A grammar of present-day English

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• .

.

A

GRAMMAR OF

PRESENT-DAY ENGLISH

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY DALLAS

NEW YORK

•

ATLANTA

•

•

LONDON

•

CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO

MANILA

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY OF CANADA, LIMITED TORONTO

R.W.

PENCE

PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH DE PAUW UNIVERSITY

AGRA M MAR

OF

PRESENT-DAY ENGLISH

NEW YORK

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

COPYRIGHT, 1947, BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY All rights reserved in

—

no part of this book

may

be reproduced

any form without permission in writing from the publisher,

except

by a reviewer

who wishes

to

quote brief passages in

connection with a review written for inclusion in magazine or

newspaper.

PRINTED

IN

THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Eighth Printing, 1955

PREFACE

A decade or so ago it was the educational fad to maintain that the formal study of English

grammar had

little

or

no place

in the

But today we are beginning to see the error of our ways. In throwing out the bathwater of some bad practices in the teaching of grammar we found that curricula of our public school system.

we had thrown out the baby too. The result of this that today we have a large group of young people who

unwittingly folly

is

have not the slightest notion of any systematic understanding of the workings of their Mother Tongue. But even more alarming is the fact that we also have a large number of teachers who, growing up during the heyday of the mistaken notion, are themselves ill-equipped to do much about restoring such a study to its rightful place in our educational system. Fortunately, many of our colleges and universities, and especially our teachers' colleges, are trying to remedy the difficulty by installing courses in formal English grammar. 1 Present-day students need a book that will be so explicit that it may seem very elementary to him who chances to be well-trained in grammar. They need a book so complete that it may serve as a reference book after it has filled its original function as a classroom text. The present volume attempts to meet just such needs. During the period when the study of grammar almost ceased to exist in elementary schools and high schools, many fallacious noHence, it may be tions were evolved to justify its banishment. worth while to point out, first, what grammar does not pretend to accomplish and then, second, what a systematic study of the subject actually First,

by some

is

grammar

and what values is

not

it

may

have.

a set of rules thought up by and imposed It is not a listing of the pos-

invisible godlike creature.

*And such courses are certainly being enthusiastically of foreign languages. v

welcomed by our teachers

PREFACE

VI

ways

sible

mouth

in

which the unwary may blunder when he opens his It is not something with which

or takes pencil in hand.

Grammar is merely

the erudite try to frighten the less informed.

the record of how words behave when they are put together

make

sentences.

Second, a knowledge of

grammar does

not in itself

that even the serious-minded student will thereby

master of correct English.

and

to

still

make

guarantee

become a

One can know all about grammar may know nothing of

stupid blunders, just as one

and yet never make a mistake. Indeed, a formal study of grammar would certainly be an inefficient means by which to learn how to avoid errors. Third, a knowledge of grammar does not insure that one's composition will be effective, though such a knowledge will give its possessor reliable means by which he may attain an effectiveness in the use of language that might very well otherwise be the technique of the subject

denied him.

grammar

an end in itself. It can be an indispensable means to an enriched knowledge of the English language and of its infinite variety of resources that one may Finally, the study of

make

is

not

use of as he tries to transmit a thought.

Let us now note briefly what grammar is and what values it may have for the average intelligent person. Formal grammar is merely a systematic study of how words

work

in sentences.

Instead of being a mass of important and

about language, as some people seem to think, formal grammar is merely an orderly presentation of what goes on when sentences are formed that is, a presentation that has the same logical relation of its parts that one demands when he studies any other subject of human interest chemistry or political science, for instance. We all know from experience that we can grasp ideas much more readily when they have been organized according to some logical pattern than we can when they are thrust at us without any organization. When through an orderly account one has learned how words work in sentences, he no longer has to depend on any rule in a given situation. His knowledge will provide him the means by

unimportant

facts

—

—

PREFACE

vu

which he may exercise his judgment as to what is good, what is He is in a position to choose among a wide better, what is best. range of locutions the one that represents his thought most accurately and most effectively. Hence, he will have a far larger number of linguistic resources at his disposal than he who has no such systematized knowledge. His knowledge of grammar can help him criticize and evaluate sentences already formed and to fashion more effective sentences when he sets out to compose them. In other words, through such a study he can hope eventually to emancipate himself from slavery to this or to any other book. For he will have discovered that grammar does not create sentences; it merely attempts to guide him as he makes them. Finally, it is reasonable to hope that the study of formal grammar can have a cultural value. For surely any intelligent person ought to have an overwhelming curiosity as to the whys and wherefores of that which he uses every day of his life more often namely, his Mother Tongue. than he uses any other one thing

—

Of

number of study of grammar

which could be cited that brought the into disrepute, one would be the vast confusion, utterly needless confusion, that arose from the multiplying It seemed that of names for basic grammatical constructions. every writer of a treatise on grammar felt that, in order to justify the publication of his new book, he must invent an entirely new (See pp. 1 7 ff. for a list set of names for old, old constructions. No of some of the commoner variations in nomenclature.) wonder the average student gave up the whole subject in deThe present volume has used the names that are likely spair. most familiar to the ordinary user. to be It is There is nothing very revolutionary about this book. a

things

designed to be as practical as

its

subject will permit.

It

concerns

with neither the theory nor the history of grammar and grammatical constructions. There are already excellent books on such aspects, notably Curme's Syntax. It does attempt to

itself

—

set up for the user a simple system by means do just one thing of which he may intelligently interpret for himself what happens when words get together to form sentences. No simple system could possibly be devised that would cover every linguistic situa-

PREFACE

Vlll

What Mr.

tion.

C. H.

Ward

might be paraphrased

p. 3)

has to say about definitions (see

to read:

Statements regarding constructions are provisional, are mere statements of is typical and usual; they are not, cannot be, all-inclusive containers of the

what full

truth about constructions. These statements are only a convenience; excep-

tions

and anomalies

truth;

it is

will crop

up

later.

No

statement in this book

a preliminary and partial explanation of what

is

is

an eternal

characteristic.

This book inverts the usual order and places the section on constructions (that is, syntax) first, with the section on forms and usages following. that

if

It

has been found through long experience

a student once gains a mastery of the basic constructions is likely then to become much more interested in

of sentences, he

forms and usages and to be able to make a much more intelligent study of them than would be the case if the usual order were fol-

Too often the student who is first put to work on forms is so bogged down in the welter of relatively uninteresting details that he has little enthusiasm left for that aspect of grammar which could be of assistance to him in building accurate and effective lowed.

sentences.

Because

this

book

is

intended for him

who

has

little

or no pre-

vious experience with a study of formal grammar, it has been very explicit and very detailed (and at times undoubtedly very

dogmatic) in

its

It will

explanations.

be noted that examples

more abundant and are much more fully explained than Examples of constructions is usually the case in such a book. have not merely been placed on the page and left there: they are far

have been, in each instance, explained in detail. In fact, it is the wealth of examples, with their full explanations, that goes For far in justifying this new treatment of a very old subject. the book

is first

The author most

efficient

of

all

and above

all

directed to the learner.

believes that a simply constructed

method,

many

times, of

making

diagram

is

the

clear to oneself

how a given expression works in a given sentence. A diagram is the same kind of means to an end as a map in a history book or a chart in a laboratory manual. For those who feel as he does, there is a section in which the sentences used earlier as illustrative material have been diagrammed (see pp. 311 ff.).

PREFACE

IX

This section has been placed at the end of the book for those who wish it. Thus the diagram need not annoy anyone who

may

feel that it is

which

too mechanical

to represent as artistic

and

and arbitrary a device with

illusive

a thing as the English

sentence.

But one cannot come to a genuine mastery of English grammar by merely reading about grammar. He must go to work on the subject on his own to make it really his. Hence, there are exercises scattered through the book, so that he may see at first hand how words actually do work in sentences. If, then, this book will introduce the student to a simple system by means of which he may come to some comprehension of how words work in an English sentence; if it will provide him with a body of fact on the basis of which he may make intelligent decisions regarding correct and effective discourse; if it will serve as a convenient reference book until with his advancing knowledge of the language he becomes his own reference book, it will have reached the goal its author originally set for it. author's indebtedness to many can be merely suggested There are those whose books have been mentioned in the Bibliography; those who have used parts of the book in mimeographed form in their classes; those who have sat in the author's courses in grammar in his own institution and in the State College of Washington, where he has been a member of the summer faculty on several occasions; the author's colleagues especially Professors Virginia A. Harlow, Edna Taylor, and Jerome C. Hixson. His thanks go to them, and to many others, for valuable suggestions. But, as final decisions had to be his, his must

The

here.

—

be the responsibility for

all

shortcomings.

R.W.P. Greencastle, Indiana

4 6 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Part

Chapter

I.

One

Syntax

Definitions

3

A.

GRAMMAR

3

B.

THE SENTENCE

3

C.

PARTS OF SPEECH

5

D. SHIFTS E. F.

G.

H. I.

J.

K.

7

THE SENTENCE AGAIN CLAUSE AND PHRASE MAIN AND SUBORDINATE CLAUSES COMPOUND EXPRESSIONS GRAMMATICAL TYPES OF SENTENCES RHETORICAL TYPES OF SENTENCES EQUIVALENT NAMES FOR GRAMMATICAL TERMS

7 I I

12 1 1 1

I

Chapter A.

B.

II.

Functions of the Parts of Speech in a Sentence

29

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS (SUBSTANTIVES)

29

EXERCISES

34

VERBS

35 65

EXERCISES C.

D.

E.

F.

J

20

EXERCISES

ADJECTIVES EXERCISES

75 82

ADVERBS

84

EXERCISES

94 96

PREPOSITIONS EXERCISES

1

CONJUNCTIONS

IO5

EXERCISES

I

si

04 14

8

TABLE OF CONTENTS

xii

Chapter

Shifts,

III.

Absolute Constructions, Expletives,

Ellipsis,

and Inversions

116

a. shifts

b.

c.

exercises

i 1

absolute constructions

120

exercises

123

expletives

i

25 128

exercises

130

d. ellipsis

e.

exercises

1

33

inverted order

i

34

exercises

135

Chapter IV. The A.

B.

C.

Grammar

of Subordinate Clauses

137

NOUN CLAUSES

1

EXERCISES

143

ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES EXERCISES

1

38

45

149

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

I5I

EXERCISES

159

Part

Nouns

Chapter V. A. CLASSES B.

116

Two

(Substantives)

OF NOUNS

PROPERTIES OF NOUNS

A.

Pronouns CLASSES OF PRONOUNS

B.

AGREEMENT

Chapter VI.

Chapter VII.

Form and Usages

Verbs

A. DEFINITIONS B.

PROPERTIES OF VERBS

C.

167 1 1

67 68

183 1

83

1

95

207 207

AUXILIARIES

207 23O

D. INFLECTIONS

237

VERBALS

254

E.

9

11

TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter VIII.

xiii

271

Adjectives

A. CLASSES

27

B.

OF ADJECTIVES EXPRESSIONS USED AS ADJECTIVES

274

C.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

D.

USAGES IN ADJECTIVES

275 278

Adverbs

284

A.

KINDS OF ADVERBS

284

B.

MEANINGS OF ADVERBS FORMS OF ADVERBS

284

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS USAGES IN ADVERBS

287 288

Chapter IX.

C.

D. E.

Chapter X.

285

290

Prepositions

A.

KINDS OF PREPOSITIONS

2gO

B.

USAGES IN PREPOSITIONS

29O

Conjunctions

298

A.

KINDS OF CONJUNCTIONS

B.

MEANINGS OF CONJUNCTIONS USAGES IN CONJUNCTIONS

298 3OO 3OO

Chapter XI.

C.

Chapter XII.

Interjections

307

AND Oh

USAGES IN

Part Three Chapter XIII.

Preliminaries:

S°7

Diagramming The Diagram

in

Gram-

matical Analysis

Chapter XIV.

Chapter

XV.

Complements of Verbs Verbals

Chapter XVI. Chapter XVII.

Connectives (Conjunctions)

Absolute Constructions, Expletives, Ellipsis, and Inverted Order

31

31

323

336

Shifts,

343

TABLE OF CONTENTS

xiv

Chapter XVIII.

Subordinate Clauses

A.

NOUN CLAUSES

B.

ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

C.

356 356 362 365

Bibliography

369

Index

37 1

Part

One

Syntax

7.

DEFINITIONS'

A.

Grammar

is

GRAMMAR

the science of language that treats of the con-

and usages of words. That aspect of grammar which deals with constructions of words in sentences is called Grammar also concerns itself with the forms of words syntax. (sometimes called accidence) and usages. We shall first of all structions, forms,

try to familiarize ourselves with matters of syntax ; then

we

shall

be able to approach the problems of forms and usages. B.

Inasmuch sentences,

start

THE SENTENCE

as syntax has to

we need

to

know, at

what a sentence

do with the least in

Further,

is.

relationship of

words

in

a general way, at the very

we

shall find that

we cannot

get very far in applying our knowledge to the problems of

composition, written and spoken, unless we ground our knowledge in an understanding of what a sentence is and how it works. For the sentence

is

the basic unit of discourse; hence,

it is

the

basic unit for the study of syntax.

We may

by saying that a sentence is a group of words that makes a complete statement of some kind. Probably this will become clearer if we examine groups of words to see how "It some of them make statements, whereas others do not. is raining," "Jim became homesick," and "The sun is setting in the west"

start

make statements;

complete sentence.

that

is,

each one

is

a grammatically

But "to make a long story short," "when

grammar are provisional, are mere statements of what is typiusual; they are not, they cannot be, all-inclusive containers of the full truth exceptions definition is only a convenience about the parts of speech. ... definition is not an eternal truth. It is a and anomalies will crop out later. ... ^'Definitions in

cal

and

A

.

A

—

.

.

C. H. Ward, Grampreliminary and partial statement of what is characteristic." in Composition (Chicago: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1933), p. 145.

mar

3

:

DEFINITIONS

4

the

postman

arrives," "in fighting the high cost of living,"

and

"because he couldn't see the road" leave us wondering what the complete idea was in each case that we were supposed to gather.

do not make statements; hence, they are No one of them satnot sentences, grammatically considered. complete. thought For our immethat be a isfies the demand

That

these groups

is,

diate purpose, then,

A

sentence is a group of

From is

we may

define a sentence thus

words that expresses a complete thought.

grammar a group of words, if it complete thought, must contain a subject and a something talked about and some declaration made

the point of view of

to express a

predicate

—

(These two indispensable compoabout that "something." nents of a grammatically complete sentence will be discussed shortly; see pp. 7ff.)

The important

thing here

is

that

we develop

a clear percep-

between groups of words that are, gramand those groups that For until we have such a are only fragments of sentences. perception of this difference, it is futile to proceed to any other matter of grammar, inasmuch as that aspect of grammar we are now studying has to do with the relationship of words in tion of the difference

matically considered, complete sentences

sentences.

1

The words that make up a sentence (and from now on when we use the term "sentence" we shall mean a group of words that is

complete from a grammatical point of view) have various

functions to perform;

and on the

basis of these functions they

Hence, it will be well for us have brief working definitions of these parts of speech, seven in number. 2 Do not be disturbed if these brief are classed as "parts of speech." at this point to

:

It is

true that experienced writers frequently use fragments of sentences as the

and begin such fragments with capitals and end them with periods. But our immediate problem is to come to a comprehension of what is meant grammatically by the term "sentence." And such fragments are not, from a grammatical point of view, sentences. We may call them rhetorical That is, for the intended reader or listener, who readily fills in the sentences. ellipsis involved (see pp. 130 ff. for Ellipsis), they become in meaning the equivalent

rhetorical equivalent of complete sentences

of grammatically complete sentences. 2

The

interjection

is

frequently included as an eighth part of speech.

(See p. 7.)

:

PARTS OF SPEECH

C.

definitions fail to bring to

For we

5

you a full comprehension immediately. add information about each one of we go along until full comprehension

shall continue to

these parts of speech as

have been attained.

shall

From

we may

the brief definitions that follow

parts of speech

fall

into four definite groups

Nouns and pronouns (conveniently called which name; Adjectives and adverbs, which qualify;

I.

see that the

substantives;

see Note, below),

II.

Verbs, which assert;

III.

IV. Prepositions and conjunctions, which connect. 1

PARTS OF SPEECH 2

C.

A

Noun.

1.

noun

that

may

name

the

is

2.

for

boy,

Mary,

love-

as a

be the subject and whole clauses

nition phrases

pp. 138

of anything:

noun is the name of anything of discourse, by an extension of this defi-

(Inasmuch

liness, sun, alacrity.

may

function as nouns.

See

ff.)

A pronoun is

Pronoun.

a substantive:

he, she,

John took out

the coat

it,

a word that

is

used as a substitute

which, that, these.

and hat

that he

had

so carefully

put away in

his

closet the night before. Note.

Nouns and pronouns are

often referred to as "substantives."

See p. 29.

J.

A verb

Verb.

(Birds fly), being (I

he seems; she 4.

a word (or phrase) that expresses action am), or state of being or occurrence (I become;

died).

An

Adjective.

is

(For various kinds of verbs see pp. 46 adjective

is

ff.)

a word that describes (that

modifies) a noun: pretty girl; dusty road; sunshiny day; great

is,

K)r, I.

we might just stantives)

II.

III.

group them in

(substantives)

this fashion:

and

adjectives

(qualifiers

of

sub-

;

Verbs and adverbs Prepositions

(qualifiers of verbs);

and conjunctions

(connectives).

Note that these definitions designate functions that words have in sentences. fair to say that words belong to no part of speech until they are used in sentences.

2

It is

as readily

Nouns and pronouns

DEFINITIONS

6

The

excitement.

an,

articles, a,

and

the,

are regarded as ad-

jectives. I

maintained a

He

is

an

steady pace.

intelligent child.

The term "modify"

Note.

in

grammar means

"to qualify, limit, or re-

a modifier usually narrows the conception of the thing Blue sky is a narrower conception than sky; unruly children is a modified. narrower conception than children; she danced divinely is a narrower concepthat tion than she danced. Anything, then, that limits, restricts, or qualifies an expression is grammatically a modifier. is, narrows the conception of

That

strict."

is,

—

—

Adverb. An adverb is a word that describes or modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb: work hard; drive care5.

drive very carefully.

fully', too ill;

He He

will will

come come

soon.

[An adverb modifying the verb will come.] [An adverb modifying the adverb soon (which

very soon.

in turn modifies will come).]

She

is

extremely patient.

(which 6.

is

a subjective

Preposition.

A

[An adverb modifying the complement of is).]

preposition

is

adjective patient

a word used with a sub-

a noun or a pronoun), called its object, to form a phrase, called a prepositional phrase: "i« the dark," "up the stairs," "across the street," "without a doubt," "toward me."

stantive (that

is,

(The functions of prepositional phrases see pp. 100 7.

ment

will

be discussed

later;

ff.)

Conjunction. in a sentence

phrases, clauses, or

A conjunction a word that joins one eleA conjunction may join words, to another. whole statements. A conjunction that joins is

elements that are grammatically equal conjunction.

A

is

called a coordinating

conjunction that joins an element of

less

gram-

matical importance (such as a subordinate clause) to an element of greater grammatical importance (such as a

main

clause)

is

called a subordinating conjunction. [The coordinating conjunction and Frank and Henry are brothers. joins two nouns, Frank and Henry.] Up hill and down dale they went. [The coordinating conjunction and joins two phrases, up hill and down dale.] The wind blew and the rain fell. [The coordinating conjunction and joins two clauses, The wind blew and the rain fell.]

!

D.

Jim may come

if

he secures

SHIFTS

7 [The subordinating conjunc-

his furlough.

tion if joins the subordinate clause he secures his furlough to the

clause

Jim may

main

come.]

An

is an exclamatory word that Ah! Alas! Oh! An interjection has little or no grammatical function in a sentence; in fact, an interjection is often written as if it were a complete sentence.

8. Interjection.

interjection

usually expresses strong emotion

Heavens

!

What

:

a mess

D. SHIFTS

As will be seen later (pp. 116 ff.), words in English easily cross from one part-of-speechship to another. (In fact, this shift of a word from a customary part of speech to another part of speech has been one of the characteristic methods of growth in the

When

English language.)

a word as a noun merely recording the customary

the dictionary

or a verb or an adjective,

it

is

lists

word in a sentence. For, actually, a given word does not belong to any part of speech until it is used in a sentence. function of the

The

ball

went

the fence.

over

His joke did not go

He

sitting in the sun.

is

[Preposition]

[Adverb]

over.

[Preposition]

Walk in, please. [Adverb] You work too hard. [Adverb] You are a hard worker. [Adjective] The raccoon ran up a tree. [Noun] Please

show me a

My dog

can

tree

tree

toad.

[Adjective]

a raccoon any night.

That typewriter belongs to me. That

is

my

[Pronoun]

typewriter.

I

know

I

never saw the

that the

typewriter like

of

it

is

like

like

to read stage plays?

E. 1.

mine.

before.

Your raincoat does not look

Do you

[Verb]

[Adjective]

[Conjunction]

[Noun] mine.

[Preposition]

[Verb]

THE SENTENCE AGAIN

Subject and Predicate.

We defined a sentence as a group

of words expressing a complete thought

amine groups of words that meet our

(p. 4).

test for

If

we

a sentence,

will ex-

we

shall

DEFINITIONS

8

two characteristic parts: first, is some declara-

find that in every case there are

there tion

something talked about; second, there

is

made about second

ject; the

The

this ''something." is

called the predicate.

— a noun or anything (such

first is

The

called the sub-

subject

is

a sub-

pronoun) that functions The main element (sometimes the only element) like a noun. We cannot have a grammatically of a predicate is a verb. complete sentence, then, without having these two essential inBut this must not lead a subject and a predicate. gredients conclusion that every group of words conerroneous the us to stantive

as a

—

and a predicate examine the groups

taining a subject

For

if

we

will

agreed were not sentences,

we

by that fact a sentence. listed above (p. 3) that we

is

shall note that

some of them

contain subjects and predicates — "When the mailman the road" — and yet do not meet our ''Because we couldn't arrives,"

see

test for

a sentence.

be discussed later

clauses, will a.

These groups, which are called subordinate

First, then, in

Subject.

(see pp. 12 f.). a sentence there must be something

which we

shall call the subject. This subject is words, word, or group of that functions as a a expressed by a

talked about,

noun. The

word as subject] [Group of words functioning as a subject] To go now is impossible. That we shall have some opposition is to be expected. [Group of words sky

is

blue.

[Single

functioning as a subject] b.

The second

Predicate.

requisite,

if

a group of words

is

to

some declaration about the subject. Such a Sometimes a single word, called a verb, can become a predicate C 'Birds fly"). But more often than not this single word (or word group), called a verb, be a sentence,

declaration

is

is

is

called the predicate.

not sufficient; something

ication that

cate

is

it,

required to complete the pred-

Thus a

the verb, has merely begun.

made up

often

is

of a verb plus

what

is

predi-

called a comple-

ment, something that completes the verb (hence the spelling compl-e-ment)

.

(We

plements that verbs

shall discuss shortly the various kinds of

may demand

;

see pp. 28

ff.)

com-

But whether

or not the verb requires something to complete the predication

;

THE SENTENCE AGAIN

E.

9

that it itself has merely begun, the verb plus any such helpers becomes the predicate of the sentence.

The wind blew. They hoisted the ment, Stars and

We

became

alarmed,

A is

to

is

and

is

a predicate.]

Stripes.

a verb, with

[Hoisted,

its

comple-

the predicate.]

Stripes, is

greatly alarmed.

[Became, a verb,

and

its

complement,

the predicate.]

then, the second requisite

predicate

is,

become a

sentence. If

Modifiers.

c.

[Blew, a verb,

Stars

we

if

a group of words

look back over some of the sentences that

have been used as illustrative material, we shall find that while a subject and a predicate are indispensable to a sentence, more often than not a sentence contains something besides, something that upon examination proves to be an elaboration, a limitation, or a qualification of the subject or of the predicate.

Anything that elaborates, limits, or qualifies either a subject or a predicate (or a complement of the verb of a predicate) is called a "modifier."

We

saw from our

brief definitions

above

(p. 5) that

anything

noun (such as a noun used as a subject) is an function and that anything that modifies a verb is

that modifies a adjective in

an adverb

Hence,

in function.

it

should be clear that

many

of the words in a sentence are adjectival or adverbial modifiers.

As we

shall see later, these adjectival

may

be single words they they may be whole clauses. ;

Three major groups

d.

—

modifiers.

It

is

evi-

composed of two absolutely indisa subject and a predicate and usually, but of a third modifiers, which belong either to

—

not necessarily,

be phrases (groups of words)

subject, predicate,

dent, then, that a sentence

pensable parts

may

and adverbial modifiers

is

—

—

the subject or the predicate.

In

fact,

we may

ject,

a predicate, and modifiers constitute nearly

mar

of any group of words

making a

sentence.

say that a suball

of the gram-

(There

are, to

be sure, a few odds and ends

—

kinds

to bother with at this point.)

— that we do not need

expletives, particles of various

A simple outline may help make evident the basic grammar of a sentence.

DEFINITIONS

10

A SENTENCE Subject (indispensable)

I.

Predicate (indispensable)

II.

A. Verb (indispensable)

99.44%

Complement

B.

(often

demanded but not always)

III. Modifiers of either subject or of predicate (not in-

dispensable but usually present)

.56%

Odds and ends (may be

IV.

may

Or, we

and

{

see that

it

disregarded at this stage)

regard a sentence from another point of view is

divided into two great parts

— the

subject

may be attached to it, and the predicate as may be attached to it. The essential

with such modifiers as

with such modifiers

the subject without any modifiers; the essential predi-

subject

is

cate

the verb plus any required complements without any

is

The complete

modifiers of the verb or of the complements. subject it;

is

the essential subject plus

the complete predicate

all

the modifiers attached to

the essential predicate plus

is

modifiers attached to the verb and to

its

everything that appears in a sentence

way, we

may

say that from the point of view of

Little birds that nest in the

[Birds

is

south

when

the

the essential subject;

fly is

the

fly

Little birds that nest in the north in the

fly south

when

its

parts —

distinct

north in the summertime

cold winds begin to blow.

the complete subjedt;

Hence,

a part of a complete

grammatical structure a sentence falls into two a complete subject and a complete predicate.

essential predicate.

the

Or, to restate the matter

subject or of a complete predicate. in another

complements. is

all

1

the cold

winds begin

summertime

to

blow

is

is

the

complete predicate.]

The

office

workers of the zinc mill gave their very

efficient sales

a handsome gold watch when he came to leave them. the essential subject; gave manager watch

The

office

workers of the zinc mill

efficient sales

is

is

manager

[Workers

is

the essential predicate.

the complete subject; gave

manager a handsome gold watch when he came

their very

to leave

them

is

the complete predicate.]

The new Methodist church its

architecture.

[Church

is is

remarkably beautiful

in the simplicity of

the essential subject;

is

beautiful is the

Sometimes the term "simple predicate" is used to designate the vero of the But the term seems to have little real value. Hence, predicate taken by itself. this book has preferred to use the terms "essential subject" and "essential predicate" and define them as here.

CLAUSE AND PHRASE

F.

The new Methodist church

essential predicate.

remarkably beautiful in the simplicity of

is

is

11 the complete subject;

its architecture is

the complete

predicate.]

CLAUSE AND PHRASE

F.

be of help if we have convenient terms with which to designate groups of related words that contain subjects and predicates and groups that do not contain subjects and prediTo the first is applied the term "clause"; to the second cates. the term "phrase." We may define the two thus: It will

A

clause is a group of related

words containing a subject and a predicate.

Note that the thing that characterizes a clause

is

solely the

presence of a subject and a predicate.

(See pp. 12 f. for the difference between a clause that expresses a complete thought

and a clause that does not express a complete thought.) It is raining. .

.

.

when

Mac was

the clock strikes four surprised

Since Alice

A phrase The pp. 96

is

left

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

a group of words not containing a subject and a predicate.

principal kinds of phrases are prepositional phrases (see ff.)

and verbal phrases

(participial,

gerund, and

infini-

But any group of two or more related words constitutes a phrase. Hence, we have such phrases as verb phrases (a principal verb and its auxiliaries: tive phrases; see pp. 51 ff.).

He

has been promoted), phrasal prepositions (in accordance with),

and phrasal conjunctions cussed in due time. ... in the morning

.

.

... at ten o'clock

.

.

Coming down

.

(in order that), all

.

the street ...

... to have seen such a sight After mailing your complaint It

being a nice day

Inasmuch

of which will be dis-

.

.

.

.

.

.

;

.

.

as a phrase never contains a subject or

a predicate, a phrase can never express a complete thought; hence, a phrase can never stand by itself with a capital at the beginning and a

:

DEFINITIONS

12

period at the end. clauses

is

member

Ability to distinguish between phrases

The

of the utmost importance.

here

that a phrase never contains a subject

is

and

principal thing to re-

and a

some clauses themselves by and stand and can express complete thoughts other clauses do not express complete thoughts and so cannot stand by themselves. predicate, that a clause always contains both; that

G.

MAIN AND SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

and a and can stand by themso thoughts complete predicate express selves with capitals at the beginning and periods at the end. Such groups are called main (or independent or principal)

Some groups

of related words containing a subject

Other groups of related words may contain subjects and predicates and yet not express complete thoughts. Such groups, which cannot stand by themselves with capitals at the beginning and periods at the end, are called subordinate (or dependent) clauses. Hence, our definitions may be framed thus clauses.

A

clause is any group of related

main

words containing a subject and

a predicate and expressing a complete thought

—

one that

may

stand as a

complete sentence, with a capital at the beginning and a period at the end. Birds

fly.

It is raining.

The man holding up

his

Ice

is

hand

cold. is

Dogs bark.

trying to quiet the people milling

around at the entrance to the stadium.

A ject

subordinate clause

is

any group of related words containing a sub-

and a predicate but not expressing a complete thought

—

one that

cannot stand as a complete sentence with a capital at the beginning

and a period

at the end.

A subordinate

1

ordinating expression, clear

its

when

subordinate character (see also pp. 137

we were very young

because

my

so that I x

We

by some kind of subexpressed or clearly implied, that makes

clause will be introduced

watch was slow had to walk fast

if

it

doesn't rain

who wrote that

ff.).

Barchester Towers

James might have a chance

shall see later (pp. 138 ff.) that every subordinate clause an adverb in function.

jective, or

is

a noun, an ad-

H.

The

COMPOUND EXPRESSIONS between

ability to distinguish

13

clauses that express

(a)

complete thoughts and so are main clauses, and (b) clauses that do not express complete thoughts and so are subordinate clauses, is

any further consideration of grammar. It is likewise any real understanding of the art of effective expression.

basic to

basic to

H.

COMPOUND EXPRESSIONS

Compounding (from the Latin componere, "to place together") is making a unit of two or more expressions that are alike in The elements so joined are said to be corank and function. Usually they are joined by coordinating conjunctions Almost any element of a sentence may appear (see pp. 106 f.). as a coordinate unit substantives, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, ordinate.

—

prepositions, phrases,

and

clauses.

For diagrams of compound expressions 1.

Substantives

Ed and Mar)

r

see pp. 315

ff.

Compounded

are brother

and

[The substantives Ed and Mary

sister.

and sister are coordinated complement of are.] They come from town and country. [The substantives town and country are coordinated as the subject of

are; brother

as the subjective

are coordinated as the object of the preposition from.]

2.

Verbs, Subjects, and Complements

Compounded

Mr. Jones and Mr. Adams own and operate a grocery store and a lumber mill. [Mr. Adams and Mr. Jones are compounded as the subject of the compounded verb own and operate; and grocery store and lumber mill are compounded as the object of own and operate.] 3.

Adjectives and Adverbs The shy and

timid animal approached the food hesitatingly and even

[The adjectives

fearfully.

jectival modifier of animal;

pounded 4.

shy

and

and

timid are

hesitatingly

an adverbial modifier of

compounded

and

as

an adcom-

even fearfully are

approached.]

Compounded

Phrases Jane ran

as

Compounded

into the house

into the house

and up

and up the

the stairs

are

stairs.

[The prepositional phrases

compounded

as

an adverbial modifier

of ran.]

He

likes best to eat

sleep

are

and

compounded

to sleep.

[The

infinitive phrases to eat

as the direct object of

likes.]

and

to

:

DEFINITIONS

14

Eating your cake and having

gerund phrases Eating your the subject of

it

too

cake

not possible in this

is

and

having

it

too

are

life.

[The

compounded

as

is.]

The man

standing on the corner and waving his arms is Mr. Simmons. [The participial phrases standing on the corner and waving his arms are compounded as an adjectival modifier of man.]

5.

Clauses If

it

Compounded

doesn't rain

on the lawn. clauses, are

and [If

it

if it

doesn't seem too cold

doesn't rain

and

if

it

we can have our

doesn't seem too cold,

compounded, the unit functioning

as

picnic

subordinate

an adverbial modi-

fier of can have.]

away the dishes, I started to mow the lawn, and Mother do the marketing. [Mary cleared away the dishes, I started to mow the lawn, and Mother went to do the marketing, main clauses, are compounded.] haven't a cent in cash; hence, I must get a check cashed. [/ haven't a cent in cash and I must get a check cashed, main clauses, are compounded.

Mary

cleared

went

I

to

(For the use of the transitional adverb hence see pp. 90

GRAMMATICAL TYPES OF SENTENCES

I.

On

f.)]

the basis of the kind of

main or subordinate

clauses, or

both, that enter into a sentence, sentences are classed as simple,

complex, and compound. 1.

Simple Sentence.

Sometimes a

single clause

can express

a complete thought (with a capital at the beginning and a period sentence made up of such a clause, no matter at the end).

A

how

long or short

definition

A

may

it

may

be,

is

called a simple sentence.

Our

be framed thus

simple sentence

is

a sentence made up of a single clause that expresses

a complete thought. Birds

fly.

Tossing away his cigarette, he strode briskly through the open door into the office at the end of the hall.

Compound

Sometimes a sentence is composed of two or more clauses each of which is an independent statement. A sentence made up of two or more main clauses is Any one or all of the main clauses called a compound sentence. 2.

Sentence.

I.

GRAMMATICAL TYPES OF SENTENCES

15

making up a compound sentence may be modified by subordiBut if the whole sentence has as a minimum at nate clauses. We least two main clauses it is called a compound sentence.

may now frame our

A least

compound

definition thus:

sentence is any sentence that contains as

a minimum

at

two main clauses. Birds

fly,

but

swim.

fish

[Birds fly

is

one main clause;

fish

swim

is

an-

other.]

A

car that runs only

runs whether

it

when

it feels

rains or shines

main clause; a car and that runs and

.

.

is

.

a joy

whether

it

is

is

like

it is

a joy.

a nuisance; but a car that

[A car

.

.

.

is

a nuisance

another main clause; when

rains or shines are all

is

it feels

one

like

it

subordinate clauses

modifying direcdy or indirecdy the main clauses.]

sentence may (a) have no word have a coordinating conjunction; (c) have (The normal mark and a transitional adverb (see pp. 90 f.). mark the between clauses of a comoften the only acceptable

The

clauses of a

connecting them;

compound

(b)

—

—

pound sentence You You You

the semicolon.

is

stay here;

I'll

stay here; and

go in search of him. I'll

It

may be

p. 90, Note.)

[No connective]

go in search of him.

stay here; however,

Note.

See

[Coordinating conjunction]

go in search of him.

I'll

[Transitional adverb]

well to point out again that either of the indispensable

elements of a sentence (the subject or the predicate) or both

pounded.

(See also pp. 13

may

be com-

f.)

Whether a subject or a predicate is compounded has nothing to do with whether a sentence is simple, compound, or complex. In the simple sentence Jack and Jill came up the hill the subject, composed of Jack and Jill, is said to be compounded. In the simple sentence Birds fly and sing the predicate composed offly and sing is said to be compounded. No matter whether a subject or a predicate (or both) is compounded, a sentence is not a compound sentence unless there are present in it at least two independent clauses, each with its own subject (which may be compounded) and with its own predicate (which may be compounded). Jack and Jill came up the hill. [Simple sentence with a compound subject] [Simple sentence with a Jack came up the hill and went down again.

compound

predicate]

and then went down again. [Simple senand a compound predicate] Jack came up the hill, but Jill went down the hill. [Compound sentence] Jack and Jill came up the hill; but they went down again. [Compound sentence, in the first clause of which the subject Jack and Jill is compounded]

Jack and Jill came up the tence with a

compound

hill

subject

:

DEFINITIONS

16

Sometimes a sentence is composed and one or more subordinate clauses. Such A sentence to be a a sentence is called a complex sentence. more than one main clause; not have may complex sentence But it must otherwise it would become a compound sentence. have as a minimum at least one subordinate clause. We may 3.

Complex Sentence.

of one

main

clause

frame our definition thus

A

complex sentence

and as a minimum

When

one that contains one

clause; when winter comes

A man who

citizenship is

main

clause

the

main

clause;

Some

texts

birds fly south is the

a subordinate clause.]

when her

his country's call

not worthy of citizenship.

is

her safety is threatened are

Note.

only one

[Most

south.

fly is

respond to

will not

threatened

when

and

at least one subordinate clause.

winter comes, most birds

main

way

is

who

[A man

.

.

.

is not

safety

is

worthy of

will not respond to his country's call

and

subordinate clauses.]

have used the term "complex-compound" in such a is a fourth, parallel grammatical

as to give the impression that this

type of sentence.

Of

course, there are just the three

named above:

simple,

compound, and complex. Every sentence is basically one of these. If the term "complex-compound" is to be used, it ought to be paralleled by a Then "simple-compound" would mean any term "simple-compound." compound sentence that did not contain any subordinate clauses; and "complex-compound" would mean any compound sentence that contained at least one subordinate clause.

An

outline will

make

the matter clear.

A. Simple sentence Birds B.

fly.

Compound 1.

Birds 2.

sentence

Simple-compound fly,

but

fish

swim.

Complex-compound Birds fly when the whim

them, but

seizes

fish

swim only when they

are hungry.

C. Complex sentence Rains come when

we seem

But, because of the confusion

does more

harm than good and had

J.

On

to

need them.

causes, the

term "complex-compound"

best be dispensed with entirely.

RHETORICAL TYPES OF SENTENCES

meaning and purpose sentences may be declarative sentences and interrogative sentences.

the basis of their

classified as

it

K.

EQUIVALENT NAMES FOR GRAMMATICAL TERMS

1.

Declarative Sentence.

A declarative sentence

makes an assertion. by a period. snowing.

It is

A declarative

I

sentence is

is

17

one that

regularly followed

became conscious

of a dull thud. She seems to be Jackson has been selected as a delegate to the

having a good time. convention.

An

Note.

command.

imperative sentence

You, the subject of

When you

stood.

is

a declarative sentence that expresses a

an imperative sentence,

as the subject of a

command

is

is

generally under-

expressed

it is

usually for

But some grammarians prefer to regard the imperative as a third rhetorical type of sentence. (See also under Mood, pp. 214 f.) emphasis.

Shut the door.

Go.

2.

You do

as I say.

An

Interrogative Sentence.

that asks a question.

An

one followed by a

interrogative sentence

interrogative sentence

is

is

question mark.

What

Didn't you hear the bell ring?

Whom were Note.

you speaking

time

is it?

Have you a match?

of?

For the purpose of grammatical analysis an interrogative sentence,

begins with the grammatical subject, should be turned into the declarative form. Didn't you hear the bell ring? becomes for analysis Tou didn't unless

it

What time is it? becomes It is what time? Have you a match? becomes Tou have a match? Whom were you speaking of? becomes You were speaking of whom? But in Who called me? the grammatical subject comes first; hence, the sentence does not need to be changed for analysis. hear the bell ring?

K.

One

EQUIVALENT NAMES FOR GRAMMATICAL TERMS

of the things that have caused needless confusion for the

beginning student of English

names

Too

for

what turns out

grammar

to be, in

many

is

the multiplicity of

cases, the

frequently the student feels like giving

up

same

thing.

in despair

when

he discovers, for instance, often by pure accident, that "factitive

complement,"

"factitive

object,"

"objective

"objective predicate" are only different tion that

he

may have come

names

to recognize

attribute,"

and

for the construc-

under the name of

"objective complement."

The

following

common names for various constructions functions may be of value. But it must be

list

and grammatical

of

noted that the terms are not always perfect synonyms for one

DEFINITIONS

18

For instance, a weak verb

another.

regular verb; the genitive case

is

is

not the same thing as a

not identical with possessive

case.

This book has attempted to employ throughout terms that are likely to

be most familiar to the user; and these terms have been

printed below in boldface type. complement

Accusative, direct object, object accusative, object

Accusative case, objective case

Adverbial accusative, adverbial noun, adverbial object, adverbial objective,

noun functioning

as

an adverb

Asserting verb, copula, copulative verb, link verb, linking verb Assertive sentence, declarative sentence

Attribute adjective, predicate adjective, subjective adjective, subjective com-

plement Attribute

noun,

subjective

predicate

nominative,

predicate

noun, subjective noun,

complement

Attribute pronoun, predicate pronoun, subjective

complement,

subjective

noun modal auxiliaries Complementary object, factitive complement, factitive object, object objective complement, objective predicate, predicate objective Conjunctive adverb, adverbial conjunction, transitional adverb

Auxiliaries,

attribute,

Copula, copulative verb, asserting verb, link verb, linking verb

Declarative sentence, assertive sentence Direct address, nominative of address, vocative

Double

object, secondary object

Essential clause, restrictive clause Factitive

complement,

complementary

object,

factitive

object,

objective

attribute, objective complement, objective predicate, predicate objective

Full verb, notional verb, principal verb

Genitive case, possessive case

Gerund, noun

infinitive

ending in

-ing, participial infinitive, participial

noun, verbal

Irregular verb, strong verb

Link verb,

Modal

asserting verb, linking verb, copula, copulative verb

auxiliaries, auxiliaries

Nominative of address, direct address, vocative Nonessential clause, additive clause, nonlimiting clause, nonrestrictive clause Nonfinite verb, verbal, verbid

Nonlimiting clause, additive clause, nonessential clause, nonrestrictive clause

Notional verb,

Noun

full

verb, principal verb

clause and substantive clause

K.

Noun

EQUIVALENT NAMES FOR GRAMMATICAL TERMS

19

functioning as an adverb, adverbial accusative, adverbial noun, ad-

verbial object, adverbial objective

Noun

phrase and substantive phrase

Object accusative, accusative, direct object, object complement, objective accusative

Objective case, accusative case

Objective complement, complementary object,

factitive

titive object, objective attribute, objective predicate,

Participial infinitive,

gerund,

infinitive

ending in

complement,

fac-

predicate objective

noun, verbal

-ing, participial

noun Participle, participial adjective

Possessive case, genitive case

Predicate adjective, attribute adjective, subjective adjective, subjective com-

plement Predicate complement, attribute complement, attributive complement, subjective

complement

Predicate nominative, attribute noun, subjective complement, subjective

noun

Predicate noun, attribute noun, predicate nominative, subjective complement, subjective

noun

pronoun,

Predicate

attribute

pronoun,

predicate

nominative,

subjective

complement, subjective pronoun Principal verb, full verb, notional verb Regular verb, weak verb Restrictive clause, essential clause, limiting clause

Secondary object, double object Strong verb, irregular verb Subjective adjective, attribute adjective, predicate adjective, subjective com-

plement Subjective

complement,

attribute

complement,

attributive

complement,

predicate adjective, predicate complement, predicate nominative, predicate

noun Subjective noun, attribute noun, predicate nominative, predicate noun, subjective

complement

Subjective pronoun, attribute pronoun, predicate nominative, predicate pro-

noun, subjective complement Substantive clause and Substantive phrase and

noun clause noun phrase

Transitional adverb, adverbial conjunction, conjunctive adverb

Verbal, nonfinite verb, verbid Verbal noun, gerund, infinitive ending in

-ing, participial infinitive, participial

noun Verbid, nonfinite verb, verbal Vocative, direct address, nominative of address

Weak

verb, regular

verb

..

DEFINITIONS

20

EXERCISES SENTENCES AND FRAGMENTS OF SENTENCES Indicate which you regard as grammatically complete sentences and

which

as

mere fragments

of sentences.

1

He

carried his coat over his arm.

2.

On

a very cold night.

4.

If we can only have turkey for Thanksgiving. The clock that is striking three.

5.

On

6.

Thinking of oneself only.

7.

A

3.

the back of a horse that once

was a racing

horse.

8.

better way The amount

9.

thousand copies of a book of approximately four hundred pages. In planning a garden for a family of four.

?10. All parts 1 1

12. 13.

to catch trout.

of paper that goes into the printing of

an edition of three

have been securely welded.

Mr. Alcord plans building a new garage. A two-car garage, by the way. When I was a child. A beautiful green vine of some kind. Growing up the north side of the house

it

was.

me

a check.

To

cover

14.

Father sent

15.

Her dining room was decorated

16.

A

sober-dressing

man who

all

my

in green

expenses for the

and

first

semester.

gold.

exhibited his vanity only in the dull perfection

and the wearing always of a corded edge to his waistcoat. In this book on the technique of the novel in which I have taken the clock apart in an effort to show the functions of the wheels, screws, and levers composing its mechanism. There is something almost terrifying about the way spring comes to Thunder Cove, terrifying and demoralizing in the literal meaning of the of his clothes

17.

18.

word. 19.

20.

Jane arrived twenty minutes late. Having stopped at the barge to kiss her sister and peep at her birthday presents. Across the table the two faced each other in silence, the gaunt man, with his tremendous loosely hung frame with the stoop that comes from bending down to converse with shorter people, and the slender, buoyantiy lovely girl.

22.

he registered many emotions. And there is not the doubt about the state of his mind. The Blackbird was an old London River sailing-barge. Though now she/ had neither mast nor rigging but lay, a sheer hulk, against Valentine Wharf, a little below the "Black Swan" inn.

23.

The interior of Tantamount House is

21. In quick succession slightest

a central quadrangle running two by small square windows, above.

as

nobly

tiers of

Roman as its facade. Round

open arcades with an

attic, lit

.

EXERCISES 24.

Walt Whitman

—a

tall,

heavy figure

21 a heroic statue, well-shaped,

like

full-chested, broad-shouldered, unafraid.

25.

An

old plantation with smooth-planted fields

and

rich

woodlands and

pastures where litde shaded streams ran. if to effect some diurnal surprise, repewhich was exciting to the eyes of a small

26. Finally the sun, creeping softly as titious

but always new.

All of

boy who had risen early to go fishing. Duncan saw through the deception. When

29.

she failed to recognize you and you failed to recognize her. Once more she flashed her eyes in quick appraisal of the two men, then stepped forward until she was standing within two feet of Duncan, who kept his left hand on the knob of the partially opened door. To think that he would do such a thing!

30.

The

27.

28.

crate suddenly

31. Plans for the

fell

apart.

All the spikes having been removed.

meeting today have been abandoned.

meeting some time next week to go out 32.

She swept through the door.

Duncan,

this

A

call for

a new

coming Saturday.

still

grinning, pulling

it

shut be-

hind her. 33. •34.

He eventually shows up. Usually some time around the Fourth of July. Behind the coal dock, protected by a tall fence from the eyes of impressionable passengers, waited the wrecker, that train which always stands ready on any railroad worthy of

its

freight to swing

down

the track

and

cope with the emergency. 35. It

was the night that the Chicago Limited piled into an eastbound beef above Highboy bridge, that Amos Shoaff first gave special heed Michael Ahearn. They talk of that night still around the cannon

train just to

stoves in

snug cabooses.

February fourteenth

it

was, in 1909.

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE Indicate in the following sentences what you regard as the essential

and what the essential predicate; what the complete subject and what the complete predicate. Sometimes the subject follows rather than precedes the predicate. (For Inverted Order see pp. 134 f.) subject

4.

Mr. Myers spoke for about fifteen minutes. I wish to go to work at once. He confessed that he was disappointed. I just walked and walked all afternoon.

1

2. 3.

5.

The

6.

Herbert became adept at horseshoe pitching.

7.

Not a

8.

For seven years Hamblen clerked in a small grocery store. A royal road to a reputation for originality is to impugn the verdicts of

9.

history of deep-sea diving has always fascinated

me.

trace of a breeze could Idetect.

the past.

.

DEFINITIONS

22

The

10.

and fascinating

brilliant

kinds of biographical

by all Never before

11.

studies of

Mr. Strachey have been followed

efforts.

in the history of this country has there

been such enthusiasm

for schooling.

cab window a motionless figure peers ahead into the night. a great city, the only one in America with the possible

12.

High

13.

New York was

14.

The

in the

exception of Chicago. car

slid

down into

a broad shallow valley where a broad shallow stream

ran beneath a stone bridge. 16.

The stream was bordered by squat willows and big maples. The face was warped and cracked with age but looked pleasant

17.

morning sun. Looking down from the top of the pass we saw the barren land spread

18.

An enormous

15.

in the

magnificently before us.

pressed

down

and black underneath but billowy on

cloud, heavy

Dairy farms and market gardens upon

19.

top,

over a small bit of the plain to the south. its

slopes helped to feed the populace

in the busy valley below.

She could drive an automobile; she danced well and cooked capably out

20.

of cans.

The

21.

question of selection from their joint wardrobes occupied the two

most of the day; and all afternoon he and Mr. Hedge drove apathrough the city's parks and about the suburbs. 22. The beast came on with a new fire, closer and closer. 23. Most of the railroad men went to work at seven-thirty in the morning, quit at four-thirty, and dined immediately. ladies

thetically

Nothing was seriously injured except my nerves. Another month of hot weather gradually wore away.

24.

25.

MODIFIERS Indicate

what you consider

to

be modifiers of the subject and what

modifiers of the predicate. 1

We

2.

The

3.

Such nice books deserve better treatment.

4.

He

shot

down the incline at an alarming speed. room with its single window seemed a

little

veritable prison to him:

hurriedly adjourned the meeting of the committee.

7.

She stood absolutely still for a single moment. Without another word the little girl tripped lightly down the dusty road. A resonant voice will be a great help to you in radio work.

8.

That's a very fine old institution.

9.

The smoking chimney

5.

6.

10.

I

am

did not exactly

commend

the old house to our favor.

going to buy immediately a heavy woolen flannel

shirt.

EXERCISES 11

.

12.

James was

He

tall,

23

lean, dark, clean-shaven.

lived in Chestnut Hill in a large expressionless house surrounded

by

clipped lawns and flower beds. 13.

In a

moment

of disgust Stephen

had once described James

as

"an Epis-

copalian Republican from Pennsylvania." 14.

A

1 5.

On

16.

water wheel turned slowly with the stream from the spring.

little

starlit

nights there were thousands of

fireflies.

Grayson was a medium-sized, sharply featured, cigar-smoking, stay-uplate, human-loving fellow.

17. It

was the

first

stone wall, festooned with wine-red woodbine, surrounding

a scrubby clearing overgrown with yellow sweet fern

and dotted with

silver-gray rock. 18. 19.

The country was changing from New York to New England The very men and women, walking the village streets, were

insensibly.

racially dif-

from the flat-faced, stolid descendants of the Dutch farmers and patroons who had settled the Hudson Valley. ferent

20.

At

a leading university has had the courage to break with commer-

last

and overemphasized athletics. week Elmer Davis described in the New Republic the empty city above the twelfth floor in New York skyscrapers. Another invention in the printing trade gives a fresh threat of technological unemployment. The Indians are presumed to be incapable of managing their own affairs and are therefore made wards of the Federal Government. In the sixteenth century Louise Labe got a bit bored with the routine life cialized

21. Last

22.

23.

24.

of a well-to-do merchant's daughter at Lyon. 25. Chaucer, with all his ability to

photograph the

life

and characters of four-

teenth-century England, used French models during the

first

part of his

and Italian during the second, and borrowed unblushingly from Dante and Boccaccio. career

CLAUSES AND PHRASES Indicate

what groups

of

words you regard

as phrases

and what

as

clauses. 1.

At

2.

To me

precisely eight o'clock every it

bus does not leave until ten]

3.

If the

4.

[When the I shall

Since he

7.

You In

bell rings,

go where

5.

6.

8.

morning he

enters his office.

seems a labor of love.

is

can't

I

1

make

|yve

have plenty of time.

for the stairway.

wish to go.

we must overlook some of his peculiarities. make money by buying dear and selling cheap. only a child,

you must take into consideration the greatest good number.

this sort of project

to the greatest

.

DEFLXITIOXS

24 9.

There

am

no good reason why you should take a position of opposition.

is

make the attemptjbecause who have encouraged me thus far.

10. I

1 1

12.

13.

14.

going to

I

think

I

owe something

to those

fairy, who, by some mysterious law of her appear at certain seasons in the form of a foul

a pretty story of a

Ariosto

tells

nature,

was condemned

to

and poisonous snake. At the end of the road the land rose sharply into a crescent-shaped hill, one horn of which dipped into the water. A few bedraggled hemlocks and spruce marked what had once been a lawn, and a row of giant butterwoods faced the stream. It was the useless hour of three o'clock, and the day was used up and full of old smells that drifted in through the dusty sunlight of the September afternoon.

15.

Below Big Gully

Hill a great

wound

lay alongside of the slope, dripping

red clay like blood on the green scrub. 16. It

a land of high hopes and mystic allegiances, where one

is

through

forests of

may

stroll

Arden and

find heaths

essentially a

masculine achievement, to which the female

and habits

like those of

olden

England. 17. Just as

mind

cynicism

supreme 18.

is

is essentially a feminine virtue, whose beyond the reach of the average healthy male.

rarely even aspires, so selfishness flights are far

In lecture courses

I

had

my notebooks so arranged that one-half of the page

could be devoted to drawings of girls'

heads,

19.

His candle

20.

Women

and

is lit

five -pointed stars (exquisitely

shaded),

ticktacktoe. at both ends,

and

it

burns

witii

a clear blue flame.

they had yet to and call it economic independence. But when women compete with men, the healthy male is gravely handicapped by his unfamiliarity with the primordial feminine virtue of consulted neither politicians nor psychologists;

see a time clock 21.

selfishness.

22. I

have already found engaging

swings on a neighbor's to a

line,

trifles for

and a

essays in a

Monday's wash

bit of fluttering lace

as

it

has been a prologue

paragraph on vanity.

r

23. I find Ithat a leisured stride

is

the best

by an easy vibration and tuning of the

rhythm

to start

legs that the

an

essay, for

it is

message flashes with

the least interference out of space. 24. Adversity

is

gether like 25.

the most social force in the world; nothing brings people to-

it.

The maid announced

that dinner was served; and, while Mrs. Turner was some last-minute instructions, our host came in, full of apologies, and hurriedly shook hands all around.

giving her

.

EXERCISES

25

COMPOUND EXPRESSIONS

Go

through any of the previous or following exercises and point out

compounded.

expressions that have been

MAIN CLAUSES AND SUBORDINATE CLAUSES Indicate in the following

what you regard

as

main

clauses

and what

as subordinate clauses. 1.

A joke

2.

The poem, which

3.

4. 5.

6.

that needs to be explained

is

not

much

of a joke.

thought was very good, the publisher returned. In Chicago, where the convention was held, the temperature reached 101. I

That Jim has the making of a baseball player is evident. Sinc e no one is willing to second my motion, I'll withdraw it. When cars are available again I am going to buy an eight-cylinder car, though I must confess that my old six-cylinder coupe has been most satisfactory.

always

like to

do what

I

am

told to do.

7.

I

8.

Nobody

9.

Seeing that the storm was about ovei,

cares to be told that he

is

unpopular.

we began

to

make

preparations to

leave.

don't

know how you

10.

I

1 1

A man who

12.

This volume

13.

You can see what

come

to the

book than 14.

How

15.

The

16.

A

17. 18.

19.

20.

21.

23.

feel

about the

so blunt in his speech

satisfies

election. is

likely to

make many

the mental appetite without sating

it,

enemies.

and when you

it down with the resolve you'll read it again. mean when I say that it is much easier to write about a

end you lay I

to write the

book

itself.

long he stood there he could not afterward remember. three of

them stood there

bell clanged;

as

though they awaited a sign or a miracle. lights winked red.

immediately the signal

Alan stood with clinched fist, fighting back the cry that rose to his lips. For a little while the sound rose and fell and seemed to die away in unmeasured distances. There were guttural ejaculations, the clank of metal; then scream on scream pierced the paralyzed listener through and through. It seemed ages until the crowning terror came and wiped out sense of time from his stricken mind. It is foolish to generalize, but I think a writer serves himself best by sticking to his

22.

is

own

soil.

Every western town has a few representatives in New York who lie in wait for old friends from home on whom to effect a light and graceful touch. Most of the inspirational literature with which we are deluged is dangerous stuff.

DEFINITIONS

26 24.

The wheezy

old clock in the kitchen struck four with a rattle of chains

weights that could be heard

all

and

over the barnyard.

28.

There below him stretched the valley and strung across it, like a chain hanging from the churchyard steps, the village street, which, but for one little compact offshoot of houses to the right, was the village. If I don't find what I want in Indianapolis, it's only a step over to Crawfordsville, where I was born. A short circuit in a power house at Fiftieth Street started a tiny fire but a smoky one. Almost instantly all power left the Grand Central Station. Throughout the night no train could move in or out. The example I have given is rather long; so there isn't room left for a real

29.

Through

25.

26.

27.

discussion of the problem.

trol

30. I

increasing knowledge of natural laws

man

has increased his con-

over his environment.

have quarreled violently with a friend who worked in a big department claimed to have bought an article cheaper elsewhere.

store simply because I 31. It

32.

33.

34.

35.

is

significant that foreign challenge to English industrial

supremacy be-

came effective at the moment when the alliance between the aristocracy and the middle class became an essential feature of English life. I have just had the opportunity to read a letter from a distinguished judge of the State of New York to an acquaintance of his, a New Zealander, who had written to him from England, where he was paying a visit. Whether there is any truth in what the judge says of America I don't know. This insistence upon the security of his personal privacy is of a piece with the Englishman's insistence upon the security of his personal rights. Americans are queer people: they can't

SIMPLE,

rest.

COMPOUND, AND COMPLEX SENTENCES compound, and complex

Indicate which you regard as simple, sentences. can't see

who

but

I

believe

it

must be

my

1.

I

2.

must run when the clock strikes. Having put the children to bed, she proceeded band narrating the happenings of the day.

3.

it is,

brother.

I

to write a letter to her hus-

d.

Come when you are called; do what you are told to do; and keep mood when things don't go as you think they should. You may call that having fun; but I call it downright rowdyism.

6.

But before

4.

in a

cheerful

I

signed the contract

thing for her to go through

it

my wife

suggested that

carefully to see

what

its

it

might be a good

provisions actually

were. 7.

In reaching such a conclusion

commonly thought

I

was

largely guided

of as belonging only to

women.

by those

intuitions

.

EXERCISES 8.

Although

literature

of writers

who

today

27

in the doldrums, there are

is

are reacting as best they can to the

two groups

new

at least

conditions of cor-

porate society. 9.

Bernard Shaw

is

recorded as having said that

when people

ask

him what

has happened in his long lifetime he does not refer them to the newspaper files

10.

or to the authorities but to

Mr. Brown

Upton

Sinclair's novels.

gives us a vivid picture of the behavior of a group of

down

men

set

assignment which tends

in a strange country to carry out an isolated seem unreal and irrelevant. The American Society of Newspaper Editors adopted a handsome code of ethics; it has held annual meetings; and some of its members believe that to

1 1

it

12.

has

The

made

conspicuous progress.

frontier has created

an extraordinary number of myths, and they have

got themselves accepted as realities. 131

Glen Hazard in its head

it

14.

Now the

is

not a specially likely place for a town; but

to

run out

to the top of the earth a

misted sunlight was

made

coal takes

there.

ugly by the shrieking of the great steam

shovel that bit nearer to the old farm with every scoop of 15.

when

town grows its

hungry mouth.

The busy roadmen squirmed around and burrowed under a that lay next to the path and directly were wriggling up

great boulder or

down

the

mountainside out of harm's way; and the foreman lighted the fuse and went

running down the gash as

fast as his legs

16.

She was a majestic woman; her

17.

commanded it. Once I did go away and

eyfes

try to adjust myself to a

my nostalgia nearly my leisure time writing

19.

20.

mendous demand 21.

Why don't these

22.

Your

23.

A

banker

in

knew

why you

bother to

New York

tell

fill in all

them who

it is

you know?

these details.

me

diffi-

a certain Western senator who, he thought, could

assist

lived in

advancing a piece of

The

ideal place in

legislation in

which

for forty years

once asked

which he was interested. and comfortably in America

to live happily

is

a

more than ten to twenty thousand people. Industry is represented by a flour mill, a strawboard factory, a cannery, a creamery, and a flourishing brickyard, and there are sure to be a few restiess young persons who yearn to make a bigger town of it; and, unless town

25.

for these appliances has developed.

who had

if I

killed

people give you a chance to

wife inquires

dently

24.

new environment; but

me, and I only saved myself by putting in a book about Indiana. Now it would be idle to pretend that I have more than one white waistcoat; and even my stiff evening shirts are limited in number. A young friend who is engaged in the manufacture of door and window screens has been feeling the decline in the market for such luxuries. But he also makes a few washboards on the side, and of a sudden a trethe virulence of

18.

might take him.

demanded your homage; her nose

of not

DEFINITIONS

28 the horned

money

devils of

Main

Street succeed in their earnest efforts to

discourage them, they are very likely to accomplish 26. All safety devices

momentarily 27. If

it.

were working; but the switchman's normal

reflexes

were

in abeyance.

you think such sentiments are

negligible, let us recall for

a

moment

the

achievements of the silver bloc.

was directed at the farmers alone, but their political strength by itself may not have been considered sufficient. The committee incident could delay, but not permanently enjoin, MVA; it dwindled rapidly in importance with the arrival on the scene of Harold

28. Originally the appeal

29.

Ickes.

30. So, with

some modifications, the amendments came back and were

mately approved in both flood control and rivers and harbors 31.

ulti-

bills.

She was up the next morning at half past seven, up and nearly dressed, a knock rattatted on the front door of the flat and a high voice called

when

through the panel. 32.

The telephone

stood on the top of a medicine cabinet, which in turn stood

atop a buffet, and as you talked into

it you leaned against an icebox and on the rung of a baby's crib. 33. The United States of America somehow seems remote as I walk the streets of New York, and lately I experienced in Chicago the same feeling of being an alien. 34. If I were stranded almost anywhere in Indiana and waited on the station platform, somebody would be pretty sure to come along who would trust me for the price of a ticket home. 35. Somebody had turned on the radio, and somewhere the Better Biscuit String Ensemble was playing a Brahms Hungarian dance. 36. He wiped his face with an oily rag, put it in his pocket, reassembled the parts of the lock, closed her up, tightened the screw, and inserted the key. ^37. It is in a way absurd to discuss any great social movement in logical terms. 38. There is a possibility that society gets what it wants; and, when large sections of society find that what they want is illegal, they simply devise their own ways of nullifying laws. 39. Since then he has sent me the new lock, and I should have already put it in the kitchen door except that something must be done about the door. 40. The new lock fits nicely into the cavity, but the keyholes do not coincide

rested your foot

'

with those in the door.

II.

We

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH IN A SENTENCE

are

now ready

to consider in

some detail how the various With a mastery of these

parts of speech function in a sentence.

aspects of

grammar we

shall

have taken care of roughly ninety

per cent of the content of syntax.

A.

A

noun

is

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS (SUBSTANTIVES) 1 the

name

of anything that

discourse: boy, gentleness, thought,

A

pronoun

a substantive:

is

may be

used as a substitute for

by naming

designates a person, place, or thing

that

it.

a convenient term used to designate anything function as a noun; hence, "substantive" includes both

substantive

may

it;

naming

A

noun a pronoun

anybody, one, whoever, that, what.

designates a person, place, or thing without

A

be the subject of

air, typewriter, dexterity.

an expression that

he, they,

may

is

Further, phrases and clauses used as nouns and pronouns. nouns may be referred to as "substantive phrases" and "substantive clauses," although in this book the shorter names "noun phrase" and "noun clause" will ordinarily be used. The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent.

John took his friend with him. his and him.]

[John

is

the antecedent of the pronouns

In his ability to write deathless prose Lincoln is

A

the antecedent of the pronoun

noun or a pronoun

(that

is,

is

unexcelled.

[Lincoln

his.]

a substantive)

may

be used in

the following constructions. 1

For forms and usages in nouns see pp. 1 67 ff. for forms and usages in pronouns ff.; for diagramming of nouns and pronouns see pp. 319 ff. 29 ;

see pp. 183

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

30 1.

Subject of a Finite Verb (or of an

infinitive; see pp.

Dogs bark. [Noun] The Board ordered him to speed up production. of the infinitive

as the subject of

To

reduce expenses

[Pronoun, the subject

to speed]

[Noun phrase

the fence is out.

Over

60 ff.)

(prepositional phrase), functioning

is]

became imperative.

[Noun phrase

(infinitive phrase),

[Noun

clause functioning

functioning as the subject of became]

That we have a big job as the subject of the

2.

to

do should sober us.

main

(See also pp. 142

verb should sober.

ff.)]

Object of a Preposition Mr. Herrod has just arrived from Did you receive a letter from me?

A

[Noun]

[Pronoun]

[The possessive

cousin of Mother's has a story in the current Post.

noun

Mother's functions as the object of the preposition

p. 291 for the I

Alaska.

met a tions

double

of.

(See

possessive.)]

[The possessive pronoun yours func(See p. 291 for the double as the object of the preposition of. friend of yours yesterday.

possessive.)]

The dog chased

[Noun phrase

the rabbit from under the shed.

(a prep-

ositional phrase) functions as the object of the preposition from.]

We

talked about whether we had a chance

to

[Noun

win.

clause functions

as the object of the preposition about.]

3.

Appositive Harry, the scamp, laughed. [Noun] I prefer that pen, the one with the short nib.

His intention,

to

infinitive phrase) functioning as

The

[Pronoun]

cause her embarrassment, backfired.

fact that our agreement

was

verbal is

important.

tioning as a clause in apposition with. fact.

4.

[Noun phrase (an

a phrase in apposition with

[Noun

intention]

clause func-

(See also p. 143.)]

Direct Address

Open You,

the door, Mary.

what seems

to

[Noun]

be the trouble?

[Pronoun]

(Phrases and clauses do not normally function as nouns in direct address.) 5.

Nominative Absolute The

day being delightful,

(see pp. 53

we went on

/ being noncommital, they turned to

f.)

a picnic.

my

[Noun] [Pronoun]

brother.

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS (SUBSTANTIVES)

A.

Catching fah in that lake being impossible,

we drove

to another.

31

[Noun

phrase (a gerund phrase)] That we have

to

do something at once having

[Noun

you arguing about? 6. Possessives as I

Adjectival Modifiers

don't like Steve's companion.

[Noun]

is

a

man

Such

is

the King of England's job.

He

been agreed upon, what are

clause]

whose ideals

I

[Pronoun]

respect.

[Phrase]

(Clauses do not normally function as possessive modifiers.) 7. Possessives as

He

is

Substantives

a companion of Steve's.

object of the preposition

He

is

no friend of mine.

of the preposition I like yours,

but

I

the object of the of the second

of.

[The possessive

Steve's

functions as the

(See also pp. 97, 182.)]

of.

[The possessive mine functions as the object (See also p. 186.)]

don't like John's. first like;

[The possessive yours functions

as

the possessive John's functions as the object

like.]

Complements of Verbs 1

8.

a. Direct object I

enjoyed

The Ned

my

[Noun]

vacation.

dislikes to do algebraic problems.

functioning as the object of I

[Pronoun]

President introduced her to the audience.

see that you are very busy.

of

[Noun phrase

(infinitive phrase)

dislikes]

[Noun

clause functioning as the object

see]

b. Indirect object

Give Helen your

Make me

Give whoever comes first c.

[Noun]

scarf.

a bookmark like yours. this ticket.

[Pronoun]

[Noun

clause]

Objective complement

We

elected

Jim

secretary.

[Noun]

(A pronoun does not normally function

as

an objective com-

plement.) Complements

of verbs have been listed here in order that this list for ready refComplements of verbs will be discussed in detail after complete. Hence, if desired, certain necessary information about verbs has been presented. the material on pp. 31-32 may be passed over for the time being.

erence

may be

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

32

We

found Grandfather

in

good

[Adjective phrase (prepositional

health.

phrase) functioning as an objective complement]

Common

made

practice has

this

custom what

it is

today.

[Noun

clause

functioning as an objective complement] d.

Cognate object

The boys ran

a lively

race.

[Noun]

(Pronouns, phrases, and clauses do not normally function as

cognate objects.) e.

Double

The

'objects

teacher asked the boy a

[Nouns]

question.

[Pronoun and noun] The little girl asked her brother how to spin a top. [Noun phrase (infinitive phrase) functioning as one of double objects, the other direct Father taught me Greek.

object being brother]

The

cat taught her kittens that they must avoid dogs.

[Noun

clause func-

tioning as one of double objects]

j. Retained object or retained indirect object I

A

was given a prize. [Noun] [Pronoun] prize was given me.

The men were

told

[Noun phrase

wait at the station.

to

(infinitive phrase)

functioning as a retained object]

The

girls

were taught

that anything

worth doing

is

[Noun

worth doing well.

clause functioning as a retained object]

g. Subjective complement

My father has She

He

is

become chairman

someone that

seems

to

I

of the committee.

ought to know.

[Noun phrase

be a misfit.

[Noun]

[Pronoun] (infinitive phrase) functioning as

a subjective complement of seems]

America

9.

Noun

mon

A

Phrase.

known

phrase

may

clause functioning as a

function as a noun, such a

noun phrase or a substantive various examples given under Complements above.)

phrase being (See

[Noun

became what it is today. complement of became]

finally

subjective

as a

phrases (see p. 56), gerund p. 55), and prepositional phrases (see p. 96). are

infinitive

Com-

phrases

(see

a violation of law.

[The

crossing the street against the red light functions as

a noun

Crossing the street against the red light

gerund phrase

phrase.

phrase, the subject of the

main verb

is.]

is

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS (SUBSTANTIVES)

A. I like

on

to go

as a

noun

After lunch

phrase

Noun

picnics.

[The

infinitive

phrase, the object of is

phrase

to

go on picnics functions

like.]

the best time for a short snooze.

after lunch

functions as a

33

noun

[The prepositional

phrase, the subject of

is.]

A

clause may function as a noun, such a a noun clause or a substantive clause. (See various examples given under Complements above.) A 10.

clause being

noun

Clause.

known

as

clause (which, of course,

is

always a subordinate clause)

joined to the main clause by some kind of connective. also

under

Noun

That we had

Clauses, pp. 138

is

(See

ff.)

do something in a hurry became evident. [The subthat we had to do something in a hurry functions as a noun the subject of the main verb became.] to

ordinate clause clause, I

think that crossing the street against the red light

[The subordinate clause violation of

verb

a violation of law.

a law functions as a noun clause, the object of the main

think.]

Other Parts of Speech Functioning

11.

is

that crossing the street against the red light is

as

pression can, of course, function as a noun.

come nouns with

Nouns. Any exBut adjectives be-

f.). In colloquial language verbs and adverbs are commonly used as nouns. (See also pp. 116 ff.)

especial ease (see pp. 81

There are too many ands and script; and I don't like s

&

standings,

The

living

,

huts

and

notwithstandings in

in a formal paper.

your manu-

[Ands, buts, notwith-

and (Gf'j here function as nouns.] and the dead have paid and are paying the -

[The adjectives

stupidity.

living

price of our

(originally a participle)

and dead

here function as nouns, the subject of have paid and are paying.]

We

all

have our ups and downs.

[The adverbs up and down, here

pluralized like regular nouns, function as nouns, the objects of have.]

That house

is

a good buy at

six

thousand

functions as a noun, the subjective

Nouns Functioning

12.

as

—

He

may function

especially as adjectives (see pp. 81

as adverbs (see pp. 91 is

is.]

f.

Words

as other parts of

and pp.

1

16

ff.)

and

f.).

a Brooklyn ball-player.

modifier of

[The verb buy here

Other Parts of Speech.

that normally function as nouns

speech

dollars.

complement of

ball-player.]

[Brooklyn functions as

an

adjectival

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARIS OF SPEECH

34

We walked

ten miles today.

[Both miles and today function as adverbial

modifiers, modifying walked.] I

thumbed my way

to the city.

[

Thumbed functions here as a verb.]

EXERCISES NOUNS AND PRONOUNS State the function of every substantive (noun following, pointing out

all

and pronoun)

substantives used as subjects of verbs, as ob-

jects of prepositions, as appositives, possessives used as adjectival fiers,

1.

and

possessives used as nouns, phrases

(Complements

Mary

will

be taken up and exemplified

later; see pp.

67

ff.)

has Jack's hat on.

5.

6.

I like

7.

I

3.

4.

modi-

clauses used as nouns.

Mary, give the hat back to your brother. On my table you will find an orange. Sam Jenkins, the town marshall, reported the theft. Here are two notebooks. One is John's and the other must be

2.

in the

yours.

sleeping late in the wintertime.

think that

I

must have

lost

my gloves.

I

thought

I

had

left

them on

the

table in your room. 8.

9.

10.

which we must always bear in mind is our relative unpreparedness to meet an emergency. Little boy, is your father at home? The best time to work in a garden is from five o'clock to six o'clock in the

The

fact

evening. 11. Adversity

is

a fine

art.

Paying cash has no pleasurable social aspect. 13. I have been living in one town for fifteen years. 14. My idea about a good time is evidently not the same as yours. 12.

15.

Ohio, the Buckeye

16.

My

17. 18.

19.

20.

state, is

a state of

many

industries.

star has six points; yours has only five.

That we have progressed in a gratifying manner is very obvious. He came to within a hairbreadth of success. From Friday noon until Monday morning makes an ideal weekend. Mat, bring me a wrench.

21. Europe's responsibility

is

extensive; ours

is

intensive.

25.

Did you notice that new hat of Father's? , Whether we go or stay is the question before us. Carrying the attack to the enemy produced results. How far do you live from the railroad?

26.

To have

22. 23.

24.

seen a sunrise in the Rockies

is

a thrilling experience.

VERBS

B. B.

The dynamic

35

VERBS 1

part of a sentence

is

usually a verb

— a word

an action, a state, or an occurrence. Because a large portion of the grammar of a sentence is concerned with the verb, we must have a full understanding of everything that represents

about a verb in order to analyze a sentence

we

fore,

shall give

much

And

in the light of the

verb

we

There-

intelligently.

attention here to a study of the verb.

new information we gather about the review in detail some things that have been dis-

shall

cussed only very briefly heretofore.

Simple Verbs and Verb Phrases. Sometimes the verb Often the verb is accomis a single word ("The sun shines"). panied by other verb forms to indicate tense, mood, or voice ("The sun has been shining more than an hour"). Helping verb 1.

— such

forms

All the

p. 50).

— are called

as be, have, may, will

auxiliaries (see

words that go to make up a complete verb

constitute a verb phrase.

He must 2.

verb

and is

seriously.

[Must have been hurt

and Nonfinite Verbs.

Finite is

have been hurt

On

is

a verb phrase.]

the basis of whether a

capable of making an assertion verbs are classed as

The more common name

nonfinite.

"verbal."

A finite verb

is

finite

for a nonfinite verb

one that makes an

assertion.

Such

a verb undergoes change to show person and number; hence the term "finite" (from the Latin finire, "to limit").

He

walks slowly.

[Walks has been changed from walk to show third

person singular number. it

A verbal assertion.

or person.

is one that is incapable of making an Such a verb undergoes no change to show number

(nonfinite verb)

The

three nonfinite verbs are

adjective (see pp. 51

54

ff.)

;

(see pp.

Further, walks makes an assertion; hence

functions as a finite verb.]

and 56

(c)

ff.);

infinitive,

(a) participle,

a verbal

(b) gerund, a verbal noun (see pp. usually preceded by to, called its sign

ff.).

1 For forms and usages see pp. 207 cluding complements, see pp. 319 ff.

ff.;

for

diagramming verb

constructions, in-

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

36 to

come

you

to see

[Verbals;

to

come

and

to see

are incapable of

making

assertions.]

you [Verbal; coming is incapable of making an you [Verbal; coming is incapable of making an

coming to see

in coming to see

assertion.]

assertion.]

Inasmuch as English, unlike Latin and Greek, is largely an uninlanguage the learner cannot make much use of the statement that a finite verb is one that undergoes change to show person and number. Probably the simplest thing for the learner to do is to remember that there namely, the participle, the gerund, and the are just three nonfinite verbs Note.

flected

infinitive

— and

—

that, consequently, all other verbs are finite verbs.

Or, inasmuch as the subject of a finite verb is always in the nominative we may say that any verb that takes a subject in the nominative case

case, is

by that I

came

fact a finite verb.

case; hence, came

Mac

[The subject of came

at ten o'clock.

ordered

which

me

is

a

come

to

at ten o'clock.

in the objective case;

is

is /,

which

is

in the

nominative

finite verb.]

hence,

to

[The subject of to come is me, come is a nonfinite verb (an

infinitive).]

3.

and

Transitive

On

Intransitive Verbs.

the basis of

whether or not they represent an action as "passing over" (transitive, from the Latin transire, "to pass over") to a grammatical object

A

verbs are classed as transitive and intransitive.

transitive verb

over (that

one that represents an action

is

as passing

being performed on) a grammatical object.

is,

In

other words, any verb that takes a direct object

is

a transitive

verb; any verb that does not take a direct object

is

an

Of course,

tive verb.

intransitive in another.

dent that any verb in the passive voice sitive verb, for

intransi-

may

be transitive in one sense and In the light of our definitions it is evi-

a verb

is

by that

fact

an intran-

a verb in the passive voice cannot take a direct

(For a transitive verb that becomes intransitive

object.

used absolutely see pp. 46 John painted over to

The

is, is

fence sparkles in

sparkles

The

the fence.

— that

f.)

[Transitive; the action of the verb painted passes

performed upon its

new

fence was painted white.

elected

elected

—

fence, the direct object.]

coat of paint.

[Intransitive; the

verb

does not take a direct object.]

not take a direct object.

They

when

[Intransitive; the verb

(White

is

John chairman. [Transitive; the its objective complement chairman)

(with

the direct object.]

was painted does

a subjective complement.)] action

of the

verb

passes over to John,

B.

John was

elected

37 was

[Intransitive; the verb

chairman.

take a direct object.

VERBS

{Chairman

is

elected

does not

a subjective complement.)]

Voice is that property of a Active and Passive Voice. the whether subject of the verb performs makes clear which verb the action or receives the action described by the verb. 4.

performs the action (or

If the subject

by the verb, the verb

tion) described

is

is

in the state or condi-

said to be in the active

If the subject receives the action, the

voice.

A

in the passive voice.

passive voice, in p. 36).

transitive verb

which case

it

verb

is

said to be

may

be turned into the becomes an intransitive verb (see

But an intransitive verb in the active voice

is

usually

incapable of being turned into the passive voice. John

hit

James.

the action of

[Active voice (transitive).

The

subject John performs

hit.]

The subject hit by John. [Passive voice (intransitive). James receives the action of hit.] [Active voice (transitive)] Professor Nicholson has discovered a new star.

James was

A

new star has been discovered. [Passive voice (intransitive)] Mother appears nervous. [Active voice (intransitive)] It is raining

Note. is

hard now.

An

[Active voice (intransitive)]

apparent exception to the statement that an intransitive verb is seen in the case of a few

incapable of being turned into the passive voice

verbs followed by prepositions so closely welded to tive following the preposition

is

rather than of the preposition alone. at

me" can be turned

them

that the substan-

the object of the verb plus the preposition

The active construction "They laughed

into the passive voice, because me

plus at rather than of the preposition at alone.

the object of laugh

is

See p. 46.

Verbs of Complete and of Incomplete Predication. As (p. 8), some verbs may make complete predications by themselves ("The wind shrieked and howled"). But other verbs require help of some kind to make complete predications ("He closed the door"; "Betty is very quiet today"). 5.

was pointed out earlier

Verbs that require nothing to complete their predication are called verbs of complete predication; verbs that require something to complete their predication are called verbs of incomAnything that completes the predication plete predication. begun by a verb is termed a "complement." We are now ready to discuss the various kinds of complements that verbs, both transitive

and

intransitive,

may

require.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

38

Complements

6.

of Transitive Verbs. 1

verb must take a direct object (see

sitive

A verb to be a But a

p. 36).

tran-

transitive

may have

other complements in addition to a direct object. of complements of transitive verbs see pp. 31 9 fT. diagrams For

verb a.

Direct object.

A

direct object

described by the verb

verb

is

is

is

upon which the That is, the action

that

performed.

A

Note.

noun or a noun equivalent direct object never

in the case of a reflexive

—/

(that

names the same thing

hurt myself.

single

a substantive).

as the subject except

Therefore, a direct object need

never be confused with a subjective complement renames or describes the subject.

A

is,

of the

This direct

said to "pass over" to the direct object.

object will be a

action

(see p. 42),

word, a phrase, or even a whole clause

which always

may

function

as a direct object. 1.

word

Single

the ball squarely.

Bill hit

2.

Phrase

My 3.

brother likes

to drive fast.

Clause I

can't believe that our time has been wasted.

An

b. Indirect object.

indirect object names, without

osition expressed or understood, the person or thing to for

whom

the action described by the verb

indirect object in a

There object. 2 *It is

method

is

whom or An

performed.

clause usually precedes a direct object.

no preposition ever understood with a true

In

fact,

indirect

the indirect object existed before prepositions

strongly urged that at this point the student familiarize himself with a simple of diagramming a sentence, so that he may see at a glance its complete

syntactical make-up. 2

main

is

any prep-

See pp. 311

ff.

Some grammarians

prefer to disregard the indirect object as a form of complement and explain the construction in either of two ways. Some supply a preposition to govern the substantive and explain the prepositional phrase resulting as an

adverbial modifier of the main verb. Others explain me in "He gave me a book" as an adverbial modifier of gave rather than as a complement of gave, an excellent explanation which shows how close complements and adverbial modifiers really are.

Some grammarians make a distinction between an indirect object ("He gave me the book" and a so-called dative of service ("He made me a coat"). That is, they call the first me an indirect object and the second me (that is, "He made for me a )

coat") a dative of service. But this English grammar s concerned. ;

is

a distinction that has

little

value as far as

B.

had come

into

common

use.

VERBS If

39

a preposition

is

expressed, then

the construction becomes a prepositional phrase (see p.

96)

functioning as an adverbial modifier of the verb.

He

gave the book

to me. [To me is a prepositional phrase functioning an adverbial modifier of gave.] [Me, with no preposition understood, is a true gave me the book.

as

He

indirect object of gave.]

She made a lovely

scarf for

my mother.

[For

my mother

is

a prepositional

phrase functioning as an adverbial modifier of made.]

She made stood,

An

[Mother, with

no preposition under-

a true indirect object of made.]

indirect object

whole 1.

my mother a lovely scarf.

is

may

be a single word, a phrase, or even a

clause.

Single

word

James gave me a book. [Me My mother made my sister a

is

a true indirect object of gave.]

lovely sweater.

[Sister is

a true indirect

object of made.]

2.

Phrase

He

brought Stratford on Avon lasting fame.

[Stratford on

Avon

is

an

indirect object of brought.]

3.

Clause

My

father always gave

whoever came

is

an

whoever came a warm welcome.

Occasionally an indirect object Mote. appearing in the statement.

is

used without any direct object

Don't forget to write me. [Me is an indirect object of object appears in the statement.] c.

[The clause

indirect object of gave.]

Objective complement.

Some

write;

no

direct

transitive verbs require in ad-

an adjective to complete Such a substantive or adjective is termed an "objective complement." If the objective complement is a substantive, it will rename the direct object (or act as the equivalent of it) if it is an adjective, it will qualify Although an objective com(that is, modify) the direct object. dition to a direct object a substantive or

the predication begun by the verb. 1

;

plement usually follows the direct object,

it

may actually at times

precede the direct object.

—

—

that take an objective complement in such as make, call, name, choose ^erbs addition to a direct object are sometimes called factitive verbs.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

40

It may be noted that an objective complement often designates a produced by the verb acting on the direct object; that is, what the In other words, direct object has been made into by the action of the verb. the direct object receives the action of the verb plus the objective comple-

Note.

result

ment rather thanlof the verb

He washed now

the

it is

window

clean."

alone.

[That

clean.

Window

is

is,

"He washed

the object of washed

window

so that

+ clean rather

than of

the

washed alone.]

They

elected Hendricks

Mayor.

now mayor."

that he

is

than of

elected

[That

Hendricks

is

"They

is,

the object of

elected Hendricks so elected

-f-

mayor rather

alone.]

complement may be a single word, a phrase, or even a whole clause. An objective complement may be introduced by the expletive as. 1. Single word

An

objective

The

court rendered the law null and void.

void are objective

They

complements.

[The adjectives

null

and

qualify the direct object law;

and they complete the predication begun by the verb rendered.] elected Kenneth secretary-treasurer. [The noun secretary-treasurer is an objective complement. It renames the direct object Kenneth; and it completes the predication begun by the verb elected.]

We

2.

Phrase

We

found him strumrning a guitar.

a guitar

him;

and

it

3.

it

he is

and

It qualifies the direct object

completes the predication begun by the verb

renders.]

made him what he

it

is.

[The noun (substantive) clause what

an objective complement.

is

It

renames the direct object him;

completes the predication begun by the verb made.]

Objective complement preceding a direct object

We

have found

effective in

an objective complement. it

5.

[The prepositional phrase

avail.

an objective complement.

Clause His wife

4.

is

and

protest;

It qualifies the direct object

completes the predication begun by the verb found.]

His action renders our protest of no of no avail

[The participial phrase strumming

an objective complement.

is

An

such cases a mild It qualifies

salt solution.

[Effective is

the direct object solution;

and

completes the predication begun by the verb have found.]

objective

complement introduced by the

expletive

as.

(See also p. 128.)

We is

chose

Bill as

our spokesman.

introduced by the expletive

[Spokesman, as.]

an objective complement,

VERBS

B.

They

selected

Miriam

d.

Cognate

That

[Queen of

But

"cognate" with the verb.

is

In

fact,

direct object

is

such objects

all

odd thing about the construction an object normally functions as an

the only

that the verb without such

intransitive verb.

May, an

usually sufficient from the

it is

point of view of sentence analysis simply to call direct objects.

the

as.]

sometimes termed a "cog-

is

meaning of the

the

is,

May.

a direct object renames an idea in-

herent in the verb, such an object

nate" object.

of the

introduced by the expletive

is

When

object.

Queen

as their

objective complement,

41

(See also p. 47.)

Phrases and clauses normally do not function as cognate objects. Will you sing a song for us? of sing,

She

[Song

which here functions

[Sing here

sings beautifully.

Live the good

[Life

life.

is

is

a direct object (a cognate object)

as a transitive verb.] is

an

intransitive verb.]

a direct object (cognate object) of

live,

which here functions as a transitive verb.]

He e.

lives

Double

from one day

to the next.

A few

objects.

[Lives

is

here an intransitive verb.]

verbs seem to take two direct objects.

This comes from the fact that the verb

is being used in two same time, in one sense taking one substantive as its direct object and in another sense taking the other substantive as its direct object. The two commonly used verbs that may thus take two direct objects are ask and

slightly different senses at the

teach.

1

Double objects may be

even whole

single words, phrases, or

clauses. 1.

Single

He

word

asked

me

a puzzling question.

[In one sense of ask, question

direct object; in another sense of ask,

Mr. Brammar taught brother is

my

me

is

is

the

the direct object.]

brother penmanship.

a direct object; in another sense of

[In one sense of taught, taught,

penmanship

is

a

direct object.]

2.

Phrase Alice taught her sister

how

to dance.

[In one sense of taught,

sister is

direct object; in another sense of taught, the infinitive phrase dance 1

is

a to

a direct object]

Some grammarians

named after such a verb as ask explanation raises more problems than it

prefer to regard the person

or teach as an indirect object. solves.

how

But

this

.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

42

Ask the manager where to manager where 3.

is

file

your application.

a direct object; in another sense of

to file your

application

is

[In one sense of ask,

ask, the infinitive

phrase

a direct object.]

Clause Don't ask

me what

am

I

[In one sense of ask,

doing.

me

is

object; in another sense of ask the subordinate clause what I is

a direct

am

doing

a direct object.]

Teach whoever teach the

what you know about welding.

applies

subordinate clause whoever applies

is

[In one sense of

a direct object; in an-

other sense of teach the subordinate clause what you know about welding is

a direct object.]

As we saw above (p. 37), there are many verbs that are capable of making complete predications without any complements ("Birds fly"; "John But there are also many intransihesitated"; "Frank departed").

Complements of

7.

tive verbs that require

that the verb

For

Intransitive Verbs.

something to complete the predication

has merely begun.

itself

diagrams

of

complements

of

intransitive

verbs

see

pp. 321 ft a. Subjective

complement. 1

Some

intransitive verbs require a

noun or an adjective to complete the predication begun by the Such a complement is called a subjective complement verb. that is, something that refers to the subject and at the same time If the subjective complement is a completes the predication.

—

substantive,

an

it is

A

it

renames (or

adjective,

verb that

is

it

is

the equivalent of) the subject;

qualifies (that

A

subjective

modifies) the subject.

is,

used with a subjective complement

link (or linking) verb (see also pp.

47

if

is

called a

ff.)

complement may be a

single

word, a phrase, or

even a whole clause. ^'Subjective

complement"

is

a convenient term to designate anything

— that completes

— noun,

begun by an intransiBut some grammarians use the term "preditive verb; and usually it is sufficient. cate noun" to designate a noun functioning as a subjective complement and "predicate adjective" to designate an adjective functioning as a subjective complement. The term "predicate nominative," sometimes used, is unfortunate, for a "predicate After an infinitive in an innominative" is not always in the nominative case. finitive clause (see p. 201 f.) the subjective complement me is actually in the objective "They believed him to be me." Hence, the term "predicate nominative" case adjective, phrase, clause

—

xs

not used in this book.

the predication

VERBS

B. 1.

43

word

Single

Mother

gentle

is

and kind.

[The adjectives gentle and kind are subjective

complements; they both qualify Mother, the subject, and complete the predication begun by the verb is.] Tennis

is

my

plement; tion

2.

it

[The noun

choice.

choice

both qualifies the subject

begun by the verb

comand completes the predica-

functions as a subjective

tennis

is.]

Phrase Your question seems relevant

to

be irrelevant.

[The

infinitive

functions as a subjective complement;

subject question

it

phrase

to be ir-

both qualifies the

and completes the predication begun by the verb

seems.]

Her gown silk

is

of expensive

silk.

[The prepositional phrase of expensive it both qualifies the subject

functions as a subjective complement;

gown and completes the predication begun by the verb 3.

is.]

Clause His answer

is

not what one might have expected.

[The subordinate

clause what one might have expected functions as a subjective complement; it

both renames (or

qualifies) the subject answer

predication begun by the verb b.

and completes the

is.]

Subjective complement after a passive verb.

When

a sentence

containing a direct object and an objective complement

is

turned

becomes the subject ol the passive verb and the objective complement becomes a subjective complement. 1 The passive verb has a link function (see pp. 47 ff.) and joins a subjective complement to a subject. A subjective complement may be a single word, a phrase, or even a whole clause. into the passive voice, the direct object

1.

Single

word

[Manager, a subjective compleMr. Smith was appointed manager. ment after the passive verb was appointed, was an objective comple"They appointed Mr. Smith ment in the active construction

—

manager."]

The

slate

ment

was wiped

clean.

after the passive

[The adjective

clean,

a subjective comple-

verb was wiped, was an objective complement

in the active construction

— "He wiped the

slate clean."]

*A subjective complement after a passive verb might be regarded as a "retained complement" by analogy with the "retained object" discussed below that is, as an objective complement "retained" from the active con(p. 44)

objective

—

struction.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

44 2.

Phrase Grandfather was found in excellent health. in excellent health,

was an objective complement

found,

[The prepositional phrase

a subjective complement after the passive verb was in the active construction

— "We

found Grandfather in excellent health."] 3.

Clause

He was made what

he

is

today by circumstances beyond his control.

[The subordinate clause what he is today, a subjective complement after the passive verb was made, was an objective complement in the "Circumstances beyond his control made him active construction

—

what he c.

Retained

is

today."]

A peculiar construction results when a verb

object.

with an indirect object and a direct object or with double obOne of the objects bejects is turned into the passive voice. passive verb and the other object the comes the subject of remains; and

Or,

object.

this object that

if it is

remains

is

known

as a retained

an indirect object that is retained, this may (The retained object also

be called a retained indirect object.

when an

appears

infinitive clause construction

is

turned into the

passive voice; see p. 63.)

A

retained object

whole 1.

may

be a single word, a phrase, or even a

clause.

Single

word

He was

A

2.

[The indirect object of the active construction given a reward. ("They gave him a reward") has become the subject of the passive verb, and the direct object reward has been retained.] reward was given him. [The direct object of the active construction ("They gave him a reward") has become the subject of the passive verb, and the indirect object him has been retained.]

Phrase I

was ordered

to report for duty.

clause in the active construction

[Me, the subject of the infinitive

("They ordered me

to report for duty")

has become the subject of the passive verb was ordered and the infinitive

phrase

He

to report for

duty has

been retained.

was given until Saturday night.

active construction

(See also p. 63.)]

[Him, the indirect object of the

("They gave him

until

Saturday night") has be-

come the subject of the passive verb was given and the prepositional phrase

until

Saturday night (the direct object in the active construction)

has been retained.]

B. 3.

VERBS

45

Clause I

was taught that

should respect

my

elders. [Me, one of the double ("Mother taught me to respect my elders") has become the subject of the passive verb was taught and the other object, the subordinate clause that I should respect my elders, has been retained.] I

objects in the active construction

There is a persistent feeling on the part of some who are uncertain Note. about English usage that retained constructions are grammatical errors of some kind, whereas the fact is that they are well-established locutions. Of course, the construction can be abused by one who is overinclined to use the passive voice; for the passive voice is by its very nature a weaker form of expression than the active voice (see p. 257). 8.

+

Verb

verb as

Adverb Combinations.

down,

up,

in, out, is

so closely

that a following substantive

is

Sometimes such an adwelded to a preceding verb

really the object of the verb plus

the adverb rather than of the verb alone. (Such an adverb must not be mistaken for a preposition governing the following This explains why such constructions can readily substantive.) be turned into the passive voice. (See pp. 296 f. for adverbs and prepositions at ends of statements.) These verb + adverb

—

—

combinations are especially

He

put

down

common

in colloquial discourse. 1

the rebellion in short order.

[Down

is

an adverb attached

to put, not a preposition governing rebellion, so that rebellion

—

I

is

really

+ down.

Note that the position of down may ." Note also the pos"He put the rebellion down. be shifted "The rebellion was put down."] sible passive voice have closed out my business. [Out is an adverb attached to have closed, the direct object of put

.

.

—

not a preposition governing

business, so that business is really

the direct

—

Note that the position of out may be shifted + "I have closed my business out." Note also the possible passive voice "My business has been closed out."] They have put off the play. [Off is an adverb attached to put, not a object of closed

out.

—

preposition governing play, so that play put

+

passive

is

Compare "They postponed the voice "The play was put off."]

off.

—

really the direct object of

play."

Note the

possible

*It may be noted that an adverb so used has much the effect of an objective complement. Note that out in "They put the fire out" completes the predication begun by the verb put much in the way in which a regular objective complement "They scrubbed the floor clean." completes the predication begun by the verb Such an adverb as out might very well be construed in the sentence given as an adOnce again we see how close adverb functioning as an objective complement. verbial modifiers and complements really are.

—

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

46 9.

Verb

sition-like

+ Preposition

word

is

Combinations. Sometimes a prepowelded to a preceding verb that a really the object of the verb plus the

so closely

following substantive

is

preposition rather than the object of the preposition alone. is,

the preposition

why some osition

is

almost a

is

That

This explains

suffix of the verb.

become transitive when such a prepthem and why such verbs may readily

intransitive verbs

closely

welded

to

be turned into the passive voice with the preposition "retained" after the passive verb (see p. 104). (See pp. 296 f. for prepositions at ends of statements.)

They laughed me

is

[At

is

a preposition attached to laughed, so that

really the object of laughed

"They

+ at rather than of at alone.

Note the

me."

ridiculed

laughed at" I

me.

at

— with the preposition

Compare

— "I

possible passive voice

was

"retained." 1 ]

at

cannot put up with your conduct any longer. [Up is an adverb and with a preposition, attached to put, so that conduct is virtually the direct object of put

+ up + with rather than the object of the preposition

Compare "I cannot

with alone.

the possible passive construction

with" Note.

tolerate

Note

your conduct."

also

— "Your conduct cannot be put up

— in which with becomes a retained preposition.] Transitive verbs likewise

may

thus

combine with

prepositions.

We should not make fun of him. [Him is virtually the object of Compare "We should not ridicule him." Note also make -\- fun of. the possible passive construction "He should not be made fun of."]

+

You

should

make much Note

tionary."

should be

Compare "You should

also the possible passive construction

made much

is

[Ton

is

"The

Various Kinds of Verbs.

Note

Absolute verb.

of.

also the possible passive

care of."]

Verbs

may

be classed as to

their basic ideas, their relationship to other verb forms,

a.

dictionary

virtually the object of take-\- care-\-

Compare "We will safeguard you." construction "You will be taken good

relationship to their

virtually the

consult the dic-

use of."]

We will take good care of you.

10.

[Dictionary

use of the dictionary.

object of make -\-use-}-of.

and

their

complements.

Some grammarians

use the term "absolute"

becomes intransidescribe a customary or

to designate a verb, normally transitive, that tive

when used without an

object to

1 Some grammarians prefer to say that this preposition-like word becomes an adverb in the passive construction rather than to call it a retained preposition as we have called it in this book.

VERBS

B.

But

habitual action.

47

simpler to regard

it is

—

verb that does not take a direct object Does he smoke? [Intransitive] That dog certainly likes to eat.

A stop b.

should be put to

that becomes it

in

A

Cognate verb.

meaning

He

its

one, normally intransitive,

is

(that

cognate in meaning).

it

[Fight,

fight.

takes

an object that

as far as

{Slept,

here a transitive verb, takes

The distinction a song. grammar is concerned,

objects, function in

when

live

is

a

life,

pray a prayer,

not an important one;

the verbs, taking direct

may

A

Causative verb.

He

sleep

such situations like any other transitive verbs;

hence, the substantive

transitive

(See also p. 41.)

direct object.]

run a race, sing

c.

akin to

here a transitive verb, takes the noun

Similar constructions are die a death,

for,

is

direct object.]

slept the sleep of the just.

as

[Intransitive]

when

its

— any

[Intransitive]

illegal drinking.

cognate verb

is, is

such verbs

as intransitive verbs.

transitive

Fight the good fight as

all

be regarded as merely a direct object. verb normally intransitive may become

used in a causative sense.

it is

ran his car into the garage.

[That

is,

"He caused

his car to

run

into the garage."]

She watered the

[That

flowers.

is,

"She caused the water

to flow

on

the flowers."] I

grow dahlias Note.

"He

for a

The verb

hobby.

to fell is

felled the tree"; that

To

set is

a causative of

"to cause the vase to "to cause the book to

Verbs in

is,

-en

—

sit

lie

[That

is,

sometimes said to be the causative of "He caused the tree to fall."

to sit

— that

whiten,

to

fall

—

"to set the vase on the table"

is,

on the table." on the table."

blacken,

"I cause dahlias to grow."]

"To

brighten,

lay the

shorten

book on the table"

— are

is is

sometimes called

causative verbs. d.

Complete and link verbs.

Some

complete predications ("The sun

intransitive verbs

shines")

and

can make

so are called verbs

Other intransitive verbs require complements (subjective complements; see pp. 42 ff.) to complete the predication that the verb has merely begun. Verbs that require subjective complements are called link or of complete predication or complete verbs.

linking

(or

copulative)

verbs;

that

is,

such verbs link the

48

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

subjective

complement

another way,

be.

say that any verb that serves to link a

complement

subjective

The typical link The function

to a subject

grow,

lie,

is

to that extent a link verb.

verb, frequently called a copula,

Many

Some

distinct link function

is

almost

other verbs, such as come,

may

look, prove, remain, sound, stay, turn,

times as link verbs.

the verb

is

of such verbs as seem and become

wholly a link function. get, go,

Or, to put the matter in

to the subject.

we may

feel,

serve at

verbs in the passive voice have a

and join a

subjective

complement

to a sub-

(Such a subjective complement was, of course, an objective complement in the active construction. See p. 39.) The verb be, although commonly a link verb, may also be fC used in the sense of exist." used as a complete verb It is so used as a complete verb with the expletive there especially

ject.

—

126

(see pp.

f.).

Birds fly. I

[Verb of complete predication]

[Verb of complete predication]

dream a great deal.

John

is

Jane

seems a cheerful soul.

He

very

[Link verb, linking

tall.

became secretary of state.

to John]

[Link verb, linking

Pearson's prophecy came true.

The ground feels

tall

[Link verb, linking soul to Jane] secretary of state to he]

[Link verb, linking

true to prophecy]

[Link verb, linking wet to ground]

wet.

At times I grow despondent. [Link verb, linking despondent The day grew hot. [Link verb, linking hot to day.]

to /]

The days are getting longer. [Link verb, linking longer to days] Mary turned red with embarrassment. [Link verb, linking red to Mary] Joe

is

considered trustworthy.

[Passive verb, linking trustworthy to Joe]

Herb was chosen president. [Passive verb, linking president to Herb] The supply was rendered useless. [Passive verb, linking useless to supply] The tramp was considered a victim of circumstances. [Passive verb, linking victim to tramp]

My mother is coming That

tomorrow.

remains to be proved.

[Verb of complete predication]

[Verb of incomplete predication, linking

be proved to that]

to

He

became manager.

My

prophecy came

Ted

proved a real friend.

[Link verb, linking manager to

true.

Benedict Arnold turned

[Link verb, linking

he]

true to prophecy]

[Link verb, linking friend to Ted] traitor.

[Link verb, linking

traitor to Benedict

Arnold]

Roosevelt was

elected

President for the fourth time.

President to Roosevelt]

[Link verb, linking

B.

There

49

nothing further for us to do,

being

That

plete predication.

(=

VERBS

is,

let's

go home.

[Verb of com-

"nothing further for us to do being"

"existing").]

two ways to That predication.

There

silence a talkative

are

"Two ways

is,

(= "exist").] Whatever is is right.

roommate.

[Verb of complete

to silence a talkative

roommate

are"

second This

is is

the time for

is

and

[The

first is is

a link verb, joining

me

a verb of complete predication; the

right to the

noun

[Link verbs,

to be insistent.

clause whatever

is

linking time to

is.]

this;

be linking insistent to me~\

to

Verbs having to do with the senses and with health often function and so demand adjectives as subjective complements. (See also pp. 278 ff.) Xote.

as link verbs

The The

[Link verb, linking sweet to

rose smells sweet.

hand felt

child's

bad; in

I feel ill

[Link verb, linking

soft.

fact, I feel

downright

ill.

rose]

soft to

hand]

[Link verbs, linking bad to / and

to I]

His story does not sound plausible. [Link verb, linking plausible to Your plan looks good to me. [Link verb, Unking good to plan]

This coffee

[Link verb, linking

tastes bitter.

His defense does not ring true.

John e.

looks sick.

[Link verb, Unking

An

Impersonal verb.

indefinite

help to

it

make

sick to

its

subject.

to

coffee]

true to defense]

John]

impersonal verb

(see p. 184) as

other uses of

bitter

[Link verb, linking

story]

is

one that has an

Such verbs frequently

statements about the weather or about time. it

see also pp. 184

It is raining.

[Is raining is

(For

f.)

an impersonal verb.]

an impersonal verb.] is an impersonal verb.] [Snows is an impersonal verb.] I am always happy when it snows. [Feels is an impersonal It feels as if we might have some hot weather. It is

nearly midnight.

It looks like

a storm.

[Is is

[Looks

verb.] It

seems as

if it

were

later

than ten o'clock.

[Seems

is

an impersonal

verb.]

/. Notional verb.

A

notional (or principal or

full)

verb

is

one

meaning of its own. It is that part of a verb phrase which expresses the main notion or idea as distinguished from that has a full

those parts that are auxiliary or helping verbs (see Auxiliary

verbs below).

Such verbs and they can

as do, have,

and

will

can function

likewise function as auxiliaries.

as notional verbs;

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

50

The verb

be

can function

They

notified

me.

[Notified is

phrase should have been

it is

equivalent to

cc

full

exist."

a notional verb.]

should have been notified.

I

verb and have a

as a notional

meaning of its own, as it does when (See also under Expletives, p. 126.)

a notional verb in the verb

[Notified is

and

(Should

notified.

and

have

been are auxiliaries;

see below.)]

He

does just what he

is

told to do.

[Does, told,

and

to

do are notiona

1

verbs.]

do believe he

I

is

embarrassed.

and

[Believe

embarrassed are notional

an auxiliary, here helping to make the emphatic conjugation; see p. 231. Is is an auxiliary, helping to make the passive (Do

verbs.

is

voice; see pp. 231f.)]

have only a dime

I

left.

[Have

is

a notional verb.]

have spent nearly all my money. [Have is an auxiliary.] There are three ways to make a good outline. [That is, "Three ways Are = "exist" and is a notional verb.] to make a good outline are." I

To

be or not to be, that

To

tional verb.

be

is

There being no further reason Being

= "existing."

g. Auxiliary verb.

An

both cases

be in

for palaver, let's go.

further reason for palaver being, here.

[To

the question.

is

a no-

= "to exist."] let's

Being

go."

(See also pp. 126

auxiliary verb

is

is

[That

is,

"No

a notional verb

f.)]

a verb form that helps

a notional verb (see above) to make a particular kind of predicathat is, a verb form that serves as a part of a verb phrase. tion

—

Be, shall, will, must, can, may, have, do,

230

(see pp.

He

should have been invited.

am

insist

to

make

that I

and

leaving this afternoon.

the emphatic conjugation of

h. Defective verb.

be

[Should

have

and

been are auxiliaries;

invited.]

an auxiliary helping 231); am is an auxiliary helping to form the progressive conjugation (see pp. 232 f.) of the verb leave. Insist and leaving are notional verbs.]

do

A

the necessary forms to

verb

used as auxiliaries

ff.).

they help the notional verb I

may be

and the

defective verb

make up

auxiliaries,

[Do

is

insist (see p.

is

one that does not have

a complete conjugation.

with the exception of do and

The have,

are defective verbs.

The verb can, could,

be

The auxiliaries may, mighty They have the present voice.

has no passive voice.

have only the active

B.

VERBS

51

and past but no future and no perfect tenses they lack infinitive and participle forms. The auxiliary must has only this one form. The auxiliary ought has only this one form. A redundant verb is one that has more i. Redundant verb. ;

than the necessary forms for a complete conjugation. It may have two forms for the past tense or two or more forms for the past participle or both. Thus we have both awaked and awoke for

and past participle of awake burnt or burned for the and past participle of burn; dreamed or dreamt for the past tense and past participle of dream. (See the list on pp. 239 ff. the past tense

;

past tense

for other instances.) 11.

Verbals (Nonfinite Verbs).

There are three nonfinite

verb forms in English, called verbals — namely, the gerund,

they

may

and the

infinitive.

be transitive or

They

the participle,

are like finite verbs in that

intransitive,

complete or

link,

may

and passive voices, and may take complements and adverbial modifiers. But they are unlike finite verbs in that they cannot by themselves make assertions. Because they are not limited in form as to person and number and do not represent time in the same way in which a finite verb does, they exist in the active

are called infinite or nonfinite verbs. 1

Although they cannot make assertions by themselves, verbals, constituting as they do one of the most valuable linguistic resources we have in English, are very important. But they do involve some nice questions of right and wrong usage. Hence, a mastery of them is highly important for anyone who wishes to write with precision and effectiveness. 2 a. Participle. A participle is a verb form that may be used as a modifier of a substantive that is, may be used as an adjective. Most participles thus used have an -ing ending either in the notional verb {seeing; see pp. 223 f.) or in an auxiliary expressed or easily supplied (having seen; having been seen; see pp. 224 f.). A verbal, then, in -ing that functions as an adjective is a participle and is to be distinguished from a gerund (see p. 54), also ending in -ing but functioning as a noun.

—

x

2

See pp. 225 ff. for the relative time expressed by a verbal. For forms and usages see pp. 223 ff. and pp. 254 ff.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

52

The

a hybrid; for it takes on the characteristics of two parts of speech at the same time. Derived from a verb as it is, a participle has the sense of a verb and may take any kind of complements and any kind of adverbial participle, like the other verbals,

may

modifiers that a finite verb

is

A

take.

participle with

complements and any adverbial modifiers tutes

may

it

any

take consti-

a participial phrase.

But in addition to this sense of a verb a participle has the functhat is, modifies tion of an adjective and attaches itself to a substantive in the statement in which it appears.

—

—

For diagrams of participial constructions see pp. 323 f. The dual nature of the participle can be 1. Dual nature. given below. examples seen in some of the In its sense as a verb, a participle may take a) As a verb. any kind of complement and any kind of adverbial modifier that the corresponding finite verb might take. Having had no

mood

sleep for the last twenty-four hours, Bill

[The participle having direct object and for the last

takes sleep as

its

verbial modifier; in is,

serious for a

[The participle

adjectival capacity ject of the

As an

main

it

attaches

main final

verb capacity, takes

a moment as

attaches

itself to

in

an ad-

itself to (that

verb.]

word

of advice.

serious as

a sub-

an adverbial modifier; in

(that

is,

no

its

modifies) Father, sub-

verb.]

In

adjective.

capacity as an adjective a participle

its

77

f.)

or

;

may

it

function as a subjective complement

Or

or an objective complement.

(1)

its

now

function as either an attribute or an appositive modifier

(see pp.

noun

it

moment, Father added a

becoming, in

is

verb capacity,

its

twenty-four hours as

adjectival capacity

complement and for

jective

may

its

modifies) the substantive Bill, subject of the

Becoming

b)

had, in

for frivolity.

that

is

As an

it

may

be used to modify a

used absolutely (see below). attribute modifier

Barking dogs don't

The man wearing

bite.

is an attribute modifier of dogs.] Mr. Seaman. [Wearing functions as an

[Barking

a topcoat

is

attribute modifier of man.] It

was

like

a burning

fire

in his bones.

[Burning

is

an attribute modifier

[Burning

is

an attribute modifier

oijire.]

It

was

like

offire.

a

fire

burning in

(See pp. 77

f.)]

his bones.

B. (2)

VERBS

53

As an appositive modifier 1 Our

team, outweighed and outplayed,

and

Harassed and

and

lost

by a big

[Outweighed

score.

outplayed are appositive modifiers of team.]

terrified

terrified,

he knew not which way to turn.

are appositive modifiers of

Putting on his cap,

Jim

started

down

[Harassed

he.]

the steps.

[Putting on his cap

is

an appositive modifier of Jim.] (3)

As a

subjective

complement

The situation was encouraging. [Encouraging is a subjective complement after was.] The refugees looked starved. [Starved is a subjective complement after looked.]

came running into the house. [Running complement after came (which here functions as a

The

children

is

a subjective

link verb; see

pp.47f.).p (4)

As an

objective

complement

Dad found

[Gone looks back to and modifies car and at his car gone. same time completes the predication begun by the verb found.] He declared the meeting adjourned. [Adjourned looks back to and modifies meeting and at the same time completes the predication begun by

the

the verb declared.] I

saw her standing in the doorway. [Standing looks back to and modifies her and at the same time completes the predication begun by the verb saw.]

2.

The nominative

absolute construction.

A

participle

may

modify a substantive that has no grammatical function of its own in the statement in which it appears; that is, the substanInasmuch as tive is said to be used absolutely (see pp. 120 ff.). a substantive used absolutely is always in the nominative case, the construction is known as the nominative absolute. Today being is

pote commas 2

the Fourth of July, the banks are closed.

modified by the participle

Originally

being; Fourth of

July

is

[The noun

today

a subjective com-

an appositive modifier. See footnote, p. 77. Compare "came was a gerund in this construction.

to set off

running

a-running" and "went a-fishing," the gerunds originally functioning as objects of a preposition a (= "on"), and the prepositional phrase .functioned as an adverbial modifier of came. But today the -ing word is usually regarded as a participle functioning as a subjective complement after a verb like came or went (functioning as a link verb). Or, the -ing word may be regarded as a gerund functioning as an Again we see that often there is more adverb and modifying came (see p. 91). than one good explanation for a construction in English grammar.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

54

plement with being. The whole phrase today being the Fourth of July is a nominative absolute; for it has no grammatical function in the statement

the

banks are

The bank having bank the

is

closed.]

closed,

we

can't get our checks cashed.

modified by the participle having

bank having closed

a nominative absolute; for

is

[The noun

The whole phrase

closed. it

has no grammatical

function in the statement we can't get our checks cashed.]

She not being a member, we must be guarded in our remarks. [She, a pronoun in the nominative case, is modified by the participle being; member is a subjective complement with being. The whole phrase she not being a member is a nominative absolute; for it has no grammatical function in the statement we must be guarded in our remarks.] My friend having politely made his amends, there is nothing further to [Friend is modified by the participle having say. made; the participle having made takes politely as an adverbial modifier and amends as a direct object. The whole phrase my friend having politely made his amends is a nominative absolute; for it has no grammatical .

.

.

function in the statement

as

.

.

.

there is nothing further to say.]

Note. The nominative absolute is a perfectly proper construction as far grammar is concerned, but it is one that can readily become ungraceful in

the hands of the inexpert writer.

Although a nominative absolute has no it appears, it should have a logical function. It usually expresses an idea that might have been expressed by a subordinate clause modifying the main verb. That is, it usually expresses a notion of time, condition, or concession.

grammatical function in the statement in which

It

being a nice day, let's

let's

have a

[That

picnic.

is,

"Since

it is

a nice day,

have a picnic."]

Weather permitting, we permits,

we

will

will have the picnic. have the picnic."]

Failure to express clearly

of a nominative absolute

some notion

may

result in

[That

is,

"If the weather

of time, condition, or concession

confused writing.

Although the door was unlocked, he chose to crawl through a window. [Not: "The door being unlocked, he chose to crawl through a window." For it is not clear here whether the notion of the nominative absolute is one of time, reason, or concession.] 3.

Dangling

For the dangling

participle.

participle,

some-

times confused with the nominative absolute, see pp. 257 f. 1 b. Gerund. gerund is a verb form that is used as a noun.

A

A

gerund has an

verb

(seeing)

-ing

ending either in the notional (principal)

or in one of

its

auxiliaries, expressed or easily sup-

plied {being seen, having been seen). x

A

For forms and usages see pp. 223 and 254

gerund

ff.

is

identical in

form

;

.

B.

with the participle but

The gerund, it

takes

same

time.

from the participle in that, whereas an adjective and modifies a noun

gerund functions

(see p. 51), a

as a

like the participle

on the

55

differs

the participle functions as

for

VERBS

characteristics

noun.

and the infinitive, is a hybrid of two parts of speech at the

Derived from a verb as it is, it has the sense of a verb and may take any kind of complement and any kind of

may take. A gerund with any complements and any adverbial modifiers it may take constitutes a gerund phrase. But in addition to this sense of a verb, a gerund has the function of a noun in the statement in which it appears. For diagrams of gerund constructions see pp. 325 f. 1 Dual nature. The dual nature of a gerund may be seen in some of the examples given below. adverbial modifier that a finite verb

Examining specimens critically requires a strong magnifying glass. [The gerund examining takes specimens as a direct object and critically as an adverbial modifier and at the same time functions as a noun, the subject of the main verb requires.] [The gerund teaching takes I like teaching grammar to beginners. grammar as a direct object and the prepositional phrase to beginners as an adverbial modifier; the gerund at the same time functions as a noun, the direct object of the verb

Such becomes merely carrying

ing takes coals as a direct object

modifier; the gerund at the jective

They

complement of

and

to

[The gerund

Newcastle as

same time functions

as a

carry-

an adverbial

noun, the sub-

becomes.]

game

[The gerund playing an adverbial modifier; the same time functions as a noun, the object of the

talked about playing the

takes game as a direct object

the gerund at

like.]

coals to Newcastle.

and

at night.

at night as

preposition about.]

In guessing accurately a person's weight you must take into account his age.

[The gerund

rately as

as a noun, the object of the preposition in guessing accurately a person's weight

of the

main verb must

Gerund used

and accusame time functions

guessing takes weight as a direct object

an adverbial modifier; the gerund in.

at the

(The prepositional phrase

functions as an adverbial modifier

take.)]

A

gerund used absolutely is really a nominative absolute (see pp. 53 f.) The gerund functions as the noun in the construction and is modified by the participle, 2.

absolutely.

.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

56

and the whole phrase,

like

any other nominative absolute,

is

used absolutely. Dissuading him from his intent proving impossible,

something

[The gerund

else.

adverbial modifier from his (with impossible as

its

dissuading (with

intent) is

its

subjective complement).

we must

resort to

object him

and

its

modified by the participle proving

dissuading him from his intent proving impossible has

tion in the statement

we must

resort to

something

The whole phrase no grammatical funcelse.

Actually, then,

the phrase becomes a nominative absolute construction.]

Like any other absolute construction the gerund absolute, alNote. though sound grammatically, may not be a particularly graceful mode of expression. tittering after every utterance having got on everybody's nerves, decided to use heroic measures to shut her up.

Her

3.

Dangling gerund.

c. Infinitive.

infinitive

1

The

The for

it

to

accompanied by

to,

called

its

the

is

sign.

(For

see p. 62.)

and the gerund, is a hybrid; two parts of speech at the

infinitive, like the participle

takes

p. 261.

third verbal (or nonfinite verb form)

— usually

the omission of

For the "dangling gerund" see

we

on the

characteristics of

Derived from a verb as it is, it has the sense of a verb and may take any kind of complement and any kind of An infinitive adverbial modifier that a finite verb may take.

same

time.

with any complements and any adverbial modifiers

it

may

take

constitutes an infinitive phrase. But in addition to this verb function, an infinitive may have the function of a noun, of an adjective, of an adverb; and in a peculiar construction known as the infinitive clause it may have the function of a verb and take a grammatical subject of its own. For diagrams of infinitive constructions see pp. 326 ff. 1.

Dual nature.

The dual

nature of the infinitive

may

be

seen in the examples given below. a) (1)

Noun

As a subject To make a mistake

unwittingly

takes mistake as

direct object

and verb a

use

at the

its

is

pardonable.

and

same time functions

as a noun, the subject of the

is.]

For forms and usages see pp. 223

ff.

[The infinitive to make an adverbial modifier

unwittingly as

and pp. 261

ff.

main

B.

VERBS

57

As an appositive

(2)

His plan, to appoint a

new

supervisor, ran into

much

[The

opposition.

and

infinitive to appoint takes supervisor as its direct object

at the

same

time functions as a noun, in apposition with plan.]

As a subjective complement

(3)

Our

plan

As a It

Sunday.

[The

infinitive to wait takes

Sunday as an adverbial modifier and at the same time func-

tions as a

(4)

to wait until next

is

until next

noun, the subjective complement of the main verb

is.]

direct object

began

to rain just as I

was

starting for

home.

[The

infinitive to rain

takes the subordinate clause just as I was starting for home as

and at the same time functions object of the main verb began.] verbial modifier

(5)

an ad-

as a noun, the direct

As a retained object The young lady was asked takes song as

its

[The

to start the song.

direct object

and

at the

infinitive to start

same time functions

as a noun,

the retained object after the passive verb was asked.]

(6)

As the object of a preposition have done everything except use

I

its

the omission of

(7)

force.

[The

infinitive (to) use,

to

see pp. 62

with (For

object force, functions as the object of the preposition except. f.)]

Introduced by how, where, when, which, what.

Infinitive

may

be introduced by such interrogative and relative pronouns and adverbs as where, when, how, what, which, who.

phrases

(See also pp. 87

How

f.)

to raise that

much money

is

the question.

[The

infinitive to raise,

introduced by and modified by the interrogative adverb how takes ,

money as a direct object and at the same time functions as a noun, the

main verb is.] where to find such leaders. [The infinitive to find, introduced by and modified by the interrogative adverb where, takes leaders as a direct object and at the same time functions as a noun, as a subjective complement of the main verb is.] We must think about when to start the campaign. [The infinitive to start, introduced by and modified by the interrogative adverb when, takes campaign as its object and at the same time functions as a noun, subject of the

The problem

is

the object of the preposition about.] I

do not know what

to

do

next.

[The

infinitive to do,

pronoun object of the main verb tow.)

direct object, the indefinite relative

noun, the direct

introduced by

its

what, functions as a

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

58

[The infinitive to wear, introShe wonders which costume to wear. duced by the relative adjective which (modifying costume, the direct object of the infinitive), functions as a noun, the direct object of the

main verb wonders.] Mother taught me where to find mushrooms. [The infinitive to find, introduced by and modified by the indefinite relative adverb where, functions as a noun, as one of the double objects of the main verb taught (the other direct object

We

were never told

when

being me).]

[The

to report.

infinitive to report,

introduced

by and modified by the indefinite relative adverb when, functions as a noun, as the retained object after the main verb were told.] Very probably the

Note. sis

and a

The

substitution.

of a subordinate clause

infinitive in infinitive has

and the

He does not know which course to know which course he should

such sentences represents an

been substituted

ellip-

for the finite

verb

subject of this finite verb has been dropped.

choose

probably developed from

"He

does not

Again we see in an infinitive construction the natural tendency of language toward shortened forms of ex(For

press on.

(8)

ellipsis see

it

125

(see pp.

ff.)

f.)

may introduce

it.

The

a sentence in which the

a noun, the true subject of the main verb.

infinitive functions as It is

pp. 130

introduced by the expletive

Infinitive phrase

expletive

choose."

[The

necessary to count the books accurately.

infinitive to count,

an adverbial modifier, It is an expletive. functions as the true subject of the main verb is.

with books as

The

its

direct object

and

accurately as

"To count

sentence for analysis reads

the books accurately

is

necessary."]

b) Adjective use.

You have

An

infinitive

a task to perform.

may modify

[The

a noun.

infinitive to perform functions as

an

adjectival modifier of task.]

A

program

to

meet

infinitive to meet,

this

with

emergency must be formulated its

at once.

[The

direct object emergency, functions as an ad-

jectival modifier of program.]

The accused had nothing

to say.

[The

infinitive to say functions as

an

adjectival modifier of nothing.]

An infinitive may modify a verb, an adAdverb use. An infinitive modifying a verb and exjective, or an adverb. pressing purpose is often introduced by in order or, expressing result, by the conjunction so as. c)

We

went

time,

to

have a good time.

[The

infinitive to have,

functions as an adverbial modifier of the

infinitive expresses purpose.)]

with

main verb

its

went.

object

(The

B.

VERBS

59

In order to draw well one must have a natural aptitude. [The infinitive to draw, with its adverbial modifier well, introduced by the preposition in order,

functions as an adverbial modifier of the

main verb

must

infinitive to make,

with

have.]

He

make

acted so as to

its

object himself

complement obnoxious, introduced functions as an adverbial modifier of the

objective

its

by the conjunction so as, main verb acted.] good tire is hard to find nowadays.

A

[The

himself obnoxious.

and

[The

infinitive to find,

with

its

adverbial modifier nowadays, functions as an adverbial modifier of the adjective hard (which in turn

You

is

a subjective complement of

are certain to be well received.

with

its

adverbial modifier

of the adjective

certain

[The

is).]

infinitive to be received,

functions as an adverbial modifier

well,

(which in turn

is

a subjective complement of

are).]

The dean

is

ready

to see you.

[The

infinitive to see,

with

its

object you,

functions as an adverbial modifier of the adjective ready (which in

turn I

is

a subjective complement of

was not its

close

enough

object him, functions as

(which in turn

ment Father

with

is

is).]

to identify him.

[The infinitive to identify, with an adverbial modifier of the adverb enough

a modifier of the adjective

a subjective comple-

close,

of was) .] is

its

too tired to go to the movies tonight.

adverbial modifiers

to the

adverbial modifier of the adverb

movies

too

and

[The tonight,

infinitive to go,

functions as an

(which in turn modifies the ad-

jective tired).]

did not stay long enough to see the

I

with

its

in turn

object is

act,

an adverbial modifier of

modifier of the verb did

He

left

last act.

[The

long,

long

with

its

too (which in turn is an adverbial modifier of an adverbial modifier of the verb left).]

Complementary

finite

[The

in-

object view, functions as an adverbial modifier

of

a

being an adverbial

stay).]

too quickly to obtain a clear view of the situation.

finitive to obtain,

2.

infinitive to see,

functions as an adverbial modifier of enough_ (which

infinitive.

An

quickly, quickly

infinitive often

being

forms with

verb such a close connection that the primary purpose

of the infinitive seems to be to complete the predication begun

by the verb. go,

is,

When

the infinitive

"going to go," "ought to go," the to go,"

"have

is

combined with

use, have,

happen, about, ought, in such expressions as to go,"

called a

"complementary

"is to go," infinitive

infinitive."

"used to go," "about for convenience be

"happen

may

to go,"

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

60

For diagrams of complementary I

used to read Latin at

[The

sight.

331

infinitives see pp.

with

infinitive to read,

ff.

object

its

Latin and its adverbial modifier at sight, may be regarded as a complementary infinitive, the main function of which is to complete the predication begun by the finite verb used.] [The infinitive to rain may be regarded as a comIt is going to rain. plementary infinitive, completing the predication begun by the finite

verb

You

going.]

is

an hour.

are to leave in

modifier

an hour,

in

may

[The

its

adverbial infinitive

infinitive to leave,

completing the predication begun by the I

have

to

speech,

make a

may

speech.

with

be regarded as a complementary

[The

finite

infinitive to make,

be regarded as a complementary

verb

are.]

with

its

infinitive

direct object

completing the

predication begun by the finite verb have.]

You ought sign

not miss the celebration.

with

to),

plementary verb

We

its

[The

direct object celebration,

infinitive

infinitive miss (without its

may

be regarded as a com-

completing the predication begun by the

finite

ought.]

are about to have a storm.

[The infinitive to have, with its direct by its adverbial modifier about, may be rea complementary infinitive completing the predication

object storm, introduced

garded as

begun by the

finite

An

Infinitive clause.

3.

verb

are.]

infinitive

may

function in a kind of

semi-clause with a grammatical subject of fers

from a

finite

verb in

this

its

own.

But

it

dif-

very important respect: the subject

of an infinitive (when the infinitive takes a grammatical subThis grammatical subject ject) is always in the objective case. of an infinitive in the active voice usually indicates the agency of the infinitive.

See

For diagrams of a) Similar

to

p. 61,

Note.

infinitive clause constructions see pp.

a shortened clause.

An

infinitive

331

ff.

clause

is

Someroughly equivalent to a regular subordinate clause. especially after sign of the infinitive) is omitted, the times to (the verbs

see, hear,

We

make.

(See also p. 62

thought him to be the best player.

the best player is

and

p. 265.)

[The

infinitive clause

him

to

be

roughly equivalent to the subordinate clause "that he

was the best player."] The dean requested me to report at once. [The infinitive clause me to report at once, in which me is the grammatical subject of to report, functions as the direct object of the main verb requested.]

VERBS

B.

The major ordered clause the bridge subject of

to

61

[The

the bridge to be taken at any cost.

to

be taken at any cost, in

which

bridge

infinitive

the grammatical

is

be taken, functions as the direct object of the

main verb

ordered.]

I believe

her preference to be to play one more game.

the subject of the infinitive

is

to be; to

play one more game

phrase functioning as a subjective complement of clause her preference

to

be to play one more

object of the finite verb

He

[Her preference is

an

infinitive

the infinitive

to be;

game functions as the direct

believe.]

me

good look at him. [The infinitive which me is the grammatical subject of to get, functions as the object of the preposition for (the whole prepositional phrase for me to get a good look at him functioning as an adverbial modifier of the adverb too, or too quickly).] left

too quickly for

clause me

to get a

get a good look at him, in

to

Of course, no one explanation will fit exactly every case. After Note. such verbs as believe, know, think, order, and the like, the infinitive construction is clearly a kind of semi-clause, with the noun that indicates the agency of the infinitive functioning as the grammatical subject of the infinitive

— They

me to have lost the key. Inasmuch as we usually regard the two special verbs ask and teach as being capable of taking two direct objects (see p. 41), the substantive may be regarded as one of the double objects and the infinitive as the other. believed

He

me

asked

after the

"He

roughly

to go may be regarded as double objects Or, in view of the fact that the sentence means

[Me and

to go.

verb

asked.

asked that

I

go," me

to

go

may

be regarded as an main verb asked

clause functioning as the direct object of the

infinitive

with being the subject of the infinitive to go).] She taught me to dance. [Me and to dance may be regarded as double objects after the verb taught. Or, me to dance may be regarded as an (me,

this interpretation,

main verb taught being the subject of the infinitive to dance).]

infinitive clause functioning as the direct object of the

(me,

with

this interpretation,

After such verbs as make, hear,

out

its

sign

to)

closely resembles

He made me (without

may be of the

its

go.

sign

the infinitive (usually appearing with-

[Me may be regarded to)

as a kind of objective

regarded as an

main verb made

of the infinitive

see,

an objective complement construction. made and go Or, me (to) go

as the object of

complement.

infinitive clause functioning as the direct object

(me,

with

this interpretation,

being the subject

(to) go).]

Although there are these other thoroughly acceptable explanations, in it will serve all ordinary purposes to regard as an infinitive clause any construction in which a substantive preceding an infinitive indicates the agency of the infinitive, the substantive then to be interpreted as the grammatical subject of the infinitive. However, we must the interests of simplicity

bear in mind that not all substantives preceding infinitives indicate the agency of the infinitive. Such substantives, of course, cannot function as grammatical subjects of infinitives.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

62

We

promised her to come.

the grammatical subject of

My

[Her

father has a house to rent.

grammatical subject of

the indirect object after promised, not

is

which

come,

to

[House

To

to rent.

is

the direct object of promised.]

the direct object of has, not the

is

rent is

an adjectival modifier of

Congress needs another argument to be convinced.

[Argument

grammatical subject of to be an adverbial modifier of needs.]

rect object of needs, not the be convinced functions as

b) To, sign, often omitted.

is

house.]

the di-

To

convinced.

To, the sign of the infinitive,

often omitted, especially after such verbs as

is

make, dare,

see, hear,

(See also p. 265.)

please. I

saw him fall. [The infinitive clause him (to) fall, in which him grammatical subject of fall (with to omitted), functions as the

is

the

direct

object of the main verb saw.] That curbing made rue stumble. [Me is the grammatical subject of (to) stumble; the infinitive clause me (to) stumble is the direct object of the main verb made.] [Her is the I never heard her make an unkind remark about anybody.

grammatical subject of

make; the infinitive clause her

(to)

make an

(to)

unkind remark about anybody functions as the direct object of the

verb

Let him come back tomorrow.

[Him

come; the infinitive clause him

main verb

direct object of the

c)

is

For

the grammatical subject of

is

let.]

Sometimes an

for.

infinitive

introduced by the expletive for (see also pp. 127

me

to

go

now

[The

impossible.

is

(to)

come back tomorrow functions as the

(to)

Introduced by the expletive

clause

main

heard.]

infinitive clause

main verb

functioning as the subject of the

is,

is

me

fF.).

to

go now,

introduced by the

expletive for.] It is difficult for

[The

us to trust his word.

word, functioning as the true subject of

tive/or;

and the whole statement

the expletive

His plan

is

it

(see also pp.

for us to

go

125

[The

first.

complement

ing as a subjective

infinitive clause us

is, is

to trust his

introduced by the exple-

introduced by another expletive,

is

ff.).]

infinitive clause us to go first, function-

of

is,

is

introduced by the expletive

for.] I

know no way except

for us to voice

our objections in person.

[The

infinitive clause us to voice our objections in person, functioning as the object

of the preposition except,

The time

is

introduced by the expletive for.]

for us to assert ourselves has

us to assert ourselves

is

tional phrase for us

of time.]

come.

[Here the

the object of the preposition for;

to assert ourselves

infinitive clause

and the preposi-

functions as an adjectival modifier

VERBS

B.

Some grammarians

Note.

63

prefer to regard for introducing

an

clause as a preposition, with the infinitive clause functioning as

infinitive its

object,

a real difference in meaning between for functioning as an expletive and for functioning as a preposition, a difference worth maintaining.

under

all

But there

circumstances.

It is difficult for

to judge

is

me

is

[The sentence for analysis reads "For me as an expletive introducing the

to judge.

Here for functions

difficult."

infinitive clause me to judge.] [Here for clearly functions as a true preposiwaited for him to speak.

I

whole prepositional an adverbial modifier of the main

tion, taking the infinitive clause as its object, the

phrase for him

verb

speak functioning as

to

waited.]

When

d) Construction with the passive voice.

containing an infinitive clause

is

a construction

turned into the passive voice,

the grammatical subject of the infinitive becomes the gram-

matical subject of the passive verb and the infinitive remains; that

may

the infinitive

is,

be said to become a retained object

(see also p. 44). I

was ordered

to report for duty.

[The

infinitive

to report

(with

its

ad-

verbial modifier for duty) functions as a retained object after the passive verb

was

jective

(The active construction reads "They ordered

ordered.

me to report for He was thought to

duty.")]

be the right man.

complement

[The

infinitive to be (with its sub-

man) functions as a retained object after

the right

(The active construction reads "They thought him to be the right man.")] was taught to make my own bed. [The infinitive to make (with its the passive verb was thought.

I

direct object bed) functions as a retained object after the passive verb

was

taught.

(The active construction reads

make my own 4.

Infinitive

"My mother taught me

to

bed.")]

phrase or clause used absolutely.

Infinitive

phrases and infinitive clauses are sometimes used absolutely

— that

without any grammatical function in the (For diagrams of infinitive statements in which they appear. phrases and clauses used absolutely see pp. 326 ff.) 120

(see pp.

f.)

To make finitive

is,

a long story short, phrase

to

I

do not know any such person.

make a long

story short is

used absolutely;

[The it

in-

has no

grammatical function in the statement / do not know any such person.] [The infinitive phrase think that she would believe such a report!

To

to

think that she

would

believe such

here as an exclamation.]

a report

is

used absolutely

;

it is

used

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

64

Our

house, to be sure,

be sure

is

is

it is

infinitive

phrase

to

used here parenthetically.]

already departed, their decision to be announced to-

The judges have

[The

morrow.

[The

a bit old-fashioned.

used absolutely;

used absolutely;

infinitive clause their decision to be announced tomorrow it

has no grammatical function in the statement

is

the

judges have already departed.]

5.

Miscellaneous constructions.

English lends

shortened

itself

Because the

infinitive

in

readily to the tendency of language toward

many

locutions,

infinitive

constructions

must be

regarded as idioms, for in such cases we can only guess at the That is, many conoriginal form from which the idiom came. structions that

originally

some kind of

a) Infinitive I

we must now regard

pp. 130

probably involved

ff.).

with than

should rather save (to)

ellipsis (see

as idioms

spend

my money

may be

it

than spend

[The

it.

infinitive

phrase

regarded as an adverbial modifier of the adverb

it by the conjunction than.] [The infinitive drop out rather than to face defeat. adverbial be regarded as an modifier of the may to phrase face defeat the conjunction than.] it by adverb rather, joined to There can be no greater thrill than to discover that you were right all [Probably the full sentence was "There can be no greater the time.

rather,

She

joined to

prefers to

all the time would be a But in the interest of simplicity the infinitive phrase may be regarded as an adverbial modifier of the adjective greater, joined to it

than to discover that you were right

thrill

thrill."

by the conjunction

than.]

b) Infinitive after as to complete a comparison

begun by

so

or such His explanation was such as to amaze the most skeptical. the infinitive finite

verb

to

[Probably

amaze originally was the subject of an understood

— "His explanation was such as

to

amaze the most skep-

would be."

But in the interest of simplicity the infinitive phrase may be regarded as an adverbial modifier of the adjective such, joined to it by the conjunction as.] He surely will not be so foolish as to run away. [Probably the infinitive to run away was originally the subject of an understood finite verb "He surely would not be so foolish as to run away would be foolish." tical

—

But in the interest of simplicity the infinitive phrase as an adverbial modifier of the adverb so.]

may

be regarded

B.

VERBS

65

Infinitive after as if

c)

He made

a motion as

if

to

here for something like

were going infinitive

to

phrase

may

[Probably there

is

an

ellipsis

he would make

if he But in the interest of simplicity the be regarded as an adjectival modifier of motion

as

ball."

phrase describes the kind of motion), joined to

by the conjunction

Dangling pp. 267 f.

ball.

"He made a motion

throw the

(for the infinitive

as

it

if.]

For the "dangling

infinitive.

6.

throw the

infinitive"

see

EXERCISES VERBS I.

In the sentences printed below point out what you regard as finite verbs and what as finite verb phrases.

simple

a walk every morning.

1.

I take

2.

Getting up at five o'clock on a cold morning

3.

Around seven their neighbors

[

4.

The

other day

is

not what I call fun.

o'clock the Piticcos, looking out their windows,

had

also

we were

that cut in ahead of

saw that

been preparing to leave.

in a taxicab that just missed a collision with a

cab

it.

empty for a matter of eleven years, the old Army and Navy Club building has been fixed up and reopened as the United States Mari-

5.

After standing

6.

There was one small dog which was not only willing to sit down but insisted on holding its front paws up at the same time. The new station can sleep two hundred and forty men. Sometimes the men don't stay overnight but are shipped out after a couple

time Service Center.

7. 8.

of hours. 9.

10.

Mr. Staunton has just been appointed revenue collector for Ohio. his debut on the vaudeville stage at the Capitol

Weismuller was making Theater in

11.

12.

New

York.

was not known what talk the two men may have had together. Ben Lander, who stood the night trick himself, waddled around the end of the bar, tossed his apron back over his shoulder in a social mood, and accepted a drink from Michael. It

II.

Go

through some of the preceding or following exercises and

point out what verbs you regard as finite and what nonfinite (verbals). III.

Go

through some of the preceding or following exercises and

point out what verbs you regard as transitive and what intransitive.

IV.

Go

through some of the preceding or following exercises and

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

66

point out what verbs you regard as in the active voice

and what

in the

passive voice.

V. Go through some of the preceding exercises and point out what you regard as verbs of complete predication and what of incomplete predication.

VI. Point out verbs in the sentences below that you regard as verbs used absolutely, cognate verbs, causative verbs, complete verbs, link verbs, notional verbs, defective verbs, 1.

2. 3.

4. 5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

He

up smoking until he was eighteen. all was the song she sang as an encore. I like to work for a man who does not work his men too hard. Do you dream a great deal? Mr. Tennent became pastor of our church. There are nine volumes in the set. But for some reason the set does not seem to be complete. That muzzle will render the dog harmless. Your plan sounds all right. It looks as if it might rain this afternoon.

11.

by many. I do believe

13.

song of

loveliest

One

14.

verbs.

didn't take

The

10.

12.

and redundant

person came forward to

assist her;

my

but she should have been assisted

What shall I do? have three good ones. May I borrow your pencil for a moment? I can't find mine anywhere. That ought to teach me to be more I must have lost it this morning. I

I

came

off

without

pocketbook.

have been given a new fountain pen;

now

I

careful.

awoke

at seven-thirty; I

15.

I

16.

He must have burned

17. I 18.

19.

20.

21. 22.

dreamt

You

I

was

in

wanted

his papers;

an airplane;

I

to

be awakened at

we could

six.

find only a few burnt pieces.

haven't dreamed

like that for ages.

you were. Everybody is agreed that the American people eat too much. He is gone? That just can't be. I have just one more errand to do; I have been saving it for the There being no objection, the meeting will stand adjourned. could be right; but

I

should be surprised

23. It's going to be hot today, I

am

if

last.

afraid.

We

have told him again and again that he drinks too much. 25. This apple tastes very sour. 24.

26.

27. 28. 29. 30.

He looked fine when I saw him last. They say that barking dogs don't bite. The sorrel horse, Number 3, was finally adjudged the winner. Mr. Ellery was made chairman of the board. There being some uncertainty about how some voted, we will take a

rising

vote. 31.

Did you ever

try to

grow

roses?

I

grew some once and had

lots of fun.

.

EXERCISES 32. I wish

you would

34.

Jim The young

35.

He

set the clock.

has a swollen ankle.

33.

girl

I

It

67

seems to be a

bit slow.

think he must see a doctor at once.

appeared very sure of

herself.

did show confusion, you know.

36.

Hamlet's famous soliloquy begins "To be or not to be."

37.

Do you

believe the doctrine that "whatever

VII. Explain

is is

right"?

the complements in the following sentences

all

—

direct object, indirect object, double object, cognate object, objective

— with tained object — with complement

A properly 1

2. 3.

4.

transitive verbs; subjective

5.

She seems

6.

Give

me

7.

He

not the

8.

Live the good

9.

I

10.

I

11. I

re-

executed diagram will meet these demands fully. 1

He is the new senator from Oregon. The ground feels dry. Jim was elected president on the third They call their son Jasper.

is

complement and

intransitive verbs.

to

ballot.

be mistress of the situation.

the ball;

you take the

man we

bat.

are looking

for.

life.

was promised a promotion. was taught Latin by a master hand. wish to ask you three questions.

12. This apple tastes sweet.

13. 14. 15. 16.

She smiled a happy smile. were told that we could not You certainly ran a good race. My dog is named Shep.

We

18.

The lilacs smell strong. Your plan sounds good.

19.

I

17.

chose Professor Mills as

my

enter.

advisor.

wipe the dishes dry. 21. They were informed that their plan was unconstitutional. 22. This pen point has become bent. 23. She grew worse each hour. 24. This box must be packed full. 25. Don't throw everything to the four winds. 20. Please

26.

The man was voted guilty. am called Tack by my friends. None of us likes to be considered

27. I 28.

eccentric.

x It is strongly urged that at this point you learn to use a simple form of diagram*ming, such as that exemplified on pp. 312 ff. A diagram is a great saver of time, for it reveals fully at a glance everything about the syntax of a sentence.

.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

68

My mother

29.

We

31.

me

taught

man

30. I consider the

that

I

must respect

my

elders.

a genius.

found our car unharmed in any way.

34.

you look bad. Are you ill? You look Mr. Hobbs was elected county treasurer. Consider him what you will, he is at least a scholar.

35.

Tie the rope

36.

We found

32. I feel fine; but 33.

ill.

tight.

the house in poor repair.

She considered him the best man in the world. Such inventions have made food plentiful and cheap. 39. Don't call me a fool. 40. He felt himself unequal to the task. 41. The truth shall make you free. 37. 38.

42.

He

43.

Such taxes make capital secretive. I pronounce you husband and wife. The ring was found to be of brass. Having been given a salary increase, he looked about

44. 45. 46.

calls

himself a liberal.

for

ways

to

spend

the increase. 47.

To

48.

The agent

be given such a tongue-lashing in public was most embarrassing. told us that

we would have

to wait for the second section of the

limited. 49.

My

50.

De Lawd

51.

We

experience taught

me

that I should be careful about talking with

strangers. in The Green Pastures said "Bein' God ain't no bed of roses." were informed that there were no more prewar bicycles available. Did you ask him when we might be able to buy some bananas? To be given an honorary degree by such a distinguished college is something

52.

53.

to be very

proud

of.

made him very angry. name was first used. whatever seems to come into his mind.

54.

Being deprived of his privileges

55.

I tried to

56.

He

discover

blurts out

VIII. Explain tions

you

1

3.

4. 5.

verb

the

+ preposition

night.

close out the rest of the stock at fifty cents

7.

8.

If

you

adverb combina-

put off our departure any longer.

The play took in four hundred dollars last Have you disposed of your bicycle yet? The factory has shut down for a week. I'll

+

executed diagram will meet these demands fully.

You can't laugh at such a man. You seem to have great luck in standing

6.

and verb

find in the following sentences.

A properly We can't

2.

all

when

will close the

windows you

off

on the

your

dollar.

creditors.

will shut out the heat.

...

EXERCISES 9.

10. 11

12.

69

The

race will be run off at ten o'clock. were laughed at for our pains. My business with you can be disposed of in five minutes. The Giants were shut out for the third successive day.

We

don't propose to be taken in by any such excuse.

13.

I

14.

His stock of colored pencils was closed out

15.

17.

Such conduct can't be put up with any longer. All of our waste paper was disposed of last week. Such criticism can't be laughed off.

18.

You

16.

last

week.

surely won't sneeze at such a chance, will you?

you will put up the money, we can start work at once. But until the money is actually put up, we can't begin. The sheriff deputized some citizens to help him put down the The party has been put off for a week. I wasn't taken in by your deception for a moment. The benefit show took in over three hundred dollars. The tent was put up in the vacant lot next to our house.

19. If

20. 21.

22. 23. 24. 25.

IX. Explain

fully all the participial constructions in the following

sentences, explaining the function of the participle

any modifiers and any complements the

A 1

2. 3.

4. 5.

6.

7. 8.

9.

riot.

itself

participle

and indicating

may

take.

properly executed diagram will meet these demands fully.

Borrowing a few dollars here and a few dollars there, he to make the down payment.

finally

had enough

Wrapped

in a great coat of fur, he looked like a huge bear. Having been scooped on that assignment, Ben did not propose to be caught napping a second time. Acquitted on one charge, he has to stand trial on another. On the third floor are two large rooms connected by a narrow hall. It being the first of the month, I'll have some money to spend. Opening the window, he caused a gust of wind to blow over the vase. He finally reached the goal he had set for himself, never turning aside for a single moment. The bank having closed, we shall have to wait until tomorrow to cash our

checks.

he leaped quickly to one side. one inquisitor and then another, he maintained

10. Sensing the peril, 1 1

Harried by

first

his

claim

of innocence. 12.

Being of a genial nature, he took no offense at the remark.

13. I 14.

mean

He

the

15. All rubbish for 16.

bank fronting on Main

told a story

reminding

me

Street.

of one that Grandfather once told me.

having been cleared away, we started to lay the foundation

our cabin.

Bananas kept in a paper sack

will ripen nicely.

.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

70 17.

Catching hold of the bar, he pulled himself to the top.

18.

The

19.

I

little girl

went down the walk singing

at the top of her voice.

kept fingering the cloth and wondering at the price.

22.

an unseen force. saw him laughing and gesticulating at the top of the hill. There being no objection, we will stand adjourned until next Monday.

23.

My

20. I felt myself struggling against 21.

We

25.

tie has come untied. The man wearing a Panama is my uncle. A mass tangled up like that is beyond me.

26.

As they stepped

24.

to the dock, Hester grimly refusing assistance, they started

at the appearance of

X. Explain

what

fully all the

at

first

glance seemed to be a ghost.

gerund constructions

tences, explaining the function of the gerund

itself

modifiers and any complements that the gerund

A properly 1.

My

After mailing your complaint wait a

3.

By economizing

4.

His usual activity was whittling an old

5.

I call

6.

Your proposition is worth considering Be sure to have the water boiling hot. Hank was fighting mad.

8. 9.

10.

I

take.

about carrying coals to Newcastle. full

week before taking

make my money

carefully I can

that being downright

a

little

last for

further steps.

a year.

stick.

mean.

his

carefully.

coughing so much.

use great care in paddling a canoe

making fudge don't

By taking fit

13.

to talk

have been worried about

11. In 12.

mother used

You must

and indicating any

may

executed diagram will meet these demands jully

2.

7.

in the following sen-

if

you don't want a ducking.

forget the essential pinch of salt.

exercise every

day the average person can keep himself in

condition.

We

can save as

much

as five minutes

by taking the short cut through the

woods. 14.

His one obsession, grabbing every dollar he

15. Shelling peas for a large family 16. 17. 18. 19.

20.

is

my

sees, is getting

the best of him.

idea of doing stupid work.

By taking a stitch in time you are supposed to save nine. The high gods have been capricious in handing down their favors. The boy was confronted with the problem of finding a job at once. He eyed the boy craftily with an eye to trying him out. Motoring across Minnesota has where the

its

21. I like living in a state

compensations.

political pot

is

always at the boiling point.

22. It won't be necessary at his passing for the mortician's assistants to

do the

pallbearing. 23.

The very word "Christmas" was

24.

Hoarding money can be

memory room on Christmas eve.

inseparable from her

Ottendorfs' great golden-oak dining

as destructive as

squandering

it.

of the elder

.

.

EXERCISES made

25. It

a sound

71

sandpapering of an iron pipe. and out and fell to quarreling over nothing. a scheme worth trying.

like the

26. Citizens shifted in

That sounds

27.

like

XI. Explain

fully all the infinitive constructions in the following

sentences, explaining the construction of the infinitive itself

and

indi-

cating any modifiers and any complements that the infinitive

may

take.

A properly

executed diagram will meet these demands fully

want to make the first move. what measures to take in such a situation. answer all questions promptly you must have made adequate

1.

Nobody seemed

2.

It is

3.

To

hard

to

to decide

be ready to

preparation.

went

4.

I

5.

It will

to the doctor to get

him

to give

me

something to make

be foolish to attempt to persuade him to join

me

sleep.

us.

7.

How we are gomg to make both ends meet is beyond Let my mother decide where to hold the picnic.

8.

He

seems to prefer very

9.

We

waited to see them to determine what to do with the remainder.

6.

10.

They were permitted

1 1

Brother taught

12.

Do you know where

13.

I

14.

I'd hate to think that I

me

was taught how

much

to

have a dog

for

me.

a pet.

have flower gardens.

to

to skate in three lessons.

to find his raincoat?

to hold the club correctly.

would do anything just

to get

money.

15. It was a relief to discover that nothing was missing.

16.

Maxine was asked

17.

become the new

to

secretary.

19.

She seems to have nothing to do except read and sleep. He soon began to realize his predicament. The company now occupying the building was asked to vacate.

20.

I

believe that

21.

I

see

22.

The

23.

His plan, to block the President's scheme, was thwarted just in time.

24.

The commanding officer ordered the bridge Did you ever hear her sing?

18.

25.

26. It 27.

is

will

it

no good reason rain

came

difficult to

to grant

convince him of his error-

your request.

too swiftly for us to get

impossible for

We have

be

all

all

the hay in.

to be

blown up.

of us to go in one car.

three courses before us

— to go forward,

to turn back, or to stand

still.

28. It

29.

A

30. It

31.

34.

easy to

make a checkerboard.

is

useless for

is

easy to make.

you even

to plan to attempt to refuse to learn to swim.

She waited for me to make the telephone call. have my work to do. Such a course is to be warmly commended. The prisoners were thought to be the bank robbers.

32. I 33.

is

checkerboard

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

72 35.

To

36.

I

put the matter bluntly,

why

delay longer?

38.

have attended your birthday party. She should be allowed to pursue her own way. It is a situation to be avoided at any cost.

39.

To

40.

They were too strong for any of us to wish to start a fight. To make a long story short, I was asked not to play my trombone

37.

41.

should

tell

like to

the truth,

I

need the money. after

nine o'clock. 42.

Our

plan was for them to take the

initiative.

56.

seem to be ungracious. The contract has been let, the work to be completed bv May first. Let's decide now where to meet. That makes me laugh. There is nothing to do here but fish and swim. There is nothing for us to do but keep our mouths closed. The heat caused the pavement to explode. He is entirely too young to drive a car. We got there early enough to see the last act. We were just about to give you a ring. Political parties ought to live up to their platforms. I am going to make a motion that we lay the matter on the table. We are going to have a pep session Friday evening. I have to file a report this afternoon.

57.

He came

43. I 44.

45. 46.

47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52.

53.

54. 55.

do not

58. I did 59.

He

60.

She

my

like to

to see

my

sister.

best to convince

is

He

62.

orders,

to enter the building

63. I believe

65.

to

be quiet.

become the new dean of women. sure to cross our path some day.

You know my

is

of his mistake.

men

to

61.

64.

him

did not hesitate to ask the

it

one

man

to stand

guard at each door and two men

itself.

to be evident that

he made a motion as

weapon. He did no more than to outline the scheme to We dare not hesitate now.

XII. Explain

if

to

draw a deadly

us.

fully all the verbal constructions in the following sen-

and then indicating any modifiers and any complements that the verbal may take. tences, explaining the function of the verbal itself

A

properly executed diagram will meet these demands fully.

can see the limited coming several miles away,

powerful headlight

1.

I

2.

fingering rails and telegraph wires with a shimmer of light. And then, looming black against the night sky, it smashed past, and swing of drivers and connecting rods I think of a greyhound, or race

thundering

down

the final stretch.

its

in the

horse,

EXERCISES 3.

I recall participating in

4.

He

continued on his

like

a captured corsair.

5.

73

a spelling bee.

way

like

a big-breasted galleon, Stephen following

She could hear the cuckoo clock striking six in the hall and feel the boys tugging at her hands and see the sliding dining-room doors rolling back to reveal the tall tinsel-hung Christmas tree, twinkling with

wax

candles,

from piles of white-papered, red-ribboned Christmas gifts. There were the bewildering smells of sap, crushed leaves, and decaying wood; acrid, sweet, spicy, and suffocating, some like musty books, others recalling the paint on the Noah's Ark of one's nursery. He never at any time lost entirely that disheveled appearance of being undusted, a little tumbled-down, unbrushed, and uncombed. There's always plenty of work to be done in any small town. Having discussed the story, we can now turn to a more interesting topic, rising

6.

7.

8. 9.

the actors. 10.

The job arrow

11.

My

is

for those strong

enough

bend the bow

to

to drive the unerring

to the center of the target.

main design

in writing this article

is

to address

a word of exhorta-

tion to our feminists. 12.

Modern feminism has contented and

ability

right to

13.

At any period

14.

His greatest ambition

15. It

is

and

in history

difficult to

women

is

and

one

may

find

women

it is

do.

own

living their

lives.

to follow in his father's footsteps.

be as frank in talking with

tend more than

tastes;

with asserting the thesis of women's

itself

do everything that men can

men

women

as with

men, because

to hold a preconceived idea of one's character

difficult to talk

simply and naturally to anyone

has formed a mental picture of one, especially

if

one

is

aware that

who it is

not correct. 16.

But

men

are slower to form impressions; moreover, in talking with

men

one encounters more opposition. 17.

You

are tempted to emphasize good

simply to impress the reader and

and bad

make a

18.

Everybody appreciates how prone

19.

It is so

qualities

beyond the truth

telling picture.

to yield to

it

Macaulay was.

easy to use a strong adjective unqualified, so easy to

make a white

virtue out of a casual complacency, or to turn a regretted

and forgotten

error into blasting sin. 20.

The plodding

storekeeper, ambitious for his son,

hoped

to

make a doctor

or lawyer of him. 21. In the

orange

light I

can see the fireman swing back and forth as he feeds

his fire.

22. 23. 24.

swirls of dust I watch the two red lights sink down the track. must not shrink from exploring even the retreats of misery. It would be possible to present a long list of officeholders who have had their sons educated free at West Point and Annapolis.

Through

We

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

74

manner, he manages to do what more artful auhis world that simple, solid reality and

25. Writing in the plainest

do

thors merely try to

26.

27.

28.

29. 30.

31. 32.

— he gives

permanence which it would seem we cannot give a thing when we are aware of wanting to do so. Sunk between Cragg Hill and Red Hill, Glen Hazard had the look of being dropped in the hollow and mixed by the four winds. She shut the door softly and sat herself down upon the edge of the porch, her mind quivering with the uneasiness of sleep that had run away too soon. He'd brought Dell all the honey he was going to bring. He wasn't going out honey-gathering every morning any longer. We have much to learn from one another.

Feminism has been content with demanding the right to vote, to practice politics and hold public office, to enter commerce, finance, the learned professions, and the trades, on equal terms with men, and to share men's social privileges and immunities on equal terms. The thing now is to measure the strength of this new factor. Woman's economic status has a great deal to do with defining and establishing her social status.

33.

Having found

my

first

that flower of promise:

and again 34.

to

snowdrop of the year, I did what I always do with I held it above my head to look within its green lines

marvel at the beauty of

Making allowances

it.

for the conscious exaggeration of a delightful writer,

a great deal of truth in this paradox. take the liberty of inventing conversations between well-known even 35. They putting in their mouths sentences they never pronounced. of and men there

is

36.

He seemed

37.

The farmhouse

waking hours

to spend all his

stood off

among

on the piano. two red chimneys budding out

in practicing scales

tall trees,

of the roof. 38.

She heard something crying of pain, but too far

away

to

without feeling on the hot

far off,

undetermined crying, sharp and

full

touch pity, the mere outline of a cry duplicated

air.

39. Bisecting the hill like a precise center parting

was the main turnpike road

between Fleece and Bathwater Spa. 40. To call it a garden city suburb would be an anachronism. 41. With the coming of the terraces Button Hill was no longer the name, primarily, of a 42.

Henry used

hill.

the trolley cars to go to the factory

and

return, leaving the

sedan for Aurelia to use.

might spend an hour pricing things and perhaps matching buying a pair of stockings or a small vial of perfume. Then she would hurry to keep an engagement to lunch indigestibly with

43. In the store she

a shred of

44.

silk,

Stella Greeley at the confectioner's.

45. It didn't

happen

facial beautifying.

to

be one of the days for hairdressing, manicuring, and

C.

ADJECTIVES

75

46.

Vicky saw that her own stock had risen with her secretary because of being lunched with by a young male member of the staff.

47.

The The

48.

question of their not being here on time never entered

question of there not being enough food for

my

mind.

never entered

all

my

mind. 49. 50. 51. 52.

53.

The time came for her to sing. The time for her to sing came at last. She made him a good wife, because she made him a good husband. My work out of the way, I am now ready for some fun. What have you to say about my brother and me joining your club?

54. I never

heard of

it

55. I never

heard of

its

56. I think I 57.

They

being done before.

being done before.

heard Robert's hound baying.

discussed briefly both plans, the question of

prudent not having yet 58. I

knew

which being the more

arisen.

the groceries were closed; but I never thought of the

bank being

closed.

59.

You

should have thought of the bank's being closed on the Fourth of

July. 60. His

61

.

embarrassment in having been duped was very

great.

Getting up early in the morning and taking a brisk walk requires a compelling kind of determination.

We

must go ahead without having obtained permission first. 63. His habit of smacking his lips while eating a meal annoyed me. 64. His money all spent, he smiled a curious smile. 65. I saw her standing in the door leading to the library. 62.

66. It took great patience to 67.

He knew where

68.

The

69.

We

70. I

desire to achieve

had

am

to

cope with such a man.

the earliest violets were to be found.

spend

ought to be found in every one of time in locating his hiding place.

us.

little

unable to make out what you are talking about, to speak frankly. unusual in his ability to ward off criticism.

71.

He was

72.

Abandoned by

his friends

and laughed

at

by

his enemies,

he

tried to find

solace in reading the great classics of literature.

Be sure

to think carefully before making up your mind. Speaking of jokes, have you seen Murphy recently? 75. His only interest in life seems to be making money and

73. 74.

C.

As we saw that qualifies l

still

more money.

ADJECTIVES 1

from our brief definition (pp. 5 f.), anything (that is, modifies) a substantive (noun or pronoun)

earlier

For forms and usages see pp. 271

ff.

.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

76 is

adjectival in function

and may be

an adjectival modifier.

called

(For classes of adjectives see p. 271.) 1.

A

Word, Phrase, Whole Clause.

single

word, a phrase

an infinitive an adjectival

(such as a prepositional phrase, a participial phrase, phrase), or even a whole clause

may

function as

(For adjectival clauses see pp. 145 Single words as modifiers

modifier. a.

The

tall

stately

The

and

stately pine impressed

everyone with

ff.)

its

beauty.

[Tall

and

are adjectival modifiers of pine.]

lecture, dull

and uninspired, wore people

function as adjectival modifiers of

out.

[Dull

and

uninspired

lecture.]

[Dull and uninspired, subjective lecture was dull and uninspired. complements (see pp. 42 f.), function as adjectival modifiers of lecture. ]

The

1

b.

Phrases as modifiers

Prepositional (see also pp.

1

An

officer

from Annapolis

is

1

00

ff.)

[The prepositional phrase

expected soon.

from Annapolis functions as an adjectival modifier of

officer.]

2. Participial (see also pp. 51 ff.)

The man wearing

Mr. Hanna. [The participial phrase an adjectival modifier of man.] Rejected by the Marine Corps, Jim enlisted in the army. [The participial phrase rejected by the Marine Corps functions as an adjectival a straw hat

is

wearing a straw hat functions as

modifier of Jim.] 3.

Infinitive (see also pp. 56

ff.)

have an appointment to meet

this

I

morning.

[The

infinitive

afternoon and a train to catch in the

phrase

adjectival modifier of appointment; as c.

an

to

meet this afternoon functions as

and

to catch in the

adjectival modifier of train.]

Clauses as modifiers (see also pp. 137

ff.).

A

clause

function as a modifier of a substantive, such a clause being as

an adjectival clause or an adjective

clause (which, of course, to the element that also

an

morning functions

it

under Adjectival

is

clause.

An

known

adjectival is

joined

some kind of connective.

(See

always a subordinate clause)

modifies by

may

clauses, pp. 145

A man who will not take a risk will

ff.)

never get ahead.

[The subordinate

clause who will not take a risk functions as an adjectival modifier of man.]

Adjectives functioning as subjective complements are sometimes called predicate adjectives.

C.

Walla Walla, which is

one of the oldest

clause which

is

is

ADJECTIVES

11

located in the southeastern part of Washington,

cities in

[The subordinate

the Pacific Northwest.

located in the southeastern part of Washington functions as

an adjectival modifier of Walla Walla.] 2.

An

Relationship to Substantive.

adjective

eral possible relationships to the substantive that a. Attribute, appositive, predicate 1

.

An

Attribute.

adjective

may

it

bear sev-

qualifies.

1

may

represent an attribute of the

substantive, something that qualifies or limits or narrows the

meaning of the substantive modified.

It is

bute

{large

dog;

single-word

blue sky; stern expression) usually

by a phrase ("a

has to be placed after

attri-

precedes the

But an attribute adjective that is modianxious about his children") usually

substantive modified. fied

then said to bear an

A

attribute relationship to the substantive.

man its

A

substantive.

prepositional or verbal

phrase functioning as an attribute modifier ("the

girl in

the

men

wearing a red carnation"; "a house to rent") and any subordinate clause functioning as an attribute modifier ("the girl that is wearing a blue dress") must of necessity follow the substantive modified (see also pp. 148 f.). blue dress"; "the

The

noisy

and boisterous children rushed

boisterous

A courageous man geous functions as

A man

eager to meet such a situation would to

[Noisy

and

children.]

would know how to meet such a an attribute modifier of man.]

modified by the infinitive phrase as

into the house.

function as attribute modifiers of

situation.

know what

to do.

[Coura-

[Eager,

meet such a situation^ functions

an attribute modifier of man.

A man that had what

the necessary courage to meet the situation

would know [The subordinate clause that had the necessary courage to situation functions as an attribute modifier of man.]

to do.

meet the

The distinction among them is very important in punctuation. An adjective functioning as an attribute modifier (sometimes called a restrictive modifier) is never set off with commas. whether a single word, a phrase, or a whole clause But an adjective functioning as an appositive modifier (sometimes called an adwhether a single word, a phrase, or a whole ditive or nonrestrictive modifier) clause is always set off with commas or something stronger (see also p. 148, Note the absence of footnote). predicate adjective, naturally, is never set off. commas in the case of attribute modifiers and their presence in the case of appositive modifiers in the examples given here. ir

—

—

—

A

—

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

78

whose brother is my roommate. [The subordinate clause whose brother is my roommate functions as an attribute modifier of girl (the relative pronoun adjective whose modifying brother and looking back to girl as its antecedent).] [The subordinate clause wish to visit the farm where I was born. where I was born functions as an attribute modifier oifarm (the relative adverb where modifying was born and looking back to farm as its

That

I

is

the girl

antecedent).]

There comes a time when a man must make a decision. [The subordinate clause when a man must make a decision functions as an attribute modifier of time (the relative adverb when modifying must make and looking back to time as

2.

An

Appositive.

idea; that

is,

it

may

its

antecedent).]

may

adjective

represent an appositive

bear an appositive relationship to the sub-

an afterthought, of somecalled an appositive adjective.

stantive modified, being in the nature of

thing added, in which case

An

it is

appositive adjective whether a single word, a phrase, or a

whole clause usually follows the substantive modified, although an appositive modifier may at times actually precede the substantive.

The

children, noisy

and

boisterous, rushed into the house.

[Noisy

and

boisterous function as appositive adjectival modifiers of children.]

Noisy and boisterous, the children rushed into the house. boisterous

function as appositive adjectival modifiers of

[Noisy

and

children.]

[Stern, Stern but kindly, shy but gracious, Hamilton fascinated people. kindly, shy, and gracious function as appositive modifiers of Hamilton.]

Mr. Hardy, courageous and even a bit daring, did not hesitate for a moment. [Courageous and daring function as appositive modifiers of Mr. Hardy.] Mr. Baxter, of the State Department, is my authority for the statement. [The prepositional phrase of the

State Department functions as

an apposi-

tive modifier of Air. Baxter.]

I shall see

my

boss,

with

work, to arrange the

whom

details.

have an agreement about overtime

I

have an agreement about overtime

[The subordinate clause with whom

1

work functions as an appositive modifier

of boss (the relative pronoun whom, object of the preposition with, look-

ing back to boss as

He

its

antecedent).]

has gone to Seattle, where he will live in the future, and has opened

a law

office.

[The subordinate clause where he

will live in the future

functions as an appositive modifier of Seattle (the relative adverb where

modifying

will live

and looking back

to Seattle as

its

antecedent).]

C.

An

Predicate.

3.

ADJECTIVES

adjective

may

79

serve to qualify a subject

object) and to complete the predication begun by the Such an adjective is called a predicate adjective. If it qualifies the subject, it functions as a subjective complement (see p. 42) if it qualifies a direct object, it functions as an obAn adjective may function as jective complement (see p. 39). (or

an

verb.

;

a predicate adjective after a verb in the active voice ("This apple tastes sweet") or after a verb in the passive voice ("He was found unconscious").

A

single

word, a phrase, or a whole clause

may

function as a

predicate adjective.

The

children were noisy

and

boisterous.

as predicate adjectives; they

[Noisy

both qualify

and

children

boisterous

function

and complete the

predication begun by the verb were.]

Mr. Hardy was courageous and even a

[Courageous

bit daring.

daring function as predicate adjectives; they

and complete the predication begun by the verb was.] [The prepositional phrase of is of solid gold.

This ring

tions as a predicate adjective;

it

both qualifies

the predication begun by the verb

Your

and

both qualify Mr. Hardy

ring

solid gold

func-

and completes

is.]

suspicion seems to be unfounded.

[The

unfounded functions as a predicate adjective;

it

infinitive

phrase

both qualifies

to be

suspicion

and completes the predication begun by the verb seems.] [Intact functions as a predicate adHis equipment was found intact. completes the predication begun equipment and qualifies jective; it both by the passive verb was found.]

The rod was heated tive;

it

red-hot.

[Red-hot functions as a predicate adjec-

both qualifies rod and completes the predication begun by the

passive verb was heated.]

The

qualify made.

He

made Mr. Hardy courageous and even

situation

[Courageous

and

tied the rope tight.

tied.

(Tight

is

jury found

qualifies him (Guilty

they both

Mr. Hardy and complete the predication begun by the verb (They are objective complements.)]

both qualifies

The

a bit daring.

daring function as predicate adjectives;

is

rope

[Tight functions as a predicate adjective;

it

and completes the predication begun by the verb

an objective complement.)]

him

guilty.

[Guilty

is

a predicate adjective;

it

both

and completes the predication begun by the verb found.

an objective complement.)] is what may prove troublesome.

His next maneuver

[The subordinate

clause what may prove troublesome functions as a predicate adjective;

it

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

80

both qualifies maneuver and completes the predication begun by the (Troublesome is a predicate adjective qualifying what and verb is. 1 completing the predication begun by the verb may prove.)] b.

Adjectives

and cumulative.

Coordinate

selves to substantives in

two

different

attach them-

manners, either as co-

The

ordinate or as cumulative modifiers. ticularly

may

distinction

For

important to correct punctuation.

that are coordinate in function are separated with like

any other

series

is

par-

adjectives

commas,

of items; but adjectives functioning as

When adjectives cumulative modifiers are not so separated. modifies the substanadjective are coordinate in function each A simple test for tive in exactly the same manner as the other. and cumulative modifiers

adjectives functioning as coordinate

is

whether and can be placed between them. If and can be placed between them, the adjectives are coordinate and should have and cannot be placed between them, the adjectives are cumulative in effect and no comma should appear between them.

commas between them.

If

He was entranced with the little old lady. in effect.

That

is,

[Little

and

old modifies lady,

little

and

old are

cumulative

modifies old lady.]

an honest, law-abiding, conscientious, and cooperative citizen. and cooperative are coordinate adjecApply the and test and the sentence may read "He is an honest tives.

He

is

[Honest, law-abiding, conscientious,

and law-abiding and conscientious and cooperative citizen."] He wore a splendid new blue-striped shirt. [Splendid, new, and striped are cumulative modifiers of

She wore her brother's old overcoat. modifiers of overcoat; her modifies

The boy ifiers

[Brother's

and

old are

cumulative

brother's.]

presented a ragged, unkempt, somewhat disreputable appear[Ragged, unkempt,

ance.

blue-

shirt.]

and somewhat

of appearance; hence, the

disreputable are

commas between

coordinate

mod-

them.]

[Pompous^ a pompous, belligerent, impetuous little old man. belligerent, and impetuous function as coordinate modifiers of man;

He was

hence, the

commas between them.

The

first

three

function as cumulative modifiers of man; hence, no

and

little

and

old

commas between

them.] not always easy to say with finality that a subordinate clause functioning that is, complement is adjectival rather than substantive in effect whether primarily it qualifies the subject to which it refers or renames it. Fortunately, as far as grammatical analysis is concerned, the distinction is not important. Hence, the term "subjective complement" is usually sufficient. See p. 42 footnote. J

It is

as a subjective

—

ADJECTIVES

C. 3.

81

Other Parts of Speech Functioning

as Adjectives.

Be-

may change its of speech may readily

cause of the ease with which a word in English

customary part-of-speechship, other parts This is especially true of nouns. function as adjectives. also pp. 33 a.

Nouns

and 116

f.

{including gerunds; see also pp.

a morning meal flag

264

f.)

the Fourth of July celebration

a high-school course

a railroad station

requirements I

(See

ff.)

the United States

the college-entrance

a dining car

one on Monday.

prefer a Saturday holiday to

{Saturday,

a noun, here

functions as an adjectival modifier of holiday.] I

favor the Senate

and

My

bill,

but

I

am

opposed to the House

bill.

House, nouns, here function as adjectival modifiers of

friend always carries a walking stick.

functions as an adjectival modifier of

[Senate

bill.]

[Walking, a gerund, here

(See pp. 264

stick.

f.)]

Some newspapers have carried this possibility of using a noun as Note. an adjectival modifier to such ridiculous extremes that a headline sometimes has to be read more than once before the reader is sure of its meaning "The United States Senate Patent Committee Chairman Makes Report."

—

b. Infinitives I

(see also p. 58)

have a debt to modifier of

c.

settle.

an adjectival

f.)

car disappeared in a whirl of dust.

speeding functions as

d.

infinitive to settle functions as

pp. 52

Participles (see also

The speeding

[The

debt.]

an adjectival modifier of

[The participle

car.]

Adverbs (see also p. 93) wait for the through train. [The adverb through functions an adjectival modifier of train.] have to be careful about the up and down drafts. [Up and down,

I prefer to

as

We

adverbs, function as adjectival modifiers of e.

Verbs

The would-be hero

failed dismally in trying to

form would-be functions 4.

as

an

be heroic.

[The verb

adjectival modifier of hero.]

Adjectives as Other Parts of Speech.

function as nouns especially (see pp. 33 1

drafts.^-

f.

Adjectives

and 116

may

ff.).

Such adverbs are, of course, frequently attached to nouns with hyphens: an an out-curve; and often they are completely amalgamated with the noun:

in-curve,

income, outgo.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

82

An

With "the."

a.

abstract adjective like good, beautiful,

may

be used with the an abstract noun. The right The good

article the

eventually prevails. that

men do

is

oft interred

We

admire the good, the true, the The best is none coo good for her.

With "the"

h.

right,

and become the equivalent of

to form

with their bones.

beautiful.

The

a plural noun.

article the

is

frequently

used with an abstract adjective, or participle, to form a plural

noun. The poor have rich

their problems; the rich

The wounded were removed participle,

The

have

[The poor and

theirs.

the

function as plural nouns.]

with

the

[Wounded, originally a

to the hospital.

functions as a plural noun.]

uprooted, the downtrodden, the poverty-stricken are entitled to our

sympathy.

[The adjectives

originally derived

from

uprooted, downtrodden,

and

poverty-stricken,

participles (see p. 255), with the function as

plural nouns.]

With "s" attached

c.

addition of

s

to

form

nouns.

Some

function as plural nouns:

adjectives

by the

eatables, particulars, val-

uables.

The I

particulars are not yet available.

my

keep

valuables at the bank.

Vespers are to be held today.

EXERCISES ADJECTIVES Indicate which expressions you regard as adjectival in function

I.

and

state

clear

whether

what

pression

is

infinitive

1.

I

a single word, a phrase, or a whole clause.

a phrase, state whether

phrase in form.

see pp. 145

A

it is

the adjectival expression modifies. it is

Make

If the adjectival ex-

a prepositional, participial, or

(Adjectival clauses will be exemplified later;

ff.)

properly executed diagram will meet these demands fully.

mention these melancholy

details not only for their

emphasize the point that when larger

life

they offer,

I

I

own

sake but also to

speak of students' dormitories and the

speak of what

I

know.

.

EXERCISES 2.

The

83

shops faced the oldest house on the estate, which stood back from the

main road, sharing a

strip of

lawn and the communal crescent-shaped

drive with carriage gates. 3.

4. 5.

He had

a hundred schemes in his head and a thousand impulses in his heart. She knew an instant's pang of tenderness, poignant, exquisite. Walking along slowly, very close together, oblivious and sunlit and young, they talked things over.

6.

My

analysis

can be extended

to

encompass the economic relationships

which play an important role in other

fields of culture as well as in

the

motion-picture industry. 7.

The

rise of

Hollywood to the realm of culture is a phenomenon analogous triumph of machine production during the industrial rev-

to that of the olution. 8. 9.

10.

11

The second group of scientific philosophers brings us Dack to social criticism. The man took off his old battered felt hat. it was the kind of hair that made you feel it must It was romantic hair

—

have turned white in a single night. Lahk and lean, gaunt and a little grim, with the wistful shadow of unfulfillment on their shrewd faces, they were strangely evocative of their Puritan forebears.

12.

It

was the

first

stone wall, festooned with wine-red woodbine, surrounding

a scrubby clearing overgrown with yellow sweet fern and dotted with

silver-

gray rock. 13.

The most

were the wonderfully delicate and penetrating ones from some great burst of blossoms, odors heavy with sweetness, which seeped down from vine or tree high overhead, wholly invisible from below tantalizing odors

even in broad daylight. 14.

His scanty hair, which

fell

away from a

great

dome

of a forehead,

was an

indeterminate 'sandy-gray. 15.

16.

Along the moonlit trail there came wavering whiffs of orchids, ranging from attar of roses and carnations to the pungence of carrion, the latter doubtless distilled from as delicate and as beautiful blossoms as the former. Any man's memory of his boyhood is the memory of a world which time refused to touch.

17. 18.

By noon the garden was hot and pungent and immensely sweet. Very early over the dark and chestnut-covered hills in the distance and over the Lombardy poplars which marked the end of the garden, holding up close perpendicular branches like foliated silver cups to catch some cool light wine, the sun fell slantingly upon the white summerhouse with its pentagonal tin roof of red, upon damp paths of tan bark, and upon borders of flox, where silver dew and silver spider webs frosted the implacable green.

19.

Back of the house was a barn, newly painted white, and the neatness of a freshly planted vegetable garden.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

84

He was

20.

facetious

and

philosophical, allusive

and brief. was pulled wrapper green dark

and

alliterative,

pointed and

parenthetical, flowery

A

21.

her uncombed

close

around her slight-made body, and

hair flared above her puzzled eyes.

On the far edges the circling woods about

22.

the farmstead were slate-colored,

was come, and a spicy smell of late fall was crushed from the fields and forest trees around Glen Hazard. There sat the old log house, the same that she had been born in. New York had all the American faults and all the American virtues. It was brilliant, gallant, insouciant, cool, tolerant; it was generous, witty, sensitive, eager, and vivacious; it was unmellow, selfish, unhumorous despite its for the heavy-footed time of year

23.

24.

and contemptuous, not of habits, morals, or ideas, but of and failure. Having no mountains of its own, it had built mountains; but they were harsh mountains without any streams in them, or green open spaces, or wit, fierce, cruel,

lack of intelligence 25.

hidden shadows. 26. It

almost impossible to distinguish between the prophet of bad news and

is

the causer of bad events.

He

27.

beat his forehead with his hairy, prehensile hands; for the birth of

something absolutely new in his mind was making his head ache. 28. And there have been countless minor incidents which have led other Congressmen to similar conclusions. 29. Valuable hand-carved furniture is made for the use of people of means. 30. The Missouri is the frontier's river, and it is still regarded with the passionate possessiveness the frontier

felt for its

few immediately available natural

resources.

Go back over some of the previous sentences and

II.

adjectives bear

point out which

an attribute and which an appositive and which predi-

(A diagram, cate relationships to the substantives that they qualify. attribute adjecbetween difference unfortunately, does not show any tives

and appositive

adjectives.)

back over some of the previous sentences and point out which adjectives are coordinate in effect and which cumulative in effect. III.

Go

D.

As we saw is

from our brief definition (p. 6), anything is, modifies) a verb, an adjective, or another

earlier

that qualifies (that

adverb

ADVERBS

adverbial in function.

p. 284.) l

For forms and usages see pp. 284

ff.

(For classes of adverbs see

ADVERBS

D. 1.

word, a function as an adverb.

may

phrase, or even a whole clause

Jim

A

Word, Phrase, Whole Clause.

Single

a. Single

85 single

words as modifiers

folded his paper carefully.

[Carefully functions as

an adverbial

[Extremely functions as

an adverbial

modifier of the verb folded.]

One must be

extremely careful.

modifier of careful (which

Jim

is

a subjective complement of must

folded his paper very carefully.

modifier of carefully (which in turn b. 1.

is

be).]

an adverbial

[Very functions as

an adverbial modifier offolded).]

Phrases as modifiers

Prepositional Harriet walked tc the window.

[The prepositional phrase

to the

window

an adverbial modifier of the verb walked.] In helping others we help ourselves. [The prepositional phrase in helping others functions as an adverbial modifier of the main verb help.] functions as

2.

Infinitive I

am

eager to

know

the result.

[The

infinitive

phrase

an adverbial modifier of the adjective subjective complement of am).]

functions as

You came

too late to see the parade.

parade functions as

[The

to

know

eager

infinitive

phrase

an adverbial modifier of the adverb

turn modifies the adverb

late

the result

(which

too,

is

a

to see the

which

in

(an adverbial modifier of the verb

came).] c.

Clauses as modifiers.

A

clause

may

function as a modifier

of a verb, of an adjective, or of an adverb, such a clause being

known as an

adverbial clause or an adverb clause.

(which, of course,

clause

joined to the element that

it

is

modifies by

when I the I

I

fF.)

found nothing but confusion.

arrived functions as

main

[The subordinate clause an adverbial modifier of found, the verb in

clause.]

am sure that Mason has forgotten our'appointment. clause that

Mason

The weather was

[The subordinate an adverbial modifier of so,

so cold that our water pipes froze.

is an adverbial modifier of the adjective complement of was).]

in turn

an adverbial

sure.]

clause that our water pipes froze functions as

which

[The subordinate

has forgotten our appointment functions as

modifier of the adjective

jective

is

some kind of connective.

(See also under Adverbial clauses, pp. 151

When I arrived

An adverbial

always a subordinate clause)

cold (the sub-

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

86

He

day is long. [The subordinate clause as the day is an adverbial modifier of the adverb as, which in turn a modifier of the adjective honest (the subjective complement of is).) as honest as the

is

long functions as is

The

.Xote.

learner often has

more trouble

in construing adverbial con-

any other construction in English grammar. that an adverb can have such a wide range of func-

structions than in construing

from the fact that is, with adverb can be used independently or absolutely appears (see statement in which it the in function grammatical or no little phrases, single words, or even whole modify adverbs can Further, 122 f.). pp. (One authority has said that he would not venture the statement clauses. that there is anything that an adverb may not at one time or another be found to modify.) The chances are, then, that any element that is not This

arises

—

An

tions.

readily classed otherwise

is

adverbial in function.

simple working principle may be of help in many cases. A prepositional or an infinitive phrase coming at the beginning of a statement, or a subordinate clause coming first in a sentence, which is not obviously a sub-

A

—

main verb, will very likely function as an adverbial modifier Or, of equal value may be the fact that any usually of the main verb. phrase or any subordinate clause found in the body of a sentence (not obviously a noun clause) that can be placed first without changing the grammati-

ject of the

cal sense of the statement

is

proved by that

fact to

be adverbial in function.

[The preposiIn Janesville thousands of fountain pens are made daily. adverbial modifier of are made, an functions as Janesville phrase in tional the

main

verb.]

of Janesville make thousands of fountain pens daily. [The prepositional phrase of Janesville functions as an adjectival modiNote that the prepositional phrase cannot be fier of men and women. placed first without changing the grammatical sense of the sentence.] [The prepositional phrase In Meharry Hall a bell will be rung at six.

Men and women

in

Meharry Hall functions as an adverbial modifier of will be rung, the

main

verb.]

Meharry Hall will be rung at six. [The prepositional phrase Meharry Hall functions as an adjectival modifier of bell. Note that the prepositional phrase cannot be placed first without changing the

The

bell in

in

grammatical sense of the sentence.] operate a car legally one must have a

To

to operate

the

main

a car legally functions as

license.

[The

infinitive

phrase

an adverbial modifier of must

have,

verb.]

In opening a checking account you must deposit a minimum of one hundred dollars. [The prepositional phrase in opening a checking account (with the gerund opening functioning as the object of the preposition in) func-

an adverbial modifier of must deposit, the main verb.] gong sounds, come in a hurry. [The subordinate clause if the gong sounds functions as an adverbial modifier of come, the main verb.] [The subordinate Since there is to be no holiday, we must work as usual. clause since there is to be no holiday functions as an adverbial modifier of tions as

If the

must work, the

main

verb.]

ADVERBS

D. I

know a

87

where we can buy a San Francisco paper. [The subordiw here we can buy a San Francisco paper functions as an adjectival

store

nate clause

store. Note that this subordinate clause cannot be placed without changing the grammatical sense of the sentence.]

modifier of first

Modifier of a Phrase or Clause. used to modify a phrase or even a whole "

An

2.

The

went just over the

ball

fier

fence.

[

may

adverb

be

clause.

Just functions as an adverbial modi-

of the prepositional phrase over the fence.]

He came

only to ask you a question.

modifier of the infinitive phrase Precisely

what he had

in

mind

I

to

an adverbial

[Only functions as

ask you a question.]

do not know.

[Precisely

adverbial modifier of the noun clause what he had

in

functions as an

mind (which

is

the

object of do know).]

Surely

we ought

to

make an

He jarred my arm just when

I

[Surely functions as

effort.

modifier of the sentence we ought

make an

to

was making a

an adverbial

effort.]

shot.

[Just functions as

an

adverbial modifier of the adverbial clause when I was making a shot

(which modifies jarred) 3. a.

.

]

Special Kinds of Adverbs Interrogative.

An

interrogative

adverb

— such

where, why,

how

— may introduce a

direct question

the verb.

An

interrogative adverb

may

as

when,

and modify

introduce a phrase or

a subordinate clause asking or implying an indirect question and modifying the verb. (For an interrogative adverb introducing an indirect question see under Noun clauses, pp. 139 ff.)

When as

did you leave? [When, introducing the direct question, functions an adverbial modifier of did leave. (The sentence for analysis reads

"You

Why

did leave when.")]

couldn't he do

it

for himself?

[Why, introducing the direct ques-

an adverbial modifier of could do. (The sentence for analysis reads "He couldn't do it for himself why." Why = "for what reason.")] do not know how to tie a bow tie. [How, introducing the infinitive (The sentence for to tie, functions as an adverbial modifier of to tie. How = "in analysis reads "I do not know to tie a bow tie how." what manner.")] tion, functions as

I

b.

Relative.

may modify and join is

A

relative

adverb

— such

as when, where,

why

—

a verb in a subordinate adjectival clause (see p. 146)

main clause that That is, a relative

this clause to the substantive in the

the antecedent of the relative adverb.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

88

may

an adverb and as a connective at the An indefinite relative adverb (that is, a relative same time. adverb that has no antecedent expressed in its sentence) may modify a verb in a subordinate noun clause and join this subordinate clause to the verb in the main clause of which the subadverb

serve both as

1

ordinate clause

and join

the direct object (see pp. 141

may modify

adverb

relative

clause

is

this

An indefinite

f.).

a verb in a subordinate adverbial

subordinate clause to the verb in the main (See Note, p. 141,

clause that the subordinate clause modifies.

between a relative adverb and an

for the difference

indefinite

relative adverb.) This

is

I

I

a time when we cannot dodge the

[When modifies can

issue.

main clause as its antecedent.] do not know the place where you work. [Where modifies work and has place in the main clause as its antecedent.] [When modifies am summoned but has shall go when I am summoned. dodge

and has

time in the

no antecedent expressed in

its

sentence; the subordinate clause when

I am summoned functions as an adverbial modifier of c.

A pair of related

Correlatives.

not so ... as, the

.

.

the,

.

when

.

.

.

— such

adverbs

then,

where

shall go.]

.

.

.

there

as as

.

— are

.

.

as,

called

The one that appears in the main clause and contains the antecedent idea functions as a simple adverb; the one that appears in the subordinate clause and contains the

correlative adverbs.

relative idea functions as

a relative adverb.

(See also pp. 156 For diagrams of correlative adverbs see pp. 341 f. and 365.)

He

is

as old as I

am.

[That

is,

"He

as functions as a relative adverb,

is

as old as I

am

modifying am

old."

(old)

The second

and joining the

subordinate clause to the main clause as an adverbial modifier of

(The sentence might be expanded to read "He to which degree I am old.")]

is

f.

as.

old to that degree

am

not so sure as I was yesterday. [That is, "I am not so sure as I was sure yesterday." As functions as a relative adverb, modifying was (sure) and joining the subordinate clause to the main clause as a modifier of so, which in turn is an adverbial modifier of the adjective sure, the subjective complement of the verb am. (The sentence might be expanded to read "I am not sure to the degree to which degree I was sure yesterday.")] When you signal, then I shall enter. [When functions as a relative ad-

I

a

For discarding the term "conjunctive adverb" see footnote,

p. 90.

D.

ADVERBS

89

verb, modifying signal

and joining its clause to the main clause then I which then functions as a simple adverbial modifier of shall enter) as an adverbial modifier of shall enter. (The sentence might be expanded to read "I shall enter at that moment at which moment you signal.")] shall enter (in

The

correlative adverbs the

.

article the) function frequently in

the merrier," which involve the is

an

.

.

the

(often mistaken for the

such constructions as "the more ellipsis (see pp. 130 ff.). This

an old English adverb used correlatively

degree," "in that degree."

The

(See also pp. 108

to f.

mean

"in which

and 156

f.)

we walk the sooner we shall arrive. [The meaning is this: "In which degree we walk faster in that degree we shall arrive sooner." The first the functions as a relative adverb modifying faster and joins its clause to the main clause the sooner we shall arrive, in which the second faster

the

functions as a simple adverbial modifier of the adverb sooner.]

The more

the merrier.

[The sentence for analysis reads "The more

people there are the merrier

it

will be."

which degree there are more people

The

first the is

second

the is

The meaning

in that degree

it

will

is

this:

a relative adverb modifying the adjective more.

a simple adverbial modifier of the adjective

The sooner he comes the better. [The "The sooner he comes the better it will

"In

be merrier."

The

merrier.']

sentence for analysis reads be."

The meaning

is this:

"In which degree he comes sooner in that degree it will be better." The first the is a relative adverb modifying the adverb sooner. The second is

the is

d. Independent.

may that

a simple adverbial modifier of the adjective

a subjective

complement

of the understood verb will

better,

which

be.]

Adverbs (words, phrases, or even whole

clauses)

be used independently or absolutely (see also pp. 120 ff.); they may be used without any grammatical function in

is,

the statements in

which they appear.

There are three ways to make an outline. [There is an adverb that here functions as an expletive (see pp. 126 f.); that is, it has no grammatical function in the sentence "Three ways to make an outline are" (in which are = "exist"; see pp. 47 f.). Compare, however, "You will find your friend in there," in which there is an adverb functioning as a noun, the object of the preposition

In

short,

phrase

absolute sense; that

we

in.

(See also pp. 9 Iff.)]

we have come to the end of our rope. [The prepositional in short may be regarded as an adverbial phrase used in an

have come

to the

is, it

has no grammatical function in the statement

end of our

rope.]

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

90

He

know what he

doesn't

[The subordinate clause used absolutely; that

ment

The

he doesn't

is

if

is, it

know what he

talking about,

if I

I may speak my mind

speak my mind. an adverbial clause

may is

has no grammatical function in the stateis

talking about.]

colloquial now, well, why,

and the affirmative yes and the

negative no are to be regarded as adverbs used absolutely or

independently. Well, you

may

you may be

No,

I

don't

[Well

be right.

absolutely; that

it

is,

may

be regarded as an adverb used

has no grammatical function in the sentence

right.]

know him.

[The negative no

may

be regarded as an adverb

used absolutely or independendy.]

Why,

I

didn't

know you

at

first.

[Why may be regarded

as

an adverb

used absolutely or independently.] e.

Transitional.

Certain elements like

ertheless, consequently, hence,

therefore, however, so, nev-

are used to effect a logical transition,

rather than a grammatical connection, between independent

between whole sentences, or even between whole paragraphs or sections of a discourse. Effecting as they do a rhetori1 cal transition, they may be called transitional adverbs and so clauses,

be regarded as adverbs used absolutely or independently.

(See

also p. 122.) I

don't believe

it

will

work.

[Nevertheless functions as

Nevertheless, I am willing to give it a trial. a transitional adverb, an adverb used ab-

solutely or independently to effect a rhetorical transition, not a

gram-

matical connection, between the two sentences.]

She controls the money;

therefore,

he

is

powerless to

resist.

[Therefore

functions as a transitional adverb, an adverb used independently or absolutely to effect a logical, not a grammatical, relationship between

the two independent clauses.] Note i. The distinction between trpjisitional adverbs and coordinating and subordinating conjunctions is highly important in the matter of correct punctuation. Whereas a comma may possibly be the correct punctuation

between statements joined by coordinating or subordinating conjunctions, x The term "conjunctive adverb" has been discarded in this book because of its ambiguity. Some grammarians have used the term "conjunctive adverb" to designate what we have just termed "transitional adverb." But other grammarians have used the same term to designate a relative adverb like where or when that functions as an adverb in a subordinate clause and joins its clause to a main clause (see pp. 1 1 1 f.). Hence, it seems best not to use the term "conjunctive adverb" at all.

ADVERBS

D. nothing

than a semicolon

less

which appears a

is

ever correct between statements between

transitional adverb.

transitional adverb

91

In other words, the presence of a

between two statements does not

affect the

punctuation

demanded. For the punctuation is precisely the same as it would be were no transitional adverb present. Further, transitional adverbs, being absolute elements, are usually set off with commas.

You have had

lots of experience; therefore, you act as our scorekeeper. a transitional adverb, not a coordinating conjunction; hence, nothing less than a semicolon will suffice.]

[Therefore

is

It is raining,

but

we

comma

hence, a

will

is

go anyway.

[But

a coordinating conjunction;

is

A semicolon would also

correct.

be correct.]

Inasmuch as a sentence is a complete grammatical entity, it Note 2. cannot be thought of as being joined grammatically to another sentence, although, of course, it may be joined to another sentence rhetorically. Hence, and, but, for, nor, at the beginning of a sentence may rightly be regarded as transitional adverbs rather than as conjunctions. For they effect a rhetorical rather than a grammatical connection. But we

It is raining.

will

go anyway.

[But

may

tional adverb, effecting a rhetorical transition

pendent sentences.] is a good gardener.

Tim

And

that's not all.

be regarded as a oransibetween the two inde-

[And

may

transitional adverb, effecting a rhetorical transition

be regarded as a between the two

independent sentences.]

Other Parts of Speech and Adverbs. Various relationmay exist among adverbs and other parts of speech. a. Noun. A noun (often roughly equivalent to a prepositional phrase) may function as an adverb and modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. 4.

ships

1

I

am

going home.

fier of

He

am

[Home, a noun, here functions as an adverbial modi-

The meaning

going.

six feet tall.

is

[Feet,

of the adjective

ing

= "He

My sister will

tall

is tall

a.

I

am

going to home."]

(a subjective

complement

after

The mean-

is).

to the extent of six feet."]

arrive Saturday.

[Saturday,

a noun, here functions as an

The meaning

arrive.

= "My

sister will

on Saturday."]

am going hunting. as

"I

noun, here functions as an adverbial modifier

adverbial modifier of will arrive

=

[Hunting

may

an adverbial modifier of am

on hunting."

The water

is

be regarded as a gerund functioning

going.

The meaning

=

"I

am

going

(See also p. 53, footnote.)]

boiling hot.

[Boiling,

a gerund, here functions as an ad-

verbial modifier of hot (a subjective

complement

after

is).

In

this

(See also

p. 264.)]

*Such a noun is sometimes called an "adverbial objective." been called a "noun functioning as an adverb."

book

it

has

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

92

The package

[Day, a noun, modified arrived the day before yesterday. by the prepositional phrase before yesterday, functions as an adverbial modifier of arrived. The meaning = "The package arrived on the day

before yesterday."]

He

arrived a

month

before Easter.

[Month, a noun, here functions as an

adverbial modifier of the prepositional phrase before Easter.

meaning

=

We struggled

"He all

The

arrived before Easter by a month."]

day

[Day, a noun, modified by the adjective

long.

here functions as an adverbial modifier of long (which in turn

adverb modifying

The meaning

struggled).

is

all,

an

= "We struggled long to

the extent of a day."]

He

ordered a steak an inch thick.

[Inch,

a noun, here functions as an

adverbial modifier of the adjective thick (which in turn

modifier of the

noun

The

steak).

meaning = "He

is

an

adjectival

ordered a steak

an inch."] She is six years older. [Years, a noun, here functions as an adverbial modifier of the adjective older (which is a subjective complement after thick to the extent of

The meaning

is).

Admission

= "She

costs fifty cents.

is

older to the extent of six years."]

[Cents,

verbial modifier of the verb

costs.

a noun, here functions as an ad-

The meaning

= "Admission

costs

to the extent of fifty cents."]

Your

[Dollars, a noun, here functions bicycle is not worth ten dollars. an adverbial modifier of the adjective worth (which is a subjective complement after is). The meaning = "Your bicycle is not worth to

as

the extent of ten dollars."]

Sugar now costs six cents a pound. [Cents, a noun, here functions as a adverb modifying costs. Pound, a noun, also functions as an adverbial The meaning = "Sugar now costs to the extent modifier of costs. of six cents for a pound."] The average person can read fifty pages an hour. [Hour, a noun, here The meaning = "The functions as an adverbial modifier of can read. average person can read

We

fifty

pages to the hour."]

should have arrived an hour sooner.

as

an adverbial modifier of sooner (which

The meaning

have arrived).

= "We

[Hour, a noun, here functions is

an adverb modifying

should

should have arrived sooner by

an hour."]

Nouns

Note.

Father works

in the plural

nights.

may

function as adverbs.

Sundays he goes to church.

the." For the correlative adverbs the ... the b. ""The sometimes mistaken for the article the, see p. 88. Prepositions and adverbs are very c. Prepositions and adverbs. In fact, many words' may be used as adverbs closely related. .

.

.

D.

ADVERBS

93

in one sense and as prepositions in another.

ence between them

is

The

basic differ-

the fact that the preposition will have an

expressed (or easily supplied) object, whereas the adverb will not. (See also p. 102.) Adverb

Come

Preposition

Come

in.

Tear down the I'll

Let's

look up the word.

Note

"He

fence.

That down

i.

tore

down

the morning.

walk down the

She ran up the

street.

steps.

an adverb and not a preposition governing fence

is

the fence"

down can be changed

in

is

in

seen in the fact that the position of the adverb

— "He tore the fence down," — a thing which would a preposition — "He poured the liquid down the

not be true where down

is

drain."

In such constructions as "He has nothing to hope for," "I have be thankful for," "That is nothing to be proud of," for and of may most simply be treated as adverbs modifying the infinitives. Or they may be regarded as prepositions governing an understood pronoun which "He has nothing for which to hope," "I have much for which to be thankful," "That is nothing of which to be proud." Note

much

2.

to

—

d.

Adverbs

Adverb as a noun.

The man

in there

is

may function as nouns,

(See also pp. 98

as objects of prepositions.

my

uncle.

[There,

noun, the object of the preposition I shall

do

it

at once.

of the preposition I think

we

shall find

[Once,

especially

f.)

an adverb,

functions as a

in.]

an adverb, functions

as a noun, the object

at.] it

in here.

the object of the preposition

[Here,

an adverb, functions

as a noun,

in.]

He has had many ups and downs.

[The adverbs up and down, pluralized,

function as nouns, direct objects of the verb has had.] I

e.

do not know the how or the why of his departure. and why function as the direct object of do know.]

Adverb as an

jective.

adjective.

An

adverb

may

[The adverbs how

function as an ad-

(See also p. 81.)

These pictures

illustrate the before

verbs before and

after

and

after appearances.

[The ad-

function here as adjectival modifiers of ap-

pearances.]

Can you make an 5.

a

down payment?

[The adverb down here functions as

adjectival modifier of payment.]

Adverb

+

Verb Combinations.

See pp. 45

f.

.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

94

EXERCISES ADVERBS I.

state

Indicate what expressions you regard as adverbial in function and

whether the expression

Make

clause.

clear

adverbial expression

what is

a single word, a phrase, or a whole

is

the adverbial expression modifies.

a phrase indicate whether

A

If the

a prepositional,

(Adverbial clauses will be exemplified

participial, or infinitive phrase.

in detail later; see pp. 151

it is

ff.)

properly executed diagram will meet these demands fully. I

1

2.

The game fishermen

.

began to complain bitterly to their congressmen about the expanding distance between bites. B^selecting a site of high altitude, above the denser and more disturbed portion of the atmosphere, in a region but little affected by clouds and in certain localities

we may greatly reduce these difficulties. When Lord Rosse built his six-footer reflector

storms, 3.

in the forties of the- last

century he was compelled to work, on his country estate without the aid of

and machinists, or the methods and machine

skilled opticians

modern 4.

He advanced

5.

Fields lush with cotton are enlivened

6.

One

menacingly^ toward the smaller man.

8.

The

9. 1 0. 1 1

12. 13.

14.

grouped under giant red-oak

branches reached up to the

Its

by bright-turbaned black women.

straggling rain-rutted fork runs* along the edge of a field to a cluster of

low, weather-beaten houses 7.

tools of

engineering.

trees.

sky.

seem to grope deep downc^into the earth. was painfully conscious bf his appearance. The music came to an end in an orgy of mathematical merrymaking. On the table were to be seen a plate, a teapot, and a loaf of bread. To swing the deal we need your help very much. After fixing the print wash it in running water for an hour. The floor was of bare boards, which Jane swept twice a day, and down the center ran the great square beam that was the keelson and foundation of roots

Illidge

1

the barge. 15.

The second

blast roared off,

spurted into the

air.

and the boulder was a

scattering of rocks

Gravel came flying up as far as where Waits and

Fayre were standing. 16.

What

the English academic discipline lacks in extent

is

made up

in thor-

oughness. 17.

An

run like a factory an art school. might go on at length with

art school

run

is

scarcely

more

ridiculous than a factory

like

18.

One

19.

On

the other

this

romantic type of stream piracy.

hand he contained within him a

depth as to be practically bottomless.

reservoir of learning of such

.

EXERCISES

95

is the business of every American professor to chase his students along over a prescribed course at a prescribed pace like a flock of sheep.

20. It

21.

Long

after Burke lamented the passing of the age of chivalry in Europe the South maintained the outward form and inward spirit of chivalry in the whole structure of ante-bellum social life; and when that was shattered, the chivalric attitude toward the gentler sex was maintained as a precious

survival.

Today

22.

processes the refractory material of yesterday's heresy into the

standard tissue of orthodoxy; and tomorrow reprocesses

its

remnants into

the shoddy of the commonplace. 23. In citing the

American man's

traditional easiness with

may have had everything on its and may still have something on its side. opinion

Everybody speaks quite

24.

women European

side in the days of

freely of the relation

Daisy Miller

between ownership and

rulership.

Women

25.

are able to

as well

any adverbs you

Classify

"'II.

do

with

all

these activities as

men can

do.

find in the following sentences as inter-

rogative, relative, correlative, independent, or transitional.

A

properly executed diagram will meet these demands Jul Iv.

1

Where

are

2.

At any

rate,

3.

I

have so

4.

I

think the time has

5.

She said that the

6.

There

7.

In

8.

He

9.

I

10. 11.

is

you going? he

little

harmless.

is

I must make the most of what I have. come when we must take stock of things. more she saw of men the better she liked dogs.

time; hence,

always one right answer to a question.

brief, I refuse to

so old that

Confidentially, he hasn't a leg to stand on. I

wish

I

could find the place where Shakespeare says something about a

candle throwing a

light.

13.

Where he I downed

14.

Please ask where

15.

That, in a nut-shell,

16.

The deeper

12.

be a martyr.

he does not remember when he was ever young. do not know how he came by such a nickname. is

takes his stand there

I

take mine.

the liquid quickly; nevertheless, I

I

we can is

know

I

made

a

wry

face.

find a garage.

the explanation that he gave me.

go into the matter, the greater

is

my bewilderment at his sheer

stupidity. 17. 18.

19.

20.

That was a time when even Lincoln was discouraged. America is not so dependent on England's navy as she was Why did this have to happen to me? Where can we buy stationery like yours?

21. In a word, 22. I

we need your

prior to 1940.

help.

think you are a simpleton,

if I

may

speak

my mind

boldly.

FUACTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

96

You

23.

are older than

am; hence, you

I

better

do the talking when we get

there.

There

24.

is

one novel of Jane Austen's that

I

reread whenever

I

am

low in

spirit.

25.

I

hurried over here, because

I felt

that haste

now might mean

dollars saved

later on. 26. I 27. 28.

29. I 30.

must ask you how I am to make such a boat wondered when you would arrive.

We We

game

will start the

am

as soon as our pitcher arrives.

not so sure as you seem to be that everything will be

With the people shall

of the

United

all right.

on what

States, therefore, rest the decisions

be done about the Missouri basin

E. 1.

for twenty-five dollars.

A

PREPOSITIONS 1

and a Prepositional Phrase.

Preposition

A

preposi-

an expression governing a substantive in the objective case and joining this substantive to some other element in the tion

is

sentence.

The

substantive governed

object of the preposition. jective case.

If

it is

by the preposition

This substantive

is

is

said to be the

always in the ob-

compounded, each element of the compound

must be

The

in the objective case. (See also pp. 203 f.) preposition and the substantive that it governs and

all

the modifiers of either the preposition or the substantive (or of the whole prepositional phrase) constitute a prepositional phrase.

The

idea

came

to

me

suddenly.

[The preposition

to

governs me, a sub-

to me functions an adverbial modifier of came.] It is a secret between my sister and me. [Not: It is a secret between my sister and I. For the preposition between governs both sister and me, and both must be in the objective case. The prepositional phrase between my sister and me functions as an adjectival modifier of secret.] He registered just at the time when the call went out for men who would volunteer for service. [Just at the time when the call went out for men who

stantive in the objective case; the prepositional phrase

as

would

volunteer for service constitutes

object of

for men; for

at, is

and men

service.

a prepositional phrase;

modified by the adjectival clause when is

{Just

time,

the

the call

went out

modified by the adjectival clause who would

volunteer

is

an adverb modifying the whole prepositional

phrase; see p. 87.)] 'For forms and usages see pp. 290

ft".

E.

PREPOSITIONS

97

2. Phrasal Preposition. A preposition may be composed of two or more words in accordance with, on account of, because of, as to, in order to. Such prepositions are called phrasal prepositions. (See p. 290 for a list.)

—

He

paid ten dollars in accordance with our understanding.

cordance with

is

[In ac-

a phrasal preposition governing the substantive under-

whole prepositional phrase in accordance with our underan adverbial modifier of paid.] The shed was made out of old packing cases and beaverboard. [Out of is a phrasal preposition governing the substantives cases and beaverboard, the whole prepositional phrase out of old packing cases and beaverboard standing, the

standing functioning as

functioning as an adverbial modifier of was made.]

3.

Object of a Preposition. Various parts of speech, as well and even whole clauses, may function as objects of

as phrases

prepositions.

A substantive

a. Substantive.

(noun or pronoun)

may function

as the object of a preposition.

He

drove from Cincinnati to Denver in two days.

Cincinnati

Denver

This

is

is

the object of the preposition

a present from her and me.

is

[The substantive

and the

the object of the preposition from,

substantive

to.]

[The pronouns

her

and me are ob-

jects of the preposition from.] b.

Substantive in the possessive case.

noun) in the possessive case

A substantive

may function

(noun or pro-

as the object of a prep-

(Usually analysis will show that the substantive which

osition.

the possessive really modifies has been omitted pp. 130

ellipsis.)

(See

See also p. 82.)

ff.

You

by

will find

it

at Marshall Field's.

[That

is,

"You

will find it at

Marshall Field's store."] I

am

going to

sister's

home

my

sister's for

Christmas.

[That

is,

"I

am

going to

my

for Christmas."]

In the case of the so-called "double genitive" (see p. 291) in which is shown by means of an q/-phrase and a possessive at the same time, the possessive is to be regarded as a substantive functioning as the object of the preposition rather than as a modifier of some understood substantive. Note.

possession

Meton

is

a friend of mine.

object of the preposition

She

is

[Mine, a possessive pronoun, functions as the of.]

my

a possessive noun, (Note the slight difference an acquaintance of my mother.")]

an acquaintance of

mother's.

functions as the object of the preposition in

meaning

of

"She

is

[Mother's,

of.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

98 c.

Inasmuch as an adjective may function as a pp. 81 f.), an adjective may function as the object of

Adjective.

noun

(see

a preposition. She

a friend of the sick, the needy, and the blind.

is

sick, needy,

and

blind function as

(Or they may be regarded

[The adjectives

nouns, objects of the preposition

of.

as modifiers of some understood substantive

like "persons.")]

My

luck

may

going from bad to worse.

is

[The adjectives bad and worse

be regarded as functioning as nouns, objects of the prepositions

from and

to.]

Inasmuch as an adverb may at times function as a substantive (see p. 93), an adverb may function as the object of d. Adverb.

a preposition. It

measures exactly

six feet

from here to

[The adverbs

there.

and and to

here

function as substantives, objects of the prepositions from

there

respectively.]

e.

Inasmuch

Gerund.

tive (see p. 54),

as a

a gerund

gerund

may

may

function as a substan-

function as the object of a prep-

osition.

He

used an indelible pencil in signing the check.

(with

its

[The gerund

signing

object check) functions as the object of the preposition

in.]

may

function as a subInasmuch as an infinitive f. Infinitive. stantive, an infinitive may function as the object of a preposition.

The

sign

We

to is

often omitted.

can do nothing but wait.

The

wait."

[That

is,

"We

can do nothing but to

infinitive (to) wait functions as the object of the prep-

osition but.]

Let's talk

how

to

about

how

to spend our vacation.

[The

infinitive

phrase

spend our vacation functions as the object of the preposition about.]

g. Prepositional phrase.

Inasmuch

as

a prepositional phrase

may function at times as a substantive (see p. 101), a prepositional phrase may function as the object of a preposition. He moved

to within a few feet of

me.

[The prepositional phrase within

a few feet of me functions as the object of the preposition

The dog came out from under

the shed.

to.]

[The prepositional phrase

under the shed functions as the object of the preposition from.

an adverb modifying

came.)]

(Oat

is

E.

Inasmuch

h. Clause.

(see pp. 138

ff.),

PREPOSITIONS

as a clause

a clause

may

99

may function

as a substantive

function as the object of a prep-

osition. I

am

satisfied

you

are functions as the object of the preposition with.]

Give

it

to

with whatever you

whoever

willing to take

is

ever is willing to take i.

He

is

whom This

is

[The subordinate clause who-

I

man I am acquainted am acquainted with."]

with.

the house I delivered the package

house which

I

to.]

object of a preposition, clearly un-

often omitted by ellipsis (see pp. 130

not a

is

it.

functions as the object of the preposition

The

Object understood.

derstood,

it

[The subordinate clause whatever

are.

[That

is,

ff.).

"He

[That

to.

is

not a

'This

is,

man

is

the

delivered the package to."]

j. Position of object.

The

object of a preposition usually follows

But when a relative pronoun or an interrogative pronoun is the object, the relative or interrogative pronoun may come first and the preposition be left to the (For the problem of case involved see end of the statement. Note the examples immediately above. (For a 202 ff.) pp. discussion of prepositions coming at the end of statements see the preposition immediately.

pp. 296 I

f.)

am

man whom she is engaged to. [The relapronoun whom, introducing the subordinate adjectival clause

not impressed with the

tive

whom

she is engaged

The new mechanic interrogative is for

to, is

the object of the preposition

does not seem to

pronoun

know what

what, introducing the

(the object of the infinitive

to

know),

is

to.]

that tool

noun

is for.

[The

clause what that

tool

the object of the preposi-

tion for.]

Phrase Modified by an Adverb. phrase may be modified by an adverb. 1

4. Prepositional

ositional

He worked

far into the night.

tional phrase into the night, the

A prep-

[The adverb far modifies the preposiwhole prepositional phrase far into the

an adverbial modifier of worked.] my office. [The adverb just modifies the prepositional phrase to the right, the whole prepositional phrase just to the right functioning as an adjectival modifier of door.] Crane's Bond is made wholly from new white rags. [The adverb wholly night functioning as

The door just

to the right leads to

l A few grammarians construe such an adverb as a modifier of the preposition alone rather than of the whole prepositional phrase.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

100

modifies the prepositional phrase from new white rags, the whole prepositional phrase wholly from

modifier of

is

new white rags functioning as an adverbial

made.]

A prepositional Functions of Prepositional Phrases. phrase may function as an adjective, as an adverb, and occaA prepositional phrase may also be sionally as a substantive. used as an independent or absolute element (see pp. 120 ff.). 5.

a. Adjectival modifier 1.

As a simple

Simple modifier.

adjectival modifier of a sub-

stantive a prepositional phrase will usually follow the substantive modified.

(See also pp. 77

f.)

The girl in the green dress is our cheer-leader. in the green dress

I like

a

man

[The prepositional phrase

functions as an adjectival modifier of

with a grin from ear to ear.

with a grin from ear

to ear

girl.]

[The prepositional phrase

functions as an adjectival modifier of man

(the prepositional phrase from ear

to ear

functioning as an adjectival

modifier of grin).]

2.

Subjective

phrase

may

or

objective

complement.

A

prepositional

function as a subjective complement or an objective

complement, although it is not always easy to declare that such a complement is primarily adjectival rather than substantive in (See also pp. 79

function.

My watch is of solid gold. tions as a subjective

He

is

f.)

[The prepositional phrase of solid gold func-

complement

completely without friends.

of

is.]

[The prepositional phrase without

complement of is.] no consequence. [The prepositional phrase of no consequence functions as an objective complement referring to testimony and completing the predication begun by the verb consider.] He thinks this book to be of great value. [The prepositional phrase of great value functions as a subjective complement of the infinitive to be.] friends functions as a subjective

I consider his testimony of

b.

Adverbial modifier.

A

prepositional phrase

may

function as

an adverbial modifier of a verb or of an adjective, or rarely of an adverb. 1. Modifying a verb. A prepositional phrase functioning as an adverbial modifier of a verb may occur at the beginning of a statement or it may follow the verb. (See also p. 86, Note.)

PREPOSITIONS

E. In the morning

I

101

and two slices and two

take only a cup of coffee

take in the morning only a cup of coffee

I

cup of coffee and two

[Or] I take only a

[The prepositional phrase adverbial modifier of

slices

of toast. slices

[Or]

of toast.

of toast in the morning.

morning in each case functions as

in the

an

take.]

In choosing a golf partner you need to consider several matters. [Or] You need to consider, in choosing a golf partner, several matters.

You need

[Or]

to consider several matters in choosing

[The prepositional phrase

in choosing a golf partner in

an adverbial modifier

tions as

of

a golf partner.

each case func-

to consider.]

Modifying an adjective. A prepositional phrase functioning as a modifier of an adjective will normally follow the adjec2.

tive modified.

He

[The prepositional phrase of himself functions

seems sure of himself.

as

He

an adverbial modifier of the adjective

is

sure.]

not tactful in handling subordinates.

[The prepositional phrase

functions as an adverbial modifier of the ad-

in handling subordinates

jective tactful.]

3.

Modifying an adverb.

A

prepositional phrase

casionally function as a modifier of

He swung phrase

which

the boat as far to the right as he could.

to the right

may

Or, far

in turn modifies swung.

be interpreted as an ad-

to the right.

(See p. 87.)]

[The prepositional phrase for a functions as an adverbial modifier of the adverb quickly.]

Occasionally a prepositional phrase

Substantive.

tion as a substantive. osition

[The prepositional

catch on quickly for a beginner.

beginner c.

oc-

functions as an adverbial modifier of the adverb far,

verb modifying the prepositional phrase

You

may

an adverb.

It

(see p. 98).

may function may function

It

may

func-

as the object of a prepas

the subject or the

complement of a verb. The man a

tree

stepped from behind a

tree.

[The prepositional phrase behind

functions as the object of the preposition from.]

From Monday to Saturday is a long stretch. from Monday and I

to

consider right at noon very inconvenient. at noon

(modified by the adverb

consider (inconvenient

The

best time

is

plement of

is.]

right)

is.]

[The prepositional phrase

functions as the direct object of

being an objective complement).]

just before breakfast.

breakfast (modified

[The prepositional phrases

Saturday function as the subject of

by the adverb

[The prepositional phrase

before

functions as a subjective

com-

just)

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

102 d.

A

Absolute constructions.

prepositional phrase

may

—

be used

that is, as an absolute or independent element (see p. 122) without any grammatical function in the statement in which it

appears.

By

means,

all

means

statement

At any

let's

have

all

is, it

all

has no grammatical function in the

have all the facts.]

let's

rate, I

[The prepositional phrase by

the facts.

used absolutely; that

is

have

my

[The prepositional pnrase

health.

at any rate is

used absolutely.]

We

have, on the whole,

phrase on the whole

may

little

complain about.

to

[The prepositional

used absolutely.]

and Other Parts

Prepositions

6.

is

of Speech.

Prepositions

serve as other parts of speech, especially as adverbs.

(See

also p. 92.)

Often the same word may serve as a preposition in one situation and as an adverb in another (see a.

Adverb or preposition.

pp. 92

The

f.).

basic distinction

is

the fact that the preposition

an object, expressed or clearly understood whereas an adverb does not. takes

(see p. 96),

Preposition

Adverb

My dog walked behind me. We walked up the drive.

dog behind. Hold your head up. I left

my

At times the preposition-like word, with a noun following it, is actually an adverb, the noun being the object of the preceding verb and not of the prepositionb.

like

Adverb rather than preposition.

word. I'll

(See also p. 45.)

look

up the word.

word; word

is

verb combinations, shifted

They

—

tore

"I'll

down

governing see verb

down

is

p. 45).

look the

an adverb, not a preposition governing

is

[Down

is

see verb

+ ad-

an adverb, not a preposition

the direct object of

adverb combinations,

be shifted

+ up;

Note that the position of up may be

word up."]

the old bridge.

bridge; bridge

+

may

[Up

the direct object of look (or of look

tore (or

of

tore

+ down;

Note that the position of the old bridge down."]

p. 45).

— "They tore

Like, unlike, near, and next may, "Like" "near" "next." for convenience, be regarded as prepositions governing the sub(Actually like and unlike are adjecstantives that follow them. c.

E.

PREPOSITIONS

103

and near and next are adverbs, and the substantives that follow them are objects of "to" or "unto" understood.) tives

He

is

unlike his brother in every respect.

preposition governing

[Unlike

may

(Actually unlike

brother.

be regarded as a

an adjective func-

is

complement after is; and brother is the object of an understood preposition such as "to." That is, the sentence for analysis might read, "He is unlike to his brother in every respect."] He acted like a demented man. [Like may be regarded as a preposition governing man. (Actually like is an adverb modifying the verb acted; and man is the object of an understood preposition such as "unto." That is, the sentence for analysis might read, "He acted like unto a demented man.")] tioning as a subjective

The

children played near the porch.

osition governing porch.

[Near

(Actually near

is

may

be regarded as a prep-

an adverb modifying played,

and porch is the object of some understood preposition like "to." That is, the sentence for analysis might read, "The children played near to the porch.")]

He came

nearer the truth than his colleagues did.

regarded as a preposition governing

[Nearer

may

be

an adverb modifying came, and truth is the object of some understood That is, the sentence for analysis might read, preposition like "to."

"He came

(Actually nearer

truth.

is

nearer to the truth than his colleagues did.")]

Some grammarians now treat worth in such a sentence as "His worth ten dollars" as a preposition governing the substantive dollars. The usual explanation is, of course, that worth is an adjective functioning as a subjective complement and that dollars (with its modifier ten) is a noun (See also p. 91.) functioning as an adverbial modifier of worth. Note.

hat

is

d. Preposition

tion as

an

an

as an adjective.

A

preposition

may

at times func-

adjectival modifier of a substantive as the result of

ellipsis (see

pp. 130

ff.).

The basement below is used

as a

playroom.

[Below

may be regarded as a

preposition functioning as an adjectival modifier of basement.

floor

is

"below e.

"For."

(Actually

—

this floor" that modifies basement.)]

For often functions as an expletive introducing an (See also pp. 127

infinitive clause.

The plan

—

"The basement below this an understood substantive and it is the whole prepositional phrase used as a playroom"

below governs

is

for

me

f.)

to attract his attention.

[For functions here as

an

expletive (rather than as a preposition) introducing the infinitive

clause me

to attract his attention.]

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

104

Certain forms, originally partipreposition. f. Participle as a such forms ciples, are now used with the force of prepositions

—

(See also Note

as concerning, excepting, regarding.

2, p. 257.)

[Concerning may be say just one thing concerning your proposal. "about").] regarded as a preposition governing proposal (concerning saw everybody excepting the executive secretary. [Excepting may be

I shall

=

I

regarded as a preposition governing

= "except"

secretary (excepting

or

"but").]

Retained Preposition. When a statement containing a preposition that is closely welded to a verb (see Verb + prep7.

osition combinations, p. 46)

object of the preposition

and the preposition

is

is

turned into the passive voice, the

becomes the subject of the passive verb

"retained." 1

His offer ought not be sneezed at in

the active construction

at.

[Offer,

the object of the preposition

— "We ought not sneeze

at his offer"

has become the subject of the passive verb and the preposition

at

—

has

been retained.]

She

is

made

being

fun

active construction

[She,

of.

the object of the preposition of in the

— "They are making fun of her" — has become

the subject of the passive verb

and the preposition

of has

been

retained.]

+ Verb

8.

Preposition

9.

Preposition at the

Combinations.

End

See

p. 46.

of a Statement.

See

p. 296.

EXERCISES PREPOSITIONS In the following sentences point out

Make

the object has been omitted by

struction of the prepositional phrase

prepositional phrase

A

looked at

A 1

that

is,

state

whether the

adjectival, adverbial, or substantive in function.

him and thought

ability to look 2.

is

itself;

Supply the ob-

Make clear the con-

ellipsis.

properly executed diagram will meet these demands fully.

I

1.

the prepositional phrases.

clear the nature of the object of the preposition.

when

ject

all

friend of

me

mine

is

Some grammarians

passive construction.

I

discovered a certain evasiveness in his in-

in the eye.

not necessarily a friend of yours.

an adverb in the and prepositions really are.

prefer to call this "retained" preposition

Again we

see

how

close adverbs

CONJUNCTIONS

F.

The

^3.

rain

on the rich and poor

falls

alike.

After scrubbing the floor with gasoline put on

4.

105

it

a good coat of

wax and

polish \vith a weighted brush.

George does nothing but work from morning

(--5.

7.

He is a man I have formed a partnership You are the one I am depending on.

8.

I

9.

A

6. •

don't like to be trifled with.

former law-partner of Father's wanted to see me early in the morning. here to there is a matter of ten or eleven inches.

From

10.

We waited to within five minutes of train time. Up to within a year of his graduation he had made no particular impression

11.

-

to night.

with.

12.

on anybody. went to

We

^13.

talk

about what

we

should do with those

who had

paid no

attention to our letters. 1

14.

We

15.

He

16.

That

17.

In deciding the matter

have done everything except notify the police. very shy in manner but resolute in conduct.

is

is

the

man whom

talked to last night.

I

we had

to take into

account

his

wide range of

experience.

.

18.

He

19.

At

20.

Come

21. 22.

The curtain went up at precisely eight-fifteen. The people around New York have their living

23.

About

offered a reward for the return of his favorite pen. all events,

we have

cleared out one nest of spies.

out from behind that door.

the middle of

May

is

usually in

New

York.

the best time to plant sweet corn.

have a house for sale, but I must sell it for cash. proved himself a man of unflinching courage. 26. Although he is quick in thought, he is slow in action. 24. I

25.

He

27.

Her lovely tion of a

28. I

bracelet of silver coins neatly linked together attracted the atten>

man who

have not been

in

buys for Marshall

29.

He

30.

Because of bad roads

31.

It

enjoys everything about college except studying.

came

to just

it

took us

under ten

32. I spent a trifle over six

conjunction

is

six

hours to

make

the trip.

dollars.

days in the hospital.

F.

A

Field's.

Boston since before Christmas.

CONJUNCTIONS 1

a word (or word-group) used to connect

words, phrases, or clauses.

Unlike a preposition, a conjunction

In "She and I does not govern a substantive (see p. 96). walked; but Ned ran" and functions as a conjunction joining the x

For forms and usages see pp. 298

ff.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

106

pronouns she and two main clauses walked but him"

/; but

functions as a conjunction joining the

and I walked and Ned

ran.

Bui in "All

but functions as a preposition

governing the

she

substantive him in the objective case.

(See also pp. 295

For diagrams of connectives see pp. 336

f.)

ff.

There are two principal classes of conjunctions, called coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions. Both coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions may be used in pairs, in which case they are called correlative 1.

Kinds.

conjunctions.

A

a. Coordinating.

coordinating conjunction connects words,

same rank and usually of the same kind adjective and adjective, phrase and noun and noun, is, clause and clause.

phrases, or clauses of the

— that

phrase,

The common

coordinating conjunctions are and,

but, or, nor,

and for. 1 You and

have the same ideas. [And is a coordinating conjuncpronouns you and /.] works equally well on alternating current or on direct current. [Or is a coordinating conjunction connecting the two prepositional I

seem

to

tion connecting the

It

phrases on alternating current and on

Man

God

direct current.]

two main clauses man proposes and God disposes.] It makes no difference whether you pay cash or give me your note. [Or connects the parallel parts of the predicate pay cash and give me proposes, but

your

note,

disposes.

[But connects the

of the subordinate clause.

Whether

is

a subordinating con-

junction joining the subordinate clause to the main clause.]

We

have been most generous in our offer, for generosity is our middle name. [For is a coordinating conjunction connecting the two independent clauses of a compound sentence.]

A coordinating conjunction at the beginning of a sentence, express-

Note.

ing as

it

does a logical rather than a grammatical connection with a previous

sentence,

may

be regarded as a transitional adverb (see p. 122), although to call it a detached or transitional conjunction.

some grammarians prefer

1 Some grammarians insist that for is a subordinating conjunction, the argument The principal reason for classing being that for never joins anything but clauses. for as a coordinating conjunction is the fact that for may be used at the beginning Yet is now generally of an independent statement or even of a paragraph. regarded as a coordinating conjunction at least as far as punctuation is concerned. And so seems well on the road to acceptance as such.

—

CONJUNCTIONS

F.

107

He

Nor do I know where you can find him. [Nor may be is not here. regarded as a transitional adverb; or it may be called a detached or transitional conjunction.]

And

That's that.

we come

so

end of our story. [And may be remay be called a detached or transi-

to the

garded as a transitional adverb; or

it

tional conjunction.]

b.

A subordinating

Subordinating.

conjunction connects a sub-

ordinate clause to another clause on which

it

depends; that

is,

a subordinating conjunction connects clauses of unequal gramA simple subordinating conjunction has as its matical rank. sole function the joining of

A

a subordinate clause to the element

on which it depends. is one that not only joins a subordinate clause to the element on which it depends but at the same time functions grammatically in its own clause as a substantive, an adjective, or an adverb. 1 I will

donate

functional conjunction (see below)

five dollars if

you

will.

[If is

a simple subordinating con-

junction introducing the subordinate clause you will and joining

I will

donate

five

main

clause

and

of do {donate) in Note.

to

clause,

It joins the

ing conjunction.

main

it

which it modifies.] [When is a functional subordinatdollars when you do.

will donate in the

at the

its

Such words

own

subordinate clause you do {donate) to the

same time functions clause.

as whereas

and

as

an adverbial modifier

(See p. 112.)] notwithstanding function

sometimes as

Only the subordinating conjunctions, sometimes as transitional adverbs. sense and correct punctuation will make clear their meaning in given senAs a subordinating conjunction whereas has something of the meantences. ing of "although"; as a transitional adverb it has something of the meaning As a subordinating conjunction notwithstanding has of "on the other hand."

something of the meaning of "even though"; something of the meaning of "yet."

He

long opposed

women

as

in the business office,

a transitional adverb

it

has

whereas today he seems to

[Whereas here functions as a subordinating conjunction,

tolerate them.

Note the use of the comma which, used in the sense of "although." with the end period, sets off the subordinate clause as an additive clause.]

The National League leads in fielding. in the sense of

leads in batting; whereas the

American League

[Whereas here functions as a transitional adverb, used

"on the other hand."

Note the use of the semicolon

independent clauses of a compound sentence.] He insisted on enlisting, notwithstanding he had good reason for exemp[Notwithstanding here functions as a subordinating conjunction, tion. to separate the

used in the sense of "even though."] t

See pp. 298

f.

for

lists

of simple

and functional subordinating conjunctions.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

108

He made every effort

to enlist; notwithstanding,

he was rejected

for physi-

[Notwithstanding here functions as a transitional adverb,

cal disability.

used in the sense of "y et -"]

Correlative conjunctions are conjunctions used

Correlatives.

c.

They may be used

in pairs.

that

may

they

is,

be used to coordinate items that are gramThey may also be used with items when one

matically parallel.

item

as coordinating conjunctions;

grammatically subordinate to the other, in which case one

is

main

introduces the

and the other introduces the sub-

clause

(For correlative adverbs see pp. 88 f.) principal coordinating correlatives are not only

ordinate clause.

The

.

also, either

The

.

or, neither

.

.

.

.

.

.

nor, both

.

.

.

.

but

and.

.

principal correlatives used in connection with subordinate

clauses are although since

.

.

.yet

.

The

therefore.

.

(still),

though

.

.

of the pair

first

subordinate clause; the second

is

still

.

(yet), if

.

.

.

then,

used to introduce the

used in the main clause prin-

is

cipally for emphasis.

we hang

Either

and

either

we hang separately. [The correlatives two main clauses we hang together and we hang

together or

or join the

separately.}

Both

New York and San

relatives

[The corFrancisco have excellent harbors. and and join the substantives New York and San

both

Francisco.}

Although there clause there

is

much first

much

you are

right,

then

do not

in his favor, yet I

When .

.

.

the second of the pair of correlatives,

am

I

wrong.

the

[If,

is

first

of the correlatives, in-

right; then,

the second of the

used in the main clause principally for emphasis.]

correlative adverbs such as as

.

.

.

as, not so

.

.

.

as, the

pp. 88 f.) are used with and subordinate clauses, one functions as a simple adverb

the,

main

when

main

.

.

.

then,

where

.

.

.

there (see

and the other functions as a relative adverb the subordinate clause and so to this extent is a functioning

in the in

about him.

clause principally for emphasis.]

troduces the subordinate clause you are pair of correlatives,

feel certain

introduces the subordinate

of the correlatives,

in his favor; yet,

used in the main

is

If

is

the

[Although,

connective. She to

is

clause

(See also p. 153.) as witty as she

is

which degree she

pretty. is

[That

pretty."

adverbial modifier of witty in the

is,

The main

"She

first

is

witty to that degree

as functions as a simple

clause: the second as functions

CONJUNCTIONS

F.

109

as a relative adverb, modifying pretty in the subordinate clause referring to the

and main clause and so joining its own, the the main clause as an adverbial modifier of the

as in the

first

subordinate, clause to

Hence, the second as

first as.

is

a relative adverb

— that

is,

a re-

lating adverb.]

Functions of Connectives in Clauses.

>/2.

stand the

grammar

In order to under-

of subordinate clauses (see pp. 137fL) it is how subordinate clauses are attached

necessary to understand

main

For a subordinate clause must be attached to way as to make obvious the dependent character of the clause being attached and at the same time to make evident how the connection is made. Of course, anything that attaches a subordinate clause to a to

clauses.

a main clause in such a

main

clause

is

to that extent a conjunction or a connective.

may have

But a connective

subordinate clause that

We may

list

it

its

own

function to perform in the

attaches to the

main

clause.

here, for convenience, the various kinds of sub-

ordinating conjunctions, showing at the same time the various

ways in which subordinate clauses are attached to main a.

Simple subordinating conjunctions.

expressions clause

is

The

to establish a connection

and a main

clause.

clauses.

Such words

sole function of some between a subordinate

as

if,

since, though, although, that, so that, in order that,

unless, because, as

if,

are simple conjunc-

Their only function is to connect the subordinate clause that they introduce to the main clause; they do not have any (See also pp. 137 ff. grammatical function in either clause. For diagrams see pp. 338 ff.) tions.

You meet me

at six unless I notify

tion of unless

is

you

to the contrary.

to join the subordinate

[The

clause to meet, the

sole func-

verb in the

which the subordinate clause modifies. The simple conjunction unless makes evident the subordinate character of the clause

main that

b.

clause

it

introduces.]

Functional connectives.

dinate clauses (and join

them

to

main

make

Often words that introduce suborevident their subordinate nature) and

clauses also

have a grammatical function in We may, for convenience,

the subordinate clause to perform. call

them functional conjunctions or

connectives.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

110

A

Relative pronoun.

1.

capacities at the

same time:

ordinate clause; (b) substantive, called

it

(a) it acts as

a substantive in the sub-

acts as a reference

word, looking back to a

its

antecedent, in the

main

introduces to the

main

and through

(See also pp. 145

main

as what,

whoever,

in

f.)

An

its

own

itself its

He

whatever,

(b)

(a)

(c)

(See also pp. 140

acts as a sub-

it

has no antecedent

it

joins

it

and

its

own

clause to the

196, Note.)

tions as the object of wanted in the subordinate clause;

cedent expressed in of took) to the

main

its

sentence;

it

joins

is

has no ante-

clause (as the object

[The indefinite relative

offered to me.

whatever functions as the subject of

it

own

its

it

clause.]

always accept whatever clause;

—

[The indefinite relative pronoun what func-

took what he wanted.

pronoun

whosoever

sentence, sometimes being said to contain in

antecedent; and

clause.

clause;

indefinite relative pro-

same time:

stantive in the subordinate clause;

expressed in

main

subordinate clause (an adjectival

whichever,

serves in these capacities at the

I

(c)

clause.]

Indefinite relative pronoun.

— such

antecedent, in the

uncle, its

this reference joins the

modifier of uncle) to the

main

and

joins the subordinate clause

clause.

subordinate clause; refers to

noun

it

clause;

[The relative have an uncle who used to make wood engravings. pronoun who functions as the subject of the verb used to make in the

I

2.

serves in these

it

thus referring to the substantive that

pronoun

relative

has no antecedent expressed in

(as the object of accept) to the

main

is offered

its

in the subordinate

sentence;

it

joins

its

clause

clause.]

There is a difference in grammatical construction between a defipronoun and an indefinite relative pronoun. First, a definite relative pronoun has an antecedent expressed in its sentence, whereas an indefinite relative pronoun does not have an antecedent expressed in its sentence. Second, a definite relative pronoun introduces an adjectival clause (see p. 145), whereas an indefinite relative pronoun introduces a noun clause. Note.

nite relative

A man who man

Who

I

works

will prosper.

[Who, a definite relative pronoun, with

antecedent, introduces an adjectival clause that modifies man.] [Who, an indefinite relative proenters here leaves hope behind. as

its

Who introduces a noun, has no antecedent expressed in its sentence. noun clause, the subject of the main verb leaves.] know what I need. [What, an indefinite relative pronoun, has no antecedent expressed in its sentence. What (the object of need ) introduces a

noun clause, the direct object of the main verb know.] Whoever walks on the grass will be reported. [Whoever, an

indefinite rela-

CONJUNCTIONS

F. tive

111

pronoun, has no antecedent expressed in its sentence. Whoever a noun clause, the subject of the main

(the subject of walks) introduces

verb will be

reported.}

There is no difference in grammatical construction (although a difference meaning) between an indefinite relative pronoun and an interrogative pronoun introducing a subordinate clause. Both introduce noun clauses (see pp. 104 f. and 139). The difference in meaning lies in the fact that an interrogative pronoun introducing a subordinate clause asks or implies an indirect question, whereas an indefinite relative pronoun does not ask or imply an indirect question. But this difference in meaning especially in the case of the pronoun what often is very slight indeed. (See also in

—

—

p. 197, Note.) I I

3.

know what I want. [What is probably an indefinite relative pronoun.] wonder what he wants. [ What is here an interrogative pronoun, for an indirect question ("What does he want?") is obviously implied.]

The

Relative adjective.

in these capacities at the

modifier in

own

its

clause

same time:

adjectival

a reference, looking back

main clause; and main clause it joins its

antecedent, in the

to

a substantive, called

(c)

in thus referring to a substantive in the

its

own, the subordinate clause, to the main clause. I

an

(a) it acts as

(b) it acts as

;

adjective whose serves

relative

know a man whose name

is

Launcelot Smith.

(See also p. 146.) [The relative adjective

whose functions as a modifier of name in the subordinate clause;

main

to man,

its

antecedent, in the

joins

its

own, the subordinate

it

clause;

clause, to

jectival modifier of man, object of the

4.

Indefinite relative adjective.

jective

— such

same time:

of a substantive in

own

its

its

its

own

(a) it acts as

clause; (b)

it

refers

know.]

indefinite relative ad-

as whatever, whichever, whosoever

capacities at the

pressed in

main verb

An

it

and through this reference the main clause as an ad-

an

—

serves in these

adjectival modifier

has no antecedent ex-

sentence (sometimes being said to contain in

itself

antecedent; see p. 196, Note); and (c) it joins the subordi(See also p. 141.)

nate clause to the main clause. I shall

take whatever

wage

is

offered me.

[The indefinite

jective whatever functions as a modifier of wage in

has no antecedent expressed in

its

nate clause (as the direct object of 5.

Relative

adverb. 1

capacities at the :

On

A

same time:

sentence;

and

shall take) to

relative

it

its

clause;

it

joins the subordi-

the

main

adverb serves

(a) it acts as

relative ad-

own

clause.]

in

these

an adverbial modifier

discarding the term "conjunctive adverb" see footnote, p. 90.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

112

(usually of the verb) in stantive in the

main

its

own

clause as

clause ; (b)

looks back to a sub-

it

antecedent

its

;

and

(c) it

joins the

subordinate clause, as an adjectival modifier of this substantive, (For a correlative (See also p. 146.) to the main clause. functioning as a relative adverb see p. 108.)

A

time will come

when you

will regret

[The

your action.

verb when functions as an adverbial modifier of will clause;

it

has time in the main clause as

relative ad-

regret

antecedent; and

its

subordinate clause, as an adjectival modifier of

time,

in it

own

its

joins the

to the

main

clause.]

6.

An

Indefinite relative adverb.

serves in these capacities at the

indefinite relative

same time:

verbial modifier (usually of the verb) in

(a) it acts as

its

own

has no antecedent expressed in the sentence; and

adverb an ad-

clause; (b) (c) it

it

joins the

subordinate clause (a noun clause or an adverbial clause) to the

main

(See also pp. 141

clause.

f.

and 151

We play tennis whenever the weather favors

it.

f.)

[The indefinite

adverb whenever functions as an adverbial modifier offavors in clause;

it

has no antecedent expressed in

its

sentence;

and

it

relative its

own

joins the

subordinate clause, as an adverbial modifier of play, to the main clause.] I

know where

[The indefinite relative adverb where funcI can find it. an adverbial modifier of can find in its own clause; it has no antecedent expressed in its sentence; and it joins the subordinate clause, as the direct object of the main verb know, to the main clause.] tions as

7.

An

Interrogative pronoun.

interrogative

pronoun

intro-

ducing a subordinate clause functions in these capacities at the same time: (a) it introduces an indirect question that depends on a verb in the main clause and (b) it acts as a substantive in its own clause. An interrogative pronoun does not have an ante;

cedent expressed in

its

sentence.

(See also pp. 139 and 197.)

We

wish to know who spread the rumor. [The interrogative pronoun who introduces the subordinate clause who spread the rumor (asking an indirect question) and functions as the subject of spread, the subordinate clause functioning as the object of the infinitive

8.

Interrogative adjective.

An

to

know.]

interrogative adjective in-

troducing a subordinate clause serves in these capacities at the

same time:

(a) it

introduces an indirect question that depends

F.

on a verb

in the

main

CONJUNCTIONS

clause;

and

modifier of a substantive in adjective does not have

its

(b) it

own

113

functions as an adjectival

An

clause.

an antecedent expressed

in

interrogative its

sentence.

(See also p. 139.)

We

asked which road we should take. [The interrogative adjective which introduces the subordinate clause which road we should take (asking

an indirect question) and functions as an adjectival modifier of the subordinate clause functioning as the object of the

road,

main verb

asked.]

9. Interrogative adverb. An interrogative adverb introducing a subordinate clause serves in these capacities at the same time: (a) it introduces an indirect question that depends on a

verb in the main clause; and

(b)

modifier (usually of the verb) in

its

it

functions as an adverbial

An interrogative

own clause.

adverb does not have an antecedent expressed in (See also pp. 139 f.)

You

we may

ask where

find the janitor.

its

sentence.

[The interrogative adverb

where introduces the subordinate clause where we may find the janitor (asking an indirect question) and functions as an adverbial modifier of may find, the subordinate clause functioning as the object of the

verb

main

ask.]

There is a difference in grammatical construction between a definite adverb and an indefinite relative adverb (see p. 111). First, a relative adverb has an antecedent expressed in its sentence, whereas an indefinite relative adverb does not have an antecedent expressed in its sentence. Second, a definite relative adverb introduces an adjectival clause (see pp. 146 f.), whereas an indefinite relative adverb introduces either a noun Note.

relative

clause (see p. 141) or an adverbial clause (see pp. 151 I

know

a place where

clause as

its

f.).

we can

antecedent,

is

clause that modifies place;

find a rake. [Where, with place in the main a relative adverb, introducing an adjectival where itself functions as an adverbial modifier

of can find.]

He

is

going where he can find peace.

pressed in

its

sentence,

is

an

adverbial clause modifying

an adverbial modifier

He

is

going (see p. 151); where itself functions as

of can find.]

has never discovered where he can find peace.

cedent expressed in

no antecedent exadverb introducing an

[Where, with

indefinite relative

its

sentence,

is

an

[Where, with

indefinite relative

no ante-

adverb intro-

ducing a noun clause which functions as the direct object of has discovered; where functions as

There

is

no difference

in

an adverbial modifier of can find.]

grammatical construction (although a slight difand an interroga-

ference in meaning) between an indefinite relative adverb

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

114

The difference in meaning is that the interrogative adverb an indirect question, whereas the indefinite relative adverb does not But this difference in meaning is often very slight ask an indirect question. tive adverb.

asks

indeed.

Ask him where he keeps his spade. [The statement implies a direct quesHence, where may be called tion, "Where do you keep your spade?" an interrogative adverb.] [The statement does not imply a direct I know where he keeps his spade. Hence, where may be regarded as an indefinite relative question. adverb.]

For correlative adverbs acting as For diagrams of correlative connectives see pp. 108 and 153. adverbs see pp. 341 f. and 365. 10. Correlative adverbs.

EXERCISES CONJUNCTIONS Classify the conjunctions

you find

in the following sentences as co-

ordinating, subordinating, correlative. If

a conjunction has introduced a subordinate clause, indicate

whether the conjunction junction.

If the

what function

A 1.

it

is

a simple conjunction or a functioning con-

conjunction

is

a functioning conjunction, explain

performs in the subordinate clause.

properly executed diagram will meet these demands fully.

The

pitcher

and catcher gamble

their judgment against the skill

and knowl-

edge of the batter. 2.

3.

4.

5.

6. 7.

An

appeal was taken, and the executive committee ruled_that the student had not had a chance to present all the facts and must have another. He then approached the boy and suggested that he hadn't been doing a good job. Then and then only did I realize that I had been the victim of the most successful joke that Hollywood loves to pull. I saw him as I pulled my weary body toward the locker room and demanded why I should be burdened with such an impossible creature. I am no longer ^b eager to find fault as you evidently are. Not only England and America but also France and Holland have a stake in the settlement.

8.

9. 1 0.

Although we proceeded to make a camp in the little valley where boughs could be cut for beds and running water was at hand, yet I felt all the time that we should have trudged on to higher ground. I am not so sure as you seem to be that he is speaking the truth. Willamette is the college that Dr. Doney was president of for so many years.

.

EXERCISES 11. 12.

115

She does not seem to know precisely what she wants. Whatever newspapers and weekly magazines publish becomes

for

some

folks the gospel truth.

13.

Who

pays his

bills

14.

Are we expected

25.

The

promptly

never be in debt.

will

whdever applies? 15. Let's locate a man whose specialty is making keys. 16. I do not remember what he said. 17. Whatever action the committee takes will be all right with me. 18. This is one time when I must disagree with you. 19. Whenever I could find the time I used to call on him. 20. She seems to know what side her bread is buttered on. 21. I wonder where he hides himself all the time. 22 Find out who put in the call. 23. We need to know what demands are actually being made upon us today. 24. Maybe we should find out whose fault it really was. hotter

it

26. In order that

checks with 27. I

to accept

gets the better I like

serial

it.

have the same chance, the storekeeper gave us numbers on them.

we might

all

would rather walk than wait

for the bus.

28.

When

29.

Although he has every advantage that wealth can make any headway. Where you go, there I go too.

30.

the bell rings, then

is

the time to

!

start.

give,

still

he

fails

to

SHIFTS,

///.

ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTIONS,

EXPLETIVES, ELLIPSIS,

AND INVERSIONS

There are five matters of grammar that one needs to under= if grammatical analysis is to become relatively simple. They are shifts (of expressions from one part of speech to another), absolute constructions, expletives, ellipsis, and inversion. They have all been discussed before; but they are brought together here for ready reference. stand

A. SHIFTS

The

functions that words perform in a sentence

—

subject,

complement, adjectival modifiers, adverbial modifiers, connectives are fixed. But individual words are not in them-

verb,

—

They become nouns,

selves nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs.

verbs,

and

so on, only in connection with the particular function

they perform in a particular sentence. characteristics of English

is

the fact that a

One of the marked word may perform one

function in one sentence and an entirely different function in

That

may

be used at one time as one part of speech and at another time as another part of another.

speech.

is,

It is this

a given expression

tendency of an expression to

shift

from one

function to another that accounts for the great variety of locutions that a writer or speaker

are especially

shifts

such

shifts,

common

may

find at his disposal.

in colloquial discourse;

often inelegant, has arisen

much

Such

and out

of

slang.

We

may, for example, speak of a "person's foot." We may about a "foot ruler." We may say that the ruler is a "foot long" (adverbial use). We may speak of "footing a bill." And talk

we may speak

colloquially of a "person footing

it to town." element should, then, be classed, not on the basis of its usual function, but on the basis of its function in a given sentence.

An

116

SHIFTS

A.

Some

more common

of the

For diagrams of 1.

Nouns

shifts see p.

117

are listed below.

shifts

343.

Verbs and Verbs as Nouns. One of the comthat of a word normally a noun to the function

as

monest shifts is of a verb; another is a verb shifting so as to perform the function (See also pp. 33 f.) of a noun. These shifts are especially com-

mon

in colloquial discourse. Don't forget

to hose off the porch.

[Hose,

normally a noun, here func-

tions as a verb.]

The two

of us are going to garden this spring.

normally a noun,

[Garden,

here functions as a verb.]

We

had

to

breakfast the stranded passengers.

normally

[Breakfast,

a noun, here functions as a verb.]

He

tried to

make a run

for

[Run, normally a verb, here functions as

it.

a noun.]

The new play was a adverb

out,

He made

sellout.

a clean sweep the

first

day he was

a verb, modified by the adjective 2.

Adjectives as

The

clean,

Nouns and Nouns

tives readily function as

in office.

[Sweep,

normally

here functions as a noun.]

as Adjectives.

Adjec-

nouns; and nouns just as readily function

(See also pp. 81

as adjectives.

normally a verb, modified by the

[Sell,

here functions as a noun.]

ff.)

incapacitated were taken to the rest station.

[Incapacitated,

mally an adjective (a participle), preceded by the

nor-

article the, here

functions as a noun.] All

the

perishables

must be delivered without delay.

[Perishable,

normally an adjective, pluralized, here functions as a noun.] He delivered an old-fashioned Fourth of July speech. [Fourth of July, normally a noun, here functions as an adjectival modifier of the noun speech.]

There

is

a

New York

here functions as

3.

Adverbs

as

[New York, normally a noun, train at ten o'clock. an adjectival modifier of train.]

Nouns and Nouns as Adverbs.

function as nouns; and nouns It is exactly sixty miles

Adverbs often

function as adverbs.

from here to

there.

[Here

and

there,

normally

adverbs, here function as nouns, one the object of the preposition from

I

and the other as the object of the preposition do not know all the ins and outs about it. adverbs (or prepositions), direct objects of do know.]

to.]

[In

and

out,

normally

pluralized, here function as nouns, the

SHIFTS,

118 I

am

ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTIONS [Home, normally a noun, here functions as an ad-

going home.

verbial modifier of

am

going.]

My father has to work nights.

normally a noun, pluralized, here

[Night,

functions as an adverbial modifier of

Will he

make

the grade?

think

I

work.]

to

normally an adverb, here

[So,

so.

functions as a noun, roughly the equivalent of a clause

meaning 4.

Other

"I think that he will

is

Shifts.

Many

other

make

— that

is,

the

the grade."]

shifts

take place, especially in

colloquial discourse.

There

is

tions,

There

no

if,

and, or but about

it.

and

and,

[If,

but,

normally conjunc-

here function as nouns.]

downward

a

is

[Downward, normally an adverb, here

tendency.

functions as an adjectival modifier of tendency.]

The would-be lady-charmer

disgusted me.

[Would-be, normally a verb,

here functions as an adjectival modifier of lady-charmer.]

But

me no

buts.

verb and

We

[But,

normally a conjunction, here functions

first

as a

then, pluralized, as a noun.]

are in the midst of

[In

and

an

adjectival modifier

an in-between season.

prepositions (or adverbs), here function as

between,

normally ol

season.]

I

downed

the bitter medicine.

tion), here functions as

He

bested his opponent.

[Down, normally an adverb (or preposi-

a verb.] [Best,

normally an adjective, functions as a

verb.]

My job

here

is

to see that

everybody

is

happy.

Lincoln was

six feet four inches tall.

[Feet

and

normally an ad-

[Here,

verb, here functions as an adjectival modifier of the inches,

noun job.] normally nouns,

here function as adverbial modifiers of the adjective subjective

The water

is

complement scalding hot.

tall

(which

is

a

of was).] [Scalding,

normally a gerund, here functions

as an adverbial modifier of the adjective hot (which is the subjective complement of is).] (See p. 264.) The room above is my study. [Above, normally a preposition ("above this room"), here functions as an adjectival modifier of room.] She looks like her sister. [Like, originally an adjective, here resembles a preposition taking sister as an object.]

EXERCISES SHIFTS In the following sentences point out instances in which nouns function as other parts of speech, other parts of speech function as nouns;

adjectives function as other parts of speech; other parts of speech func-

.

EXERCISES

119

tion as adjectives; adverbs function as other parts of speech, other parts of speech function as adverbs; prepositions function as other parts of

speech, other parts of speech function as prepositions.

(A diagram its

will not, of course, reveal

how an expression has changed

usual part-of-speechship.)

3.

You tend to use too many ineffectual ands and buts. The wounded were taken to the hospital. From here to Chicago is a distance of two hundred

4.

We

1

2.

5. 6.

7. 8. 9.

10.

Tom will

11.

It is freezing

12.

One

13.

She chased the cat out at once. The little boy is now six years old. He went over there for a cigar.

14.

15. 16. 17.

miles.

have work day and night; but they work only nights. Mr. Meek is a first-class typewriter mechanic. A walking stick seems to be an indispensable part of a Britisher's The rich are getting richer; the poor are getting poorer. Till then there had been complete silence. We had expected to have many ups and downs before now. be

home New

Year's Day.

cold this morning.

store has already closed out

its

stock of dictionaries.

The entrance below is for the sick and Jim went skimming across the ice.

18.

He

19.

Washington,

left

attire.

incapacitated.

yesterday and plans to return tomorrow.

21.

now the political capital of the world, is yet to be heard we can't iron out our difficulties without going to law. He examined the to-and-fro movement of the pendulum.

22.

When

20. Let's see

from.

if

she attached the iron she blew out a fuse.

23. I expect to return

home Wednesday

next.

24.

The

25.

26.

You will have to buttonhole him and get his answer. He made a quick getaway and probably is now at his

27.

The young

report of the Senate committee differs a great deal from that of the

House committee.

are full of energy

day and look 28.

Why

and look

hide-out.

to the future; the old

have had their

to the past.

adopt that hang-your-clothes-on-a-hickory-limb-but-don't-go-near-

the-water attitude?

an accessory-after-the-fact charge on Mr. Perry Mason. had some hot words, and then he upped and smacked me. He is one of those up-and-at-'em boys, you know. Booted and spurred, she was all ready for the ride. He was the victim of a freeze-out scheme. Shall I book a passage to London for you? Her ijs and ands and maybes were very disconcerting, to say the least.

29. That'll pin 30.

31. 32. 33. 34.

35.

We

ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTIONS

SHIFTS,

120

ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTIONS

B.

An

absolute construction

clause) used independentiy

is

any expression (word, phrase, or

— that

is,

so used that

it

or no grammatical function in the statement in which

Such an expression will, of course, relation to

its

rightly used,

if

it

has

little

appears.

have a logical

sentence.

Common among

absolute constructions are

absolute (see pp. 53

f.)

;

the nominative

(a)

the infinitive used absolutely (see

(b)

nouns and phrases used absolutely. Exclamations, interjections, nouns in direct address, expletives (see pp. 125 ff.), and certain expressions affecting rhetorical rather than grammatical transitions (see transitional adverbs, pp. 90 f.) may be regarded as absolute elements, serving as they do little or no grammatical function in the statements in which they appear. For diagrams of absolute constructions see pp. 344 ff.

p.

and

63

f.)

1.

Nominative Absolute.

;

(c)

A

substantive without

any gram-

matical function in the statement in which

it appears, modified nominative absolute by construction. It is so called because when the substantive shows case endinsr O (See also pp. 53 f.) it reveals itself as in the nominative case.

a participle, constitutes a

The sun having sun having

the thermometer began to

set,

set is

used absolutely; that

in the statement the thermometer began

many

His mind burdened with

[The phrase

her.

absolutely; that

is,

his it

mind

is, it

fall.

[The phrase

the

has no grammatical function

to fall.]

details, Bill forgot his (being) burdened with

appointment with

many

details is

used

has no grammatical function in the statement

Bill forgot his appointment with her.]

He

being out of town, can

town

is

I sign for

used absolutely; that

is, it

him?

[The phrase

he being out of

has no grammatical function in the

statement can I sign for him.] 2. Infinitive

infinitive

clause

is

To

Phrase or Infinitive Clause.

phrase so used. tell

is

the truth,

finitive

Less frequently an infinitive

used absolutely. (See also pp. 63

phrase

Henry

doesn't

to

the truth is

tell

f.)

seem

to

know

his

own mind.

used absolutely; that

grammatical function in the statement Henry own mind.]

Frequently an

is,

[The it

doesn't seem to

in-

has no

know

his

ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTIONS

B.

We

shall

assemble at ten forty-five, the procession to start moving at

[The

precisely eleven. precisely eleven is

Clauses

infinitive clause the procession

used absolutely; that

tion in the statement

3.

121

we

moving at

to start

has no grammatical func-

it

is,

shall assemble at ten forty-five .]

— Main and Subordinate.

and subordinate, may be used

main

Clauses, both

absolutely; that

may

they

is,

ap-

pear in statements without having any grammatical function in the statements in which they appear. Clauses adverbial in ap-

pearance are very commonly so used. Main clauses are frequently thrust parenthetically into statements in which they serve to

no grammatical function.

may

All such clauses

be said

be used absolutely. As

I said before,

he

is

certainly not a

handsome dog.

[The subordinate

clause as

I

that

is, it

has no grammatical function in the statement he

not a

handsome dog.]

She if is,

is, if

I

I may it

said before (adverbial in appearance)

may

be so bold, somewhat portly.

be so bold (adverbial in

is

used absolutely; is certainly

[The subordinate clause

appearance)

is

used absolutely; that

has no grammatical function in the statement she

is

somewhat

portly.]

today than it was yesterday, whether you believe it or not. [The subordinate clause whether you believe it or not is used absolutely;

It is hotter

it

has no grammatical function in the statement

it

was yesterday.]

Mary

will, I feel confident,

main it

it is

hotter today than

prove herself a competent secretary.

clause Ifeel confident (inserted parenthetically)

is

has no grammatical function in the statement Mary

a competent secretary.]

[The

used absolutely; will prove herself

—

—

never stops to pick up anything. did you ever see such a man? Jack a [The main clause did you ever see such man (inserted parenthetically) is used absolutely; it has no grammatical function in the statement

Jack

One

never stops to pick up anything.]

institution

doned come

to

—

its

name

come [The main

will readily

intercollegiate athletics.

mind (inserted parenthetically)

is

to

mind

clause

its

— boldly abanname will

used absolutely;

grammatical function in the statement one

institution boldly

it

readily

has no

abandoned

intercollegiate athletics.]

4.

Exclamations, Interjections, Nouns in Direct Address. as exclamations, interjections, and nouns in direct

Such elements address

may

be regarded as elements used absolutely; for they

SHIFTS,

122 serve

ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTIONS

no grammatical function

in the statements in

which they

appear. Oh, oh,

oh,

what

may

be

no grammatical function

in

[The exclamation

do?

shall I

regarded as used absolutely; for

serves

it

repeated,

oh,

the statement what shall I do.]

That, good heavens, good heavens

may

want

the last thing I

is

matical function in the statement That Bess, will

may

[The interjection

to do.

be regarded as used absolutely; for

you do an errand

me?

for

is the last

[Bess,

be regarded as used absolutely, for

it

serves

thing

no gram-

I want

to do.]

a noun in direct address,

no grammatical

serves

it

function in the statement will you do an errand for me.]

John, close the door. as used absolutely,

ment

[John a for

it

noun

may

be regarded

no grammatical function in the Note that you understood, not John,

serves

{you) close the door.

subject of the imperative verb

stateis

Various transitional elements

(words, prepositional phrases, transitional adverbs) such as deed, too, further, in fact, at

any

the

close.]

Transitional Elements.

5.

in direct address,

in-

rate, in brief, hence, therefore, neverthe-

less, may be regarded as absolute elements; for they usually have little or no grammatical function in the statements in which they

They

appear.

Indeed,

I

than grammatical transi-

effect rhetorical rather

(See also pp. 90

tion.

f.)

never saw such a snowfall.

[Indeed

is

used absolutely;

it

has

no grammatical function in the statement / never saw such a snowfall.] [The prepositional That, at any rate, is how I feel about the matter. phrase at any rale is used absolutely; it has no grammatical function in the statement That

There was a heavy ing.

[Hence

is

is

how I feel

used absolutely;

statement we have no flowers

this

about the matter.]

we have no

hence,

frost last night;

it

flowers this

morn-

has no grammatical function in the

morning.

It effects

a rhetorical, not a

grammatical, transition between the two clauses.] I

have a dozen keys here.

it

It effects

sentences.

6.

the

But not a

single

one of them

will work.

may

be regarded as a transitional adverb (used absolutely); for has no grammatical function in the statement in which it appears.

[But

a rhetorical, not a grammatical, transition between two (See p. 106, Note.)]

Parenthetical Elements.

way from

single

words

to

— — clauses may be

All sorts of expressions

independent

all

wedged into statements in which they serve no grammatical function. They may be called parenthetical elements. Such words,

ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTIONS

B.

and

phrases,

123

clauses, usually set off, as additive elements,

commas or dashes

analyzing the statements in

He was,

I

[The parenthetical clause

thought, a very powerful advocate.

may

I thought

be disregarded when analyzing the statement He was a

very powerful advocate.]

We

have discovered

— we might

be frank about

just as well

it may when We have discovered no satisfactory solution.] if I may be You might try the new drugstore

—

new

try the

"You have

I may

so bold as to offer a be so bold as to offer a

make up your mind," he

[The parenthetical quoting expression

said

he said brusquely

be disregarded in analyzing the statement Tou have

until six

make up your mind.]

A parenthetical

the sentence in which

above

if

drugstore.]

o'clock tonight to

Note.

well

be disregarded when analyzing the statement Tou might

until six o'clock tonight to

brusquely.

may

[The parenthetical clause

may

— no

analyzing the statement

be disregarded

be frank about

suggestion

it

[The parenthetical clause we might just as

satisfactory solution.

suggestion.

with

may be disregarded when which they may happen to appear.

(see p. 148, footnote),

it

clause does not change the grammatical nature of

appears.

are, therefore, to

All four of the illustrative sentences printed

be regarded as simple sentences.

EXERCISES ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTIONS Explain

A 1.

2. 3.

4.

5.

6.

Our first To come

8.

9.

the absolute constructions in the following sentences.

attempt having

failed,

to the point, just

we

will

make

another.

what do you want?

England has, if we come right down to it, the best reason of all. Helen, do you really want to go? Maybe, though, you'd rather stay here and rest. Gracious, what can he want of me? Freshman grades are due tomorrow, all other grades to be in not later than day

7.

all

properly executed diagram will meet these demands fully.

It

after

tomorrow.

being out of the question for us to expect any help from that source,

must do

the next best thing.

Eliot

when

He this

is

is,

— may

all is

I

done and

said,

a philosopher rather than a

hate to go now.

10.

Gosh,

I

11.

That,

my

12.

He

in other words, our chief contender.

is,

novelist.

say parenthetically? — exactly the kind of man we need

emergency. fine friend,

is

what

I

have been trying to

tell

you.

we

in

!

ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTIONS

SHIFTS,

124

our

13.

Such

14.

I'll give you an extension of time, our understanding being that you hand in your paper on next Monday morning. The sun having set, a gentle breeze started blowing down from the

15. 16. 17.

18.

19.

in the last analysis,

is,

difficulty.

will

hill.

O my, O me! What a man! There is no coordinating conjunction between the two clauses; hence, a semicolon must be used. He was a stern taskmaster; nevertheless, I learned more from him than from any other teacher I ever had. Issuing a stern warning having failed of its purpose, he proceeded to more energetic measures.

20.

To

be conservative,

let's

say two-thirds of a bushel.

These are the required readings, the supplementary readings to be done for any extra credit you may desire. 22. We are, whether you believe it or not, down finally to our last sheet of carbon paper. 23. The other bus having waited five minutes for our bus, which was late, we 21.

managed

home

to get

24. This firm

is

reliable in all of 25.

Oh,

that

26. In a

that night.

thoroughly reliable in every way; at any rate, I have found

my

was a narrow escape

word, everything, tangible and intangible,

artist in life

may produce

27. Here, to quote

member

it

dealings with them.

an actual

is

a "tool" with which the

thought or emotion. case,

is

a

woman who announced

of the local school committee.

—

herself as a

—

30.

announced the line-up. his usual nickname is "Cap" Mulkey Whether radio announcers know it or not, there is a difference in meaning between infer and imply. He is a right guy, if you know what I mean.

31.

Mrs. Gaskell

32.

Why is

28.

29.

— she the most — manifested a keen sense of humor. ironic

33. 34.

35.

36.

it, if

distinctly feminine of the Victorian novelists

is

one wishes

to press the point, that

women

are better masters of

comedy than men?

As far as I am concerned, infinity begins where infinity ends. Honesty is the best policy, as Ben Franklin once remarked. Whether we like it or not, the economic doctrine of let dog eat dog is dead. never thought out any clear Roosevelt I refer to Theodore Roosevelt

—

—

international policy. 37.

When

all is

done and

said,

raphy. 38.

An

marlinespike — made

39. His

40.

old injury to his spine

He

conduct is,

is,

you taught

all

that I

— Anthony had heard that

itself felt

to say the least,

when you come

me

more and more a

to think of

know about photogit

was from a thrown grew older.

as the captain

bit peculiar. it,

just the

man we

have been looking

for.

a EXPLETIVES C.

An

125

EXPLETIVES

merely a special kind of absolute construction. an expression that serves no real grammatical function in the statement in which it appears, although it does serve a very important rhetorical purpose, as we shall see. An expletive might be likened to a catalyst in chemistry a substance that brings about a chemical reaction without itself enterexpletive

is

For an expletive

is

—

ing into the reaction

it

brings about.

Hence, expletives

may

be

regarded as expressions used absolutely.

There follow here some of the

common

instances of expletives

in ordinary sentences.

For diagrams of expletives "It" as an Expletive.

see pp. 346

ff.

an expletive serves merely to the true grammatical subject of a sentence

1.

mark time until Thus the appears. purpose:

it

It as

^-expletive performs a valuable rhetorical

permits the placing of a grammatical subject after

verb without any confusion in meaning.

its

It

may be noted that the /^-expletive

(See also p. 58.)

(unlike the there-expletive;

can be used only with a singular verb; that is, the construction will read "It is" or "It was," never "It are," "It see below)

were." It as

an expletive must not be confused with other

See pp. 184

uses of

it.

ff.

hard to understand Mac's reasoning. [The sentence for analysis "To understand Mac's reasoning is hard." Thus the infinitive phrase to understand Mac's reasoning is the true subject of is; it, being grammatically (but not rhetorically) superfluous, is an expletive. 1] [The sentence for It is a fact that he possesses the necessary evidence. It is

reads

analysis reads

"That he

possesses the necessary evidence

is

a fact."

Some grammarians

prefer to call it in such sentences the true grammatical subverb and then regard what we call the true grammatical subBut such an explanation ject (or object) as the logical subject in apposition with it. does not fit the similar ^re-expletive (see pp. 126 f.). It would seem simpler to use one explanation that will fit both constructions rather than to insist upon two separate explanations. But this second explanation, for those who may prefer it, 1

ject (or object) of the

follows: It is

hard to understand Mac's reasoning. [It is the subject of the verb is, infinitive phrase to understand Mac's reasoning, the logical subject, in apposition with it.]

and the is

ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTIONS

SHIFTS,

126

Thus

the subordinate clause that he possesses

true subject of

is; fact is

cally (but not rhetorically) superfluous, It

me

seems to

the necessary evidence is

a subjective complement;

an

is

the

being grammati-

it,

expletive.]

that you have overlooked one important item.

[The

sentence for analysis reads "That you have overlooked one important

item seems to me."]

would appear certain that we can expect a good price for wheat this [The sentence for analysis reads "That we can expect a good price for wheat this year would appear certain."] He believes it to be important to be able to put two and two together. [The sentence for analysis reads "He believes to be able to put two and two together to be important."] [The sentence for analysis I have it in mind to build a two-car garage. It

year.

mind

reads "I have in

2. a.

may

"There" With a

an Expletive

as

Like the zV-expletive, the //^re-expletive

finite verb.

serve a valuable rhetorical purpose; its

mark time

serve to

The verb

pears.

(see pp.

pp. 47

f.)

;

49

that

is

way

is

and

so has

always one right

way

right

no subjective complement.

way

to

[The sentence for analysis to do a thing. do a thing always is" (is = "exists"). Thus

the true grammatical subject of

(but not rhetorically) superfluous, I

believe there

is

of the verb

is; to

finitive (see

pp. 59

Note.

The

is

is

to be."

be (used as

an

use of

f.)

is

an excursion.

to be

"I believe an excursion

superfluous,

a notional

used as a verb of complete predication, in

is, it is

"One

reads

there is

functions as a complete verb (see

It also

f.).

It

until the true subject of the verb ap-

used in connection with

be

the sense of "exist," There

permits placing a

it

verb without any confusion in meaning.

subject after

may verb

to build a two-car garage."]

;

there,

is;

there,

being grammatically

an expletive.] [The sentence

Thus

excursion

a complete verb)

is

for analysis reads is

the true subject

a complementary in-

being grammatically (but not rhetorically)

expletive.] there as

an expletive must not be confused with the use

of there as a regular adverb.

There he

The

goes.

library

is

[There

is

over there.

an adverbial modifier of goes.] [There is an adverb used as a noun

functioning as the object of the preposition over there

b.

With a

being an adverbial modifier of

participle.

cipial constructions.

The

expletive

is

over,

(see p. 93)

the prepositional phrase

is.]

frequently used in parti-

C.

EXPLETIVES

127

There being no objection, we stand adjourned. [The phrase for analysis reads "no objection being (= existing)." The noun objection modified by the participle being constitutes a nominative absolute construction (see pp. 53

f.).

rhetorically) superfluous,

is

No

There, being grammatically (but not an expletive.] question of there being any need for assistance has yet arisen. [The

"No question of any need for assistance being (= existing) has yet arisen."]

sentence for analysis reads

He

complained without there being any good reason for his complaints. [The sentence for analysis reads "He complained without any good

reason for his complaints being (= existing)."]

The

Note.

use of there as an expletive with a participle

fused with the use of the possessive pronoun

their

must not be con-

functioning as an adjectival

modifier of a gerund.

He had

chance on their being late. [The gerund being, with complement late, is modified by the possessive pronoun gerund phrase their being late functioning as the object of the

to take his

subjective

its

their (the

preposition on).] c. Proper agreement. The use of there as an expletive offers a problem of agreement in number between the true subject and the verb. For the expletive there does not determine the number of the verb, the number actually being determined by the number of the true grammatical subject of the verb, which of course

follows the verb

There

is

road,

when

the expletive

one good road to

there is

used.

[The true subject of the verb

St. Louis.

a noun in the singular; hence

is is

is is

correct.]

There are three poor roads to St. Louis. [The true subject of the verb are is roads, a noun in the plural; hence are is correct.] There seems to be a difference of opinion. [Difference, a noun in the singular,

is

the true subject of seems; hence the singular

is

correct.]

be several opinions about the matter. [Opinions, a noun in the plural, is the true subject of seem; hence the plural is correct.]

There seem

3.

"For"

as

to

an Expletive.

For

is

very

expletive to introduce an infinitive clause. For rne

to

go

now

is

impossible.

functioning as the subject of It is difficult for his word,

is, is

[The

commonly used

1

infinitive clause

me

to

an

as

(See also pp. 62

f.)

go now,

introduced by the expletive for.]

us to trust his word.

[The

infinitive clause us to trust

functioning as the true subject of

is,

is

introduced by the

expletive for.]

'Some grammarians prefer lowing infinitive clause as

its

to treat for at all times as a preposition with the folSee Note, p. 63.

object.

ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTIONS

SHIFTS,

128

The

best plan

go

to

to the

is

me

for

to

[The

go to the mayor.

mayor, functioning as the subjective

infinitive clause

complement

of

me in-

is, is

troduced by the expletive for.]

We

are waiting for

preposition, for

you

it

to

make up your mind.

infinitive clause as its object;

you 4.

an

and the whole prepositional phrase for

make upyour mind functions as an adverbial modifier of are waiting.]

to

"As"

[Here for is the true For takes the

not grammatically superfluous.

is

as

an Expletive.

The

particle as often functions as

an appositional item, such 1 complement. an objective

expletive to introduce

used as

We

chose

jective

Edward

as our leader.

complement.

[As serves to introduce

as

a noun

leader,

an ob-

Being grammatically (but not rhetorically)

superfluous, as functions as an expletive.]

5.

"Or"

tive to

an Expletive. introduce an item in as

Sometimes

New

used as an exple-

(Note that

apposition.

no function that a conjunction

cases has

or is

is

or in such supposed to have.)

York, or Bagdad-on-the-Subway, was O. Henry's favorite locale [Or functions as an expletive to introduce Bagdad-on-the-

for stories.

Subway, which

"Of"

is

in apposition

with

New

York.]

an Expletive. Sometimes of is used to introduce an appositional item and may rightly be regarded as an expletive. 6.

as

(Note that of in such cases has no function that a preposition supposed to have.) The

city of Cincinnati

Cincinnati,

is

located on the

Having no grammatical function as

Ohio River.

introduced by the expletive

of, is

[The substantive

in apposition with

in the sentence, of

is

may

city.

be regarded

an expletive. 2]

EXERCISES EXPLETIVES the expletives that you find in the following sentences.

Point out

all

A properly

executed diagram will meet these demands fully.

important that

1.

It is

2.

There 1

is

just

at once.

we can do

in the circumstances.

Some grammarians

substantive as item. 2

we do something

one of three things that

its

prefer to regard as as a preposition governing the following object rather than as an expletive introducing the appositional

Some grammarians

substantive

and

prefer to regard of as

call the q/-phrase of Cincinnati

a.

preposition governing the following

an appositional item.

EXERCISES 3.

129

necessary for us to take into consideration the greatest good to the

It is

greatest

number.

4.

Let's select Per angusta ad augusta as our motto.

5.

Laissez-faire, or the doctrine of letting things alone,

is

not talked about

these days.

many

a fact that

people are very superstitious.

6.

It is

7.

We

8.

There's a saying that

9.

It is

hard

10.

It is

a nice day; but

11

There are several ways

.

12.

13.

always turned to Father as a court of for

if

some people

James or Mary dime store.

to

handle

to

make a

you one;

Windy

City as

it

yourself.

fractions.

don't wish to start footing

I

will give

Chicago, or the

last resort.

you want a thing well done you must do it

to town.

perfect five -pointed star. or, if

it

is

you

prefer,

you can buy one

at the

sometimes called, ranks second in

population. is difficult to speak calmly of such an outrage. For him to become our scoutmaster is exactly what we have in mind. This is the book we wish to use as our textbook. There are three answers that might be given; but there is only one right

14. It 15. 16. 17.

answer. 18.

We

19.

There are many things

waited

all

fore the call finally

20. It

for us to

We

22.

That

regarded the

is

little

boy

is

morning be-

are to have permanent peace.

do now

25.

Richardson wrote Pamela, is

right thing for us to

sum is

or Virtue

of the squares of the other two sides.

to wait for further instructions.

Rewarded.

necessary for us to take every precaution to prevent any premature

leak of is

as a sort of mascot.

equal to the

The

what we

are planning.

evident that the individual has got to decide what are the abiding

values in 28. There's

29. It

we

late in the

a fact well worth remembering that the square of the hypotenuse of a

24.

27. It

if

was

a fact well worth remembering.

is

right-angle triangle

26. It

do

it

very necessary to take good care of a typewriter nowadays.

is

21.

23. It

him to call up; but came through.

night for

now

life.

one

you have overlooked. that you can expect no help from him, you might con-

fact that

being clear

sider the help

we

offer you.

30.

We

31.

The

32.

She has it in mind to live in California for a while. Samuel Clemens, or Mark Twain, created the immortal Huck Finn. I have selected trade unionism as the topic for my paper.

33. 34.

man as a sort of Jack-of- all-trades. New York always overwhelms the foreigner.

regarded the old city of

35. I believe

it

to

36. It seems that

be best for us to take the lead.

John has

left for

the country.

ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTIONS

SHIFTS,

130

38.

Wait for me to catch up with you. He had it in mind to withdraw from the

39.

I

40.

Unaware

37.

believe

it

to

of

race.

be a general principle that possession

what

it

might mean to him

later,

is

nine-tenths of the law-

he boldly plunged ahead

with his stock buying.

D. ELLIPSIS Ellipsis,

another matter whose part in grammatical analysis is the omission of a word or words that

needs to be understood,

are necessary to the grammatical analysis of the sentence but

not necessary to its meaning. Ellipsis arises from the tendency of language toward brevity and conciseness. Thought is swifter than words; consequently, in order to hold the attention of the reader or listener, the writer or speaker speeds up his sentences

by omitting words or phrases easily supplied. Out of such omissions, undoubtedly, have arisen many constructions that defy satisfactory grammatical analysis; hence, we call them idioms. In analyzing a sentence one must make certain that all words In fact, the analysis of many omitted by ellipsis are supplied. constructions that at first appear baffling yields a simple explaSometimes, to be sure, the nation when an ellipsis is supplied. longer felt; the construction has become an original ellipsis is no In such cases

established idiom.

it is

better to accept the con-

an idiom than to try to supply the missing parts. word of caution about "supplying." There is nothone But ing that so quickly reduces grammatical analysis to hopeless There is just confusion as the needless supplying of elements. one safe rule to follow: Never supply anything that is not absoFor a true ellipsis lutely demanded for grammatical completeness. supplied When it is it merely furnishes never alters a sentence. struction as

the missing parts to

make

the syntax of the sentence complete.

For instance, to supply a needless he as the subject of the secin "He went up the steps and knocked at the door" is to turn a simple sentence into a compound sentence, one that There is no he unthe author of the sentence never intended. For there derstood or to be supplied as the subject of knocked. is no ellipsis in the original sentence, which is a simple sentence

ond verb

with a

compound

predicate.

D. ELLIPSIS

But

"He

in the sentence

pronoun

relative

a

is

man

131

I

is

a

main

The

clause.

man [whom]

cal analysis

is

to

acquainted with" a

as the object of the preposition with

supplied, so that the subordinate clause to the

am

1

I

am

is

1.

the

Hence,

acquainted with.*'

be simple and meaningful, no

commoner

if

Come

Why

here.

[That

ff.

instances of ellipsis are the following.

is,

"You come

[That

is,

here."]

"Yes, I thank you."]

[That

not write at once?

[That

Please close the door.

is,

is,

"Why do you

"You

not write at once?"]

please (to) close the door."]

Omission in Questions and Answers "Did you hear that noise?" "What noise?" [That is, "Did

"Who

I

hear what noise?"]

took you to the dance?"

iThat

"Jim." 3.

grammatishould be

ellipsis

Omission of a Subject of a Verb or a Verb or Both Yes, thank you.

2.

"He

sentence for analysis then reads

manufactured where none exists. For diagrams of elliptical constructions see pp. 351

Among

must be

related grammatically

is,

"Jim took

me

to the dance."]

Omission of Forms of "To Be" is, "Why are you so early?"] home. [That is, "His job being done, he went His job done, he went home."] Some are lazy; some just stupid. [That is, "Some are lazy; some are

"Why

so early?"

[That

just stupid."]

4.

Omission of

Noun

Easily Supplied

my

mother's.

I

spent Christmas at

I

mothers home."] bought my shoes at Marshall

[That

Field's.

is,

"I spent Christmas at

[That

is,

"I bought

my

my shoes at

Marshall Field's store."] I dislike

dislike

5.

[That is, "I Henry's practical jokes and his brother's too. Henry's practical jokes and his brother's practical jokes too."]

Omission of a Part of a Subordinate Clause

We

are going, rain or shine.

[That

is,

"We

or shine."]

^Anything supplied should be placed in brackets.

are going whether

it

rain

SHIFTS,

132

Once

ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTIONS

started, there

[That

no end.

is

no end."] However stormy, he always makes stormy

may

it

be,

hot-tempered, he

6.

is

"If

[That

is

"However

is,

his rounds."]

a likable fellow.

[That

is,

"Though he

is

a likable fellow."]

is

Omission of a Relative Pronoun He

bought the basket

I

I

[That

wanted.

is,

"He bought the basket which

wanted."]

He is the kind of boy a father can be proud of. of boy whom a father can be proud of."] I

do not know the

know

is

girl

[That is,

"He is the

[That

he seems to be crazy about.

is,

kind

"I do not

whom

he seems to be crazy about."] [That is, "Laissez-faire a doctrine I don't believe in.

the girl

Laissez-faire

a doctrine which

7.

once started there

it is

his rounds.

he always makes

Though hot-tempered, he

is,

is

don't believe in."]

I

Omission of Various Connectives I see

to

you are ready

come

to

come

[That

to terms.

is,

"I see that you are ready

to terms."]

[That is, "If I had I been there, this might not have happened. been there, this might not have happened."] Grant your first statement, what is your conclusion? [That is, "If I grant your first statement, what is your conclusion?"]

Had

8.

Omission in Parallel Constructions I will

go

my

way; you yours.

[That

is,

"I will go

my way;

you

will

go

your way."] If

you have the goods in stock, ship them; if not, notify us. [That is, "If you have the goods in stock, ship them; if you do not have the goods in stock, notify us."]

9.

Omission in a Comparison He

likes

likes

He

her better than me.

[That

is,

"He

likes

her better than he

me."]

likes

her better than

I.

[That

is,

"He

likes

her better than

I like

her."]

He He

[That

likes

her as well as

likes

her as well as me.

I.

is,

[That

"He likes her as well as I is, "He likes her as well

like her."]

as

he

likes

me."] It is just as

easy to do the thing right as wrong.

easy to do

the thing right as it

to

[That

is,

"It

is

just as

do the thing wrong."]

[That is, now than earlier in the season. season."] earlier in the were they sweeter now than

Strawberries are sweeter

"Strawberries are

would be easy

.

D. ELLIPSIS

133

Other Omissions

10.

The

sooner he goes the better.

sooner in that degree of the adverb form

it

[That

is,

be better."

will

"In which degree he goes

(See p. 89 for an explanation

the.)]

EXERCISES ELLIPSIS

any

Fill in

ellipsis

you find in the following, placing supplied ma-

terial in brackets.

A properly

executed diagram will meet these

demands fully.

1.

Come

2.

Did you bring your book with you?

3.

Why

4.

Some

5.

I

am

6.

I

think you can find a suitable garment at Wanamaker's.

7.

Though a

so

close the door.

What book?

happy?

are hesitant; others just shy.

going to

8. I like tea 9.

But please

in.

my

parents' for their

kind of novel

the best of

it.

iced.

However outmaneuvered, he

10. That's the

make

bit disappointed, I'll

whether hot or

wedding anniversary next Sunday.

generally

manages

to

win in the end.

I like.

11

He

12.

She

is

13.

We

14.

Had you

have several friends here we must call on. spoken you might have had the chance.

15.

Granted you are half-way right, what then? Take care of the dimes and the dollars will take care I have my work to do; you yours. If you have a pen use it; if not, use a pencil. When in Rome do as the Romans do.

16. 17. 18. 19.

is

the kind of friend you can

20. I like Trollope better

21.

I like

22. I

depend on.

the girl I'm going to the dance with.

of themselves.

than Thackeray.

Trollope better than you do.

hope you are

as well satisfied as

I.

24.

"Now, miss," began the policeman, bringing out his notebook again, "Your name? Age? You live here with your grandmother?" With my mother's "Twenty-three. "Janet West Carter," she said.

25.

The more he

26.

He

27. 28.

Once hope is lost That's a name to

29.

He

23.

cousin.

Just temporarily."

ranted the funnier he became.

believes he has a

first

edition of The Scarlet Letter.

all is lost.

conjure with.

manifests a kind of conduct I can't put

30. Deserted

by

his

up

with.

supposed friends, he became morose.

SHIFTS,

134 31. 32.

33. 34. 35.

ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTIONS

His task accomplished, Jim wanted to catch the night train home. You remember the old adage, "Once burned, twice shy."

She looked as if ready to cry. The older I grow the more tolerant I become. Granted you are right, what hope is there for us.

E.

One

INVERTED ORDER

matter that sometimes confuses the student is Inor inversion, as it is sometimes verted order. Inverted order is the placing of an element out of its natural order. called final

—

—

an uninnected language, meaning very often resides in the order in which words come in a senThus "John laughed at Mary" means one thing; tence. "Mary laughed at John" means another. The words in the two statements are identical; the difference in meaning comes from Because English

is

so largely

the difference in their order.

Although word order is usually very definitely fixed, certain departures from a natural word order may appear without any real confusion in meaning. For diagrams of inverted sentences see p. 355.

We

have already seen under Expletives (see pp. 125 ff.) that the zY-expletive and the /jW