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"A splendid treatment of Mam ... with many
implications for comparative Mayan linguistics and general linguistic theory. The lucid and highly readable grammatical presentation makes the work of value to anthropologists and interested laymen, as well as linguists." - Victoria R. Bricker This is the first full-length reference grammar of Mam, a Mayan language spoken today by over 400,000 people in the western highlands of Guatemala and the state of Chiapas, Mexico. The result of over three years of extensive field work in Guatemala, A Grammar of Mam, a Mayan Language is based on the dialect of Mam spoken by 12,000 people in San Ildefonso Ixta huacan in the department of Huehuetenango, Guatemala. England organizes A Grammar of Mam ac
cording to two complementary principles: to
analyze Mam following basically traditional
levels of grammatical description and to
present material in such a way that the back
ground information necessary for understand
ing each topic of discussion shall have been
previously provided. Accordingly, England's analysis of the sound system and morphopho nemic processes of Mam is followed by a description of the characteristics of root, inflec tional, and derivational morphology. Chapters on phrase structure precede two chapters on sentence-level syntax. A Grammar of Mam is of particular interest in analyzing a Mayan language that is both syn tactically and morphologically ergative and that is innovative in the direction of strengthening the ergative system. Indeed at all levels of lin guistic organization Mam is innovative, and for this reason it is uniquely interesting both his torically and theoretically. Ic.\'iI:'; L
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TEXAS LINGUISTICS SERIES
Editorial Board Winfred P. Lehmann, Chair
Joel Sherzer
Carlota S, Smith
A Grammar of Mam, a Mayan Language NORA C. ENGLAND
UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS PRESS, AUSTIN
CONTENTS
International Standard Book Number 0-292-72726-7
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 82-51115
Copyright © 1983 by the University of Texas Press
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America
First Edition, 1983
Abbreviations Used in the Examples
ix
INTRODUCTION 3
The Language and People 4
Research 15
Personnel 16
Previous Studies 19
Overview of the Grammar 21
Requests for permission to reproduce material from this work should be sent to Permissions, University of Texas Press, Box 7819, Austin, Texas 78712.
1. PHONOLOGY
Phonemic Inventory 24
Phonemic Description 25
Summary of Phonological Processes 36
Stress 37
The Syllable 38
Juncture 39
Notes 41
For reasons of economy and speed this volume has been printed from camera-ready copy furnished by the author, who assumes full responsibility for its contents.
2. MORPHO PHONEMICS 43
Vowels 43
Glottals 51
Nasal Alternation 54
3. ROOTS AND WORDS 55
Verbs 55
Nouns 66
Non-Verbal Predicates 75
Summary of Inflection 78
Positionals 78
Adjectives 83
Affect Words 84
Measure Words 86
Particles 86
Canonical Shape of Roots 93
Notes 96
4. STEM FORMATION 98
Verb Stems 99
Noun Stems 117
The Infinitive Stem 123
L
vi
CONTENTS
LUNThNl ~
Adjective Stems 124
Affect Stems 130
Measure Stems 131
Derived Adverbial Stems 131
Stem Formation Through Vowel Length and Glottal Stop Addition Review of Derivation 133
Notes 138
5. THE NOUN PHRASE
139
The Structure of the Noun Phrase Definiteness 151
Relational Noun Phrases 153
Pronominalization 155
6. THE VERB PHRASE
141
161
Aspect 161
Person 164
Directionals 167
Mode 172
Verb Stem 174
Structure of the Verb Phrase 174
7. SENTENCE FORMATION 177
Verbal Sentences 177
Non-Verbal Sentences 238
Negation 244
Question Formation 248
Coordination 254
Notes 256
8. COMPLEX SENTENCES 258
Dependent Person Marking 258
Dependent Aspect Marking 275
Relative Clauses 290
Complement Clauses 298
Syntactic Clitics 304
Notes 316
Appendix I. Vowel Disharmonic Suffixes 319
Appendix II. Exceptions to Morphophonemic Rules 324
Appendix III. Text 328
Bibliography 343
Index 349
FIGURES
132
1. 2. 3. 4.
The Mam Area in Guatemala 5
The Mayan Language Family 7
The Principal Divisions of the Mam Area 8
The Immediate Constituent Structure of the Noun Phrase 140
TABLES 1. 2. 3. 4.
Vowel Disharmonic Suffixes 48
Agent and Patient Incorporation 62
Passives 210
Antipassive Functions 221
VII
ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE EXAMPLES Roots and stems are indicated by glosses in capitals; affixes and clitics are glossed in lower case.
Single letter abbre
viations for root, stem, or word classes are capitalized if they refer to a root class only. a
adjective
abs n
abstract noun suffix
af
affect root, word
af vb
affect verb suffix
affirm
affirmative
agt
agent
agtv
agentive suffix
ap
antipassive suffix
atten
attenuator
ben
benefactive
caus
causative
cl
classifier
cIt
clitic
com
comitative
cond
conditional
cont
contrary to fact
dat
dative
dep
dependent (aspects)
dir
directional
dist
distributive
ds
directional suffix
emph
emphatic
encl
enclitic
i
intransitive
x
ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE EXAMPLES
ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE EXAMPLES
imp
imperative
RN
relational noun
inf
infinitive
spec term
specific termination of action derivational
inj
interjection
inst
instrument
t
int
interrogative
Is
transitive first person singular
intens
intensifier
2s
second person singular
Loe PRED
locative/existential predicate
3s
third person singular
n
noun
lp
first person plural
suffix
n+adj
noun to adjective derivational suffix
lp ex
first person plural exclusive
n+t
noun to transitive derivational suffix
lp in
first person plural inclusive
neg
negative
2p
second person plural
ord num
ordinal number
3p
third person plural
p
positional
IsA, etc.
first person singular absolutive, etc.
p+i
positional to intransitive derivational suffix
IsE, etc.
first person singular ergative, etc.
p+t
positional to transitive derivational suffix
Is emph, etc. first person singular emphatic marker, etc.
part
participle
pas
passive
pas?
¢ passive or agentless transitive, depending
pat
patient
perf
perfective
on analysis
plural pos
possessive
pos adj
positional adjective
pot
potential
proc
processive
proc imp
processive imperative
proc pas
processive passive
prog
progressive
rec
recent past
refl
reflexive
reI
relative marker
xi
Note:
Person prefixes are marker I, 2, 3 sip although the
interpretation 1epends on the enclitics. marked I, 2 sip. on verbs.
Enclitics are also
Absolutive/ergative distinctions are marked
Nonverbal predicates are marked absolutive to dis
tinguish the markers from the enclitics for person, which are contiguous.
Noun possessive prefixes are not marked 'erga
tive' althouph the prefixes for possession are the same as the ergative markers. Morphemes in the examples and glosses are separated by a -. A slash within a gloss is used to further qualify the gloss; e.g. RN/in means 'relational noun meaning in'.
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INTRODUCTION
In response to an advertisement from the Proyecto Lingu!stico Francisco Marroquin (PLFM) calling for linguists to work on Mayan languages, I arrived in Guatemala in August, 1971, with: a master's degree in anthropological linguistics and experi ence working on American languages, solid training in descrip tive field linguistics, and a determination to successfully tackle my own first language in a "real" field situation. also arrived without:
I
being able to speak Spanish, knowing
which Mayan language I was to work on, or having had any pre vious experience living outside the eastern United States. The PLFM taught me Spanish. Terrence Kaufman taught me about Mayan languages. and living in Guatemala for two and a half years taught me to love fieldwork, to love Mayan. and to respect and understand something about the people who speak Mayan languages. During my stay in Guatemala I lived in the town of San Ildefonso Ixtahuacan, in the household of a Mayan family who speak Mam, for a total of several months, and visited friends in that and other villages on many occasions.
People were
very generous in permitting me to share in their daily and festival routines.
These experiences, along with the teaching
of Charles Wagley, Alexander Moore, and William Carter, and the field companionship and conversstio.n with Anne Farber and Kay Warren, helped me to learn about the people.
Linguistic
training by Martha Hardman and Terrence Kaufman gave me the background for this study, which many other Mayan linguists, especially Will Norman. aided and abetted as our paths crossed and recrossed in the field and at meetings.
The people of
4
INTRODUCTION
San Ildefonso Juan
Ord~nez
INTRODUCTION
Ixtahuac~n.
especially Juan Maldonado
Andr~s,
Domingo, and Juan Ortiz Domingo (there are only
20 surnames and almost as few first names used in enabled me to learn Mam.
Ixtahuac~n)
That I speak it indifferently is
not their fault but mine; that I understand its structure is due to their patience and diligence in guiding me through its intricacies. Intricate it certainly is.
My purpose in writing a gram
mar of Mam has been to explain, as clearly as I can, how the
BELIZ E It PHil
language works.
Mam has the (undeserved) reputation of being
the most difficult of the Mayan languages.
Once the sounds,
which are indeed more troublesome than those of other Mayan MEXICO
languages, are learned it is no more nor less difficult than any other--which is to say that it is a complex language quite different from any European language and at times mad taU ltU'U
deningly opaque to the outsider, but learnable, speakable, and analyzable.
This grammar is offered as a glimpse into
a people's mind, as reflected in their language, and also as
Alta ,UIHI
grist for the mill of linguistic theory. Several colleagues were very kind and helpful in reading parts of the manuscript and sharing their comments with me. They are Judith Aissen, Colette Craig, Martha Hardman, Terrence Kaufman, William Ladusaw, and John Watanabe.
Victoria R.
Bricker encouraged me more than she perhaps knows to start, and finish, writing it. the field.
Laura Martin shared a great deal in
Susan Flinspach and Becky Miller compiled the in
dex, and Cynthia Otis Charlton helped prepare the final copy.
FIGURE
THE MAM AREA IN GUATEMALA
1.
THE LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE
Mam, spoken in the northwestern highlands of Guatemala (figure I), is one of the twenty-four to thirty extant Mayan languages whose
live in Guatemala and Mexico (Kaufman 1974:
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5
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INTRODUCTION
U'II • n.ULI",,'- • •U!'II
35).
It belongs to the Mamean branch of the Eastern Mayan
languages, along with its closest neighbors: Aguacatec (figure 2).
Kekch!
Teco, Ixi1, and
Although an Eastern language,
!~m
Pocomch!
is
Pocomam
bordered on the north and west by Western Mayan languages and
Quich~
shares a number of characteristics with them which are not shared by the Ouichean branch of the Eastern languages.
Sipacapefio
It
,~
Sacapu1tec
is the third largest of the Mayan languages, after Quiche and
Tzutujil
Cakchique1, with more than 439,000 speakers living in 56 dif
Cakchique1
ferent towns and speaking at least 15 distinct dialects which
Uspantec
can be divided into three major divisions (figure 3) (Kaufman _------Mam Teco
---==-
1976b and the 1973 Guatemalan census). The dialect of Mam which this grammar describes is that
Northern group of Mam dialects.
It belongs to the
Languages in the Mamean
group are few but quite distinct from each other.
None are
mutually intelligible with the possible exception of Teco and Western Mam. dialects.
~
Ixil Jaca1tec
~
~