A Geography of Russia and Its Neighbors [2 ed.] 1462544614, 9781462544615

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A GEOGRAPHY OF RUSSIA AND ITS NEIGHBORS

Other Books on Regional Geography Africa South of the Sahara: A Geographical Interpretation, Third Edition Robert Stock China: A Geographical Perspective David W. S. Wong, Kenneth K. K. Wong, Him Chung, and James J. Wang Cuban Landscapes: Heritage, Memory, and Place Joseph L. Scarpaci and Armando H. Portela The Europeans: A Geography of People, Culture, and Environment, Second Edition Robert C. Ostergren and Mathias Le Bossé Latin America: Regions and People, Second Edition Robert B. Kent

A Geography of Russia and Its Neighbors SECOND EDITION

Mikhail S. Blinnikov

THE GUILFORD PRESS New York  London

Copyright © 2021 The Guilford Press A Division of Guilford Publications, Inc. 370 Seventh Avenue, Suite 1200, New York, NY 10001 www.guilford.com All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America This book is printed on acid-free paper. Last digit is print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Blinnikov, Mikhail S., author. Title: A geography of Russia and its neighbors / Mikhail S. Blinnikov. Description: Second edition. | New York : The Guilford Press, 2021. |   Includes bibliographical references and index. | Identifiers: LCCN 2020025709 | ISBN 9781462544592 (paperback) |   ISBN 9781462544615 (cloth) Subjects: LCSH: Russia (Federation)—Geography. | Former Soviet  republics—Geography. Classification: LCC DK510.28 .B55 2021 | DDC 914.7—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020025709

Preface

The Need for This Book Northern Eurasia (former Soviet Union [FSU]), including Russia, is a major world region that is rarely covered in English-language geography textbooks. A number of excellent textbooks published about the region in the 1990s have not been reprinted (see Further Reading in Chapter 1). There is no shortage of good books on Russia’s history and politics, but regional, cultural, or even physical geography remains relatively understudied by outsiders, and there are as yet few if any adequate translations of existing Russian college-level textbooks. This textbook is the second edition of the successful text released by The Guilford Press in 2011. That edition was widely adopted by the English-language instructors all around the world. This new edition reflects many changes that have happened recently and benefits from extensive reviewer and customer feedback. Organization The book is organized in a traditional way, with the topical geographies (physical, political, cultural, and economic) discussed sequentially. This is followed by a few regional chapters on all major regions of Russia and the remaining

14 former Soviet republics. Such a “scissors” approach reflects the familiar two sides of geography (Gersmehl, 2014), namely, topical and subregional, and allows each instructor to customize teaching using only one of the two, or both. While it is generally expected that the book will be read from the first to the last chapter, some moving around is expected and even encouraged. Many chapters have cross-references to material included in other chapters, but there is relatively little repetition. New Coverage in This Edition The new edition has been thoroughly updated with respect to population, economic, and political data since 2011. Most datasets used here are from 2018, with some data available from 2019. Approximately 80 figures were either updated or replaced, and a few new figures were added. Most are now available in full color on the companion website. While most photographs were taken by me, approximately 25 other people from the region contributed their photographs, and most have not been published elsewhere. Many maps were professionally produced by Dr. Jeff ­Torguson of St. Cloud State University, a renowned American thematic cartographer. We decided to keep

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Preface

some of the old maps from the previous edition, when no major changes were needed. While some reviewers and students expressed a desire to see more diverse sets of maps, we decided to keep a relatively small amount due to the book’s size constraints. However, a few new maps in the second edition will be undoubtedly useful, and we added a few new data tables and charts. A number of key political changes have happened in the region that required some major updates. The most significant, arguably, was the political crisis in Ukraine in the spring of 2014 that led to Russia’s intervention in Donbass and the controversial “return” (annexation) of Crimea. This issue alone warranted an addition of a separate chapter on Ukraine and Crimea. Some major political and economic shifts have also occurred in Russia—for example, the return of Vladimir Putin to the presidency in 2012 and a major slowdown in Russia’s economy since 2014, under foreign sanctions imposed by Western powers because of the situation in Ukraine. Central Asian republics have seen changes in their top leadership (e.g., the death of Islam Karimov in Uzbekistan in 2016 and the resignation of Nursultan Nazarbayev as the president of Kazakhstan in 2019), while Belarus, Moldova, and the Caucasus republics have likewise experienced a number of political changes. From a geographic perspective, some major changes added to the new edition include shifts in the Russian airline industry, slowdown in manufacturing, rise in export-oriented grain agriculture, tourist flows in and out of the region, shifts in Russia’s landscapes of leisure and associated consumer class, expansion of the city of Moscow, addition of two new subjects of the Russian Federation (Crimea and the city of Sevastopol), and increased engagement of Russianbacked forces in the conflicts in Syria, Libya, and the Central African Republic. There have been a number of fascinating, and sometimes terrifying, developments in the political sphere between Russia and the United States, some of which have produced certain geographical impacts (e.g., the renewed arms race between the two and the discontinuation of a number of academic exchange programs between schools and universities). Not everything could be included, but most relevant items were.

Pedagogical Features The textbook has a number of pedagogical features that should assist the instructors and the students: • The vignettes (usually one per chapter) provide opportunities to highlight a major issue, tell a personal story, or list some important items that one needs to know. • End-of-chapter review questions and exercises help students to recall needed material from each chapter and to create in- and out-of-class assignments for the instructors. These might include, for example, role-playing games, enhanced online homework, or opportunities to write in-depth essays. • End-of-chapter further reading and websites contain the most up-to-date literature and online sources. The readings are necessarily selective and subjective, but many more recent articles and books have been included, as compared to the first edition. All websites listed in the book were active as of the fall of 2020, but their availability cannot be guaranteed. • The companion website contains all of the book’s figures, downloadable as four-color or gray-scale images. In addition, the book has a thorough index at the end to look up specific place names, personalities, and various keywords. The Audience for the Book This volume is ideally suited to second- or thirdyear college students who are taught primarily in English. Above all, I was striving to provide lucid and engaging prose, not overly academic or comprehensive. The book can be a gateway to a lifelong learning adventure through using many other books on the region and, above all, actual engagement with the region through travel. It may appeal to advanced high school students interested in the regional geography of the world. It can be of some assistance to graduate students and of interest to the general audience to quickly gain some general knowledge about the region. For example, one of the instructors who adopted



Preface vii

the textbook has since traveled with me in Russia. The treatment of FSU republics other than Russia is complementary but is not at all at the level that would be needed for teaching courses on those subregions. However, many good references to the relevant literature are included here. While most of the relevant comparisons are with the United States, some are with the United Kingdom or other European countries, and Canadian or Australian audiences will have no trouble following along. I hope that some students in Asia, Africa, or Latin America will also

be able to use the book. There are many excellent specialized geography textbooks in Russian (see Further Reading at the end of each chapter), and one can and must add to their knowledge by utilizing those texts, whenever possible.

Š Further Reading Gersmehl, P. (2014). Teaching geography (3rd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.

Acknowledgments

I

express deepest gratitude to all the supporting staff at The Guilford Press, especially editor C. Deborah Laughton, Katherine Sommer, and Robert Sebastiano. I have enjoyed many months of productive collaboration (and travels in the region in 2015!) with the cartographer Jeff ­Torguson, who is also a personal friend. Over 20 other people provided their excellent photographs of the regional landscapes and topics, many of which were taken in locations I did not manage to get to yet. Five professional colleagues

provided insightful and constructive reviews: Joel Quam, College of DuPage; Roman Zlotin, Indiana University; John Tiegenbacher, Texas State; Randy Bertolas, Wayne State; and Liza Swryzhevska, Miami University of Ohio. Their ideas were tremendously helpful in improving the manuscript. Finally, I am very grateful to my wife, Larisa, for her kind support, and my son, Oleg, who sacrificed some playtime with his daddy so that this project could be finished on time.

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Contents



Metric Units and Their Equivalents

CHAPTER 1. Introduction: Russia and Post‑Soviet Northern Eurasia

xvii

1

What to Study: Russia or the Former Soviet Union?  1 The Organization of This Book  4 A Note on Russian Names and the Metric System  5 Further Reading  5

PART I.   Physical Geography CHAPTER 2. Relief and Hydrography

9

The Main Physical Features  9 The Geological History of Northern Eurasia  11 River Systems  16 Lakes 18 Coastlines and Islands  19 The Impact of Northern Eurasia’s Topography on Humans  20 Review Questions  21 Exercises 21 Further Reading  21 Website 21

CHAPTER 3. Climate What Factors Create a Particular Type of Climate?  22 Climates at Different Destinations  24 Human Adaptations  30

Vignette 3.1.  Living with Permafrost  32 Vignette 3.2.  Almaty, a City Designed with Climate in Mind  33 The Effects of Climate Change  34

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Review Questions  36 Exercises 36 Further Reading  36 Websites 36

CHAPTER 4. Biomes

37

Tundra 39 Taiga 40 Mixed and Deciduous Forests  42

Vignette 4.1.  Traveling through Biomes and Seasons with the Russian Painters  43 Forest–Steppe and Steppe  45 Desert 46

Vignette 4.2.  Vasily Dokuchaev: The Founder of Soil Science  47 Other Biomes  48 Review Questions  50 Exercises 50 Further Reading  51 Websites 51

CHAPTER 5. Environmental Degradation and Conservation

52

Air Pollution  52 Water Pollution  55 Nuclear and Toxic Waste  57 Biodiversity Conservation  60

Vignette 5.1.  Saving Nature . . . by Teaching Kids  62 Review Questions  64 Exercises 65 Further Reading  65 Websites 66

PART II.  History and Politics CHAPTER 6. Formation of the Russian State

69

Early History (850–1480 C.E.) 71

Vignette 6.1.  Slavic Gods  73

Maturity and the Great Tsars (1480–1917)  74 The Soviet Period (1917–1991)  77 The Post‑Soviet Period (1991 to the Present)  78

Vignette 6.2.  Current Boundaries of Russia  80 Review Questions  81 Exercises 81 Further Reading  81 Websites 82

CHAPTER 7. The Soviet Legacy Territorial Administrative Structure  84 Political Structure  86 The Impact of Collectivization and Industrialization  88

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Contents xi

Cultural Sovietization  92 Achievements and Problems of the Late Soviet Period  94

Vignette 7.1.  The Moscow State University Building: One of the Projects of Stalinism  96 Review Questions  98 Exercises 98 Further Reading  98 Websites 99

CHAPTER 8. Post‑Soviet Reforms

100

Gorbachev’s Perestroika  100 The End of the Soviet Union  105 Yeltsin: “Painful, but Quick” Reforms?  107 A New Political Structure: The Russian Federation  109 Privatization and the Rise of the Oligarchs  113 Hitting Bottom: The Default of 1998  115 Putin Rising: The Beginning of a New Order  115

Vignette 8.1.  The Evolution of Retail Establishments on a Typical Moscow Street  117 Vignette 8.2.  The New and Old Regional Units of the Russian Federation  120 The Kremlin Corporation and Putin Forever?  123 Other FSU Republics  124 Review Questions  125 Exercises 125 Further Reading  126 Websites 126

CHAPTER 9. The Geopolitical Position of Russia in the World

127

Vignette 9.1.  Strategic Kaliningrad  130 Russia’s Neighbors  131 Is Russia Asian or European?  138 Review Questions  140 Exercises 141 Further Reading  141 Websites 141

PART III.  Cultural and Social Geography CHAPTER 10. Demographics and Population Distribution Population Numbers  145

Vignette 10.1.  Portrait of a Typical Russian Family Today  149 Vignette 10.2.  Brides and Adopted Children from the FSU in the United States  153 Population Distribution  154 Nationalities 157 Demographics in Other FSU Republics  157 Review Questions  159 Exercises 159 Further Reading  159 Websites 159

145

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Contents

CHAPTER 11. Cities and Villages

160

History of Urbanization and City Functional Types in Russia and the U.S.S.R.  161 Urban Demographics  165 Urban Structure  167 Post‑Soviet Changes  169

Vignette 11.1.  Typical Daytime Travels of a Sixth-Grade Student in a Large Soviet City in the 1970s  171 Between Big and Small  172 Rural Settlements: The Woes of the Russian Village  173 Cities and Villages in Other Countries of the FSU  176 Review Questions  177 Exercises 177 Further Reading  177 Websites 178

CHAPTER 12. Social Issues: Health, Wealth, Poverty, and Crime

179

The Legacy of the Soviet Health Care System  179 Post‑Soviet Declines in Health Care and Health  181 Income and Wealth Distribution  184 Poverty and Welfare  188 Crime and Punishment  191 Health, Income Distribution, and Crime in Other FSU Republics  193 Review Questions  195 Exercises 195 Further Reading  195 Websites 197

CHAPTER 13. Cultures and Languages

198

Languages of Northern Eurasia/the FSU  198 Indo‑European Languages  199

Vignette 13.1.  Twenty-Five Russian Authors You May Wish to Read  204 Altaic Languages  207

Vignette 13.2.  How to Say “Hello” in 15 Languages of the FSU  209 Who Are the Tatars?  210 Uralic Languages  211 Other Languages  213 Review Questions  213 Exercises 214 Further Reading  214 Websites 214

CHAPTER 14. Religion, Diet, and Dress Main Religions of Russia and Other FSU Countries  216 The Orthodox Church: Origins and Beliefs  217 Orthodox Religious Landscapes  218 The Impact of Orthodoxy (and Other Religions) on Culture in the FSU  222 Islam in Russia and Other FSU States  223 Other Faiths in the FSU  225 Judaism 227 Nonreligious People and the Politics of Religion in Russia Today  228

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Contents xiii

Diet 231 Dress 233 Review Questions  235 Exercises 235 Further Reading  235 Websites 236

CHAPTER 15. Education, Arts, Sciences, and Sports

237

Education 237 Arts 248

Vignette 15.1.  The Russian Ark: The State Hermitage Museum  249 Vignette 15.2.  A List of Must-See Russian Films  253 Sciences 254 Sports 259 Review Questions  261 Exercises 261 Further Reading  261 Websites 261

CHAPTER 16. Tourism

262

The Main Recreational Areas of the U.S.S.R.  263 Tourism to and from Russia Today  265 The Main Forms of Tourism in Russia and Other FSU Countries  266

Vignette 16.1.  Touring the Golden Mountains of the Altay  273 Other Forms of Tourism  278 Review Questions  279 Exercises 280 Further Reading  281 Websites 281

PART IV.  Economics CHAPTER 17. Oil, Gas, and Other Energy Sources

285

The Role of the Energy Sector in the Overall Russian Economy  285 Petroleum 288

Vignette 17.1.  The Swan Song of Yukos  291 Natural Gas  292 Coal 295 Nuclear Energy  296

Vignette 17.2.  Off the Energy Grid in a Russian Village  297 Renewable Energy Sources  297 Review Questions  300 Exercises 301 Further Reading  301 Websites 301

CHAPTER 18. Heavy Military–Industrial Complex Secret Nuclear Cities  303 Iron Ore and Steel  305

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Contents

Nonferrous Metals  307 Heavy Manufacturing  308 The Chemical Industry  314 Review Questions  316 Exercises 316 Further Reading  316 Websites 317

CHAPTER 19. Light Industry and Consumer Goods

318

Food Processing  320 Textiles, Shoes, and Clothes  322 Book Publishing  324 Review Questions  327 Exercises 327 Further Reading  327 Websites 327

CHAPTER 20. Fruits of the Earth: Agriculture, Hunting, Fishing, and Forestry

328

Soviet Agriculture and the Post‑Soviet Transition Period  328

Vignette 20.1. Valentina’s Dacha  330

Patterns of Agricultural Production Today  332 Food Imports and the Future of Russian Agriculture  339 Hunting and Freshwater Fishing  340 Marine Fisheries  341 Timber Production  342 Review Questions  345 Exercises 345 Further Reading  346 Websites 346

CHAPTER 21. Infrastructure and Services

347

Transport Near and Far  348 High‑Tech Russia  360

Vignette 21.1.  Runet Takes Off  363 Retail and Leisure Services  364 Review Questions  368 Exercises 368 Further Reading  368 Websites 369

PART V.  Regional Geography of Russia and Other FSU States CHAPTER 22. Central Russia: The Heart of the Country Physical Geography  375 Cultural and Historical Features  377 Economics 379 Challenges and Opportunities in Central Russia  382 Exercises 383 Further Reading  383

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Contents xv

CHAPTER 23. Russia’s Northwest: Fishing, Timber, and Culture

385

Physical Geography  387 Cultural and Historical Features  389 Economics 390 Exercises 393 Further Reading  393

CHAPTER 24. The Volga: Cars, Food, and Energy

394

Physical Geography  397 Cultural and Historical Features  397 Economics 399

Vignette 24.1.  Profile of Kazan  400

Challenges and Opportunities in the Volga Region  403 Exercises 404 Further Reading  404

CHAPTER 25. The Caucasus: Cultural Diversity and Political Instability

405

Physical Geography  408 Cultural and Historical Features  409

Vignette 25.1.  Abkhazia: Struggling, but Defiant  410 Economics 411 Challenges and Opportunities in the Caucasus  416 Exercises 417 Further Reading  417

CHAPTER 26. The Urals: Metallurgy, Machinery, and Fossil Fuels

419

Physical Geography  419 Cultural and Historical Features  422 Economics 423 Challenges and Opportunities in the Urals Region  425 Exercises 426 Further Reading  426

CHAPTER 27. Siberia: Great Land

428

Physical Geography  429 Cultural and Historical Features  433

Vignette 27.1.  Profile of Biysk  434

Economics 435 Challenges and Opportunities in Siberia  436 Exercises 437 Further Reading  437

CHAPTER 28. The Far East: The Russian Pacific Physical Geography  439 Cultural and Historical Features  441 Economics 442 Challenges and Opportunities in the Far East  445 Exercises 446 Further Reading  446

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CHAPTER 29. The Baltics: Europeysky, Not Sovetsky 447 Physical Geography  448 Cultural and Historical Features  449 Economics 449 Challenges and Opportunities in the Baltics  452 Exercises 453 Further Reading  454

CHAPTER 30. Belarus and Moldova: Eastern Europeans

455

Physical Geography  457 Cultural and Historical Features  458 Economics 460 Challenges and Opportunities in Belarus and Moldova  462 Exercises 462 Further Reading  463

CHAPTER 31. Ukraine and Crimea: Together or Not?

464

Physical Geography  465 Cultural and Historical Features  467 Economics 470 The Conflict in Donbass  471 Crimea 474 Exercises 478 Further Reading  478

CHAPTER 32. Kazakhstan and Central Asia: The Heart of Eurasia

480

Physical Geography  480 Cultural and Historical Features  482 Economics 484 Challenges and Opportunities in Central Asia  490 Exercises 491 Further Reading  491

CHAPTER 33. Epilogue: Engaging with Post‑Soviet Northern Eurasia

493

Russia 2025  494 Future Europeans?  496 The Central Asian States  496 Engaging with the FSU Yourself  497

Index

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518

About the Author Purchasers of this book can access over 200 original maps, photographs, tables, and other figures—many in color—along with bulleted text lists available as PowerPoint slides at www.guilford.com/blinnikov-materials.

Metric Units and Their Equivalents 1 kilometer (km) = 1,000 m, or about 0.621 miles 1 meter (m) = about 3.28 feet, or 1.09 yards 100 mm of precipitation = about 3.937 inches 1 hectare (ha) = 100 × 100 m, or about 2.471 acres 1 square meter = 100 × 100 cm, or about 10.76 square feet 1 metric tonne = 1,000 kg, or about 1.1 short tons 1 kilogram (kg) = 1,000 g, or about 2.2 pounds 1 liter (L) = 1,000 ml, or about 1.06 quarts or 0.26 gallons

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CHAPTER 1

Introduction Russia and Post‑Soviet Northern Eurasia

R

ussia is a country unlike any other. It occupies much of the world’s largest landmass, Eurasia; it stretches across 11 time zones; and it covers over 17 million km2. Its average climate is the coldest of any country on earth. Its land is extremely varied, with large plains and bogs, forests and deserts, rivers and lakes. Underneath its soil are thousands of tons of precious and semiprecious metals; millions of pounds of iron ore, bauxite, and coal; billions of barrels of oil; and trillions of cubic meters of natural gas. Its peoples are numerous and diverse, speaking over 130 languages. Its main language, Russian, is among the world’s 10 most common and has produced some of the greatest literary works. Russia is also home to world-class fine and performing arts. Its temples and museums display the precious heritage of countless generations and are admired the world over. The two main religious traditions of its former empire—Orthodox Christianity and Sunni Islam—have had tremendous internal influence and are becoming more widespread in the rest of the world. Russia sent the first humanmade object into space, as well as the first human to orbit the earth. In the 20th century it helped defeat Nazism, but it also nearly destroyed itself in one of the bloodiest dictatorships ever known. This country remains an enigma to outsiders and even to some people within its own borders. A

full appreciation of Russia requires a firm grasp of geography. This book attempts to deliver a balanced presentation of the physical, historical/ political, cultural/social, economic, and regional geography of Russia today. Although Russia is its main focus, the book also discusses other republics that were once part of the Soviet Union, so it should prove useful to a variety of courses on post-Soviet Eurasia. What to Study: Russia or the Former Soviet Union? Many teachers of college classes on post-Soviet geography face the dilemma of whether to cover Russia only or the entire former Soviet Union (FSU). In the United States during the Cold War period, courses on the region covered the U.S.S.R. as a whole. What do we do now, almost 30 years after the Soviet Union fell apart? Some faculty no longer teach courses about the FSU as a whole at all. They may teach a course on Russia and another one on the emerging economies of Central Asia, for example. The three Baltic republics have joined the European Union (EU) and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and are now routinely treated as part of greater Europe, to which they rightfully belong.

1

2

Introduction

Ukraine is so large and complex that it might merit a textbook and a class of its own. Nevertheless, although this book focuses mainly on Russia, it looks at all the FSU republics. All these republics were included for 50–70 years in one political entity that had a profound impact on them. Many of the processes that shaped the regional distinctions no longer operate today, but the geographic patterns persist. There is still enough commonality among the countries in question to merit an overall discussion of what is going on in the FSU (which some believe may now be better referred to as simply “Northern Eurasia”). Besides the centrifugal tendencies that have forced these countries apart, there are also centripetal forces that have helped maintain some common identity for all 15 of them. One such force is the presence of numerous Russian speakers throughout the region. Another is heavy dependence on Russia for energy supplies, especially natural gas and electricity. Even the stubbornly independent Ukraine and Georgia are pragmatic enough to understand their reliance on their big neighbor. Economic patterns of production, once disrupted by the chaos of reforms, are likewise not all that different from the old Soviet ones. Kazakhstan, Belarus, and Russia remain particularly heavily interlinked with each other and are the most industrialized; the trans-Caucasian republics, Moldova, and the Central Asian states are more agricultural and less closely linked with either each other or the industrialized three but remain somewhat interdependent. Ukraine is both an industrial and agricultural giant of its own and is exploring a new path in the aftermath of the 2014 change in power. Yet, it too remains bound to Russia in some important economic and social activities. For example, despite the recent tensions over Crimea and Donbass, Ukraine and Russia remain connected by a vast network of gas and oil pipelines and more than a million Ukrainians have left for Russia in search of better living conditions since 2014. In each discussion of a topic, this book addresses Russia first and to the greatest degree. Additional material on the other republics is included whenever it is necessary. Part V of the book provides brief regional summaries about parts of Russia and various FSU republics (see

Figure 1.1) and may be used as a quick reference or as a guide for more in-depth reading in advanced classes. But first let’s discuss various terms referring to the region: • Rus was the ancient state of the eastern Slavs, centered on Kiev (Kyiv), Ukraine. It existed before Russians, Ukrainians, and Belarusians became separate peoples, between ca. 800 and 1250 C.E. Gradually, power shifted northward, to Moscow, where the Muscovy princedom evolved into a new and powerful state. • The Russian Empire was the state centered on Moscow and St. Petersburg as its capitals; it existed from the 17th century until 1917. • The Soviet Union (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, or U.S.S.R.) existed between 1922 and 1991. • The former Soviet Union (FSU) consists of the 15 republics that now make up this region. The adjective to describe these would be “postSoviet.” • The term newly independent states (NIS) refers to the same area. NIS was in common usage in the 1990s but is rarely used now (they are no longer “newly” independent). • The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is a loose alliance of nine republics (also Georgia, Ukraine, and Turkmenistan having various degrees of affiliation), excluding the Baltic states. This once promising alliance is no longer of much use in practice. The Eurasian Economic Union (established in 2015 with five members) aims to gradually replace CIS as a common market and customs space. • Russia and the Near Abroad is an ambiguous term commonly used in Russia to describe the region, although geographically Finland or Mongolia could be added because they border Russia and are thus “near.” Moreover, some FSU republics do not border Russia at all, so this term is best avoided. • Northern Eurasia is a good physical definition of the region; it is now frequently used by geographers who wish to avoid a political stance. It is politically neutral and clearly describes the position of the region on the world’s map. There is a problem with it, however: Few people who are not geography majors have any idea what or where this thing is.

Italy

Se

ary

ria

3

Saudi Arabia

5 6

7

S ea

Iraq

Syria

Turkey

Bl a

Istanbul

*

7

4 Ukraine

Romania

ga

Belarus

Iran

Tehran

Tu rk

1

tic Sea

3 2

Ba l

Poland

Germany

U

Moscow

Finland

Sweden

Norway

Sea

France

rbi a

l Bu

Caspia n

g

China

Mongolia

Lake Baikal

Beijing

South Korea

in 2014 are not internationally recognized

1 - Estonia 2 - Latvia 3 - Lithuania 4 - Moldova 5 - Georgia 6 - Armenia 7 - Azerbaijan * subjects annexed by Russia

FIGURE 1.1. Russia and other Northern Eurasian republics. Map: J. Torguson.

Afghanistan

Tajikistan

Kyrgyzstan

Kazakhstan

Russia

Arctic Ocean

North Korea

Sea of Okhotsk

United States

J

Tokyo

Bering Sea

ap an

Hu n

ck

stan eki zb n ista en m

4

Introduction

• The Russian Realm may not be a bad title for a documentary film, but it is too Russiacentered to be of much use. On the one hand, the Russian sphere of influence in the world today extends into Israel or the United Kingdom through immigrants, for example, but this does not make those countries part of the region in question. On the other hand, some countries in the region—for example, Georgia and Turkmenistan—have very few Russians left and have little to do with Russia proper. • Siberia is a region within Russia, extending east of the Ural Mountains to the Lena River watershed. It is not a separate country. Everything west of the Urals is European Russia, while everything east of the Lena is the Russian Far East (or Russian Pacific). The Organization of This Book This book is organized into five parts, covering physical geography; history and politics; cultural and social geography; economics; and regional geography. Part I, the physical geography section, covers the natural environment. Issues of environmental degradation and conservation are addressed at the end of this section because they are based on humans’ interactions with nature and thus provide a link to Parts II–IV. Part II briefly discusses historical and current political events, as a bridge between Part I and the remainder of the book. However, this book is not a history text, and students are encouraged to read additional sources on specific events in Russian and Soviet history, as needed. There are dozens of excellent books about the history of the region; some are included in the Further Reading lists at the ends of these chapters. Part III, covering cultural and social geography, discusses population distribution; urban and rural patterns; social issues of income and health; cultures and languages; religions; and many other patterns. Whenever possible, examples are given from different republics. Part IV, on economics, focuses on the current patterns of production in the FSU. One important statistic that I commonly use is gross domestic product (GDP) or gross regional product

(GRP). When comparisons are made with other countries or regions, these are adjusted for purchasing power parity (PPP), based on the methodology used in the CIA World Factbook. The currencies of the countries discussed here are greatly undervalued in the world financial markets, so one must account for differences in prices between, say, the United States and Russia, to make a meaningful comparison. I have done this by using GRP PPP. There are some alternative measures of this, but I use the most commonly available one. Part V, on regional geography, can serve as a handy reference. It is fairly concise, but its chapters provide brief descriptions of each main region of Russia and of all other republics. It complements the earlier thematic chapters well, but it can be skipped or incorporated into the study of specific topics. For example, the chapter on Central Asia (Chapter 32) complements the discussion of water problems in the Aral Sea in Chapter 5. Each chapter in Parts I–IV has sections dealing with specific subtopics pertaining to Russia. Usually, the last section of each chapter is devoted to a discussion of the other republics in order to examine their similarities and contrasts with Russia. Classes that deal exclusively with Russia may skip that section. The Russia-centered parts of each chapter make some references to other republics, as appropriate. Each chapter (except in Part V) ends with a set of Review Questions that can be answered as part of in-class discussion or homework. As a rule, these questions can be answered by using the textbook itself. Exercises are more involved tasks; they will typically require access to the Internet or a good library. Again, they may be completed either in class or at home. Some have been specifically designed as group projects. Further Reading lists can be used for additional study, though they are by no means exhaustive. This new, second edition has added many recent articles and books to the lists. The suggested Websites in most chapters in Parts I–IV are useful but of course are subject to frequent change. They were all available as of the fall semester of 2019. Vignettes in some chapters contain case studies, personal stories, or technical notes.



Introduction 5

A Note on Russian Names and the Metric System I follow a modified version of the Library of Congress Russian-to-English transliteration system. In some cases, the accepted common spellings are used instead (e.g., Yeltsin, not El’tsin). I prefer to omit apostrophes that represent palatalized consonant sounds not found in English (e.g., Ob River, not Ob’ River). Also, wherever possible and for the sake of consistency, I use the Russian names for place names in other republics—for instance, Kiev (Russian), not Kyiv (Ukrainian, which is also now the official spelling approved by the U.S. federal government). In many instances, local spelling may be added in parentheses. The Russian alphabet is provided as a reference in Chapter 13. Geographic names have been checked against Merriam-Webster’s Pocket Geographical Dictionary (1999). Some names not found there have been transliterated to the best of my ability. I use metric units throughout the book because these are the only ones used in the region. A list of these units and their U.S. equivalents is provided in the front of this book, after the table of contents.

Š Further Reading These are either English- or Russian-language general sources on geography that can be consulted for additional information. Many are textbooks or monographs. This is by no means a comprehensive list; dozens of books on history and political science could be added. Specific topical readings, including some journal articles, are provided at the end of each subsequent chapter. „ Sources in English

Bater, J. H. (1996). Russia and the post-Soviet scene. London: Arnold. Berg, L. S. (1950). Natural regions of the U.S.S.R. New York: Macmillan. Brunn, S. D., & Toops, S. W. (2010). Atlas of Eurasia. New York: Routledge. Cole, J. P. (1967). A geography of the U.S.S.R. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin Books. Gilbert, M. (1972). Russian history atlas. New York: Macmillan.

Goldman, M. E. (Ed.). (2007). Russia: The Eurasian republics and central/eastern Europe. Global studies (annual editions). Dubuque, IA: McGraw-Hill. Gregory, P., & Stuart, R. (2001). Russian and Soviet economic performance structure. Boston: Addison Wesley Longman. Hill, F., & Gaddy, C. G. (2003). Siberian curse: How Communist planners left Russia out in the cold. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press. Kaiser, R. (1991). The geography of nationalism in Russia and the USSR. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Mathieson, R. S. (1975). The Soviet Union: An economic geography. New York: Barnes & Noble. McKenzie, D., & Curran, M. W. (1986). A history of the Soviet Union. Chicago: Dorsey Press. Pryde, P. R. (1991). Environmental management in the Soviet Union. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Shabad, T. (1950). Geography of the U.S.S.R. New York: Columbia University Press. Shahgedanova, M. (Ed.). (2002). The physical geography of Northern Eurasia. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Shaw, D. J. B. (Ed.). (1995). The post-Soviet republics: A systematic geography. Harlow, UK: Longman. Shaw, D. J. B. (1999). Russia in the modern world: A new geography. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. Symons, L. (1992). The Soviet Union: A systematic geography. New York: Routledge. Tikhomirov, V. (2000). The political economy of postSoviet Russia. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Tomikel, J., & Henderson, B. (1966). Russia and the near abroad. Elgin, PA: Allegheny Press. Trenin, D. (2002). The end of Eurasia: Russia on the ­border between geopolitics and globalization. Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Turnock, D. (Ed.). (2001). East Central Europe and the former Soviet Union: Environment and society. London: Arnold. Wixman, R. (1988). The peoples of the U.S.S.R.: An ethnographic handbook. Armonk, NY: Sharpe. Recommended journals: Eurasian Geography and Economics, Europe-Asia Studies, International Affairs, Post-Soviet Geography, Post-Soviet Geography and Economics, Soviet Geography, Soviet Studies. Recommended magazines: Foreign Policy, National Geographic, Russian Life. Global statistical databases, including those of the Central Intelligence Agency (the CIA World Factbook); the Food and Drug Organization (FAOSTAT); the Population Reference Bureau; the United Nations Development Programme; the

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Introduction

United Nations Environmental Programme; the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization; the World Bank (the World Development Report); and the World Health Organization. „ Sources in Russian, Including Both Classical Works and Modern Texts

Anuchin, V. A. (1972). Teoreticheskiye osnovy geografii. Moscow: Mysl. Atlas Rossii: Design, informatsiya, kartografiya. Moscow: AST-Astrel. Baburin, V. L., & Ratanova, M. P. (Eds.). (2013). Ekonomicheskaya i sotsialnaya geografiya Rossii. Moscow: URSS. Baranskiy, N. N. (1980). Izbrannye trudy (2 vols.). Moscow: Mysl. Berg, L. S. (1947). Geograficheskie zony Sovetskogo Soyuza (2 vols.). Moscow: Geografgiz. Dokuchaev, V. V. (1948). Uchenie o zonakh prirody. Moscow: Geografgiz. Dronov, V. P., Barinova, I. I., Rom, V. Y., & Lobzhanidze, A. A. (2001 and other editions). Geografiya Rossii [8th–9th grades]. Moscow: Drofa. Federalnaya Sluzhba Gosudarstvennoy Statistiki [Federal Service of State Statistics or Rosstat]. Regions of Russia statistics and Russia in numbers. Online at www.gks.ru. Gladkiy, Y. N., Dobroskok, V. A., & Semenov, S. P.

(2000). Sotsialno-ekonomichaskaya geografiya Rossii. Moscow: Drofa. Grigoryev, A. A. (1966). Zakonomernosti stroeniyai razvitiya geograficheskoy sredy. Moscow: Mysl. Gvozdetsky, N. A. (1978). Geograficheskie otkrytiya v SSSR. Moscow: Prosveshchenie. Isachenko, A. G. (1965). Osnovy landshaftovedeniya i fiziko-geograficheskoe rayonirovanie. Moscow: Vyshaya Shkola. Khruschev, A. T. (Ed.). (2006). Ekonomichaskaya i sotsialnaya geografiya Rossii. Moscow: Drofa. Kolosov, V. A., & Mironenko, N. S. (2005). Geopolitika i politicheskaya geografiya. Moscow: Aspekt Press. Kolosovky, N. N. (1969). Teoriya ekonomicheskogo rayonirovaniya. Moscow: Mysl. Plisetsky, E. L. (2004). Sotsialno-ekonomicheskaya geografiya Rossii. Spavochnoe posobie. Moscow: Drofa. Ratanova, M. P. (Ed.). (2006). Ekonomicheskaya I sotsialnaya geografiya stran blizhnego zarubezhya. Moscow: Drofa. Rodoman, B. B. (1999). Territorialnye arealy i seti. Ocherki teoreticheskoy geografii. Smolensk: Oikumena. Rychagov, G.