (☞ ‫)ثُ ْلث‬, nasḫ (☞ ‫)ن َ ْسخ‬, moḥaqqaq (☞ ‫) ُم َحقَّق‬, reyḥān (☞ ‫)رِیحان‬, tōqīʿ

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143 (☞ ‫)توقیع‬, and reqāʿ (☞ ‫)رِقاع‬, were the most widely-used scripts in Iran. The especially different style of Kufic was used chiefly for architectural inscriptions (☞ ‫)کوفی َم ْع ِقلی‬, vessels as well as copying manuscripts, etc. and attained atristic perfection in the Iranian world. The early develpoment and establishment of Islamic calligraphy as a unique and independent art can be traced back to the names and reforms of at least three major calligraphy masters: Ebn-e Moqle, Ebn-e Bavvāb and Yāqūt Mostaʿṣemī. The epitome of a calligraphy master, Abū ʿAlī Moḥammad b. ʿAlī Fārsī, also known as Ebn-e Moqle (272/885/6–328/940), is not the sole devisor of the Six Pens because extant examples predate him; he is however credited with further developing these scripts and laying the foundation for the principle of the ِ ‫ ) َق‬like “proportion” “calligraphic principles” (☞ ‫واع ِد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ ِنویسی‬ (☞ ‫ناسب‬ ُ ‫) َت‬, “composition” (☞ ‫) َت ْرکیب‬, “baseline” (☞ ‫)کُرسی‬, “beauty of formation” (☞ ‫) ُح ْس ِن ت َ ْشکیل‬, “straightness and roundness” (☞ ‫) َسطْح و دور‬, etc. He also codified the measures and methods of calligraphy as an artistic activity. After Ebn-e Moqle, the second important set of reforms is accredited to Abu’l-Ḥasan ʿAlī b. Helāl Baġdādī, known as Ebn-e Bavvāb (d. 413/1022/3), who added to and expanded on the rules within the calligraphic principles, including carving the pen (☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫ ) َتر‬and the selection of proper ink (☞ ‫ ) ُم َرکَّب‬among others. He is also credited with setting down the rules for instruction dots (☞ ‫ ) َبنای ُحروف‬as unit of measurement for each letter, which remain a major elements of practicing and learning calligraphy even today. The next important figure in the improvement and crystallization of the socalled “Six Pens” was Ğamāl-ol-dīn Abuʾl-Mağd, known as Yāqūt Mostaʿṣemī (d. 696/1296/7 or 698/1298/9) (Yūsefī 1990). The underlying structure of these Six Pens is very similar. In fact there are more differences between the various styles of Kufic than separate tōqīʿ from reqāʿ or moḥaqqaq from reyḥān, yet their designations led to their differentiation. Because of the many similarities that are often also structural in nature, the only two that have survived until today are s̱ols̱ (representing moḥaqqaq, reyḥān, tōqīʿ, and reqāʿ) and nasḫ, which is structurally different from the others. The development of the taʿlīq and nastaʿlīq, born out of a movement among Iranian calligraphers to create Iranian scripts also based on Kufic and which had become widespread by the beginning of the 9th/15th c., also contributed to the decline of the other four. Even though s̱ols̱ is still featured in calligraphy, it is primarily limited to building inscriptions (☞ ‫) َکتیبه‬. Ebn-e Bavvāb was instrumental in developing instruction dots (☞ ‫َبنای‬ ‫ ) ُحروف‬and unifying the principles of the Six Pens. In comparing the interِ ), margins and page ornamentation of a Quran linear space (☞ ‫فاصله‌ی َسطْرها‬ manuscript that he wrote in 391/1000/1 in reyḥān (Chester Beatty Library,

144

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Dublin) to current Qurans, it is clear that little has changed in Quranic manuscript writing since then. In the 8th/14th c. the Six Pens flourished. This century saw the rise of two important phenomena. The first was that students of Yāqūt Mostaʿṣemī contributed to the presence of higher-quality calligraphy in manuscripts. Aḥmad b. Sohrevard, Yūsef Mašhadī, Seyyed Ḥeydar Jalī-Nevīs, Arġūn Kāmelī, Naṣrollah Ṭabīb ʿErāqī and Mobārak Šāh Zarīn-Qalam Tabrīzī created some of the most exquisite manuscripts of the period. However recent studies have argued that some of these calligraphers, including Aḥmad b. Sohrevard (d. 741/1340/1), were not in fact among Mostaʿṣemī’s students (Ghelichkhani 1392š/2013: 48). The second important event is the development of taʿlīq based on tōqīʿ and reqāʿ. Taʿlīq came into being during this period and gradually reached perfection in the 10th/16th c. at the hands of Ḫāje Tāj Salmānī Eṣfahānī, ʿAbdolḥaī Monšī Astarābādī, Darvīš ʿAbdollah Solṭānī, ʿAbdollah Morvārīd and then Ḫāje Eḫtīār Monšī Gonābādī and Najm-od-Dīn Masʿūd Sāvajī. One of the last great taʿlīq masters was Moḥammad Kāẓem Vāle Eṣfahānī (d. 1229/1814/5) whose epitaph was made with his own handwriting. At the beginning of the 8th/14th c. taʿlīq was added to the Six Pens, increasing their number to seven. At the same time nastaʿlīq officially became the second Iranian script. By the end of the century the use of most of the Six Pens for manuscripts began to decline and instead most books were written in nasḫ or a combination of nasḫ and taʿlīq. Nastaʿlīq was invented and developed in Herat and support from artists such as Bāysonġor Mīrzā and Amīr ʿAlīšīrvānī contributed greatly to its proliferation. At the same time nastaʿlīq was also gaining ground in Shiraz. Great 9th/15th, 10th/16th and 11th/17th-century masters of the Six Pens include ʿAbdollah Bayānī and his son Moḥammad Mōʾmen Kermānī, ʿAbdollah Ṣeyrafī, Bāysonġor Mīrzā, Solṭān Ebrāhīm, Šams Bāysonġorī, ʿAbdollah Ṭabbāḫ Heravī, Kamāl-od-Dīn Ḥoseyn Heravī, ʿAlāʾ-od-Dīn Tabrīzī and ʿAbdolbāqī Tabrīzī. Many of these masters also wrote in nastaʿlīq. Towards the end of the 10th/16th c. with nastaʿlīq becoming its most beautiful, the first murmurs of šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫ ) ِش َک ْسته‌ی ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬could be heard. Šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq was the last script to be devised in Iranian calligraphy. Unlike geometric Kufic (☞ ‫ ) َم ْع ِقلی‬which is composed almost exclusively of “straightness”, šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq is full of curves and twists. Moḥammad Šafīʿ Ḥoseynī (d. 1089/1670), best known as Šafīʿā, and Morteżā Qolī Šāmlū (d. 1100/1688/9) are two šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq pioneers who played an important role in its codification. The end of the 11th/17th c. and beginning of the 12th/18th c. marked the beginning of šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq’s prominence in albums (☞ ‫ ) ُم َر َّقع‬and manuscripts. Important šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq

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145 calligraphers include Mīrzā Ḥasan Kermānī, Moḥammad Ḥasan Qomī, Moḥammad Ebrāhīm Qomī, Moḥammad Afżal Gonābādī, Moḥammad ʿAlī Eṣfahānī and Zīn-ol-ʿĀbedīn Kermānī. The great 12th/18th c. calligrapher who elevated šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq to its most beautiful form was ʿAbdolmajīd Ṭāleqānī (1150/1737/8–1185/1771/2). Despite his short life he created hundreds of pieces of calligraphy and several valuable manuscripts. After Ṭāleqānī, Mīrzā Kūček Eṣfahānī and Moḥammad Reżā Eṣfahānī (both students of Ṭāleqānī), and then Seyyed ʿAlī Nīāz Šīrāzī, Moḥammad Jaʿfar Delūdūz Eṣfahanī and Ḫāndān Anjavī continued with šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq. The last masters of this script were Abūlfażl Sāvojī (1248/1832/3– 1312/1894/5) and ʿAlī Akbar Golestāne (1274–1319/1858–1901) from the end of the Qajar period. Šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq reached its apex in the 12th/18th c., the same time that nasḫ was undergoing its last stage of development. Calligraphers such as Moḥammad Ebrāhīm Qomī (d. 1119/1707/8) and his famous student Aḥmad Neyrīzī (a. 1160/1747) created a nasḫ known as Iranian nasḫ. Famous nasḫ calligraphers from after this time include Moḥammad Hāšem Eṣfahānī (d. 1195/1781), Moḥammad Hāšem Zargar (d. 1212/1797/8), ʿAbdollah ʿĀšūr Ronānī (d. 1238/1822/3), ʿAbdolʿalī Ḫorāsānī (d. 1238/1822/3), Moḥammad Ebrāhīm Yazdī (d. 1251/1835/6), Moḥammad Šafīʿ Tabrīzī (d. 1264/1847/8) and Veṣāl Šīrāzī (1197–1262/1782/3–1846) as well the latter’s children (Vegār, Ḥakīm, Dāvarī, Farhang, Tōḥīd and Yazdānī) all of whom were involved not only in calligraphy but other arts as well. Throughout its history nasḫ has been responsible for transmitting information and was most important in manuscript writing. In the mid13th/19th c. with the advent of printing technology in Iran, at times writers of nasḫ used lithography and at times competed against it with fine works of calligraphy in albums. Zeynolʿābedīn Eṣfahanī (d. 1296/1879), ʿAlī Reżā Partō (d. 1301/1883/4), and ʿAlī Asgar Arsenjānī (d. 1302/1884/5) are considered the last great nasḫ masters. From the end of the Qajar period nasḫ has been used for writing the Quran and printed prayers. Of all the Islamic scripts used in calligraphy, writing, and book ornamentation, nasḫ has enjoyed the longest period of active use, stretching eleven centuries from the 4th/10th c. through to today. In contrast, Kufic was only prevalent in manuscripts from the 1st/7th c. to the end of the 5th/11th c. and nastaʿlīq has only existed since the 8th/14th c., both thus totaling less that six-hundred years. (AMVR 43–47)

‫ خی َزران‬/ḫeyzarān/ bamboo. Bamboo is used to make large-diameter reed pens. ☞ ‫نیِ ِدزفولی‬

146

figure 80 Čalīpā in nastaʿlīq by ʿAlī Reżā ʿAbbāsī, Museum of Decorative Arts, Esfahan

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plate 10

A moraqqaʿ page in taʿlīq by Eḫtīār Monšī 970/1562/3, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran

‫ دار ُالْکُ تّاب‬/dārolkottāb/ Where scribes (☞ ‫ )کا ِتب‬and calligraphers worked. ‫ دار ُالْکتابه‬/dārolketābe/ Where manuscripts (☞ ‫ )ن ُْسخه‌ی َخطّی‬were written. ‫ دار ُالْکُ تُب‬/dārolkotob/ Where manuscripts (☞ ‫ )ن ُْسخه‌ی َخطّی‬were kept. ‫ داغی‬/dāġī/ illum. 1 Blotches of ink (☞ ‫ ) ُم َرکَّب‬that result from pressure on the pen at the end of a line. (Mojarrad-Tākestānī 1371š/1992: 10) 2 The third layer of paint application in traditional Iranian painting as well as in taẕhīb ِ ‫) َرن‬. This is applied over or (☞ ‫ ) َتذْ هیب‬of a darker color in gouache (☞ ‫ْگ جِ ْسمی‬ instead of pardāz (☞ ‫) َپ ْرداز‬. ‫ دال‬/dāl/ A letter (‫ )د‬of the alphabet that is curved in all the scripts. ‫ دامگا‬/dāmgā/ ☞ ‫َت ْمغا‬ ‫دامن‬ َ /dāman/ lit. “skirt”. Refers to the arch-like form or “belly” in the letters sīn (‫)س‬, šīn (‫)ش‬, ṣād (‫)ص‬, żād (‫)ض‬, qāf (‫)ق‬, lām (‫ )ل‬and nūn (‫ )ن‬in final postion. Also referred to as šamre (‫) َش ْمره‬. ‫ دا ْنگ‬/dāng/ call. A unit of measurement equal to one-sixth. Historically, something that was whole or complete was referred to as šeš-dāng (‫ ) ِش ْش دانْگ‬or “having six dāngs”, e.g. 6/6 = 1. In calligraphy dāng can refer to several things. 1 If a point (☞ ‫ ) َبنای ُحروف‬or pen width (☞ ‫ ) َد ِم َقلَم‬is divided into six equal parts, each of these parts form one of six dāngs of the given pen. Thus parts of strokes that should be written with “half nib” (‫ )نیم‌ َقلَم‬are written with three dāngs. 2 The pen sizes following (in an ascending order) ġobār (☞ ‫َق َل ِم‬ ‫)غُبار‬, ḫafī (☞ ‫ ) َخفی‬and ketābat (☞ ‫تابت‬ َ ‫) ِک‬. ‫ دا ْنگ‌های َمشْ قی‬/dānghā-ye mašqī/ call. ☞ ‫دانْگ‬ ِ ‫ ی ِک دان‬/yek-dāng-e mašqī/ one dāng. A calligraphy pen with a pen width ‫ْگ َم ْشقی‬ (☞ ‫ ) َد ِم َقلَم‬of 2–2.5mm used for practice (☞ ‫) َم ْشق‬, sīāh-mašq (☞ ‫)سیاه َم ْشق‬ and broadsides (☞ ‫) ِقطْعه‬. © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_013

‫د‬

149

ِ ‫ دو دان‬/dō-dāng-e mašqī/ two dāngs. A calligraphy pen with pen width ‫ْگ َم ْشقی‬ (☞ ‫ ) َد ِم َقلَم‬of 2.5–3mm, suitable for practice by a beginning student of calligraphy. It is for this reason that it is also called a medium pen or qalam motavasseṭ (‫ ) َق َل ِم ُم َت َو ِّسط‬for it is neither very small nor very large, allowing ِ ‫َق‬ the student to first master the calligraphic principles (☞ ‫واع ِد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‬ ِ ‫ )خوشْ نویسی‬before learning with the bigger and smaller pens. ِ ‫ دو و نیم دان‬/dō-vō-nīm-dāng-e mašqī/ two and a half dāngs. A calligra‫ْگ َم ْشقی‬ phy pen with pen width (☞ ‫ ) َد ِم َقلَم‬of 3–3.5mm used for practice (☞ ‫) َم ْشق‬ and broadsides (☞ ‫) ِقطْعه‬. ِ ‫ سه دان‬/se-dāng-e mašqī/ three dāngs. A calligraphy pen with a pen ‫ْگ َم ْشقی‬ width (☞ ‫ ) َد ِم َقلَم‬of 3.5–4mm used for practice (☞ ‫ ) َم ْشق‬and broadsides (☞ ‫) ِقطْعه‬. ِ ‫ َچهار دان‬/čehār-dāng-e mašqī/ four dāngs. A calligraphy pen with a pen ‫ْگ َمشقی‬ width (☞ ‫ ) َد ِم َقلَم‬of 4–4.5mm used for broadsides (☞ ‫) ِقطْعه‬. ِ ‫ َپ ْنج دان‬/panj-dāng-e mašqī/ five dāngs. A calligraphy pen with a pen ‫ْگ َم ْشقی‬ width (☞ ‫ ) َد ِم َقلَم‬measuring 4.5–5mm that is generally used for a broadside complete unto itself (☞ ‫) ِقطعه‬. ِ ‫ ِشش دان‬/šeš-dāng-e mašqī/ six dāngs. A calligraphy pen (☞ ‫ ) َقلَم‬with a ‫ْگ َم ْشقی‬ pen width (☞ ‫ ) َد ِم َقلَم‬of 5.5–6mm, typically used to write single broadside (☞ ‫) ِقطْعه‬. ‫ دا ِیره‌ی ُحروف‬/dāyere-ye ḥorūf/ ☞ ‫َدوایِر‬ ‫دامن‬ َ ْ‫ ِدراز‬/derāz-dāman/ ☞ ‫ِشکاری‬ ‫ ِد َر ْفش‬/derafš/ bb. awl. ☞ ‫َصحافی‬ ‫ َد ْس َتک‬/dastak/ ledger. An account book. A notebook for official documents issued by the treasury by ruling decree to which it is referred in India; transit permit; invitation letter; mandate. (LD s.v. ‫) َد ْس َتک‬ ‫ َد َّفة‬/daffat/ bb. book board. Two book boards form the cover of a book (☞ ‫)جِ ْلد‬. Its dual form is daffatayn (‫ ) َد َّف َتین‬Also called ṭable (‫)ط َْبله‬. ☞ ‫َصحافی‬

150

‫د‬

‫ َد ِم َقلَم‬/dam-e qalam/ 1 call. pen tip. The part of the tongue of the pen (zabaneye qalam ‫ ) َزبانه‌ی َقلَم‬that has contact with the support while writing. This is also called breadth of the pen (pahnā-ye qalam ‫) َپ ْهنای َقلَم‬. 2 illum. An expresِ ‫َرن‬ sion that refers to the nature of paint, ink (☞ ‫) ُم َر َکب‬, or watercolors (☞ ‫ْگ‬ ‫ )روحی‬as it is being applied. If this pigment has the necessary pull, or it possesses the desired adhesion and consistency, it is said to have a good dam-e qalam. (Mojarrad-Tākestānī 1371š/1992: 1) ‫ َد ْندان موشی‬/dandān-mūšī/ illum. lit: “mouse tooth”. (Fig. 81) A type of outlining (☞ ‫ ) َقل َْمگیری‬by which curved lines (half-circles or half-ovals) are drawn around a text producing a scalloped, cloud-like effect. Sometimes this is filled in with gold paint. The gold surface is then buffed (☞ ‫ ) ُم ْهره َز َدن‬until smooth and the area outlined in a color darker than gold. cf ‫َقل َْمگیری‬ ‫ َد ْندانه‌دار‬/dandāne-dār/ call. lit. “having teeth”. Used to describe the letters sīn (‫ )س‬and šīn (‫ )ش‬as well as the nexus between letters and words. ‫ َدوات‬/davāt/ to. inkwell. 1 (Fig. 140–141) A small, wide-mouthed, shallow container used to contain wadding (☞ ‫ )لیقه‬and ink (☞ ‫) ُم َرکَّب‬. After use the lid can be securely fastened. Before writing, the calligrapher should use the bottom of his pen or another object such as a small metal spoon (☞ ‫آب‬ ‫ ) َدوات کُن‬to mix the the wadding and ink until its consistency is even. The wadding should be removed and cleaned (☞ ‫ِش ُم َرکَّب‬ ِ ‫ )پاالی‬every few months. Other words for davāt are ink holder (morakkab-dān ‫ ) ُم َر َّکب‌دان‬and wadding holder (līqe-dān ‫)لیقه دان‬. In the early Islamic period these were round and made of glass. Later they were made of everything from glazed ceramic to inlaid wood or metal and were elaborately decorated. 2 The unit of an inkwell attached or incorporated into the penbox (☞ ‫( ) َقلَمدان‬IC 63f.; VMAV 135; IC 61–65). ‫ َدوات آشور‬/davāt-āšūr/ to. A flat-headed conical tool used to stir the ink (☞ ‫ ) ُم َرکَّب‬and press the wadding (☞ ‫ )لیقه‬into it. It is generally made of ebony (☞ ‫ ) ْآبنوس‬but can also be metal. Also called melvāq (‫) ِم ْلواق‬. (Faẓāʾelī 1370š/1991: 55) ِ ‫ َد‬/davāt-e bīkār/ call. lit. “unemployed inkwell”. An inkwell whose lid ‫وات بیکار‬ has not been removed and has remained unused for several days. This can result in formation of a layer of white mold on the wadding (☞ ‫)لیقه‬.

‫د‬

figure 81 Dandān-mūšī, čalīpā in nastaʿlīq, by Mīrʿalī al-Kāteb al-Solṭānī, Bukhara, 945/1538/9, Reza Abbasi Museum, Tehran

151

152

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‫ َدوات‌خانه‬/davāt-ḫāne/ royal archive. lit. “inkwell storage”. Beyhaqī, in the ministry of Aḥmad-Hasan Meymandī, who is writing agreements for Masʿūd and signing an affidavit says: “The emir (i.e. Masʿūd), proclaiming good news, praised the lord (i.e. Aḥmad-Hasan Meymandī) because of the affidavit and the lord kissed the ground in reference. Then he (Masʿūd) said we will refer back to you, as tomorrow you will come in official robes as works have been halted and many armaments to be carried out. The lord said I will take orders and the made an agreement and the affidavit was placed in the davāt-ḫāne.” (Tārīḫ: 154) In the events of 431/1039/40 after the Battle of Dandanaqan and the victory of Tughrul over Masʿūd, it was reported that: “Tughrul sat on the throne and all the nobles greeted him as emir of Khorasan. They presented Faramarz, the son of Kaku. Tughrul caressed him and said, ‘you have seen much suffering; be strong of heart so that Esfahan and Rey may be given to you.’ And by the evening prayer they had brought and redistributed the spoils. The astronomer found a wealth and papers, and they gathered from the royal davīt-ḫāne (i.e. royal archive), much of what had been destroyed, finding many books and manuscripts.” (Tārīḫ: 628) From these accounts it is clear that a davāt-ḫāne or davīt-ḫāne was a place where royal documents, manuscripts, affidavits and books were kept. The attendant of a davāt-ḫāne is called a davāt-dār. (Anvarī 1373š/1994: 37f.) ‫ َدوات‌دار‬/davāt-dār/ lit. “having an inkwell”. A person who has an inkwell (☞ ‫ ) َدوات‬and is figuratively ascribed to the position of the royal secretary whose responsibility it was to publicize the sultan’s tracts, give notice of public affairs, pass on complaints and receive the latter’s signature for decrees and charters. (Subkī 1948: 25) Also called davātī (‫) َدواتی‬. According to Beyhaqī, a davāt-dār’s duties appear to include acting as an intermediary for the emir, receiving and passing on letters to him as well as receiving and keeping documents such as affidavits and decrees; a person in charge of a davāt-ḫāne (☞ ‫) َدوات‌خانه‬. (Anvarī 1373š/1994: 38) ‫ َدوات‌داری‬/davāt-dārī/ The position of royal secretary. (LD s.v. ‫) َدوات‌داری‬ ☞ ‫َدوات‌دار‬ ‫ َدوا ْتگَ ر‬/davāt-gar/ Someone who makes inkwells (☞ ‫) َدوات‬. Also called davīt-gar (‫) َدوی ْتگَ ر‬. ‫ َدواتی‬/davātī/ ☞ ‫َدوات‌داری‬

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figure 82 An example of davāyer-e mozdavaj (‫ ن‬and ‫ )خ‬in a s̱ols̱ inscription by Jalāl Jaʿfar, 841/1437/8, Herat, Afghanistan

‫ دو َلت‌آبادی‬/dōlat-ābādī/ call. A type of highly prized paper. Najīb Kāšānī (Dādbeh 1382š/2003: 341) ‫خط اگر خوب است کاغذ دولت‌آبادی مباش‬

‫شع ِر خوش محتاج بر تحسین دنیادار نیست‬

A well-written poem needs no praise of wealthy people. Fine calligraphy needs not necessarily a dōlat-ābādī paper.

‫ َدویت خانه‬/davīt-ḫāne/ ☞ ‫َدوات‌خانه‬ ‫ َدویت دار‬/davīt-dār/ ☞ ‫َدوات‌دار‬ ‫ َدوا ِیر‬/davāyer/ call. lit. “circles”. Letters that are largely written a circular motion of the pen. These letters include jīm (‫)ج‬, če (‫)چ‬, ḥe (‫)ح‬, ḫe (‫)خ‬, sīn (‫)س‬, šīn (‫)ش‬, ṣād (‫)ص‬, żād (‫)ض‬, ʿeyn (‫)ع‬, ġʿeyn (‫)غ‬, qāf (‫)ق‬, lām (‫)ل‬, nūn (‫)ن‬, ye (‫)ی‬. In nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬special importance is accorded to the beauty of the stokes used to form these letters. It was said that one third of the calِ ‫ ) َق‬is concealed within them. ligraphic principles (☞ ‫واع ِد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ ِنویسی‬ ِ ‫ُح‬ The ways davāyer can be written differ slightly from script to script. ☞ ‫روف‬ ‫ُحروف َعمودی ☞ َت ْخت‬ ‫ َدوا ِی ِر ُم ْز َد َوج‬/davāyer-e mozdavaj/ call. lit. “coupled circles”. (Fig. 82) When a circular letter (☞ ‫ ) َدوایِر‬in one word joins with another in a second adjacent

154

‫د‬

word, as for example when the words gol (‫ ) ُگل‬and roḫ (‫ ) ُرخ‬are written so that the beginning of the “circle” in ḫe (‫ )خ‬couples with the end of the “circle” in lām (‫)ل‬.

‫ َدوا ِير َمعکوس‬/davāyer-e maʿkūs/ call. lit. “inverted circles”. Used to designate certain circular letters (☞ ‫ ) َدوایِر‬that require the calligrapher to produce a left to right motion instead of from right to left. These are jīm (‫)ج‬, če (‫)چ‬, ḥe (‫)ح‬, ḫe (‫)خ‬, ʿeyn (‫)ع‬, and ġʿeyn (‫)غ‬. ‫پوست َک ْر َدن‬ ْ ‫ دو‬/dō-pūst kardan/ lit. “to make two skins”. A very difficult technique, not to be confused with dō-lāye kardan (☞ ‫)کا َغ ِذ َچ ْسبانده‬, practiced by bookbinders and papermakers (☞ ‫ ) َو ّراق‬to separate two layers of a sheet of paper. This was done if both sides depicted a work of calligraphy or painting so that they could both be used in an album (☞ ‫) ُم َر َّقع‬. This can also be used to remove a piece of calligraphy that has already been mounted as for example in an album. In rare cases it might be used to economize costly paper. There are several ways of doing this: 1. The album page is placed in a container of equal size and thinner is added until the sheet is covered. Depending on the strength of the glue this is allowed to soak for several days. It is then removed and the two sheets separated, the calligraphy is allowed to dry and can then be mounted on another page. 2. Occasionally, and with great caution, the two sheets can be separated with steam. 3. Very thick starch with the consistency of mud or cement can be rubbed on the back of a mounted piece and left for an hour. The starch is then removed and the paper or papier-mâché (☞ ‫ ) ُم َق ّوا‬onto which the calligraphy is mounted can be peeled off layer by layer. The process of applying starch can be repeated until the piece of calligraphy is completely free. To separate to layers of a single sheet of paper: 1. A synthetic membrane made with Polysulfon (PSU) is on the market that can be used for dō-pūst kardan. First a rag is used to rid the calligraphy is to be separated of any grease that may be on its surface. A piece of the membrane is then cut slightly larger than the calligraphy and is placed on and adhered to the paper in such a way that there are no wrinkles. A second membrane is then adhered to the other side of the paper. The membranes are then slowly pulled apart from the corners, separating the sheet in the middle with it. Once they are separated, they are placed in a container of thinner as described above.

155

‫د‬

2.

After several minutes the calligraphy can be removed from the membrane sheet and cleaned of any residual adhesive. These two sides can now be used separately. In the absence of such membranes, the process described above can be replicated with scotch tape placed in rows over the paper. This is very difficult to do successfully. (Mojarrad-Tākestānī 1372š/1993: 98f.)

ِ ‫ دو دا ْن‬/dō-dāng-e mašqī/ ☞ ‫دانْگ‌های َم ْشقی‬ ‫گ َمشْ قی‬ ‫ دوده‬/dūde/ soot, carbon black, lampblack. A substance traditionally used in the making of ink (☞ ‫) ُم َرکَّب‬. Soot was a main ingredient along with gum (☞ ‫ ) َص ْم ِغ َع َربی‬in the production of carbon-based inks (☞ ‫) ِمداد‬. This soot was traditionally made by charring organic materials such as wood or bone. Soot from oil lamps or lampblack was added to iron-gall ink to increase the quality of its black color in the early tenth century in an innovation attributed to Ebn-e Moqle, and Ottoman calligraphers are said to have collected the lampblack from the oil lamps in the Sülemaniye Mosque (Schimmel 1970: 40). Carbon black is dūde that is produced from petroleum products or vegetable oil and used in pigments. ☞ ‫َچ ْربیِ دوده ☞ ُم َرکَّب‬ ‫ دور‬/dōr/ (AMTS 25) ☞ ‫َسطْح و دور‬ ‫دورگیری‬ ْ /dōr-gīrī/ ☞ ‫َقل َْمگیری‬ ‫ دو ِر َمجازی‬/dōr-e majāzī/ ☞ ‫َچ ْرخ‬ ‫ دو َسطْرن ِویسی‬/dō-saṭr nevīsī/ ☞ ‫ِب ْیت‬ ‫ دو ِس ّوم َقلَم‬/dō-sevom qalam/ two-thirds nib. Two thirds of the total pen width (☞ ‫ ) َد ِم َقلَم‬is utilised when forming parts of letters and words that are wider than half nib (☞ ‫ )نیم‌ َقلَم‬but narrower than three-quarters nib (☞ ‫هارم َقلَم‬ ُ ‫)سه َچ‬. ‫ دو الیه َک ْر َدن‬/dō-lāye kardan/ ☞ ‫کا َغ ِذ َچ ْسبانْده‬ ‫ دو مو ُش َدن‬/dō-mū šodan/ pn. lit. “becoming two hairs”. Used to describe a paintbrush (☞ ‫ ) َقلَمو‬whose fine, pointy tip splits while painting and is no longer sharp making it difficult to paint in great detail. ِ ‫ دو و نیم دا ْن‬/dō-o-nīm dāng-e mašqī/ ☞ ‫دانْگ‌های َم ْشقی‬ ‫گ َمشْ قی‬

156

‫د‬

figure 83 A dahe, from a Quran written by ʿOs̱mān b. al-Ḥoseyn al-Varrāq al-Ġaznavī, 484/1091/2, Topkapı Palace Museum, Istanbul

‫ َدویت خانه‬/davīt-ḫāne/ ☞ ‫َدوات‌خانه‬ ‫ َدهه‬/dahe/ lit. “decade”. (Fig. 83) A symbol placed after every ten verses in the Quran. Also called ʿašare (‫) َع َشره‬. ☞ ‫َپ ْنجه‬ ‫ َدیجور‬/dayjūr/ black, dark. ☞ ‫ُم َرکَّب‬ ‫ دیوان‬/dīvān/ 1 storage place for books 2 registry 3 complete collection of poetry. ‫دیوان اِنْشاء‬ /dīvān-e enšāʾ/ lit. “composition bureau”. A bureau where governِ ment correspondences were composed (Šarīk-Amīn 1357š/1978: 140) ‫دیوان طُغْ را‬ /dīvān-e ṭoġrā/ lit. “ṭoġrā bureau”. An office where ṭoġrā-s (☞ ‫)ط ُ ْغرا‬ ِ were written. “Minister Šams-od-Dīn Abūnajīb gave the ṭoġrā bureau and the composition bureau (☞ ‫دیوان ِان ْشاء‬ ) to his nephew, Qavām-od-Dīn bin ِ Qavām-od-Dīn Vazīr.” (Šarīk-Amīn 1357š/1978: 144) ‫ دیوانی‬/dīvānī/ sc. lit. “courtly, imperial”. (Figs. 84–85) This script came into being from the 16th c. onward when taʿlīq (☞ ‫ ) َتعلیق‬was adopted by Egyptian scribes and scribes in the Ottoman court. Dīvānī could be embellished with diacritical marks (☞ ‫ ) ِا ْعراب‬but could also be left without. Exaggerated embellishing which made the script difficult to read was used as a security

157

‫د‬

figure 84 Single elements of small dīvānī, (Baġdādī 1989: 57)

figure 85 Single elements of large dīvānī, (Baġdādī 1989: 63)

precaution for official documents and to make forgery difficult (Faẓāʾelī 1370š/1991: 201). This style acquired its name which means means “courtly, imperial” because of its use for high-level and official correspondence as well as for daily court business. It reached its apex in the 19th and 20th c. but is still used in Arab countries in two forms large, jalī (☞ ‫) َجلی‬, and small, ḫafī (☞ ‫) َخفی‬. Also called hamāyūnī (‫) َهمایونی‬. (AMVR 95)

plate 11

A Sīāh-mašq in taʿlīq script, Islamic Consultative Assembly Library, Tehran (This is a rare sample of using taʿlīq script to calligraphy Quranic verses. For the sake of eligibility, taʿlīq and šekaste scripts are seldom used to write Quran)

‫ ُذغاالب‬/ẕoġālāb/ ☞ ‫ُم َرکَّب‬ ّ ‫ ِذ ْی ُل الْ َخ‬/ẕeyl-ol-ḫaṭṭ/ call. descender line. The lowest placed baseline to ‫ط‬ which the letters that have true descent (☞ ‫ )نُزولِ َحقیقی‬or a dāman (☞ ‫دامن‬ َ ) descend. These include like ḥe (‫)ح‬, lām (‫)ل‬, mīm (‫)م‬, vāv (‫)و‬, etc. ☞ ‫ک ُْرسی‬ ‫ ِذ ْی ِل َو َرق‬/ẕeyl-e varaq/ footnote. Something that is written at the foot of a page.

© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_014

plate 12

A page in taʿlīq calligraphy by Darvīš ʿAbdollah al-Monvsī al-Solṭānī, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran

‫ راجی‬/rājī/ hopeful, he who has hope. A descriptive that some calligraphers wrote in front of their signatures at the bottom of a calligraphic work. ‫ را ِقم‬/rāqem/ writer, author of a book. pl. rāqemīn (‫)را ِقمین‬. Scribe, calligrapher. ‫ را ِق ُم الْ ُحروف‬/rāqem-ol-ḥorūf/ A person who writes a piece of calligraphy or a book by hand. ‫ ُر ْبعی‬/robʿī/ ☞ ‫َقطْع‬ ‫ َر ْحلی‬/raḥlī/ ☞ ‫َقطْع‬ ‫ ُر ِخ َص ْفحه‬/roḫ-e ṣafḥe/ bb. lit. “face of the page”. The surface of a piece of paper. ‫ ُر ِخ کاغَذ‬/roḫ-e kāġaẕ/ ☞ ‫ُر ِخ َصفْحه‬ ‫ رِساله‬/resāle/ treatise. A small book, letter, pamphlet, piece of writing. ّ ‫ َر ْس ُم الْ َخ‬/rasm-ol-ḫaṭṭ/ orthography. A method of writing letters or words. ‫ط‬ Today, also used to designate calligraphy instruction booklets. ‫ َر ْس ُم الْ َمشْ ق‬/rasm-ol-mašq/ ☞ ‫َر ْس ُم الْ َخط‬ ‫ ِرشْ ته‬/rešte/ bb. silk thread that is used to sew the sheets of paper together in bookbinding (☞ ‫) َص ّحافی‬. ‫ رِقاع‬/reqāʿ/ sc. (Fig. 86, Plates 16–17) A script that developed out of tōqīʿ (☞ ‫)توقیع‬ because of the need to write quickly and concisely. The ease and fluidity with which it was written resulted in reqāʿ becoming the standard script for many types of documents. Examples of this can be seen in descriptions and explanations and at the beginning and end of Qurans as well as other books. The slant of the nib (☞ ‫ ) َت ْحریف‬for reqāʿ is slightly less than for tōqīʿ, and the x-height of its alef (‫ )ا‬measures 3–5 points (☞ ‫) َبنای ُحروف‬. (Faẓāʾelī 1370š/1991: 294; AMVR 224) © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_015

162

figure 86 A piece in reqāʿ by Zīn al-ʿĀbedīn, Esfahan 1222/1807/8, Islamic Consultative Assembly Library, Tehran, no. 5099

‫ر‬

‫ر‬

163

figure 87 Single elements in roqʿe (Baġdādī 1989: 68)

‫ ُر ْقعه‬/roqʿe/ 1 sc. A compound script composed of the two scripts nasḫ (☞ ‫)ن َ ْسخ‬ and dīvānī (☞ ‫)دیوانی‬, which, like the cursive scripts (☞ ‫ ) ِش َک ْسته‬was used to write quickly. There is evidence of roqʿe from the 9th/15th, though it was first codified under Momtāzbek (b. 1255/1839/40) when it was assigned a system of measurement (☞ ‫) َبنای ُحروف‬, etc. The “straightness” in roqʿe is longer and roughly three times thicker than its “roundness” (☞ ‫) َسطْح و دور‬. Roqʿe is used not only in Iran but in many Islamic countries. 2 pn. A type of single-page painting that became common in Iran in the latter half of the 10th/16th with the decline of book ornamentation. The popularity of this type of painting corresponds with the beginning of painting independent of the book. Although it began in Qazvin in the 16th, by the 17th it had become popular in the Esfahan school where such prestigious artists as Reżā ʿAbbāsī painted mostly roqʿe. (AMVR 232–233) ‫ ُر ْقعه ِنویس‬/roqʿe-nevīs/ epistle-writer, correspondence-writer, letter-writer. ‫ ُر ْقعی‬/roqʿī/ ☞ ‫َقطْع‬ ‫ َر َقم‬/raqam/ symbol, writing, calligraphy. (Figs. 88–89) Today raqam mostly refers to a calligrapher’s signature on his work. ‫ َر َقم َز َدن‬/raqam zadan/ call. (Figs. 88–89) to write; when an artist signs his work. Calligrapher has a longer history of being signed than other book-related

164

figure 88 A colophon prayer, Aḥmad al-Neyrīzī, 1121/1709/10, University of Tehran Library

‫ر‬

‫ر‬

figure 89 A colophon prayer (the last two lines of text), by Aḥmad al-Neyrīzī, 1113/1701/2, Malek National Library, Tehran

165

166

‫ر‬

arts. This is because scribes (☞ ‫ )کا ِتب‬had greater access earlier to signing than painters and bookbinders, etc. and sought to take advantage of it. Thus the writing of appellatives such as “the lowly”, “the poor”, “the rebellious”, etc. was probably not always out of humility but to lessen the competitiveness and sensitivity among co-professionalists and others involved the proِ ‫لَ َق‬ duction of books. ☞ ‫ب خوشْ ِنویس‬

‫ َر َقم َزن‬/raqam-zan/ writer, scribe, calligrapher, painter. ‫ َر َقم َک ْر َدن‬/raqam kardan/ ☞ ‫َر َقم َز َدن‬ ‫دیدن‬ َ ‫ َر َقم گَ ْر‬/raqam gardīdan/ ☞ ‫َر َقم َز َدن‬ ‫ َر َق ِم ی ِکْ َد ْست‬/raqam-e yek-dast/ call. lit. “uniform writing”. When the breadth of the qalam and the ink in a piece of calligraphy is of uniform thickness. Ṣāʾeb (Qahremān 1375š/1996: 1478) ‫رقم یکدست اگر از خامه فوالد میخیزد‬

‫چرا صائب به هم دارند غیرت کشتگان او؟‬

If a steel pen yields a crisp uniform script, why then, O Saib, do the one’s killed for the beloved envy one another?

‫ َرقیق‬/raqīq/ watery, diluted. In calligraphy an attribute of ink (☞ ‫ ) ُم َرکَّب‬that has become light in color (NP kam-rang ‫) َک ْم َرنْگ‬, and diluted with additional water. This type of ink is mostly used with a large pen (☞ ‫ َغلیظ ☞ ) َق َل ِم َجلی‬/‎ ‫َک ْم مایه‬ ‫ َرقیم‬/raqīm/ 1 A written document 2 inkwell (☞ ‫) َدوات‬. ‫ َرقیمه‬/raqīme/ A written document. ‫ ِرکابه‬/rekābe/ catchword. In the manuscript tradition a catchword is a word that was written at the bottom left side of the verso page below the last word in the final line of text. This word anticipated the first word on the following page. It was meant to play the role of page numbers and help the maintain the correct page order. When writing the catchword scribes paid special attention to the following points: 1. The distance between the catchword and the last line of text which should be greater than the distance between the lines of text. 2. The size of the pen used to write the catchword

167

‫ر‬

was generally smaller than that used for the main text. 3. Most scribes tried to write the catch word at a slant to further distinguish it from the main text which was written horizontally. 4. In manuscripts with a jadval (☞ ‫) َج ْد َول‬ that was prepared with ruling frame (☞ ‫ ) َم ْسط َر‬prior to writing the catchword was written outside of the jadval and in this case was often not written at all so as to maintain the balance of the jadval and beauty of the page. (Jendī 1362š/1983; Ānandrāj s.v. ‫ رکابه‬s.v. ‫ ;ورق داغ‬Māyel Heravī 1372š/1993; AMVR 50–56) ☞ ‫َو َر ْق داغ‬

‫ ُرگو‬/rogū/ arch. a piece of canvas or old cloth that was used to smooth paint or other liquids onto a surface. ‫ َر ْنگ‌آمیزی کاغَذ‬/rang-āmīzī-ye kāġaẕ/ paper tinting. There are two primary ways to tint paper. 1. Wheat starch is dissolved in cold water, strained, and placed over low heat until the solution has the consistency of porridge. The desired ِ ‫ َرن‬, tea or henna, ِ ‫پوس‬ ِ ‫پوس‬ color (made from walnut hulls ☞ ‫ت ِگ ْردو‬ ْ ‎ / ‫ت ِگ ْردو‬ ْ ‫ْگ‬ etc.) is then added and stirred until the whole solution has a uniform color. This can then be brushed on to the paper using a paintbrush or sponge. Because of the starch in the solution it be evenly spread over the piece of paper so as not to result in rough patches. 2. Psyllium seeds are added to warm water and set aside until it has formed a mucous. This is then strained, resulting in liquid slightly thicker than milk in consistency. The desired color is added and the whole thing stirred. The resulting solution is poured into a tub. Pieces of paper to be tinted are then placed one by one into the tub and submerged in the solution and moved gently back and forth several times. The paper is then removed and hung up to allow the extra psyllium mucous to drain. The whole process should be carried out in the shade because the sunlight causes the water to evaporate too quickly and generally has a negative effect on the results. The paper should be gathered when it is no longer sticky, but still slightly damp, at which point the sheets are stacked together on a flat surface under a clamp or flat weight. The sheets of paper should be separated and aired daily to prevent molding and allow for faster drying. Once dry, the sheets should be burnished (☞ ‫) ُم ْهره َز َدن‬. The result of the tinting process is subject to variations in outside temperature, fixatives, the temperature of the solutions and combination of ingredients. (Īnānlū et al. 1367š/1988: 34ff.) ☞ ‫( ا َْبری ☞ کا َغ ِذ اَلوان‬PPB 36–45; Barkeshli 2016) ِ ‫ َر ْن‬/rang-e esparak/ ☞ ‫ِا ْسپَ َرک‬ ‫گ اِ ْسپَ َرک‬

168

‫ر‬

‫چیدن‬ َ ‫ ِر ْنگ َب ْر‬/rang barčīdan/ lit. “to pick up color”. In watercolor, to blot up paint from the paper using a dry brush, sponge, paper towel, cloth, or one’s finger. (Karāmatī 1370š/1991 s.v. ‫چیدن‬ َ ‫) ِرنْگ َب ْر‬ ‫ َر ْنگ َپریده‬/rang-parīde/ pale, faded. ☞ ‫َرقیق‬ ِ ‫ َر ْن‬/rang-e pūst-e anār/ pomegranate skin dye. Pomegranate skin ِ ‫پوس‬ ‫ت اَنار‬ ْ ‫گ‬ traditionally has many uses in dyeing and in the production of dark grays. It was used with sodium carbonate and sometimes combined with other vegetable dyes such as saffron to produce various colors. Alone, pomegranate skin yields a yellowish color. It is water soluble and the addition of mineral acids produces a red. Pomegranate skin: + alkaline substance = reddish brown + iron salt = first green and then black + blue zāj (☞ ‫ = )زاج‬first olive green and then dark brown + tin mordant = first yellow and then grey if the solution is left to sit + several drops of saffron = dirty yellow + salt + black zāj (☞ ‫ )زاج‬boiled with dates = vivid grey pomegranate skin dye left to stand for a year and kept cool = grey Īnānlū et al. 1367š/1988: 28f.

ِ ‫ َر ْن‬/rang-e pūst-e pīāz/ onion skin dye. When boiled sufficiently ِ ‫پوس‬ ‫ت پیاز‬ ْ ‫گ‬ in water with salt as a mordant, onion skins produce a brown commonly referred to as “onion-colored”. Analogous colors are produced when mixed with various tannins (☞ ‫)مازو‬. (Īnānlū et al. 1367š/1988: 28) ِ ‫ َر ْن‬/rang-e pūst-e gerdū/ walnut hull dye. Walnut hull dye is parِ ‫پوس‬ ‫ت گِ ْردو‬ ْ ‫گ‬ ticularly suited for paper used in calligraphy and gol-o-bote style painting (☞ ‫ )شیوه‌ی ایرانی‬and was traditionally used. In the fall when walnuts are harvested from the trees, the green hull is removed and dried. This is then boiled in water to produce a brown or cream color. The result is an orange color with the addition of white zāj (☞ ‫ )زاج‬and 3% oxalic acid when boiling. If iron sulfate is added to the solution at high heat the resulting color is a grayish black and black at an even higher temperature. When mixed with henna, walnut hull dye produces a reddish brown, whereas when mixed with henna leaves produces creamy yellow. (Īnānlū 1367š/1988: 28)

169

‫ر‬

ِ ‫ َر ْن‬/rang-e jesmī/ lit. “physical paint”. Water soluble, opaque paint that ‫گ َج ْسمی‬ covers the color underneath it. Today gouache (‫ )گواش‬and oil paint (rang-e ِ ‫ )روغن‬are considered equivalent to rang-e jesmī. The traditional rōġan ‫رنگ‬ medium in classical Persian painting as well as in taẕhīb (☞ ‫ ) َتذْ هیب‬was ِ ‫َرن‬ gouache for both painting and pardāz (☞ ‫) َپ ْرداز‬. ☞ ‫ْگ روحی‬ ِ ‫ َر ْن‬/rang-e joft/ A camel-colored dye produced from the seed coat (testa) ‫گ ُج ْفت‬ of an acorn good for coloring paper traditionally used in gol-o-bote style painting (☞ ‫ )شیوه‌ی ایرانی‬and calligraphy. To produce the dye, the seed coat is rubbed in salt and boiled in water for twenty minutes. Mixing the seed coat with pomegranate skin results in a rich brown. (Īnānlū et al. 1367š/1988: 28) ِ ‫ َر ْن‬/rang-e ḥanāī/ ☞ ‫َحنایی‬ ‫گ َحنایی‬ ِ ‫ َر ْن‬/rang-e ḫaṭāyī/ Khitanian dye. A mixture of henna leaves, saffron ‫گ خَطایی‬ ِ ‫ ) َرن‬and few drops of black or brown ink used to color paper (☞ ‫ْگ َزع َفران‬ (☞ ‫) َرنْگ‌آمیزی کا َغذ‬. Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī (ṢS: 22) ‫حاجت آن که آزمایی نیست‬ ‫ بیش ازین مپسند‬،‫از مدادست‬ … ‫زینت خ ّط خوب مرغوبست‬

‫هیچ رنگی به از خطایی نیست‬ ‫زعفران و حنا و قطره‌ی چند‬ ‫خط برو خوب و هم طال خوبست‬

No dye surpasses Khitanian (dye), and this does not require verification. Take no more than saffron, henna and a few drops of ink. Elegant writing and gold look good on it; this is the real desirable jewelry for the fine calligraphy. PPB 32, 38, 41, 44

ِ ‫ َر ْن‬/rang-e ḫōd-rang/ ☞ ‫خو ْد َرنْگ‬ ‫گ خود َْر ْنگ‬ ِ ‫ َر ْن‬/rang-e rūḥī/ lit. “spiritual paint”. Transparent paint through which ‫گ روحی‬ the color underneath is visible. Traditionaly this was made by mixing natural pigments with grape syrup. Watercolors (āb-rang ‫ )آب َرنْگ‬and ecoline inks are today considered to be rang-e rūḥī. Watercolor was used in classical Persian painting as well as in taẕhīb (☞ ‫ ) َتذْ هیب‬for outlining (☞ ‫) َقل َْمگیری‬. It is also used for pardāz (☞ ‫ ) َپ ْرداز‬which was traditionally done with gouache ِ ‫) َرن‬. ☞ ‫ْگ جِ ْسمی‬ ِ ‫َرن‬ (☞ ‫ْگ جِ ْسمی‬

170

‫ر‬

ِ ‫ َر ْن‬/rang-e rīše-ye rōnās/ alizarin. Also called jōhar-e rōnās (‫جو َه ِر‬ ‫گ ریشه‌ی روناس‬ ‫ )روناس‬lit. “jewel of madder”. A red dye that is extracted from between the outer skin and the inner woody core of madder root (Rubia tinctorum L.), Pers. rōnās (‫)روناس‬. If the root remains in the ground for a longer period of time, or the madder is planted in soil containing calcium carbonate (CaCO3), the pigment will increase accordingly. In calligraphy alizarin was used to color paper (☞ ‫) َرنْگ‌آمیزی کا َغذ‬. Powder from the madder root was mixed with salt, dates and sour yogurt, creating a dark pink mixture similar in in color to a red onion. This was then either spread evenly on the sheet of paper with a sponge, or the paper was immersed in the solution. Until the end of the nineteenth century (Zohary 1993: 192) the pigment was also widely used as a dye for wool, cotton and silk textiles and was fixed with alum (☞ ‫)زاج‬. (Īnānlū et al. 1367š/1988: 27) ِ ‫ َر ْن‬/rang-e zaʿfarān/ saffron pigment. Derived from the red stigmas of ‫گ َزع َفران‬ the Saffron crocus (Crocus sativus L.) (‫) ُگلِ َزع َفران‬, this pigment is particularly resistant to light, and dissolves quickly in alcohol. Saffron was used as a textile dye from ancient times until the beginning of the twentieth century (Zohary 1993: 189), and was also used to color paper (☞ ‫) َرنْگ‌آمیزی کا َغذ‬. By varying the amount of saffron mixed mixed with salt in lukewarm water, the intensity of the pigment can be altered. (Īnānlū et al. 1367š/1988: 27; Barkeshli 2016: 54–55; PPB 37–38) ِ ‫ َر ْن‬/rang-e zangārī/ verdigris dye. The layer of verdigris on a sheet of ‫گ َز ْنگاری‬ copper is rubbed off with vinegar in a ceramic bowl. For twenty-four hours one part verdigris to ten parts water should then be left covered to avoid contamination. The solution is then strained and traditionally used to tint paper (☞ ‫) َرنْگ‌آمیزی کا َغذ‬. (Māyel Heravī 1353š/1974: 11) ☞ ‫َزنْگار‬ ِ ‫ َر ْن‬/rang-e sabz/ green dye. Used to tint paper (☞ ‫آمیزی کا َغذ‬ ‫گ َسبْز‬ ‫) َرنْگ‬, it was ِ traditionally produced by mixing Houstonia (bluet) with gall. ِ ‫ َر ْن‬/rang-e soranj/ ☞ ‫ُسرنْج‬ ‫گ ُس َر ْنج‬ َ ِ ‫ َر ْن‬/rang-e sīāh/ ☞ ‫ُمرکَّب‬ ‫گ سیاه‬ َ ِ ‫ َر ْن‬/rang-e sīlū/ ☞ ‫سیلو‬ ‫گ سیلو‬ ‫ َر ْنگ ُش ْست‬/rang-šost/ underpainting; first layer of paint; background layer; wash.

171

‫ر‬ ِ ‫ َر ْن‬/rang-e šangarf/ ☞ ‫َش ْنگَ ْرف‬ ‫گ شَ نْگَ ْرف‬

ِ ‫ َر ْن‬/rang-e farīse/ bleu-vert. Traditionally used to tint paper (☞ ‫َرنْگ‬ ‫گ َفریسه‬ ‫آمیزی کا َغذ‬ ), it was produced by mixing Houstonia (bluet) with with juice ِ from marble oak galls (☞ ‫)مازو‬. This was allowed to sit for a day and is then strained. ِ ‫ َر ْن‬/rang-e qermezdāne/ ☞ ‫ِق ْرم ِْزدانه‬ ‫گ ِق ْرم ِْزدانه‬ ِ ‫ َر ْن‬/rang-e kāhī/ straw-colored. Used to tint paper (☞ ‫آمیزی کا َغذ‬ ‫گ کاهی‬ ‫) َرنْگ‬, this ِ color was traditionally produced from safflower extract. (Barkeshli 2016: 67) ِ ‫ َر ْن‬/rang-e gol-e sorḫ/ red rose dye. Traditionally, white zāj (☞ ‫)زاج‬ ‫گ ُگ ِل ُس ْرخ‬ was dissolved in hot water. Tragacanth and red rose petals were added and ِ ‫)ی روناس َرن‬, the mixture kneaded by hand until clear. Madder root (☞ ‫ْگ ریشه‬ ِ ِ ‫پوس‬ ‫ْگ‬ ‫ن‬ ‫ر‬ pomegranate skin (☞ ‫ت اَنار‬ ) and rose petals were used to obtain a ْ َ better red. (Īnānlū et al. 1367š/1988: 27) ِ ‫ َر ْن‬/rang-e lājavardī/ ☞ ‫الج َو ْردی‬ ‫الج َو ْردی‬ َ ‫گ‬ َ ِ ‫ َر ْن‬/rang-e lāk/ ☞ ‫الک‬ ‫گ الک‬ ِ ‫ َر ْن‬/rang-e morakkab/ ☞ ‫ُمرکَّب‬ ‫گ ُم َرَّکب‬ َ ِ ‫ َر ْن‬/rang-e malle/ earthen-colored. Neẓām Qārī (LD s.v. ‫)مله‬ ‫گ َم ّله‬ ‫هیچ رنگی ب ِْه ز رنگ خاک نیست‬

‫از همه َرختی به َبر می‌کن مله‬

From among all clothing, don the earthen-colored. There is no better color than that of the soil.* * The verse has an allusion to the expression of “being soil-like”, i.e. being humble, which is a virtue.

‫َن َب ْز َرک‬ ِ ‫ روغ‬/rōġan-e bazrak/ linseed oil. ‫َن َکمان‬ ِ ‫ روغ‬/rōġan-e kamān/ sandarac varnish, lit. “bow oil”. In Persian this varnish became known as bow oil because it was used to varnish bows. Sandarac is a resin obtained from the small cypress-like tree Tetraclinis articulata and was traditionally used to make varnish. (Mojarrad-Tākestānī 1372š/1993: 96)

172

‫ر‬

ِ ‫َرن‬ ‫ روناس‬/rōnās/ ☞ ‫ْگ ریشه‌ی روناس‬ ‫ ِر ْیحان‬/reyḥān/ sc. (Fig. 90) An elegant script that was developed for quick easy writing as a finer version of moḥaqqaq (☞ ‫) ُم َحقَّق‬. Its delicate elegance resembled the stems and leaves of the basil plant and so it was named reyḥān meaning “basil” (Faẓāʾelī 1370š/1991: 291). An exemplary example of reyḥān calligraphy can be seen in a Quran dated 685/1286/7 held in the National Museum of Iran and written by Yāqūt Mostaʿṣemī (p. 601, ln. 16, folio (35/5 × 24/5)). (AMT 61; AMVR 223) ‫ ِر ْیحانی‬/reyḥānī/ ☞ ‫ر ِْیحان‬

‫ر‬

173

figure 90 A Quran colophon written in reyḥān by Yāqūt Mostaʿṣemī, Baghdad 685/1286/7, National Museum of Iran, Tehran

plate 13

Colophon written in Šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq by Darvīš ʿAbdolmajīd Ṭāleqānī, 1184/1770/71, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran

‫ زاج‬/zāj/ alum. A compound of potassium aluminum sulfate. In watercolor ِ ‫ ) َرن‬painting, it can be mixed with the paint for clarity and resistance. (☞ ‫ْگ روحی‬ For painting on silk, the silk should first be coated with a mixture of twentyfive percent alum and water. Before painting on paper, the paper should be rinsed with alum as this will conceal dirty or broken particles. Alum and soap can be used to rinse a canvas for painting, however, after it has dried completely it is necessary to apply an oil varnish (Īnānlū 1367š/1988:18). Alum was added to early carbon-based inks (☞ ‫ ) ِمداد‬to increase their adhesive properties (IC 62). As a mordant, it was used to fix textile fibers that ِ ‫) َرن‬. (Zohary had been dyed with plant dyes such as alizarin (☞ ‫ْگ ریشه‌ی روناس‬ 1993: 192; MC 114, 146) In ancient times zaj was used for many things from treating paper and leather, to a mordant in inks and dyes and in medicine. In Persian the various types of zaj, sometimes translated alum or vitriol, were designated with the colors red, green, black white and yellow (also called šotordandān ‫)شُ تُ ْر َدنْدان‬. Attempts to identify the minerals of each of these have been complicated by the fact that they were often confused with various other substances at the time. (Shafer 1963: 217; Lev 2008: 99f.; Carrasco 2013: 67f., 77; Schottenhammer 2010: 139f.) ‫ زاغ‬/zāġ/ ☞ ‫زاج‬ ‫ زاگ‬/zāg/ ☞ ‫زاج‬ ‫ زاویه‬/zāvīe/ angle. The expression used to designate the distance between the appropriate angle of the pen on the paper to form each part of each letter and the horizontal or vertical baseline (☞ ‫)ک ُْرسی‬. ‫ َزبانه‬/zabāne/ bb. flap. (Fig. 91) A trapezoidal-shaped flap, like that of an envelope, attached to the left side of the cover of a book. These kinds of bindings were referred to as “hinged” (lōlā-dār ‫)لوالدار‬. The flap can also be referred to as a sar-ṭabl (‫ ) َس ْرط َْبل‬and is often called a lesān (‫ )لِسان‬or meġlab (‫) ِم ْغلَب‬ (MC 149, 261, 289; AMVR 103–104) ☞ ‫َص ّحافی‬ © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_016

176

‫ز‬

figure 91 Binding with a flap, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran

‫ َزبانه‌ی َقلَم‬/zabāne-ye qalam/ ☞ ‫َد ِم َقلَم‬ ‫شان َپ ْرپَشه‌ای‬ ِ ‫ َز ْر َا ْف‬/zarafšān-e parpaše-ī/ illum. lit. “mosquito wings-gold sprinkling”. Gold sprinkling (☞ ‫ ) َافْشانْگَ ری‬that is finely-ground like the wings of insects. ☞ ‫َافْشانْگَ ری‬

‫ز‬

177

‫شان َچشْ ِم موری‬ ِ ‫ َز ْر َا ْف‬/zarafšān-e čašm-e mūrī/ illum. lit. “ant-eyed gold sprinkling”. Gold sprinkling (☞ ‫ ) َافْشانْگَ ری‬that appears as small round flecks. ☞ ‫َافْشانْگَ ری‬ ‫شان َز َرک‬ ِ ‫ َز ْر َا ْف‬/zarafšān-e zarak/ illum. Gold sprinkling (☞ ‫ ) َافْشانْگَ ری‬that appears in specks of various sizes but evenly covers the surface of the paper. This contrasts with the other types of gold sprinkling in which the coverage may be uneven. ☞ ‫َافْشانْگَ ری‬ ‫شان لینه‬ ِ ‫ َز ْر َا ْف‬/zarafšān-e līne/ illum. Gold sprinkling (☞ ‫ ) َافْشانْگَ ری‬that combines the three types of sprinkling čašm-e mūrī (☞ ‫ْشان ِچ ْش ِم موری‬ ِ ‫) َز ْر َاف‬, parpaše-ī ‫ف‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ز‬ ‫ف‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ْشان‬ ‫ن‬ ‫‌ای‬ ‫ه‬ ‫ش‬ ‫پ‬ ‫ر‬ ‫پ‬ ‫ْشان‬ ‫ف‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ز‬ ‫ُبار‬ ‫ری‬ ‫ْشا‬ ‫غ‬ َ‫ْگ‬ َ َ َ (☞ ِ َ َْ ِ ْ َ ). ☞ ْ َ ) and ġobārī (☞ ‫ َز ْر َا ْفشانی‬/zarafšānī/ ☞ ‫َافْشانْگَ ری‬ ‫ َز ْر َح ّل‬/zar-ḥall/ emulsified gold. Gold that is suspended in glue or water and applied with a pen or paintbrush in calligraphy or painting also called ḥal-kārī (lit. “solution work” ‫ ) َح ْل کاری‬It is used to decorate sections without calligraphy in illuminated manuscripts, borders of patchwork albums (☞ ‫ ) ُم َر َّقع‬and doublures (☞ ‫آست َ ِر َب ْد َرقه‬ ْ ) with images of animals and birds, floral designs and mythical creatures such as the Sīmorġ and dragons (Bayānī 1353š/1974: 24). Ḥal-kārī refers to any type of painting with gold paint or finely ground gold and silver particles suspended in a mixture of glue and water as a medium (☞ ‫( ) َز ْر َح ّل‬Soucek 1994: 19). Designs can often be drawn freehand. These are usually done in jadvals (☞ ‫ ) َج ْد َول‬and lacquer bindings (☞ ‫)جِ ْل ِد رو َغنی‬. Zarḥal is made first by placing a thin sheet of gold between two pieces of leather that are then sewn together on all sides. A hammer is used to beat the leather until the gold on the inside becomes very fine it is then mixed with gum. (Jokar/Ġaffārpūrī 1396š/2017) ☞ ‫َچ ْسبان َْد ِن َو َرقِ ط َال‬ ِ ‫َرن‬ ‫ َزع َفران‬/zaʿfarān/ ☞ ‫ْگ َزع َفران‬ ‫ زُغاالب‬/zoġālāb/ ☞ ‫ُم َرکَّب‬ ‫ زگاالب‬/zogālāb/ ☞ ‫ُم َرکَّب‬ ‫ َز ْنگار‬/zangār/ verdigris. A copper acetate. A green pigment that can be formed when acetic acid is added to copper (II) carbonate, green-colored patina that forms on a copper surface (Carrasco et al. 2013: 77). This bright bluegreen pigment was traditionally used in painting but discolors in the presence of light and air other pigment particles. It was one of the first colors

178

‫ز‬

to be synthetically produced. (Moqbel-Eṣfahānī 1380š/2001: 123; Barkeshli ِ ‫َرن‬ 2016: 63–64) ☞ ‫ْگ َزنْگاری‬

‫زیر َد ْستی‬ ْ /zīr-dastī/ to. writing pad. A type of tablet which is placed on the lap to provide a surface on which to write. Today these are made out of leather or flexible plastic. An important function of the writing tablet in addition to holding the paper is to ensure the fluid movement of the pen and allow the calligrapher to modify the shapes of some letters such as the bows (☞ ‫دامن‬ َ ) of the circular letters (☞ ‫) َدوايِر‬. The tablet should be 25cm square, dark in color and have a smooth, even surface. (AMVR 296) ‫زیر َمشْ قی‬ ْ /zīr-mašqī/ ☞ ‫زیر َد ْستی‬ ْ

plate 14

A mixture of taʿlīq and šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq, calligraphy attributed to Darvīš ʿAbdolmajīd Ṭāleqānī (1150–1185/1737/8–1771/2), Golestān Palace Library, Tehran

‫ ساغَری‬/sāġarī/ bb. Shagreen/chagreen (BBP 122–123) ☞ ‫پوست‬ ْ ِ ‫ َس ْب‬/sabk-e īrānī/ ☞ ‫شیوه‌ی ایرانی‬ ‫ک ایرانی‬ ‫ َِستاره‬/setāre/satāre/ bb. A metal blade used to cut large pieces of paper (Afshar 1357š/1978: 61). Also called saṭṭāra (‫) َسطّاره‬. ☞ ‫َص ّحافی‬ ‫ َستاره‌ی َج ْد َول‬/setāre/satāre-ye jadval/ to. ruler. A steel, wood, or bone instrument or ruler generally 20–50cm long and 3–5cm wide (Afshar 2005: 3), used to draw the jadval (☞ ‫ ) َج ْد َول‬around the text. (PPB 59) ‫ َستَر ال َّله َعیوب ِه‬/satar allāh ʿayūbahu/ ☞ ‫ُس ِتر َعیوب ِه‬ ‫ ُس ِتر َعیوب ِه‬/satar ʿayūbahu/ lit. “may (God) conceal his imperfections”. A sentence sometimes added by calligraphers following their signature on a piece. ‫جاو ْندی‬ َ ‫ َس‬/sajāvandī/ The placing of diacritical marks in a text. This is usually done with a different pen after the text itself has been written. ‫ َسجع‬/sajʿ/ A phrase comprised of similar sounding words written on a coin, seal or in stone. ‫جع ِم ْلکی‬ ِ ‫ َس‬/sajʿ-e melkī/ Stamping the pages of a book or a piece of calligraphy to indicate its owner. (Fig. 92) (AMT 136; AMVR 243–245) ‫ َسحاء‬/saḥāʾ/ An area at the bottom of a text chosen by the author, scribe or calligrapher to accommodate a signature or stamp. ‫ َس ْر َب ْرگ‬/sar-barg/ header. ‫ َس ْر ُت َر ْنج‬/sar-toranj/ ☞ ‫ت َُرنْج‬

© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_017

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figure 92 An example of sajʿ-e melkī. According to the roundel and upper stamp this belonged to Shah Abbās. The note informs us that it was then bought by Maḥyā-od-Dīn Ḫān in 1152/1739/40 in Šāhjahān Ābād. In the University of Istanbul Library, no. 1481

181

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‫ َس ْرخَط‬/sarḫaṭ/ ☞ ‫َس ْر َم ْشق‬ ‫ َس ْر َد ْفتَر‬/sar-daftar/ preface, prologue; accountant; scribe. ‫ َس ْر ُسخَن‬/sar-soḫan/ ☞ ‫َس ْر َف ْصل‬ ‫ َس ْرسوره‬/sar-sūre/ sura heading. (Fig. 93) In Qurans written in Kufic (☞ ‫)کوفی‬, the name of the sura, the number of verses it contains and where it was revealed were written headings in decorative Kufic script in colors such as gold and vermillion (☞ ‫) َش ْنگَ ْرف‬. In Qurans written in nasḫ (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْسخ‬or reyḥān (☞ ‫ )رِیحان‬this information was generally written in s̱ols̱ (☞ ‫ )ثُ ْلث‬or moḥaqqaq (☞ ‫) ُم َحقَّق‬. ‫ َس ْرط َْبل‬/sar-ṭabl/ ☞ ‫َزبانه‬ ‫ َس ْر َف ْصل‬/sar-faṣl/ illum. The decoration of the title page. This generally takes the form of historiated painting (☞ ‫)ت َ ْشعیر‬, illumination (☞ ‫ ) َتذْ هیب‬and occasionally tarṣīʿ (☞ ‫) َت ْرصیع‬. (AMVR 37; 57–58; 110–111; 262; 277–279) ‫ َس ْر َف ْصلی‬/sar-faṣlī/ ☞ ‫َق َل ِم َس ْر َف ْصلی‬ ‫ َس َرک‬/sarak/ call. serif. (Fig. 94) A triangle-shaped cap that is appended to verِ ‫ ) ُح‬at the beginning of a word obligatory in s̱ols̱ tical letters (☞ ‫روف َعمودی‬ (☞ ‫)ثُ ْلث‬, moḥaqqaq (☞ ‫ ) ُم َحقَّق‬and tōqīʿ (☞ ‫)توقیع‬. Also called torre (‫ )ط ُ ّره‬and tarvīs (‫) َت ْرویس‬. (AMVR 122–125) ‫ َسر َک ْر َد ِن َقلَم‬/sar kardan-e qalam/ ☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫َتر‬ ‫ َس ْرکِش‬/sar-keš/ head-stroke. The long vertical or horiyontal head-stroke of the letters kāf (‫ )ک‬and gāf (‫)گ‬. ‫ َس ْرلوح‬/sar-lōḥ/ illum. frontispiece. The pages of many manuscripts were decorated with detailed geometric shapes or floral patterns (☞ ‫) ِا ْسلیمی‬. These were either done in gold or gold and other colors. This could either be a single frontispiece (sar-lōḥ-e sāde ‫لوح ساده‬ ِ ‫ ) َس ْر‬or a double (page) frontispiece (sar-lōḥ-e mazdūj ‫لوح َم ْزدوج‬ ِ ‫) َس ْر‬. An ornamented epigraph is occasionally added with the phrase besmelah (☞ ‫ )ب ِْس ِملَه‬or the title of the book. This is located below, but is connected to the main frontispiece. (Bayānī 1353š/1974:

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figure 93 A page from the Quran written in nasḫ by Dūst-Moḥammad b. Soleymān al-Herāvī, Herat 946/1539/40, with sura headings in reqāʿ. Islamic Consultative Assembly Library, Tehran

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figure 94 Sarak, stone inscription in s̱ols̱, in the script of Jallāl Jaʿfar, 841/1437/8, Herat, Afghanistan

27; AMVR 57–58; 102–103; 119–122; 131; 262; 277–279; PPB 62, 112–113) ☞ ‫َکتیبه‌ی‬ ‫سرلوح‬ ْ ☞ ‫ُم َقطَّع‌ ِنویسی‬

‫ َس ْرلوحه‬/sarlōḥe/ ☞ ‫ُم َقطَّع‌ ِنویسی‬ ‫ َس ْر َمشْ ق‬/sar-mašq/ model, example. (Fig. 95) Calligraphy written by a master calligrapher to serve as a model for his students to imitate when practicing (☞ ‫) َم ْشق‬. ‫ ُس َر ْنج‬/soranj/ A red-orange pigment obtained from minium (☞ ‫ )سیلو‬that used in the ornamentation of title pages (☞ ‫) َس ْر َف ْصل‬, titles and manuscripts. (PPB 75, 77–78, 178) ‫ ِسریشُ ِم َت ْخته‌ای‬/serīšom-e taḫteʾī/ ☞ ‫َچ ْسب‬ ِ ‫پوس‬ ‫ت خ َْرگوش‬ ِ ‫َچ ْس‬ ْ ‫ ِسریشُ ِم‬/serīšom-e pūst-e ḫargūš/ ☞ ‫پوست‬ ْ ‫ب‬ ‫‌ َسطّاره‬/saṭṭāra/ ☞ ‫َستاره‬

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185

figure 95 Sar-mašq in nastaʿlīq by Moḥammad Kāẓem Tehrānī, private collection in Tehran

figure 96 Roundness (left) and straightness (right) in nastaʿlīq

‫ َسطْح و دور‬/saṭḥ-o-dōr/ call. “straightness and roundness”. (Fig. 96) In addition to ِ ‫) َق‬, from being among the calligraphic principles (☞ ‫واع ِد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ ِنویسی‬ the first centuries after the advent of Islam, saṭḥ-o-dōr was also an expression used to define some scripts (☞ ‫ ) َاقْال ِم ِششگانه‬such as Kufic (☞ ‫)کوفی‬, s̱ols̱ (☞ ‫ )ثُ ْلث‬and nasḫ (☞ ‫)ن َ ْسخ‬. For example, in the definition of the script s̱ols̱ is given in terms of the ratio of straightness to roundness. According to this 1/3 of s̱ols̱ is “round” whereas the remaining 2/3 is made up of “straightness”, thus defining the movement of the pen within the constraints of this script. In the last thousand years no other calligraphic principle took on such a function or was referred to with such specificity. It is impossible to concisely define a script such as s̱ols̱ in terms of baseline (☞ ‫)کُرسی‬, composition (☞ ‫ ) َترکیب‬or proportion (☞ ‫ناسب‬ ُ ‫ ) َت‬because the difference between it others such as reyḥān (☞ ‫ )رِیحان‬and moḥaqqaq (☞ ‫ ) ُم َحقَّق‬would remain unclear. Straightness is formed by a movement of the pen in strokes within a letter or word that may be horizontal, vertical, or oblique such as the letter kāf (‫)ک‬. This letter is composed of the letters alef (‫ )ا‬and be (‫ )ب‬with the

186

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addition of a head-stroke (☞ ‫ ) َس ْر ِکش‬and is formed therefore by a horizontal, vertical and oblique stroke. When straightness is horizontal it is accompanied by thickness (☞ ‫)ق َُّوت‬, i.e. the full breadth of the pen is expressed on paper as in an elongated be (‫) ِکشیده‌ ِنویسی ☞( )ب‬. In contrast, where the straightness is vertical or oblique, as in the letter alef (‫)ا‬, the stroke is characterized by thinness (☞ ‫ ;) َض ْعف‬although the nib is in full contact with the paper its complete breadth is not expressed (☞ ‫)تمام‌ َقلَم‬. Roundness is produced by swinging the pen so as to create a upturned semicircle as seen in the letters nūn (‫)ن‬, ḥe (‫ )ح‬and sīn (‫)س‬, etc. or a loop as in the top of qāf (‫)ق‬, fe (‫ )ف‬and vāv (‫)و‬, etc. Roundness can be divided into two groups: mostaqīm (lit. “direct”) dextrograde, and maʿkūs (lit. “inverted”) sinistrograde. Mostaqīm roundness appears in letters that are formed with strokes traveling from right to left as in the letter ye (‫)ی‬. Here the letter begins with mostaqīm roundness in a virtual downstroke (☞ ‫ )نُزولِ َمجازی‬and finishes ِ ‫) ُص‬, i.e. in a state of mostaqīm roundness in a virtual upstroke (☞ ‫عود َمجازی‬ possessing a tašmīr (☞ ‫)ت َ ْشمیر‬. Maʿkūs roundness appears in letters that are formed with strokes traveling from left to right such as for ʿeyn (‫)ع‬. Here the final section of the letter expresses both virtual ascent and maʿkūs roundness. In the loop sections of letters such as qāf (‫)ق‬, first mostaqīm roundness and then maʿkūs roundness is produced. In other words the loop is obtained by a stroke first moving right to left and is completed in a movement from left to right.

‫ َسطْر‬/saṭr/ line of text. (Fig. 97) Idiomatically saṭr describes a hemistich (☞ ‫ ) ِم ْص َرع‬or a sentence used as an exemplar for the first lesson of a beginner student of calligraphy. The longer the line of text the greater the upward slant and stacking of the of the final letters or word. For short lines one elongation (☞ ‫ ) ِکشیده‌ ِنویسی‬is appropriate, whereas for normal lines there should be two. The student should then attempt to correctly write the letters and words using the simplest baseline (☞ ‫ )کُرسی‬and composition (☞ ‫) َترکیب‬. (AMT 67–68) ‫ َس َعف‬/sa‌ʾaf/ to. A pen made from a branch of a date tree popular in the 2nd/8th c. (Māyel Heravī 1353š/1974: 45) ‫فیداب ُس ْرب‬ ‫ ِس‬/sefīdāb-e sorb/ white lead, ceruse. A complex chemical comِ pound that occurs naturally as a mineral. This poisonous white substance had many applications as a pigment and in paint production. It is not watersoluble. In Iran the soft white powder was used mixed with linseed oil for painting. Its opacity is greater than other pigments including zinc oxide

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figure 97 Three saṭrs in nastaʿlīq by Mīrzā Ġolāmreżā Eṣfahānī, Malek National Library

187

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‫ ) ِس‬but exposure to hydrogen sulphide and other sulphurous ِ (☞ ‫فیداب روی‬ compounds react with the lead to form lead carbonate, a dark material that causes the its whiteness to fade. Because white lead is highly poisonous, painters who worked with it often suffered from lead poisoning. It was also used in the production of primer and some types of ceramic containers and was popular in sixteenth century Europe as a cosmetic and skin whitener ‫) ِس‬. ☞ ‫فیداب روی‬ ‫ِس‬ ِ ِ (Venetian ceruse). Also called sefīdāb-e šeyḫ (‫فیداب ِش ْیخ‬ ‫فیداب روی‬ ‫ ِس‬/sefīdāb-e rūī/ zinc oxide. A non-poisonous white powder often ِ used as a pigment or dyestuff, in particular in house paint, watercolor and ‫) ِس‬, it is ِ enameling. Although it is not as opaque as ceruse (☞ ‫فیداب ُس ْرب‬ the whitest of white pigments and extremely resistant to ultraviolet rays and exposure to sulfurous compounds. Zinc oxide also has many applica‫) ِس‬ ِ tions in the production of plastics and natural rubber. (DF s.v. ‫فیداب روی‬ ‫ِس‬ ِ ☞ ‫فیداب ُس ْرب‬ ‫فیداب ِش ْیخ‬ ‫ ِس‬/sefīdāb-e šeyḫ/ ☞ ‫فیداب ُس ْرب‬ ‫ِس‬ ِ ِ ‫ َسفینه‬/safīne/ notebook, an anthology of different subjects, anecdots, poems or stories, divan. ‫ ُس ْلطانی‬/solṭānī/ ☞ ‫َقطْع‬ ‫ری‬ ٰ ‫ ِس ُّن ال ُی ْس‬/senn-ol-yosrā/ ☞ ‫ِان ْسی‬ ُّ /senn-ol-yomnā/ ☞ ‫َو ْحشی‬ ‫نی‬ ُ ‫سن‬ ٰ ‫الی ْم‬ ‫ ُس ْنباده‬/sonbāde/ to. sandpaper. In bookbinding rough sandpaper is used sand the edges of the book board (☞ ‫ ) َد َّفة‬and sometimes what covers it. A very fine kind of sandpaper is used to slightly dull the sharp tip on large-nibbed pens (☞ ‫) َق َل ِم َجلی‬. ‫ َسن َْدروس‬/sandarūs/ ☞ ‫رو َغ ِن َکمان‬ ‫ َسن ْْگتَراش‬/sang-tarāš/ stone engraver, stonecutter. A person who renders in stone the text written by a calligrapher for a tomb or inscription. This is done in one of two ways; either by chasing the surface of the text into the stone or by removing the space around the text leaving the text itself higher than the background. Also called hajjār (‫) َح ّجار‬.

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ِ ‫ َسن‬/sang-e jazʿ/ ☞ ‫َج ْزع‬ ‫ْگ َج ْزع‬ ِ ‫ َسن‬/sang-e ḥejāzī/ ☞ ‫گ َقل َْمتَراش‬ ِ ‫َس ْن‬ ‫ْگ ِحجازی‬ ِ ‫ َسن‬/sang-e rūmī/ ☞ ‫گ َقل َْمتَراش‬ ِ ‫َس ْن‬ ‫ْگ رومی‬ ِ ‫ َسن‬/sang-e sū/ ☞ ‫گ َقل َْمتَراش‬ ِ ‫َس ْن‬ ‫ْگ سو‬ ِ ‫ َسن‬/sang-e qalam-tarāš/ whetstone. Used to hone and sharpen steel ‫ْگ َقل َْمتَراش‬ tools such as those used by the stone engraver. Natural stones, called coticules, are typically light in color and are very rare. The stone has to be hard enough to sharpen the blade without being worn away, yet soft enough not to cause scratches. ‫ َسواد‬/savād/ lit. “blackness”. A written copy, especially a rough draft (Anvarī 1373š/1994: 181). Beyhaqī writes: ‫ سوادی کرده‬:‫ امروز بیاض کنند گفت‬٬‫ام‬. He said: I have written the rough draft, today I should write the final draft. (Tārīḫ: 148) ☞ ‫َبیاض ☞ َسواد و َبیاض‬ ‫ َسواد َک ْر َدن‬/savād kardan/ To write a report on a deed of ownership or ruling, etc. ‫ َسواد و َبیاض‬/savād-o-bayāż/ call. lit. “blackness and whiteness” Maintaining the correct proportion of the remaining whiteness on the paper to the blackness of the ink and the relationship between the two within a single letter, a single word, or the whole line. Contrary to ḫalvat-o-jalvat (☞ ‫) َخ ْل َوت و َج ْل َوت‬, which reffers to the proportion of “empty and full” spaces in the whole compisition, the main concern of savād-o-bayāż refers only to the porpotion of single letters, words, or lines. This is significant on several levels: 1. With a letter. The inclosed space formed within letters like he (‫)ه‬, ṣād (‫)ص‬ and ṭā (‫ )ط‬or in the letter ʿeyn (‫ )ع‬is measured relative to the black of the ink. This white space is also called negative space. 2. Within a word. gauging the proportion of the blackness to whiteness within all parts of a word, e.g. ‫ صراط‬and ‫مصلحت‬. 3. The even distribution of the two in a line and on the page. When viewed from a distance, no part of the page should appear darker than another. More generally, blackness and whiteness, especially in this third level, has ِ ‫َخ ْل َوت و ☞ َق‬ much in common with ḫalvat-o-jalvat. ☞ ‫واع ِد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ ِنویسی‬ ‫َج ْل َوت‬

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‫ سو ْخت‬/sūḫt/ ☞ ‫جِ ْل ِد سو ْخت‬ ‫ َس َّو َد ُه‬/savvadaho/ Verbal phrase “(he) wrote/blackened”. The first and lowest of signatures (☞ ‫ ) َر َقم َز َدن‬that could be used by a student of calligraphy relative to his level and with his teacher’s permission to accompany his name at the ِ ‫لَ َق‬ base of his work. ☞ ‫ب خوشْ ِنویس ☞ َت ْرقیمه‬ ‫ سوده ُش َدن‬/sūde šodan/ The wearing down of the tip of a reed pen or when a paintbrush no longer comes to a point. ‫سوزن‬ َ /sūzan/ needle. ☞ ‫َص ّحافی‬ ‫سوزن َز َدن‬ َ /sūzan zadan/ To poke holes around a design on paper with a needle to transfer calligraphy onto stone to make an inscription or onto tile. ☞ ‫کا َغ ِذ‬ ‫سو َزن َزده‬ ‫سوزن َزده‬ َ /sūzan-zade/ ☞ ‫کا َغ ِذ سو َزن َزده‬ ‫هارم َقلَم‬ ُ ‫ سه َچ‬/se-čahārom qalam/ three-quarters nib. Used to write those portions of letters and words that are wider than two-thirds nib (☞ ‫)دو ِس ُوم َقلَم‬ yet narrower than full nib (☞ ‫)تمام‌ َقلَم‬. ِ ‫ سه دا ْن‬/se-dāng-e mašqī/ ☞ ‫دانْگ‌های َم ْشقی‬ ‫گ َمشْ قی‬ ‫ َس ْه ُوالْ َقلَم‬/sahv-ol-qalam/ slippage of the pen or mistakes while writing. (FF s.v. ‫) َس ْه ُوالْ َقلَم‬ ‫ سیاه َمشْ ق‬/sīāh-mašq/ (Figs. 50, 78–79, 98, XI, XXVII–XXVIII) Sīāh-mašq has its origins in the practice and repetition of letters and words to warm up the hand and gather the concentration necessary to produce a final draft of calligraphy. The oldest extant examples of sīāh-mašq are of the Six Pens (☞ ‫اَقال ِم‬ ‫) ِش ْشگانه‬. From the 7th/13th c. onward the production of sīāh-mašq lost the aspect of practice and playfulness and became an independent kind of calligraphic text that was used in albums (☞ ‫) ُم َر َّقع‬. Independent sīāh-mašqs in nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬began to appear towards the end of the 10th/16th c. and reached an artistic highpoint by the 13th/19th c. As an illustration of this some calligraphers from the period such as Assadollāh Šīrāzī (a. 1268/1851/2), Mīr Ḥoseyn Ḫōšnevīsbāšī (d. 1300/1882/3) and Ġolāmreżā Eṣfahānī (1246– 1304/1830/1–1886/7) worked primarily in sīāh-mašq. Yet while a group of

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191

figure 98 Sīāh-mašq in nastaʿlīq by Mīrzā Ġolāmreżā Eṣfahānī, University of Tehran Library, no. 4119

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‫س‬

calligraphers that included Ḫōšnevīsbāšī considered sīāh-mašq to be an ultimate innovation within nastaʿlīq, others such as Moḥammad-Reżā Kalhor (1245–1310/1829–1892) still considered its primary function to be warm up and practice. From the 13th/19th c., we begin to see sīāh-mašqs that do not contain poems or any meaningful content. These are called “senseless” sīāh-mašq (sīāh-mašq-e bī-mażmūn). Writing sīāh-mašq in šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫ ) ِش َک ْسته‌ی ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬became popular in the 12th/18th c. as seen in the works of Ġolāmreżā Eṣfahānī and ʿAlī-Akbar Golestāne (1274–1319/1858– 1901) under whom the writing became larger (☞ ‫ ) َجلی‬and reached its most beautiful form. Sīāh-mašq can be divided in one of several categories based on its composition and placement on the page; these include horizontal sīāh-mašq, čalīpā (☞ ‫) َچلیپا‬, one-directional, bi-directional, or tri-directional (in which the text is written in several directions vertical, horizontal, oblique). Because of its flexibility as compared to čalīpā or ketābat (☞ ‫تابت‬ َ ‫) ِک‬, contemporary calligraphers have explored its capacity to a greater extent than was done in past centuries.

‫ سیاهی‬/sīāhī/ lit. “blackness.” Another word for black ink. (PPB 63–65, 88, 178) ‫ سی‌پاره‬/sī-pāre/ lit. “thirty-parts”. A division of Quran manuscripts into thirty parts to aid recitation that was common in the early centuries of Islam. These corresponded to the days of the month and, when bound in a single volume were often marked an illuminated (☞ ‫ ) َتذْ هیب‬page. These divisions, which in Arabic were called jozʾ (‫) ُجزء‬, were often divided further into quarters. A division into sixtieths called ḥezb (‫) ِح ْزب‬, lit. “group”, was also common in north Africa (IC 22). Because the Quran was generally written in large Kufic (☞ ‫)کوفی‬, s̱ols̱ (☞ ‫ )ثُ ْلث‬and moḥaqqaq (☞ ‫ ) ُم َحقَّق‬scripts, these divisions were also bound into thirty separate volumes. (AMT 22–23) ☞ ‫َمنْزِل‬ ‫ سیم ا ْفشانی‬/sīm-afšānī/ illum. silver speckling. When paper is decorated with specks of silver. The use of silver was less popular than that of gold as it tended to blacken as the metal oxidized in contact with air. (IC 22) ☞ ‫َافْشانْگَ ری‬ ‫ سینه‌ی َقلَم‬/sīne-ye qalam/ lit. “chest of the pen”. A part of the tongue of the pen that does not include the nib itself. ‫ سیلو‬/sīlū/ minium. A green pigment used in old paintings. (Tabrīzī 1362š/1983 s.v. ‫)سیلو‬

plate 15

A page in šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq, 1317/1889, calligraphy by Seyed ʿAlīakbar Golestāne (1274–1319/1858–1901), Ezzat Malek Soudavar private collection in Tehran

‫ شأن‬/ša‌ʾn/ call. dignity. lit. “rank, status, condition”. In calligraphy, it is the ِ ‫) َق‬, and is twelfth of the calligraphic principles (☞ ‫واع ِد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ ِنویسی‬ sometimes translated “dignity”. Ša‌ʾn is an attribute exclusive to calligraphers and is the highest degree and attribute possible within the art calligraphy. It is at this stage that a calligrapher (☞ ‫ )خوشْ ِنویس‬experiences constant joy from his own work and never tires of viewing it, and as a result tries to do nothing other than produce calligraphy. ☞ ‫َصفا‬ ‫ شاخه ِ‌ش َکسته‬/šāḫe-šekaste/ ☞ ‫َختایی‬ ‫ شاهاب‬/šāhāb/ carthamin. A natural red pigment derived from safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.), known in Persian as kāžīre (‫)کاژیره‬, kājīre (‫)کاجیره‬ and golrang‎(‫( ) ُگ ْل َرنْگ‬Tabrīzī 1362š/1983 s.v. ‫)شاهاب‬. Charthamin was used as a textile dye (Zohary 1993: 193) and also to color paper used in calligraphy ‫( ) َرنْگ‬Barkeshli 2016: 58–60). (☞ ‫آمیزی کا َغذ‬ ِ ‫ شاه‌عباسی‬/šāh-ʿabbāsī/ ☞ ‫َختایی‬ ‫ شاه‌عباسی اَناری‬/šāh-ʿabbāsī-ye anārī/ ☞ ‫َختایی‬ ‫ ِشبرو‬/šebrō/ Thin calf leather that was used as a book jacket. ‫ شانه‬/šāne/ bb. shoulder. A ridge on the outer edge of a curved textblock to which the cover boards are attached. This is created though the processes of rounding (☞ ‫ ) ِگ ْرد َک ْر َدن‬and backing (☞ ‫)پُ ْشت‌کوبی‬. ☞ ‫َص ّحافی‬ ‫ ُشت ُْر َد ْندان‬/šotor-dandān/ ☞ ‫زاج‬ ‫ َش َرفه‬/šarafe/ lit. “merlon”. (Fig. 99) In illumination (☞ ‫ ) َتذْ هیب‬a šarafe is a pattern consisting of a vertical line with additional 1. small horizontal and vertical lines and geometrical forms, 2. knots and curves, 3. floral- and sepal-like patterns, 4. lined ḫatāyī (☞ ‫ ) َختایی‬or eslīmī (☞ ‫ ) ِا ْسلیمی‬patterns 5. more complex patterns as toranjs (☞ ‫)ت َُرنْج‬, 6. chain-works, etc., which are drawn in the © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_018

195

‫ش‬

figure 99 Šarafe

margins of a closed taẕhīb pattern. The šarafe is especially used to supplement roundel (☞ ‫ ) َش ْمسه‬patterns, imitating the light radiating in the form of a nimbus to complete the illusion/allegory of its sun-like shape. The whole construction is painted in a single color, generally vermillion (☞ ‫) َش ْنگَ ْرف‬. (Āqāmīri 1384š/2005)

ِ ‫َرن‬ ‫ ُش ْست‬/šost/ ☞ ‫ْگ شُ ْست‬ ‫ ُش ْستَنِ لیقه‬/šostan-e līqe/ ☞ ‫ِش ُم َرکَّب‬ ِ ‫پاالی‬ ِ ‫ ِشش دا ْن‬/šeš dāng-e mašqī/ ☞ ‫دانْگ‌های َم ْشقی‬ ‫گ َمشْ قی‬ ‫ شَ طْ َر ْنجی‬/šaṭranjī/ sc. A way of writing in some s̱ols̱ (☞ ‫ )ثُ ْلث‬inscriptions (☞ ‫) َکتیبه‬ so that the horizontal letters intersect with vertical letters such as alef (‫)ا‬. This results in the formation of squares in the negative space between the strokes. ‫ شَ ظ َّیه‬/šaẓīyyah/ The tip of a reed pen. (Māyel Heravī 1353š/1974: 86) ‫ شَ ْفره‬/šafre/ bb. trimmer. A knife used by bookbinders to trim excess goatskin (☞ ‫پوست‬ ْ ). It is also used to cut matting (☞ ‫) َمتْن و حاشیه شُ ده‬. Also called kārdak (‫)کاردک‬, lit. “little knife”. (Qomī 1366š/1987: 203) ☞ ‫َص ّحافی‬ ‫ شَ فیعه‬/šafīʿe/ sc. The term used in India to describe šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫) ِش َک ْسته‌ی ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬. The devising of this script is attributed to Moḥammad Šafīʿ Heravī (11th/17th c.).

196

‫ش‬

figure 100 Šekārī

‫ شَ ق‬/šaq/ ☞ ‫فاق‬ ‫ شَ ق َز َدن‬/šaq zadan/ ☞ ‫فاق َز َدن‬ ‫ شَ ک‬/šak/ ☞ ‫نُقْطه‌ی َشک‬ ‫ ِشکاری‬/šekārī/ nas. (Fig. 100) The letter dāl (‫ )د‬when it is written with greater roundness (☞ ‫ ) َسطْح و دور‬and a particular shape preceding the letter re (‫)ر‬. This is also called derāz-dāman (‫دامن‬ َ ‫ ) ِدرا ْز‬lit. “long skirt”. ☞ ‫َخ ْن َجری‬ ‫ ِش َک ْسته‬/šekaste/ lit. “broken”. A šekaste or ‘cursive’ form of taʿlīq (☞ ‫ ) َت ْعلیق‬and nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬is created when these scripts are not written in accordance with their basic rules. In India this is referred to as taʿlīq. ☞ ‫ِش َک ْسته‌ی‬ ‫ِش َک ْسته‌ی َت ْعلیق ☞ ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬ ‫ ِش َک ْسته بَ ْسته‬/šekaste-baste/ sc. lit. “fractured-tied”. When some letters or parts of letters are written on one page and another part on a separate page. The complete text can then be viewed by placing the two sheets on top of one another. This is a rudimentary form of tōa‌ʾmān (☞ ‫)توأمان‬. Mollājān Kāšī (9th/15th c.), a student of Jaʿfar Tabrīzī, is credited with its creation. ‫ ِش َک ْسته‌ی ت َْعلیق‬/šekaste-ye taʿlīq/ sc. cursive taʿlīq. (Fig. 101) Iranians combined the scripts tōqīʿ (☞ ‫ )توقیع‬and reqāʿ (☞ ‫ )رِقاع‬within the taʿlīq (☞ ‫ ) َت ْعلیق‬framework to allow for quick writing. Like mosalsal (☞ ‫) ُم َس ْل َسل‬, its letters and words are not connected despite an overlapping and interwoven appearance. This script is sometimes mistaken for regular taʿlīq. (Bayānī 1353š/ 1974: 21) ‫ ِش َک ْسته‌ی ن َْس َت ْعلیق‬/šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq/ sc. cursive nastaʿlīq. (Figs. 102–103, XIII–XV) A script that developed for rapid writing out of the scripts taʿlīq (☞ ‫ ) َت ْعلیق‬and nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫)ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬. The diversity in its letters, connectors (☞ ‫ ) َو ْصل‬and composition (☞ ‫ ) َترکیب‬is much greater than that of nastaʿlīq. It became popular after nastaʿlīq had reached its height in the first part of

197

‫ش‬

figure 101

Šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq by Moḥammad Šafīʿ al-Ḥoseynī, 1076/1665/6, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran, no. 1535

198

figure 102

‫ش‬

Šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq, by Mīrzā Ġolāmreżā Eṣfahānī, 1298/1880/1 University of Tehran Library, no. 4119

the 11th/17th c. and was codified by Moḥammad Šafīʿ Ḥoseynī (nicknamed Šafīʿā, a. 1089/1678/9) and Morteżā Qolī Šāmlū (d. 1100/1688/9) and is the third and last script to be created in full solely by Iranians. Unlike nastaʿlīq and to a certain extent taʿlīq, šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq never came to the attention of neighbors countries. After contributions by Mīrzā-Ḥasan Kermānī (ca. 1100/1688/9) and Moḥammad-Afżal Gonābādī (ca. 1118/1706/7), it was at the hand of ʿAbdolmajīd Ṭāleqānī (1150–1185/1737/8–1771/2) that it attained the height of its beauty and codification. After Abdolmajīd, his students Moḥammad-Reżā Eṣfahānī (nicknamed Kar, a. 1226/1811/2) and Moḥammad-Qāsem Najafī (nicknamed “Little Majīd”, a. 1228/1813) continued in his style. The Anjavī Šīrāzī family played a significant role in the spread and perpetuation of this script to its last masters during the Qajar period namely Ġolāmreżā Eṣfahānī (1246–1304/1830–1886) and ʿAlīakbar Golestāne (1274– 1319/1858–1901) who increasingly continued to create large-scale pieces.

199

‫ش‬

figure 103

Šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq, by Morteżā Qolī Šāmlū 1077/1666/7, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran, no. 1535

200

figure 104

‫ش‬

Šamare

Šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq can be very difficult to read if its composition and beauty are the only aspects taken into consideration in a piece. (AMT 79; AMVR 249) ☞ ‫َشفیعه‬

‫ ِش َکنْجه‬/šekanje/ ☞ ‫ِق ْید‬ ‫ ِش ِگ ْرد‬/šegerd/ ☞ ‫شیوه‬ ‫ ِشالک‬/šelāk/ ☞ ‫الک‬ ‫ شَ َمره‬/šamare/ call. (Fig. 104) The very end of the circular letters (☞ ‫) َدوایِر‬, i.e. nūn (‫)ن‬, sīn (‫)س‬, ḥe (‫ )ح‬and lām (‫)ل‬, etc. that is created through virtual ِ ‫) ُص‬. ☞ ‫ف سو َزنی‬ ِ ‫َض ْع‬ ascent (☞ ‫عود َمجازی‬ ‫ شَ ْمسه‬/šamse/ illum. roundel. (Fig. 105) A painted circular ornament that is usually gilded (☞ ‫ ) ُم َذ َّهب‬and sometimes emanates rays. Roundels are painted at the beginning of manuscripts, after the doublure (☞ ‫آست َ ِر َب ْد َرقه‬ ْ ) on the left

201

‫ش‬

figure 105

Roundels

side or on the manuscript’s cover. Sometimes the name of the first owner is written within the roundel, generally with a script that differs from that on other pages of the manuscript. (AMT 80; AMVR 226–227)

‫ شَ ْمشیر‬/šamšīr/ lit. “sword”. ☞ ‫َستاره‬ ‫ شَ نْگَ ْرف‬/šangarf/ vermillion, cinnabar. In Arabic al-zanjafr (‫) َالْ َزن َْجفْر‬, vermillion is an orange-red pigment that was widely used in antiquity. The naturally occurring pigment is called cinnabar (NP also šangarf), the mineral mercuric sulphide (HgS), and is found in rock (Gettens et al. 1993: 159). Today vermillion is mostly artificially produced by mixing molten sulphur and mercury. (PPB 48, 64, 75, 77–80, 92, 129, 178) ‫ شیرازه‬/šīrāze/ bb. 1 textblock spine. The back of a text block that has been stitched together. 2 endband, headband. The special stitches made by bookbinders at both ends of a book’s textblock (FF s.v. ‫شیرازه‬, AMT 81; AWVA 99–100; PPB 120–121) ☞ ‫شیرازه َب ْندی ☞ پُ ْشت‌کوبی ☞ َص ّحافی‬

202

‫ش‬

‫ شیرازه َبنْدی‬/šīrāze-bandī/ bb. A stage in the binding process in which the quires (☞ ‫ ) ُج ْزو‬and cover of a book are stitched together from the top and bottom (Afshar 2005) using silk and sometimes multi-colored thread (Haldane 1366š/1987: 209). Also called jozv-bandī (‫ ) ُج ْز ْو َب ْندی‬lit. “quire binding” and tah-bandī (‫ ) َت ْه َ‌ب ْندی‬lit. “end binding”. ☞ ‫َص ّحافی‬ ‫ شیرین‬/šīrīn/ sweet. An attribute of beautiful writing that is desirable and ّ ‫خوش َخ‬ ‌ْ lovely to look at. ☞ ‫ط‬ ‫ شیوه‬/šīve/ method, style, technique. The foundation of a calligraphic style is based on elements such as the carving of the pen (☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫) َتر‬, how the pen is propelled, how it is placed on the support (☞ ‫) َقلَم ُگذاری‬, the roundness (☞ ‫ ) َسطْح و دور‬and thickness (☞ ‫ )ق َُّوت‬of the script, composition (☞ ‫) َترکیب‬ and baseline (☞ ‫)کُرسی‬, etc. ‫ شیوه‌ی ایرانی‬/šīve-ye īrānī/ Iranian style. Iranian style, also known as Iranian gol-o-bote-sāzī (‫ ) ُگل و ُبته‌سازی‬lit. “flower and bouquet making”, is a popular designation for Iranian artists who use designs that are more or less removed from nature in tile-work, weaving, illumination (☞ ‫) َتذْ هیب‬, etching,‎ silk brocading,‎ textile painting,‎ and other Iranian arts. These designs, inspired by nature, became more abstract and ornamental with time, and the lay observer may have difficulty recognizing the natural shapes upon which some modes of gol-o-bote-sāzī are based. There are many designs and modes within Iranian style, such as eslīmī (☞ ‫) ِا ْسلیمی‬, ḫatāyī (☞ ‫ ) َختایی‬and toranj (☞ ‫)ت َُرنْج‬. Iranian style is characterized by its use of distinctly-colored curved spiraling lines in tile-work, plaster artistry, carpet design and painting to depict short branches, and flowers and leaves which radiate from their stems. Iranian style is a legacy of post-Islamic culture. It took hold during the time of Āl-e Muẓaffar (740–795/1339/40–1392/3), spread under the Timurid Dynasty‎(771–916/1370–1506) and reached its apex at the under Shah ʿAbbās (r. 996–1038/1587–1629). The most magnificent examples of Iranian style can be seen in Esfahan at the Shah Mosque, the Šeyḫ Luṭfallāh Mosque, ʿĀlī Qāpū, Čehel-Sotūn, and other structures that date from this period. Iranian style can also be seen on carpets and brocades, gold, silver and china dishes, textile painting and illuminated books from the Timurid era. Many such works are held in museums around the world. The decline of Iranian style began after the reign of Shah ʿAbbās. This descent is readily evident even when comparing the designs on the Shah Mosque to those of Čahārbāġ

‫ش‬

203 Seminary, also in Esfahan but built slightly later. The draftsmen who worked on the Čahārbāġ Seminary were not wholly successful in their execution of Iranian style, though it cannot be considered to be a departure. After the Safavid period Iranian style declined and the interrelationship that had existed between artists and royal patrons such as Shah ʿAbbās had come to an end. In the Qajar period, using cheap knockoffs of European pattens for profit became popular. Western vine designs and red roses known as the “London flower” gol-e landanī (‫ ) ُگلِ لَ ْن َدنی‬replaced the flowers and eslīmī (☞ ‫ ) ِا ْسلیمی‬designs of Iranian style. Examples of Qajar-era designs can be seen in the tile work in Golestān Palace and Sepahsālār Mosque in Tehran, as well as in stone work, penboxes (☞ ‫ ) َقل َْمدان‬and illuminated books from this period. Kermānī carpets are still influenced by this style. In 1308š/1929 the Iranian Carpet-Weaving Institute organized a competition to create designs in the “original Iranian style” in an effort to revive it. Sixty-five draftsmen and painters took part. The judging committee, headed by Alexander Pope, an American art expert, selected the following first, second, third and fourth-place winners: ʿIsā Bahādorī (Tehran), Vafā (Kāšān), Abṭaḥī (Arak), and Ḥājī Mīrzā Āqā Amāni (Esfahan) respectively. The winner, ʿIsā Bahādorī, was appointed head of the Iranian Carpet-Weaving Institute, where he trained students in Tehran for six years. Bahādorī also designed the tile-work in the Marble Palace (kāḫ-e marmar), the main registry office, and the National Parliament in Tehran, as well the Persian carpets at the League of Nations in Switzerland that were a gift from the Iranian government. In 1315š/1936, Bahādorī founded the Art Academy of Esfahan. Freelance painters in Tehran, Kāšān and in particular Esfahan created designs for carpets, tiles, illumination and etching. As a result of these efforts, the Qajar style has disappeared in many workshops and factories.‎ (DF s.v. ‫) ِا ْستیلِ ایرانی‬. ☞ ‫ُگل و ُم ْرغ‬

plate 16

Colophon of a Quran, reqāʿ, calligraphy by Aḥmad Neyrīzī, 1122/1711/2, nasḫ calligraphy by Moḥammad Hāšem, 1200/1789, Islamic Consultative Assembly Library, Tehran

‫ صادی‬/ṣādī/ (Fig. 106) When a descending stroke (☞ ‫ )نُزول‬immediately follows the head of the letter ʿeyn (‫)ع‬.☞ ‫ث ُْعبانی ☞ ِف ْنجانی‬ ‫ َص ّحافی‬/ṣaḥḥāfī/ bookbinding. (Figs. 107–109) The Persian and Ottoman Turkish term ṣaḥḥāfī, respectively taṣḥīf, both Arabic loanwords, define the process of bookbinding process in Iranian and Turkish milieus. Two other similar terms, namely tajlīd (‫ ) َت ْجلید‬and tasfīr (‫ )ت َ ْسفیر‬refer to bookbinding in the Islamic East and Islamic West (AMVR 22). It is widely accepted that many elements of both artistic inspiration as well as technical skills of Iranian Islamic bookbinding ṣaḥḥāfī are owed those of previous practices of Near Eastern, or more specifically Coptic Christian, Jewish, Sasanian and Hellenistic roots (Haldane 1989), (AMVR 22). The few earliest surviving Iranian, or even Islamic bookbinding, date back to prior to the 8thq/14th century (Robinson et al. 1976: 303). It was not long, however, before Persian binders began to develop their own individual styles. With the coming of artistic leadership from the western Islamic world, especially from Egypt eastward to Iranian territories, new methods were developed. Around this time, in ca. 1420, the Timurid Prince Bāysonḡor Mīrzā established a big library and art academy in Herat which lasted over a century and made a great impact on the development of artistic styles, workmanship, and technical skills, and among them bookbinding. Both he and his father, Šāhroḫ Mīrzā (807–50/1405–47), were great bibliophiles play an important role as patrons of artists, calligraphers, painters, bookbinders, and poets.

figure 106

A ṣādī ʿeyn (‫ )ع‬s̱ols̱ (left) and in nastaʿlīq (right)

© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_019

206

‫ص‬

Later in the 10thq/16th and 11thq/17th centuries, during the Safavid period, as Tabriz and Shiraz become centres of political and cultural activities, new binding techniques gain popularity, most prominently the technique of jeld-e sūḫt (☞ ‫( )جِ ْل ِد سو ْخت‬Haldane 1989). Later in 11thq/17th century, the socalled lacquerwork (☞ ‫ )الکی‌سازی‬technique, which was already known under the late Timurids, enjoys greater popularity. In the latter part of the Qajar Era the art of lacquerwork also played a major role and became a prominent feature of Qajar art (Haldane 1989). Traditional bookbinding included tasks that went beyond binding or mending books. These included doubling paper thickness (☞ ‫پوست َک ْر َدن‬ ْ ‫)دو‬, ‫غ‬ ‫آمیزی‬ ‫ذ‬ ‫کا‬ ‫ْگ‬ ‫ن‬ ‫ر‬ paper tinting (☞ َ ِ َ ), lining hats, ruling, cutting, and sizing paper, and paper starching and glazing (☞ ‫)آهار دا َدن‬. Bookbinders were also able to make such items as cardboard papier-mâché (☞ ‫) ُم َق ّوا‬, fans and sun-shades, clipboards, scrapbooks (☞ ‫) ُم َر َّقع‬, mirror frames, eye-glass cases, penboxes (☞ ‫) َقل َْمدان‌سازی‬, writing pads, registers, receipt booklets, and book pouches (☞ ‫( )ق ُُّلق‬Afshar 2005). Traditional binding tools on Afshar’s list include: a book clamp (☞ ‫ )قید‬or a bookbinder’s press, needle (suzan ‫)سو َزن‬, trimmer (☞ ‫) َشفْره‬, awl (☞ ‫) ِد َرفْش‬, marble anvil, scissors, compass (☞ ‫) َپ ْرگار‬, satāre (☞ ‫ ) َستاره‌ی َج ْد َول‬a steel, wood, or bone ruler generally 20–50cm long and 3–5cm wide, various kind of knives (☞ ‫) ِگ ْزلَک‬, straightedge shears for cutting paper (also called šamšīr ‫“ َش ْمشیر‬sword”), a file for smoothing cardboard and book edges, a mallet (☞ ‫) ُم ْشته‬, a polishing block (taḫte-ye ṣeyqal ‫خته‌ی صی َقل‬ ْ ‫ ; َت‬for polishing the paper), a thin-edged wooden ruler, engraved brass and steel tools for stamping quarter-medallion, medallion, and pendant designs (☞ ‫)ت َُرنْج‬, and edge

figure 107

Elements of a cover type II Gruber 2009: 16, fig. 2.11

207

‫ص‬

figure 108

Elements of the cover and the bound type II AMVR 26, fig. 16

tools for ruling (Afshar 2005). Traditional materials include various vegetable and animals’ glues (☞ ‫ ) َچ ْسب‬as well as gum and gum tragacanth or starch and egg white (☞ ‫)آهار‬. Furthermore, cotton and silk threads, paper, different kinds of leather (☞ ‫پوست‬ ْ ) (e.g. goat leather (tīmāj ‫)تیماج‬, shagreen (sāġarī ‫)سا َغری‬, vellum, and morocco; recently, sheepskin (mīšan ‫میشن‬ َ ) and kid skin), gold and silver powder, leaf or emulsion (☞ ‫) َز ْر َح ّل‬, as well as cotton and denim cloth were also used (Afshar 2005). The three major types of Islamic bookbindings are early bindings (the socalled “boxed books” or “box-books”, Type I), bindings with flaps (Type II) (☞ ‫ ) َزبانه‬and bindings without flaps (Type III) (MC 256; AMVR 24ff.). All of these share certain elements such as the upper or front covers, side(s) and a spine (☞ ‫) َعطْف‬, and back or lower cover. Fig. 109: Three major types of bookbinding, from left to right, Type I, II and III (MC 258, 260, 262)

208

figure 109

‫ص‬

Three major types of bookbinding, from left to right, Type I, II and III Déroche et al. 2006: 258, 260, 262

Types II and III have the same structure except for the envelope and foreedge-flaps, which are not present in the latter. Type II, characterized by its fore-edge and envelope flaps which are tucked under or run over the upper cover, is the most common and widespread binding type. Type I, most likely the earliest form of bookbinding, practically consists of a box with three sides with the book’s spine comprising the fourth side. The upper cover was sometimes made of wood covered in leather (MC 258–262). Cover Ornamentation (Afshar 2005 with slight alterations):

209

‫ص‬ sūḫt “burnt”

‫سوخت‬

ṭalā-pūš “gold-covered”

‫ط َالپوش‬

Designates highly ornate covers in which elaborate designs are cut out of a separate piece of leather and then glued into matching openings carefully cut out of the mildly scorched and browned cover. To make the designs stand out, the surface under the ornamental leather piece was tinted orange, red, green, or blue. ☞ ‫خت‬ ْ ‫جِ ْل ِد سو‬ ‫ُم َر َقع‬ moʿarraq The inlaid leather cover of the suḫt-technique, “mosaic” except that the various designs are inlaid and patterned like a mosaic. ☞ ‫جِ ْل ِد ُم َع َّرق‬ żarbī / kūbīde ‫ کوبیده‬/ ‫ َض ْربی‬/ A book cover bound in leather featuring a quarter ِ ِ‫ج‬ jeld-e mangane ‫لد َم ْنگَ نه‬ medallion, pendant, and medallion (☞ ‫ )ت َُرنْج‬affixed “embossed” into depressions created by pressing the ornament into the dampened leather. Sometimes these designs were trimmed with emulsified gold. ☞ ‫جِ ْل ِد‬

lāk-rōġanī / lākī ‫رو َغنی‬ “lacquered”

maġzī / sejāfdār “hemmed”

/ ‫َم ْغزی‬

‫ِسجاف‌دار‬

‫َض ْربی‬

Denotes bindings with leather covers featuring incised and somber leather with large parts of its ornamental designs gilded with emulsified gold. ☞ ‫جِ ْل ِد ط َالپوش‬ Describes a lacquer cover placed on a papier-mâché base and treated with thick layers of lacquer and tinting compounds with painted designs. This kind of binding has been in existence since the 10th century. ☞ ‫جِ ْل ِد رو َغنی‬ Refers to covers made of high-quality cloth (sometimes of marbled paper) with leather protective edges; it has also been occasionally used for leather covers as well, especially covers made of leather without a cardboard stiffener. This kind of cover, which is flexible, is also called lāyī “layered” and do-lāyī “double-layer”.

(MC 253–310; AMT 24–25; AMVR 22–28, 210–213; PPB 117–125)

‫ َصریر‬/ṣarīr/ ☞ ‫َصفیر‬

210

figure 110

‫ص‬

True ascent (left) and virtual ascent (middle, right) in nastaʿlīq

‫ ُصعود‬/ṣoʿūd/ call. upstroke, ascent. (Fig. 110) An upward movement of the pen necessary to write some letters. Upstrokes or ascents are classified either as ِ ‫ ) ُص‬or virtual (☞ ‫عود َمجازی‬ ِ ‫ ) ُص‬depending on the angle of the true (☞ ‫عود َحقیقی‬ pen. (MC 215) ☞ ‫نُزول‬ ‫ ُصعو ِد َحقیقی‬/ṣoʿūd-e ḥaqīqī/ call. true ascent. A true ascent is produced when the nib of the pen remains in a horizontal position in an upstroke as in the letter alef (‫ )ا‬in end position, and in lām (‫ )ل‬and kāf (‫ )ک‬in middle position in words such as ‫ فلک‬and ‫فلما‬. For the ascent more pressure is placed on the ensī (☞ ‫ ) ِان ْسی‬than on the vaḥšī (‫) َو ْحشی‬. ☞‫نُزولِ َحقیقی‬ ‫ ُصعو ِد َمجازی‬/ṣoʿūd-e majāzī/ call. virtual ascent. Virtual ascent is produced when the nib of the pen rotates slightly during an upstroke to produce for example the final segment of circular letters (☞ ‫ ) َدوایِر‬instead of remaining horizontal. ☞ ‫نُزول َمجازی‬ ‫ َصفا‬/ṣafā/ call. refinement. lit. “quietude, tranquility, purity”. In calligraphy this expression is used to describe a piece that invokes a sense of joy in the viewer and a desire to behold it forever. Such beauty can be attained only ِ ‫ ) َق‬of by respecting all the calligraphic principles (☞ ‫واع ِد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ ِنویسی‬ which itself is one. Ṣafā could be called the “inner spirit” of a piece. When there is ṣafā and ša‌ʾn, dignity (☞ ‫)شأن‬, in a piece, it is referred to as having maze (☞ ‫) َمزه‬. ☞ ‫شأن‬ ِ ‫ ِص‬/ṣefāt-e kāġaẕ/ properties of paper. White, soft, even, and smooth. ‫فات کاغَذ‬ Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī (RḪ: 38)

211

‫ص‬ ‫که وصف کاغذ نیکو بدانی‬ ‫ صاف و هموار‬،‫سفید و نرم و بریان‬

‫اگر خواهی تو ای گنج معانی‬ ‫کمالش آن بود کاید پدیدار‬

If you, O treasure of meanings, wish to know the property of fine paper well, the most perfect that there has ever been, which appears white and soft, crisp, delicate, smooth and even. Historically, ḫatāyī was considered the best paper followed by dōlatābādī, then ʿādelšāhī, and finally samarqandī (Māyel Heravī 1353š/1974: 7). Ṣeyrafī (GS: 60) ‫کز سفیدی به بصر صد ضرر است‬ ‫کاغذ ار رنگ کنی خوبترست‬ ‫خامه بر کاغذ بی رنگ مران‬ ‫ پسندیده مدان‬،‫ضرر چشم‬ It is better to tint paper. Whiteness inflicts on the eyes hundredfold harm. Don’t make harm happen to the eyes, and don’t let the pen run on untinted paper. Today calligraphers use glossed and semi-glossed paper as well as colored cardboard or poster-board.

‫ َص ِفحه‌ی َب ْد َرقه‬/ṣafeḥe-ye badraqe/ ☞ ‫آستَ ِر َب ْد َرقه‬ ْ ‫ َص ْفحه َپ ْردازی‬/ṣafḥe-pardāzī/ call. layout. Balance and harmony among the calِ ‫ ) َق‬brings refinement (☞ ‫) َصفا‬, ligraphic principles (☞ ‫واع ِد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه خوشْ ِنویسی‬ and dignity (☞ ‫ )شأن‬to a piece of calligraphy. A calligrapher who is successful in the layout has therefore also mastered the calligraphic principles. ‫ َصفیر‬/ṣafīr/ call. The sound of a reed pen on paper. Also called ṣarīr (‫) َصریر‬. ‫ َصالیه َک ْر َدن‬/ṣalāye kardan/ to bray, grind. ‫ َص ْمغ‬/ṣamġ/ gum, resin. ☞ ‫َص ْم ِغ َع َربی‬ ‫ َص ْمغابه‬/ṣamġābe/ ☞ ‫َص ْم ِغ َع َربی‬ ‫ َص ْم ِغ َع َربی‬/ṣamġ-e ʿarabī/ gum arabic. A natural gum made of sap taken from two species of the acacia tree, the Acacia senegal L. and Acacia seyal L. Gum ِ ‫َرن‬ arabic is used as a binder in making inks (☞ ‫) ُم َرکَّب‬. For watercolor (☞ ‫ْگ‬

212

‫ص‬

‫)روحی‬, a solution of gum arabic dissolved in cold water with a bit of sugar or honey (Thompson 1956: 57) is used to increase the luminosity of the colors, and the viscosity of the pigment. This solution is called ṣamġābe (‫ ) َص ْمغابه‬in Persian and is also used in the production of watercolor pigments (Karāmatī 1370š/1991 s.v. ‫) َص ْمغابه‬. As a binder which is applied to paper before painting, gum arabic is mixed with water and several large drops of oil. (Īnānlū et al. 1367š/1988: 14; PPB 43, 63–64, 76–78, 80, 84–85, 89, 91–92)

plate 17

Colophon of a Quran, reqāʿ, calligraphy by Aḥmad Neyrīzī, 1141/1730/1, Esfahan, National Museum of Iran, Tehran

‫ َض ْربی‬/żarbī/ ☞ ‫جِ ْل ِد َض ْربی‬ ‫ َض ْعف‬/żaʿf/ call. thinness. (Fig. 111) lit. “weakness”, żaʿf refers to a state in which anything less than the full breadth of the pen (☞ ‫ ) َد ِم َقلَم‬is used for a stroke, i.e. at the beginning and end of a circular letter (☞ ‫وایر‬ َ ‫) َد‬. ☞ ‫ُح ْس ِن ت َ ْشکیل ☞ ق َُّوت‬ ِ ‫ َض ْع‬/żaʿf-e sūzanī/ call. When the width of the zabāne (‫ ) َزبانه‬lit. “tongue” ‫سوزنی‬ َ ‫ف‬ of the pen is smaller than the normal one-sixth of the tongue’s length, the ends of the circular letters (☞ ‫ ) َدوایِر‬or šamare (☞ ‫ ) َش َمره‬become pointed and lack the necessary width. This weakness is caused by the way the pen was carved (☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫) َتر‬.

figure 111

Thinness (above) and thickness (below) in nastaʿlīq

© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_020

plate 18

The s̱ols̱ inscription by ʿAlī Reżā al-ʿAbbāsī Tabrīzī, 1025/1616, Shah Mosque in Esfahan

‫ ط َْبله‬/ṭable/ ☞ ‫َد َّفة‬ ‫ طُ ّره‬/ṭorre/ ☞ ‫َس َرک‬ ‫ طُغْ را‬/ṭoġrā/ sc. tughra. (Fig. 112) 1 A calligraphic monogram, seal or signature of an Ottoman sultan that was affixed to all official documents and correspondence. It was also carved on his seal and stamped on the coins minted during his reign. The tughra was designed at the beginning of the sultan’s reign and drawn by the court calligrapher on written documents. Tughras served a purpose similar to the cartouche in ancient Egypt or the Royal Cypher of British monarchs. Every Ottoman sultan had his own individual tughra. In Iran the tughra was used by the Seljuks. The art of creating a tughra consisted of representing the ruler’s name and epithet in such a way that it resembled a bow and arrow. It has been suggested that illiterate Seljuk ministers would draw their bow and arrow at the top of a decree in lieu of a signature. (Eqbāl Āštīānī 1338š/1959: 29) Parts of a tughra have their own technical terms such as ṭūq (‫ )طوق‬for baseline (☞ ‫)ک ُْرسی‬, large ellipse or bow: kamān (‫) َکمان‬, small ellipse or little bow: kamānče (‫) َکمانْچه‬, straight alef-s (usually three in number) or sare (‫) َسره‬, and inverted tops of alef (‫ )ا‬known as hair: zolf/zolfe (‫ ُزلْف‬/ ‫) ُزلْفه‬. (ŠarīkAmīn 1357š/1978: 169) 2 A s̱ols̱ (☞ ‫ )ثُ ْلث‬inscription (☞ ‫( ) َکتیبه‬India). (AMT 92) ‫ طُغْ راکِش‬/ṭoġrā-keš/ ☞ ‫ط ُ ْغرا ِنویس‬ ‫ طُغْ را ِنویس‬/ṭoġrā-nevīs/ 1 A person who knew the art of tughra writing and applied this to the king’s charters. 2 In India, someone who makes s̱ols̱ (☞ ‫ )ثُ ْلث‬inscriptions (☞ ‫) َکتیبه‬. Thus, Emānatḫān Šīrāzī, the calligrapher who worked on the inscriptions in the Taj Mahal was a ṭoġrā-nevīs. Also called a ṭoġrā-keš (‫)ط ُ ْغرا‌ ِکش‬. ☞ ‫ط ُ ْغرا‬ ‫ طُغْ رایی‬/ṭoġrāyī/ ☞ ‫دیوان ِان ْشاء‬ ِ ‫ طَال َا ْندازی‬/ṭalā-andāzī/ ☞ ‫ُمط َالسازی‬ © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_021

217

‫ط‬

figure 112

Tughra, ‘yā ḥażrat-e Šeyḫ Solṭān ʿAbdolqāder Gīlānī’ His Excellency Šeyḫ Solṭān ʿAbdolqāder Gīlānī, Moḥammad ʿAzīz, 1343/1924/5

plate 19

The s̱ols̱ stone inscription in Persian by ʿAbd-ol-Ḥaq Šīrāzī (ʾAmānat-Ḫān), 1022/1613, Akbar’s tomb, Agra, India

ِ ‫ ظ َْر‬/ẓarf-e zar-ḥall/ A bowl in which emulsified gold (☞ ‫ ) َز ْر َح ّل‬for callig‫ف َز ْر َح ّل‬ ِ ‫)ظ َْر‬ raphy was poured. (LD s.v. ‫ف َز ْر َح ّل‬ ‫ ظ َْهر‬/ẓahr/ lit. “verso”. In codicology this expression is used to designate the verso side of the first page of a manuscript. Often this page contains writing that is of particular interest. (Māyel Heravī 1369š/1990: 128) ‫ ظُهور و ُبطون‬/ẓohūr-o-boṭūn/ lit. “visible and hidden”. (LD s.v. ‫ظُهور و ُبطون‬ ☞ ‫) َخ ْل َوت و َج ْل َوت‬

© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_022

plate 20

Colophon of the moʿarraq s̱ols̱ inscription by ʿAbd-ol-Ḥaq Šīrāzī (ʾAmānat-Ḫān), 1048/1639, Taj Mahal, Agra, India

‫ َع َربانه‬/ʿarabāne/ ☞ ‫ِا ْسلیمی‬ ‫ َع َشره‬/ʿašare/ ☞ ‫َدهه‬ ‫ َعطْف‬/ʿaṭf/ bb. cover spine. (AMT 100) ☞ ‫شیرازه ☞ َص ّحافی‬ ‫ ُع ِف َی َعنه‬/ʿofīya ʿanh/ lit. “May he be forgiven!”. Plural of ʿāfī (‫(“ )عافی‬he) who requests wealth and wisdom”. A benedictory verbal phrase often written by calligraphers as an expression of modesty after their signature on a manuscript. ‫ َعکّ اسی‬/ʿakkāsī/ illum. (Fig. 113) Before the invention of modern photography, ʿakkāsī referred to the use of stencils cut out of papier-mâché (☞ ‫ ) ُم َق ّوا‬that were used to create uniform shapes in the margins of pages in a book, in particular albums (☞ ‫) ُم َر َّقع‬. These designs were then usually outlined (☞ ‫) َقل َْمگیری‬ (Bayānī 1353š/1974: 25). This technique was invented by Molānā Kapk Heravī under the Safavid Shah, Tahmasp. He cut out patterns of birds, flowers and plants to use as stencils, placing them in margins to be decorated. After applying color, he would remove the stencil, allow it to dry and outline the resulting design in gold. (Mojarrad-Tākestānī 1372š/1993: 89; PPB 51–52, 161) ☞ ‫َانْگ‬ ‫ َعنْ َزروت‬/ʿanzarūt/ ☞ ‫َان َْزروت‬ ‫ ِعیْنِ ُث ْعبانی‬/ʿeyne-e s̱oʿbānī/ ☞ ‫ث ُْعبانی‬ ‫ ِعیْنِ صادی‬/ʿeyne-e ṣādī/ ☞ ‫صادی‬ ‫ ِعیْنِ ِفنْجانی‬/ʿeyne-e fenjānī/ ☞ ‫ِف ْنجانی‬

© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_023

222

figure 113

‫ع‬

A piece in nastaʿlīq with an ʿakkāsī border, University of Istanbul Library, no. 1427

plate 21

Čalīpā in nastaʿlīq by ʿEmād al-Ḥasanī (Mīrʿemād), 1007/1598, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran

‫ ُغبار‬/ġobār/ ☞ ‫ْشان غُبار ☞ َق َل ِم غُبار‬ ِ ‫َاف‬ ‫ َغ َفرال َّله ُذنوبه‬/ġafarollah ẕonūbah/ lit. “may God forgive his sins”. A benedictory verbal phrase that was written by many calligraphers as an expression of humility following their own name at the end of a work. ‫ َغف ََرال َّله له‬/ġafarallah-lah/ ☞ ‫َغ َفرال َّله ذُنوبه‬ ‫ ُغ ِف َرلَه‬/ġofera-lah/ lit. “may he be forgiven”. A benedictory verbal phrase. ‫ غَلیظ‬/ġalīẓ/ thick, viscous. In calligraphy, ġalīẓ is an attribute of ink (☞ ‫) ُم َرکَّب‬ that is richer and darker in color due to evaporation. This kind of ink is more suitable for use with a “writing pen” (☞ ‫تابت‬ َ ‫) َق َل ِم ِک‬. ☞ ‫َرقیق‬

© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_024

plate 22

Čalīpā in nastaʿlīq by ʿEmād al-Ḥasanī (Mīrʿemād), 1024/1615, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran

ِ /fāṣele-ye ḥorūf va kalamāt/ interliteral space. The space ‫فاصله‌ی ُحروف َو َکلَمات‬ between letters and words usually the size of a point (☞ ‫) َبنای ُحروف‬, however, in advanced calligraphy, other factors such as composition (☞ ‫) َت ْرکیب‬ good positioning (☞ ‫) ُح ْس ِن َه ْم َجواری‬, and ḫalvat-o-jalvat (☞ ‫ ) َخ ْل َوت و َج ْل َوت‬can make this space larger or smaller. ِ /fāṣele-ye saṭr-ḥā/ nas. interlinear space. Typically, the space ‫فاصله‌ی َسطْ ْرها‬ between every two lines of text measures about twelve points of the pen being used, though this may vary. ☞ ‫ناسب ☞ َبنای ُحروف‬ ُ ‫َت‬ ‫ فاق‬/fāq/ call. slit. A slit, also called šaq (‫) َشق‬, in the nib of a pen that divides it into two equally-sized tines. The slit is traditionally about a millimeter long after a reed pen has been carved (☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫ ) َتر‬and facilitates the flow of ink and increases the flexibility of the nib. This was more common in large pens (☞ ‫) َق َل ِم َجلی‬. If the slit is made incorrectly, it can result in the cracking of the nib to which Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī said (ṢS: 23) ‫در تشویش خویش را دربند‬

‫شق گشاده مکن که نیست پسند‬

Don’t make the slit too large, it is unacceptable. Close the doors of your worries (keep the slit narrow so that it won’t cause you trouble).

‫ فاق َز َدن‬/fāq zadan/ call. to create a slit in the nib of a reed pen with a penknife (☞ ‫) َقل َْمتَراش‬. Also called ḫāme zadan (‫ )خامه َز َدن‬or šaq zadan (‫) َشق َز َدن‬. ☞ ‫فاق‬ ☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫َتر‬ ‫ َفتْح‬/fatḥ/ call. The first step in cutting a reed pen. This consists of carving out the front of the pen to expose the heart of the reed. ☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫َتر‬ ِ ‫ َف ْر ِد‬/fard-e bāṭel/ A small scrap of paper, sheet of a notebook or verse of ‫باطل‬ poetry that should not be used and was therefore crossed out. ‫ ُف ْر ِم ایرانی‬/form-e īrānī/ ☞ ‫شیوه‌ی ایرانی‬ © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_025

227

‫ف‬ ِ ‫َرن‬ ‫ َفریسه‬/farīse/ ☞ ‫ْگ َفریسه‬ ‫ ُف ْستُقی‬/fostoqī/ pistachio colored.

ِ ‫ ) ُح‬and sections of compound ‫ َف ْصل‬/faṣl/ call. When simple letters (☞ ‫روف ُمف َْرد‬ ِ letters (☞ ‫ ) ُحروف ُم َرکَّب‬are not connected. ☞ ‫َو ْصل‬ ‫ ًف ّصالی‬/faṣṣālī/ bb. Setting and assembling the margins (☞ ‫( ) َو ّصالی‬BBP 119) ‫ ِفنْجانی‬/fenjānī/ call. (Fig. 114) lit. “cup-like”. When the stroke immediately following the head of the letter ʿeyn (‫ )ع‬rises in an upstroke (☞ ‫) ُصعود‬. ☞ ‫صادی‬ ☞ ‫ث ُْعبانی‬ ‫ فوتَک‬/fūtak/ to. A type of airbrush made from two metal or plastic tubes that are joined to from a T when in use. The vertical tube should be in contact with liquid paint. Pressure is created by blowing into the horizontal tube draws this paint upward and causes it to spray. This is used at a distance of about 40cm from the surface of the paper in afšāngarī (☞ ‫) َافْشانْگَ ری‬.

figure 114

An example of a fenjānī ʿeyn (‫ )ع‬in s̱ols̱ (left) and nastaʿlīq (right)

plate 23

Čalīpā in nastaʿlīq by Seyed-ʿAlīḫān Javāherqalam, 1097/1688, from the collection of Nāṣer Javāherpūr, Karaj, Iran

‫ قا ِتم‬/qātem/ black. ☞ ‫ُم َرکَّب‬ ُ /qāšoq/ ☞ ‫آب َدوات کُن‬ ‫قاشق‬ ‫ قالِب‬/qāleb/ to. ruling stencil. A stencil or form made of papier-mâché (☞ ‫) ُم َق ّوا‬ or a similar material that is used to rule a piece of paper in preparation for writing. To make a stencil papier-mâché is selected according to the size of the writing surface and the pen width (☞ ‫) َد ِم َقلَم‬. It is ruled and the lines which correspond to the baselines (☞ ‫ )ک ُْرسی‬of every line of text and which are then cut out with penknife (☞ ‫) َقل َْمتَراش‬. The stencil can be placed over a piece paper for ruling. Ruling used to be done with a ruling frame (☞ ‫) َم ْسط َر‬. Such frames greatly facilitate ruling. ☞ ‫َم ْسط َر‬ ‫ قالِب‌های خوشْ ِنویسی‬/qālebhā-ye ḫōšnevīsī/ calligraphic forms. The prevalent types of calligraphy which consist of creating a broadside (☞ ‫) ِقطْعه‬, ketābat (☞ ‫تابت‬ َ ‫) ِک‬, sīāh-mašq (☞ ‫ )سیاه َم ْشق‬čalīpā (☞ ‫ ) َچلیپا‬and inscriptions (☞ ‫) َکتیبه‬, etc. ‫ ِقرطاس‬/qerṭās/ paper, page. ☞ ‫تح ْریری‬ َ ‫کا َغ ِذ‬ ‫ َقرا ت َْمغا‬/qarā-tamġā/ qarā: black + tamġā: seal = black seal. ☞ ‫ آل َت ْمغا ☞ َت ْمغا‬/‎ ‫آلْتون َت ْمغا‬ ‫ ُقران ِنویسی‬/qorān-nevīsī/ ☞ ‫ُم ْص َحف‌ ِنویسی‬ ‫ ِق ْرم ِْزدانه‬/qermez-dāne/ 1 kermes. A crimson-colored dye derived since ancient times from the dried bodies a female scale insect (kermes vermilio L.). These insects lived on the branches of certain oak trees, covering them to such an extent that the red color appears for a time to be from the tree itself. In Iran these insects were found in the region of Balūčestān and along the coasts of the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman and their dye was used in carpet weaving. 2 cochineal. Scale insects that produce carminic acid

© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_026

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which gives rise to the red color. Thus, Persian qermezdāne refers both to the insect that was used to produce kermes as well as the cochineal (Dactylopius coccus L.), an insect native to South America and Mexico that fed of cactus and was exported to Spain after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire. Cochineal quickly replaced the kermes in Europe because they produced a stronger dye. Other names include gač-koš (‫“ )گَ چ کُش‬killed with plaster” if the insects were killed using plaster dust, or šarāb-koš (‫“ ) َشراب کُش‬killed with wine” if they were killed in boiling wine, (LD s.v. ‫ ) ِق ْرمِزدانه‬although according to some, qermez-e gač-koš is just used for the cochineal. The crimson color is a result of carminic acid found in these types of scale insects. (Moqbel-Eṣfahānī 1380š/2001:113)

‫ ِقصار ِنویسی‬/qeṣār-nevīsī/ ☞ ‫ُم َقطَّع‌ ِنویسی‬ ‫ َقطّاع‬/qaṭṭāʿ/ A person skilled in the art of paper cutting (☞ ‫) َقطّاعی‬. ‫ َقطّاعی‬/qaṭṭāʿī/ paper-cutting. (Fig. 115) An art form, also called kāġaẕ-borī ( ْ‫کا َغذ‬ ‫) ُبری‬, in which intricate designs are cut out of plain or colored paper with a trimmer (☞ ‫ ) َشفْره‬or scissors and are pasted onto a background of another typically darker color paper so as give the appearance of a broadside (☞ ‫ ) ِقطْعه‬or painting. This technique was dominated by designs of animals and birds but was expanded to include floral and geometric patterns and calligraphy (usually nastaʿlīq ☞ ‫ )ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬in the 15th c. Découpage, in which a piece of paper of a contrasting color was mounted behind the paper out of which the letters had been cut, though rarer was also done (IC 55). It is this latter kind of paper cutting that is described in Farhang-e neẓām in which “a calligraphic specimen is written onto a sheet of colored paper; the letters are then cut out and removed and this is pasted on a sheet of white paper such that the letters appear to be white.” (Ẕokāʾ 1379š/2000: 2) This art seems to have developed in Iran no earlier than the 9th/15th c. Examination of the surviving folios and the dates and places they were created has revealed that this technique was more prevalent in Herāt, Tabrīz and Šīrāz than in other Iranian cities (Ẕokāʾ 1379š/2000: 2). In Persian manuscripts paper-cutting was devoted to calligraphic passages (Schmitz 1993: 475). ‫ َقط َز َدن‬/qaṭ zadan/ to nib. Clipping the nib (☞ ‫ ) َق ِط َقلَم‬of a pen so that it writes well. One of the steps when cutting a calligraphy pen (☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫) َتر‬. (AMT 116–117; AMTS 63)

231

‫ق‬

figure 115

A piece created with paper-cutting, Mehdī Šarīf Šīrāzī 1316/1898/9, Oveys Vafsī private collection, Tehran

232

‫ق‬

ْ ‫ َق‬/qaṭ zan/ to. nibbing block. (Fig. 140) A small, flat slab used for clip‫ط َزن‬ ّ ‫) ِم َق‬, ping the nib (☞ ‫) َقط َز َدن‬, also called ḫāme-zan (‫ )خامه زن‬and meqaṭṭ (‫ط‬ ‫نوس‬ ‫آب‬ made of bone or ivory or out of wood such as ebony (☞ ْ ) or boxwood. Some believe that antler is better than bone because it has more give. Indian reed is also suitable as it prevents the edge of the penknife (☞ ‫ ) َقل َْمتَراش‬from breaking or chipping. Traditionally nibbing blocks were also made out of cow sinew that was bound around a smooth block of wood. Today nibbing blocks can also be made with dense plastics, caoutchouc (natural rubber) and bamboo (Faẓāʾelī 1370š/1991: 68). The block has a small groove to secure the tip of the pen (IC 59). Nibbling blocks made of bamboo are called ney-qaṭ (‫) ِنی َقط‬. (AMT 116–117; AMTS 63; IC 59–60) ‫ َقطْع‬/qaṭʿ/ bb. folio. An approximate term for the size of a book. Book sizes were not standardized in the past but each approximate size was referred to by specific names, the most well-known of which were: 1. Armband Folio (bāzū-bandī ‫بازوبندی‬ َ ) ca. 30 × 20mm 2. Bosom Folio (baġalī ‫ ) َب َغلی‬ca. 60 × 40mm and above 3. Prayer Rug Folio ( jā-namāzī ‫ )جانَمازی‬ca. 120 × 80mm and above 4. Cordon Folio (ḥamāyelī ‫ ) َحمای ِلی‬ca. 120 × 80mm and above, i.e. the same size as the Prayer rug Folio. However, a Cordon Folio was generally thicker and was worn hung around the neck concealed under one’s clothes like the small Qurans hung around the neck as a preservative. 5. Half-quarter Folio (nīm-robʿī ‫ )نیم ُ‌ربعی‬ca. 180 × 100mm, roughly equivalent to the Foolscap Octavo (170 × 108mm) 6. Small Minister Folio (vazīrī-ye kūček ‫کوچک‬ ِ ‫ ) َوزیری‬ca. 220 × 140mm. Also called Quarter Folio (robʿī ‫ ) ُربعی‬or roqʿī (‫) ُرقْعی‬, equivalent to the Demy Octavo (221 × 142mm) 7. Minister Folio (vazīrī ‫ ) َوزیری‬ca. 240 × 160mm, roughly equivalent to the Royal Octavo (253 × 158mm) 8. Large Minister Folio (vazīrī-ye bozorg ‫ ) َوزیری ُب ُز ْرگ‬ca. 300 × 200mm 9. Sultan Folio (solṭānī ‫ ) ُس ْلطانی‬ca. 400 × 300mm. Books this size were prepared for the Moghul and Timurid sultans, hence its name. 10. Small Book Stand Folio (raḥlī-ye kūček ‫کوچک‬ ِ ‫ ) َر ْحلی‬ca. 40 × 25cm 11. Book Stand Folio (raḥlī ‫ ) َر ْحلی‬ca. 500 × 300mm 12. Large Book Stand Folio (raḥlī-ye bozorg ‫ ) َر ْحلی ُب ُز ْرگ‬ca. 60 × 35cm (MC 5–101; AMT 117; AMTS 63–64; AMVR 34–36, 210–213; BBP 26–27) ‫ ِقطْعه‬/qeṭʿe/ 1 calligraphic specimen. (Figs. 116–117) A unit or piece of calligraphy. 2 broadside. A fully decorated (☞ ‫ ت َ ْشعیر‬/‎ ‫ ) َتذهیب‬piece of calligraphic work that is complete as a piece of art unto itself. Someone who creates

233

‫ق‬

these works is a qeṭʿe-nevīs (‫ ) ِقطْعه ِنویس‬and what he does is qeṭʿe-nevīsī (‫ِقطْعه‬ ‫) ِنویسی‬. 3 A piece of calligraphy that has been mounted on another piece of paper as in an album (☞ ‫) ُم َر َّقع‬.

‫ ِقطْعه ُبر‬/qeṭʿe-bor/ ☞ ‫َقطّاعی‬ ‫ ِقطعه‌ی ُبریده‬/qeṭʿe-ye borīde/ ☞ ‫َقطّاعی‬ ‫ ِقطْعه ِنویس‬/qeṭʿe-nevīs/ ☞ ‫ِقطْعه‬ ‫ ِقطْعه ِنویسی‬/qeṭʿe-nevīsī/ ☞ ‫ِقطْعه‬ ‫ َق ِط َقلَم‬/qaṭ-e qalam/ nib. The angle of the nib of a pen relative to length of the pen is varies depending on the type of script. These angles are divided into three main groups: 1. flat (taḫt ‫خت‬ ْ ‫) َت‬, which includes jazm (☞ ‫ ) َج ْزم‬and mostavī (☞ ‫ ) ُم ْس َتوی‬at 0–10°. 2. middle (mīāne ‫ )میانه‬with angle type tōsīṭ (☞ ‫ )توسیط‬at 15–25°. 3. sharp (tond ‫ ) ُت ْند‬with angle type moḥarraf (☞ ‫ ) ُم َح َّرف‬at 35–45°. Nibs can also be cut other angles that fall in between these categories. ☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫َتر‬ Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī (RḪ: 38)

*‫بلی َخ ُیر االمور افتاد ا َْوسط‬

‫نه َج ْزم و نه ُم َح َّرف باشدش قط‬

It must neither be cut off nor slanted, moderation is always preferable. *The verse has a literary allusion to a famous Ḥadīs̱ by Prophet Moḥammad: ‫“ َخیْ ُر األ ُ ُمو ِر أَ ْو َسط ُ َھا‬Following the middle path is a virtue/the best choice is the middle ground” (lit. “Best of things is their center”).

(AMVR 40–42)

‫ ُق ُّلق‬/qolloq/ bb. (Fig. 118) A case made of leather, or sometimes of paper or metal, used to protect the cover of a book. Also called laffāfe (‫)لَ ّفافه‬, qūlloq ُّ ) and maḥfaẓe (‫)م ْح َفظه‬. (Māyel Heravī 1369š/1990: 116) qābloq (‫قابلَق‬ ْ ‫قولق‬ َ ☞ ‫َص ّحافی‬ ‫ َقلَم‬/qalam/ 1 to. reed pen. (Fig. 140; 168) A wooden reed with which ink is transferred to paper is one of a calligrapher’s most important tools. A reed must be either white or red in color, smooth, straight, have a white heart and no knots. These reeds are found today in southern Iran, especially around the city of Dizful. A practice pen should measure about 20cm in length and

234

figure 116

‫ق‬

Nastaʿlīq by ʿEmād al-Ḥasanī (Mīrʿemād), National Museum of Iran, Tehran

235

‫ق‬

figure 117

Šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq by Seyyed Golestāne, Islamic Consultative Assembly Library, Tehran, no. 2196

figure 118

Qolloq, Šāhčerāq Museum, Shiraz

236

‫ق‬

7 mm in diameter. Also called ḫāme (‫ )خامه‬or kelk (‫) ِک ْلک‬. 2 pen, script. The various types of calligraphy are also referred to as qalam, thus qalam-e nasḫ means the nasḫ script. It can also mean somebody’s handwriting or stye of writing. (ṢS: 21) ☞ ‫نیِ ِد ْزفولی‬ The attributes of a qalam are evoked in the treatise Ādāb-e ḫaṭṭ by Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī (ṢS: 21): ‫زبان قلم‬ ‫بیان قلم‬ ِ ‫بشنو این حرف از‬ ِ ‫اوال می‌کنم‬ ‫نه به سختی چو سنگ می‌باید‬ ‫که قلم سرخ رنگ می‌باید‬ ‫روی نیاز‬ ‫نه سیاه و نه کوته و نه دراز‬ ِ ‫یاد گیر ای جوان ز‬ ‫وندرونش سفید نی تاریک‬ ‫ نی ستبر و نی باریک‬،‫معتدل‬ ِ ‫ُم‬ ‫ نیک اسبابی‬،‫لک خط راست‬ ‫نی درو پیچ و نی درو تابی‬ ‫دست را زین و آن بیاید شست‬ ‫گر قلم سخت باشد و گر سست‬ First will I tell of the pen, hear these words from tongue of the pen. Red in color must it be, not hard like a rock must it be, not black, not short, not long, learn this, o youth. Moderate, neither too thick nor too thin, and within not dark but white, not in it twists and not bowed, then a good tool will it be. If the pen is too hard or too soft, you have to let go of it. MC 103–106; AMT 118–119; AMTS 65; AMVR 40–42; IC 57–61; PPB 27, 67, 80, 123, 141, 171

‫الریاسی‬ ّ ‫ َقل َُم‬/qalam-or-rīyāsī/ sc. A type of orthography common during the caliphate of Al-Maʿmun (r. 198–219/813–833). It was developed by the famous Khorasani minister, Fażl ben Sahl Ẕolrīāsatayn around 200/815, and was widely used through the lifetime of Ebn-e Moqle (272–328/855/6–940). (Māyel Heravī 1353š/1974: 87) ‫ َق َلم‌ َا ْنداز‬/qalam-andāz/ When letters and words that are capable of being elongated are instead written simply, without elongation. ☞ ‫ِکشیده‌ ِنویسی ☞ ِکشیده‬ ‫ َقلَم بَ ْستَن‬/qalam bastan/ ☞ ‫َقلَموسازی‬ ‫ َقلَم پاک‌کُ ن‬/qalam-pāk-kon/ to. pen cleaner. A wool or burlap cloth used to wipe clean an inky pen (Farhang s.v. ‫) َقلَم پاک‌کُن‬. After use, excess ink should be wiped off the tip of the calligraphy pen. This keeps the pen clean and allows for smoother writing when used again. ‫ َق َل ِم َت ْحریر‬/qalam-e taḥrīr/ ☞ ‫َت ْحریری‬

237

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‫ َقل َْمتَراش‬/qalam-tarāš/ to. penknife. (Fig. 119–120; 140) A special knife with either one, two or four blades of various sizes, also called “sharp-cutter” (tīz-bor ‫)تی ْز ُبر‬. The small blade is used to carve a reed pen (☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫) َتر‬, while the bigger blade is used to clip the nib (☞ ‫ ) َقط َز َدن‬and carve large pens. Ebn-e Moqle and other masters insisted that the blades be as sharp as possible. The handle was traditionally made of shell, antler, ivory, or even silver. Today handles can also be plastic. Different types of blades are known ِ ‫َب ْر‬ under various names such as naštarī (‫)ن َ ْشتَری‬, “willow leaf” (barg-e bīdī ‫گ‬ ‫ )بیدی‬equivalent to spear point, “dagger” (ḥanjarī ‫) َخ ْن َجری‬, and “small-tip” (nōk-bārīk ‫)نوک باریک‬. The larger blade for nibbing can be referred to as “thick” (setabr ‫ ) ِس َتبْر‬or as the “yaḥyā blade” (tīġe-ye yaḥyāyī ‫)تیغه‌ی َی ْحیایی‬, equivalent to the sheep foot. Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī (ṢS: 23) ‫حرف‌های نهفته فاش کنم‬ ‫تُنک و پهن نیست خاطرخواه‬ ‫وان قلم قابل رقم گردد‬

‫با تو ذکر قلمتراش کنم‬ ‫ نی کوتاه‬،‫تیغ او نی دراز‬ ‫تا که در خانه‌ی قلم گردد‬

To you the hidden secrets of the penknife will I reveal, its blade should be neither long nor short, neither narrow or broad, none of them are desirable! So as the house of the pen to enter and therefrom a worthy pen to render. In his treatise Ādāb-ol-ḫaṭṭ, Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī writes (ĀḪ: 186):

‫باید سه قلمتراش باشد‬ ‫ُپر آب چو تیغ ابر باشد‬ ‫ تراش بگیر‬،‫وز روی قلم‬ ‫تا در شکم قلم در آید‬ ‫چون ا ُْستُره تند و تیز قط زن‬

‫آن را که قلم همی‌تراشد‬ ‫اول قوی و ستبر باشد‬ ‫وان طرفه قلمتراش برگیر‬ ‫دوم تنک و ضعیف باید‬ ّ ‫سیم پهن از برای قط زن‬

He who regularly carves pens needs three penknives. The first should be strong and sturdy, hardened like a Damascene blade. Take this peerless penknife and begin to carve from the surface. The second schould be thin and fine to be able to enter the interior (of the reed). The third one for cutting the nib should be broad and sharp like a razor.

‫ َقل َْمتَراش‌سازی‬/qalam-tarāš-sāzī/ penknife making. Knife making has always been common in Iran and the region of Zanjān continues to be the center of this industry. Among the knives produced in this region, the penknives

238

‫ق‬

are the most famous. Every time the art of calligraphy advanced, penknife making experienced a boom. Zanjān has had many famous penknife makers (qalam-tarāš-sāz ‫) َقل َْمتَراش ساز‬, one of the most renowned of whom is currently Abū-al-Fażl Naẓmparvar. Naẓmparvar studied the art of penknife making under the master Fatḥʿalī Zanjānī for twenty years. At the age of twenty-five went to Tehran where he was commissioned to make a penknife by the late Kīmīā Qalam. The knife was of great quality and led to his fame. To make a blade the file must first be heated red hot and then forged with a hammer. This is then tempered by quenching with oil and water. However, too much water and the blade could chip, yet too little water reduces the blade’s resilience and its ability to be sharpened. The temperature of the steel must also be just right both while being forged and during quenching. If the steel is hot or too cool its strength diminishes. After tempering, all unevenness is filed away with an emery stone. The blade is then sharpened

figure 119

Single and double-blade penknives, from the H.R. Gelichkhani private collection, Tehran

figure 120

ِ ‫) َب ْر‬ Left: spear blade (‫ )تیغه‌ی َی ْحیایی‬right: sheep foot blade (‫گ بیدی‬

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ِ ‫ ) َس ْن‬and polished with wax. To avoid damagwith a whetstone (☞ ‫گ َقل َْمتَراش‬ ing the blade it is important to select a nibbing block (☞ ‫ ) َقط َزن‬with care. (Čalīpā: no. 1, 185ff.) ☞ ‫َقل َْمتَراش‬ ‫‌ج ْد َول‬ َ ‫ َقل َْم‬/qalam-jadval/ illum. ruling pen. (Fig. 121) A type of technical pen made a set of metal jaws which taper to a point, and whose width can be adjusted with a screw. This was used to draw rectangle frames around a text, straight lines and borders (☞ ‫ ) َج ْد َول‬for illumination (☞ ‫) َتذْ هیب‬. Today, a western tool called a tiralinee (terlīng ‫ ) ِت ْرلی ْنگ‬is used. ‫ َق َل ِم َجلی‬/qalam-e jalī/ large pen. An expression referring to the use of a pen with a nib size of 6–20mm or larger for calligraphy. ☞ ‫دانْگ‌های َم ْشقی ☞ َق َل ِم َخفی‬ ☞ ‫لی َصفْحه‬ ِ ‫َج‬ ِّ ‫َخ‬ ‫ َق َل ِم َچرا‬/qalam-e čarā/ Bad, illegible handwriting. ☞ ‫ط نِ َش ْسته‬ ‫ َق َل ِم خَفی‬/qalam-e ḫafī/ small pen. A pen with a nib width of 0.5–0.75mm. Books were often written with such a pen. ☞ ‫دانْگ‌های َم ْشقی ☞ َق َل ِم َجلی‬ ّ ‫داخ ِل َخ‬ ِ ‫ َقلَم‬/qalam dāḫel-e ḫaṭṭ sāḫtan/ lit. “to put the pen in the writ‫ط سا ْختَن‬ ِ ‫) َقلَم‬ ّ ‫داخلِ َخ‬ ing”. An idiom meaning to revise. (FF s.v. ‫ط سا ْختَن‬ ‫ َقل َْمدان‬/qalamdān/ penbox. An elongated rectangular box with rounded edges composed of two pieces that fit together like a drawer. The inner piece contains a small inkwell (☞ ‫ ) َدوات‬reed pens, scissors, penknife (☞ ‫ ) َقل َْمتَراش‬and ْ ‫) َق‬. The outer piece fits around the first piece like a nibbing block (☞ ‫ط‌ َزن‬ shaft. Penboxes were made of metal, stone, ivory, bone and wood, but the most common material was papier-mâché (☞ ‫ ) ُم َق ّوا‬or compressed paper. (AMVR 293–294; IC 57–61) ‫ َقلَمدان‌ساز‬/qalamdān-sāz/ penbox maker. ‫ َقل َْمدان‌سازی‬/qalamdān-sāzī/ penbox making. (Figs. 122–123) Penboxes (☞ ‫ ) َقل َْمدان‬were traditionally made using wooden molds for both the tongue and sheath. Three layers of damp paper or paper pulp (papier-mâché) was

figure 121

Metal tiralinee with a plastic handle

240

‫ق‬

applied to the molds. A final fourth layer was sheet of high-quality paper which was applied to both molds. Quality penboxes where made of almost twenty sheets of high-quality white paper. Removing the mold from the tongue was not difficult because one side remained uncovered, however, the sheath was removed by removing the top of the sheath with a metal blade. This piece was then glued to the tongue to form the handle. At every step throughout the process the papier-mâché was sanded smooth with a file or sheep bone. It was then primed and painted. The painting process began ‫ِس‬ ِ by either lightly drawing a design on the penbox with ceruse (☞ ‫فیداب‬ ‫ ) ُس ْرب‬or by transferring an image using soot (☞ ‫)کا َغ ِذ سو َزن َزده‬. Paint was then applied. Designs often depitcted themes from Persian romances such as Shirin and Farhad, Khosrow and Shirin, Layla and Majnun, or stories from the Quran such as Moses and the Pharaoh and Yusuf and Zulaikha. Other themes included hunting and feasting scenes. Moreover, designs were influenced by the common themes of the age and sometimes depicted poets such as Ferdōsī, Saʿdī and Ḥāfeẓ, or great mystics such as Šāh Neʿmatollāh and Nūr-ʿAlī Šāh, etc. ☞ ‫َقل َْمدان‬

‫ َقلَم َدر خارِش َآو ْر َدن‬/qalam dar ḫāreš āvardan/ lit. “to make the pen itch”. An expression meaning “to write”. (FF s.v. ‫) َقلَم َدر خارِش َآو ْر َدن‬ ‫ َق َل ِم د ُُرشْ ت‬/qalam-e dorošt/ ☞ ‫َق َل ِم َجلی‬ ‫ َق َل ِم ِدزْفولی‬/qalam-e dezfūlī/ ☞ ‫نِیِ ِد ْزفولی‬ ‫َم َد ْست‬ ‌ْ ‫ َقل‬/qalam-dast/ A person who works with a pen. A scribe, writer, calligrapher. (LD s.v. ‫) َقل َْم‌ َد ْست‬ ‫ َقلَم را ْن َدن‬/qalam rāndan/ to write, sign. ‫ َق َل ِم ریز‬/qalam-e rīz/ ☞ ‫َق َل ِم َخفی‬ ‫ َقل َْم َزن‬/qalam-zan/ writer, painter. (Tabrīzī 1362š/1983 s.v. ‫ ) َقل َْم َزن‬Neẓāmī (LD s.v. ‫) َقل َْم َزن‬ ‫ دست‬،‫قلم بهتر او را به شمشیر‬

‫قلمزن که بد کرد با زیردست‬

A scribe, who mistreats his subordinates, should have his hand cut off with a sword (qalam-kardan “cutting off”).

241

‫ق‬

figure 122

Metal penbox, H.R. Ghelichkhani private collection, Tehran

figure 123

Penbox made of used paper prior to painting and decoration. Made by H.R. Ghelichkhani

‫ َق َل ِم َس ْر َف ْصلی‬/qalam-e sar-faṣlī/ lit. “header pen”. A pen with a nib width of 1.5– 2mm, and that is thus more able than smaller pens to write calligraphically. ☞ ‫دانْگ‌های َم ْشقی‬ ‫ َقلَم َسر َک ْر َدن‬/qalam sar kardan/ to carve a pen (☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫ ;) َتر‬An idiom meaning to begin to write. (FF s.v. ‫) َقلَم َسر َک ْر َدن‬ ‫ َق َل ِم ُغبار‬/qalam-e ġobār/ lit. “dust pen”. A pen with a nib width of at most 0.5mm. This is the smallest pen and does not generally have any artistic use. ِّ ‫َخ‬ (AMVR 113) ☞ ‫ط طومار ☞ دانْگ‌های َم ْشقی‬ ‫ َق َل ِم ِقطْعه‬/qalam-e qeṭʿe/ ☞ ‫َق َل ِم َم ْشقی‬

242

‫ق‬

‫ َق َل ِم کِتا َبت‬/qalam-e ketābat/ lit. “writing pen”. A pen with a nib width of 0.75– 1.5mm that is generally used to write books. ☞ ‫دانْگ‌های َم ْشقی‬ ‫ َق َل ِم َکتیبه‬/qalam-e katībe-nevīsī/ call. lit. “epigraph pen”. A pen with a nib width of at least 20mm that can be used for portal inscriptions on historical and religious buildings, etc. As such it is important in other arts such as the making of mosaics. ☞ ‫دانْگ‌های َم ْشقی‬ ‫ َق َل ِم کُ نْد‬/qalam-e kond/ call. dull pen. A pen whose nib has been become dull from use and is in need of clipping (☞ ‫) َقط َز َدن‬. Ṣāʾeb (Qahremān 1375š/ 1996: 1712) ‫هیچ کس با قلم کند کتابت نکند‬

‫پای گرانخواب مرا‬ ِ ‫کرد دلگی ِر سفر‬

A foot asleep travels slowly; nobody can write with a dull pen.

‫ َق َلم ُ‌گذاری‬/qalam-goẕārī/ call. pen placement. This refers to the appropriate angle at which the nib of the pen should be placed on the paper to form each section of each letter or word in nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫)ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬. Pen placement was rigorously adhered to be calligraphy masters, however it was rarely addressed in books or treatises on the subject. This is primarily due to the fact that the appropriate angles were not taught but rather gauged based on experience and a good eye. Even now that this principle has become the focus of attention, calligraphers do not measure the angles of a letter or word before beginning, but rather examine the work after completion to assure themselves of the proportions. Pen placement for full-pen letters (☞ ‫ )تمام‌ َقلَم‬and elongations (☞ ‫) ِکشیده‌ ِنویسی‬, etc. has a complicated but coherent system on which research has been unable to shed any comprehensive light. This is due to the following: 1. Pen placement in a script like nastaʿlīq can differ depending on the letter or word that follows; 2. Deep knowledge of principles such as “straightness and roundness” (☞ ‫ ) َسطْح و دور‬and spin (☞ ‫ ) َچ ْرخ‬are necessary to analyze pen placement; 3. Calligraphy masters disagree on correct pen placement thus making it, along with baseline (☞ ‫)ک ُْرسی‬, composition (☞ ‫ ) َت ْرکیب‬and proportion (☞ ‫ناسب‬ ُ ‫) َت‬, a characteristic specific to each master.

‫ق‬

243

‫ َقل َْمگیری‬/qalam-gīrī/ illum. outlining, delineation. This consists of outlining a design in a color darker than that of the background. There are two types of outlining: simple (sāde ‫ )ساده‬outlining by which the lines are smooth, or scalloped, called “mouse tooth” (☞ ‫) َدنْدان موشی‬. Also called dōr-gīrī (‫دور‬ ‫)گیری‬. ☞ ‫َت ْحریر‬ ‫ َق َل ِم ُم َت َو ِّسط‬/qalam-e motavasseṭ/ ☞ ‫دانْگ‌های َم ْشقی‬ ‫ َق َل ِم َمشْ قی‬/qalam-e mašqī/ A pen whose nib ranges from 2–6mm in width and is divided into dāngs (☞ ‫)دانْگ‬. These pens can be used for practice or calligraphic specimens. (Čalīpā: no. 2, 57) Also called qalam-e qeṭʿe (‫) َق َل ِم ِقطْعه‬ ☞ ‫دانْگ‌های َم ْشقی‬ ‫ َقلَمو‬/qalamū/ to. paintbrush. Paintbrushes used by miniature artists, were traditionally made of sable. Sable comes to a very fine point allowing for great detail, and at the same time be used for relatively large watercolor pieces given the thickness of the fur. In Iran paintbrushes were traditionally made of sable or cat fur and goose quills. (MC 29, 53, 106–110, 145, 249; PPB 67, 122) ☞ ‫َقلَموسازی‬ ‫ َقلَموی دُم کل‬/qalamū-ye dom-kol/ to. A paintbrush whose bristles have worn down. ‫ َقلَمو‌سازی‬/qalamū-sāzī/ pn. paintbrush making. In Iran paintbrushes were traditionally made with cat hair and a pigeon quill. Fur from a sable marten or from the back of a lion cub was also used. The amount of fur needed for a paintbrush is selected with wet hands from the back of a one year-old cat and cut with scissors. There should be 15–20 bunches of hair, each of which are placed separately in between layers of paper. The bunches are then placed separately on a sheet of glass. A needle is used to remove the fuzz and the long hairs are selected to form the size tip desired for the paintbrush. These are then wetted and tied together at the base with silk thread. A pigeon quill 4–5cm in length is then cut and placed in water to soften. The tip of the feather is removed and the inside of the quill and shaft is hollowed out with a piece of wire. The prepared bunch of hair is then passed through the shaft until the length desired for the brush extends from the other side. Several drops of glue are inserted into the quill to secure the base of the hair. A piece of plastic or wood suitable for a handle is chosen, its tip is covered in glue and is inserted into the quill. To secure the two, a strip of

244

‫ق‬

paper soaked in glue is then wrapped around the joint formed by the handle and the quill. After this has been allowed to dry if there are any stray hairs they are removed. The hairs should come together to form a fine point. The brush can be used for outlining (☞ ‫ ) َقل َْمگیری‬and gilding (☞ ‫) ُمط َالسازی‬. (Īnānlū et al. 1367š/1988: 57) Some treatises explain the methods used by masters to make paintbrushes. One of these, Qānūn-oṣ-ṣovar, is written by Ṣādeqī Beg Afšār (940– 1017/1533–1610), a calligrapher and librarian under the Safavids. (Resālāt: 115f.)

‫قلم بستن بود اصل مطالب‬ ‫که کلکش را کسی دیگر تراشد‬ ‫ولی آن مو که با نرمی گراید‬ ‫ز یکدیگر به زور شانه وا کن‬ ‫که نبود زیر و باال یکسره مو‬ ‫که نگذاری درو مویی شکسته‬ ‫سه جا باید که بر بندی میانش‬ ‫مبادا خامه‌ات گردد گلوگیر‬ ‫که از پر غاز آسایش برآری‬

‫شود چون شوق نقاشیت غالب‬ ‫ز کاتب این صفت نیکو نباشد‬ ‫قلم را مو ُد ِم سنجاب باید‬ ‫به مقدار قلم از وی جدا کن‬ ‫بچین پهلوی هم زانگونه نیکو‬ ‫درست آن دم شود آن خامه بسته‬ ‫چو دادی از شکست مو امانش‬ ‫مشو در عقد اول سست تدبیر‬ ‫مکن در عقد سیم سست کاری‬

Should passion for painting take over in you, it is essential to make the paintbrush. This is unbefitting a scribe, whose pen another carves (i.e. whose tools/paintbrushes are made by others). From the tail of squirrel should a paintbrush be, the part that is exceedingly soft. Separate enough from it for the brush and comb. Lay out side-by-side so that hairs are even. The tail of the brush should be straight, so do not allow a bent hair in the bunch. Once ensured there are no broken hairs, it should be tied in three places. Become not distracted tying the first knot lest your brush becomes sloppy. In the third knot use great precision from the goose quill to get comfort (results).

‫ َقلَموی گَ نْدُ می‬/qalamū-ye gandomī/ to. Filbert brush. lit. “wheat-shaped brush”. ‫ َقلَموی ِنیْزه‌ای‬/qalamū-ye neyzeī/ to. lit. “spear brush”. A paint brush similar in shape to a Rigger brush. ‫شیدن‬ َ ِ‫ َق َل ِم ن َْسخ ک‬/qalam-e nasḫ kešīdan/ to cross out. ‫ َق َل ِم ِنی‬/qalam-e ney/ ☞ ‫َقلَم‬

245

‫ق‬ ‫ َقلَمی َک ْر َدن‬/qalamī kardan/ to write, note. to write calligraphy.

ِ ‫ َق‬/qavāʿed-e davāzdah-gāne-ye ḫōšnevīsī/ the twelve‫واع ِد َدوازْ َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ ِنویسی‬ fold calligraphic principles. In his treatise, Ādāb-e ḫaṭṭ, Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī (841–926/1435–1520) identified eight calligraphic principles: elements, composition, baseline, proportion, ascendance, descent, tašmīr, and release, although he did not consider the latter permissible in nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫)ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬. (ṢS: 25) ‫ظاهر خط اصول و ترکیب است‬ ‫کرسی و نسبتش به ترتیب است‬ ‫بعد از این‌ها بود صعود و نزول‬ ‫َشمره هم داخلست و هست قبول‬ ‫نسخ تعلیق را مجو ارسال‬ ‫کاندرین باب نیست قال و مقال‬ ‫این بدان و ازین سخن مگذر‬ ‫هست ارسال در خطوط دگر‬ The appearance of calligraphy are elements and composition, baseline and its proportions. After these are ascent and descent and šamare. In nastaʿlīq do not seek to release [the pen], and there is no question about this. Release exists in other scripts, know this and do not argue. Prior to Mašhadī these principles were enumerated by Yāqūt Mostaʿṣemī (610–698/1213–1298). In a treatise attributed to Bābāšāh Eṣfahānī entitled Ādāb-ol-mašq and written almost seventy years after Mašhadī, a total of seventeen calligraphic principles were divided into two groups. These two groups consisted of twelve learned components and five non-learned components. The learned components were identified as: composition, baseline, proportion, thinness, thickness, straightness and roundness, virtual ascent, true descent, principles, refinement, and dignity. The non-learned components were identified as: blackness and whiteness, tašmīr, true ascent, and descent. These are components such as backness which are inherent to the script and therefore cannot be taught. Out of respect for Mašhadī who did not believe in release in nastaʿlīq, Eṣfahānī did not place this component in either of two groups, saying: “even though the belief of the master of the pen of this era is that release is indeed present in nastaʿlīq, because the ‘Qibla of the book’ Molānā Solṭān ʿAlī said that it does not exist in nastaʿlīq let it not be said that the tradition was forsaken …” (Resālāt: 217)

246

‫ق‬

learned components

The components of script according to Ādāb-ol-mašq

non-learned components

1. compostion ☞ ‫َت ْرکیب‬ 2. baseline ☞ ‫ک ُْرسی‬ 3. proportion ☞ ‫ناسب‬ ُ ‫َت‬ 4. thinness ‫َضعف‬ 5. thickness ‫ق َُّوت‬ 6. straightness ‫َسطْح‬ 7. roundness ‫دور‬ ☞ ‫َسطْح و دور‬ 8. virtual ascent ☞ ‫ُصعود‬ ‫َمجازی‬ 9. true descent ☞ ‫نُزول‬ ‫َحقیقی‬ 10. principles ‫اُصول‬ 11. refinement ☞ ‫َصفا‬ 12. dignity ☞ ‫شأن‬ 1. blackness ‫َسواد‬ 2. whiteness ‫َبیاض‬ ☞ ‫َسواد و َبیاض‬ 3. tašmīr ☞ ‫ت َ ْشمیر‬ 4. true ascent ☞ ‫ُصعود‬ ‫َحقیقی‬ 5. descent ☞ ‫نُزول‬

A careful examination of Eṣfahānī’s classification reveals some irregularities: 1. Why is true descent considered a learned component but not true ascent? 2. Some principles such as virtual ascent are lacking an exact definition. Today virtual ascent is considered to be the same as tašmīr; Bābāšāh Eṣfahānī places this principle in both groups under different names. 3. These principles vary to a certain extent in the various scripts. While Mašhadī and Eṣfahānī maintained opposing positions regarding release in nastaʿlīq, Yāqūt Mostaʿṣemī thought it permissible in the Six Pens (☞ ‫) َاقْال ِم ِششگانه‬ (Oṣūl: 243). It should noted that very little theory was taught at the time and that calligraphy instruction was largely practice-based. Unfortunately, calligraphers have yet to carryout a serious critique of the classification. Instead they have simply accepted and at times attempted to justify all of it. Some of the problems posed by the division of twelve components classified “learned” in Ādāb-ol-mašq will be addressed here. 1. Eṣfahānī asserts that “principles” (the tenth of the twelve learned components) is a combination of the nine components that proceed it, and that therefore a calligrapher who has mastered these

247

‫ق‬

nine automatically has also “principles”. Clearly “principles” is not an independent component in the same way as baseline, straightness, or roundness, but rather, it is qualitative such that with time it will be achieved. If we accept “principles” as a learned component, then we would by extension have to include more elements, such as a number thirteen that would represent the totality of the proceeding twelve. 2. “Refinement” and “dignity” are introduced as qualitative attributes that a calligrapher can attain after learning the other principles. Therefore, it would be accurate to say that these two components are expressions of the qualitative state of calligraphy rather than principles in and of themselves. 3. The twelve learned components were later renamed the “twelve-fold principles”. However, the use of “principles” is even less precise than the word “components” given that “principles” is also the name of one of the components. Here we will investigate the division proposed by Ebn-e Moqle (d. 328/940) which consists of two primary groups called “beauty of disposition” (☞ ‫ُح ْس ِن‬ ‫ ) َو ْضع‬and “beauty of formation” (☞ ‫) ُح ْس ِن ت َ ْشکیل‬. Relative to other proposed divisions, and for its time, Ebn-e Moqle’s division was very well thought-out. Here, although “principles” and “proportion” are placed under “beauty of formation”, and “composition” and “baseline” fall under “beauty of disposition”, one strength of the system is that it allows for overlap within the two divisions. That is, if we understand “beauty of formation” to be the formation of words and letters, and “beauty of disposition” to be the disposition of words and letters, we see that elements such as proportion and composition fit into both categories.

straightness and roundness composition composition (on the thickness and thinness (in letters and  line and page) ascent and descent (words)  beauty of proximity pen placement, etc. proportion   baseline, etc. equilibrium

248

‫ق‬

Respecting proportion and composition in letters and words is just as important as respecting proportion and composition on a larger scale of a line of text and the page. Therefore, a division of the calligraphic principles into two primary groups and then subdivided into four more groups would be more appropriate. If one follows this proposition, the twelve principles as laid out in Ādāb-ol-mašq would appear with greater precision as follows:

principles

beauty of formation ☞ ‫ُح ْس ِن ت َ ْشکیل‬

The Calligraphic Principles

proportion

beauty of disposition ☞ ‫ُح ْس ِن َو ْضع‬

true & virtual ascent thinness & thickness hidden & visible ☞ ‫َخ ْل َوت و‬ ‫َج ْل َوت‬ straightness, roundness, spin pen placement & release blackness & whiteness true & virtual descent within the size of letters and words of the pen to the letters and page symmetry and equilibrium ☞ ‫َتوا ُزن‬ taking ink ☞ ‫َّب َ‌ب ْرداری‬ ْ ‫ُم َرک‬

of the letter, word, line, page composition elongation ☞ ‫ِکشیده‌ ِنویسی‬ beauty of proximity ☞ ‫ُح ْس ِن‬ ‫َه ْم َجواری‬

horizontal baseline (AMVR 235–236, 238–243; IC 7–16)

vertical

pivot descender line symmetry

‫ق‬

249

‫ ُق َّوت‬/qovvat/ call. thickness. lit. “strength” or “boldness” is created when the full breadth of the pen (☞ ‫ ) َد ِم َقلَم‬is applied to the paper making a stroke of equal width as in the middle of an elongated (☞ ‫ ) ِکشیده‌ ِنویسی‬word or circular letters (☞ ‫) َدوایِر‬, etc. ☞ ‫ُح ْس ِن ت َ ْشکیل ☞ َض ْعف‬ ُّ /qūlloq qābloq/ ☞ ‫ق ُُّلق‬ ‫قولق قا ْب ُلق‬ ‫ ِق ْید‬/qeyd/ bb. book clamp. A clamp to hold or press books for binding. The clamp is made out of two planned wooden slats that are connected on each side with a screw that are also used to open and close the clamp. (ʿAtīqī 1357š/1978: 61) Also called šekanje (‫ ) ِش َک ْنجه‬lit. “torture, rack”. ☞ ‫َص ّحافی‬

Plate 24

Čalīpā in nastaʿlīq, mašq-e naqlī (translational practice) from ʿEmād al-Ḥasanī (Mīrʿemād) by Valī-ad-Dīn Afandī, 1122/1713, University of Istanbul Library

‫ کا ِتب‬/kāteb/ scrivener, scribe, calligrapher. (AMVR 235–236, 238–243) ☞ ‫خوشْ ِنویس‬ ‫ب َد ْرج‬ ِ ‫ کا ِت‬/kāteb-e darj/ A scribe whose job it is to write rulings on to paper called darj. ‫کار َدک‬ ْ /kārdak/ ☞ ‫َشفْره‬ ‫کار ِد َکج‬ ْ /kārd-e kaj/ bb. lit. “slanted knife”. A knife that is used for cropping. (Afshar 1357š/1978: 61) ‫ کاژیره‬/kāžīre/ ☞ ‫شاهاب‬ ‫ کاجیره‬/kājīre/ ☞ ‫شاهاب‬ ‫ کاغ َِذ آب ُخشْ ک کُ ن‬/kāġaẕ-e āb-ḫošk-kon/ ☞ ‫آب ُخ ْشک کُن‬ ‫ کاغ َِذ َا ْبر و باد‬/kāġaẕ-e abr-o-bād/ ☞ ‫ا َْبری‬ ‫ کاغ َِذ َا ْبری‬/kāġaẕ-e abrī/ ☞ ‫ا َْبری‬ ‫ کاغ َِذ اَلوان‬/kāġaẕ-e alvān/ ☞ ‫کا َغ ِذ َرنْگی ☞ َرنْگ‌آمیزی کا َغذ‬ ‫ کاغ َْذ ُبری‬/kāġaẕ-borī/ ☞ ‫َقطاعی‬ ‫ کاغ َِذ َت ْحریری‬/kāġaẕ-e taḥrīrī/ writing paper. Paper that has a mat surface and is not glossy. Today it is used for writing and small pens (☞ ‫) َق َل ِم َخفی‬. (MC 49–63; AMT 121–122; AMVR 89–90, 156, 186–192, 276–277; IC 41–57) ‫پوستی‬ ْ ‫ کاغ َِذ‬/kāġaẕ-e pūstī/ 1 tracing paper. Mainly used for transferring a pattern or design, especially for repeating patterns in taẕhīb (☞ ‫) َتذْ هیب‬. ☞ ‫کا َغ ِذ‬ ‫سو َزن َزده‬‎

© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_027

252

‫ک‬

‫ کاغ َِذ َچ ْسبا ْنده‬/kāġaẕ-e časbānde/ pasteboard. Two pieces of paper that have been pasted together to be used as a support for calligraphy. In India this is referred to as vaṣlī (‫( ) َو ْصلی‬Mukhlis 2013: 279). The act of joining these sheets is called lit. “making double-layered” (dō-lāye kardan ‫ )دو الیه َک ْر َدن‬which is commonly confused with dō-pūst kardan (☞ ‫بوست َک ْر َدن‬ ْ ‫)دو‬. ‫ کاغ َِذ َر ْنگی‬/kāġaẕ-e rangī/ colored paper. In the past, white paper was held in special esteem but it was wheat-colored paper that was used the most to write books. So as not to detract from the beauty of the script marbled (☞ ‫ )ا َْبری‬bright colored paper was avoided. Subtly colored paper was used because whatever lack of color could be compensated for with illumination (☞ ‫ ) َتذْ هیب‬and other methods of ornamentation. Today with the existence of paper mills finding variously colored paper has become easy and a tendency towards marbled and colored paper has increased. The color of the paper should work to enhance the text, not detract from it. (AMVR 89–90, 156, 186–192, 276–277; Barkeshli 2016) ‫ کاغَذسازی‬/kāġaẕ-sāzī/ Paper making (PPB 13–28) ‫ کاغ َِذ ُس ْنباده‬/kāġaẕ-e sonbāde/ ☞ ‫ُسنْباده‬ ‫سوزن َزده‬ َ ‫ کاغ َِذ‬/kāġaẕ-e sūzan-zade/ A method of transferring a design onto a support by first drawing the design on a piece of paper and then punching little holes along the lines with a needle. The paper is then placed on top of the support and daubed with a thin cloth filled with soot. When the paper is removed, the soot that has passed through the holes is visible on the new support. ☞ ‫پوسیتی‬ ْ ‫کا َغ ِذ‬ ‫ کاغَذ گیر‬/kāġaẕ-gīr/ to. A clip made of ivory particularly used in India to hold a piece of paper in place while writing so that it cannot be blown by the wind. ‫ کاغ َِذ َم ْر َمر‬/kāġaẕ-e marmar/ marbled paper. ☞ ‫ا َْبری‬ ‫ کاغ َِذ ن َشّ اف‬/kāġaẕ-e našāf/ ☞ ‫آب ُخ ْشک کُن‬ ‫ کُ تّاب‬/kottāb/ ☞ ‫کا ِتب‬ ‫ کِتا َبت‬/ketābat/ writing, calligraphy. (Fig. 124) This word derives from an Arabic root meaning “to gather together”. It was used to designate writing because

‫ک‬

figure 124

253

Nastaʿlīq writing by Moḥammad Hoseyn Šīrāzī, Tehran 1305/1887/8, Monājāt-nāme-ye Ḫāje ʿAbdollah Anṣārī, Āstān-e Qods Rażvī Library, Mashhad

254

‫ک‬

of the act of gathering letters and words together on one line and on one page. (Faẓāʾelī 1370š/1991: 23) Ketābat can also refer to non-calligraphic writing. ☞ ‫تابت‬ َ ‫َق َل ِم ِک‬

ِ ‫ کِتا َب‬/ketābat-e čāp-e sangī/ ☞ ‫چاپ ِنویسی‬ ‫چاپ َسنْگی‬ ِ ‫ت‬ ِ ‫ کِتا َب‬/ketābat-e ḫafī/ ☞ ‫َق َل ِم َخفی‬ ‫ت خَفی‬ ‫ کِتا َبت َک ْر َدن‬/ketābat kardan/ to write, to script. ِ ‫ کِتا َب‬/ketābat-e moṣḥaf/ ☞ ‫ُم ْص َحف‌ ِنویسی‬ ‫ت ُم ْص َحف‬ ‫ کِتا ْبدار‬/ketāb-dār/ ☞ ‫تابداری‬ ْ ‫ِک‬ ‫ کِتا ْبداری‬/ketāb-dārī/ librarianship. Under the Timurid and Safavid dynasties, librarianship was a position of high artistic rank. A librarian (ketāb-dār ‫تابدار‬ ْ ‫ ) ِک‬not only had access to all of the books and archives of a library, but was also supervised the production of all books and albums (☞ ‫) ُم َر َّقع‬ that were produced at the library. A surviving statement from Jaʿfar Tabrīzī (d. 859/1455) describes the work done by the calligraphers, painters, and bookbinders, etc. in a report to the shah. Artists such as Jaʿfar Tabrīzī, Kamāl-od-Dīn Behzād, Ṣādeqī Beg Afšār and ʿAlī Reżā Tabrīzī (ʿAbbāsī) were among those who held this position during these two periods and oversaw major art projects of their time. ‫ کِتابْ ِشناسی‬/ketāb-šenāsī/ 1 codicology. 2 bibliology, catalogue. The most prominent Islamic bibliography that was compiled prior to the introduction of the printing press in the Islamic world is Al-Fehrest by Ebn-e Nadīm. This covered literature and appeared in ten volumes in 377/987/8. ‫ کِتابه‬/ketābe/ 1 Script that is written with a large pen (☞ ‫ ) َق َل ِم َجلی‬on paper or a narrow strip of cloth. 2 Caligraphic verses that are written on a banner. ☞ ‫َکتیبه‬ ‫ َک َت َب ُه‬/katabahū/ Verbal phrase “(he) wrote”. The last level of signature (☞ ‫َر َقم‬ ‫) َز َدن‬. When a student of calligraphy attained a level of excellence, his professor would allow him to write this phrase at the bottom of his work which also served as certification that he has successfully completed his term as a ِ ‫لَ َق‬ student. ☞ ‫ب خوشْ ِنویس ☞ َت ْرقیمه‬

255

‫ک‬

‫ َکتیبه‬/katībe/ 1 bb. cornice. (Figs. 125–126, V, VII) An architectural term also used in taẕhīb (☞ ‫) َتذْ هیب‬. In bookbinding (☞ ‫ ) َص ّحافی‬it designates a type of cover decoration by which the four corners a book’s cover are embellished with scalloped half and quarter circles. These designs were engraved into thick pieces of brass and then stamped into the leather of the book. (Afshar 1357š/1978: 19) 2 sc. inscription, epigraph. Writing carried out on a support such as stone, brick, plaster or wood, etc. This can be flush with the surface, as in the case of tiles, in relief or incised, as in stone. In the context of calligraphy, inscriptions became popular in the first centuries of the Islamic period. They can be classified in terms of subject, material, language, script, date, the structure on which they appear and their placement on a given structure. Some of the oldest extant examples of inscriptions in Iran are written in various styles of Kufic (☞ ‫)کوفی‬. These include inscriptions at the following sites: Gonbad-e Kāvūs Inscription, 397/1006/7. Pahlavi and Kufic inscriptions on the Lājīm and Rasgat towers (Savād Kūh, Māzandarān), Rādkān Tower (Bandar-e Gaz), 401–413/1010/1–1022/3. The Friday Mosque in Qorve (Zanjān Province), 413/1022/3. Gonbad-e ʿAlī in Abarqū, 448/1056/7/

figure 125

Inlay-style grave inscription on the grounds of Qobt-od-Dīn Baḫtīār Kākī, Dehli

256

figure 126

‫ک‬

Inscription in s̱ols̱ and geometric Kufic, entrance portico at the tomb of Ḫāje ʿAbdollāh Ansārī, Herat, Afghanistan

257

‫ک‬

The minaret of the Friday Mosque in Sāveh, 453/1061. The Friday Mosque in Kashan, 466/1073/4. The Ḫarraqān Towers, 460–486/1067/8–1093. S̱ols̱ (☞ ‫ )ثُ ْلث‬inscriptions on the Čehel-Doḫtarān Minaret in Esfahan, 501/1107/8. This is the earliest example of a s̱ols̱ inscription on a minaret. With the spread tile mosaics from the 7th/13th c., the prevalence of s̱ols̱ and geometric Kufic (☞ ‫ ) َم ْع ِقلی‬increased and Kufic was used to frame s̱ols̱ inscriptions. The oldest nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬inscription can be found on a stone slab in the courtyard of ʿAbdollāh Anṣārī’ Mausoleum in Herat, Afghanistan (Plate 7). This inscription in Persian was written by Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī in 882/1477/8. Inscriptions on the grave stones of Timurid princes on this same slab are also in nastaʿlīq, dating from 849/1445/6, 850/1446/7, 853/1449/50 and 866/1461/2. Scripts that played an important role in inscriptions are Kufic, maʿqelī, s̱ols̱, nastaʿlīq, and moḥaqqaq (☞ ‫) ُم َحقَّق‬. ☞ ‫َق َل ِم َکتیبه‬ ☞ ‫َکتیبه‌ی َس ْرلوح‬

‫ َکتیبه ِنگاری‬/katībe-negārī/ ☞ ‫َکتیبه‬ ‫ َکتیبه ِنویسی‬/katībe-nevīsī/ ☞ ‫َکتیبه‬ ‫ َکتیبه‌ی َس ْرسوره‬/katībe-ye sar-sūre/ ☞ ‫َس ْرسوره‬ ‫ َکتیبه‌ی َس ْرلوح‬/katībe-ye sar-lōḥ/ frontispiece epigraph. (Fig. 127) The font or script used for a frontispiece epigraph is usually older and different from that of the main text, as in the Bāysonġor Šāhnāme, produced in 833/1429/30. Here the main text was written in nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬whereas the inscription on the frontispiece was rendered in Kufic (☞ ‫)کوفی‬. ‫ کُ ْرسی‬/korsī/ call. baseline. lit. “seating, throne”. The expression “to have a korsī” means “to be uniform”. Interliteral space and the proximity of the letters and words to the baseline (korsī-bandī ‫ )ک ُْرسی َب ْندی‬is very precise. This proximity is closely linked to composition (☞ ‫ ) َت ْرکیب‬and it is these two, baseline and composition, that form the primary components of the more general “beauty of disposition” (☞ ‫) ُح ْس ِن َو ْضع‬. The lines that make up the baseline can be divided into two groups: 1. horizontal lines whose distance from one another is measured in points (☞ ‫ ) َبنای ُحروف‬and can themselves be divided into groups. a. baseline. lit: “axis seating” (korsī-ye meḥvarī ‫)ک ُْرسی ِم ْح َوری‬. A line drawn on to the support using a ruler and serves main reference

258

‫ک‬

figure 127

b.

c.

d.

Mosaic inscription in s̱ols̱, portico in the Shah Mosque in Esfahan, 1025/1616 ʿAlī Reżā al-Abbāsī

ِ ‫ ) ُح‬such as de (‫)د‬, re for each line of text. Simple letters (☞ ‫روف ُمف َْرد‬ (‫)ر‬, be (‫)ب‬, and fe (‫)ف‬, as well as elongated letters (☞ ‫) ِکشیده‌ ِنویسی‬ that ascend at the end of the stroke such as fe (‫ )ف‬and the combinations SĀ (‫ )سا‬and ḪD (‫)خد‬, generally sit on this line. lit: “first seating” (korsī-ye avval ‫)ک ُْرسی ا ََّول‬. An imaginary line that runs about two dots higher than and parallel to the baseline. Elongations such as those formed from the letter combinations HM (‫)هم‬, SR (‫)سر‬, and FTR (‫ )فتر‬begin their slight downward trajectory here. lit: “second seating” (korsī-ye dovom ‫)ک ُْرسی ُد ُوم‬. An imaginary line that runs about four points higher than and parallel to the baseline. Simple letters such as alef (‫)ا‬, dāl (‫)د‬, re (‫ )ر‬and vāv (‫ )و‬sit on this line when proceeded by circular letters (☞ ‫ ) َدوایِر‬such as nūn ِ ‫ ) ُح‬such as be (‫)ن‬, ye (‫)ی‬, or ṣād (‫)ص‬, or flat letters (☞ ‫خت‬ ْ ‫روف َت‬ (‫)ب‬, fe (‫ )ف‬or kāf (‫ )ک‬in their final forms. lit: “third seating” (korsī-ye sevom ‫)ک ُْرسی ِس ُوم‬. An imaginary line that runs five or more dots higher than and parallel to the

259

‫ک‬

baseline. This serves as the the upper limit that is sometimes reached by the final letter(s) of a line of text. e. descender line. lit: “bottom seating” (korsī-ye pāyīn ‫)ک ُْرسی پایین‬. An imaginary line that runs two dots lower than and parallel to the baseline. It is the only line situated beneath the baseline and is attained by circular letters in their end forms. In most cases it is possible for the tail of mīm (‫ )م‬in final position and the beginning of letters possessing a head-stroke (☞ ‫ ) َس ْر ِکش‬to extend beyond it. ّ ‫) ِذ ْی ُل الْ َخ‬. Also called ẕeyl-ol-ḫaṭṭ (☞ ‫ط‬ Letters and words at the beginning of line of text tend to begin slightly above the baseline and gradually descend to cover the baseline, where as letters and words at the end of a line of text tend to subtly veer upwards from the baseline, to the first, second and even third line. 2. vertical lines are made up two main imaginary lines, one at the beginning and the other at the end of a line of text, and any number of additional lines in between. These line are perpendicular the to the baseline and are used to calibrate the angles of letters and has to be taken into consideration with every ascent (☞ ‫) ُصعود‬, descent (☞ ‫)نُزول‬, straightness and roundness (☞ ‫) َسطْح و دور‬, etc. They also play an important role in harmonizing the beginning and end of a line of text on the page. Although these lines are never explicitly mentioned in treatises on calligraphy, they have always been observed with diligence. Their existence in čalīpā (☞ ‫ ) َچلیپا‬ensures that letters such as alef (‫)ا‬, lām (‫)ل‬, mīm (‫)م‬, ye (‫ )ی‬and vāv (‫)و‬, etc. do not appear crooked or out of harmony. When analyzing a piece of calligraphy for its style of line usage, there are three stages to be considered. 1. Baseline of the letters (korsī-ye ḥorūf ‫کرسی‬ ‫)حروف‬. In calligraphy each letter whether it appears alone or in combination with other letters in a word, has a relationship to the hypothetical base line which can be defined as the korsī of each letter. 2. Symmetry on the baseline. Historically, calligraphers endeavored to achieve symmetry in the letters that appeared on the various lines (axis, first, second). 3. Harmony between ِ ‫َق‬ the vertical and horizontal lines and the page. (AMVR 141–144; IC 11) ☞ ‫واع ِد‬ ‫َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ ِنویسی‬ vertical axis seating

260

‫ک‬

‫ کُ ْرسی َبنْدی‬/korsī-bandī/ ☞ ‫ک ُْرسی‬ ‫سی ُحروف‬ ِ ‫ کُ ْر‬/korsī-ye ḥorūf/ ☞ ‫ک ُْرسی‬ ‫سی َعمودی‬ ِ ‫ کُ ْر‬/korsī-ye ʿamūdī/ ☞ ‫ک ُْرسی‬ ِ ‫) ُح‬, some let‫ کِشیده‬/kešīde/ call. elongation. Known as long letters (☞ ‫روف ِدراز‬ ters such as be (‫)ب‬, pe (‫)پ‬, te (‫)ت‬, s̱e (‫)ث‬, kāf (‫)ک‬, gāf (‫ )گ‬and fe (‫)ف‬, and some words, e.g. golestān (‫)گلستان‬, sobḥ (‫ )صبح‬and šamšīr (‫ )شمشیر‬can either be written in their normal form, called “short” (☞ ‫)کوتاه‬, or can be elongated. That is, a part of the letter or word is written longer and wider. Elongations increase the beauty of the script if it is done properly according to the rules. However, if a word is improperly elongated, or elongated when it should be left short, as in the word dīr (‫)دیر‬, it is unpleasing to the eye. (AMT 133) ☞ ‫ُحروف ِدراز ☞ کوتاه ☞ ِکشیده‌ ِنویسی‬ ‫ کِشیده‌ ِنویسی‬/kešīde-nevīsī/ elongated writing. Also called mad dādan (‫) َمد دا َدن‬. Considered part of baseline (☞ ‫ )ک ُْرسی‬and composition (☞ ‫) َترکیب‬. There are three basic factors that affect the elongation of letters and words, all of which should be taken into consideration when creating an elongation. 1. Word location: If a line of text or hemistich (☞ ‫ ) ِم ْص َرع‬is divided into five segments, the priority for elongation belongs to the word located in the centre segment, whereas the first word (furthest to the right) has the least priority. It is for this reason that elongating the first word in a line of text is viewed as undesirable unless absolutely necessary. Numbers indicate the segment in order of priority. 4 2.

2

1

3

5

Word type: Elongated words fall in to three groups based on the letters of which they are composed. a. simple elongations (kešīde-ye sāde ‫ ) ِکشیده‌ی ساده‬with letters such as be (‫)ب‬, fe (‫)ف‬, kāf (‫ ;)ک‬b. semicompound elongations (kešīde-ye nīme-morakkab ‫) ِکشیده‌ی نیمه ُم َرکَّب‬ such as FR (‫)فر‬, sīn (‫ ;)س‬c. compound elongations (kešīde-ye morakkab ‫ ) ِکشیده‌ی ُم َرکَّب‬such as ṣobḥ (‫)صبح‬, ḥakīm (‫)حکیم‬, ṣaḥne (‫)صحنه‬. In this group there are letters on either side of the elongated section. Compound elongations are give priority, followed by semi-compound and finally, simple elongations.

261

‫ک‬ 3.

Word meaning: in some cases, a word is elongated to emphasize its spiritual essence in a sentence or hemistich, because it has special meaning, or to simply draw attention to it. The rules of elongation for nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬are as follows: 1. When writing a line of text elongations should be effectuated in the longest, most elongated form possible. Respecting the three principles of elongation, a line or hemistich of normal length should contain a single elongation, whereas a long line can contain two. Where there is one elongation, giving priority to the word in the middle segment is the most suitable. It is best to avoid two elongation side by side, therefore, where there are two elongations in a line, priority can be given to segments 2 and 3, 1 and 4, or 1 and 5. There should be at least one nonelongated word between them. In the hemistich ‫افسوس که دلب ِر پسندیده‬ ‫ برفت‬it is best not to elongate both ‫ دلبر‬and ‫پسندیده‬. 2. When writing a full verse (☞ ‫ ) ِب ْیت‬it is best for both hemistichs to have the same type of elongation, be placed one on top of the other, and to be parallel. 3. When writing a čalīpā (☞ ‫ ) َچلیپا‬the calligrapher attempts to produce symmetrical elongations. That is, in one verse both hemistichs have elongations according to word type and location, and the elongations in the second verse should appear directly below or slightly to the right of the elongation above it. It should be noted that two short elongations such as ‫ ادب آداب دارد‬can be counted as one normal elongation. 4. In writing (not to produce a piece of calligraphy) elongations appear in smallest possible scale. Each line can have a minimum of one and a maximum of three elongations, and these should not appear in the same place in two successive lines, but instead should be staggered to form “X”s throughout the text. (Falsafī 1388š/2001: 177–97; AMT 133) ِ ‫َق‬ ☞ ‫واع ِد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ ِنویسی‬

‫ کِشیده‌ی ساده‬/kešīde-ye sāde/ ☞ ‫ِکشیده‌ ِنویسی‬ ‫ کِشیده‌ی کوتاه‬/kešīde-ye kūtāh/ short elongation. When letters such as be (‫)ب‬, kāf (‫ )ک‬and fe (‫ )ف‬are written in their normal, non-elongated form (☞ ‫ )کوتاه‬they have a length that is half of that of a full elongation (☞ ‫) ِکشیده‬. Therefore, two such letters can be considered equal to one elongated letter. Also called nīm mad (‫)نیم َمد‬. ☞ ‫ِکشیده‌ ِنویسی‬ ‫ کِشیده‌ی ُم َرَّکب‬/kešīde-ye morakkab/ ☞ ‫ِکشیده‌ ِنویسی‬

262

‫ک‬

‫ کِشیده‌ی نیمه ُم َرَّکب‬/kešīde-ye nīme-morakkab/ ☞ ‫ِکشیده‌ ِنویسی‬ ‫ کِ ْلک‬/kelk/ to. A wooden reed, in particular a reed pen. ‫ک پیرا‬ ْ ‫ کِ ْل‬/kelk-pīrā/ scrivener (☞ ‫)کا ِتب‬, writer, calligrapher (☞ ‫ ;)خوشْ ِنویس‬someone who sells pens. ِ ‫ کِ ْل‬/kelk-e kabūtar-dom/ lit. “dove-tailed pen”. When the nib of the pen ‫ک َکبوتَردُم‬ (☞ ‫ ) َق ِط َقلَم‬is carved to tapper in the middle and widen at the top so that it resembles the tail of a dove or fish. ☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫َتر‬ ‫ َک ْم َر ْنگ‬/kam-rang/ ☞ ‫َرقیق‬ ‫ َک ْم مایه‬/kam-māye/ 1 thin. A paintbrush (☞ ‫ ) َقل َْم مو‬whose brush is thin, with few, long hairs that is used for even outlining (☞ ‫ ) َقل َْمگیری‬and long lines. 2 weak. An adjective describing ink (☞ ‫ ) ُم َرکَّب‬or paint whose color has been diluted through the addition of water. ☞ ‫َرقیق ☞ َغلیظ‬ 3 unskilled. A script that that has poorly carried out or neglected the calِ ‫) َق‬. ☞ ‫ط‬ ّ ‫َب ْد َخ‬ ligraphic principles (☞ ‫واع ِد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ ِنویسی‬ ‫ َک َمنْد‬/kamand/ illum. (Fig. 128) lit. “lasso” A three-sided jadval (☞ ‫ ) َج ْد َول‬is called a kamand. It appears only on pages with jadval ornamentation where the kamand is drawn between the jadval and the margin of the page, framing the former on three sides, the top, bottom, and the side opposite the spine. If there is writing in the margins it is written between the kamand and the jadval. ‫ کُ نْج‬/konj/ ☞ ‫ل ََچکی‬ ‫ کُ نْدی‬/kondī/ illum. lit. “slowness, bluntness”. Used to describe the width of a script. ‫ کوبیده‬/kūbīde/ ☞ ‫جِ ْل ِد َض ْربی‬ ‫ کوتاه‬/kūtāh/ call. short. When a letter or word that is capable of being elonِ ‫ ) ُح‬is instead left in its simpler form. ☞ ‫ِکشیده‌ ِنویسی ☞ ِکشیده‬ gated (☞ ‫روف ِدراز‬ ‫ کوفی‬/kūfī/ sc. Kufic. (Figs. 129–135) The oldest script dating from the Islamic era that moved from the realm of a simple script with which to write to the realm of calligraphic expression and art. In Iran Kufic was in common use

263

‫ک‬

figure 128

An example of a kamand, University of Istanbul Library, no. 1526

most notably in the first five centuries of the Islamic era, mainly for copying the Quran but also for inscriptions (☞ ‫ ) َکتیبه‬on buildings, vessels, and books. The development of the first phase of Kufic began with the copying of the Quran and the care and exactitude required to record the divine Word. It was in this way that Kufic was transformed from a primitive, incomplete script, into a script replete with diacritics representing vowels (☞ ‫ ) ِا ْعراب‬and dots (☞ ‫ ) ِا ْعجام‬to differentiate the letters. Surviving treatises on calligraphy describe Kufic as as follows: Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī, Ādāb-e ḫaṭṭ (ṢS: 18)

‫کرد پیدا و داد نشو و نما‬ ‫ هم ز کوفی دان‬،‫وضع کردند‬

ّ ‫مرتضی اصل خ‬ ‫ط کوفی را‬ ‫وین خطوط دگر که استادان‬

Morteżā (i.e. Alī ibn ʾAbī Ṭālib, the fourth caliph and first Shia Imām) did create and proliferate the original Kufic script. All other [Six-fold] scripts that masters have sat, all devised from Kufic too. Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī, Ādāb-ol-ḫaṭṭ (ĀḪ: 180)

‫کوفی خط مرتضی علی بود‬

‫پیش از همه خط مع ّقلی بود‬

Before all others was geometric Kufic, the script of Morteżā ʿAlī was Kufic.

264

‫ک‬ … And then in every age they made it their own, changing it until geometric Kufic came into being. Then a long time passed until the time of Banī Amīe when the Kufic script was devised. And its extractor was a community of scholars from Kufa. And since they saw that the lords and nobles relished and favored the script they endeavored to increase its beauty and admiration until it was the turn of His Excellency Amīr al-Mōʾmenīn and Emām al-Motaqeyn ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭāleb, may peace be upon him. And His Excellency brought the script to along its path to perfection and other created being could write as he did, neither in his time or ever after … Oṣūl: 229

… Then from that script they devised Kufic. In this script one sixth is round and the rest flat. They call it Kufic because it was invented in Kufa and the person who wrote the best in this script is the King of Man (ʿAlī). It is his script that is the best. And talking of him and writing like him is not within human capability and there is no other way save a miracle … ḪS: 257

Kufic spread throughout the whole Islamic world. After being adopted for writing and copying, it was then used for calligraphy on buildings. In every new region and country, the script entered, it took on features added by local artists and calligraphers. Thus, the diversity of this script is greater than all other Islamic scripts. The geographical breadth that it enjoyed also led to its many designations such as Arabic Kufic (kūfī-ye ʿarabī ‫)کوفی َع َربی‬, Eastern Kufic (kūfī-ye mašreqī ‫)کوفی َم ْشرِقی‬, Pīr-āmūz (☞ ‫)پیرآموز‬, Western Kufic (kūfī-ye maġrebī ‫)کوفی َم ْغ ِربی‬, etc. The widespread use of Kufic for everything from writing to inscriptions (☞ ‫) َکتیبه‬, from coins to pottery and tapestries, tells of Kufic’s unrivaled versatility of shape and composition. Stylistically it is possible to distinguish between two major groups. First, Kufic scripts that were used in books and manuscripts and characterized by their simple and legible forms that doubled as a means of decoration. These were called kūfī-ye movaššaḥ (‫ )کوفیِ ُم َو ّشح‬or tazʾīnī (‫)کوفیِ َتزئینی‬. Second, Kufic scripts that were used on buildings, called kūfī-ye maʿqelī (‫)کوفی َم ْع ِقلی‬ or kūfī-ye banāyī (☞ ‫) َبنایی‬, with different degrees of legibility depending on the design. This style is characterised by the vertically, acute- or obtuseangled straight lines, carefully planned proportion of positive to negative space (☞ ‫) َخ ْل َوت و َج ْل َوت‬, the width of the spacing, and the use of decorative or extraneous lines and frills to fill the gaps (☞ ‫( ) َم ْع ِقلی‬Yūsefī 1990). Other styles of Kufic are as follows: Simple Kufic, which is made up of simple connected letters written in a straight line without any ornamentation. Floral Kufic, in which the upper sections of the letters are taller, the upper

265

‫ک‬

extremities of which are made to look like flowers. The best example of this can be seen in the old mosque of Nāyīn in Iran. Kufic with scroll ornamentation, in which ornamentation is independent of the letters themselves, instead appearing as a decorated scroll that frames the script by filling the space between the lines. This was used for inscriptions of Quranic verses on buildings. Knotted Kufic, which is thought to have originated in Iran and is one of the most intricate types of Kufic. Here, ascenders are extended and “tied” together in elaborate knots. Some examples of this can be found on Rādkān Tower and inside the tomb of Pīr ʿAlamdār in Dāmġān, Iran. Kufic with border ornamentation, which sees a design repeated over and over in the border above and separate from the text. Square Kufic, in which the text is written so as to fit into a square space. This is particular to brick or tile work where various geometric shapes are created. Examples of this are the word Allah that appears repeatedly around the circular tower at the tomb of Šeyḫ Ṣafī in Ardabīl, Iran, or in the Blue Mosque in Tabriz, Iran. (FF s.v. ‫)کوفی‬ From the 4th/10th c. onwards, Kufic was gradually replaced by nasḫ (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْسخ‬for manuscripts because of the greater speed with which it could be written and its greater legibility. The decreased use of Kufic in manuscripts led to its increased use on buildings and inscriptions beginning in the 5th/11th c. S̱ols̱ (☞ ‫ )ثُ ْلث‬began to rival Kufic in inscriptions and the role of Kufic slowly decreased, becoming increasingly ornamental and less dominant, and eventually just appearing in borders around the dominant s̱ols̱. ِ ‫َم ْع ِقلی ☞ پیرآموز ☞ ُم َت‬ (Yūsefī 1990; Déroche 1992: 11; AMVR 138) ‫الصق‬

figure 129

A Kufic inscription discovered in Ommoljamāl, 6th/12th c. Friedrich 1368š/1989: 327

266

‫ک‬

figure 130

A Kufic inscription discovered in Jerusalem, 72/691 Friedrich 1368š/1989: 327

figure 131

Kufic without dot markers but with red dots to serve as diacritics, National Museum of Iran, Tehran

267

‫ک‬

figure 132

Kufic with dots markers and red dots to serve as diacritics, National Museum of Iran, Tehran

figure 133

Pīr-āmūz style Kufic, National Museum of Iran, Tehran

268

figure 134

‫ک‬

Pīr-āmūz style Kufic, ʿOs̱mān b. Ḥoseyn al-Varāq al-Ġaznavī, 484/1091/2, Topkapi Museum, Istanbul

269

‫ک‬

figure 135

Kufic from the book al-Abnīa ʿan ḥaqāʾeq al-adwīa of Abū Manṣūr Mowaffaq Heravī, copied by Asadī Ṭūsī, 447/1055/6, Vienna National Library

(AMT 127; AMVR 138)

‫ کوف ِی ایرانی‬/kūfī-ye īrānī/ Persian-style Kufic. The so-called Persian-style Kufic is used by some modern scholars to refer to a special style of Kufic that survives in several manuscripts. It is characterised by a hair-thin lines written with the corner of the nib to join separately written letters (Faẓāʾelī 1370š/1991: 128–33, 398–401; Bayānī 1363š/1984: 765; Yūsefī 1990). ☞‫پیرآموز ☞ کوفی‬ ‫ کوف ِی َبنایی‬/kūfī-ye banāyī/ ☞ ‫کوفی ☞ َم ْع ِقلی‬ ‫ کوف ِی پیرآموز‬/kūfī-ye pīrāmūz/ ☞ ‫پیرآموز‬ ‫ کوف ِی تَزئینی‬/kūfī-ye tazʾīnī/ ☞ ‫کوفی‬ ‫ کوف ِی َع َربی‬/kūfī-ye ʿarabī/ ☞ ‫کوفی‬ ‫ کوف ِی َم ْع ِقلی‬/kūfī-ye maʿqelī/ ☞ ‫کوفی ☞ َم ْع ِقلی‬ ‫ کوف ِی ُم َو َّشح‬/kūfī-ye movaššaḥ/ ☞ ‫کوفی‬ ‫ کیس‬/kīs/ wrinkle, pucker. Wrinkles that appear on the surface of paper when it is wetted and is not flattened to dry. (Karāmatī 1370š/1991 s.v. ‫)کیس‬

plate 25

Čalīpā in nastaʿlīq, mašq-e naqlī (translational practice) from ʿEmād al-Ḥasanī (Mīrʿemād) by Moḥammad-Asʿad Al-Yasārī, University of Istanbul Library

‫ گِ ْردْسازی‬/gerd-sāzī/ ☞ ‫َص ّحافی ☞ ِگ ْرد َک ْر َدن‬ ‫ گِ ْرد كَ ْر َدن‬/gerd kardan/ bb. rounding. The process of hammering the textblock spine into a convex shape for backing (☞ ‫)پُ ْشت‌کوبی‬. ☞ ‫َص ّحافی ☞ شیرازه‬ ‫ گِ ِر ْفتَنِ َص ْفحه‬/gereftan-e ṣafḥe/ call. holding the page. The support should be positioned in front of the calligrapher (☞ ‫ )خوشْ ِنویس‬such that its edge is parallel to the calligrapher’s chest, and at a distance of about 25–30cm from the eyes. Traditionally the writing pad (☞ ‫زیر َد ْستی‬ ْ ) and support were held on the calligrapher’s lap for writing which means that the left hand was responsible for holding the support and the inkwell (☞ ‫) َدوات‬. ‫ گِ ِر ْفتَنِ َقلَم‬/gereftan-e qalam/ call. holding the pen. (Fig. 136) The pen (☞ ‫) َقلَم‬ should be held between the thumb and forefinger and supported by the first segment of the middle finger. It is then placed lightly on the support. ‫ گِ ِر ْفتَنِ َقلَمو‬/gereftan-e qalamū/ pn. holding the paintbrush. In traditional painting when using a paintbrush to outline (☞ ‫) َقل َْمگیری‬, it should be gripped lightly between the thumb and forefinger in the space between the tip of the brush and its wooden handle. The three remaining fingers should be positioned as a base or support. The brush should be held vertically without exerting any pressure. However, the brush should be held more firmly for exacting various circular, ascending, and descending strokes, and delicate and precise outlining. There is no prescribed way to hold a paintbrush when used for coloring (☞ ‫ ) َرنْگ‌آمیزی‬an area. (Mojarrad-Tākestānī 1372š/1993: 45) Ṣādeqī Beg Afšār (940–1017/1533–1610) composed the following in his work Resāle-ye qānūn-oṣ-ṣovar (Resālāt: 116): ‫قلم را جایگه ساز از دو انگشت‬ ‫که تحریر قلم سنجیده آید‬ ‫نمی‌باید قلم را سخت گیری‬

‫قلم گاه گره‌گیری مکن ُمشت‬ ‫سه‌ی دیگر ستون آن دو باید‬ ‫به گاه کار می‌باید دلیری‬

Do not clench your fist around the pen. Put two fingers on the pen and use the other three fingers as a support, in order to balance the pen when writing. In your work, treat the pen with courage, not harshness. © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_028

272

‫گ‬

figure 136 Holding the pen

‫گ‬

273

‫ گِ ِر ْفت و گیر‬/gereft-o-gīr/ illum. lit. “caught and catch”. Two animals engaged in a fight. (Mojarrad-Tākestānī 1371š/1992:12; PPB 108) ☞ ‫ت َ ْشعیر‬ ‫ گِ ِره‬/gereh/ illum. lit. “knot”. In book cover and illumination (☞ ‫ ) َتذْ هیب‬designs, two, three or four rounded or straight jadvals (☞ ‫ ) َج ْد َول‬or borders that have skillfully been “knotted” or woven together to form a diverse and pleasing design. The top and bottom of each of these jadvals has to attach to the others. In other words, if the first jadval passes underneath the second jadval at their first meeting, it should pass over it the second time. This continues throughout the whole gereh. Illuminators (☞ ‫ ) ُم َذ ِّهب‬completely adhered to this custom in their designs from the second and third to fifth and sixth centuries of the hijri calendar. Some of these “knots” are composed merely of the two lines that form the two sides of the jadval. To others another jadval is added to the center creating three-lined “knot” while yet others recieve a three-lined jadval in the center. (Naṣīrī-Amīnī 1357š/1978: 8; PPB 109–111) ‫ گِ ِره َا ْندازی‬/gereh-andāzī/ ☞ ‫ِگ ِره‬ ‫ گِ ِره کِشی‬/gereh-kešī/ lit. “pulling knots”. When tiles cut in polyhedral geometric shapes are arranged next to each other to form a general design. (Māher-on-Naqš 1381š/2002: 50) ‫ گِ ْزلَک‬/gezlak/ to. A small knife featuring a long handle. This type of penknife (☞ ‫ ) َقل َْمتَراش‬has a curved blade and a handle that tapers at the end. It was used to carve pens (☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫ ) َتر‬and sometimes also to thin the leather used in bookbinding (☞ ‫) َص ّحافی‬. ‫ ُگل‌پیچ‬/gol-pīč/ ☞ ‫َختایی‬ ‫ ُگ ِل خَتایی‬/gol-e ḫatāyī/ ☞ ‫َختایی‬ ‫ ُگ ِل شاه‌عباسی‬/gol-e šāh-ʿabbāsī/ ☞ ‫َختایی‬ ‫ ُگ ْل َر ْنگ‬/gol-rang/ ☞ ‫شاهاب‬ ‫ ُگ ْلزار‬/golzār/ sc. lit. “a place full of flowers”. When a script such as nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬is written large (☞ ‫ ) َجلی‬and the interior of the inked letters themselves are illustrated with paintings of flowers, buds, etc., in particular where the stroke is at its thickest, tamām-qalam (☞ ‫)تمام‌ َقلَم‬, when the full width of the nib is utilized.

274

‫گ‬

‫ ُگ ِل َلن َْدنی‬/gol-e landanī/ ☞ ‫شیوه‌ی ایرانی‬ ‫ ُگل و ُبته‌سازی‬/gol-o-bote-sāzī/ ☞ ‫شیوه‌ی ایرانی‬ ‫ ُگل و ُب ْل ُبل‬/gol-o-bolbol/ ☞ ‫ُگل و ُم ْرغ‬ ‫ ُگل و ُم ْرغ‬/gol-o-morġ/ (Fig. 137) lit. “flower and bird” also “flower and nightingale” (gol-o-bolbol) is a popular theme in traditional Persian painting featuring compositions of birds (most notably the nightingale) and flowers (most notably roses and irises). This style reached its height during the Safavid (1501–1722) and Qajar (1785–1925) periods and it is the most prevalent theme in Qajar lacquerworks. Beside traditional Persian painting, the gol-o-morġ or gol-o-bolbol patterns was widely used as a means of decorating all daily objects, ceramics, stucco, fresco, and woodwork as well as bookbinding (☞ ‫( ) َص ّحافی‬Diba 2001). Painting the rose as a discrete motif and landscape element can be first traced back to the lyrical text-illustrations and paintings of the Ilkhanate (1256–1353) period. The metaphoric meaning of rose was typically depicted, symbolizing love and beauty (Cowen: 41–43, 56–58; 67–70; Lentz/Lowry:117; Diba 2001). The evolution of the bird and flower imagery, in particular the compisition of flowering rose trees accompanied by singing nightingales happened later in Safavid period, when it became a favorite theme in manuscript illustration. It also began to enjoy popularity in a wider variety of media, including textile designs (especially the sumptuous metal-ground woven silk brocades) and lacquer-painted objects (especially mirror cases and penboxes ☞ ‫ ) َقل َْمدان‬as well as in architectural decoration (Gray 1959: 219–25; Farhad 1987: 196–97; Diba 2001). In post-Safavid times, under the Zand (1750–79) and Qajar dynasties, it florished, developed and became even more popular until it reached a zenith both in technique and popularity in the lacquerwork and architectural decorations of Qajar Era. ☞ ‫شیوه‌ی ایرانی‬ ‫ گَ لویی َقلَمو‬/galūyī-ye qalamū/ ferrule. The metal section of a paintbrush in which the ends of the hairs of the brush are held secure. (Karāmatī 1370š/1991 s.v. ‫)گَ لویی َقلَمو‬ ِ ‫َرن‬ ‫ گواش‬/gōāš/ gouache. ☞ ‫ْگ جِ ْسمی‬ ‫ گودی‬/gōdī/ call. concavity. A segment of the circular letters (☞ ‫) َدوایِر‬, i.e. nūn ِ ‫) ُح‬, i.e. fe (‫ )ف‬and kāf (‫)ک‬, and others (‫ )ن‬and ye (‫)ی‬, flat letters (☞ ‫خت‬ ْ ‫روف َت‬

275

‫گ‬

figure 137

Lacquered binding with a gol-o-morġ design, end of the 13th c., Islamic Consultative Assembly Library, Tehran

276

‫گ‬

that has a greater concavity or depression relative to the others segments of the same letter. This concavity is generally created when the angle of the pen reaches zero degrees while forming a spin (☞ ‫ ) َچ ْرخ‬and or roundness (☞ ‫) َسطْح و دور‬. At this point the angle of the pen is parallel to the vertical line. ☞ ‫َچ ْرخ‬

‫ت دار‬ ْ ْ‫ گوش‬/gūšt-dār/ ☞ ‫چاق‬ ‫ گوشه‬/gūše/ ☞ ‫ل ََچکی‬

plate 26

A page in nasḫ, calligraphy by Veṣāl-aš-Šāʿer, 1254/1845, from the collection of Moḥammad-Javād Jeddī, Tehran

‫الج َو ْرد‬ َ /lājavard/ lapis lazuli. ☞ ‫الج َو ْردی‬ َ ‫الج َو ْردی‬ َ /lājavardī/ 1 A solution made of lapis lazuli powder, vinegar and gum ِ ‫ ) َرن‬that was used in painting (☞ ‫ ) َص ْم ِغ َع َربی‬to form a gouache (☞ ‫ْگ جِ ْسمی‬ ‫َّب‬ ‫ک‬ ‫ر‬ ‫م‬ and sometimes also as an ink (☞ َ ُ ) for writing titles and verses from the Quran. (Māyel Heravī 1369š/1990: 123) 2 ultramarine. (Barkeshli 2016: 71; PPB 42, 48, 51, 64, 75, 80, 82–87, 90, 129, 143, 161, 178) ‫ الغَر‬/lāġar/ call. thin. An adjective used to describe a letter, word or page of calligraphy that was written utilizing less pen-width than normal, thus rendering every part of the letter, word, or text thinner; e.g. a section that should be two-thirds of the pen’s width, is instead half the pen-width. ☞ ‫ چاق‬/‎‫َتقْسی ِم‬ ‫خامت‬ َ ‫ِض‬ ‫ الک‬/lāk/ shellac. A natural resin, also called šelāk (‫) ِشالک‬, that ranges in color from brown to red to white and is secreted by the female lac bug (Karria lacca L.) (Merk Index: 8224) as it feeds on the sap of various kinds of trees. This is deposited on the branches in the form of tunnel-like tubes called ِ ). This raw resin is filtered and processed to resin sticks (čūb-e lākī ‫چوب الکی‬ produce shellacs with various uses. One of the two most common kinds ِ ) which is sold in the of shellac are orange shellac (lāk-e nāranjī ‫نارنْجی‬ َ ‫الک‬ form of thin, semi-translucent flakes that range from brown to orange in ِ ) or whitened shellac color. The second is white shellac (lāk-e sefīd ‫الک ِسفید‬ ِ ) which resembles molasses. One type of low(lāk-e sefīd-šode ‫الک ِسفید شُ ده‬ quality shellac that is blood-red was used in the middle ages to make red ink ِ ‫) َرن‬. Shellac (☞ ‫ ) ُم َرکَّب‬but has since been replaced by alizarin (☞ ‫ْگ ریشه‌ی روناس‬ is best dissolved with ethanol. Shelak and sandarac varnish (☞ ‫)رو َغ ِن َکمان‬, are two important materials for laquerworks (☞ ‫)الکی‌سازی‬. (Moqbel-Eṣfahānī 1380š/2001: 118; Barkeshli 2016: 57–58; BBP 39–40, 93–94) ‫ الکی‬/lākī/ ☞ ‫الکی‌سازی ☞ جِ ْل ِد رو َغنی‬ © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_029

‫ل‬

279

‫ الکی‌سازی‬/lākī-sāzī/ lacquerwork. Very early examples of Persian lacquerwork, also known as the “art of lacquer” (‫)هن ِر الکی‬, can be found on some late 15th c. book covers. In addition to these, examples of lacquerwork are also found on some doors from the time of Shah ʿAbbas (r. 1587–1629) in the Safavid era (Robinson 1989: 131). However, it was not until the Qajar period that this technique began to enjoy increased popularity and production, becoming a prominent feature of Qajar art. Lacquerwork could be found on a wide variety of media, including different day-to-day objects, especially mirror cases and penboxes (☞ ‫ ) َقل َْمدان‬as well as bookcovers (☞ ‫)جِ ْل ِد رو َغنی‬, and doors, etc. The most popular themes in Qajar-era lacquerwork in particular were golo-morġ (☞ ‫ ) ُگل و ُم ْرغ‬patterns, but lacquerwork also featured in miniaturepainting, illumination (☞ ‫) َتذْ هیب‬, or a combination of these, and was even common in European-style painting, works in which common European styles were imitated called farangī-sāzī (‫) َف َرنْگی‌سازی‬. One of the early detailed dscriptions of the lacquer painting technique, including technical details of making of the papier-mâché, and the composition and characteristics of various varnishes (☞ ‫)الک ☞ رو َغ ِن َکمان‬, was written by the European traveller Comte de Rochechouart in the 1860s (Rochechouart 1867: chap. 23, “Du Cartonnage et de la Peinture”). The support in Persian lacquerworks was almost always papier-mâché or pasteboard, though less frequently also cotton cloth or a wooden board wrapped in pieces of leather (Robinson 1989: 132; Afshar 2005). The surface was thinly coated with a fine gesso or plaster, upon which the design was ِ ‫) َرن‬. Finally, the whole thing was covered painted in water-colors (☞ ‫ْگ روحی‬ with a transparent layer of lacquer or varnish which usually had a warming, enriching effect, lending the work a pale golden hue. The lacquer or varnish not only protected the painting, but also enriched and softened the colors (Robinson 1986; 1989: 132; AMVR 138–139). ‫ ال ُیقرأ‬/lāyoqra‌ʾ/ Verbal phrase meaning “cannot be read”, illegible. ‫ ل ََچکی‬/lačakī/ illum. (Fig. 138) Also called “corner” (gūše ‫ )گوشه‬or (konj ‫) ُک ْنج‬, a lačakī is one quarter of a full toranj (☞ ‫)ت َُرنْج‬. These triangular patterns contain floral or arabesque (☞ ‫ َختایی‬-‫ ) ِا ْسلیمی‬designs and are sometimes placed in the four corners of a page (Afshar 2005) on which a toranj, half-toranj (☞ ‫نیم ت َُرنْج‬ ْ ) and sar-toranj (☞ ‫ )ت َُرنْج‬have been drawn. They can also be used as decoration on books of poetry and prose in which every page receives one or three lačakīs. (Bayānī 1353š/1974: 29)

280

figure 138

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Čalīpā in nastaʿlīq with two lačakī, Yārī al-Heravī, 988/1580/1, Herat, private collection of Mehdī ʿAtīqī, Tehran

‫ل‬

281

‫ لِرا ِق ِمه‬/lerāqemeh/ An Arabic composition that means “(it) is from the author”. A scribe or calligrapher who added something of his own to the text (usually a poem), he began with this phrase to let the reader know that it was added by him. Also terms with the same meaning that were used are lekātebeh (‫ )لِکا ِتبِه‬and lemoḥarrereh (‫)لِ ُم َح ِّررِه‬. ‫ لِسان‬/lesān/ ☞ ‫َزبانه‬ ‫ لِکا ِتبِه‬/lekātebeh/ ☞ ‫لِرا ِقمِه‬ ‫ش َقلَم‬ ِ ‫ لَغْ ِز‬/laġzeš-e qalam/ slippage of the pen. When the hand of the calligrapher slips when writing a straight section such as alef (‫ )ا‬or be (‫ )ب‬or a round section as in the circular letters (☞ ‫ ) َدوایِر‬resulting in uneven or jagged lines. Slippage detracts from the letter, word, or sentence. How the pen is carved (☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫) َتر‬, the type of ink used as well as the paper can have a considerable influence on this problem. ‫ َل ّفافه‬/laffāfe/ ☞ ‫ق ُُّلق‬ ‫ لَقب خوشْ ِنویس‬/laqab-e ḫōšnevīs/ calligrapher epithet. (Fig. 139) In the history of writing and painting, calligraphers have had more appellatives than others involved in book production. Their titles and attributes can be divided into three general groups: 1. Titles or epithets that were given to an artist based on the name or profession of his father, the calligrapher’s former profession, a distinguishing feature or trait, a physical flaw, his other talents, or place of birth, etc. Examples are: Ebn-e Bavvāb (‫“ ) ِابن َب ّواب‬son of the door-maker”, Ṭabbāḫ (‫“ )ط َّباخ‬cook”, Jalī-nevīs (‫“ ) َجلی ِنویس‬clear writing”, Vāḥed-ol-ʿayn ِ ) “one-eyed”, Ḥāfiẓ-ol-qorān (‫ظ ال ُقران‬ ُ ‫“ )حا ِف‬one who has memo(‫العین‬ َ ‫واح ُد‬ rized the Quran”, Sāvajī (‫ساوجی‬ ) “from Sāvaj”, etc. َ 2. The pseudonym a calligrapher poet could be used as an epithet, for example: Vaqār (‫“ ) َوقار‬dignity, poise”, Ṣafā (‫“ ) َصفا‬refinement”, Ḥakīm (‫“ ) َحکیم‬philosopher, sage”, etc. 3. Names that were given to an artist by the king or members of the court, such as: Kāteb-os-solṭān (‫الس ْلطان‬ ُّ ‫“ )کا ِتب‬sultan’s scribe”, Kāteb-ol-ḫāqān ِ (‫ب الخاقان‬ ُ ‫“ )کات‬lord’s scribe”, ʿEmād-ol-kottāb (‫“ ) َعما ُدالْ ُک ّتاب‬pillar among scribes”, Zarrīn-qalam (‫“ ) َز ّر ین َقلَم‬golden pen”, Šāhī (‫“ )شاهی‬imperial”, Qeblat-ol-kottāb (‫“ ) ِق ْبلةُالْ ُک ّتاب‬Qeble among scribes”, etc. Sometimes an artist is given ties to the king through his epithet such as Bāysonġorī (‫بایس ْن ُغری‬ ُ ) or ʿAbbāsī (‫) َع ّباسی‬, which could be considered to be the most prestigious epithet or correlation for an artist to acquire.

282

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figure 139

From the pañcatantra by Bahrāmšāhī with an epithet: in the hand of Moḥammad-Hosseyn Šīrāzī known as Kāteb-os-solṭān, 1295/1878, Malek National Library, Tehran

figure 140

Some calligraphy supplies: from left: inkwell (‫ ) َدوات‬with ink (‫ ) ُم َرکَّب‬and wadding (‫)لیقه‬, reed pens (‫ ) َقلَم‬of various size; penknives (‫ ) َقل َْمتَراش‬and nibbing block (‫) َقط َزن‬

‫ لِ ُم َح ِّررِه‬/lemoḥarrereh/ ☞ ‫لِرا ِقمِه‬ ‫ لَوا ِز ِم َمشْ ق‬/lavāzem-e mašq/ to. calligraphy supplies. (Fig. 140) Basic calligraphy supplies consist of a pen, inkwell (☞ ‫) َدوات‬, ink (☞ ‫) ُم َرکَّب‬, wadding (☞ ‫)لیقه‬ and paper. For professional calligraphy a writing pad (☞ ‫زیر َد ْستی‬ ْ ), penknife (☞ ‫) َقل َْمتَراش‬, nibbing block (☞ ‫ ) َقط َزن‬and penbox (☞ ‫ ) َقل َْمدان‬are also necessary. (MC 103–153; AMVR 294–296)

283

‫ل‬ ‫ لی ْقدان‬/līq-dān/ ☞ ‫َدوات‬

‫ لیقه‬/līqe/ to. wadding. (Fig. 141) Twisted raw silk fibers placed inserted into the inkwell (☞ ‫ ) َدوات‬which absorb the ink (☞ ‫ ) ُم َرکَّب‬like a sponge (IC 65) thus preventing the spilling or splattering of ink and providing the pen with the correct amount so as to prevent splotching. Jāḥeẓ says: “The name līqe is correct when it is covered in ink and located in an inkwell” (Schimmel 1368š/1989: 75). In order to keep the ink clean, its wadding is occasionally removed and washed (☞ ‫ِش ُم َرکَّب‬ ِ ‫)پاالی‬. After it has dried it is returned to the inkwell and ink is added. ☞ ‫ َدوات‬Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī (RḪ: 38) ‫بپاالید دوات خویشتن را‬ ّ ‫که از وی دور سازد‬ ‫غل و غش را‬

‫ دانا‬،‫ولی باید به هر چل روز‬ ‫بشوید پاک و صافی لیقه‌اش را‬

But every wise man must clean the inkwell every forty days and wash the wadding thoroughly to remove any residue or impurity.

‫ لیقه دان‬/līqe-dān/ ☞ ‫َدوات‬

figure 141

Unused raw silk wadding (‫)لیقه‬

plate 27

Sīāh-mašq in nastaʿlīq, calligraphy by Mīrzā Ġolāmreżā Eṣfahānī (1246–1304/ 1830–1886), Čehel-Sotūn Museum, Qazvin

‫ مادّه تاریخ‬/mādde-tārīḫ/ chronogram. When the sum-total of the numeric value of the letters (in abjad ☞ ‫ )ا َْب َجد‬are embedded in in lyrics, in a hemistich (☞ ‫) ِم ْص َرع‬, verse (☞ ‫ ) ِب ْیت‬or even at the beginning or end of the longer poems (ġazal or mas̱navī) to correspond an actual date as a mnemonic, such as the death or birth of an important figure, ascendance to the throne, or the erection of a building, etc. in form of a puzzle. The following famous hemistich chronogram was composed to remember the year of the death of Humāyun (r. 1530–40 and 1555–56), the second emperor of the Mughal Empire, who fell down the staircase of his library and died from the injuries. The chronogram reveals not just the date but also the reason of the death: ‫ھمایون پادشاہ از بام افتاد‬, i.e., “Emperor Humāyun fell from the roof,” equivalent to 962/1555 [Humāyun = 112; pādešāh = 313; az = 08; bām = 43; uftād = 486, total, 962]. (AMVR 58–59)

‫ مازو‬/māzū/ oak marble gall (Andricus kollari L.). Used as a mordant in ink and in textile and paper tinting (☞ ‫) َرنْگ‌آمیزی کا َغذ‬, tannic acid can be found in oak galls. These form when an oak gall wasp lays its eggs in the leaf buds of an oak tree. ‫ مازوج‬/māzūj/ ☞ ‫مازو‬ ‫ ما ُی ْقرأ‬/mā-yoqra‌ʾ/ Verbal sentence “that which is possible to read”. ☞ ‫خوانا‬ ِّ ‫َخ‬ ‫ ُم َتعاکِس‬/motaʿākes/ ☞ ‫ط َب ْرگَ ْردان‬ ِّ ‫َخ‬ ‫ ُم َتقابِل‬/motaqābel/ ☞ ‫ط َب ْرگَ ْردان‬ ِ ‫ ُم َت‬/motalāṣeq/ sc. (Fig. 142) A type of Kufic that is written all on one level ‫الصق‬ with the letters and words pressed tightly together. See. ‫کوفی‬ © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_030

286

figure 142

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Motalāṣeq Kufic, Salāmat-ol-ensān fī ḥefẓ-el-lesān, Resālat-ol-ḫaṭṭ-ol-ʿarabī

‫ َمتْن و حاشیه ُشده‬/matn-o-ḥāšīe-šode/ mounted. When a manuscript is mounted on another piece of paper for binding. This happens either for decoration or when the edges of the original manuscript is worn and has been consequently trimmed with each subsequent binding until the last is obliged to mount it on a separate piece of paper that differs from that of the original. (Bayānī 1353š/1974: 20) ِّ ‫َخ‬ ‫ ُم َثنّی‬/mos̱annā/ ☞ ‫ط َب ْرگَ ْردان‬ ‫ َم ْجعول‬/majʿūl/ ☞ ‫َج ْعل‬ ‫ َم ْجموعه‬/majmūʿe/ compilation, collection. Used to refer to a work that is made up of a collection of literature on various subjects (literary, religious, scientific) or various topic related to one subject (i.e. astronomy). ‫ ُم َحبِّر‬/moḥabber/ Someone who beautifully decorates something; writes well; has flowery speech, poetry. “And thus wrote the secretary and thus the moḥabber the song” (Almoʿjam). (FF s.v. ‫) ُم َحبِّر‬ ‫ َ ِم ْحبَ َره‬/meḥbarah/maḥbarah/ to. 1 inkwell (☞ ‫ ) َدوات‬2 a little box in which to store calligraphy supplies. A container for ink and wadding (☞ ‫)لیقه‬. ‫ ُم َح ِّرر‬/moḥarrer/ writer, secretary. A person who made clean copies (☞ ‫ ) َبیاض‬of letters written in the bureau of treatises. ‫ ُم َح َّرر‬/moḥarrar/ written. An illuminated and historiated design or calligraphy that has been written in gold, etc. (☞ ‫ ) َت ْحریر‬and outlined (☞ ‫) َقل َْمگیری‬. ☞ ‫َت ْحریر‬

‫م‬

287

‫ ُم َح َّرف‬/moḥarraf/ A sharp angled pen nib cut at an angle of 35–45° ☞ ‫َق ِط َقلَم‬ ☞ ‫َت ْحریف‬ ‫ َم ْحفَظه‬/maḥfaẓe/ ☞ ‫ق ُُّلق‬ ‫ ُم َح َّقق‬/moḥaqqaq/ sc. (Fig. 143, Plates 3–4) One of the Six Pens (☞ ‫) َاقْال ِم ِششگانه‬, moḥaqqaq was codified by Ebn-e Moqle (d. 328/940). This script, which has a straightness (☞ ‫ ) َسطْح و دور‬measure of 4.5 dāngs (☞ ‫)دانْگ‌های َم ْشقی‬ and a roundness measure of 1.5 dāngs, garnered little attention from the Tirmurid period on, due to its similarity to s̱ols̱ (☞ ‫)ثُ ْلث‬. Many masters of s̱ols̱ and nasḫ (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْسخ‬also wrote in this script, from among whom Aḥmad b. Sohravard (654–741/1256–1340/1) could be considered its greatest Iranian master. Several Quran fragments written in his hand are kept of the National Museum in Tehran. (AMVR 160–162) ‫ ِمداد‬/medād/ to. In NP medād is the common word for pencil, but as a calligraphic expression it is another word for ink (☞ ‫ ) ُم َرکَّب‬because it aided the reed pen extend over the paper (Ar. madda “to stretch out”). Originally medād refered carbon-based inks whose main ingredients were soot or lampblack (☞ ‫ )دوده‬and plant gum (☞ ‫) َص ْم ِغ َع َربی‬. Recipes for preparing medād inks are given by eleventh-century Ebn-e Bādīs in the second chapter of his book ʿOmdat al-Kottāb. Eventually medād was used interchangeably with ḥebr (☞ ‫ ) ِحبْر‬or tannate inks, probably because of the later combination of the two types. This kind of ink is water soluble and does not penetrate the writing surface. Alum (☞ ‫ )زاج‬and other metallic salts were added to it to increase its adhesiveness. (IC 61f.) ☞ ‫ ِحبْر ☞ ُم َرکَّب‬/‎‫جو َهر‬ ‫ َم ْد دا َدن‬/mad dādan/ ☞ ‫ِکشیده‌ ِنویسی‬ ‫ ُم ْدهام‬/modhām/ greenish black. ☞ ‫ُم َرکَّب‬ ‫ ُم ْذ ِنب‬/moẕneb/ ☞ ‫َلمذْ ِنب‬ ُ ‫ا‬ ‫ ُمذَ هِّب‬/moẕahheb/ illum. illuminator. A person who illuminates the pages of a book or piece of calligraphy. (PPB 137–150, 157–160) ☞ ‫َتذْ هیب‬ ‫ ُمذَ َّهب‬/moẕahhab/ illum. illuminated. ☞ ‫َتذْ هیب‬ ‫ ُمذَ یَّل‬/moẕayyal/ That which is written as a footnote or addenda.

288

figure 143

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Moḥaqqaq by Aḥmad b. as-Sohravard, 706/1306/7, National Museum of Iran, Tehran

‫م‬

289

‫ َم ْر َحله‌ی ُا ْستادی‬/marḥale-ye ostādī/ ☞ ‫ا ُْستاد‬ ‫ َم ْر َحله‌ی خوش‬/marḥale-ye ḫōš/ call. good stage. A stage in the progression of a student of calligraphy in which the shapes, composition of letters and words and the basic rules that govern them are learned while practicing verse or two-line writing. In addition to a pen with two dāngs (☞ ‫دانْگ‌های‬ ‫) َم ْشقی‬, at this stage a student can also begin using a single-dāng pen (with a width of 2–2.5mm). It is at this point that the student’s calligraphy gradually becomes pleasing to the eye. ☞ ‫َم ْر َحله‌ی عالی ☞ َم ْر َحله‌ی ُم ْب َتدی ☞ َم ْر َحله‌ی ُم ْمتاز‬ ‫ َم ْر َحله‌ی عالی‬/marḥale-ye ʿālī/ call. advanced stage. A student of calligraphy as attained this level when few imperfections in his calligraphy are spotted by non-calligraphers and he begins writing čalīpā (☞ ‫ ) َچلیپا‬and scripting. It is at this point that the student learns about the various calligraphic styles, scripts and related arts and their tools. ☞ ‫َم ْر َحله‌ی ُم ْمتاز ☞ َم ْر َحله‌ی خوش‬ ☞ ‫َم ْر َحله‌ی ُم ْب َتدی‬ ‫ َم ْر َحله‌ی ُم ْب َتدی‬/marḥale-ye mobtadī/ call. elementary stage. The first stage for a student of calligraphy when he learns how to write the individual letters, words, and lines (hemistichs ☞ ‫) ِم ْص َرع‬. To practice, he uses a 2 dāng pen (☞ ‫ )دانْگ‌های َم ْشقی‬which has a width of about 3mm and should only try to imitate the calligraphic example (☞ ‫ ) َس ْر َم ْشق‬provided by his teacher. ☞ ‫َم ْر َحله‌ی ُم ْمتاز ☞ َم ْر َحله‌ی خوش ☞ َم ْر َحله‌ی عالی‬ ‫ َم ْر َحله‌ی ُم َت َو ِّسط‬/marḥale-ye motavasseṭ/ ☞ ‫َم ْر َحله‌ی ُم ْب َتدی‬ ‫ َم ْر َحله‌ی ُم ْمتاز‬/marḥale-ye momtāz/ call. superior stage. When a calligrapher is capable of making a flawless copy (☞ ‫ ) َم ْش ِق نَقْلی‬and has become knowledgِ ‫َق‬ able in all the styles, the twelve calligraphic principles (☞ ‫واعد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی‬ ‫)خوشْ ِنویسی‬, page layout, etc. At this stage he is able and skilled in the use of all the pens (from small to large ☞ ‫ ) َجلی ☞ َخفی‬and also maintains an excellent level when writing in a second script. His calligraphic pieces are of value, and he is able to author a book or treatise on calligraphy and or exhibit his work. ☞ ‫َم ْر َحله‌ی عالی ☞ َم ْر َحله‌ی خوش ☞ َم ْر َحله‌ی ُم ْب َتدی‬ ‫ ُم َر َّصع‬/moraṣṣaʿ/ ☞ ‫َت ْرصیع‬ ‫ َم ْرغَش‬/marġaš/ ☞ ‫َم ْر َقشیشا‬

290

‫م‬

figure 144 Morġī

‫ ُم ْرغی‬/morġī/ nas. (Fig. 144) lit. “avian, bird-like”. Designates the unconnected letter re (‫ )ر‬in nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬that is two points long and one point wide. ☞ ‫َبنای ُحروف‬ ‫ َم ْر َقش‬/marqaš/ ☞ ‫َم ْر َقشیشا‬ ‫ َم ْر َقشیشا‬/marqašīšā/ marcasite. A stone used ground up by illuminators and bookbinders to make marcasite bindings. (Qomī 1366š/1987: 207) ☞ ‫بوم َم ْر َقش‬ ‫ ُم َر َّقع‬/moraqqaʿ/ lit. “patchwork”. (Fig. 145) 1 bb. scrapbook album. A collection of calligraphic pieces and paintings bound together to form an album. Within this context the words album maker (moraqqaʿ-sāz ‫ ) ُم َر َّقع ساز‬and the plural albums (moraqqaʿāt ‫ ) ُم َر َّقعات‬were coined in Persian. In traditional bookbinding, each page of a moraqqaʿ was joined on each side to the following or proceeding page so that when a moraqqaʿ is opened all the pages containing calligraphy or images unfold in front of the reader. The moraqqaʿ first appeared in the first centuries of the Islamic era, however the vast majority of surviving albums were compiled under the Safavids. Nonetheless many of the albums that were compiled and bound in the 10th/16th c. were in fact made up of works that had been created in earlier centuries, notably under the Timurids. These scrapbook albums were compiled using some of the best art of the age and of previous centuries. Because of the rarity and value of these pieces, their collection needed royal patronage. These collections are made up of the finest and most valuable calligraphic works of the age and are therefore of immense importance in the study of the historical evolution of calligraphy and the arts, styles, and the various calligraphic schools. However, disproportionate focus on the albums can lead to the neglect of valuable works by forgotten calligraphy masters and their students. The majority of the most exquisite Iranian albums are housed in museums in Istanbul and various European countries such as: Behrām Mīrzā Ṣafavī’ moraqqaʿ (951/1544/5), Amīr Ḥoseyn Beyk’s moraqqaʿ (968/1560/1), and Amīr Ġeyb Beyk’s moraqqaʿ (937/1530/1).

291

‫م‬

figure 145

A page from the Golšan Album, Moḥammad Ḥoseyn Kašmīrī, Golestān Palace Library, Tehran

292

‫م‬

2 cloak. A cloak mended with patches varying in color worn by Sufis and dervishes. Other names with this word that were common included patchwork wearer (moraqqaʿ-pūš ‫) ُم َر َّقع پوش‬, colorful patchwork (moraqqaʿ-rangīn ‫ُم َر َّقع‬ ‫ ) َرنْگین‬and patchwork habit (dalq-e moraqqaʿ ‫) َدلْ ِق ُم َر َّقع‬.

‫ َم ْرقوم‬/marqūm/ 1 written. 2 letter. ‫ ُم َرَّکب‬/morakkab/ to. ink. (Fig. 140) One of a calligrapher’s most important tools. Over the centuries there have been many recipes for making ink. There are four necessary components and main groups according to the black colouring constituent, namely a) carbon inks, i.e. lamp/carbon black; b) metallo-gallic inks, that is black precipitate of tannin and a metallic salt; c) mixed inks, i.e. a mixture of carbon and metallo-gallic. Generally, gum Arabic (☞ ‫ ) َص ْم ِغ َع َربی‬is the indispensable binding element for the final mixture needs. The best ink is one that is black and shiny and will not bleed if it comes in contact with water. The common components are carbon black (☞ ‫)دوده‬, zāj (☞ ‫)زاج‬, oak marble gall (☞ ‫ )مازو‬and gum. (FḪ: 315) The following is an example of an ink recipe (MSQ: 404): ‫ قدر[ی] زاج‬،‫گیر هم وزن دوده‬ ‫ صمغ به بیز‬،‫هم بهم وزن هر سه‬ ‫هم بجوشان میان آب او را‬ ‫پرده بگیر و کن عمل تکرار‬ ‫آب در موقعش بکار رود‬ ‫تا توانی به خوبیش پرداخت‬ ‫صاف و جوشیده آب را دریاب‬ ‫ بریز زاج از نو‬،‫کن صالیه‬ ‫ زور بازو را‬،‫به عمل آر‬

‫به مر ّکب اگر شوی محتاج‬ ‫ مازو ریز‬،‫نیز هم وزن زاج‬ ‫الجرم خرد کن تو مازو را‬ ‫بگذارش که الیه بندد تار‬ ‫تا زمانی که آب صاف شود‬ ‫حال گویم ترا طریقه‌ی ساخت‬ ‫حل کن ّاول تو صمغ را در آب‬ ‫دوده در آب صمغ روزی دو‬ ‫پس بسای و بریز مازو را‬

Should you need ink, take one part carbon black and some zāj. Add gall of equal weight to the zāj, add gum of equal weight to the three (previous ingredients). Grind the gall first and boil in water. Allow to sit until a layer forms on top. Remove this and repeat till it is smooth and can be used as needed. Now I will tell you a way to make (the ink), to do it well. First dissolve the gum in clean and boiling water. Add carbon to the gum solution, then zāj, grind and add the gall. Use strength of arm (knead). Though black is the most common color used in calligraphy, occasionally there is a need for other colors. There are also different grades of black: deep black called ḥālek (‫ ;)حالِک‬normal black called qātem (‫ ;)قا ِتم‬greyish black called dījūr

293

‫م‬

(‫ )دیجور‬and greenish black called modhām (‫) ُم ْدهام‬. Brown was also used by calligraphers. (FḪ: 315) ☞ ‫ ِمداد ☞ دوده ☞ ِحبْر‬About the compatibility of ink to paper Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī wrote (ṢS: 22):

‫تا ازو دیده‌ها بیاساید‬ ‫خط رنگین برو نکو باشد‬

‫بهر خط نیم رنگ می‌باید‬ ‫رنگ‌هایی که تیره رو باشد‬

One should use light (paper) for calligraphy to ease the eyes. For dark colored (paper), colored ink is preferable. (MC 111–117; AMVR 132–135; IC 61–65; BBP 61–64)

‫ب الوان‬ ِ ‫ ُم َرَّک‬/morakkab-e alvān/ lit. “colored ink”. Refers to inks that are not the normal black or brown but instead are gold or silver in color. Writing in gold or silver ink on colored paper was widespread in past centuries. ☞ ‫ُم َرکَّب‬ ‫ب‌ َب ْرداری‬ ْ ‫ ُم َرَّک‬/morakkab-bardārī/ taking ink. When the pen is dipped into the inkwell (☞ ‫ ) َدوات‬and pressed onto the wadding (☞ ‫ )لیقه‬to take ink for writing. This should be done with three considerations in mind: 1. The type of letter or word that is to be executed. For example, writing the letter alef (‫ )ا‬requires less ink than be (‫)ب‬. One should therefore have just the right amount of ink necessary to complete the word. 2. The type of paper. When writing on glossed paper less ink is required and it should be thicker. Other types of paper, in particular thick pasteboard require greater amounts of thinner ink. 3. The width of the pen nib. Ink regulation on smaller pens is more important and thicker ink should be used. Wider nibs require more ink and this ink should be more fluid. ‫ ُم َرَّکب ُخشْ ک کُ ن‬/morakkab-ḫošk-kon/ ☞ ‫آب ُخ ْشک کُن‬ ‫ ُم َرَّکب‌دان‬/morakkab-dān/ ☞ ‫َدوات‬ ‫ ُم َرَّکب‌سازی‬/morakkab-sāzī/ ☞ ‫ُم َرکِّب‬ ‫ َم ْر َمری‬/marmarī/ ☞ ‫کا َغ ِذ َم ْر َمر‬ ‫ ِم ْر َمله‬/mermale/ ☞ ‫خاک بیز‬ ‫ ُم ْز َد َوج‬/mozdavaj/ ☞ ‫َدوا ِی ِر َم ْزدوج‬

294

‫م‬

‫ َمزه‬/maze/ call. Used to describe beautiful calligraphy, when all the calligraphic ِ ‫ ) َق‬revealing both refineprinciples are respected (☞ ‫واعد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ ِنویسی‬ ‫ص‬ ‫فا‬ ‫شأن‬ ment (☞ َ ) and dignity (☞ ) which are themselves two of the twelve principles. ‫ ُم ْس َتوی‬/mostavī/ call. when the nib is trimmed flat without any slant. ☞ ‫اشید ِن‬ َ ‫َتر‬ ‫َقلَم‬ ‫ َم ْسطَر‬/masṭar/ to. ruling frame. A piece of pasteboard or wood over which silk or cotton threads were stretched in place of ruling lines. This was placed under a sheet of paper by the scribe who applied pressure with his finger or a heavier tool over the threads so that raised lines were produced on the surface of the support, thus creating the horizontal and vertical baseline (☞ ‫ )ک ُْرسی‬used as guidelines for writing. Use of the masṭar first became widespread during the period of the Six Pens (☞ ‫ ) َاقْال ِم ِششگانه‬whereas early calligraphers working on paper did not use this method. Instead, drypoint was sometimes used both on paper and parchment (IC 49f.). ☞ ‫ قالِب‬Kalīm Hamedānī (Qahremān 1369š/1990: 362) ‫نقش بوریا مسطر زنند‬ ِ ‫صفحه‌ی تن را ز‬

‫هر که را باید نوشتن نسخه‌ی آداب فقر‬

Whoever wishes to write about the mores of poverty (dervishes), they should rule their body with reed mats (Dervishes slept on straw mats and the lines made imprints on their bodies). (AMVR 231–232; BBP 58–59)

‫شیدن‬ َ ِ‫ َم ْسطَر ک‬/masṭar kešīdan/ ruling a piece of paper using a ruling frame (☞ ‫) َم ْسط َر‬. ‫ ِم ْسقاة‬/mesqāt/ ☞ ‫آب َدوات کُن‬ ‫ ُم َس ْل َسل‬/mosalsal/ sc. (Fig. 146) lit. “linked, connected”. A script in which all the letters and words of one line of text are connected from beginning to end and the pen is never lifted from the paper. Scripts that were usually used to write like this are s̱ols̱ (☞ ‫)ثُ ْلث‬, tōqīʿ (☞ ‫ )توقیع‬and reqāʿ (☞ ‫)رِقاع‬. ِ ‫َس ْن‬ ‫ ِم َس ّن‬/mesann/ ☞ ‫گ َقل َْمتَراش‬ ‫ ُم َس ِّود‬/mosavved/ Blackening, someone or something that makes black; writer.

295

‫م‬

figure 146

‘Bismallah’ in mosalsal by Aḥmad al-Qara Ḥeṣārī

‫ ُم َس َّوده‬/mosavvade/ blackened; written. 1 A text that is first quickly jotted down and later edited; a rough draft. 2 A sample of a work provided by a printing press or publisher to be corrected and returned. ‫ َمشّ اق‬/maššāq/ ☞ ‫خوشْ ِنویس‬ ‫ ُمشْ ته‬/mošte/ bb. mallet. Used by both leather workers and painters, a mallet can be made out of brass, steel or glass. Mallets of the highest quality are fitted with a glass head (Afshar 1357š/1978: 61). This tool was also used by bookbinders. ☞ ‫َص ّحافی‬ ‫ َمشْ ق‬/mašq/ call. calligraphy practice. Practice and repetition lead to mastery. This is the practice carried out by students of calligraphy to increase their skills. Within calligraphy the word mašq can also simply mean “to write”. Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī identifies two types of practice applied (☞ ‫) َم ْش ِق َقلَمی‬ and visual (☞ ‫) َم ْش ِق نَظ َری‬, whereas Bābāšāh Eṣfahānī also believes in freestyle practice (☞ ‫) َم ْش ِق خیالی‬. ☞ ‫ َم ْش ِق َقلَمی‬/‎ ‫ َم ْش ِق نَظ َری‬/‎ ‫َم ْش ِق نَقْلی ☞ َم ْش ِق خیالی‬ Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī (ṢS: 25)

296

‫م‬ ‫با تو ای خوبرو جوان گفتم‬ ‫نبود این سخن منی و مری‬

‫بر دو نوع است مشق و ننهفتم‬ ‫ دگر نظری‬،‫قلمی خوان یکی‬

Two kinds of mašq there are and to you, o youth of beautiful countenance, I have them revealed. Call one pen-based (qalamī), the other visual (naẓarī), serious are these words. (MC 176; AMT 135; AMTS 73)

‫ َمشْ ِق خیالی‬/mašq-e ḫīālī/ call. imaginary/free-style practice. When a calligrapher relies on his own imagination for a composition instead of copying the work of another. This type of practice is useful in promoting a sense of authority and possession of a piece that is often lacking among students who become so accustomed to copying (☞ ‫ ) َم ْش ِق َقلَمی ☞ َم ْش ِق نَقْلی‬that their works can lack substance. (Yūsefī 1990: 35) ☞ ‫َم ْش ِق نَظ َری ☞ َم ْش ِق َقلَمی ☞ َم ْشق‬ ☞ ‫َم ْش ِق نَقْلی‬ ‫ َمشْ ِق َع َملی‬/mašq-e ʿamalī/ ☞ ‫َم ْش ِق َقلَمی‬ ‫ َمشْ قِ َقلَمی‬/mašq-e qalamī/ call. applied practice. When a student uses an example model (☞ ‫ ) َس ْر َم ْشق‬to practice and learn the finer points of the script. Also called mašq-e ʿamalī (‫) َم ْش ِق َع َملی‬. ☞ ‫َم ْش ِق خیالی ☞ َم ْش ِق نَظ َری ☞ َم ْشق‬ ☞ ‫ َم ْش ِق نَقْلی‬Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī (ṢS: 25) ‫با تو ای خوبرو جوان گفتم‬ ‫نبود این سخن منی و مری‬ ‫روز مشق خفی و شام جلی‬

‫بر دو نوع است مشق و ننهفتم‬ ‫ دگر نظری‬،‫قلمی خوان یکی‬ ‫قلمی مشق کردن نقلی‬

Two kinds of mašq there are and to you, o youth of beautiful countenance, I have them revealed. Call one pen-based (qalamī), the other visual (naẓarī), serious are these words. The pen for practice by copying should be small during the day and large in the evening.

‫ َمشْ ق َک ْر َدن‬/mašq kardan/ to repeat an action to practice and learn. (LD s.v. ‫َم ْشق‬ ‫َم ْشق ☞ ) َک ْر َدن‬ ‫ َمشْ قِ َنظَری‬/mašq-e naẓarī/ call. visual practice. Paying careful attention to the example model (☞ ‫ ) َس ْر َم ْشق‬and script of the calligraphy master, thereby learning its characteristics purely through observation so that the correct method, principles, and appearance take shape in the students’ mind. ☞ ‫ َم ْش ِق نَقْلی ☞ َم ْش ِق خیالی ☞ َم ْش ِق َقلَمی ☞ َم ْشق‬Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī (ṢS: 25)

297

‫م‬ ‫نظری می‌فکن در این و در آن‬ ِ ‫جز‬ ‫خط او دگر نباید دید‬ ‫حرف حرفت چو ُدر شود ز خطش‬ ‫بودن آگه ز لفظ و حرف [و] نُ َقط‬

‫جمع می‌کن خطوط استادان‬ ‫طبع تو سوی هر کدام کشید‬ ِ ‫تا که در چشم ُپر شود ز خطش‬ ‫نظری دان نگاه کردن خط‬

Gather masters’ works, gaze upon this and that to which you are drawn. You must only see his writing, so that the eye is filled with his writing, and your letters becomes like a pearl on the line (of his writing). Consider visually (naẓarī), gazing on the calligraphy, be aware of the word, letter, and dots.

‫ َمشْ قِ َن ْقلی‬/mašq-e naqlī/ call. (Fig. 147) 1 copy. 2 translational practice. When as student of calligraphy has attained a level in which he can make an identical copy of another piece of calligraphy such that it is virtually impossible to distinguish between the two, and in this way exhibits his skill and mastery. Many calligraphers today are still very interested in this type of practice. It is made up of two stages: visual and applied. In his treatise Ādāb-e ḫaṭṭ, Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī says (ṢS: 25): ‫روز مشق خفی و شام جلی‬ ‫جهد کن تا نکوبی آهن سرد‬ ‫نی که چون بنگری تغافل کن‬ ‫دار ترکیب او به پیش نظر‬ ‫تا که َحظّی بری از آن و از این‬ ‫تا بود صاف و پاک و خاطرخواه‬ ‫بنشین گوشه‌ای و هرزه مگرد‬ ‫ پیش نظر‬،‫به خط خوب و دار‬ ‫ساز ترتیب تا کنی رقمش‬ ‫خودپسندی به خویشتن مپسند‬ ‫نشوی غافل ار کنی کم و بیش‬ ‫ تمام باید کرد‬،‫سطر سطرش‬ ‫ز ابتدا گر دو حرف بد افتاد‬ ‫ ازین غلط بگذر‬،‫کنی آغاز‬ ‫بوریا هرگز اطلسی نشود‬

‫قلمی مشق کردن نقلی‬ ‫هر خطی را که نقل خواهی کرد‬ ‫تأمل کن‬ ّ ‫ نکو‬،‫حرف حرفش‬ ِ ‫ضعف حرف‌ها بنگر‬ ‫قوت و‬ ّ ‫در صعود و نزول آن می‌بین‬ ‫باش از شمرهای حرف آگاه‬ ‫چون که خط روی در ترقی کرد‬ ‫مختصر نسخه‌ای بدست آور‬ ‫هم بدان قطع َم ْسطر و قلمش‬ ‫پس از آن می‌نویس سطری چند‬ ‫جهد کن تا ز مشق نقلی خویش‬ ‫نقل را اهتمام باید کرد‬ ‫نه که هر سطر چون کنی بنیاد‬ ‫بگذاری و باز سطر دگر‬ ‫ هیچکس کسی نشود‬،‫کز غلط‬

The pen for practice by copying should be small during the day and large in the evening. Every writing you copy, take great pains to not hammer cold iron. Consider each of his letters carefully, look not fleetingly, study their thicknesses and thinnesses, their composition, their ascents and descents to therein take pleasure. Be aware of the šamare so to write smoothly, cleanly, beautifully. When (your) calligraphy improves, sit in a

298

‫م‬ corner and practice. Find and behold a sample of good calligraphy. Know and match pen size and line spacing. Next write several lines, putting self-admiration aside. Endeavour always to continue copying, without becoming neglectful. The copy should be completed and every line written. Do not rewrite if two letters are poor. Let it be and begin the next line, setting mistakes aside. No person becomes a calligrapher from mistakes, nor becomes reed matting, satin.

Copying the works of great masters was and still is a popular tradition in calligraphy. In another part of his treatise Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī, goes on to advise his students to be curious about and look for various styles and then collect and practice a specific one (ṢS: 25):

‫نظری می‌فکن در این و در آن‬ ‫جز خط او دگر نباید دید‬ ‫حرف حرفت چو ُدر شود ز َخط َش‬

‫جمع می‌کن خطوط استادان‬ ‫طبع توسوی هر کدام کشید‬ ‫تا که در چشم ُپر شود ز َخط َش‬

Gather masters’ works, gaze upon this and that to which you are drawn. You must only see his writing, so that the eye is filled with his writing, and your letters becomes like a pearl on the line (of his writing). ☞ ‫َم ْش ِق ☞ َج ْعل‬ ‫َم ْش ِق َقلَمی ☞ َم ْش ِق خیالی ☞ نَظ َری‬

‫ َم َشق َُه‬/mašaqaho/ Verbal phrase “(he) wrote”. The second level of signatures (☞ ‫ ) َر َقم َز َدن‬that could be used by a student of calligraphy with his teacher’s permission to after attaining the advanced level (☞ ‫ ) َم ْر َحله‌ی عالی‬to accomِ ‫لَ َق‬ pany his name at the base of his work. ☞ ‫ب خوشْ ِنویس ☞ َت ْرقیمه‬ ‫ َمشْ قی‬/mašqī/ ☞ ‫َق َل ِم َم ْشقی‬ ‫ َمشْ کول‬/maškūl/ ☞ ‫ِا ْعراب‬ ‫ ُم ْص َحف‬/moṣḥaf/ 1 volume, codex, book. A collection of pages bound together to form a book. “And they brought this book from Baghdad and it was forty volumes.” (translation from Ṭabarī’s commentaries) (FF s.v. ‫) ُم ْص َحف‬ (AMVR 62–64) 2 A holy book; the Quran. ☞ ‫( ُم ْص َحف‌ ِنویسی‬AMT 82–83; AMVR 157–158).

299

‫م‬

figure 147

A copy (mašq-e naqlī) by Mīrʿemād of Mīrʿalī al-Kāteb (poem also by Mīrʿalī al-Kāteb), University of Istanbul Library, no. 1426

300

‫م‬

‫ ُم ْص َحف‌ ِنویسی‬/moṣḥaf-nevīsī/ writing the Quran. (Fig. 148) From the advent of Islam through to today, Quranic manuscripts were primarily written in one of two scripts, Kufic (☞ ‫ )کوفی‬and nasḫ (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْسخ‬with Kufic remaining unrivaled until the end of the 4th/10th c. A surviving Quranic manuscript written in 391/1000/1 by Ebn-e Bavvāb (d. 413/1022) in nasḫ-e reyḥānī, a combination of both reyḥān (☞ ‫ )رِیحان‬and nasḫ, is the first example of the Quran in something other than Kufic. Although Iranian style Kufic continued to be used in Iran through the 6th/12th c., nasḫ dominated from the 4th/10th c. onward, a period of one thousand years, gaining the name Quranic nasḫ (nasḫ-e qoʾrānī ‫)ن َ ْس ِخ ُقرآنی‬. Iranian nasḫ calligraphers developed their own style from the 11th/17th c. called Iranian nasḫ (☞ ‫)ن َ ْسخ‬. Of the tens of thousands of extant Quranic manuscripts, several hundred are truly exquisite, many were produced by Iranian nasḫ calligraphers such as: Moḥammad Ebrāhīm Qomī (d. 1119/1707/8), Aḥmad Neyrīzī (a. 1160/1747), Moḥammad Hāšem Zargar (d. 1212/1797/8), Abdollah ʿĀšūr Ronānī (d. 1238/1822/3), Veṣāl Šīrāzī (1197–1262/1782/3–1846) and several of his children; Moḥammad Šafīʿ Tabrīzī (a. 1264/1847/8), Zeynolʿābedīn Eṣfahānī (1187–1296/1773–1879), ʿAlī Reżā Partō (a. 1301/1883/4), ʿAlī ʿAskar Arsanjānī (d. 1302/1884/5) and Moḥammad ʿAlī Eṣfahānī (a. 1324/1906). In the history of calligraphy, the Quran has also been written in s̱ols̱ (☞ ‫)ثُ ْلث‬, reyḥān (☞ ‫)رِیحان‬, moḥaqqaq (☞ ‫ ) ُم َحقَّق‬and nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫)ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬. Some of the finest surviving manuscipts include an example in s̱ols̱ by ʿAlāʾoddīn Tabrīzī (930–1010/1523/4–1601/2), in moḥaqqaq by Aḥmad b. Sohravard (654–741/1256–1340/1), and in nastaʿlīq by Šah Moḥammad Neyšābūrī (900–982/1494/5–1574/5). It is believed by many that until the end of the Pahlavi Dynasty in Iran (1358š/1979), the Quran was never written in tōqīʿ (☞ ‫)توقیع‬, reqāʿ (☞ ‫)رِقاع‬, taʿlīq (☞ ‫) َت ْعلیق‬, or šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫ِش َک ْسته‌ی‬ ‫)ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬. Furthermore, until then there were not even five extant Quranic manuscripts written in nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫( )ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬AMT 83; AMVR 157–158). ‫ ِم ْصراع‬/meṣrāʿ/ ☞ ‫ِم ْص َرع‬ ‫ ِم ْص َرع‬/meṣraʿ/ hemistich. Half of a line of poetry; half of a verse (☞ ‫) ِب ْیت‬. ☞ ‫َسطْر‬ ‫ ُم َض َّرس‬/możarras/ ☞ ‫َدنْدان موشی‬ ‫ ُمط َّلسازی‬/moṭallā-sāzī/ illum. gilding. The use of gold to fill in the space between lines of text without depicting a specific design. This can take on three forms. 1. Simple (sāde ‫)ساده‬: when ornamental gold is applied without any outlining (☞ ‫) َقل َْمگیری‬. 2. Written (☞ ‫) ُم َح َّرر‬: when the gold is outlined

‫م‬

figure 148

301

Quran Manuscript written in reyḥān with florets marking the end of verses by Arġūn al-Kāmelī, 745, National Museum of Iran, Tehran

302

‫م‬

in ink or a another color paint darker than the gold. 3. Scalloped (☞ ‫َدنْدان‬ ‫)موشی‬: when the gold is outlined with little half circles or scallops. Gold is also used in what is called background gold (tah-ṭalāīī ‫ ) َته‌ط َالیی‬in which gold paper is used cover parts of the support in the same manner as would the paint. When paint is used the result is completely smooth, whereas tiny air bubbles and wrinkling can result when using paper unless it is particularly thick. To create the gild, gold ingots are wrapped in dear skin and crushed with a hammer. This is then mixed with isinglass (☞ ‫ریشم‬ ُ ‫ )آها ِر ِس‬and applied. Too much isinglass results in the discoloration of the gold, turning it black. (MC 147–151, 268–269; AMT 50–51; AMTS 27; AMVR 113–114; IC: 50–57; Jokar/ Ġaffārpūrī 1396š/2017)

‫ ُمط َّلکاری‬/moṭallā-kārī/ ☞ ‫ُمط َّلسازی‬ ّ ‫ت الْ َخ‬ ‫ط‬ ُ ‫ َم ْع ِر َف‬/maʿrefat-ol-ḫaṭṭ/ lit. “knowledge of calligraphy”. Knowledge with which one can match the descriptions of the calligraphy of each of the famous masters with examples of their work, discerning whether or not a work can be attributed to a given calligrapher. Much study is necessary for a person to develop an eye as well as first-hand knowledge and training as a calligrapher. One branch of this connoisseurship is the ability to identify the century to which a piece of calligraphy belongs. (Naṣīrī-Amīnī 1367š/1988: vol. 1, 35) ‫ َم ْع ِقلی‬/maʿqelī/ sc. geometric Kufic. (Figs. 149–152) Considered by some to be a type of Kufic (☞ ‫)کوفی‬, this type of writing can be found widely in tile mosaics and architecture of many structures and is thus also called banāyī (‫) َبنایی‬, from structure/building banā. These geometric designs were never common on paper given that there are no curves, but rather all straight lines and non-rounded corners (☞ ‫) َسطْح و دور‬. In geometric Kufic all lines are of are of equal width and the proportion of positive to negative space (☞ ‫َخ ْل َوت و‬ ‫ ) َج ْل َوت‬is more equal than in any other script. ِّ ‫َخ‬ ‫ َم ْعکوس‬/maʿkūs/ ☞ ‫ط َب ْرگَ ْردان‬ ‫ ُم َع َّلق‬/moʿallaq/ ☞ ‫طُغرا‬ ‫ َمغْ ِز َقلَم‬/maġz-e qalam/ pith. lit: “heart of the pen”. The soft white interior of a reed encircled by the xylem and phloem. The whiter, denser, and firmer this is, the better it is for making a reed pen. ☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫َتر‬

303

‫م‬

figure 149

Reticulated geometric Kufic, ‘al-molko lellāh’, kingship belongs to God

figure 150

Geometric Kufic from the tile mosaics on Pīr Bakrān in Esfahan, 1303

304

‫م‬

figure 151

Geometric Kufic repeating ‘Allah valī ottōfīq’, God is the arbiter of success, the Amir Chakhmaq Complex, Yazd

figure 152

Geometric Kufic reading ‘Hamid Reza Ghelichkhani’, designed by Hamid Reza Ghelichkhani, 2000

305

‫م‬

figure 153

Moġlaq in nastaʿlīq by Ġolām Reżā, part of an inscription on the Sepahsālār mosque in Tehran

‫ ِمغْ لَب‬/meġlab/ ☞ ‫َزبانه‬ ‫ ُمغْ لَق‬/moġlaq/ (Fig. 153) lit. “elaborate, complex”. When a letter is written so that the color of the support can be seen in the negative space (☞ ‫ ) َبیاض‬that forms in the “eye” or loop and this space is completely surrounded. ‫ ُم ْف َردات‬/mofradāt/ call. (Fig. 154–155, Plate 1) lit. “simple elements”. There are two types mofradāt 1. The individual letters of the alphabet; 2. Two-letter compounds such as BĀ (‫)با‬, BT (‫)بت‬, BJ (‫ )بج‬and BR (‫)بر‬. Elementary calligraphy instruction normally begins with mofradāt. ‫ ُم ْف َر ْد ِنویسی‬/mofrad-nevīsī/ call. (Fig. 156–157) Writing the alphabet and simِ ‫َق‬ ple compounds in accordance with the calligraphic principles (☞ ‫واع ِد‬ ِ ‫) َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ نویسی‬. ‫ ُمق َْر َمط‬/moqarmaṭ/ sc. Narrowly and tightly written. A type of script in which the words are small, narrow, and written tightly together. ّ ‫ ِم َق‬/meqaṭṭ/ ☞ ‫ط َزن‬ ْ ‫َق‬ ‫ط‬ ‫ ُم َقطَّع‌ ِنویسی‬/moqaṭṭaʿ-nevīsī/ sc. lit. “fragment writing”. In the same family as inscriptions (☞ ‫ ) َکتیبه‬which are generally carried out with pens wider than two-dāng (☞ ‫)دانگ‬, this is usually a hemistich (☞ ‫) ِم ْص َرع‬, hadith or verse

306

‫م‬

figure 154

Simple elements of ejāze Baġdādī 1989: 75

figure 155

Simple elements of nasḫ-e yāqūtī Baġdādī 1989: 27

from the Quran that is presented in a very complicated and technical composition. These can be used as the title of a piece, as a frontispiece (☞ ‫) َس ْرلوح‬, on a poster, sign, or the cover of a book. Sometimes it is not meant to be read but rather to be of decorative value. It must be balanced and proportionate to the page as a whole.

‫ ُمق َّوا‬/moqavvā/ papier-mâché. Made out of several layers of paper or cloth and was used to in bookbinding and making penboxes (☞ ‫) َقل َْمدان‬. (LD s.v. ‫ ) ُم َق ّوا‬In NP moqavvā is the common word for “cardboard”. (PPB 121–122) ‫کان کِتا َبت‬ ِ ‫ َم‬/makān-e ketābat/ place for writing. A suitable place for calligraphy should have suitable weather and light conditions, etc. In Ḫaṭṭ va savād, written in 909/1503/4, Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī says (RḪ: 39):

‫م‬

figure 156

307

Simple elements of nastaʿlīq, by Moḥammad Ḥoseyn Seyfī Qazvīnī. From the collection of Nāṣer Javāherpūr, Karaj, Iran

308

‫م‬ ‫که از هر چار سو درها گشاید‬ ‫که در پیش در شرقی نشیند‬ ‫جنوبی بهترست از جای دیگر‬ ‫به نزدیک در غربی نشستن‬

‫ولیکن خانه را خطّاط باید‬ ‫صباحی مصلحت زان گونه باید‬ ‫به وقت نیمروز ای نیک منظر‬ ‫ولی در آخر روزست اَحسن‬

A calligrapher’s house should have doors that open from all four sides. It is in one’s interest to sit in the morning by the eastern door. Better at noon, o clear-sighted one, is south than any other. But best at the day’s end it is to sit in the west. (PPB 151–154)

‫ َمکْ توب‬/maktūb/ written. ‫ ُم ْل َحقه‬/molḥaqe/ the way the calligrapher turns and moves the pen. (Māyel Heravī 1353š/1974: 94) ‫ َم ْلفوف‬/malfūf/ call. (Fig. 158) lit. “twisted”. When the end of an (inverted) circular letter (☞ ‫ ) َدوایِر‬in end position attaches to the letter it proceeds. ‫ ِم ْلواق‬/melvāq/ ☞ ‫َدوات آشور‬ ِ ‫َرن‬ ‫ َم ّله‬/malle/ ☞ ‫ْگ َم ّله‬ ‫ ِم ْم َسحه‬/memsaḥe/ ☞ ‫َقلَم پا ک‌کُن‬ ‫ َمن ِْزل‬/manzel/ lit. “station/house”. 1 A division of Quranic manuscripts into seven parts corresponding to the days of the week. These divisions were often marked by illuminated (☞ ‫ ) َتذْ هیب‬pages or miniatures or bound separately (IC 22). ☞ ‫سی‌پاره‬‎ 2 In the art of bookbinding, manzel describes the presence of two facing pages of miniatures in Quran manuscripts. If this is a double frontispiece it is a single-manzel Quran. Where this is also in the middle and end of the Quran it is three-manzel. Qurans can be five- or seven-manzel, etc. and there are even reports of a seventeen-manzel Quran. (Māyel Heravī 1353š/1974: 135) ‫ ُم ْن َشآت‬/monša‌ʾāt/ writings, letters, correspondences. ‫ َم ْنشور‬/manšūr/ 1 charter, declaration, proclamation. 2 sc. An Arabic script derived from rīāsī (‫)ریاسی‬, or modavvar-e kabīr (‫) ُم َد َّو ِر َکبیر‬.

‫م‬

figure 157a

309

Simple elements in nastaʿlīq, Mīrʿalī Kāteb, 944/1537/8 University of Istanbul Library

310

figure 157b

‫م‬

Simple elements in nastaʿlīq, Mīrʿalī Kāteb, 944/1537/8 University of Istanbul Library

311

‫م‬

figure 158

‘Ḥū’ written in nastaʿlīq with an example of malfūf

‫ َم ْنشور ِنویس‬/manšūr-nevīs/ charter writer, secretary. ‫ب کِتا َبت‬ ِ ‫ َمن َْص‬/manṣab-e ketābat/ lit. “writing rank”. An position that existed in the “Bureau of Correspondence” (dīvān-e resālat ‫)دیوان رِسالَت‬. Various books and treatises have been written on the scribal etiquette including Dastūr-e Dabīrī by Moḥammad b. ʿAbdolḫāleq Mīhanī, Dastūr-ol-kāteb by Šams-ad-Dīn Moḥammad b. Hendūšāh Naḫjavānī (767/365/6) and the Javāherīye Treatise by Sīmī Neyšābūrī (9th/15th c.). ☞ ‫تابداری‬ ْ ‫ِک‬

312

‫م‬

‫ ُم َو َّرب ِنگاری‬/movarrab-negārī/ call. lit. “slanted writing”. Writing something at a slant in a book or in the margins differs from a čalīpā (☞ ‫ ) َچلیپا‬in that in can be continued anywhere and take on any form. ‫ ُم ْه ِرکِتاب‬/mohr-e ketāb/ ☞ ‫جع ِم ْلکی‬ ِ ‫َس‬ ‫ ُم ْهر َکنی‬/mohr-kanī/ ☞ ‫َح ّکاکی‬ ‫ ُم ْهره‬/mohre/ to. bead. Generally made out of agate or a type of smooth, hard stone, this was rubbed over the gold lines and miniature paintings to help the next color adhere to the paper. Also used to burnish (☞ ‫ ) ُم ْهره َز َدن‬sized paper and sometimes as worry stones. (MC 109, 148, 284; AMVR 39; Māyel Heravī 1353š/1974: 38; PPB 28, 97) ‫ ُم ْهره َز َدن‬/mohre zadan/ to burnish. When a bead (☞ ‫ ) ُم ْهره‬is used to remove snags or uneven spots on sized (☞ ‫ )آهار‬paper. It also helps to strengthen and increase its durability. Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī (ṢS: 23) ‫که ُرخ َرخ درو به ننماید‬ ‫زور بازو ولی نه سخت نه سست‬

‫مهره‌ی کاغذ آن چنان باید‬ ‫تخته‌ی مهره پاک باید شست‬

Burnishing should not be so as to tear paper. The burnishing surface must be washed, and the strength of one’s arms neither [too] firm nor [too] weak. (MC 109–110, 119, 150, 152, 283–284)

‫ ُم ْهره سایی‬/mohre-sāyī/ ☞ ‫َح ّکاکی‬ ‫دان َقلَم‬ ِ ‫ ِم ْی‬/meydān-e qalam/ ☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫َتر‬ ‫میشن‬ َ /mīšan/ bb. sheep skin (BBP 122–123) ☞ ‫پوست‬ ْ

plate 28

Sīāh-mašq in nastaʿlīq, calligraphy by Mīrzā Ġolāmreżā Eṣfahānī (1246–1304/ 1830–1886), from the collection of Moḥmūd Vaṭančī, Esfahan

ِّ ‫َخ‬ ‫ نا ُخنی‬/nāḫonī/ ☞ ‫ط نا ُخنی‬ ِ /nāseḫ/ copier, scribe, scrivener. ‫ناسخ‬ ‫ ن َُپ ْخته‬/napoḫte/ ☞ ‫خام‬ ‫ َن ْحت‬/naḥt/ call. Shaving away the two sides of the nib of a pen. ☞ ‫اشید ِن َقلَم‬ َ ‫َتر‬ ‫ ن َْرم‬/narm/ soft. Used to describe script that is fluid and subtle, not ornate, or difficult. ‫ ُنزول‬/nozūl/ call. downstroke, descent. (Fig. 159) A downward movement of the pen necessary in the writing of some letters. Downstrokes or descents are classified either as “true” (☞ ‫ )نُزول َحقیقی‬or “virtual” (☞ ‫ )نُزول َمجازی‬depending ِ ‫ُصعود ☞ َق‬ on the angle of the pen. ☞ ‫واعد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ ِنویسی‬ ‫ ُنزو ِل َحقیقی‬/nozūl-e ḥaqīqī/ call. true descent. True descent is produced when the nib of the pen remains in a horizontal position in a downstroke (☞ ‫)نُزول‬ as in the letters alef (‫)ا‬, lām (‫)ل‬, kāf (‫ )ک‬or mīm (‫ )م‬in the end position, or in a word such as LM (‫)لم‬. For the descent more pressure should be on the vaḥšī ِ ‫عود َحقیقی ☞ َق‬ ِ ‫)ص‬ (☞ ‫ ) َو ْحشی‬than on the ensī (‫واعد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ ِنویسی ☞( ) ِان ْسی‬ ُ

figure 159

True descent (left) and virtual descent (right) in nastaʿlīq

© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_031

315

‫ن‬

‫ ُنزو ِل َمجازی‬/nozūl-e majāzī/ call. virtual descent. Virtual descent is produced when the nib of the pen rotates slightly during a downstroke (☞ ‫ )نُزول‬and is therefore no longer horizontal. This is the case in the production of the head-stroke (☞ ‫ ) َس ْر ِکش‬in the letter kāf (‫)ک‬, the beginning segments of ِ ‫َق‬ some circular letters (☞ ‫) َدوایِر‬, and elongations. ☞ ‫واع ِد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ ِنویسی‬ ِ ِ ِ ☞ ‫کشیده‌نویسی ☞ ُصعود َمجازی‬ ِ ‫ ن َّساخ‬/nassāḫ/ ☞ ‫ناسخ‬ ‫ ن ِ ْس َبت‬/nesbat/ ☞ ‫ناسب‬ ُ ‫َت‬ ‫ ن َْس َت ْعلیق‬/nastaʿlīq/ sc. (Figs. 160–163, VII, XXI–XXV, XXVII–XXVIII) Nastaʿlīq is the predominant script in Iranian calligraphy (☞ ‫ )خوشْ ِنویسی َدر ایران‬and, together with taʿlīq (☞ ‫) َتعلیق‬, is largely considered to be a “Persian script” as it flourished primarily at the hands of Iranian calligraphers. However, it was also used widely in Turkey, Afghanistan and Pakistan. A variety of versions of nastaʿlīq were also used as the preferred script for writing Urdu, Kashmīrī, Punjābī and historically Ottoman Turkish. Use of nastaʿlīq was (and in Iran still is) widespread for writing, most notably for collections of poetry. From nastaʿlīq’s first appearance in the beginning of the 8th/14th c. through to today, it was believed that the word nastaʿlīq was produced from the words nasḫ and taʿlīq, and that this had two meanings. First that nastaʿlīq was the abrogator (nasḫ konande ‫ )ن َ ْسخ ُک َننده‬of taʿlīq because with it, the market for taʿlīq ran dry; and second that the principles of the taʿlīq and nasḫ (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْسخ‬had been combined in nastaʿlīq. Indeed, until the 10th/16th c. this script was also referred to as nasḫtaʿlīq (‫خ َت ْعلیق‬ ْ ‫)ن َ ْس‬. Mīrʿalī Tabrīzī (a. 803/1400/1) was the first person to codify this script, for which he has been recognized as a devisor of scripts. Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī, himself a famous nastaʿlīq calligrapher and contemporary of the distiguished poet Kamāl Ḫojandī, writes about the latter in his treatise Ādāb-e ḫaṭṭ, saying (ṢS: 24): ‫واضع‌االصل خواجه میرعلی‌ست‬ ‫نسبش نیز می‌رسد به علی‬ ‫هرگز این خط نبوده در عالم‬ ‫از خط نسخ و از خط تعلیق‬ ‫کاصلش از خاک پاک تبریزست‬ ‫بی والیت نبوده تا دانی‬ ‫خوشه چینان خرمن اویند‬ ‫ز اوستادان شنیده‌ام این حرف‬ …‫هست تعریف او ز حد بیرون‬ ‫شیخ شیرین مقال شیخ کمال‬

‫نسختعلیق اگر خفی و جلی‌ست‬ ‫نسبتش بوده با علی ازلی‬ ‫تا که بوده‌ست عالم و آدم‬ ‫وضع فرمود او ز ذهن دقیق‬ ‫نیِ کلکش از آن شکرریزست‬ ‫نکنی نفی او ز نادانی‬ ‫کاتبانی که کهنه و نویند‬ ‫درجمیع خطوط بوده شگرف‬ ‫خط پاکش چون شعر او موزون‬ ‫ُبد معاصر به مجمع االفضال‬

316

‫ن‬ The creator of nastaʿlīq, both small and large, is Ḫvāja Mīrʿalī (Tabrīzī), a descendant of ʿAlī and forever attached to him. As long as man and earth has been, this script had not existed in the world. With his precise mind, he created it from nasḫ and taʿlīq. The reed of his pen drips sweetness, as he hails from the pure soil of Tabriz. Discredit him not out of ignorance, he was not without power of guidance. Indebted are calligraphers old and new. He was prodigious in all the scripts; this I have heard from masters’ lips. His pure script harmonizes like poetry, incapable am I of his praises. A contemporary he was of Šeyḫ Kamāl Ḫojandī, the poet.

From the oldest sources that mention the word nastaʿlīq, its devisor and characteristics, we learn the following: 1. In the second chapter of Toḥfat-ol-moḥebbīn written in 858/1454, Yaʿqūb b. Ḥasan Serāj Šīrāzī says: “… and [there was] Shiraz and Tabriz style nasḫ and taʿlīq. Mīrʿalī Tabrīzī and Molānā Jaʿfar Tabrīzī Bāysonġorī took up the Tabriz style and excelled. Shiraz style was created with the efforts of the masters of Shiraz and then admitted into the order of pens …” (Serāj Šīrāzī 1376š/1997: 142) 2. A treatise on the “Principles and Rules of the Six Pens”, Oṣūl va qavāʿed-e ḫoṭūṭ-e sette, by Fatḥollah Sabzevārī dated 930/1523/4 mentions Mīrʿalī Tabrīzī and the rules governing the system of measurement (☞ ‫) َبنای ُحروف‬ in nastaʿlīq. On the letter alef (‫ )ا‬it says: “alef in this script is composed of four dots and it tapers at both the top and the bottom. Some have said that it should conceal a bar” (Oṣūl: 246) 3. Ādāb-e ḫaṭṭ by Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī (d. 926/1520). In addition to mentioning the inventor of nastaʿlīq, this work also talks of calligraphy in general and the tools used in this art. (ṢS: 17) 4. Ḫaṭṭ va savād, written by Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī (d. 950) in the first half of the 10th/16th c. which has also been attributed to Mīr Ḥoseyn Heravī (d. 951/1544) under the name of Medād-ol-ḫoṭūṭ talks of Mīrʿalī Tabrīzī, ِ ‫ُح‬ the measurements as well as the formation of compound letters (☞ ‫روف‬ ‫) ُم َرکَّب‬. (ḪS: 253) 5. In his treatise Ādāb-ol-ḫaṭṭ Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī says the following of nastaʿlīq’s inventors and the masters of this script (ĀḪ: 181):

‫شد واضع خط نسختعلیق‬ …‫بر مسند ابن مقله بنشست‬ ‫ هشت قسمند‬،‫چون هشت بهشت‬ ‫ریحان و رقاع و نسخ و تعلیق‬ ‫مخفی به طریقه‌ی معما‬ …‫نام خط هشتمین بدانی‬

‫…سیدعلی آن جهان تحقیق‬ ‫درخطّه‌ی اختراع پیوست‬ ‫این است قلم به هشت اسمند‬ ‫ثلث است و محقق است و توقیع‬ ‫ذکر خط هشتمین شد اما‬ ‫هر گه شش و هفتمین بخوانی‬

‫ن‬

317

Sayyedʿalī (Mīrʿalī Tabrīzī), that world of truthseeking, became the creator of nastaʿlīq. He entered the land of invention and sat on the throne of Ebn-e Moqle. Thus, the scripts were, like heaven, divided into eight: s̱ols̱ and moḥaqqaq and tōqīʿ, reyḥān and reqāʿ and nasḫ and taʿlīq. The name of the eighth is hidden like a riddle: once you read the sixth and seventh, know will you the eighth. 6. Ādāb-ol-mašq by Bābāšāh Eṣfahānī (d. 996/1587/8) but which is also attributed to Mīrʿemād, is the only treatise that describes the twelve calِ ‫) َق‬. (ṢS: 18) ligraphic principles (☞ ‫واعد َدوا ْز َده‌گانه‌ی خوشْ ِنویسی‬ After the 10th/16th c. other biographers, following the treatises above, repeated the same information with additions, changes, and sometimes even mistakes. Examples of an undeveloped nastaʿlīq that predate Mīrʿalī Tabrīzī or stem from his contemporaries do exist, including a collection of poems in the famous Baġdādī script written before 788/1386, now in the Golestān Palace Library, Tehran, and a copy Dīvān-e Solṭān Aḥmad Jalāyer written by Ṣāleḥ b. ʿAlī Rāzī in 800/1397/8, kept in the Library of the Aya Sofia in Istanbul (Bayānī 1363š/1984: 443). Beginning in the 8th/14th c. there was an interest among artists to develop an independent, completely Iranian calligraphic script. This manifests itself in the changes made to the shape of nasḫ and its use in Persian manuscripts and divans in particular. Following Mīrʿalī Tabrīzī, the most famous nastaʿlīq calligrapher is Jaʿfar Tabrīzī Bāysonġorī, who, before his famous namesake Šāhnāme (now in the Golestān Palace Library, Tehran) also copied Neẓāmī’s Ḫosrō va Šīrīn (824/1421), Dīvān-e Ḥasan Dehlavī (825/1422) and Saʿdī’s Golestān (830/1426/7). These three works are held respectively at the Institute of Oriental Manuscripts in St. Petersburg, The Congressional Congress Library in Tehran, and the Chester Beatty Library in Dublin. Moḥammad Imāmī Heravī’s Enīs al-ʿašāq manuscript (887/1482/3) written in beautiful nastaʿlīq is in the Golestān Palace Library, Tehran. Other calligraphers from this period include Aẓhar Tabrīzī (d. 880/1475/6) who trained Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī and Solṭān ʿAlī Qāyenī. In addition to his numerous books and calligraphic pieces, Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī (d. 926/1520) composed one of the most instructive treatises on calligraphy. This treatise entitled Ādāb-e ḫaṭṭ (Ṣarāṭ-os-soṭūr) is composed of more than 273 verses and was written in 920/1514/5. In the Timurid period book ornamentation and other arts were taken to new heights. Nastaʿlīq also benefited and in the 9th/15th c. the script underwent changes and took on a purer form. The writing of the Bāysonġorī Šāhnāme in nastaʿlīq in 833/1429/30 can be seen as testament to the script’s prestige and popularity in Iran. By the first half of the 10th/16th c. nastaʿlīq

318

figure 160

‫ن‬

Čalīpā in nastaʿlīq by Mīrʿalī Kāteb Tabrīzī, Mīrʿemād Museum, Tehran

‫ن‬

319 had begun to appear in inscriptions, including those of some Timurid princes, now in the courtyard of ʿAbdollāh Anṣārī’s Mausoleum. The greatest nastaʿlīq calligrapher of the 10th/16th c. is Mīrʿalī Kāteb Heravī (d. 951/1544) who has left us with exquisite books as well as excellent calligraphic pieces in the Golšan album (☞ ‫( ) ُم َر َّقع‬now kept in the Golestān Palace Library, Tehran). His students included Sayyed Aḥmad Mašhadī, Maḥmūd Šahābī, Mālek Deylamī and Moḥammad Ḥoseyn Kašmīrī. Other elite calligraphers of this period include Šāh Maḥmūd Neyšābūrī (d. ca. 982/1521/2) and Bābāšāh Eṣfahānī (d. 996/1587/8). From Maḥmūd Neyšābūrī, in addition to the dozens of extant calligraphic and Quranic manuscripts in nastaʿlīq, we also have what is thought to be the first Quran written in nastaʿlīq (8.26 × 5.37cm, 945/1538/9, Topkapi Museum, Istanbul). Another valuable manuscript is Ḫamse Tahmāsbī (947/1540/1), a rare illustrated book in Persian. From Bābāšāh Eṣfahānī we have Ādāb-ol-mašq, the exquisite treatise on the calligraphy instruction, that was unfortunately published several times under the name of Mīrʿemād. The creation of albums reached its height in the 10th/16th c. Another calligrapher from this period is Moḥammad Ḥoseyn Tabrīzī (d. 985/1577/8) whose students included ʿAlī Reżā ʿAbbāsī (Tabrīzī) and Mīrʿemād Qazvīnī. Following Mīrʿalī Heravī’s style, Mīrʿemād Ḥasanī Qazvīnī (961–1024/ 1554–1615) took a step towards new heights, creating what could be considered the most beautiful, fluid, and mature style of the Safavid period and went on to become popular in neighboring countries such as India and the Ottoman Empire. His students included Nūrā Lāhījī, Moḥammad-Ṣāleḥ Ḫātūnābādī, Rašīdā Deylamī, ʿAbdoljabbār Eṣfahānī, Sayyedʿalī Ḫān Tabrīzī and Abūtorāb Eṣfahānī. A contemporary rival of Mīrʿemād was ʿAlī Reżā ʿAbbāsī (Tabrīzī) who was still alive around 1038/1628/9 and is considered a master of s̱ols̱ (☞ ‫ )ثُ ْلث‬as well as nastaʿlīq. In 1007/1598/9 ʿAlī Reżā was appointed librarian in the court of Shah Abbās and as a result of his administrative activities and financial welfare he left little behind in nastaʿlīq. Like Mīrʿemād, ʿAlī Reżā was also followed Mīrʿalī, at times even surpassing him. At the end of the Safavid period and during the Afsharid and Zand periods nastaʿlīq experienced little qualitative development. It was not until the reign of the Qajar Shah Faṭʿalī that imitators of Mīrʿalī’s style, including ʿAbbās Nūrī (d. 1255/1839/40) and Assadollāh Šīrāzī (d. 1268/1851/2), that the foundation for a nastaʿlīq revival was laid. It was here that nastaʿlīq increasingly left the realm of books and was used for broadsides (☞ ‫) ِقطْعه‬ and inscriptions (☞ ‫) َکتیبه‬.

320

‫ن‬

The works that remain from this period can be divided to illustrate several trends: 1. Labor-intensive books such as the six-volume Alef līle va līle written in the hand of Moḥammad Ḥoseyn Ṭehrānī in 1269/1852/3; a Quran written in nastaʿlīq by Assadollāh Šīrāzī in 1268/1851/2; some very exquisite manuscripts in the hand of Moḥammad Ḥoseyn Šīrāzī (d. 1316/1898/9), many of which are kept in the Golestān Palace Library in Tehran. 2. Lithograph books and newspapers that were printed in hands of calligraphers such as Mīrzā Reżā Kalhor and Moḥammad-Šarīf Qazvīnī. 3. Inscriptions including on buildings in the hands of calligraphers such as Mīrzā Āqā and Moḥammad Ebrāhīm Ṭehrānī. 4. Broadsides, most of which are either sīāh-mašq (☞ ‫)سیاه َم ْشق‬, čalīpā (☞ ‫ ) َچلیپا‬or single lines of text (☞ ‫) َسطْر‬. Many works by Mīr Ḥoseyn Ḫōšnevīsbāšī (d. 1300/1882/3), Mīrzā Ġolāmreżā Eṣfahānī (d. 1304/1886) and Mīrzā Kāẓem Tehrānī (d. 1325/1907/8) fit into this category. The sīāh-mašq pieces produced by these masters breathed fresh life into nastaʿlīq, pulling it out of the dry transfer of information into the realm of art. Moḥammad Ḥoseyn ʿEmād-ol-Kottāb (d. 1315š/1936) is the last master of the end of the Qajar and beginning of the Pahlavi periods whose work has greatly influenced contemporary calligraphers. With his book Rasm-ol-ḫaṭṭ and changes that he effectuated in calligraphy instruction, ʿEmād-ol-Kottāb made a place for himself in the perfection of this art in modern times. Though many students of Mīrzā Reżā Kalhor and ʿEmād-ol-Kottāb passed their teachings on to current masters and this art experienced a boom in the 1360s (š)/1980s, nastaʿlīq does not appear to have reached the perfection that was attained in the Qajar period. (AMT 139; AMTS 76; AMVR 165–167)

‫ ن َْسخ‬/nasḫ/ (Figs. 161–163, VI, XVI, XXVI, XXIX) A script that was and continues to be used to write Qurans and prayers. A type of nasḫ existed prior to Ebn-e Moqle (d. 328/940), yet is it he who is credited with developing new elements and principles that allowed it to replace other scripts. Nasḫ reached the height of its beauty at the hand of Yāqūt Mostaʿṣemī (610–698/1213– 1298) and consists of two main styles: 1. nasḫ-e yāqūtī ‫ن َ ْس ِخ یاقوتی‬: a style that resembles reyḥān (☞ ‫ )رِیحان‬and is written with a pen with a sharp angled moḥarraf (☞ ‫ ) ُم َح َّرف‬nib that is also used for s̱ols̱ (☞ ‫)ثُ ْلث‬. This style is still common in Arab and other Islamic countries. In Iran it was used for writing until the 11th/17th c.

321

‫ن‬ 2.

nasḫ-e īrānī ‫( ن َ ْس ِخ ایرانی‬Iranian nasḫ): a variation of nasḫ invented by Aḥmad Neyrizī (a. 1160/1747), a famous Iranian calligrapher of late Safavid Era (12th/18th c.). This style is written with a moderatelyangled nib similar to that of nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫)ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬, from which it has also borrowed elements. After Aḥmad Neyrīzī, this style blossomed and spread through the works of Moḥammad-Hāšem Zargar Eṣfahānī (d. 1212/1797/8), ʿAbdollah ʿĀšūr Ronānī (d. 1238/1822/3), Veṣāl Šīrāzī (1197–1262/1782/3–1846), Moḥammad-Šafīʿ Tabrīzī (a. 1264/1847/8) and Zeynolʿābedīn Eṣfahānī (1187–1296/1773–1879). (AMT 139–140; AMTS 76; AMVR 162–165) ☞ ‫خوشْ ِنویسی َدر ایران‬

‫ ن َْس ِخ ایرانی‬/nasḫ-e īrānī/ ☞ ‫ن َ ْسخ‬ ‫ ن َْس ْخ َت ْعلیق‬/nasḫtaʿlīq/ ☞ ‫ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬ ‫ نُ ْسخه‬/nosḫe/ 1 copy, transcript, duplicate. 2 manuscript. ☞ ‫ن ُْسخه‌ی َخطّی‬ ‫ نُ ْسخه َب ْرداشْ تَن‬/nosḫe bardāštan/ to make a copy or transcription. ‫ ن َْس ِخ یاقوتی‬/nasḫ-e yāqūtī/ ☞ ‫ن َ ْسخ‬ ‫ نُ ْسخه‌ی چاپی‬/nosḫe-ye čāpī/ printed edition. A book or treatise that has been printed. ‫ نُ ْسخه‌ی َخطّی‬/nosḫe-ye ḫaṭṭī/ manuscript. (MC 11–24)

figure 161

Iranian nasḫ, Aḥmad Neyrīzī 1122/1710/1, Morteżā Tadayyon Collection, Qazvin

322

‫ن‬

figure 162

Nasḫ-e yāqūtī, ʿAlāʾoldīn Moḥammad al-Tabrīzī, 957/1550, Malek National Library, Tehran, no. 5948

figure 163

Simple elements of nasḫ-e yāqūtī Baġdādī 1989: 27

‫ن‬

323

‫ نُ ْسخه‌ی َسقیم‬/nosḫe-ye saqīm/ faulty edition. An edition or copy of a book that has many mistakes. ‫ نَشْ تَری‬/naštarī/ ☞ ‫َقل َْمتَراش‬ ‫ َنقّاشْ باشی‬/naqqāš-bāšī/ The chief court painter or painters; a title of respect for painters. (PPB 137–150, 157–160) ‫ َن ّقاشیخَط‬/naqqāšī-ḫaṭṭ/ sc. calligraphy painting. (Figs. 164–167) When calligraphy is not written with a reed pen and ink, or within the calligraphic tradition, but instead with a different instrument and when the positive and ِّ ‫) َخ‬, calligraphy negative space is painted. Unlike pictorial writing (☞ ‫ط نَ ّقاشی‬ painting is used by the artist to illustrate the capacity of calligraphy created with tools and techniques of painting, such as creating three-demensionality, texture, highlights and shadows and perspective, etc. Calligraphy painting as understood today began with Farāmarz Pīlārām (1316–1362š/1937–98) and was taken up on a larger scale by Seyyed-Moḥammad Eḥṣāyī (b. 1318š/1939). Beginning in the 1340s (š)/1950s calligraphy painting became generally accepted as a form of art. ‫اشی الکی‬ ِ ‫ َن ّق‬/naqāšī-ye lākī/ ☞ ‫الکی‌سازی‬ ‫ ُن ْقره‬/noqre/ silver. Silver was used in painting and sometimes calligraphy, however the fact that it oxidized and blackened with time posed a problem. ☞ ‫َز ْر َح ّل‬ ‫ َن ْقش َا ْن‬/naqš andāzī-ye sāyešī (mālešī)/ image transfer by (‫دازی سایشی )مالِشی‬ ِ rubbing. Transferring a raised design such as on a coin, on wood, stone, metal, or any other hard surface onto paper. This is accomplished by placing a piece of paper on the surface and rubbing it with the tip of a pencil or charcoal or another such material. (Karāmatī 1370š/1991 s.v. ‫ْدازی سایشی‬ ِ ‫)نَقْش َان‬ ‫ َن ْقشه‬/naqše/ map, chart. ☞ ‫ِا ْسلیمی‬ ‫ ُن ْقطه‬/noqṭe/ call. dot, point. ☞ ‫َبنای ُحروف‬ ‫ ُن ْقطه‌ َپ ْرداز‬/noqṭe-pardāz/ ☞ ‫َپ ْرداز‬ ‫‌ریزی کِ ْلک‬ ‫ ُن ْقطه‬/noqṭe-rīzī-ye kelk/ A small drop of ink the size of the tip of a pen ِ that has fallen on the paper. Also called noqṭe-ye nōk-rīz (‫)نُقْطه‌ی نوک‌ریز‬.

324

‫ن‬

figure 164

Calligraphy painting by Mīrzā Moḥammad ʿAlī b. Mīrzā Ġolām Rasūl, 1134/1721/2, Reza Abbasi Museum, Tehran

figure 165

Calligraphy painting by Mīrzā Moḥammad ʿAlī b. Mīrzā Ġolām Rasūl, 1134/1721/2, Reza Abbasi Museum, Tehran

‫ن‬

figure 166

325

Calligraphy painting with s̱oʿbānī by ʿAlī al-Hoseynī ʿAbdolvahāb, University of Istanbul Library, no. 1422

326

figure 167

‫ن‬

Calligraphy painting by contemporary artist Mohammad Ehsaee

327

‫ن‬ ‫ ُن ْقطه ُ‌گذاری‬/noqṭe-goẕārī/ ☞ ‫َبنای ُحروف‬ ‫ ُن ْقطه‌ی َت ْج ُربه‬/noqṭe-ye tajrobe/ ☞ ‫َت ْج ُربه‌ی َقلَم‬

‫ ُن ْقطه‌ی َس ْهو‬/noqṭe-ye sahv/ mistaken dot. A dot that has been placed over or under a non-dotted letter by mistake and can therefore be erased. (Farhang s.v. ‫)نُقْطه‌ی َس ْهو‬ ‫ ُن ْقطه‌ی شَ ک‬/noqṭe-ye šak/ lit. “dot of doubt”. A dot or mark that is placed in the margins of a text next to a work or verse to indicate doubt and to signal that it should be investigated. ‫ ُن ْقطه‌ی نوک‌ریز‬/noqṭe-ye nōk-rīz/ ☞ ‫‌ریزی ِک ْلک‬ ِ ‫نُقْطه‬ ‫ َن ْقل‬/naql/ ☞ ‫َم ْش ِق نَقْلی‬ ‫ ن ََمقَه‬/namaqah/ ☞ ‫َت ْرقیمه‬ ِ /nōk-e qalam/ ☞ ‫َد ِم َقلَم‬ ‫نوک َقلَم‬ ‫ ِن ِی ِدزْفولی‬/ney-ye dezfūlī/ Dezful reed. (Fig. 168) This type of grows in southwestern Iran and makes the best calligraphy pens (qalam-e dezfūlī). There are special farms for this kind of reed and reed farmers came to be known as “pen cutters” (qalam-bor ‫) َقلَم ُبر‬. There are still people in Dezful today who go by this title. The reed is best for pens ten to fifteen years after it has been planted. If the outer skins are not removed the reed itself remains white. However, if the skins are removed the reed undergoes several color changes in the hot summer sun and by the time it is harvested has become a radiant brownish-red called dezfūlī. The reeds can reach three meters in length and are therefore prone to bowing. To prevent them from breaking they are tied together in bunches. Dezful reeds have joints located at short intervals along the whole length of the reed. Each of these segments can be used to make a pen. Every reed can produce ten to fifteen epigraph pens (☞ ‫) َق َل ِم َکتیبه ِنویسی‬ or ġobār pens (☞ ‫) َق َل ِم غُبار‬. When the reed is cut both sides are blocked. The reed is filled with hair-like fibers that come out in a spiral once the reed has dried and while the pen is being carved. A good Dezful reed has the following characteristics: 1.

A circumference ranging from 3–4mm to no more than 1–1.5cm; 2. Long and straight; 3. The cut surface is rounded and fleshy; 4. The interior is white, a fact that is visible from both sides of the pen; 5. The outside of

328

‫ن‬

figure 168

Dezful reeds (‫) َقلَم‬

the reed is a shiny reddish-brown; 6. Dry and heavy; 7. During carving, the pieces that are whittled away do not crumble; 8. The resulting pen is about 20cm long. (Nīkbīn 1383š/2004: 60ff.)

‫ ِنی‌ َقط‬/ney-qaṭ/ ☞ ‫َقط َزن‬ ‫نیش َقلَم‬ ِ /nīš-e qalam/ ☞ ‫َو ْحشی‬ ‫ نیم‌ ُت َر ْنج‬/nīm-toranj/ illum. A half toranj that appears on the top and bottom of a page that features a toranj and sar-toranj. (Bayānī 1353š/1974: 29) ☞ ‫ت َُرنْج‬ ‫ نیم ُ‌ر ْبعی‬/nīm-robʿī/ ☞ ‫َقطْع‬ ‫ نیم‌ َقلَم‬/nīm-qalam/ call. half nib. Part of the tongue of the pen that extends from the tip to the middle of the nib. It is used to form ligatures and some letters or parts of letters such as the first part of the letter sīn (‫ )س‬in the word ST (‫)ست‬. ☞ ‫ِک ِس ُوم َقلَم‬ ْ ‫ی‬ ‫ نیلوف ِر شاه‌عباسی‬/nīlūfar-e šāh-ʿabbāsī/ ☞ ‫َختایی‬ ‫ نیم َ‌م ّد‬/nīm-madd/ ☞ ‫ِکشیده‌ی کوتاه‬

plate 29

Prayer in nasḫ, calligraphy by Moḥammad Šafīʿ Tabrīzī (d. 1264/1847/8), Āstān-e Qods Rażvī Library, Mashhad

ِ /vāḥed-e andāze-gīrī/ unit of measurement. ☞ ‫َبنای ُحروف‬ ‫واح ِد َا ْندازه گیری‬ ‫واشور َزنی‬ /vāšūr-zanī/ Applying a thin layer of starch glue (☞ ‫ریشم‬ ُ ‫ ) ِس‬to a surface ْ before painting to reduce slippage of the paintbrush. ☞ ‫َبطانه‬ ‫ َو ْحشی‬/vaḥšī/ call. The tip of the nib that extends the furthest. Generally, the right side when the pen is applied to the support unless one is writing from left to right (☞ ‫ )چپ‌نویسی‬etc. ☞ ‫ِان ْسی‬ ‫ َو ّراق‬/varrāq/ 1 papermaker. A person who cuts paper to make pages. In the past paper was rare and therefore costly and a papermaker showed his skill by making the best use of paper when preparing the pages of a book. (LD s.v. ‫ ) َو ّراق‬2 The cut paper of a papermaker. 3 Paper seller, bookbinder. 4 scribe (☞ ‫)کا ِتب‬. ‫ َو َرقِ آ ْبدار‬/varaq-e ābdār/ uncoated paper. ☞ ‫آهار دادن‬ ‫ َو ْرز دا َدن‬/varz dādan/ to knead. In ink-making the ink paste must be carefully kneaded so that it will dissolve completely when any amount of it is added to water. Once the paste has been sufficiently kneaded it is allowed to dry. ‫ َو َر ْق داغ‬/varaq-dāġ/ lit. “page brand”. To maintain page order, in lieu of numbers catchwords (☞ ‫ )رِکابه‬were used in hand-written manuscript and even in some lithographies. However, in the 11th/17th c. it appears that scribes on the Indian Subcontinent began using shapes and numbers on the top of pages instead of catchwords. These came to be known as varaq-dāġ. (Jendī 1362š/1983; Ānandrāj s.v. ‫ رِکابه‬s.v. ‫ ; َو َرق داغ‬Māyel Heravī 1372š/1993) ☞ ‫رِکابه‬ ‫ َو َرقِ ُسلِیمانی‬/varaq-e soleymānī/ A sheet of paper that has enough space for twenty lines of text. ☞ ‫َقطْع‬ ‫ َوزیری‬/vazīrī/ ☞ ‫َقطْع‬

© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_032

‫و‬

331

‫ َو ْصل‬/vaṣl/ call. ligature. The place of contact or ligature for compound letters ِ ‫ ) ُح‬such as sīn (‫ )س‬or ṣād (‫)ص‬, and of letters in words such as (☞ ‫روف ُم َرکَّب‬ maṣlaḥat (‫ )مصلحت‬and maḥak (‫)محک‬. This ligature is usually written at halfnib (☞ ‫)نیم‌ َقلَم‬. ☞ ‫َف ْصل‬ ‫ َو ّصالی‬/vaṣṣālī/ Putting together. Rearranging the pages on new paper to reconstruct the quires (PPB 118–119) ☞ ‫ف ًّصالی ☞ َو ْقبِه‬ ‫ َو ْصلی‬/vaṣlī/ ☞ ‫کا َغ ِذ َچ ْسبانْده‬ ‫ َو ْقبِه‬/vaqbeh/ Part of a penbox (☞ ‫ ) َقل َْمدان‬in which a small container is placed.

plate 30

S̱ols̱ inscription, 891/1482, Jameʿ Mosque of Yazd

‫ های ذوصادین‬/hā-ye ẕūṣādeyn/ call. (Fig. 169) When the letter he (‫ )ه‬in medial position (‫ )ﮬ‬is written in the form of two ṣāds (‫ )ص‬that are roughly symmetrical and mirror each other. ‫ های ُم َد َّور‬/hā-ye modavvar/ call. (Fig. 170) lit. “circular hā”. The letter he (‫)ه‬ ِ ‫ ) ُح‬such as when it appears at the end of a word in original form (☞ ‫روف ُمف َْرد‬ in the word borīde (‫)بریده‬. Until the mid-19th c. in nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬any time a letter such as dāl (‫ )د‬or ẕāl (‫ )ذ‬was connected to the end of a word and followed by a single he (‫ )ه‬the two letters were connected in such as way that the he (‫ )ه‬appeared as a little curl at the end of the stroke. This rule still exists in nasḫ (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْسخ‬and šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫) ِش َک ْسته‌ی ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬.

figure 169 An example of hā-ye ẕūṣādeyn

© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_033

334

figure 170

‫ه‬

Hā-ye modavvar in the words ‫( دیده‬top) and ‫پسندیده‬ (bottom); from a čalīpā in nastaʿlīq by ʿAlī Reżā al-ʿAbbāsī Tabrīzī, 1025/1616, Reza Abbasi Museum, Tehran

335

‫ه‬

‫ ها ِمش‬/hāmeš/ lit. “border”. In codicology hāmeš refers to the three margins on a page otherwise filled with text. In most contemporary dictionaries hāmeš is considered to be equivalent to ḥāšīye (☞ ‫ )حاشیه‬margin, and as such was taken up by some codicologists. However, in codicology and manuscript writing there is a difference between ḥāšīye and hāmeš. If remarks of any length are written in the right-hand margin for recto and left-hand margin for verso the space is referred to as a ḥāšīye. In contrast, if all three margins are filled with text other than the main text of the book or treatise the space is called hāmeš. (Māyel Heravī 1369š/1990: 131) ‫ َهمایونی‬/hamāyūnī/ ☞ ‫دیوانی‬ ‫ َه ْفت َر ْنگ‬/haft-rang/ rainbow. lit. “seven colors”. Historically there were seven colors that were considered to be the original base colors. These were either 1. black, gray, red, yellow, white, dark blue, rust; or 2. yellow, blue, orange, red, green, azure blue. Each of these colors was assigned a planet and a day of the week as follows (FF s.v. ‫) َهفْت َرنْگ‬: day

planet

color

Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday

Sun Moon Mars Mercury Jupiter Venus Saturn

yellow blue orange red purple green azure blue

‫ َه ْفت َقلَم‬/haft-qalam/ call. Seven Pens. An expression that refers to the seven famous scripts: s̱ols̱ (☞ ‫)ثُ ْلث‬, nasḫ (☞ ‫)ن َ ْسخ‬, moḥaqqaq (☞ ‫) ُم َحقَّق‬, reyḥān (☞ ‫)رِیحان‬, tōqīʿ (☞ ‫)توقیع‬, reqāʿ (☞ ‫ )رِقاع‬and taʿlīq (☞ ‫) َتعلیق‬. ‫ َه ْفت َقلَمی‬/haft-qalamī/ call. of Seven Pens. A calligrapher who has mastered all of the seven pens (☞ ‫) َهفْت َقلَم‬. ‫ُنر الکی‬ ِ ‫ ه‬/honar-e lākī/ ☞ ‫الکی‌سازی‬

336

‫ه‬

‫ ه َُو الْ َح ّق‬/hovalḥaqq/ lit. “He is Truth”, “He is God”. Written at the beginning of calligraphic practice (☞ ‫ ) َم ْشق‬to bring auspiciousness. ‫ ه َُو ال َّله‬/hovallah/ lit. “He is God”. Written at the beginning of a sīāh-mašq (☞‫سیاه‬ ‫ ) َم ْشق‬or čalīpā (☞ ‫ ) َچلیپا‬to bring auspiciousness. ‫ ه َُو الْ َمطْلوب‬/hovalmaṭlūb/ lit. “He is favored”. Sometimes written at the beginning of a sīāh-mašq (☞‫ )سیاه َم ْشق‬or čalīpā (☞ ‫) َچلیپا‬.

plate 31

S̱ols̱ inscription, Ġīyās̱-ad-Dīn ʿAlī Joharī, 1028/1619, Jameʿ Mosque of ʿAtīq, Shiraz

‫ یای کِشیده‬/yā-ye kešīde/ ☞ ‫یای َم ْعکوس‬ ‫ یای َم ْعکوس‬/yā-ye maʿkūs/ call. inverted yā. (Fig. 171) When the movement of the pen (☞ ‫ ) َقلَم‬to form the letter ye (‫ )ی‬is from left to right instead of right to left. In nastaʿlīq (☞ ‫ )ن َ ْس َت ْعلیق‬this is also refers to as an elongated yā (yā-ye kešīde ‫)یای ِکشیده‬. ِ ‫ ی ِک دا ْن‬/yek-dāng-e mašqī/ ☞ ‫دانْگ‌های َم ْشقی‬ ‫گ َمشْ قی‬ ‫ ی ِک د ُُوم َقلَم‬/yek-dovom-qalam/ ☞ ‫نیم‌ َقلَم‬ ‫ ی ِک ِس ُوم َقلَم‬/yek-sevom-qalam/ call. one-third nib. When one-third of the pen width (☞ ‫ ) َد ِم َقلَم‬is used to create certain segments of letters and words. It is narrower than half nib (☞ ‫)نیم‌ َقلَم‬, but wider than nib point (☞ ‫) َو ْحشی‬. ِ ‫ ی ِکّ ه‌ی‬/yekke-ye bāṭel/ 1 An expression that refers to a some obsolete piece ‫باطل‬ of information that is written down for potential future use. 2 A piece of paper in manuscripts (☞ ‫ )ن ُْسخه‌ی َخطّی‬on which things are jotted down.

figure 171 An example of an inverted yā

© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_034

plate 32

Besmele “in the name of God” by Malek-Moḥammad Qazvīnī, 1250/1641, Museum of Decorative Arts, Esfahan

appendix 1

Map of Greater Iran

Source: http://www.iranicaonline.org/uploads/files/Iraq_i_Figure_2.jpg

© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_035

appendix 2

Map of the Persianate World

(after Amanat and Ashraf 2018)

© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_036



343

appendix 3

Major Islamic Dynasties

(Without large parts of Central Asia, China, South-east Asia and Africa) Source: Aga Khan Trust for Culture. Adapted from: Hayward Gallery, The Arts of Islam, London 1976, p. 46.

© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2022 | doi:10.1163/9789004432895_037

Bibliography of Cited, Selected Related Works, and Abbreviations This bibliography contains both cited works and works related to Persian calligraphy, arts of the book and related arts for further reading, with a special focus on literature written in Persian. Other extensive bibliographies on the greater realm of Islamic calligraphy and arts of the book can be found most notably in MC, AMT, AMTS & AMVR as well as IC.



Major Manuals, Handbooks and Dictionaries

Afshar, I. (ed.) Ṣaḥḥāfī-ye sonattī (= Traditional Bookbinding), Tehran, 1357š/1979. Afshar, I. Kāġaẕ dar zendegī-o farhang-e īrānī (= Paper in iranian Life and Culture). Tehran, 1390š/2011. Blair, S. Islamic calligraphy. Edinburgh, 2006. (= IC). Persian translation: ḫošnevīsī-ye eslāmī, transl. V. Kavusī. Tehran, 1397š/2017. Déroche, F. et al. Manuel de codicologie des manuscrits en écriture arabe. Paris, 2000. English version: Islamic codicology: an introduction to the study of manuscripts in Arabic script, transl. D. Dusinberre & D. Radzinowicz, ed. M.I. Waley. London, 2006. (= MC). Arabic version: al-Madkhal ilá ʿilm al-kitāb al-makhṭūṭ bi-al-ḥarf al-ʿArabī, transl. A.F. Sayyid. London, 2005. Persian version: dast-nāme-ye nosḫe-šenāsī-ye nosḫe-hāye be ḫaṭ-e ʿarabī, transl. S.M.H. Marʿašī. Tehran, 1395š/2016. Gacek, A. The Arabic Manuscript Tradition: A Glossary of Technical Terms and Bibliography. Leiden/Boston: 2001. (= AMT). Gacek, A. “Scribes, amanuenses, and scholars. A bibliographic survey of published Arabic literature from the manuscript age on various aspects of penmanship, bookmaking, and the transmission of knowledge”. Manuscripta Orientalia, 10, no. 2 (2004): 3–29. Gacek, A. The Arabic Manuscript Tradition: A Glossary of Technical Terms and Bibliography – Supplement. Leiden/Boston, 2008. (= AMTS). Gacek, A. Arabic Manuscripts. A Vademecum for Readers, Leiden, 2009. (= AMVR). Ghelichkhani, H.R. Zarafšān: farhang-e esṭelāḥāt-o tarkībāt-e ḫošnevīsī, ketāb-ārāyī-o nosḫepardāzī dar šeʿr-ē fārsī (= Zar-Afshān: A Dictionary of Terms relating to Calligraphy, Ornament, and the Making of Manuscripts as founded in Classical Persian Poetry). Tehran, 1392š/2013.

346

Bibliography of Cited, Selected Related Works, & Abbreviations

Muzerelle, D. Vocabulaire codicologique. Répertoire méthodique des termes français relatifs aux manuscrits. Paris, 1985. Porter, Y. Painters, Paintings and Books. An Essay on Indo-Persian Technical Literature, 12–19th centuries. New Delhi, 1994 [reprints; New Delhi, 2007; New York, 2021]. (= PPB). Ṣafarī Āq-Qalʿe, A. Nosḫe-šenāḫt: pažūhešnāme-ye nosḫe-šenāḫtī nosaḫ-e ḫaṭī-ye fārsī (= A Handbook of Persian Codicology: An Introduction to the Study of Persian Manuscripts), Tehran 1390š/2011. Sayyid, A.F. Al-Kitāb al-ʿArabī al-makhṭūṭ wa-ʿilm al- makhṭūṭāt (= Le manuscrit arabe et la codicologie). 2 vols. Cairo, 1997. Scheper, K. The Technique of Islamic Bookbinding: Methods, Materials and Regional Varieties. Leiden, 2015.



Alphabetical Bibliography

Acar, M.Ş. Türk hat sanati: araç, gereç ve formlar (= Turkish calligraphy: materials, tools and forms). Istanbul 1999. ĀD = Āyīn-e dabīrī (Naḥvī 1389š/2010). Ādāb = Ādāb-ol-ḫaṭṭ (Māyel Heravī 1372š/1993: 13–32). Adams, C.M. “Some notes on the art of marbling paper in the seventeenth century”. Bulletin of the New York Public Library, 51, 1974: 411–422. Afandī, Moṣṭafā ʿĀlī. Manāqeb-e honarvarān, transl. Tōfīq H. Sobḥānī. Tehran, 1369š/1990. ʿAfīfī, Raḥīm. Farhang-nāme-ye šeʿrī. Tehran, 1373š/1994. Afshar, Iraj. “Asnād darbāre-ye ojrat-e ketābat-o ṣaḥḥāfī dar qarn-e sīzdahom”. HM 182, 1356š/1977a: 17–25. Afshar, Iraj. “Eṭṭelāʿāt-e ketāb-dārī-o nosḫe-šenāsī dar Taẕkere-ye Naṣrābādī”. Jašnnāme-ye ostād Modarres Rażavī, ed. Żīāʾ-ol-Dīn Sajādī. Tehran, 1356š/1977b: 33–43. Afshar, Iraj. “Ṣaḥāfī az negāh-e farhang-o tārīḫ”. Ṣaḥḥāfī-ye sonnatī. pānzdah goftār darbāre-ye varrāqī, vaṣṣālī, mojallad-garī, ed. Iraj Afshar. Tehran, 1357š/1978: 77–102. Afshar, Iraj. (ed.) Ṣaḥḥāfī-ye sonnatī. pānzdah goftār darbāre-ye varrāqī, vaṣṣālī, mojallad-garī. Tehran, 1357š/1978. Afshar, Iraj. “The use of Paper in classical Persian texts”. The codicology of Islamic manuscripts. Proceedings of the Second Conference of Al-Furqān Islamic Heritage Foundation, 1993. London, 1995: 77–91. Afshar, Iraj. “Ṣaḥḥāfī va mojalladgarī”. NB 3.2, 1380š/2002: 329–396. Afshar, Iraj. “maqām-e anjāme dar nosḫe”. NB 3.5, 1381š/2003: 39–100. Afshar, Iraj. (ed.) ʿĀlam Ārāī-ye ʿAbbāsī by Eskandar-Beyk Torkamān. Tehran, 1382š/ 2004.

Bibliography of Cited, Selected Related Works, & Abbreviations

347

Afshar, Iraj. s.v. “Bookbinding” (article 2: ṣaḥḥāfi, jeld-sāzi). EIr. Online Ed. accessed 20 July 2005, available at http://www.iranica.com/articles/bookbinding-sahhafi -jeld-sazi-2. Afshar, Iraj. Kāġaẕ dar zendegī-o farhang-e īrānī (= Paper in iranian Life and Culture). Tehran, 1390š/2011. Afshar, Iraj; Raʿnā-Ḥoseynī, Kerāmat (ed.) Toḥfat-ol-moḥebbīn dar āyīn-e ḫošnevīsī-o laṭāyef-e maʿnavī-ye ān. Tehran, 1376š/1997. ĀḪ = Ādāb-ol-ḫaṭṭ (Ghelichkhani 1373š/1984: 175–201). Akimushkin, Oleg F.; Ivanov, Anatol A. “The art of illumination”. The Arts of the Book in Central Asia, 14th–16th centuries, ed. B. Gray. Paris/London, 1979: 35–57. ʿAlavī, Moḥammad Hoseyn. Taẕkare-ye ḥayāt-e ḫošnevīsān. ed. Hamid Reza Ghelichkhani. Tehran, 1392š/2013. Allen, Terry. Five essays on Islamic Art. Sebastopol, 1988. Amīn, N.ʿA. “Adawāt al-kitābah wa-mawādduhā fī al-ʿuṣūr al-Islāmīyah”. Al-Mawrid, 15/4, 1986: 131–140. Āmolī, Šams-od-Dīn Moḥammad b. Maḥmūd (8th/14th). Nafāis al-funūn fī ʿarāyis al-ʿuyūn. Tehran, 1377/1957/8. AMT = Gacek 2001. AMTS = Gacek 2008. AMVR = Gacek 2009. Ānandrāj = Moḥammad-Pādešāh (Šād) 1360š/1982. Anvarī, Hasan. Eṣṭelāḥāt-e dīvānī-ye dōre-ye ġaznavī-o seljūqī, 2nd ed. Tehran, 1373š/1994. Āqāmīrī, Amīr-Hušang. Šarafe: nur-e maʿnavī dar taẕhīb. Tehran, 1384š/2005. Āqāmīrī, Amīr-Hušang. Rasm-ol-mašq-e ṭarrāḥī-ye taẕhīb. Tehran, 1386š/2007. Āqāmīrī, Amīr-Hušang. Āmuzeš-o kārbord-e ḥāšīye dar taẕhīb. Tehran, 1386š/2007. Arberry, A.J. Specimens of Arabic and Persian Palaeography. London, 1939. Archer, W. Indian Painting from the Punjab Hills. London, 1928. Ardakānī, Ḥ. Maḥbūbī. Tārīḫ-e moʾassesāt-e tamaddonī-ye jadīd dar Īrān, I. Tehran, 1352š/1973: 211–29. Arnold, T.W and A. Grohmann. The Islamic Book. A contribution to its art and history from the VII–XVIII century. Paris, 1929. Arnold, T.W and A. Grohmann. Painting in Islam, Oxford, 1928 (reprinted 1965). Aslanapa, O. “The Art of Bookbinding”. Basil Gray, ed. The Arts of the Book in Central Asia. Paris & London, 1979: 58–91. ʿAtīqī, Moḥammad Hoseyn. “Abzārhā-ye Ṣaḥḥāfī.” Ṣaḥḥāfī-e sonnatī. pānzdah goftār darbāre-ye varrāqī, vaṣṣālī, mojallad-garī, ed. Iraj Afshar. Tehran, 1978: 60–62. Āẕarnūš, Āẕartāš. Rāh-hāye nofūẕ-e fārsī dar farhang-o zabān-e ʿarab-e jāhelī. 2nd ed. Tehran, 1374š/1995. Azimdzhanova, S. “New data concerning Khatt-i Baburi”. Central Asian Review, Vol. 12 (1964), n. 2: 149–155.

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Babinger, F. Zur Geschichte der Papiererzeugung im osmanischen Reiche. Berlin, 1931. Baer, E. Islamic ornament. New York, 1998. Baer, E. “Dawāt”. EI, new ed., suppl. 3–4: 203–204. Baġdādī, Ḥāšim Moḥammed. Qavāʿed-ol-ḫaṭṭ-ol-ʿarabī. Beirut, 1989. Baġdādī, Ḫaṭīb. al-Kifāya fī ‘Ilm al-Dirāya. Hyderabad, 1357/1938/9. Bahār, Moḥammad Taqī (Malek-o-Šoʿarāʾ). Sabk-šenāsī. 5th ed. Tehran, 1369š/1990. Baḫtīār, Moẓaffar. “Sanad-e ejāze dar ḫōšnevīsī”. Ketāb-e māh-e honar, 69–70, 1383š/2004: 22. Baker, D. “Arab papermaking”. The paper conservator, 15, 1991: 28–35. Baker, D. “A note on the expression ‘… a manuscript on Oriental paper’”. Manuscripts of the Middle East, 4, 1989: 67–68. Baker C.F. Qurʾan Manuscripts Calligraphy, Illumination, Design. London, 2007. Baker, D. “Arab paper making”. The Paper Conservator, 15, 1991 (1947): 411–422. Balafrej, L. The making of the artist in late Timurid painting. Edinburgh, 2019. Baratzadeh, Leyli. Ḫošnevīsī dar īrān. Tehran, 1384š/2005. Barkeshli, Mandana. “Historical Persian Recipes for Paper Dyes”. Restaurator. International Journal for the Preservation of Library and Archival Material 37(1), 2016: 49–89. Bavavéas, M. Th. and Humbert, G. “Une méthode de description du papier non filigrané (dit ‘oriental’)”. Gazette du livre médiéval, 17, 1990: 24–30. Bayani, Manijeh et al. The Decorated Word: Qurʾans of the 17th to 19th centuries. (The Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, IV, pt. 1), London/Oxford, 1999. Bayānī, Mehdī. Fehrest-e nemāyešgāh-e ḫoṭūṭ-e ḫōš-e nastaʿlīq-e ketābḫāne-ye mellī. Tehran, 1328š/1949. Bayānī, Mehdī. Ketāb-šenāsī-ye nosḫeha-ye ḫaṭṭī. Tehran, 1353š/1974. Bayānī, Mehdī. Aḥvāl-o ās̱ār-e ḫōšnevīsān. 2nd ed. Tehran, 1363š/1984. Bayānī, Mehdī. Majmūʿe-ye doktor Mehdī Bayānī. Tehran, 1363š/1984. Beach, M.C. and Koch, E. The King of the World. The Padshahnama. An imperial Mughal manuscript form the Royal Library, Windsor. London, 1977. Beach, M.C. and Koch, E. The Grand Mogul. Williamstown, 1978. Beach, M.C. and Koch, E. The Imperial Image. Washington, 1982. Behzad, H.T. “The preparation of the miniaturist’s materials”. SPA, Vol. 3, 1977: 1921–1927. Beit-Arié, Malachi. “Quantitative typology of Oriental paper patterns”. Le papier au moyen âge: histoire et techniques, ed. M. Zerdoun Bat-Yehouda. Turnhout, 1999: 41–53. Beit-Arié, Malachi. “The Oriental Arabic paper”. Gazette du livre médiéval, 28, 1996, 9–12. Beygī, M. Ḥasan. Morūrī bar ṣanāyeʿ-dastī-ye īrān. Tehran, 1365š/1976. Bickford, Maggie. “The Painting of Flowers and Birds in Sung-Yuan China”. Maxwell K. Hearn; Judith G. Smith, eds. Arts of the Sung and Yuan. New York, 1996: 293–315.

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Index of Technical Notions, Materials and Terms See the General Index for keywords in the English language and for references to illustration. āb-čīn see āb-ḫošk-kon āb-davāt-kon (small metal spoon) 15 āb-e morakkab (liquid added to ink) 15–16 āb-e zar (gold ink) 15 āb-ḫošk-kon (“water dryer’’) 15 abjad (abjad) 24, 26, 27 ābnūs (ebony) 16 ābrang (watercolor) 15 abrī (marbling) 27, 29 abr-o-bād see abrī āb-ṭalā (gold ink) 15 abtas̱ (abtas) 24 abzār-e mašq see lavāzem-e mašq afšān (golden or coloured hues sprinkling)  42 afšān-e ġobār (“gold dust sprinkling”) 43 afšāngarī (gold sprinkling) 43 āhār (sizing, size) 17 āhār dādan (to size) 18–19 āhār zadan (starch sizing) 19 āhār-e esparze (psyllium starch/sizing) 17 āhār-e gol-e ḫatmī (Alcea sizing) 20 āhār-e nešāste (starch sizing) 20–21 āhār-e pūst (parchment size) 18 āhār-e saṭḥī (surface sizing) 19 āhār-e serīšom (fish glue sizing) 19 āhār-māye (sizing stock) 20 āhār-mohre (act of sizing and burnishing paper) 20 āhār-mohre-dār (sized and burnished paper)  20 ajzā-ye ġeyr-e taḥṣīlī (non-learned components) 31 ajzā-ye ḫaṭṭ (script components) 31 ajzā-ye sette-ye qalam (six components of the pen) 31 ajzā-ye taḥṣīlī (learned components) 31 ʿakkāsī (stencil technique) 221 āl (morinda) 16 alʿabd-ol-fānī (“the mortal servant”) 45 al-mōʾammarāt (fourfold scripts) 45 almoẕneb (guilty, transgressor) 45

āl-tamġā (red seal) 16 āltūn-tamġā (golden seal) 16 ālūme (alum) 16 anār see rang-e pūst-e anār anārī see ḫatāyī ang (paintings in the margins) 47, 49 anjāme (colophon) 47 anzarūt (bitter resin) 47 aqlām (pens) 43 aqlām-e haft-gāne see haft-qalam aqlām-e sabʿe see haft-qalam aqlām-e šeš-gāne (Six Pens) 43, 45 aqlām-e sette see aqlām-e šeš-gāne ʿarabāne see eslīmī ārābesk see ḫatāyī ʿašare see dahe ašbaʿ (letters fatter than normal) 41 asbāb-e ketābat see lavāzem-e mašq aṣbāġ see ḥosn-e ḫaṭṭ ašḫār (base black) 41 āstar-bandī (doublure, making of) 16 āstar-e badraġe (doublure) 16 ʿaṭf (cover spine) 221 āyna-lī (mirrored script) 21 az qalam oftādan (“to fall from the pen”) 32 bādāmak (“little almond”) 51 baġalī see qaṭʿ bāmaze see maze banā-ye ḥorūf (letter base) 52–53 banāyī see maʿqelī band 53 baqam (logwood (Haematoxylon campechianum L.)) 52 bargardān see ḫaṭṭ-e bargardān barg-e bādbezanī see ḫatāyī barg-e bīdī see qalam-tarāš barg-e ḫatāyī see ḫatāyī bastemān (binding medium) 51 baṭāne (undercoat, primer, backing) 52 bayāż (final draft) 54 bayāżī see qaṭʿ

368

Index of Technical Notions, Materials and Terms

bazrak see rōġan-e bazrak bāzū-bandī see qaṭʿ besmele (in the name of God.) 52 beyn-e soṭūr (white space) 55 beyt (verse) 54 bī-rang (“without color”) 55 bostān-afrūz (Amaranth) 51 bostej/bostaj (frankincense) 51 būm (primed surface) 53 būm-e marqeš (marcasite canvas) 53 būm-e zarak (zarak canvas) 53 būm-keš (canvas/stretching pliers) 53 čahār-dāng-e mašqī see dānghā-ye mašqī čalīpā (“slanted, oblique, intersecting”) 114 čap-nevīs (“left-writer”) 110 čap-nevīsī (“left-writing”) 110 čāp-nevīsī (“print writing”) 108 čāq (fat) 108 čāqū see qalam-tarāš čāqū-sāzī see qalamdān-sāzī čāqū-tīz-kon see sang-e qalam-tarāš čarbe (oiled paper) 110 čarbe-bardārī see čarbe čarbī-ye dūde (carbon black grease) 110 čarġān see ṭoġrā čarḫ (spin) 110, 112 čarḫān see ṭoġrā časb (binder, paste, adhesive, glue) 112 časbāndan-e varaq-e ṭalā (applying gold leaf) 113 časb-e ārd (flour glue) 112 časb-e berenj (rice glue) 113 časb-e māhī (fish glue, isinglass) 114 časb-e nešāste (starch glue) 114 časb-e ostoḫān (bone glue) 113 časb-e pūst (hide glue) 113–114 čehār-dāng-e mašqī (four dāngs) 149 čehre-gošā see čehre-pardāz čehre-gošāyī see čehre-pardāzī čehre-pardāz (portraitist) 115 čehre-pardāzī (portraiture) 115 daffat (book board) 149 dāġī (blotches of ink) 148 dahe (“decade”) 156 dāl (letter) 148 dāman (“skirt”) 148

dam-e qalam (pen tip) 150 dāmgā see tamġā dandāne-dār (“having teeth”) 150 dandān-mūšī (“mouse tooth”) 150 dāng (unit of measurement) 148 dānghā-ye mašqī see dāng dārolketābe (where manuscripts were written) 148 dārolkotob (where manuscripts where kept) 148 dārolkottāb (where calligraphers worked)  148 dastak (ledger) 149 davāt (inkwell) 150 davāt-āšūr (conical tool) 150 davāt-dār (“having an inkwell”) 152 davāt-dārī (royal secretary) 152 davāt-e bīkār (“unemployed inkwell”) 150 davāt-gar (maker of inkwells) 152 davāt-ḫāne (royal archive) 152 davātī see davāt-dār davāyer (“circles”) 153 davāyer-e maʿkūs (“inverted circles”) 154 davāyer-e mozdavaj (“coupled circles”)  153–154 davīt-dār see davāt-dār davīt-ḫāne see davāt-ḫāne dāyere-ye ḥorūf see davāyer dayjūr (black, dark) 156 derafš (awl) 149 derāz-dāman see šekārī dīvān (storage for books) 156 dīvān-e enšāʾ (“composition bureau”) 156 dīvān-e ṭoġrā (“ṭoġrā bureau”) 156 dīvānī (script) 156–157 dō-dāng-e mašqī (two dāngs) 149 dōlat-ābādī (type of paper) 153 dō-lāye kardan see kāġaẕ-e časbānde dō-mū šodan (“becoming two hairs”) 155 dō-o-nīm dāng-e mašqī see dānghā-ye mašqī dō-pūst kardan (“to make two skins”)  154–155 dōr see saṭḥ-o-dōr dōr-e majāzī see čarḫ dōr-gīrī see qalam-gīrī dō-saṭr nevīsī see beyt dō-sevom qalam (two-thirds nib) 155

Index of Technical Notions, Materials and Terms dō-vō-nīm-dāng-e mašqī (two and a half dāngs) 149 dūde (soot, carbon black, lampblack) 155 edmān (consistantly practicing) 31 eʿjām (punctuation, diacritical marks) 42 ejāze (ejāze script) 26, 29 ejāze-nāme (certificate, authorization)  29–31 ekmāl see ḥosn-e ḫaṭṭ emteḥān-e qalam see tajrobe-ye qalam emżāʾ (signature) 45 enmejāj (dripping of ink) 49 ensī (shorter side of nib) 47 enṭebāʿ (printing) 47 eʿrāb (diacritical marks) 42 ersāl (exit/extension) 32 eṣlāḥ-e ḫaṭṭ (script touch-up) 41–42 eslāmī see eslīmī eslīmī (arabesque patterns) 33, 35 eslīmī-ḫatāyī (arabesque) 37, 39–41 eslīmī-ye abrī see eslīmī eslīmī-ye bargī see eslīmī eslīmī-ye dahān-aždarī see eslīmī eslīmī-ye mārī see eslīmī eslīmī-ye pīčak-dār see eslīmī eslīmī-ye sāde see eslīmī esparak (dyer’s rocket (Reseda luteola L.))  32 ešpūn (leading) 41 estejāze see ejāze-nāme esteketāb (to write) 33 estensāḫ (to reproduce (a text)) 33 estīl-e īrānī see šīve-ye īrānī eʿtedāl-e qalam (reed pen) 42 etmām see ḥosn-e ḫaṭṭ etteṣāl see vaṣl ʿeyne-e fenjānī see fenjānī ʿeyne-e ṣādī see ṣādī ʿeyne-e so̱ʿbānī see s̱oʿbānī fāq (slit in nib) 226 fāq zadan (create slit in nib) 226 fard-e bāṭel (scrap of paper) 226 farīse see rang-e farīse fāṣele-ye ḥorūf va kalamāt (interliteral space) 226 fāṣele-ye saṭr-ḥā (interlinear space) 226

369

faṣl (unconnectedness of letters) 227 faṣṣālī (setting/assembling margins) 227 fatḥ (first step in cutting reed pen) 226 fenjānī (“cup-like”) 227 form-e īrānī see šīve-ye īrānī fostoqī (pistachio colored) 227 fūtak (airbrush) 227 ġafarallah-lah see ġafarollah ẕonūbah ġafarollah ẕonūbah (“may God forgive his sins”) 224 ġalīẓ (thick, viscous) 224 galūyī-ye qalamū (ferrule) 274 gerd kardan (rounding) 271 gerd-sāzī see gerd kardan gereftan-e qalam (holding the pen) 271 gereftan-e qalamū (holding the paintbrush) 271 gereftan-e ṣafḥe (holding the page) 271 gereft-o-gīr (“caught and catch”) 273 gereh (“knots”) 273 gereh-andāzī see gereh gereh-kešī (“pulling knots”) 273 gezlak (small knife) 273 gōāš (gouache) 274 ġobār see qalam-e ġobār gōdī (concavity) 274, 276 ġofera-lah (“may he be forgiven”) 224 gol-e ḫatāyī see ḫatāyī gol-e landanī see šīve-ye īrānī gol-e šāh-ʿabbāsī see ḫatāyī gol-o-bolbol see gol-o-morġ gol-o-bote-sāzī see šīve-ye īrānī gol-o-morġ (“flower and bird”) 274 gol-pīč see ḫatāyī gol-rang see šāhāb golzār (“a place full of flowers”) 273 gūše see lačakī gūšt-dār see čāq ḫafī (tiny) 137 haft-qalam (Seven Pens) 335 haft-qalamī (calligrapher who mastered seven pens) 335 haft-rang (rainbow; seven colors) 335 ḥajjār see sang-tarāš ḥak kardan (to engrave, carve) 122 ḫāk mālīdan bar qalam see ḫāk-bīz

370

Index of Technical Notions, Materials and Terms

ḫāk-bīz (small sieve) 125 ḫākestar-e ṭarḥ (“design ashes”) 125 ḥakkākī (engraving) 122 ḥal kardan (“to dissolve”) 123 ḫalʿat dādan-e ḥorūf (“to dress letters in a robe”) 139 ḥālek (deep black) 118 ḥal-kārī see zar-ḥall ḥalqe-ye ḥorūf see davāyer ḫalvat-o-jalvat (“expansion and contraction”) 139 ḫām (“raw”) 126 ḥamāyelī see qaṭʿ hamāyūnī see dīvānī ḫāme see qalam ḫāme bar taḫte nahādan (prepare tools for writing) 126 ḫāme bastan (making of paintbrush) 126 ḫāme sar kardan (carving of tip of pen) 126 ḫāme zadan see fāq zadan ḫāme-jonbān (writer, scribe, calligrapher)  126 hāmeš (border; margin) 335 ḫāme-ye fūlād (pen with metal tip) 126 ḫāme-ye mū see qalam ḫāme-zan see qaṭ zan ḫamse see panje ḫānā (legible) 141 ḥanāyī (paper stained with henna) 123 ḫāne-kešī see jadval-bandī ḫanjarī (rendering of letter re) 141 ḥarakāt see eʿrāb ḥarf (letter) 118 ḥarrarah (“written”) 118 ḥāšīye (margin) 118 ḥāšīye-negārī (margin writing) 118 ḫātam (seal) 125 ḫatāyī (script) 126 ḫatāyī-e eslīmī see ḫatāyī ḫātemat-ol-ketāb see ḫāteme ḫāteme (end of letter of text) 125 ḫaṭṭ (line) 130 ḫaṭṭāšī see ḫaṭṭ-naqqāšī ḫaṭṭāṭ see ḫōšnevīs ḫaṭṭ-e āyeneī see ḫaṭṭ-e bargardān ḫaṭṭ-e bāborī (script) 130–131 ḫaṭṭ-e banāyī see maʿqelī ḫaṭṭ-e bargardān (“reversed script”) 131–132

ḫaṭṭ-e bāṭel (void line) 131 ḫaṭṭ-e borīde see qaṭṭāʿī ḫaṭṭ-e boṭlān see ḫaṭṭ-e bāṭel ḫaṭṭ-e čalīpā see čalīpā ḫaṭṭ-e čap nevīs see čap-nevīsī ḫaṭṭ-e dīvānī see dīvānī ḫaṭṭ-e dorošt (“large script”) 133 ḫaṭṭ-e ġobār see qalam-e ġobār ḫaṭṭ-e golzār see golzār ḫaṭṭ-e halālāne see ṭoġrā ḫaṭṭ-e ḥāmel see korsī ḫaṭṭ-e korsī see korsī ḫaṭṭ-e kūfī see kūfī ḫaṭṭ-e maʿqelī see maʿqelī ḫaṭṭ-e mīzān see korsī ḫaṭṭ-e moḥaqqaq see moḥaqqaq ḫaṭṭ-e mosalsal see mosalsal ḫaṭṭ-e motaqābel see ḫaṭṭ-e bargardān ḫaṭṭ-e moteʿākes see ḫaṭṭ-e bargardān ḫaṭṭ-e mozavvar (“hypocrite script”) 134 ḫaṭṭ-e nāḫonī (“fingernail script”) 135 ḫaṭṭ-e nasḫ see nasḫ ḫaṭṭ-e nastaʿlīq see nastaʿlīq ḫaṭṭ-e nešaste (“sitting script”) 135 ḫaṭṭ-e pīrāmūz see pīr-āmūz ḫaṭṭ-e poḫte see poḫte ḫaṭṭ-e ravān see ḫānā ḫaṭṭ-e reqāʿ see reqāʿ ḫaṭṭ-e reyḥān see reyḥān ḫaṭṭ-e rīz (“tiny script”) 134 ḫaṭṭ-e roqʿe see roqʿe ḫaṭṭ-e sāye-rōšan see šekaste-baste ḫaṭṭ-e sols see sols ḫaṭṭ-e tafannonī (“playful script”) 132 ḫaṭṭ-e taḥrīrī see taḥrīrī ḫaṭṭ-e taʿlīq see taʿlīq ḫaṭṭ-e tarqīn see tarqīn ḫaṭṭ-e tazīīnī (decorative/ornamental script) 132 ḫaṭṭ-e tōaʾmān see tōaʾmān ḫaṭṭ-e ṭoġrā see ṭoġrā ḫaṭṭ-e ṭūmār (“scroll script”) 134 ḫaṭṭ-e zamīne see korsī ḫaṭṭ-goẕār (scribe, writer, calligrapher) 134 ḫaṭṭ-naqqāšī (pictorial writing) 137 ḫaṭṭ-nevīs see ḫōšnevīs ḫaṭṭ-or-rīāsī see qalam-or-rīyāsī

Index of Technical Notions, Materials and Terms hā-ye modavvar (appearances of letter he)  333 hā-ye ẕūṣādeyn (appearances of letter he)  333 ḥebr (ink; soot; black ink) 118 ḫelʿat dādan see ḫalʿat dādan-e ḥorūf ḥesāb-e jommal see abjad ḥesāb-e jommal (well-shaped, beauty of formation) 120 ḥezb see sī-pāre ḫōd-rang (“self-dyeing”) 141 honar-e lākī see lākī-sāzī ḥorūf-čīn (typesetter, compositor) 119 ḥorūf-e ʿamūdī (vertical letters) 119 ḥorūf-e bargardān (“reversed letters”) 119 ḥorūf-e dāyereī see davāyer ḥorūf-e derāz (“long letters”) 119 ḥorūf-e došvār (difficult letters) 119 ḥorūf-e kāšefī (type of talisman script) 120 ḥorūf-e mofrad (uncompounded letters/ singular letters) 120 ḥorūf-e morakkab (compound letters) 120 ḥorūf-e motašābe (analogous letters) 120 ḥorūf-e taḫt (flat/plain letters) 119 ḥorūf-e tarṣīf see korsī ḥorūf-e ṭelesmāt (talisman script) 120 ḫōš-ḫaṭṭ (“good script”) 141 ḥosn-e hamjavārī (beauty of proximity) 122 ḥosn-e ḫaṭṭ (beauty of script) 120–122 ḥosn-e mojāverat see ḥosn-e hamjavārī ḥosn-e vażʿ (beauty of positioning) 122 ḫōšnevīs (calligrapher) 141 ḫōšnevīs šodan (to become a calligrapher) 141–142, 145 ḫōšnevīsī dar īrān (calligraphy in Iran)  142–145 ḫōš-qalam (“good pen”) 141 ḫoṭbe (“sermon, speech”) 132 ḫoṭūṭ-e haft-gāne see haft-qalam ḫoṭūṭ-e šeš-gāne see aqlām-e šeš-gāne ḫoṭūṭ-e sette see aqlām-e šeš-gāne hovalḥaqq (He is Truth) 336 hovallah (He is God) 336 hovalmaṭlūb (He is favored) 336 jadval (“grid”) 95 jadval-bandī (“grid” to reduce or enlarge design) 95–96

371

jadval-e moḥarrar (“grid”) 96 jadval-keš (ruler) 96 jaʿl (forgery) 96, 99–100 jalī (large; clear) 104 jalī-ye ṣafḥe (calligraphic specimen) 104 jalvat see ḫalvat-o-jalvat jamʿ kardan-e saṭr (to draw in/furl the lines of text) 104 jā-namāzī see qaṭʿ jazʿ (onyx) 96 jazm (flat nib) 96 jeld (book cover) 100 jeld-bandī see sang-e qalam-tarāš jeld-e dō-lāyī see ṣaḥḥāfī jeld-e kāġaẕī (paper binding) 103 jeld-e kūbīde see jeld-e żarbī jeld-e lākī see jeld-e rōġanī jeld-e lākī-rōġanī see jeld-e rōġanī jeld-e lāyī see ṣaḥḥāfī jeld-e lōlā-dār (hinged binding) 104 jeld-e maġzī see ṣaḥḥāfī jeld-e mangane see jeld-e żarbī jeld-e moʿarraq (mosaic binding) 104 jeld-e rōġanī (lacquered binding) 100 jeld-e sejāf-dār (hemmed binding) 100 jeld-e sūḫt (burnt binding) 100, 103 jeld-e sūzanī-ye būm-e čarmī (embroidered leather binding) 103 jeld-e ṭalā-pūš (“gold-covered” binding) 103 jeld-e żarbī (embossed binding) 103 jeld-goẕārī see sang-e qalam-tarāš jeld-sāzī see sang-e qalam-tarāš joft see rang-e joft jōhar (ink) 106 jōhar-e rōnās see rang-e rīše-ye rōnās jong (anthology/album) 106 jozʾ see sī-pāre jozv (quire) 96 jozv-bandī see šīrāze-bandī kāġaẕ-borī see qaṭṭāʿī kāġaẕ-e āb-ḫošk-kon see āb-ḫošk-kon kāġaẕ-e abrī see abrī kāġaẕ-e abr-o-bād see abrī kāġaẕ-e alvān see rang-āmīzī-ye kāġaẕ kāġaẕ-e časbānde (pasteboard) 252 kāġaẕ-e marmar (marbled paper) 252 kāġaẕ-e našāf see āb-ḫošk-kon

372

Index of Technical Notions, Materials and Terms

kāġaẕ-e pūstī (tracing paper) 251 kāġaẕ-e rangī (colored paper) 252 kāġaẕ-e sonbāde see sonbāde kāġaẕ-e sūzan-zade (transferring a designs) 252 kāġaẕ-e taḥrīrī (writing paper) 251 kāġaẕ-gīr (paper clip) 252 kāġaẕ-sāzī (paper making) 252 kājīre see šāhāb kamand ( three-sided grid) 262 kam-māye (thin/weak) 262 kam-māye (thin/weak/unskilled) 262 kam-rang see raqīq kārdak see šafre kārd-e kaj (“slanted knife”) 251 katabahū (“(he) wrote”) 254 kāteb (scrivener, scribe, calligrapher) 251 kāteb-e darj (writer of rulings) 251 katībe (cornice/inscription, epigraph) 255 katībe-negārī see katībe katībe-nevīsī see katībe katībe-ye sar-lōḥ (frontispiece epigraph)  257 katībe-ye sar-sūre see sar-sūre kāžīre see šāhāb kelk (wooden reed) 262 kelk-e kabūtar-dom (“dove-tailed pen”) 262 kelk-pīrā (calligrapher) 262 kešīde (elongation) 260 kešīde-nevīsī (elongated writing) 260–261 kešīde-ye kūtāh (short elongation) 261 kešīde-ye morakkab see kešīde-nevīsī kešīde-ye nīme-morakkab see kešīde-nevīsī kešīde-ye sāde see kešīde-nevīsī ketābat (writing, calligraphy) 252, 254 ketābat kardan (to write, to script) 254 ketābat-e čāp-e sangī see čāp-nevīsī ketābat-e ḫafī see qalam-e ḫafī ketābat-e moṣḥaf see moṣḥaf-nevīsī ketāb-dār see ketāb-dārī ketāb-dārī (librarianship) 254 ketābe (writing on banner) 254 ketāb-šenāsī (codicology/bibliology, catalogue) 254 kīs (wrinkle, pucker) 269 kondī (“slowness, bluntness”) 262 konj see lačakī korsī (baseline) 257–259

korsī-bandī see korsī korsī-ye ʿamūdī see korsī korsī-ye ḥorūf see korsī kottāb see ketābat kūbīde see jeld-e żarbī kūfī (Kufic) 262–265 kūfī-ye ʿarabī see kūfī kūfī-ye banāyī see kūfī; maʿqelī kūfī-ye īrānī (Persian-style Kufic) 269 kūfī-ye maʿqelī see kūfī; maʿqelī kūfī-ye movaššaḥ see kūfī kūfī-ye pīrāmūz see pīr-āmūz kūfī-ye tazʾīnī see kūfī kūtāh (short) 262 lačakī (quarter of a full toranj) 279 laffāfe see qolloq lāġar (thin) 278 laġzeš-e qalam (slippage of the pen) 281 lājavard (lapis lazuli) 278 lājavardī (ultramarine) 278 lāk (shellac) 278 lākī see lākī-sāzī lākī-sāzī (lacquerwork) 279 laqab-e ḫōšnevīs (calligrapher epithet) 281 lavāzem-e mašq (calligraphy supplies) 282 lāyoqraʾ (“cannot be read”) 279 lekātebeh see lerāqemeh lemoḥarrereh see lerāqemeh lerāqemeh (“(it) is from the author”) 281 lesān see zabāne līq-dān see davāt līqe (wadding) 283 līqe-dān see davāt mad dādan see kešīde-nevīsī mādde-tārīḫ (chronogram) 285 maġz-e qalam (pith, “heart of the pen”) 302 maḥfaẓe see qolloq majmūʿe (compilation, collection) 286 majʿūl see jaʿl makān-e ketābat (place for writing) 306, 308 maktūb (written) 308 maʿkūs see ḫaṭṭ-e bargardān malfūf (“twisted”) 308 malle see rang-e malle manṣab-e ketābat (“writing rank”) 311

Index of Technical Notions, Materials and Terms manšūr (charter, declaration, proclamation) 308 manšūr-nevīs (charter writer, secretary) 311 manzel (division of Quranic manuscripts) 308 maʿqelī (geometric Kufic) 302 maʿrefat-ol-ḫaṭṭ (knowledge of calligraphy) 302 marġaš see marqašīšā marḥale-ye ʿālī (advanced stage) 289 marḥale-ye ḫōš (good stage) 289 marḥale-ye mobtadī (elementary stage) 289 marḥale-ye momtāz (superior stage) 289 marḥale-ye motavasseṭ see marḥale-ye mobtadī marḥale-ye ostādī see ostād marmarī see kāġaẕ-e marmar marqaš see marqašīšā marqašīšā (marcasite) 290 marqūm (written, letter) 292 mašaqaho ((he) wrote) 298 maškūl see eʿrāb mašq (calligraphy practice) 295–296 mašq kardan (repeating) 296 mašq-e ʿamalī see mašq-e qalamī mašq-e ḫīālī (imaginary/free-style practice) 296 mašq-e naqlī (copy, translational practice) 297–298 mašq-e naẓarī (visual practice) 296–297 mašq-e qalamī (applied practice) 296 mašqī see qalam-e mašqī maššāq see ḫōšnevīs masṭar (ruling frame) 294 masṭar kešīdan (ruling of paper) 294 matn-o-ḥāšīe-šode (mounted) 286 mā-yoqraʾ (“that which is possible to read”) 285 maze (beautiful calligraphy) 294 māzū (oak marble gall (Andricus kollari L.))  285 māzūj see māzū medād (pencil, ink) 287 meġlab see zabāne meḥbarah/maḥbarah (inkwell, littel box)  286 melvāq see davāt-āšūr memsaḥe see qalam-pāk-kon

373

meqaṭṭ see qaṭ zan mermale see ḫāk-bīz mesann see sang-e qalam-tarāš mesqāt see āb-davāt-kon meṣrāʿ (hemistich) 300 meydān-e qalam see tarāšīdan-e qalam mīšan (sheep skin) 312 moʿallaq see ṭoġrā modhām (greenish black) 287 mofradāt (“simple elements”) 305 mofrad-nevīsī (writing the alphabet) 305 moġlaq (elaborate, complex) 305 moḥabber (soemone who writes well) 286 moḥaqqaq (script) 287 moḥarraf (sharp angled pen nib) 287 moḥarrar (written) 286 moḥarrer (writer, secretary) 286 mohre (bead) 312 mohr-e ketāb see sajʿ-e melkī mohre zadan (to burnish) 312 mohre-sāyī see ḥakkākī mohr-kanī see ḥakkākī molḥaqe (moving of pen) 308 monšaʾāt (letters, correspondence) 308 moqarmaṭ (narrowly and tightly written)  305 moqaṭṭaʿ-nevīsī (fragment writing) 305–306 moqavvā (papier-mâché) 306 morakkab (ink) 292–293, 293 morakkab-bardārī (taking ink) 293 morakkab-dān see davāt morakkab-e alvān (colored ink) 293 morakkab-ḫošk-kon see āb-ḫošk-kon morakkab-sāz see morakkab moraqqaʿ (cloak) 292 moraqqaʿ (scrapbook album) 290 moraqqaš (marcasite canvas) 53 moraṣṣaʿ see tarṣīʿ morġī (letter re in nastaʿlīq) 290 mosalsal (linked, connected) 294 mos̱annā see ḫaṭṭ-e bargardān mosavvade (blackened; written) 295 mosavved (blackening) 294 moṣḥaf (volume, codex, book) 298 moṣḥaf-nevīsī (writing the Quran) 300 mostavī (flat trimming of nib) 294 mošte (mallet) 295 motaʿākes see ḫaṭṭ-e bargardān

374

Index of Technical Notions, Materials and Terms

motalāṣeq (Kufic script) 285 moṭallā-kārī see moṭallā-sāzī moṭallā-sāzī (gilding) 300, 302 motaqābel see ḫaṭṭ-e bargardān movarrab-negārī (“slanted writing”) 312 moẕahhab (illuminated) 287 moẕahheb (illuminator) 287 możarras see dandān-mūšī moẕayyal (footnote, addenda) 287 mozdavaj see davāyer-e mozdavaj moẕneb see almoẕneb

noqṭe-ye sahv (mistaken dot) 327 noqṭe-ye šak (“dot of doubt”) 327 noqṭe-ye tajrobe see tajrobe-ye qalam nosḫe (duplicate; copy) 321 nosḫe bardāštan (copying; transcribing) 321 nosḫe-ye čāpī (printed edition) 321 nosḫe-ye ḫaṭṭī (manuscript) 321 nosḫe-ye saqīm (faulty edition) 323 nozūl (downstroke; descent) 314 nozūl-e ḥaqīqī (true decent) 314 nozūl-e majāzī (virtuel descent) 315

nāḫonī see ḫaṭṭ-e nāḫonī naḥt (shaving of nib) 314 namaqah see tarqīme napoḫte see ḫām naqāšī-ye lākī see lākī-sāzī naql see mašq-e naqlī naqqāš-bāšī (chief court painters) 323 naqqāšī-ḫaṭṭ (calligraphy painting) 323 naqš andāzī-ye sāyešī (mālešī) (image transfer by rubbing) 323 naqše (map, chart) 323 narm (soft) 314 nāseḫ (copier; scribe; scrivener) 314 nasḫ (script) 320–321 nasḫ-e īrānī see nasḫ nasḫ-e yāqūt see nasḫ nasḫtaʿlīq see nastaʿlīq nassāḫ see nāseḫ nastaʿlīq (script) 315–317, 319–320 naštarī see qalam-tarāš nesbat see tanāsob ney-qaṭ see qaṭ zan ney-ye dezfūlī (Dexful reeds) 327–328 nīlūfar-e šāh-ʿabbāsī see ḫatāyī nīm-madd see kešīde-ye kūtāh nīm-qalam (half nib) 328 nīm-robʿī see qaṭʿ nīm-toranj (half toranj) 328 nīš-e qalam see vaḥšī nōk-e qalam see dam-e qalam noqre (silver) 323 noqṭe (dot, point) 324 noqṭe-goẕārī see banā-ye ḥorūf noqṭe-pardāz see pardāz noqṭe-rīzī-ye kelk (small drop of ink) 323 noqṭe-ye nōk-rīz see noqṭe-rīzī-ye kelk

ʿofīya ʿanh (“may he be forgiven!”) 221 omm-ol-ḫoṭūṭ (“mother of scripts”) 45 ʾōqāt-e ketābat (times for calligraphy) 49 ostād (master) 32–33 oṣūl (“principles”) 42 oṣūl-e davāzdah-gāne see qavāʿed-e davāzdah-gāne-ye ḫōšnevīsī oṣūl-e ḫōšnevīsī see qavāʿed-e davāzdahgāne-ye ḫōšnevīsī pahnā-ye qalam see dam-e qalam pāk-nevīs (final draft) 57 pālāyeš-e morakkab (refining the ink) 57 panj-dāng-e mašqī (five dāngs) 149 panje (symbol) 59 panṭ (point) 59 pardāz (painting technique) 58 pargār (drafting compass) 58 pāšānī-ye ḫaṭṭ (writing largely and loosely)  57 pāšne-ye ḥorūf (heel of letter) 57 pāšne-ye qalamū (heel of paintbrush) 57 pīāz see rang-e pūst-e pīāz pīr-āmūz (script) 60, 64 pīš-nevīs (draft) 62 poḫte (good calligraphy) 57 por-rang see ġalīẓ pošt-kūbī (backing) 58–59 pošt-nevīsī (endorsement, endorsing) 59 pūst (skin, hide) 59–60 pūst-e gerdū (walnut hulls) 60 qalam (reed pen/pen, script) 233, 236 qalam bastan see qalamū-sāzī qalam dāḫel-e ḫaṭṭ sāḫtan (“to put the pen in the writing”) 239

Index of Technical Notions, Materials and Terms qalam dar ḫāreš āvardan (“to make the pen itch”) 240 qalam rāndan (to write, sign) 240 qalam sar kardan (to carve a pen) 241 qalam-andāz (without elongation) 236 qalamdān (penbox) 239 qalamdān-sāz (penbox maker) 239 qalamdān-sāzī (penbox making) 239–240 qalam-dast (calligrapher) 240 qalam-e čarā (illegible handwriting) 239 qalam-e dezfūlī see ney-ye dezfūlī qalam-e dorošt see qalam-e jalī qalam-e ġobār (“dust pen”) 241 qalam-e ḫafī (small pen) 239 qalam-e jalī (large pen) 239 qalam-e katībe-nevīsī (“epigraph pen”) 242 qalam-e ketābat (“writing pen”) 242 qalam-e kond (dull pen) 242 qalam-e mašqī (pen with 2–6mm nibs) 243 qalam-e motavasseṭ see dō-dāng-e mašqī qalam-e nasḫ kešīdan (to cross out) 244 qalam-e ney see qalam qalam-e qeṭʿe see qalam-e mašqī qalam-e rīz see qalam-e ḫafī qalam-e sar-faṣlī (“header pen”) 241 qalam-e taḥrīr see taḥrīrī qalam-gīrī (outlining, delineation) 243 qalam-goẕārī (pen placement) 242 qalamī kardan (to write, note, to write calligraphy) 245 qalam-jadval (ruling pen) 239 qalam-or-rīyāsī (type of ortholgraphy) 236 qalam-pāk-kon (pen cleaner) 236 qalam-tarāš (penknife) 237 qalam-tarāš-sāzī (penknife making)  237–239 qalamū (paintbrush) 243 qalamū-sāzī (paintbrush making) 243–244 qalamū-ye dom-kol (worn piantbrush) 243 qalamū-ye gandomī (Filbert brush) 244 qalamū-ye neyzeī (“spear brush”) 244 qalam-zan (writer, painter) 240 qāleb (ruling stencil) 229 qālebhā-ye ḫōšnevīsī (calligraphic forms)  229 qarā-tamġā (black seal) 229 qāšoq see āb-davāt-kon qaṭʿ (folio) 232

375

qaṭ zadan (to nib) 230 qaṭ zan (nibbing block) 232 qaṭ-e qalam (nib) 233 qātem (black) 229 qaṭṭāʿ (paper cutter) 230 qaṭṭāʿī (paper-cutting) 230 qavāʿed-e davāzdah-gāne-ye ḫōšnevīsī (the twelvefold calligraphic principles) 245–248 qermez-dāne (kermes/cochineal) 229–230 qerṭās 229 qeṣār-nevīsī see moqaṭṭaʿ-nevīsī qeṭʿe (calligraphic specimen/broadside)  232–233 qeṭʿe-bor see qaṭṭāʿī qeṭʿe-nevīs see qeṭʿe qeṭʿe-nevīsī see qeṭʿe qeṭʿe-ye borīde see qaṭṭāʿī qeyd (book clamp) 249 qolloq (book case) 233 qorān-nevīsī see moṣḥaf-nevīsī qovvat (thickness) 249 qūlloq qābloq see qolloq raḥlī see qaṭʿ rājī (hopeful, he who has hope) 161 rang barčīdan (“to pick up color”) 168 rang-āmīzī-ye kāġaẕ (paper tinting) 167 rang-e esparak see esparak rang-e farīse (bleu-vert) 171 rang-e gol-e sorḫ (red rose dye) 171 rang-e ḥanāī see ḥanāyī rang-e ḫaṭāyī (Khitanian dye) 169 rang-e ḫōd-rang see ḫōd-rang rang-e jesmī (“physical paint”) 169 rang-e joft (camel-colored dye) 169 rang-e kāhī (straw-colored) 171 rang-e lājavardī see lājavardī rang-e lāk see lāk rang-e malle (earthen-colored) 171 rang-e morakkab see morakkab rang-e pūst-e anār (pomegranate skin dye)  168 rang-e pūst-e gerdū (walnut hull dye) 168 rang-e pūst-e pīāz (onion skin dye) 168 rang-e qermezdāne see qermez-dāne rang-e rīše-ye rōnās (alizarin) 170 rang-e rūḥī (“spiritual paint”) 169

376

Index of Technical Notions, Materials and Terms

rang-e sabz (green dye) 170 rang-e šangarf see šangarf rang-e sīāh see morakkab rang-e sīlū see sīlū rang-e soranj see soranj rang-e zaʿfarān (saffron pigment) 170 rang-e zangārī (verdigris dye) 170 rang-parīde (pale, faded) 168 rang-šost (underpainting) 170 raqam (calligrapher’s signature) 163 raqam gardīdan see raqam zadan raqam kardan see raqam zadan raqam zadan (writing of signature) 166 raqam-e yek-dast (“uniform writing”) 166 raqam-zan (writer, scribe, calligrapher, painter) 166 rāqem (writer, author of a book) 161 rāqem-ol-ḥorūf (calligrapher) 161 raqīm (written document) 166 raqīme (written document) 166 raqīq (watery, diluted) 166 rasm-ol-ḫaṭṭ (orthography) 161 rasm-ol-mašq see rasm-ol-ḫaṭṭ rekābe (catchword) 166–167 reqāʿ (script) 161, 163, 204 resāle (treatise) 161 rešte (silk thread) 161 reyḥān (script) 172 reyḥānī see reyḥān robʿī see qaṭʿ rōġan-e bazrak (linseed oil) 171 rōġan-e kamān (sandarac varnish) 171 rogū (piece of canvas) 167 roḫ-e kāġaẕ see roḫ-e ṣafḥe roḫ-e ṣafḥe (“face of the page”) 161 rōnās see rang-e rīše-ye rōnās roqʿe (script) 163 roqʿe-nevīs (letter-writer) 163 roqʿī see qaṭʿ sa ʾaf (pen made from date wood) 186 ša ʾn (dignity) 194 sabk-e īrānī see šīve-ye īrānī ṣādī (descending stroke followed by letter ʿeyn) 205 ṣafā (refinement) 210 ṣafeḥe-ye badraqe see āstar-e badraġe ṣafḥe-pardāzī (layout) 211

šafīʿe (term for šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq) 195 safīne (notebook) 188 ṣafīr (sound of a reed pen on paper) 211 šafre (trimmer) 195 sāġarī see pūst saḥāʾ (place designated for signature or stamp) 180 šāhāb (carthamin) 194 šāh-ʿabbāsī see ḫatāyī šāh-ʿabbāsī-ye anārī see ḫatāyī šāḫe-šekaste see ḫatāyī ṣaḥḥāfī (bookbinding) 205–209 sahv-ol-qalam (slippage of pen) 190 sajʿ (phrase on coins/seals) 180 sajāvandī (placing of diacritical marks) 180 sajʿ-e melkī (owner’s stamp) 180 šak see noqṭe-ye šak ṣalāye kardan (to bray, grind) 211 šamare (end of circular letters) 200 ṣamġ (gum, resin) 211 ṣamġābe see ṣamġ-e ʿarabī ṣamġ-e ʿarabī (gum arabic) 211–212 šamse (roundel) 200 šamšīr see setāre/satāre sandarūs see rōġan-e kamān šāne (shoulder) 194 šangarf (vermillion, cinnabar) 201 sang-e ḥejāzī see sang-e qalam-tarāš sang-e jazʿ see jazʿ sang-e qalam-tarāš (whetstone) 189 sang-e rūmī see sang-e qalam-tarāš sang-e sū see sang-e qalam-tarāš sang-tarāš (stone engraver, stonecutter) 188 šaq see fāq šaq zadan see fāq zadan sar kardan-e qalam see tarāšīdan-e qalam šarafe (“merlon”) 194, 195 sarak (serif) 182 sar-barg (header) 180 sar-daftar (preface or scribe) 182 sar-faṣl (decoration of title page) 182 sar-faṣlī see qalam-e sar-faṣlī sarḫaṭ see sar-mašq ṣarīr see ṣafīr sar-keš (head-stroke) 182 sar-lōḥ (frontispiece) 182 sarlōḥe see moqaṭṭaʿ-nevīsī sar-mašq (model, example) 184

Index of Technical Notions, Materials and Terms sar-soḫan see sar-faṣl sar-sūre (sura heading) 182 sar-ṭabl see zabāne sar-toranj see toranj satar allāh ʿayūbahu see satar ʿayūbahu satar ʿayūbahu (“may (God) conceal his imperfections”) 180 saṭḥ-o-dōr (“straightness and roundness”) 185 saṭr (line of text) 186 šaṭranjī (way of writing in some s̱ols inscriptions) 195 saṭṭāra see setāre/satāre savād (rough draft) 189 savād kardan (to write a report) 189 savād-o-bayāż (“blackness and whiteness”) 189 savvadaho (“(he) wrote/blackened”) 190 šaẓīyyah (tip of reed pen) 195 šebrō (calf leather) 194 se-čahārom qalam (three-quarters nib) 190 se-dāng-e mašqī ( three dāngs) 149 ṣefāt-e kāġaẕ (properties of paper) 210–211 sefīdāb-e rūī (zinc oxide) 188 sefīdāb-e šeyḫ see sefīdāb-e sorb sefīdāb-e sorb (white lead, ceruse) 186, 188 šegerd see šīve šekanje see qeyd šekārī (form of letter dāl) 196 šekaste (cursive) 196 šekaste-baste (“fractured-tied”) 196 šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq (script) 196, 198, 200 šekaste-ye taʿlīq (cursive taʿlīq) 196 šelāk see lāk senn-ol-yomnā see vaḥšī senn-ol-yosrā see ensī serīšom-e pūst-e ḫargūš see časb-e pūst serīšom-e taḫteʾī see časb šeš-dāng-e mašqī (six dāngs) 149 setāre/satāre (metal blade) 180 setāre/satāre-ye jadval (ruler) 180 sīāhī (“blackness”) 192 sīāh-mašq (kind of calligraphic texts) 190 sīlū (minium) 192 sīm-afšānī (silver speckling) 192 sīne-ye qalam (“chest of the pen”) 192 sī-pāre (“thirty-parts”) 192

377

šīrāze (textblock spine/endband, headband)  201 šīrāze-bandī (stitching of bindings) 202 šīrīn (sweet) 202 šīve (method, style, technique) 202 šīve-ye īrānī (Iranian style) 202–203 sobʿānī (ʿeyn written in s̱ols̱) 92 sols (script) 92–93 sols-e qalam see yek-sevom-qalam solṭānī see qaṭʿ sonbāde (sandpaper) 188 soranj (red-orange pigment) 184 šost see rang-šost šostan-e līqe see pālāyeš-e morakkab šotor-dandān see zāj ṣoʿūd (upstroke, ascent) 210 ṣoʿūd-e ḥaqīqī (true ascent) 210 ṣoʿūd-e majāzī (virtual ascent) 210 sūde šodan (wearing down of pen tip) 190 sūḫt see jeld-e sūḫt sūzan (needle) 190 sūzan zadan (tranferring a design) 190 sūzan-zade see kāġaẕ-e sūzan-zade taʿādol see tavāzon ṭable see daffat tafṣīl see ḥosn-e ḫaṭṭ tah-bandī see šīrāze-bandī tah-rang (underpainting) 90 taḥrīf (angle of nib) 65 taḫrīq (rendering of “eyes” of letters) 67 taḥrīr (black ink outlines) 65 taḥrīr kardan (to write calligraphically) 65 taḥrīr yāftan see taḥrīr taḥrīrī (script) 65 taḥšīe-negārī see ḥāšīye-negārī tah-ṭalāyī see moṭallā-sāzī taḫte-ye mašq (wooden board for practicing)  67 taḫte-ye mohre (burnishing block) 67 taḫte-ye ṣeyqal (polishing block) 66 tah-toranj see toranj taḥvīl-e qalam (“transition of pen”) 65 taḥvīq (“eye” at beginning of letter) 65 tāj (crown-shaped design) 62, 64 tajlīd (binding a book) 65 tajrīd (abstraction) 65

378

Index of Technical Notions, Materials and Terms

tajrobe-ye qalam (testing the pen) 64–65 ṭalā-andāzī see moṭallā-sāzī taʾlīf (to compile, to connect) 64 taʿlīq (script) 83 tamām-qalam (full pen) 86 tamġā (seal) 86 tamma (finished, completed) 86 tammat see tamma tanāsob (proportion) 86 tanmīq (to write) 86 taqsīm-e żeḫāmat (division of thickness) 83 taqvīm (pricing of manuscript) 83 tarāšīdan-e qalam (carving the pen) 69–73 tarkīb (composition) 77 tarkīb kardan see tarkīb tarkīb-e jozvī (composition of parts) 78 tarkīb-e kollī (general composition) 78 tarkīb-e pīčīde (complex composition) 77 tarkīb-e sāde (simple composition) 78 tarqīm (signature) 73 tarqīme (colophon) 73 tarqīn (line between letters) 73, 77 tarṣīʿ (bejeweled illuminations) 73 tarṣīf see ḥosn-e ḫaṭṭ; korsī tarvīs see sarak taṣdīr (writing title) 83 tasfīr see ṣaḥḥāfī tašʿīr (historiated painting) 81 tašmīr (virtual ascent) 81 tasṭīr see ḥosn-e ḫaṭṭ tasvīd (to write) 81 tatamme (remainder, remanent) 64 tavāzon (equilibrium, balance) 87 taẕhīb (illumination) 67, 69 taẕyīl (to addend) 69 terlīng see qalam-jadval tīġe-ye yaḥyāyī see qalam-tarāš tīmāj see pūst tīr (Mercury) 90 tīz-bor see qalam-tarāš tōaʾmān (script) 87–88 tōfīe see ḥosn-e ḫaṭṭ ṭoġrā (tughra) 216 ṭoġrā-keš see ṭoġrā-nevīs ṭoġrā-nevīs (person writing tughra) 216 ṭoġrāyī see dīvān-e enšāʾ tondī (thinness of script) 86 tōqīʿ (script) 88, 90

tōqīʿī (certifeit by king) 90 toranj (mandorla) 78, 81 ṭorre see sarak tōsīṭ (angle of nib) 88 vāḥed-e andāze-gīrī (unit of measurement)  330 vaḥšī (tip of nib) 330 vaqbeh (part of penbox) 331 varaq-dāġ (“page brand”) 330 varaq-e ābdār see āhār dādan varaq-e soleymānī (sheet of paper) 330 varrāq (papermaker) 330 varz dādan (kneading) 330 vaṣl (ligature) 331 vaṣlī see kāġaẕ-e časbānde vaṣṣālī (rearranging pages) 331 vāšūr-zanī (applying starch glue) 330 vazīrī see qaṭʿ yā-ye kešīde see yā-ye maʿkūs yā-ye maʿkūs (inverted yā) 338 yek-dāng-e mašqī/ (one dāng) 148 yek-dovom-qalam see nīm-qalam yekke-ye bāṭel (jottings) 338 yek-sevom-qalam (one-third nib) 338 zabāne (flap) 175 zabāne-ye qalam see dam-e qalam żaʿf (thinness) 214 zaʿfarān see rang-e zaʿfarān żaʿf-e sūzanī (weakness in ends of circular letters) 214 zāg see zāj zāġ see zāj ẓahr (verso side) 219 zāj (alum) 175 zangār (verdigris) 177–178 zarafšān-e čašm-e mūrī (“mosquito wingsgold sprinkling”) 177 zarafšān-e līne (gold sprinkling) 177 zarafšān-e parpaše-ī 176 zarafšān-e zarak (gold sprinkling) 177 zarafšānī see afšāngarī żarbī see jeld-e żarbī ẓarf-e zar-ḥall (bowl for emulsfied gold) 219 zar-ḥall (emulsified gold) 177 zāvīe (anle) 175

Index of Technical Notions, Materials and Terms ẕeyl-e varaq (footnote) 159 ẕeyl-ol-ḫaṭṭ (descender line) 159 zīr-dastī (writing pad) 178 zīr-mašqī see zīr-dastī

379

zogālāb see morakkab zoġālāb see morakkab ẕoġālāb see morakkab ẓohūr-o-boṭūn (“visible and hidden”) 219

General Index Page numbers in bold refer to the main entry on the subject. Page numbers in italic refer to illustrations. ʿAbbās i, Shah 202–203 ʿAbbās Nūrī 319 ʿAbd-ol-Ḥaq Šīrāzī (Emānatḫān Šīrāzī) 216, 218, 220 ʿAbdoljabbār 68 ʿAbdollāh Anṣārīʾ Mausoleum (Herat) 107 ʿAbdollah Ṣeyrafī 2, 3, 4, 4 ʿAbdolmajīd Ṭāleqānī, Darvīš 97, 99, 100, 144, 174, 198 ʿAbdolqāder Gīlānīʿ, Ottoman Sultan 217 ʿAbdorrašīd ad-Deylamī 54 abjad (abjad) 24, 25–27, 27 abstractions (tajrīd) 65 abtas (abtas̱) 24 Abū ʿAlī Moḥammad b. ʿAlī Fārsī see Ebn-e Moqle Abu’l-Ḥasan ʿAlī b. Helāl Baġdādī see Ebn-e Bavvāb acacia trees 211 acorn seeds 169 Ādāb-e ḫaṭṭ (or Ṣerāṭ-os-soṭūr; Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī) in general 317 on beauty of script 120–121 on becoming a calligrapher 141–142 on burnishing 312 on calligraphic practice 297–298 on calligraphic principles 245 on carving of pen 71–72 on copying 298–299 description of 7–9 example from 8 on extensions 32 on ink to paper 293 on Khitanian dye 169 on Kufic script 263 on nastaʿlīq script 315–316 on penknives 237 on pens 236 on rubbing sand on pen 125 on script touch-up 41–42

on slits in nib of pens 70, 226 on starch sizing 20 on testing of pens 64 Ādāb-ol-ḫaṭṭ (ʿAbdollah Ṣeyrafī) 2, 3, 4, 4 Ādāb-ol-ḫaṭṭ (Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī) description of 10 example from 9 on Kufic script 263 on nastaʿlīq script 316–317 on penknives 237 on testing of pens 64–65 Ādāb-ol-mašq (Bābāšāh Eṣfahānī) in general 319 on calligraphic principles 29, 245–247, 317 description of 12 example from 12 on non-learned components 31 addenda (moẕayyal) 287 adhesives see glues advanced stage (marḥale-ye ʿālī) 289 Aḥmad b. as-Sohravard 287, 288 Aḥmad b. Sohrevard 56, 63, 144 Aḥmad al-Neyrīzī 164, 165 Aḥmad al-Qara Ḥeṣārī 92, 296 airbrush (fūtak) 227 ʿAjāʾeb-oṭ-ṭabaqāt (Moḥammad Ṭāher b. Qāsem) 130–131 ʿAlāʾoldīn Moḥammad al-Tabrīzī 25, 322 albums ( jong) 106 see also scrapbook albums Alcea rosea (Hollyhock) 19–20 Alcea sizing (āhār-e gol-e ḫatmī) 20 alef, in nastaʿlīq script 316 ʿAlī b. Ḥasan-e Ḫōšmardān 9 ʿAlī al-Hoseynī ʿAbdolvahāb 325 ʿAlī al-Ḥoseynī al-Kāteb 44, 116 Alī ibn ʾAbī Ṭālib 263 ʿAlī Reżā al-ʿAbbāsī Tabrīzī 75, 146, 215, 258, 319, 334 alizarin (rang-e rīše-ye rōnās) 170

General Index Allāme Šams-od-Dīn Moḥammad Āmolī 2 alum (zāj) 41, 168, 171, 175, 292 see also inks Amaranth (bostān-afrūz) 51 Amīr ʿAlīšīrvānī 144 Amir Chakhmaq Complex (Yazd) 305 ammonium chloride 41 Ānandrāj (anon.) 45, 88 animals, engaged in fight 273 see also historiated painting Anjavī Šīrāzī family 198 anthologies (jong) 106 applied practice (mašq-e qalamī) 297 arabesque patterns shapes formed with 51 see also eslīmī designs; eslīmī-ḫatāyī designs; ḫatāyī designs Arabic alphabet abjadī order of 24, 25–27, 27 hejāʾī order of 24 Arġūn al-Kāmelī 302 Arsenjānī, Alī Asgar 145 Art Academy of Esfahan 203 Asadī Tūsī 269 ashes 125 authorization (ejāze-nāme) 29–30 awls (derafš) 296 Āyīn-e dabīrī (Moḥammad b. ʿAbdolḫāleq Meyhanī) 2 Aẓhar Tabrīzī 317 Bābāšāh Eṣfahānī 12, 319 see also Ādāb-ol-mašq Bābor, Ẓahīroldīn Moḥammad, Mughal Emperor 130 bāborī script 130–131, 130 backing (pošt-kūbī) 58–59 bādāmak shapes 51 Baġdādī script 317 Bahādorī, ʿIsā 203 Bahrāmšāhī 46, 282 balance see equilibrium bamboo (ḫeyzarān) 145 band (symmetrical curved lines) see lines, symmetrical curved bargardān script see reversed script base black (ašḫār) 41 baselines 159, 257–259

381 Bayān-oṣ-ṣanāʿāt (Ḥobīš b. Ebrāhīm b. Moḥammad Teflīsī) 2 Bāysonḡor, Timurid Prince 95, 205 Bāysonġor Mīrzā 144 Bāysonġorī Šāhnāme 257, 317 beads (mohre) 312 beauty of formation 120, 121, 247, 248 of positioning 122, 247, 248 of proximity 122 of script 120–122 besmele/besmelah (”in the name of God.”)  52, 339 Beyhaqī 83 Beyhaqi, Aboʾlfażl 54, 152, 189 birds 137–138, 274 Bismallahs 22, 137–138, 296 bitter resin (anzarūt) 47 black inks 192, 292, 292–293 black seal (qarā-tamġā) 86 “blackness and whiteness” 86, 189 blades, of penknives 238–239, 238 bone glue (časb-e ostoḫān) 113 book boards (daffat) 149 book cases (qolloq) 233, 235 book clamps (qeyd) 249 book covers see under bookbinding bookbinding (ṣaḥḥāfī) in general 67 backing in 58–59 binding mediums for 51 book boards in 149 book covers in “burnt” 100, 102, 103, 209 embossed 103, 209 of embroidered leather 103 “gold-covered” 103, 209 hemmed 209 hinged 175, 176 lacquered 100, 101, 209, 275, 279 mosaic 102, 104, 105, 209 with trapezoidal-shaped flaps 175, 176, 206, 206, 207, 208 cornices in 255 endbands/headbands in 201 main entry on 205–209 paper 103 quires in 96

382 bookbinding (ṣaḥḥāfī) (cont.) rounding of spine in 271 shoulders in 194 stitching in 202 textblock spines in 201 tools used in compasses 58 mallets 296 rulers 180 trimmers 195 types of 207–208, 207, 208 books cases to protect 233, 235 faulty editions of 323 lithographic 108, 109 manuscript editions of 321 printed editions of 321 printing of 321 sizes of 232 storage place for 156 terms describing 299 borders/margins (hāmeš/ḥāšīye) in general 118, 335 gold sprinkled 44 historiated 82 main entry on 335 marbled 28 paintings in 47, 48, 49 setting/assembling of 227 stencilled 221, 222 see also grids bowls 219 broadside (qeṭʿe) 232–233 burnishing (mohre zadan) 67, 312 “burnt” book covers 100, 102, 103, 209 Būstān (Saʿdī) 28, 44, 117 Čahār maqāle (Neẓāmī ʿArūżī Samarqandī) 2 Čahārbāġ Seminary (Esfahan) 202–203 calf leather (šebrō) 194 čalīpās elongation and 261 main entry on 114–115 in nastaʿlīq script 116, 146, 151, 223, 225, 228, 250, 270, 280, 284, 313, 318 see also sīāh-mašq calligraphers to become a 141–142

General Index descriptives of 161 epithets for 281 main entry on 141 ranks of 311 signatures of 118, 163, 164, 165, 166 specialized in/masters in in general 31 Iranian nasḫ 321 nasḫ 145 nastaʿlīq 317, 319 šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq 198 seven pens 335 sīāh-mašq 190, 192 Six Pens 144 terms describing 126, 134, 141, 161, 166, 182, 240, 251, 262, 314 workplace of 148 see also calligraphy/calligraphic writing; students of calligraphy calligraphic monograms 216, 217 calligraphic principles baselines 245, 257–259 composition see composition dignity 194, 247 founders of 142–143 learned and non-learned 31, 246–247 proportions see proportions refinement 210, 247 straightness and roundness 43, 185–186 twelvefold 245–248 writing and 306 calligraphy paintings (naqqāšī-ḫaṭṭ) 323, 324, 325, 326 calligraphy/calligraphic writing on banners 254 copying of see copying of calligraphy forgeries of 96, 99–100 forgotten during 32 forms of see forms of calligraphic writing in Iran 142–145, 146 knowledge of 303 from left to right 110, 111 in margins 118 masters of see under calligraphers Persian treatises on 1–13 place for 307, 308 practicing of see practicing of calligraphy

General Index principles of see calligraphic principles revising of 239 scripts used in see under specific scripts strokes in see strokes styles in see styles in calligraphy suitable times for 49 supplies for 282, 282 terms describing process of 31, 65, 81, 86, 240, 241, 245, 252, 254 quality of 57, 126, 202, 262, 279, 295 of titles 83 transferring of 119, 190, 323 uniformity in 166 see also calligraphers canvas 53, 167 carbon black (dūde) 155 carbon black grease (čarbī-ye dūde) 110 cardboard 206, 307 carthamin (šāhāb) 194 catalogues (ketāb-šenāsī) 254 catchwords (rekābe) 166–167 ceruse (sefīdāb-e sorb) 186, 188 charter writers/secretaries (manšūr-nevīs) 311 charters (manšūr) 308 chief court painters (naqqāš-bāšī) 323 chronograms (mādde-tārīḫ) 285 cinnabar (šangarf) 201 circle theory 52–53 cloak (moraqqaʿ) 292 cochineal (Dactylopius coccus L.) 229–230 codicology (ketāb-šenāsī) 254 colophon prayers 164, 165 colophons 47, 47, 73, 75, 76, 117, 204, 212, 220 colored inks 106, 293 colors pistachio colored 227 seven base 335 see also dyes; inks; paints compasses (pargār) 58 compilation/collection (majmūʿe) 286 composition (tarkīb) in general 248 complex 77 elongation and see elongation general 78 main entry on 77

383 of parts 78 proximity and 122 simple 78, 78 “composition bureau” (dīvān-e enšāʾ) 156 concavity (gōdī) 274 contraction see expansion and contraction copying of calligraphy in general 321 as practice 31, 250, 270, 298–299, 300 cornices (katībe) 255 correspondence see letters (correspondence) cover spine (ʿaṭf) 221 crossing out (qalam-e nasḫ kešīdan) 244 crown-shaped design (tāj) 64 cursive (šekaste) 196 dahe (symbol) 156, 156 dāl (letter) 148, 196 dāngs see under measurement Darvīš ʿAbdolmajīd Ṭāleqānī 97, 99, 100, 174, 198 Darvīš Moḥammad b. Moḥammad Boḫārī  12–13 Dastūr-ol-kāteb fī taʿīīn-el-marāteb (Šams-e Monšī) 4 declarations (manšūr) 308 decorations, on title page 182 descender line (ẕeyl-ol-ḫaṭṭ) 159 descending strokes (ṣādī) 205, 205 descriptives 161 designs crown-shaped 64 eslīmī see eslīmī designs eslīmī-ḫatāyī see eslīmī-ḫatāyī designs gol-o-bote 67 gol-o-morġ 49, 100, 274 ḫatāyī see ḫatāyī designs knotted 273 mandorlas see mandorla designs preliminary 55 šarafe 194, 195, 195 tiles in 273 transferring of 125, 190, 252 Dexful reeds (ney-ye dezfūlī) 327–328, 328 diacritical marks 42, 180 Dībāče-ye moraġġaʿ-e bahrām mīrzā ṣafavī (Dūst-Moḥammad Gavāšānī Heravī) 11

384 Dībāče-ye moraġġaʿ-e Šāh Tahmāsb (Qoṭb-odDīn Moḥammad Qeṣṣeḫān) 11 dignity (ša ʾn) 194, 247 diploma (ejāze-nāme) 29–30 dispositioning 122, 247, 248 dissolving, of gold and silver 123 Dīvān-e Ḥasan Dehlavī (Neẓāmī) 317 Dīvān-e Solṭān Aḥmad Jalāyer (Ṣāleḥ b. ʿAlī Rāzī) 317 Dīvān-e torkī-ye navāyī 76 dīvānī script 156, 157 dot of doubt (noqṭe-ye šak) 327 dots 52, 327 doublures (āstar-e badraġe) 16, 17 drafts/drafting compasses for 58 final 54, 57 pieces of paper especially for 62 Dūst-Moḥammad b. Soleymān al-Herāvī 183 Dūst-Moḥammad Gavāšānī Heravī 11 dyer’s rocket (Reseda luteola L. (esparak))  32 dyes alizarin 170 colors of blue-vert 171 crimson-colored 229–230 earthen 171 green 170 straw 171 Khitanian 169 materials used in acorn seeds 169 cochineal 229–230 dyer’s rocket 32 henna 123 Houstonia 171 Indian Mulberry 16 kermes 229 logwood 52 madder 170 onion skins 168 pomegranate skins 168 red rose 171 safflower 194 saffron 170 verdigris 170 walnut hulls 59, 168 see also inks

General Index Ebn-e Bādīs 118, 287 Ebn-e Bavvāb 143, 301 Ebn-e Ḫaldūn 121 Ebn-e Moqle 70, 88, 120, 121, 143, 247, 287 ebony (ābnūs) 16 Ebrāhīm Solṭān (son of Šāhroḫ) 99 Ehsaee, Mohammad 326 Eḫtīār Monšī 147 Eḥyāʾ-ol-ḫaṭṭ (Zīn-ol-ʿābedīn b. Faṭḥʿalī Ḫoyī) 13 ejāze script (ejāze) 29, 30, 307 elaborate/complex (moġlaq) 306, 306 elementary stage (marḥale-ye mobtadī) 289 elongation of letters 119, 236, 260–261, 262 short 261, 262 writing and 260–261 ʿEmād al-Ḥasanī (Mīrʿemād) 99, 223, 225, 234, 250, 270, 300, 319 ʿEmād-ol-Kottāb, Moḥammad Ḥoseyn 320 Emānatḫān Šīrāzī (ʿAbd-ol-Ḥaq Šīrāzī) 216, 218, 220 embossed book covers 103, 209 embroidered leather book covers 103 “empty and full” 86, 139, 140, 142 emulsified gold (zar-ḥall) 177 ʿEnāyatollah Šūštarī 13 endbands/headbands (šīrāze) 201 endorsement (pošt-nevīsī) 59 engraving (ḥakkākī) 122, 123 Enīs al-ʿašāq (Moḥammad Imāmī Heravī)  317 epigraphs see inscriptions equilibrium (tavāzon) 87, 139, 189 errors 190 Eṣfahānī, Ġolāmreżā 99, 190, 191, 192, 198, 198 Eṣfahanī, Zeynolʿābedīn 145 eslīmī designs 33, 34–35, 35, 36, 38, 39, 49, 53, 67, 69, 128, 129 eslīmī-ḫatāyī designs 37, 37, 39–41, 40, 53, 128, 129 ʾEʿtemād-ud-Daule Tomb (Agra) 39 examples (sar-mašq) 184, 185 “expansion and contraction” (ḫalvat-ojalvat) 86, 139, 140, 142 extension/exit (ersāl) 32 ʿeyn (letter)

385

General Index upstroke following 227 written in s̱ols 92, 92 Farščīyān, Maḥmūd 53 fat (čāq) 108 Fatḥollah Sabzevārī 6–7, 6 see also Oṣūl va qavāʿed-e ḫoṭūṭ-e sette faulty editions (nosḫe-ye saqīm) 323 Favāyed-ol-ḫoṭūṭ (Darvīš Moḥammad b. Moḥammad Boḫārī) 12–13 ferrule (galūyī-ye qalamū) 274 final draft (bayāż) 54 finished (tamma) 86 fish glue (časb-e māhī) 114, 301 fish glue sizing (āhār-e serīšom) 19 flap (zabāne) 175, 176 flour glue (časb-e ārd) 112 folio (qaṭʿ) 232 footnotes 69, 159, 287 forgeries 96, 99–100, 134 formation, beauty of 120, 121, 247, 248 forms of calligraphic writing in general 229 broadsides 232–233 čalīpās see čalīpās sīāh-mašq 140, 142, 158, 190, 191, 192 specimen 104, 232, 234, 235 fourfold scripts (al-mōʾammarāt) 45 fragment writing (moqaṭṭaʿ-nevīsī) 306, 307 frankincense (bostej/bostaj) 51 free-style practicing (mašq-e ḫīālī) 297 frontispiece (sar-lōḥ) 182, 184 frontispiece epigraph (katībe-ye sar-lōḥ)  257 full see empty and full Ğamāl-ol-dīn Abuʾl-Mağd see Yāqūt Mostaʿṣemī geometric Kufic (maʿqelī) script 256, 303, 304, 305 see also Kufic script gereftan-e qalam (holding the pen) 272 Ghelichkhani, Hamid Reza 305 gilding (moṭallā-sāzī) 301, 303 Ġīyās̱-ad-Dīn ʿAlī Joharī 337 glues bone 113 fish 114, 301

flour 112 hide 113–114 main entry on 112 rice 113 starch 114 goatskin/Morocco leather (tīmāj) 59–60 Ġolāmreżā Eṣfahānī 27, 306 gold bowl for emulsified 219 emulsified 177 inks 15 sprinklings see gold sprinklings gold leaf 113 gold sprinklings example of 44 main entry on 43 terms describing 43, 176, 177 see also silver speckling (sīm-afšānī) “gold-covered” book covers 103, 209 golden seal (āltūn-tamġā) 16, 86 Golestān (Saʿdī) 317 Golestān Album 116, 124 Golestāne, ʿAlī-Akbar 99, 192, 193, 198, 235 gol-o-bolbol designs see gol-o-morġ designs gol-o-bote designs 67 gol-o-morġ designs 49, 100, 274, 275 Golšan Album 23, 50, 81, 291, 319 Golzār-e ṣafā (Ṣeyrafī Tabrīzī) 10, 19, 20–21 good stage (marḥale-ye ḫōš) 289 gouaches see watercolors greenish black (modhām) 287 grids ( jadval) drawers of 96 drawn in gold, burnished and outlined 96 knotted 273 main entry on 95 to reduce or enlarge designs 95–96 three-sided 262, 263 grinding (ṣalāye kardan) 211 guilty (almoẕneb) 45 gum arabic (ṣamġ-e ʿarabī) 211–212 Habibi, Abdul Hai 131 Ḫāje ʿAbd-ol-ḥay Monšī Astarābādī 83 Ḫāje ʿAbdollāh Ansārī 256 Ḫāje Eḫtīār Monšī 83, 84–85 Ḫāje Esḥāq Šahābī Sīāvašānī 99

386 Ḫāje Tāj Salmānī Eṣfahānī 83 Ḫājū-ye Kermānī Mas̱navī (Mīrʿalī b. Elyās Tabrīzī al-Bāvarčī) 47 Ḫamse Neẓāmī 80 Ḫārazmī 77 ḫatāyī designs 32, 33, 35, 53, 67, 69, 126, 127–128, 129 Ḫaṭṭ va savād (Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī) description of 10 on Kufic script 264 on nastaʿlīq script 316 on painting/painters 115 on place for writing 307, 308 on tōaʾmān script 87 he (letter) 333, 333, 334 “He is favored” (hovalmaṭlūb) 336 “He is God” (hovallah) 336 “He is Truth” (hovalḥaqq) 336 header (sar-barg) 180 head-strokes (sar-keš) 182 heels, of letters and paintbrushes 57 Ḥelīat-ol-kottāb (unknown) 13 Ḥelmī, Moṣṭafā 31 hemistich (meṣrāʿ) 64, 301 see also čalīpās hemmed book covers 209 henna 123 “hidden and visible” 86, 139, 140, 142 hide (pūst) 59–60 hide glue (časb-e pūst) 113–114 hinged book covers 175, 176 historiated painting 47, 81, 82, 273 Ḥobīš b. Ebrāhīm b. Moḥammad Teflīsī 2 Ḥoseyn ʿAqīlī Rostmadārī 11–12 Ḫōšnevīsbāšī, Mīr Ḥoseyn 140, 190, 192, 320 Ḫosrō va Šīrīn (Neẓāmī) 317 Houstonia 171 Humāyun, Mughal Emperor 285 illegible (lāyoqraʾ) 279 illuminations in general 67, 69 bejeweled forms of 73 see also arabesque patterns illuminators 287 “in the name of God.” (besmele) 52, 339 Indian Mulberry (Morinda tinctoria L.) 16

General Index inks black 118, 192, 292, 292–293 blotches of 148 colored 106, 293 diluting of 15–16, 166, 262 dripping of 49, 323 main entries on 292–293 making of 330 materials used in carbon 155, 287 gallnuts 118 gold 15 gum arabic 211–212 oak marble gall 285 synthetics 106 walnut hulls 59 outlines in 66, 67 refining of 57 stirring of, tool for 150 taking of 293 thick/viscous 224 see also dyes; inkwells; paints inkwells (davāt) in general 150 example of 282 makers of 152 other term for 286 unused 150 wadding for 283, 283 “inlaying (of gems)” (tarṣīʿ) 73 inscriptions (katībe) in geometric Kufic 256 in inlay-style 255 in Kufic 38, 265–266 main entries on 255, 257 mosaic 258 in nastaʿlīq script 107, 257 in sols script 92, 184, 195, 215, 218, 220, 256, 257, 258, 332, 337 interlinear spaces (fāṣele-ye saṭr-ḥā) 226 interliteral spaces (fāṣele-ye ḥorūf va kalamāt) 226 inverting, of letter yā 338, 338 Iran, map of 341 Iranian Carpet-Weaving Institute 203 Iranian nasḫ 321, 321 see also nasḫ script

General Index isinglass see fish glue Islamic dynasties 344 jadval see grids Jallāl Jaʿfar 184 Jameʿ Mosque (Yazd) 332 Javāherpūr, Nāṣer 135 Jōharīye (Sīmī-ye Neyšābūrī) 5–6 jottings (yekke-ye bāṭel) 338 Kāġaẕ, ranghā-ye alvān, morakkab, ḫaṭṭ-e avhal va mošajjer (unknown) 7 Kalhor, Moḥammad-Reżā 192 Kalīm Hamedānī 123, 295 Kamāloddīn Behzād 81 Kamāl-od-Dīn Moḥammad b. ʿAbdolhaq al-Sabzevārī 66 Kar (Moḥammad-Reżā Eṣfahānī) 198 Kāšānī, Najīb 125 Kašf-ol-ḥorūf (ʿEnāyatollah Šūštarī) 13 Kašf-oṣ-ṣanāyeʿ va maḫzan-ol-beżāʿe (Mīrzā Moḥammad Šīrāzī) 13 Kāteb-os-Solṭān (Šīrāzī, Moḥammad Hosseyn) 46, 57, 253, 282, 320 kermes (kermes vermilio L.) 229 Khitanian dye 169 knives see penknives Kufic script in general 142–143 examples of 266–267, 269 inscriptions in 38, 265–266 main entry on 262–265 Persian-style 269 pīr-āmūz style 60, 61, 62, 267–268 use of 301 see also geometric Kufic; motalāṣeq script lacquered book covers 100, 101, 209, 275, 279 lacquerwork (lākī-sāzī) 206, 279 lampblack (dūde) 155 lapis lazuli (lājavardī) 278 layout (ṣafḥe-pardāzī) 211 leading (ešpūn) 41 learned components (ajzā-ye taḥṣīlī) 31, 245, 246–247 see also non-learned components

387 leather 59–60, 194 ledgers (dastak) 149 “left-writer” (čap-nevīs) 110 “left-writing” (čap-nevīsī) 110, 111 legible (ḫānā) 141 letters (correspondence) seals for 125 terms used for 308 writer of 163 letters (ḥarf) alef 316 analogous 120 arch-like form or “belly” in 148 basis for shape of 52–53 compound 120 concavity of 274 connecting of 60, 62, 64 dāl 148, 196 difficult 119 elaborate/complex 306, 306 elongation of 119, 236, 260–261, 262 end of circular 200, 200, 214 eyes at the beginning of 65, 67 ʿeyn 92, 92, 227 fat(ter) 41, 108 he 333, 333, 334 heels of 57 ligatures of 308, 311, 331 lines between 73, 77 main entry on 118 plain/flat 119 re 141, 196, 290, 290 sīn 150 šīn 150 singular 120 space between 226 thickness/thinness of lines in 83, 214, 249 uncompounded 120 unconnectedness of 227 vertical 119 written on different pages 196 written with circular motion in general 153 joining of 153–154, 153 with left to right motion 154 yā 338, 338

388 librarianship (ketāb-dārī) 254 ligatures (vaṣl) in general 331 twisted 308, 311 lines drawn by master in work of student 139 between letters 73, 77 in letters 83, 214, 249 symmetrical curved 35, 40, 53, 128, 129 void 131 see also baselines; outlines/outlining; strokes lines of text ending of 104, 106 main entry on 130 saṭr 186, 187 space between 55, 226 linseed oil (rōġan-e bazrak) 171 lions 138–139 little box (meḥbarah/maḥbarah) 286 Little Majīd (Najafī, Moḥammad-Qāsem)  198 logwood (Haematoxylon campechianum L. (baqam)) 52 madder (Rubia tinctorum L.) 170 Maḥmūd b. Esḥāq Šahābī 99 Maḥmūd b. Moḥammad 11 Maḥmūd Neyšābūrī 319 Maḥyā-od-Dīn Ḫān 181 Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī 9, 10, 115 see also Ādāb-ol-ḫaṭṭ; Ḫaṭṭ va savād; Rasm-ol-ḫaṭṭ maʿkūs roundness 186 mallets (mošte) 296 Manāqeb-e Honarvarān (Mostafa-ʿAlī Efendī) 99 mandorla designs (toranj) embossed bindings and 103 examples of 79, 80 half of a full 328 main entry on 78, 81 quarter of a full 279, 280 mention of 49 manuscripts in general 321 mounting of 286 pages of 219

General Index pricing of 83 storage of 148 terms describing 299 workplace to write 148 maps 341, 342–343 marbling (abrī) 26–27, 28 marcasite (marqašīšā) 290 marcasite canvas (moraqqaš) 53 margins (ḥāšīye) see borders/margins masters (ostād) 32–33 Masʿūd, Seljuk Sultan 152 measurement dāngs as units of in general 41, 43, 148 one dāng 148 two dāngs 149 two and a half dāngs 149 three dāngs 149 four dāngs 149 five dāngs 149 six dāngs 149 dots as units of 52 ešpūn as unit of 41 points as units of 59 Mehdī Bayānī 88 mercuric sulphide (HgS) 201 Mercury (tīr)(planet) 90 metal blade (setāre/satāre) 180 minium (sīlū) 192 Mīr Ḥoseyn Ḫōšnevīsbāšī 140, 190, 192, 320 Mīrʿalī b. Elyās Tabrīzī al-Bāvarčī 47 Mīrʿalī Kāteb Heravī 26, 50, 99, 117, 124, 300, 309–310, 319 Mīrʿalī al-Kāteb al-Solṭānī 151 Mīrʿalī Tabrīzī 5, 5, 316, 317, 318 Mīrʿemād (ʿEmād al-Ḥasanī) 99, 223, 225, 234, 250, 270, 300, 319 mirrored scripts (āyna-lī) 21, 21 Mīrzā Āqā 320 Mīrzā Ġolāmreżā Eṣfahānī 187, 284, 313, 320 Mīrzā Kāẓem Tehrānī 320 Mīrzā Moḥammad ʿAlī b. Mīrzā Ġolām Rasūl 324 Mīrzā Moḥammad Ḥoseyn Ḥakkākbāšī 122 Mīrzā Moḥammad-Ṭāher Ḥakkākbāšī 122 Mīrzā Reżā Kalhor 320 Mīrzā-Ḥasan Kermānī 198 mistaken dot (noqṭe-ye sahv) 327

General Index Moḥammad Amīn 13, 14 Moḥammad b. ʿAbdolḫāleq Meyhanī 2 Moḥammad b. ʿAlī b. Soleymān ar-Rāvandī 2 Moḥammad Ebrāhīm Qomī 145 Moḥammad Ebrāhīm Ṭehrānī 320 Moḥammad Hoseyn ʿEmād-ol-kottāb 142 Moḥammad Ḥoseyn Kašmīrī 291 Moḥammad Hoseyn Seyfī Qazvīnī 13 Moḥammad Ḥoseyn Seyfī Qazvīnī 308 Moḥammad Hoseyn al-Tabrīzī 48, 319 Moḥammad Ḥoseyn Ṭehrānī 320 Moḥammad Kāẓem Tehrānī 185 Moḥammad Kāẓem Vāle Eṣfahānī 83, 144 Moḥammad Qazvīn 133 Moḥammad Šafīʿ al-Ḥoseynī (Šafīʿā) 144, 197, 198 Moḥammad Šafīq 21 Moḥammad Ṭāher b. Qāsem 130–131 Moḥammad-Afżal Gonābādī 198 Moḥammad-Asʿad Al-Yasārī 270 Moḥammad-Qāsem 94 Moḥammad-Reżā Eṣfahānī (Kar) 198 Moḥammad-Reżā Kalhor 108, 109 Moḥammad-Šāh Qajar 123 Moḥammad-Šarīf Qazvīnī 320 moḥaqqaq script in general 142–143 examples of 56, 63, 288 main entry on 287 treatises on 10, 11, 13 use of 43, 301 Molānā Jaʿfar Tabrīzī Bāysonġorī 254, 316, 317 Molānā Kapk Heravī 221 Molānā Solṭān ʿAlī 245 Mollājān Kāšī 196 Momtāzbek 163 Monājāt-nāme-ye Ḫāje ʿAbdollah Anṣārī 75 morinda (āl) 16 Morocco leather (tīmāj) 59–60 “the mortal servant” (alʿabd-ol-fānī) 45 Morteżā Qolī Šāmlū 144, 198 mosaic book covers 102, 104, 105, 209 mosaic inscriptions 258 mostaqīm roundness 186 motalāṣeq script 285, 286 mounting, of manuscripts 286

389 Nafāyes-ol-funūn fī ʿarāyes-el-ʿuyūn (Allāme Šams-od-Dīn Moḥammad Āmolī) 2, 77 nāḫonī script 132 Najafī, Moḥammad-Qāsem (Little Majīd)  198 nasḫ script in general 142–143 calligraphers of 145 ejāze script and 29 ending of line of text in 104 examples of 94, 183, 204, 277, 321, 329 main entry on 320–321 treatises on 6–7, 13 use of 43, 301, 320 nasḫ-e yāqūtī 307, 320, 322 see also nasḫ script nastaʿlīq script calligraphers of 317, 319 development of 144 elongation and 261 ending of line of text in 104 examples of in general 234, 253 with ʿakkāsī border 222 čalīpās in 116, 146, 151, 223, 225, 228, 250, 270, 280, 284, 313, 318 with illumination 68 inscriptions in 107, 257 letters in abjadī order in 26, 27 moġlaq in 306 “roundness and straightness” in 185 saṭrs in 187 sīāh-mašq in 140, 142, 191 simple elements in 309–310 “thinness and thickness” in 214 true and virtual decent in 314 upstroke following ʿeyn in 227 verses in 54 extensions in 32 inventor of 5, 316, 317 large form of 273 letter he in 333 letter re in 290, 290 main entries on 315–317, 319–320 main styles of 316 release in 245–246 sīāh-mašq in 142, 190, 191 system of measurements in 316

390 nastaʿlīq script (examples of) (cont.) treatises on 10 use of 301 see also taḥrīrī script Naẓmparvar, Abū-al-Fażl 238 needles, transfer of designs and 190, 252 Neyrīzī, Aḥmad 99, 145, 204, 212, 321, 321 Neẓām Qārī 171 Neẓāmī ʿArūżī Samarqandī 2 nibbing block (qaṭ zan) 232, 282 nibs in general 31 angles of 65, 70, 88, 233 clipping of 70, 230 dripping of ink of 49 dull 242 flat 96, 295 “left-writing” and 110 resembling dove tails 262 sand for rubbing 125 sharp-angled 29, 287 shaving of 69–70, 314 shorter side of 47 slits in 70, 226 tips of in general 150 terms describing 195, 330 wearing down of 190 widths/dimensions of 0.5mm at most 241 0.5–0.75mm 239 0.75– 1.5mm 242 1.5– 2mm 241 2-6mm 243 6–20mm 239 20mm at least 242 one-third 338 half 328 two-third 155 three-quarters 190 non-learned components (ajzā-ye ġeyr-e taḥṣīlī) 30, 245, 246 see also learned components Nōrūz-nāme (Ḥakīm ʿŌmar Ḫayyām Neyšāpūrī) 121 notebooks (safīne) 188 oak marble gall (Andricus kollari L. (māzū))  285

General Index ʿOmdat al-Kottāb (Ebn-e Bādīs) 118, 287 one-third nib (yek-sevom-qalam) 338 onion skins 168 onyx ( jazʿ) 96 orthographies (rasm-ol-ḫaṭṭ) 161 ʿOs̱mān b. Hoseyn al-Varrāq al-Ġaznavī 61, 268 Oṣūl va qavāʿed-e ḫoṭūṭ-e sette (Fatḥollah Sabzevārī) description of 6–7 example from 6 on Kufic script 264 on nastaʿlīq script 316 Ottoman Sultans, calligraphic monograms of  216, 217 outlines/outlining in general 243 in black ink 65, 66 with curved lines 150, 151 owner’s stamp (sajʿ-e melkī) 180, 181 pages cutters of 330 holding of 271 identification marks for 330 rearranging of 331 verso side of 219 see also folio; quires paintbrushes forms of Filbert brushes 244 similar to Rigger brushes 244 thin 262 used by miniature artists 243 worn 243 heels of 57 holding of 271 making of 126, 243–244 metal section of 274 terms describing 155 painters 115 painting historiated 47, 81, 82, 273 main entry on 115 techniques for lacquer 279 in margins 47, 48 pointed 58

General Index paints blotting up of 168 first layer of 90, 170 pigments used in mercuric sulphide 201 minium 192 red-orange 184 white lead 186, 188 zinc oxide 188 transparent 169 water soluble, opaque 169 pañcatantras (collections of animal fables) 46, 282 panje (symbol) 59, 59 paper burnishing of see burnishing colored 252 dimensions of 330 for drafts 62 making of 252 metal blade used in cutting 180 properties of 210–211 ruling of 180, 295 scrap of 226 separating two layers of 154–155 sizing of see size/sizing surface of 161 terms describing quality of 141 tinting/dyeing of 123, 141, 167 see also dyes for tracing 110, 251 types of 153 wrinkles in 269 for writing 251 see also pasteboard paper clip (kāġaẕ-gīr) 252 paper-cutting (qaṭṭāʿī) 230, 231 papier-mâché (moqavvā) 307 parchment size (āhār-e pūst) 18 Partō, ʿAlī Reżā 145 pasteboard (kāġaẕ-e časbānde) 252 pen cutters (qalam-bor) 327 penboxes (qalamdān) in general 239, 241 making of 239–240 parts of 331 penknives (qalam-tarāš) in general 237

391 examples of 238, 282 making of 237–239 slanted 251 small 273 pens (qalām) holding of 271, 272 made from date wood 186 ruling pen 239, 239 slippage of 190, 281 see also nibs; reed pens Persianate world, map of 342–343 Persian-style Kufic (kūfī-ye īrānī) 269 phrases/verbal phrases “cannot be read” 279 on coins or seals 180 “He is favored” 336 “He is God” 336 “He is Truth” 336 “(he) wrote” 254, 299 “(he) wrote/blackened” 190 “(it) is from the author” 281 “may (God) conceal his imperfections” 180 “may God forgive his sins” 224 “may he be forgiven” 221, 224 “the mortal servant” 45 “in the name of God etc.” (besmele) 52, 339 in praise of God and the Prophet 132 “that which is possible to read” 285 pictorial writing (ḫaṭṭ-naqqāšī) 132, 137, 137–139 Pīr Bakrān (Esfahan) 91, 304 pīr-āmūz script 60, 61, 62, 267–268 pistachio colored (fostoqī) 227 pith/heart of the pen (maġz-e qalam) 303 Poems of Moḥammad Hoseyn Seyfī Qazvīnī (Moḥammad Hoseyn Seyfī Qazvīnī) 13 points 58, 59 pomegranate skins 168 Pope, Alexander 203 positioning, beauty of 122, 247, 248 potatoes 53 practicing of calligraphy in general 31, 296–297 free-style 297 by repeating 297 through copying 31, 250, 270, 298–299, 300

392 practicing of calligraphy (cont.) through examples 297 through observation 297–298 verses as template for 54 wooden board for 67 preface (sar-daftar) 182 primed surface (būm) 53 primer (baṭāne) 52 principles (oṣūl) 42 see also calligraphic principles printing 47, 108, 109, 321 proclamations (manšūr) 308 proportions (tanāsob) in general 86, 248 equilibrium and 87, 139, 189 symmetry and 122, 259 taking inks and 293 see also “hidden and visible” proximity, beauty of 122 psyllium seeds 17, 167 punctuation marks 42, 180, 327 Qajar style 203 Qalam, Kīmīā 238 Qānūn-oṣ-ṣovar (Ṣādeqī Beg Afšār) 244 Qavānīn-ol-ḫoṭūṭ (Maḥmūd b. Moḥammad)  11 Qazvīnī, Malek-Moḥammad 339 Qobt-od-Dīn Baḫtīār Kākī (Dehli) 255 Qobt-ol-Eslām Mosque (Dehli) 38 Qoṭb-od-Dīn Moḥammad Qeṣṣeḫān 11 quires ( jozv) 96 Quran/Quranic manuscripts bāborī script and 130, 131 covers of 101, 102, 105 dahe from 156 divisions of 192, 308 examples of colophons to 173, 204, 213 in moḥaqqaq 56, 63 in nasḫ 183 in pīr-āmūz 61 in reyḥān 302 in taʿlīq 157 panjes used in 59, 59 scripts used in 45, 263, 301, 319 see also moḥaqqaq script; pīr-āmūz script sura headings in 182, 183

General Index Rāḥat-oṣ-ṣodūr va āyat-os-sorūr (Moḥammad b. ʿAlī b. Soleymān ar-Rāvandī) 2 Rasm-ol-ḫaṭṭ (ʿEmād-ol-Kottāb) 320 Rasm-ol-ḫaṭṭ (Majnūn Rafīqī Heravī) on āb-e morakkab 15 on angle of nibs 233 on carving of pen 72 description of 10 on dots as measurement 54 on properties of paper 210–211 on refining of inks 57 on suitable time for calligraphy 49 re (letter) 141, 196, 290, 290 red roses 171 red seal (āl-tamġā) 16, 86, 87 red-orange pigments (soranj) 184 reed pens (qalām) in general 42, 233, 236 carving of 69–73, 74, 126 cleaners of 236 components of 31, 73, 192 see also nibs cutting of 226 of Dexful reeds 327–328, 328 examples of 282 heart (pith) of 303 holding of 271, 272 with metal tips 126 movement of 308 see also strokes nibs of see nibs placement of 175, 242 seven types of 32–33 sound of, on paper 211 terms used for 43, 262 testing of 64–65 transition of 65 use of 86 refinement (ṣafā) 210, 247 remainder (tatamme) 64 repeating (mašq kardan) 297 reports, writing of 189 reqāʿ script in general 142–143 ejāze script and 29 examples of 162, 183, 204, 212, 213 main entries on 161 treatises on 7 use of 43

General Index Resāle-ye Moḥammad Amīn (Moḥammad Amīn) 13 Resāle-ye qānūn-oṣ-ṣovar (Ṣādeqī Beg Afšār) 270 Resāle-ye taʿlīm mofradāt-e nastaʿlīq (attr. to Mirʿalī Tabrīzī) 5, 5 reversed letters (ḥorūf-e bargardān) 119 reversed script (ḫaṭṭ-e bargardān) 131, 131 revising 239 reyḥān script in general 142–143 examples of 173, 302 main entry on 172 use of 43, 301 rice glue (časb-e berenj) 113 Rīyāż-ol-abrār (Ḥoseyn ʿAqīlī Rostmadārī)  11–12 Rochechouart, Comte de 279 roqʿe script 163, 163 rough drafts 189, 296 roundels (šamse) 200, 201 rounding (gerd kardan) 271 roundness see “straightness and roundness” royal archives (davāt-ḫāne) 152 royal secretary (davāt-dārī) 152 rubbing, transfer by 119, 323 rulings stencils for 229 tools used in 180, 295 writer of 251 Ṣādeqī Beg Afšār 244, 270 Saʿdī 28, 44, 117, 317 safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) 194 saffron crocus (Crocus sativus L.) 170 Šafīʿā (Moḥammad Šafīʿ al-Ḥoseynī) 144, 197, 198 Šāh Tahmāsb 110 Šāhroḫ Mīrzā, Timurid ruler 205 Ṣāleḥ b. ʿAlī Rāzī 317 Šams-e Monšī 4 sand, for rubbing nibs 125 sandarac varnish (rōġan-e kamān) 53, 171 sandpapers (sonbāde) 188 šarafe pattern 194, 195, 195 Sayyed ʿAlī Ḥakkāk Tehrānī 122 scrapbook albums (moraqqaʿ) main entry on 290

393 pages from 48, 84–85, 111 scribes see calligraphers scripts beauty of 120–122 components of 31, 245 fingernail/relief 135, 135, 136 forgery of 134 fourfold scripts 45 large 133, 134 mature 135 mirroring of 21, 21 mother of 45 playful 132, 133 prevalent in 4th/10th century 43, 45 reversed 131, 131 Seven Pens 335 terms used to describe 104 tiny 134 touch up of 41–42 widths of 262 see also under specific scripts scriveners see calligraphers seals 16, 86, 87, 123, 125, 216, 217 secretaries 152, 286, 311 šekaste-ye nastaʿlīq script calligraphers of 198 development of 144–145 examples of 174, 179, 193, 197, 198, 199, 235 main entries on 196, 198, 200 terms used for 195 sentences see phrases/verbal phrases Sepahsālār mosque (Tehran) 306 Ṣerāṭ-os-soṭūr (Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī) see Ādāb-e ḫaṭṭ serif (sarak) 182, 184 “sermon” (ḫoṭbe) 132 seven colors (haft-rang) 335 Seven Pens (haft-qalam) 335 Seyed-ʿAlīḫān Javāherqalam 228 Ṣeyrafī Tabrīzī, Abdollāh b. Maḥmud-e 10 see also Golzār-e ṣafā Seyyed Golestāne 235 shagreen/chagreen (sāġarī) 59–60 Shah Mosque (Esfahan) 202–203, 215, 258 shaving, of nibs 69–70, 314 sheep leather (mīšan) 59–60, 312 shellac (lāk) 278 shoulders (šāne) 194

394 sīāh-mašq (calligraphic texts) 140, 142, 158, 190, 191, 192 see also čalīpās sieves (ḫāk-bīz) 125 signatures in general 45, 73 of calligraphers 118, 163, 164, 165, 166 place designated for 180 of students of calligraphy 190, 254, 299 of sultans 88 see also phrases/verbal phrases silk threads (rešte) 161 silver (noqre) 323 silver speckling (sīm-afšānī) 192  see also gold sprinklings Sīmī-ye Neyšābūrī 5–6 simple elements (mofradāt) of ejāze 30, 307 examples of 23, 30, 307, 309–310, 322 main entry on 306 of nasḫ-e yāqūt 307, 322 of nastaʿlīq 309–310 treatises on 5, 6, 9, 10, 11 sīn (letter) 150 šīn (letter) 150 Šīrāzī, Assadollāh 190, 319, 320 Šīrāzī, Mehdī Šarīf 231 Šīrāzī, Mīrzā Moḥammad 13 Šīrāzī, Moḥammad Hosseyn (Kāteb-osSolṭān) 46, 57, 253, 282, 320 Six Pens (aqlām-e šeš-gāne) 43, 45, 142–144 see also under specific scripts size/sizing (āhār) in general 17 with Alcea 20 and burnishing of paper 20 with fish glue 19 with parchment size 18 process of 18–19 with starches 17, 19, 20–21 skin (pūst) 59–60 slanted writing (movarrab-negārī) 312 Ṣofē-ye Šeyḫ 91 soft (narm) 314 sols script in general 142–143 ejāze script and 29 ending of line of text in 104

General Index examples of 66 ʿeyn in 92, 92 inscriptions in 92, 184, 195, 215, 218, 220, 256, 257, 258, 332, 337 main entry on 92–93 as mother of scripts 45 straightness and roundness in 185 treatises on 10, 11, 13, 25–26 upstroke following ʿeyn in 227 use of 43, 301 Solṭān ʿAlī Mašhadī 7–9, 107, 257, 317 see also Ādāb-e ḫaṭṭ Solṭān ʿAlī Qāyenī 317 Solṭān Ḥoseyn, Savafid Shah 89 Solṭān Moḥammad Ḫandān 76 soot (dūde) 155 Šōqī Efendī 25, 26 spaces 226 specimen, calligraphic 104, 232, 234, 235 spin (čarḫ) 110, 112 spoons (āb-davāt-kon) 15 sprinklings, of gold see gold sprinklings starches applying of 330 glues of 114 sizing with 17, 19, 20–21 stencils (ʿakkāsī) 221, 222, 229 stone engravers (sang-tarāš) 188 “straightness and roundness” (saṭḥ-o-dōr)  43, 185–186 strokes ascending in general 210 following ʿeyn 227, 227 true ascent 210, 210 virtual ascent 210, 210 descending following ʿeyn 205, 205 true decent 314, 314 virtual descent 314, 315 head-strokes 182 spin and 110, 112 thickness of 83, 214, 249 thinness of 86, 214, 214 see also lines students of calligraphy example written by masters for 184, 185 signatures of 190, 254, 299

395

General Index stages in progression of 289 see also practicing of calligraphy styles in calligraphy in general 202 elongation and see elongation Iranian 202–203 large and loose 57 linked/connected 295, 296 narrow and tight 306 slanted 312 superior stage (marḥale-ye momtāz) 289 sura headings (sar-sūre) 182, 183 symbols dahe 156–157, 156 panje 59, 59 symmetrical curved lines (band) see lines, symmetrical curved symmetry 122, 259 Tabrīzī, Moḥammad Šafīʿ 329 Tabrīzī, Taʾs̱īr 55, 57 taḥrīrī script 65 Taj Mahal (Agra) 216, 220 Taʿlīm-ol-ḫoṭūṭ ( ʿAlī b. Ḥasan-e Ḫōšmardān) 9 taʿlīq script cursive form of 196 development of 142–144 examples of 84–85, 147, 158, 179 main entries on 83 mention of 315 talisman script (ḥorūf-e ṭelesmāt) 120 tannate inks (ḥebr) 118 textblock spines (šīrāze) 201 texts end of 125 praise of God at beginning of 132 thickness 83, 214, 249 see also thinness thick/viscous (ġalīẓ) 224 thinness 86, 214, 214 see also thickness tiles, in designs 273 tinting 167 see also dyes tiny (ḫafī) 137 tiralinee (terling) 239, 239 title page, decorations on 64, 182

tōaʾmān script 87–88, 115, 132, 196 “ṭoġrā bureau” (dīvān-e ṭoġrā) 156 Toḥfat-ol-moḥebbīn (Yaʿqūb b. Ḥasan Serāj Šīrāzī) 7, 316 tools, preparing of 126 tōqīʿ script in general 142–143 ejāze script and 29 examples of 89, 94 main entry on 88, 90 treatises on 7, 10 use of 43 toranj see mandorla designs transferring of calligraphy 119, 190, 323 of designs 190, 252 transgressor (almoẕneb) 45 translational practice see copying of calligraphy transparent paint (rang-e rūḥī) 169 trapezoidal-shaped flaps 175, 176, 206, 206, 207, 208 treatises (resāle) 161 trimmers (šafre) 195 true ascent (ṣoʿūd-e ḥaqīqī) 210, 210 true descent (nozūl-e ḥaqīqī) 314–315, 314 tughra (ṭoġrā) 216, 217 Tughrul, Seljuk Sultan 152 twisted (malfūf ) 308, 311 typesetter (ḥorūf-čīn) 119 ultramarine (lājavardī) 278 undercoat (baṭāne) 52 underpainting (tah-rang) 90 upstrokes (ṣoʿūd) 210 Valī-ad-Dīn Afandī 250 varnishes, sandarac 53, 171 verdigris 170, 177–178 vermillion (šangarf) 201 verses (beyt) 54, 54 verso side (ẓahr) 219 Veṣāl-aš-Šāʿer 277 virtual ascent (ṣoʿūd-e majāzī) 210, 210 virtual ascent (tašmīr) 81 virtual descent (nozūl-e majāzī) 314, 315 visible see “hidden and visible”

396 visual practice (mašq-e naẓarī) 297–298 void lines (ḫaṭṭ-e bāṭel) 131 wadding (līqe) 282, 283, 283 walnut hulls 59, 168 water dryer (āb-ḫošk-kon) 15 watercolors (ābrang) 58, 113, 169, 212, 278 wheat starch 167 whetstones (sang-e qalam-tarāš) 189 white lead (sefīdāb-e sorb) 186, 188 white spaces (beyn-e soṭūr) 55 whiteness see “blackness and whiteness” words elongation and 260, 262 space between 226 wrinkles, in paper 269 writers see calligraphers

General Index writing pad (zīr-dastī) 178 written (moḥarrar) 286 written documents (raqīm/raqīme) 166 yā, inverted (yā-ye maʿkūs) 338, 338 Yaḥyā al-Jamālī 94 Yaʿqūb b. Ḥasan Serāj Šīrāzī 5–6, 7, 316 Yāqūt Mostaʿṣemī 31, 88, 99, 143, 172, 246, 320 Yārī al-Heravī 280 Zanjānī, Fatḥʿalī 238 zarak canvas (būm-e zarak) 53 Zīn al-ʿĀbedīn 162 zinc oxide (sefīdāb-e rūī) 188 Zīn-ol-ʿābedīn b. Faṭḥʿalī Ḫoyī 13