A Companion to Pastoral Poetry of the English Renaissance 9781526126993

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Besides the formal eclogue, the study covers many genres: lyric, epode, georgic, country-house poem, ballad, romantic epic, drama and prose romance. Major practitioners like Theocritus, Virgil, Sidney, Spenser, Drayton and Milton are discussed individually. The Introduction also charts the many means by which pastoral texts circulated during the Renaissance, with implications for the history and reception of all Early Modern poetry. The poems in the Anthology have been edited from the original manuscripts and early printed texts, and the textual notes comprehensively document the sources and variant readings. There are also notes on the poets and analytical indices of themes, genres, and various categories of proper names. Seldom, if ever, has a cross-section of English Renaissance poetry been textually annotated in such detail.

Sukanta Chaudhuri is Professor Emeritus at Jadavpur University, Kolkata

ISBN 978-1-5261-2698-6

9 781526 126986 www.manchesteruniversitypress.co.uk

A Companion to Pastoral Poetry of the English Renaissance

C HAU DH U R I

Besides being indispensable for full use of the Anthology, the Companion will be invaluable for students and advanced scholars of both the pastoral mode and the poetry of the Renaissance.

A Companion to Pastoral Poetry of the English Renaissance

This is a companion to Pastoral poetry of the English Renaissance: An anthology (2016), the largest ever collection of its kind. The monograph-length Introduction traces the course of pastoral from antiquity to the present day. The historical account is woven into a thematic map of the richly varied pastoral mode, and it is linked to the social context, not only by local allegory and allusion but by its deeper origins and affinities. English Renaissance pastoral is set within the context of this total perspective.

SU KA N TA C HAU DH U R I

A Companion to Pastoral Poetry of the English Renaissance

The Manchester Spenser is a monograph and text series devoted to historical and textual approaches to Edmund Spenser – to his life, times, places, works and contemporaries. A growing body of work in Spenser and Renaissance studies, fresh with confidence and curiosity and based on solid historical research, is being written in response to a general sense that our ability to interpret texts is becoming limited without the excavation of further knowledge. So the importance of research in nearby disciplines is quickly being recognised, and interest renewed: history, archaeology, religious or theological history, book history, translation, lexicography, commentary and glossary – these require treatment for and by students of Spenser. The Manchester Spenser, to feed, foster and build on these refreshed attitudes, aims to publish reference tools, critical, historical, biographical and archaeological monographs on or related to Spenser, from several disciplines, and to publish editions of primary sources and classroom texts of a more wide-ranging scope. The Manchester Spenser consists of work with stamina, high standards of scholarship and research, adroit handling of evidence, rigour of argument, exposition and documentation. The series will encourage and assist research into, and develop the readership of, one of the richest and most complex writers of the early modern period. General Editors Joshua Reid, Kathryn Walls and Tamsin Badcoe Editorial Board Sukanta Chaudhuri, Helen Cooper, Thomas Herron, J. B. Lethbridge, James Nohrnberg and Brian Vickers Also available Literary and visual Ralegh  Christopher M. Armitage (ed.) A Concordance to the Rhymes of The Faerie Queene  Richard Danson Brown & J.B. Lethbridge A Supplement of the Faery Queene: By Ralph Knevet  Christopher Burlinson & Andrew Zurcher (eds) Pastoral poetry of the English Renaissance: An anthology  Sukanta Chaudhuri (ed.) Spenserian allegory and Elizabethan biblical exegesis: A context for The Faerie Queene  Margaret Christian Monsters and the poetic imagination in The Faerie Queene: ‘Most ugly shapes and horrible aspects’  Maik Goth Celebrating Mutabilitie: Essays on Edmund Spenser’s Mutabilitie Cantos  Jane Grogan (ed.) Spenserian satire: A tradition of indirection  Rachel E. Hile Castles and Colonists: An archaeology of Elizabethan Ireland  Eric Klingelhofer Shakespeare and Spenser: Attractive opposites  J.B. Lethbridge (ed.) Dublin: Renaissance city of literature  Kathleen Miller and Crawford Gribben (eds) A Fig for Fortune: By Anthony Copley  Susannah Brietz Monta Spenser and Virgil: The pastoral poems  Syrithe Pugh The Burley manuscript  Peter Redford (ed.) Renaissance psychologies: Spenser and Shakespeare  Robert Reid European erotic romance: Philhellene Protestantism, renaissance translation and English literary politics  Victor Skretkowicz God’s only daughter: Spenser’s Una as the invisible Church  Kathryn Walls

A Companion to Pastoral Poetry of the English Renaissance • SUKANTA CHAUDHURI

Manchester University Press

Copyright © Sukanta Chaudhuri 2018 The right of Sukanta Chaudhuri to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Published by Manchester University Press Altrincham Street, Manchester M1 7JA www.manchesteruniversitypress.co.uk British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978 1 5261 2698 6 hardback First published 2018 The publisher has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for any external or third-party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

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Contents

Acknowledgements page vi Introduction 1  Pastoral 1  Text 103 Textual notes 124 Notes on authors 246 Analytical indices 295   (A) Index of genres 295   (B) Analytical index of themes 296   (C) Pastoral and other fictional names 305   (D) Mythological names and allusions 310   (E) Biblical names and allusions 315   (F) Historical and other personal names and allusions 316   (G) Place-names (geographical and mythological) 319 General index 324

Acknowledgements

The acknowledgements expressed in Pastoral Poetry of the English Renaissance: An Anthology obviously relate equally to this volume. My debt to Julian Lethbridge has greatly increased in the interim. I should also thank Joshua Reid for his support and interest. Finally, thanks to Doyeeta Majumder for invaluable help with the indexing and preparation of copy. Sukanta Chaudhuri Jadavpur University May 2013

Introduction

Pastoral In 1653, Margaret Cavendish wrote ‘A Description of Shepherds and Shepherdesses’: The Shepherdesses which great Flocks doe keep, Are dabl’d high with dew, following their Sheep, Milking their Ewes, their hands doe dirty make; For being wet, dirt from their Duggs doe take.

Their lovers cut ‘some holes in straw’ to play tunes to their Joan, And not as Poets faine, in Sonnets, Rhimes, Making great Kings and Princes Pastures keep, And beauteous Ladies driving flocks of sheep … (#256.1–4, 25–8)1

Cavendish is satirizing a literary tradition well over a hundred years old in England by her time, and almost two thousand years in Europe. Its ostensible subject was shepherds, but shepherds designedly different from those actually populating the countryside, perhaps as tenants or hirelings of landed families like the Cavendishes. The head of another such family, William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke, presents himself as owner-shepherd of a prosperous pastoral scene; but the ‘shepherdess’ he is addressing clearly does not drive sheep to pasture. Fair starry twins, scorn not to shine Upon my Lambs, upon my Kine; My grass doth grow, my Corn and wheat, My fruit, my vines thrive by their heat. (#216.29–32)   1 A number preceded by # indicates a poem number in the Anthology.

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A companion to pastoral poetry

(The ‘starry twins’ are the beloved’s eyes.) Most apparent shepherds of pastoral convention do not, in actuality, either own sheep or look after others’ flocks. Their shepherd’s role is a trope for their true identity, and the landscape they populate is only metaphorically rural. Pastoral is the most disingenuous of literary modes. It is neither folk literature nor popular literature, though it can incorporate elements of one or the other. It does not usually emanate from a rustic source. It is essentially a fiction of rural life created by people who do not live it. Harry Levin offers a cuttingly dispassionate assessment of the place of pastoral in literary culture: For so limited and so limiting a genre, its fortunes have been spectacular, and indeed could not be comprehended except through the emotional charge that it has single-mindedly and repetitively conveyed.2

This is not entirely unfair. Pastoral is often conventional and repetitive. It draws its basic material from just a few sources over a narrow compass, though it applies them to many themes, forms and genres. The vessels change shape, size and colour, but the wine is much the same. For so widely practised a mode, pastoral has produced few masterpieces. But having been established (through Virgil’s example) as the fittest fodder for young poets to cut their teeth on, there is a depressingly high proportion of indifferent or worse output. Yet Levin’s account is not quite fair either. The ‘charge’ activating pastoral is not emotional: much pastoral is too conventional to be emotionally charged, even when treating of love, war or death. Its activating forces are contextual and tropological. The pastoral imagination reaches out from its narrow historical base to take in an almost encyclopedic range of subjects. Its metaphoric premisses, while also narrow, are deeply complex and suggestive, and reinforced with metonymic functions that are little recognized but no less crucial. Pastoral relates two worlds: a foregrounded but notional rural setting and a concealed but decisive courtly or urban origin. Behind these are more fundamental, if less defined, paradigms locating oneself with respect to an Other, relating one’s own dominant and suppressed identities, assessing oneself in terms of what one is not but might have been – perhaps as realized in snatches or in dreams, a holiday as against a workaday entity. Pastoral is often called a literature of nostalgia; but it   2 Harry Levin, The Myth of the Golden Age in the Renaissance, 1969, rpt. New York: Oxford University Press, 1972, p. 7.



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is a communal or societal rather than a personal nostalgia, a longing for something that strikes a deep congenial chord but that one has not experienced in the first place: the nostalgia of the townsman for a countryside where he has not been, yet to which he ‘looks back’ instinctually, almost atavistically, and uses to redefine his being. As he fashions it in his mind, that landscape too comes to be redefined. The presence of this paradigm in all pastoral justifies its designation as a mode rather than a genre. The latter it clearly is not, as it appears in all kinds of formal guises, with very different patterns of structure and diction. In Paul Alpers’s words, it is ‘a broad and flexible category that includes, but is not confined to, a number of identifiable genres’.3 It is rather a way of looking at a particular kind of experience, the rustic, with particular implications for the viewer. To quote Alpers again, a mode ‘is the term we use when we want to suggest that the ethos of a work informs its technique and that techniques imply an ethos’.4 A mode implies a mental design determined by a theme or outlook, not its outwardly visible structure of specific words and word-patterns. Rather, an open-ended repertoire of words and word-patterns is shaped by the theme. Theocritus. Beginnings and ends Unusually for a literary mode, we can trace the evolution of pastoral poetry practically from its moment of birth.5 The earliest instances are some of the Greek idylls (‘little pictures’ or ‘sketches’) of Theocritus (third century bce). Theocritus was born in Syracuse, and intimately knew the countryside of Sicily and the island of Cos. But he spent much of his life in the great city of Alexandria, at the Emperor’s court. His twelve pastoral idylls (some doubtfully his),6 scattered among eighteen on various other themes, clearly owe something to the actual folk poetry he heard from the lips of shepherds and other rustics in Cos and Sicily; but he worked them into a more refined compound appealing to the taste of the Ptolemy court, while evoking a vein of pleasurable escape and nostalgia. He may have been drawing on a line of rural or herdsmen’s poetry designated as ‘bucolic’, whose exact nature remains uncertain.7 Perhaps through this  3 Paul Alpers, What Is Pastoral?, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996, p. 44. Alpers’s ch. 2 (‘Mode and Genre’) is notable among recent accounts of this aspect of pastoral, or indeed of the two terms generally.  4 Alpers, What Is Pastoral? p. 49.   5 See David M. Halperin, Before Pastoral. Theocritus and the Ancient Tradition of Bucolic Poetry, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983, p. 2 and the references there.   6 As commonly numbered, Idylls I, III to XI, XX and XXVII.   7 See Halperin, Before Pastoral, pp. 8–23, 75–84.

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special take on an extant tradition, Theocritus created the pastoral to customize the country for the city and court’s consumption, to fashion a locale for a mental holiday. One might need a holiday for all kinds of serious reasons. It is the play of real life behind the pastoral – generating it, framing it, ultimately absorbing it – that lends the latter its complexity and continuing relevance. Equally, pastoral’s raison d’être lies in its difference from real-life settings. When it furnishes a metaphor or allegory for matters closer to hand, the trope is made effective by the contrast between tenor and vehicle. Even when presented singly, free of allusive or allegoric function, the shepherd world is held in implicit tension with the poet’s own. In an undemanding, open-ended way, Theocritus’ pastoral idylls cover a range of themes and structures that would later be assimilated to the contours of the eclogue as standardized through Virgil’s example. As a matter of course, the shepherd is presented as poet and singer: through songs embedded in the text or an exchange of songs or verses, perhaps in the form of a contest – the so-called amoebean (changing, alternating) eclogue. The shepherd as poet-singer is epitomized in the legendary Daphnis, whose death from frustrated love is described by the shepherd Thyrsis in Idyll I. Not only Pan and the wood-gods but Venus herself appear or are evoked. Such an opening to the customary sequence (perhaps no accident) at once frames the pastoral in a broader mythic context, giving a more basic, almost archetypal validation to the new mode of imagination. It also sets up love and death as two basic themes of pastoral. The latter would be memorably taken up by Moschus in his lament for Bion (see p. 6), and cast in allusive mould in Virgil’s account of the death of Gallus in Eclogue X. The former, in happier and lighter vein, is taken up in courtship poems between shepherd lovers and their lasses, but also by the Cyclops Polyphemus wooing the sea-nymph Galatea (Idyll XI). Polyphemus owns vast herds, but obviously this idyll stands at the cusp of pastoral and myth. Its pastoral status was confirmed when Virgil transformed it in his Eclogue II into the human shepherd Corydon’s address to the boy Alexis. Virgil also weaves Theocritus’ non-pastoral Idyll II about the enchantress or pharmaceutrix into an exchange of songs between shepherds in Eclogue VIII. These instances best illustrate the extension and consolidation (by and through Virgil above all) that turn Theocritus’ constructs from a novel idiosyncrasy into an established mode for two thousand years and more. Theocritus was unknown in Western Europe in the Middle Ages. Even



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in the Renaissance, he is a minor presence on the pastoral literary scene, evoked (if at all) more often than enshrined. But he instilled in the pastoral the core impulse of an unselfconscious expression of being: unguided, unmotivated, doing simple things like singing, loving or enjoying the humble delights of nature for no purpose or gain but as a spontaneous, pleasurable exercise. Even the occasional sombre concern, like the death of Daphnis in Idyll I, is framed and distanced within a song by a later shepherd, sung as a pleasurable exercise in a beautiful setting of nature, a locus amoenus. Yet this framing seems less a conscious structural contrivance than the spontaneous outcome of an uncritical narrative flow. Thomas G. Rosenmeyer talks of the ‘artlessness’ of pastoral: [I]n pastoral the accent is on separation and dispersal, not on unity … There is no single curve, no anticipation of a dramatic development … [A]lmost every Theocritean or Virgilian pastoral is best analyzed as a loose combination of independent elements. It is left to the listener to weld the parts together in his imagination if he so wishes; the poet provides few if any clues to such an act of consolidation.8

One hesitates to call the Theocritean universe ‘aesthetic’, as it evinces no abstract pursuit of beauty or self-conscious cultivation of form. Yet the idylls, and more especially the songs embedded in them, have clearly defined, sometimes intricate, formal identities, and their only impulsion is the pleasure taken in them. There is no other motive in the shepherds’ songs, or the poet’s song incorporating them: only an easy natural absorption in the singing, or the simple activities celebrated in song. More often than not, there is no clear thrust or conclusion: the poem expends its charge of relaxed involvement in a humble, inconsequential activity, and ends in an equally untroubled, unproblematized close. Already in Theocritus, the shepherds’ occupational tasks are subsumed in a mother element of otium or leisured freedom.9 Through all its subsequent engagements with real and topical issues, otium remains a bedrock premiss of pastoral, its ultimate claim to a special imaginative identity. This source-vein of pastoral, contentedly following its lowly, even trivial pursuits, oblivious of any externalized, purposeful world, has conventionally been called ‘art-pastoral’. It is certainly set within the self-referring, self-fulfilling, ‘irrelevant’ paradigm conventionally attributed to art. More usually, ‘art-pastoral’ means no more than non-allusive  8 Thomas G. Rosenmeyer, The Green Cabinet. Theocritus and the European Pastoral Lyric, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969, p. 47.   9 On this subject see ibid., especially ch. 4.

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pastoral, not glancing at the real or non-pastoral world but creating a contrived shepherds’ realm.10 Either way, it is seen as an imaginary construct pleasing the aesthetic faculty alone. It is the Theocritean legacy, and still more often the Theocritean name and associations, that ensure this core imaginative independence of the pastoral. That is why, despite its deep overlay of allusion and allegory, pastoral is pre-eminently a trope for art and poetry, and for a life of imagination lived amidst nature. It is umbilically linked to the countryside and the rural community from which Theocritus brought it to birth. Virgil. The consolidation of pastoral. Allegory and allusion, metaphor and metonymy Two Greek poets, Bion and Moschus, are commonly cited as followers of Theocritus. But (apart from questions of date and authorship) their extant output comprises little pastoral beyond a celebrated lament for Bion traditionally attributed to Moschus (#5). The history of the pastoral took a decisive turn only when Virgil adapted Theocritus’ model in ten Latin poems (one not really pastoral) in the first century bce. These pastorals were preserved as a selection (hence eclogae, selected pieces) from Virgil’s early work. They closely follow Theocritus’ model, sometimes echoing his very words. But behind this literal adherence, there is a radical change of purpose. For a start, the very adherence constitutes a change of purpose. By reworking the material of two centuries ago in another language, Virgil is turning Theocritus’ primary matter into the stuff of a more removed convention. Theocritus was writing about Sicily because he knew the place; Virgil, because he had read about it in Theocritus and thought it a good setting, worth casting in durable mould, for his particular line of poetry. Virgil was also the first to set some of his pastorals in Arcadia, an inhospitable region of Greece transformed into an idyllic setting, a landscape of the mind, drawing upon the slender lead in Polybius that the Arcadian shepherds delighted in singing contests.11 Yet the overall impact of Virgil’s Eclogues was not, or not primarily, 10 The term was made current by W. Leonard Grant in his Neo-Latin Literature and the Pastoral, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1965. Underplaying the allusive component of Virgil’s Eclogues, Grant (p. 117) used the term to designate the ‘genre art’ of the ‘classicizing pastoral’ in imitation of Virgil; but it has come to indicate all pastoral presenting the shepherd world as an independent imaginative construct. 11 See Bruno Snell, ‘Arcadia: The Discovery of a Spiritual Landscape’, in The Discovery of the Mind, trans. T.G. Rosenmeyer, 1953, rpt. New York: Harper & Row, 1960, p. 281. Arcadia was also the location of Mount Maenalus, sacred to the god Pan.



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to place pastoral deeper within the sphere of the imagination, upholding the Theocritean legacy; rather, to relate it more decisively to the real world. Only Eclogue I is firmly set in Virgil’s native region, though a few others address or allude to Roman figures. (Even among these, Eclogue IV invokes the ‘Sicilian [i.e. pastoral] Muses’, and Eclogue IX appears to be set in Arcadia.) But Eclogue I has a personal and topical cast that revolutionizes the bearings of pastoral. It is set in Virgil’s homeland, the countryside around Mantua: he is thanking the Emperor Augustus for letting him retain possession of his farm in a time of turmoil and eviction. Hence the shepherd Tityrus can sit piping under a beech tree while his neighbour Meliboeus must wander forth with his flock. Of Theocritus’ idylls, only the seventh is commonly thought to carry allusions to the poet and his circle. But it also vividly presents the countryside and has songs embedded in the text. Virgil goes much further: his Eclogue I is structured around the allusion and would have no point without it. Elsewhere, the allusion may be more tangential. Eclogue IV, an account of the Golden Age, is anchored in a compliment to the poet’s patron Pollio on the birth of his son. Eclogue V, mourning the death of Daphnis, might seem a purely aesthetic construct, lamenting the original mythic shepherd-poet of that name (earlier mourned in Theocritus’ Idyll I); but there is a strong suggestion that the dead shepherd is an actual person, most likely a ruler or general (perhaps Julius Caesar). The ten eclogues together create the sense of an integrated shepherd community as Theocritus’ disjunct pastoral idylls do not; but no less the sense that the community actually addressed by the poet belongs to his contemporary Rome. Virgil’s eclogues have become so encased in commentary that we cannot break free from the heavily allusive readings of medieval and Renaissance scholiasts, even if we do not agree with all the allusions or cannot unravel the precise reference. But there is enough in the text itself to support the idea of an uneven but organic use of allusion, turning the literal fiction of a shepherd world into a different ambience whose authenticity lies on an allusive plane. What we primarily get in Virgil is allusion, not allegory. The two are so often associated that we forget they are functionally opposed. Ultimately, an allusion is metonymic: it links a person, object or event to another through literal association or, in Jakobson’s term, contiguity. It may consist simply in a change of name. Allegory, on the other hand, is metaphoric: it links objects from different realms or planes by

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their similarity.12 We may also explain the difference in terms of Walter Benjamin’s distinction between the allegorist and the ‘collector’: The allegorist … dislodges things from their context and, from the outset, relies on his profundity to illuminate their meaning. The collector, by contrast, brings together what belongs together.13

What obscures the contrast is that in pastoral, allusion usually occurs in combination with metaphor or allegory. In Eclogue I, the poet presents himself as Tityrus: the two figures illustrate, literally and factually, a common condition, being saved from eviction by a gracious patron; hence one can allusively refer to the other. Going a step further, the poet composing poetry presents himself as a shepherd piping under a tree. The two figures are linked by a similarity (not identity) between their activities, both composing poems or songs: there is still a material correspondence. But where the shepherd controlling his flocks is compared to a king ruling his subjects or a priest guiding his flock, the correspondence has moved towards the metaphoric pole: it is no longer material, only formal. To mourn a dead contemporary under the name of Daphnis (as Virgil does in Eclogue V) is merely allusive, but if (as often conjectured) that person is Julius Caesar, and his shepherd’s role signifies Caesar’s as ruler and general, there is a metaphoric transference of terms, a species of allegory. As a rule, Virgil does not develop the metaphoric content of his allusions: he is content with a general reference to a statesman or poet in the guise of a shepherd. He does not work out the detailed correspondence between their roles. But later poets and theorists seized upon the rich potential of the shepherd figure as a trope. The shepherd rules over his sheep like a king over his subjects. He cares for them like a priest: it was left to the Christian era to bring out this aspect of his task, giving a new (and now standard) meaning to the term ‘pastoral care’. It draws its strength from the more basic Christian metaphor of God or Christ as the Good Shepherd. The shepherd is also versed in nature lore, a ‘wise shepherd’ comparable to academic scholars. In pastoral convention, he spends much of his time in poetry and song, just like the poet writing about him, and offers love to shepherdesses 12 Roman Jakobson, ‘Two Aspects of Language and Two Types of Linguistic Disturbances’: see David Lodge (ed.), Modern Criticism and Theory, London: Longman, 1988, rpt. 1991, pp. 57–61. 13 Walter Benjamin, Arcades, H4a, 1, trans. Howard Eiland and Kevin McLaughlin, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1999, rpt. 2002, p. 211.



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in terms assimilable to the Petrarchan convention, where such poets often found their theme. The figurative implications can extend to the entire setting and context. Every detail of the pastoral fiction can be imbued with figurative import. Perhaps the extreme instance is Petrarch’s Bucolicum carmen. The ‘inaccessible peak’ … is the summit of rare fame, attained by few. The ‘deserts’ are scholarship, for today it is truly a desert. … The ‘mossy cliffs’ are the rich and powerful, enveloped by their inherited wealth as though by moss; by ‘echoing springs’ we can mean literary and eloquent men who by their art, through the bubbling forth of their genius, create streams flowing with a delightful sound.14

It is this energy latent in trope and theme, operating at many levels with many functions, that ensures the persistence of pastoral as a literary mode and its great range of themes and applications. But it needs stressing that this multifunctional trope, like any other, relies for its efficacy on the vehicle no less than the tenor, the pastoral fiction no less than the ‘real’ sphere of reference. As a critical practice, the opposition of ‘art-pastoral’ and allusive pastoral is somewhat outdated; but if so, only because all pastoral must contain an element of art-pastoral to serve the functions of pastoral at all. The contrast between the fictive rural setting and the incipient urban ethos necessarily requires both sides to be present. Extensions and affinities. The Golden Age and Paradise. Simple and complex man The source-forms of pastoral, the idyll and the eclogue, are formally limited and ill-defined. Their dialogic potential, betokened by common devices like song-contests or exchange of verses, is seldom exploited. The true dialogism of pastoral is at a more basic and pervasive level: between country and city/court, ‘art-pastoral’ and allusive pastoral, the fictive/ aesthetic and the topical/real. That is why pastoral must be viewed as a mode rather than a form or genre. Hence it can be incorporated in 14 Petrarch, Familiares 10.4, letter to Gherardo Petrarca: ‘“Inaccessum cacumen” … fame rarioris et ad quam pauci perveniunt, altitudo est. “Deserta” … sunt studia; hec vere deserta hodie … “Muscosi scopuli” sunt potentes ac divites, patrimonio velut musco obsiti; “fontes sonantes” literati et eloquentes homines dici possunt, quorum ex ingenii scatebris disciplinarum rivuli prodeunt cum sonitu quodam delectabili.’ Francesco Petrarca, Opera omnia, ed. Pasquale Stoppelli, Rome: Lexis Progetti Editoriali, 1997 (accessed 15 January 2013), Biblioteca Italiana, www.bibliotecaitaliana.it/xtf/view?docId=​bibit000255/bibit000255.xml&chunk.id=​d3607e4161&toc.depth=​1&toc.id=​ d3607e4041&brand=​default

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v­ arious actual genres whose paradigms overlap with it, and incorporated in the more capacious forms of romance and drama, where its conceptual possibilities can be brought out in extenso. There is another reason why the conceptual implications of pastoral exceed the formal bounds of its origins. The structure of an idyll or eclogue is limited but not closed. Its frequent diffuseness, the lack of a conclusive thrust in narrative or argument – part of its pristine element of otium – gives it a transient, occasional quality: it records an episode in a continuum of rural life. Whether or not by accident, both Theocritus’ idylls and Virgil’s eclogues constitute series or sequences; later pastoralists often follow the practice. Petrarch significantly calls his pastoral work a bucolicum carmen (bucolic song) in the singular, ‘divided into twelve eclogues’.15 This incorporation in a greater structure relaxes the formal constraints of the individual poem. More importantly, it creates a sense of community and continuity. There is an implicit pastoral world to which all the events and characters belong, often underpinned by repetitions and cross-references from poem to poem, author to author. The sense of a continuum is highlighted in the persistence of common pastoral names, most typically drawn from Virgil – Daphnis, Tityrus, Meliboeus, Thyrsis, Corydon, Thestylis, Amarillis – and common events, activities and topoi, again most typically from Virgil out of Theocritus. Thus a body of short and formally distinct poems, composed by many hands over time, can take on something of the thrust and substance of a single unfolding annal or narrative. At one level, it is the record of a fictional shepherd world to which every piece, every author adds a new facet while confirming its general lines. All shepherds in all pastorals seem to belong to the same community, to step out of one poem into another: the recurrence of certain stock names only underpins the deeper sense of a continuum. ‘To be a bucolic character’, says Mark Payne, ‘means to have a character that is shaped by its relationship to an imagined world, the fictional world of bucolic poetry itself.’16 At another level, this affinity traces a trajectory of the imagination, an expansive melding of the real and fictive worlds, an integrated poetic process operating across centuries – one may say a metapoetic process, for the shepherd in the poem (even when he does not sing) is a projection of the poet creating him. This is not a matter 15 Ibid. 16 Mark Payne, Theocritus and the Invention of Fiction, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007, p. 92.



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of biographical allusion but of imaginative identification with the shepherd’s fictive persona, which is for the poet both self and other. All shepherd-singers reflect the poets who create them simply because they are poets. The metonymic function is compressed to virtual identification. Yet another group of factors must be taken into account. I have referred to other genres with paradigms overlapping with the pastoral. The most immediate of these is Virgilian too, though harking back to the early Greek poet Hesiod. Hesiod composed a Works and Days describing the farmer’s labours through the year. Basing himself loosely on that model, Virgil followed up the Eclogues with four Georgics instructing the reader in various branches of farming: growing crops and fruit trees, tending herds and bees. The instructional core is embellished with various types of description and broader didacticism, including passages on the moral and social dimension of rural life to which I will return. The georgic effectively reverses the basic principle of otium, the peaceful and creative leisure afforded by pastoral life. Yet it shares many common themes with pastoral, and of course relates to the same world of rural life and activities. The shepherds of pastoral are also cultivators: Meliboeus in Virgil I weeps at having to leave his ‘well-tilled fallows’, and like Corydon in Virgil II, he tends or tended vines. We may say that the georgic deconstructs the pastoral by drawing out its latent counter-­ elements, yet thereby builds up a fuller and more complex pastoral world. The most basic function of the Georgics in the history of pastoral was, however, to introduce a Virgilian trajectory of the poetic career. Virgil followed up the Georgics with the epic Aeneid. The master-poet was seen as progressing from pastoral, reflecting the earliest quasi-nomadic stage of civilization, to the settled rural and agricultural phase, and then to the martial, courtly and urban. It was a climb up the social hierarchy too, with players from increasingly grander stations of life: ‘For first, to rustics, comes the care of flocks; then of fields, hardened by the cultivation of which, they are at length judged fit to wield arms.’17 So compelling was the design of this sequence of poetic themes that it was imposed unhistorically on poets like Petrarch and Marot, and even Theocritus himself: 17 Jodocus Badius Ascensius, commentary on Virgil: Virgil, Opera, Lyons, 1528, sig.†7v: ‘Nam prima est rusticis pecoris cura: deinde agrorum quorum cultu indurati tandem ad arma gerenda idonei censentur.’ Ascensius is talking of the supposed (and quite unhistorical) succession of pursuits in the life of the individual Roman, but the idea was more fitly applied to periods of history or to class divisions within a society.

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A companion to pastoral poetry

So flew Theocritus, as you may perceiue he was all ready fully fledged … So Petrarque. So Boccace; So Marot, Sanazarus, and also diuers other excellent both Italian and French Poetes, whose foting this Author euery where followeth … So finally flyeth this our new Poete, as a bird, whose principals [chief wing feathers] be scarce grown out.18

The ‘new Poete’ is the Spenser of The Shepheardes Calender, and the author of these lines his elusive commentator E.K. The ‘wheel of Virgil’, as the medieval scholar John of Garland termed it, placed the pastoral within an inclusive design embracing all human life and experience. More immediately, it suggested that an aspiring poet should begin by writing pastorals. In most cases, youthful poetic ambition soon dies out. This explains the vast body of indifferent pastoral poetry. But it also explains the ubiquitous presence of the pastoral and its varied uses in the Renaissance and later times. The Georgics notably reinforced the impact of the Eclogues by elaborating on the virtues and attractions of country life in a more stable and familiar vein. Their idealization of that milieu is a more realistic idealization, so to speak. In the intervals of agricultural instruction, they present more directly the happy and virtuous simplicity of rural life. One celebrated passage (Georgic II.458–74) culminates in the remark (derived from the Greek poet Aratus) that it was among the rural people that Astraea, the goddess of justice, planted her last footsteps before leaving the earth at the end of the Golden Age. The myth of the Golden Age is endemic to pastoral.19 Its earliest notable occurrence – though almost surely not its origin – is in a five-stage, steadily declining slope of human history postulated by Hesiod (Works and Days 109–201). Later poets reduced the stages to four, named after increasingly baser metals: gold, silver, bronze, iron. The Golden Age, the first and best, was a time of simple abundance, spontaneously gifted by nature: agriculture was unnecessary, hence unknown, and sheep naturally yielded wool of many colours. Unknown too was war and trade – hence also navigation, impelled by these two motives. Equally, it was an age of unsullied virtue: hence the myth that Dike or Astraea, goddess of justice, dwelt on earth in that age, to leave at its end when evil entered the world of men. However, the strongest mythic association of the Golden Age is 18 E.K., dedicatory epistle (to Gabriel Harvey) to Spenser’s The Shepheardes Calender. Petrarch wrote his Bucolicum carmen in his 40s, after commencing his epic Africa. Marot’s eclogues were written when his career was in full swing. 19 For a full account see Levin, The Myth of the Golden Age.



Introduction

13

with Saturn or Cronus, king of the gods before the rise of the Olympians ruled by Zeus or Jupiter; but Saturn is also viewed as, or conflated with, an earthly ruler in the remote legendary past.20 Like so much else, the idea of the Golden Age was consolidated by Virgil: most famously in Eclogue IV, which gives a detailed catalogue of the features of the Golden Age. (There is also a reference in Aeneid VIII.314–29.) The other major source is Ovid’s Metamorphoses I.89–112. As expected, it is Virgil’s treatment in Eclogue IV that links the Age most closely to pastoral. Yet there is little explicitly pastoral in the poem itself, which foretells the return of the Golden Age with the birth of a miraculous child. Virgil was celebrating the birth of a son to his patron Asinius Pollio; but in the Middle Ages, the poem was commonly taken as a prophecy of the coming of Christ. Hence Virgil acquired the status of a magus to lend special lustre to his already exceptional poetic stature. For the history of the mode, it sanctioned the practice of a ‘somewhat higher’ strain (paulo maiora in Virgil’s phrase) that enabled pastoral to proceed beyond humble shepherd life. The phrase became the key to allegorical pastoral of urban and courtly life, as also to didactic pastoral on moral and philosophic issues. The pastoral universe thus came to be identified with the first and best of the four ages of human history. This in turn provided a rationale for detaching the idealized shepherds of pastoral from the drab reality of actual shepherd life and locating them in a remote historical fiction. These shepherds, unlike their deprived (or even depraved) descendants, owned their flocks, enjoyed a modest abundance (happily contrasting with the corrupt opulence of the court) and marked the highest intellectual and artistic stratum of their society. They could be aligned with their urban and courtly creators, even while they provided an idealized contrast to the latter’s stressful and imperfect milieu. The two most famous Italian pastoral comedies, epitomes of aesthetized, mythicized literary pastoral, incorporate choruses on the Golden Age, included in translation in this volume (#33, #34). Many Renaissance eclogues adopt the same theme. A particularly interesting case is the Italian Paolo Belmisseri’s Latin Eclogue IV, which cites many standard details of the Golden Age: crops springing spontaneously, men leading lives of virtue, gods walking the earth. But these gods include not only the Olympian offspring of thundering Jove but wood-gods like Pan, Faunus 20 This is a greatly simplified summary of the complex sources and identities of Saturnus and Cronus (Kronos), originally two separate figures.

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A companion to pastoral poetry

and Sylvanus; and Virgil’s Tityrus is placed in the middle of this setting, in words echoing Virgil’s own: This is where Tityrus, the most famous singer of the woods, sat of old under a spreading beech and played songs on his slender pipe.21

This links Virgilian pastoral to the Golden Age more closely than Virgil himself ever did. In the very different context of Shakespeare’s As You Like It, the exiled Duke and his band in the forest of Arden ‘fleet the time carelessly [i.e. without cares], as they did in the golden world’.22 Yet something of the Golden Age often adheres even to the ­presentday countryside and rural life, as suggested in Virgil’s Georgic II. Thus in the Portuguese Henrique Cayado’s Latin Eclogue IV: We at any rate, guardians of flocks, unlearned crew, preserve today the ways of the first humans, far from the stir of vulgar crowds, devoid of ambition.23

This is contrary yet assimilable to the location of the Golden Age in the past. Much more problematic, yet increasingly common, is the placing of a Golden Age in a courtly, urban or even martial setting of the present or future. Euricius Cordus celebrates the peace and plenty of Hesse in such terms: ‘Everything flows with honey, the loving earth bountifully offers everything.’24 Allusive pastoral commonly hails one or other ruler as bringing about a Golden Age in his reign. The practice is as old as Calpurnius’ praise of Nero in his Eclogues I and IV. In the Renaissance, the outstanding instance is in Ronsard’s work.25 The reign of Charles IX of France and his consort Catherine de’ Medici is consistently presented as a Golden Age: ‘If we see the Golden Age return, it is the blessed work of the shepherdess Catherine.’26 21 ‘Hince tunc antique recubans sub tegmine fagi / Tityrus est gracili carmen modulatus auena.’ Paolo Belmisseri, Opera poetica (Paris, 1534), fol. 6v. There are Golden Age references in Joachim Camerarius VI and Euricius Cordus III. 22 William Shakespeare, As You Like It, ed. Juliet Dusinberre, London: The Arden Shakespeare, 2006, 1.1.113. Later references to this edition. 23 Cayado IV.43–5: ‘Nos hodie pecorum custodes, inscia turba, / Seruamus primae saltem uestigia gentis / A uulgi fluctu procul, ambitione carentes.’ Henrique Cayado, Eclogues, ed. W.P. Mustard, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1931, p. 36. 24 ‘Omnia melle fluent, pia largiter omnia tellus / Proferet.’ Cordus I: Bucolicorum autores XXXVIII, ? ed. Gilbert Cousin, Basle: Johannes Oporinus, 1546, p. 348. 25 See Elizabeth Armstrong, Ronsard and the Age of Gold, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968. As Armstrong points out, the Golden Age theme is seldom linked to nature in Ronsard’s poetry. 26 ‘Si nous voyons le siecle d’or refait, / C’est du bienfait / De la Bergere Catherine.’ Pierre de Ronsard, Bergerie, Eclogue I: Œuvres complètes, Paris: Gallimard, 1950, I.918.



Introduction

15

As Lerner observes, ‘if [the Golden Age] is to be restored by the prowess of a prince, it is difficult for it to keep its primitive innocence’.27 The settings of Renaissance pastoral straddle a tentative line dividing the ideal from the real countryside, otium from labour, content from suffering, the Golden Age from the Iron – and thus, finally and emphatically, the country from the court or city. No longer can the one ambience be delinked from the other. The moral primitivism implicit in the idea of the Golden Age is directed at all later human states as well, implicitly through allusion or openly through an appropriate narrative. The most subtle and idiosyncratic book ever written on the pastoral is surely William Empson’s Some Versions of Pastoral. It says little or nothing about conventional pastoral; instead, it treats of a range of works from Shakespeare’s History Plays to Alice in Wonderland, united by the fact that they all present the encounter of the ‘simple man’ with the ‘complex’ – mediated, of course, by the latter and leading him to the conclusion that ‘I am in one way better [than the rustic], in another not so good.’28 It is this acute perception of the function of pastoral that makes Empson’s work so basic to our understanding of the mode. Pastoral idealizes the ‘simple’ life, but not in an unqualified way. In the last analysis, it presents the simple man as conceived and controlled by the complex: the former is an element in the latter’s complexity, an item on the latter’s agenda. I pointed at the outset to a paradox in the nostalgia fostered by pastoral. There is another aspect to the paradox: the nostalgia is not directed at the past but at an unrealized potential of the present leading on to the future. Tellingly, whatever the implicit affinities with the Golden Age, the shepherds are seldom projected as creatures from an earlier world: their lives may recall such a world, but they are located in a fictional present – often emphatically in the narrator’s own present, allusively participating in its concerns. The primitivism of pastoral is not crudely chronological. It may invoke earlier phases of social evolution, but tries to inculcate the mental state associated with them in our own more complex world, in fictions viable on the latter’s terms. This Eclogue I is generally full of Golden-Agery: see esp. pp. 930–2. Cf. Eclogue V, Œuvres complètes I.986. Cf. also these Latin eclogues: Boiardo IV, VI; Giambattista Amalteo V; Cornelio Amalteo, ‘Proteus’; Cayado IV. 27 Laurence Lerner, The Uses of Nostalgia. Studies in Pastoral Poetry, London: Chatto & Windus, 1972, p. 67. 28 William Empson, Some Versions of Pastoral, 1935, rpt. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1966, p. 19.

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A companion to pastoral poetry

becomes clearest when, rather late in the day, pastoral adopts the more expansive vehicles of romance and drama: the time-planes compressed within the brief compass of the eclogue are clearly separated in the cyclic structure of the later genres. The overt terms of pastoral hide an encounter of opposites where the determining factor is the reverse of pastoral: emanating not from the imagined rustic but from the genuine courtier or urbanite, not the former’s fictional state but the latter’s actual desire. The two-way tension becomes clearer when in Christian times, the classically conceived Golden Age comes to interact with the Earthly Paradise. The idea of the Earthly Paradise is older and more widespread than Christianity: it is the mythic perfection of the ideal oasis in any desert culture. Its conflation with the Garden of Eden in the Book of Genesis may be a later development of the Hebrew apocalyptic tradition, which also associates it with the home of blessed souls after death.29 In other words, Paradise may be an originary or a concluding state, a beginning or an end. This double function becomes vastly more complex and intensive in the Christian mythic and theological order. There, Paradise is the setting for the original sinless state of man on earth, and survives as a terrestrial setting even after humankind is expelled from it. But it is also linked to the celestial heaven, the home of redeemed or blessed souls in afterlife, to which Christ the second Adam will restore humankind as the first Adam exiled us from Eden. As Laurence Lerner remarks, ‘The story that starts in Eden will culminate in the New Jerusalem.’30 Christian writers such as Prudentius also conceive of the Golden Age in this way, as the future reign of Christ. Again, as the venue of a blissful afterlife for the virtuous or heroic dead, the celestial Paradise is prefigured by the pagan Elysian Fields or Fortunate Isles. Interestingly, Petrarch conflates the two in describing his retreat at Vaucluse: ‘Whatever grows here either on land or in water is such that you might think it as sprung from the delights of Paradise, as the theologians call it, or, as the poets do, the Elysian Fields.’31 (Horace’s ‘Epode’ XVI.41–66 had conflated ‘the Happy Fields, and the Islands of the Blest’ with the Golden Age in a passage recalling Virgil’s Eclogue IV.) Unsurprisingly, the Christian Paradise comes to meld with the pagan 29 See A. Bartlett Giamatti, The Earthly Paradise and the Renaissance Epic, 1960; rpt. New York: Norton, 1989, pp. 11–12. 30 Lerner, The Uses of Nostalgia, p. 64. 31 Petrarch, Familiares 16.64, letter to Niccolo dei Vetuli, Bishop of Viterbo: ‘[Q]uicquid seu in terris seu in aquis hic nascitur, tale esse ut in Paradiso delitiarum, sicut theologi loquuntur, sive, ut poete, in campis Elysiis natum putes.’



Introduction

17

Golden Age. The two conform (or are made to conform) in most external features. Both enjoy eternal spring, hence the earth spontaneously brings forth crops. In both, plants that are thorny and animals that are venomous in the mundane world lack power to harm. Of course there are differences as well. The Golden Age is chronologically defined, Paradise spatially or geographically. Yet needless to say, the loss and recovery of Paradise within a historical and theological framework also frames it temporally. Again, Paradise is more of a setting or venue, the Golden Age more a social condition. Nature was radically different in the Golden Age, but the crucial differences related to human nature and activities. Paradise, on the other hand, is basically an idealized natural setting in which human beings can find place if they conform to it. It can thus present actual nature in a transformed light, assimilate it to pastoral. In a major line of development unfolding on the margins of the pastoral, nature comes to be seen in the late Renaissance as a second Book of God, and further as a place where the lesser creatures live in a state of innocence lost to man. In other words, nature is Paradise. In its past or originary role, Paradise invokes an ideal state of pristine humanity. As a setting for the afterlife, it becomes a goal or ideal to strive for (if not already attained, as by the virtuous dead in a Christian elegy). Either way, it is readily assimilated to pastoral. As a setting, it intensifies the idealized, mythicized landscapes typical of pastoral. The theological implications consolidate those already implicit in the topos of Astraea’s lingering among the country folk. It even suggests that shepherds or rustics might somehow have escaped the Fall of man, or at least been less marked by its effects. ‘Thou Paradise hast found, whych Adam lost,’ says Spenser’s Colin to Hobbinoll (The Shepheardes Calender, ‘June’: #40.10); and the exiled Duke in As You Like It, ‘Here feel we not the penalty of Adam’ (2.1.5). This consideration governs the presentation of the Nativity shepherds: typical examples of fallen humanity, hence engaged in various tricks and scrapes in the medieval shepherds’ play, yet the first to hear of the birth of the Saviour who will redeem man from the consequences of the Fall. All in all, the Golden Age enters more deeply into the pastoral topos than the Earthly Paradise. But there are deep and multiple links between the two – philosophic, theological, mythic, imaginative – and pastoral is a major site of their operation. Other, less problematic factors also impinge on the pastoral, drawn from other classical genres and conventions. I have already mentioned the georgic, whose Virgilian exemplars are a major supplement to the Eclogues as a source of pastoral practice: the basic difference in thrust

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A companion to pastoral poetry

between pastoral otium and agricultural activity is commonly ignored. Different again, but worked into the same spectrum, is a generic cluster presenting the (varyingly idealized) delights of country life, usually as seen from a patrician farm or country retreat. The vein is epitomized in the Odes of Horace but also found in certain elegies by Propertius and, more memorably, Tibullus. (As in all classical and many later contexts, ‘elegy’ does not mean a poem of mourning but a poem written in the elegiac metre. Country life and natural beauty are among the commonest themes of classical and Neo-Latin elegies.) Four centuries later, Ausonius added some notable poems to the tally. But the single most influential piece, after Virgil’s Eclogues and Georgics, was the second Epode of Horace. Horace’s Epodes – so called from the short iambic line or epodos featuring in their prosody – cover a range of themes. As noted, Epode XVI makes interesting use of the Golden Age topos. But it is Epode II that plays a prominent part in the extended world of the pastoral. It celebrates a contented country life: contrasted with courtly pomp and luxury, but assured of simple abundance and clearly set on a patrician estate with ‘home-bred slaves’. The closest parallel is with the praise of settled rural life in Virgil’s Georgics, though Tityrus of Eclogue I is projecting the same contented state in formally pastoral terms. Blessed (beatus) is such a man, says Horace at the outset, comparing his state to the earliest race of mortals (prisca gens mortalium). Yet we are jolted at the end to learn that the entire poem, barring the last four lines, is to be placed within quotes, as it were: it is the utterance of the money-lender Alfius. Nor does this indicate a wish to relinquish his pronouncedly Iron-age occupation: he calls in all his funds only to lend them out again half a month later. In the late Renaissance, this poem was constantly translated, adapted and imitated – almost always ignoring the twist in the tail. As a result, it could be exalted to spiritual heights. But Horace himself is subtly balancing country and court, ideal and real: the basic pastoral tensions find rare expression in this non-pastoral poem. At the same time, it places those tensions in a more realistic setting than formal pastoral: it opens up a channel whereby sixteen centuries later, the pastoral realm was greatly extended by annexing such poems into its territory. Path-breaking in a different way is the prose narrative of Longus’ Daphnis and Chloe. Longus works one of many innovations in the prolific genre of Greek Hellenistic romance by embedding it in a pastoral setting. Daphnis and Chloe is the only instance of its class: a unique anticipation of the cyclic structure of pastoral romance and drama emerging in the



Introduction

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Renaissance, where the leading shepherd lovers often prove to be of noble birth. It is a moot point whether Longus’ model could have played any part in this development, but it is certainly a striking prelude. The medieval contribution In the Middle Ages, Virgil’s Eclogues were consistently read and analysed, usually in moral or allegorical vein, but only sporadically imitated: by Modoin and in the anonymous Conflictus veris et hiemis in the ninth century,32 Theodulus in the tenth, Martius Valerius and Metellus of Tegernsee in the twelfth. The last two wrote eclogue cycles, Valerius with a genuine regard for the pastoral aesthetic. But the effective revival of the Virgilian eclogue starts with a poetical exchange between Dante and Giovanni del Virgilio in 1319–21. It is consolidated by Petrarch and Boccaccio later in the century in weighty eclogue-cycles of intricate allegorical (often autobiographical) content. This marks the start of the Neo-Latin eclogue, which then traces a sustained course to the seventeenth century and beyond, with variant but essentially analogous lines in the new vernaculars. But the full history of Renaissance pastoral covers a much wider compass. The Middle Ages made many other contributions to that history: ­quasi-pastoral genres, often with no organic link to classical pastoral.33 We may almost say that, in a replay of Theocritus, the actual life of shepherds and the genuine products of folk poetry undergo a new process of formalizing or aesthetizing, a new transfer of provenance and identity, only this time on a much wider base with many authors, genres and settings involved. The shepherds are not impossibly removed from their real-life counterparts: at very least, they reflect recognizable elements of their life. The compositions are usually urban or courtly in provenance, but draw on features of genuine folk poetry and popular poetry. There is no allegory: we are dealing with rural life in literal terms, though variably idealized. The poems cover many genres. The lyric forms include a variety of short simple pieces, popular in tone if often not in provenance. There are spring songs (the reverdie), various kinds of love song, and a great range of dance songs, especially the carol (originally a distinctive dance-pattern and its accompanying song, with a refrain). All these forms cover a great 32 Besides quasi-pastoral pieces like those by Paschasius Radbertus and Sedulius Scotus: see Helen Cooper, Pastoral. Medieval into Renaissance, Ipswich: D.S. Brewer, 1977, pp. 15–18. 33 The best account of medieval bergerie is still that in Cooper, Pastoral.

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A companion to pastoral poetry

range of themes, but commonly treat of rural life in ways assimilable to the pastoral. On a more sophisticated plane, the intricate virelai or ballata (different from the balade, and both radically different from the ballad) can treat of rural and pastoral themes, while the pastourelle specifically presents encounters between a countrywoman and a courtier, often to the latter’s discomfiture. Indigenous country song (not always strictly ‘folk’ song) contributes markedly to the elite pastoral lyric: the latter is endemically disguised as the former, and the difference may be hard to tell from internal evidence. (Consider, for example, the song ‘I pray thee keep my kine’ [#24] from Alonso Perez’s continuation of the romance Diana.) Such models are superseded in the new genres of song evolved in the Renaissance, from the simple frottola to the more intricate madrigal. But their actual ‘lyric’ or wording, necessarily limited by musical constraints, retains something of the simplicity of the indigenous song-lyric. The simple lyric model of medieval provenance takes on a special importance in the flowering of the English lyric in the Elizabethan age. As I will elaborate, the Elizabethan lyric typically adopts a brevity and song-like lucidity of form, lending a distinctive simplicity to the theme as well, implying a special plane of experience and sensibility. The shepherds of these poems think and feel in a special way not only reflected in, but imparted by, the lyric form. This ambience of the Elizabethan pastoral lyric derives not from any classical source but from the songpoem descended from the Middle Ages. The Middle Ages provide other pastoral models as well. There are short narrative poems anticipating Henryson’s ‘Robene and Makyne’ (#18) in the fifteenth century or the anonymous ‘Harpelus’ Complaint’ (#31) in the sixteenth. The link between longer lais like Christine de Pisan’s Dit de la Pastoure and Renaissance pastoral verse narratives (or prose narratives intermingled with verse) seems more tenuous, perhaps accidental. But there is no classical model for such genres, nor can they be readily linked to the full-fledged pastoral romance and pastoral drama that evolve in the Renaissance. Medieval romances have pastoral interludes, and the play of the Nativity shepherds in the religious drama-cycles becomes steadily more elaborate; but all these are structurally episodic. Their function relative to the total structure differs from that of the pervasive pastoral of the narratives described above. Alongside these is a more realistic, practically oriented line of productions. In 1379, Jehan de Brie wrote an instructional manual for shepherds at the French king’s command. The work survives only in



Introduction

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abridged form, the widely circulated (and later printed) Le Bon Berger (The Good Shepherd): could this be entirely free of biblical associations, though the text does not treat of them? Even more importantly, Le Bon Berger inspired the Kalendrier des Bergèrs (Calendar of Shepherds). This first appeared in French in the fifteenth century and was translated into various languages including English, with many editions over the years. It is a kind of almanac-cum-handbook for the countryman, with some moral and spiritual instruction and a few verses thrown in. However practical and apolitical, the Kalender of Shepherdes is within touching distance of a major line of realistic, satiric and politically oriented portrayals of rural life, channelled in England through the Plowman literature epitomized in William Langland’s Piers Plowman. The name Piers Plowman for the representative toiling rustic may have predated Langland’s poem of the late fourteenth century (a fluid text, constructed in many stages and possibly by many hands). It is used as a code name in messages during the Peasants’ Revolt. But it was Langland’s poem that lent Piers an iconic status among similar figures like Lawrence Labourer, Tomlin Tailor, Hob of the Hill and Colin Clout.34 Langland’s flagship work was widely read and repeatedly printed in the sixteenth century. So were The Plowman’s Tale (then regarded as Chaucer’s work) and Pierce the Ploughman’s Creed. Surrounding these is a spectrum of Middle English and Early Modern works. They range from badly composed demotic tracts,35 apparently written without direct knowledge of Langland’s complex and ambitious work, to social critique from the enlightened elite like Thomas More and his circle, one or other of whom composed the dialogue Of Gentleness and Nobility (#19). They include aggressively Catholic works like the manuscript The Banckett (Banquet) of Johan the Reeve and aggressively Protestant ones like A Goodly Dialogue and Disputation between Piers Plowman and a Popish Priest (1550). The Prayer and Complaint of the Plowman unto Christ (1531) was included in that classic proto-Puritan tract, Foxe’s Acts and Monuments (the so-called Book of Martyrs). The earliest pastorals of the English Renaissance, especially Barclay’s eclogues, show marked affinity with Plowman literature; but the latter remains largely distinct in the heyday of Elizabethan pastoral, though 34 The first three names occur in the title of a manuscript work from c.1550, The Banckett of Iohan the Reve (BL MS Harley 207). Colin Clout predates Spenser’s appropriation of the name: he is the title figure in a poem by John Skelton. 35 E.g. one without a title-page, beginning ‘I playne Piers which can not flatter’: c.1550, but sufficiently popular to be reprinted c.1589 during the Martin Marprelate controversy.

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A companion to pastoral poetry

we can detect its clear influence in The Shepheardes Calender. It follows its own course into the seventeenth century, when it merges with new lines of social criticism, rustic satire and propaganda. The entire line is undeniably ‘pastoral’ in the sense of focusing on the humble and, in Empson’s sense, ‘simple’ man.36 But it places court and country, rulers and ruled, in sharper opposition than the subtle if fragile, unreal tensions of conventional pastoral. The latter’s relation to the wider compass of rural poetry is like that of a garden to the open countryside. Yet the two terrains are not absolutely opposed: there are intermediate states like the estate and the commons. The range of rural poetry covers a spectrum of social perspectives and aesthetic processes. They vastly exceed what we normally call pastoral; yet the term loses its deepest meaning if we exclude them from our reckoning. Renaissance pastoral and its outgrowths. Soft and hard primitivism The plethora of medieval precedents has important implications for the growth of Renaissance pastoral. It supplements and modifies the range of classical models, taking us far beyond Theocritus and Virgil. But the Virgilian eclogue remains the controlling factor. It has a formidable range in the Renaissance in both Neo-Latin and the vernaculars (somewhat less in English). Some poems can assume independent authority as models, as most prominently the moral and religious Latin eclogues of Mantuan or Battista Spagnuoli, which (like Virgil’s Eclogues) became standard reading in schools. They might even be preferred to Virgil’s as being of blamelessly Christian content. (Mantuan was a Carmelite monk). Allusion prevails markedly over art-pastoral in both the Neo-Latin and the continental vernacular eclogue. At most, a genuine imaginative exercise might impregnate a basically allusive poem, very rarely creating a pastoral fiction viable in its own terms. The allusive element in Virgil’s Eclogues was stressed by the scholiasts, who were widely read owing to the spread of grammar-school education with its use of the Eclogues as a seminal text.37 The allusive mode would be further consolidated by the examples of Petrarch and Boccaccio, the first in particular. The extent of their influence is best illustrated from the Italian eclogues of the Florentine Neoplatonist Girolamo Benivieni. His eclogues function 36 Mike Rodman Jones treats exclusively of Plowman literature in Radical Pastoral, 1381–1594. Appropriations and the Writing of Religious Controversy, Farnham: Ashgate, 2011. 37 See Sukanta Chaudhuri, Renaissance Pastoral and Its English Developments, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989, ch. 1, ‘Virgil Allegorized’.



Introduction

23

at four allegoric levels: political, private, ethical or moral, and spiritual or indeed mystical. The commonest field of allusion is political, using one of two alternative strategies. By one, rulers, courtiers, even warriors are allegorized as shepherds,38 exploiting the metaphoric potential of the shepherd figure but also creating latent contradictions. Royal pride and pastoral humility can soon clash, even more the career of a military leader and that of a peaceful shepherd. These are not shepherds from a rustic cottage who, for hire, lead their flocks out to graze, but of noble family and ancient lineage, who, wielding the sceptre in many places, have protected Europe and grazed their flocks in full security on the pastures of France.39

This is Pierre Ronsard, but the paradox is inherent in the metaphor of king as shepherd. It is obviated by the other strategy, where the rulers are seen through the eyes of ‘literal’ shepherds: whether awestruck by the court and its denizens: What could I do? The prince was worthy to be praised, but … my unwarlike Muses trembled at this weighty new task.40

or condemning its pomp and corruption by contrast with the humbler but happier rustic state: O happy Lollius, content with your paternal abode! Whoever spurns the secure cottages and greening fields of the beautiful countryside to seek for great halls, seeks knotty chains in place of freedom, and superior flour instead of wheaten bread.41

38 See Petrarch II, Paolo Belmisseri VI, Eobanus Hessus VI, Euricius Cordus IV, Jacob de Slupere VI, and Johann Stigel’s ‘Iolas’ (all Latin). 39 ‘Ce ne sont pas bergers d’une maison champestre / Qui menent pour salaire aux champs les brebis paistre, / Mais de haute famille et de race d’ayeux, / Qui portant en la main le Sceptre en divers lieux, / Ont défendu l’Europe, et, en toute asseurance, / Engressé leurs troupeaux par les herbes de France.’ Ronsard, Eclogue I: Œuvres complètes I.918. 40 ‘Quid faciam? Princeps laudari dignus; at … imbelles trepidant nova pondera Musae.’ Matteo Maria Boiardo, Latin Eclogue IX: Tutte le opere, ed. A. Zottoli, Milan, 1937, II.683. See also Boiardo I, Anisio II, Jacob de Slupere VI, Eobanus Hessus I, and George Sabinus’ eclogue on the marriage of the Marquis of Brandenberg (all Latin). 41 O felix Lolli villa contente paterna, / Securas quicumque casas et ruris amoeni / Vernantes contemnit agros, ut magna sequatur / Atria, nodosas pro libertate catenas / Triticeoque petit meliorem pane farinam.’ Publio Fausto Andrelini, Eclogue II.14–18: The Eclogues of Faustus Andrelinus and Ioannes Arnolletus, ed. Wilfred P. Mustard, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1918. Cf. Mantuan V, VI, Andrelini VII, X, Cayado IV, Cordus IX, Hessus XIV (all Latin).

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These two topoi, of the admiring shepherd and the critical or complaining shepherd, become standard devices for the panegyric and satiric modes of pastoral. Spenser’s Colin Clout’s Come Home Again shows a remarkable amalgam of the two, anticipated in Publio Fausto Andrelini’s Latin Eclogues II and X: the court is a corrupt and daunting place, but it is also the haunt of the poet’s patron. The other major sphere of public allusion is the ecclesiastical. The basic metaphor of the priest as shepherd is extended to present the Church, or the congregation of the faithful, as a pastoral community. Depressingly, this is usually applied in reverse to condemn unworthy clergymen and a Church in disarray, as in Euricius Cordus’ Latin Eclogue VI: We have shepherds at whose hands all the lambs are oppressed. Whether they fleece or milk us, we must bear it equably.42

Here again is the Dutch Catholic Jacob de Slupere’s Latin Eclogue VII on what he perceives as the evils of the Protestant Reformation: In the orphaned fields, wolves stirred up many agitations among the flocks and the wretched farmers … It was rare to find one who had care of the common herds, and even he ruled over the fields with very little authority.43

The most prominent pieces incorporating religious and ecclesiastical allegory are Mantuan’s Eclogues VIII–X. (Mantuan was a Carmelite monk.) The most impressive, all told, might be a brief passage in Milton’s ‘Lycidas’ (#230.108–31). As Helen Cooper says, ‘The shepherd world, in early modern pastoral, is always to some degree metaphorical, a way of simplifying a complex world or a complex society.’44 The allegory may address other spheres – the shepherd as wise man, for instance, hence as teacher or scholar.45 The metaphor of the shepherd as poet was memorably revived in the late Middle Ages in the exchange between Dante and Giovanni del Virgilio, soon augmented by Petrarch’s Bucolicum carmen. Needless to say, such allegory commonly embraces private allusion as well, usually to the poet’s own career, and can further be woven into the treatment of public affairs. The poet’s career and milieu form the substance of many 42 ‘Aequo animo, si nos tondent, mulgentque, feramus.’ Oporinus, p. 380. 43 Jacob de Slupere, Poemata, Antwerp, 1575, p. 148. Cf. Serafino’s Italian Eclogue III and Jacopo Fiorino de Boninsegni’s Italian ‘Urania’. 44 Helen Cooper, ‘Pastoral and Georgic’, The Oxford History of Classical Reception in English Literature, vol. 2, ed. Patrick Cheney and Philip Hardie, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015, p. 202. 45 See Cayado II, Tito Vespasiano Strozzi I–III, Hessus I, XII, de Slupere VIII (all Latin).



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eclogues. A striking instance from the early Renaissance is Petrarch’s Eclogue I, which memorably reverses the pattern of Virgil’s Eclogue I by making the poet a restless, fraught, wandering figure in contrast to his sedentary brother, the monk Gherardo. An extended example from England is the body of Latin eclogues by Giles Fletcher the elder, father of the Giles and Phineas included in the Anthology. The younger Fletchers continue the personal allegory in their English works. But such examples, in all kinds of association with other themes, are too numerous to list. The allusive eclogue is one area where Neo-Latin productions from northern Europe – Germany or the Low Countries – match those of the south. The English and Scottish output is relatively thin. But vernacular production, except in English, is largely restricted to the south – above all, as might be expected, in Italian, sometimes alongside Neo-Latin works by the same poet. (Boiardo has two separate series, of ten eclogues each, in Latin and Italian.) Allusion is still more prevalent, almost the exclusive mode, in the French eclogue, whether early in the sixteenth century in Clément Marot or later in Ronsard and Jean-Antoine de Baïf (though Marot in particular displays a genuine pastoral imagination). However, the corpus of Renaissance eclogues bears out George Puttenham’s distinction between those that ‘glaunce at greater matters’ and those that ‘contain and inform moral discipline’ – that is between allusive and didactic pastoral. The latter, making general moral or instructional points rather than allusive references, is best known from Mantuan, but has a wide and varied range. Old shepherds condemning the follies of love in the young is a common didactic theme, predictably broadening out into attacks on womankind. Disappointed lovers may themselves engage in such dispraise. Mantuan’s first three eclogues contrast moral and immoral love, and the fourth condemns the evil lures of women as the prelude to a story of love’s folly.46 But the commonest moral theme is the condemnation of pomp, sycophancy and corruption at court, broadening out into a general attack on social decline and injustice, and the gulf between the poor and the rich. Mantuan’s Eclogues V and VI are prominent and powerful examples: Fulica. The good man is a rare beast, and dwells in few places, whether cities or villages. Virtue is very rare indeed. Cornix. You are raving, Fulica. All city-dwellers are your enemies. They 46 See also Andrelini XII, Belmisseri V, Camerarius IX, Cayado V, de Ponte IV, X (all Latin).

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fleece and shear us, caring nothing about our well-being; they urge us to theft, then promptly send us to the gallows. So if something comes in the way of our fingers, it is permissible to snatch it up by our wiles and snares and, having captured it, pluck its feathers with light fingers, gently and cautiously …Whatever they have is owing to our toil and effort.47

Such satire and criticism is based on a common topos of what we may call the complaining or suffering rustic, deploring his toil, poverty and exploitation at the hands of his superiors.48 A special variant is the complaint against marauding soldiers and the general miseries of countrymen in time of war.49 But complaints about the shepherd’s suffering can merge into praise of his hard labour and frugal living – perhaps to denounce the social order which consigns him to this fate, but also extolling the life both socially and morally. What the georgic does implicitly and conservatively, the moral and satirical eclogue can do sternly or even bitterly. Mantuan’s Eclogue V (absorbed in Barclay’s Eclogue IV, included here in part as #28) is a classic example. Andrelini’s long autobiographical Eclogue XII yields a shorter but vivid instance: Mopsus, to endure hard labour is a difficult task for a man coddled in soft down; but to the man toughened by long experience of hard things, it is an agreeable pleasure to have submitted to a familiar burden.50

Pastoral moves interestingly between the ‘soft primitivism’ that might be thought its métier and the ‘hard primitivism’ to which its very premises seem to direct it, even where the poet is not consciously reversing or subverting its premises: an opposition of ‘shaggy and smooth, 47 ‘Fulica. Vir bonus est animal rarum paucasque per urbes / et per rural locos habet; est rarissima virtus. / Cornix. Insanis, Fulica, insanis; tot in urbibus hostes / sunt tibi quot cives. hi nos tondentque pilantque / non habita nostri capitis ratione; coartant / nos ad furta, ipsi mox ad suspendia mittunt. / fas igitur, si quid nostris sese unguibus offert, / radere et insidiis ac nostra indagine captos / deplumare levi tactu sensim et pedepressim. / … quidquid habent noster labor est, industria nostra est.’ Mantuan VI.222–30: The Eclogues of Baptista Mantuanus, ed. Wilfred P. Mustard, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1911, p. 95. Cf. the extract from Barclay’s Eclogue IV in the Anthology, translating Mantuan’s Eclogue V. 48 E.g. Joachim Camerarius I, XII, XX; Cordus IX; Eobanus Hessus III; Andrea Navagero I (all Latin). 49 E.g. Belmisseri III, Cayado I, Petrus Pontanus (de Ponte or Van der Brugge) IX (all Latin). 50 ‘Difficilis rigidos res est tolerare labores, / Mopse, homini plumis nutrito in mollibus; at qui / Iam rerum longo durarum incalluit usu / Huic notum grata est pondus subiisse voluptas.’ Andrelini XII.206–9. Cf. Andrelini VII, Belmisseri IV, Gervais Sepin I (all Latin).



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dark and light’, in Simon Schama’s phrase.51 The terms ‘soft’ and ‘hard primitivism’ were developed by A.O. Lovejoy and George Boas in their book Primitivism and Related Ideas in Antiquity.52 ‘Soft primitivism’ is self-explanatory: it presents an earlier phase of society as attractive and sustaining. ‘Hard primitivism’, however, can shift radically from its original projection of primitive society as cruel and destructive, to seeing it as hard, taxing, but, for that reason, productive and morally uplifting. Even in this more accommodating version, needless to say, it reverses the principle of otium. Otium is a governing principle of art-pastoral. As I have remarked, purely aesthetic or fictional constructs are relatively rare in the continental eclogue, whether Neo-Latin or vernacular. Where they occur, they tend to pass into mythological narrative drawing on Ovid’s Metamorphoses more than Virgil’s Eclogues. Giano Anisio’s Latin Eclogue I, a dirge for the Neapolitan master-poet Giovanni Pontano, follows Theocritus I and Virgil X in making various classical gods attend the deathbed of ‘Melisaeus’; but alongside them are mythic figures representing features of the Neapolitan landscape, who had earlier played their part in Pontano’s own Latin eclogues. One of them, Lepidina, branches out from a core pastoral structure into a series of pageants presenting Pontano’s native Neapolitan landscape in mythic but also vividly descriptive terms. Lepidina is virtually sui generis, but Pontano’s follower Basilio Zanchi attempts something similar in his Eclogue I. There are many eclogues where the pastoral is a shell for a simple account of one or more standard myths.53 But elsewhere, the poet creates a new metamorphic myth around his native landscape, as in Giambattista Amalteo’s Latin Eclogue IV about the river Sarno or his brother Cornelio’s tale (also in Latin) of the rivers Meschio and Livenza. The Campania was specially fortunate in being treated by two major poets, Giovanni Pontano and Jacopo Sannazaro, besides others like Anisio, Zanchi and Giovanni Cotta, originally from Genoa. (Anisio’s lament for Pontano is placed on Cotta’s lips.) But as one might expect, poets everywhere see the commemoration of nature as a chief objective of pastoral, perhaps all the more when writing in the vernacular. Sannazaro uses Latin and Italian simultaneously; later, Ronsard writes a number of French poems in various forms on the landscape around 51 Simon Schama, Landscape and Memory, London: HarperCollins, 1995, p. 517. 52 Vol. 1 of A.O. Lovejoy et al., A Documentary History of Primitivism and Related Ideas, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1935. 53 E.g. Vida II, Navagero I, Giambattista Amalteo V (all Latin).

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Vaucluse, once Petrarch’s dwelling-place and now Ronsard’s own. But these nature-poems of Ronsard’s have little formal pastoral content: they are largely distinct from his pronouncedly courtly and allusive eclogues. Another major presence of the landscape in Renaissance pastoral is in the context of love. The conventional structure of pastoral love – deriving from Theocritus’ Polyphemus no less than his Daphnis, and even more from Virgil’s shepherds, especially Corydon in Eclogue II – is refashioned using Petrarchan content. The Petrarchan lover withdraws into solitude and communes with nature to assuage his unhappy love. So do many shepherds, like Navagero’s Iolas: These trees bear witness for me, and this nearby poplar; this is the verse on its bark: ‘When the ram exchanges its wool for bristly hair and the goat its bristles for wool, Iolas will forsake Amaryllis.’54

The Petrarchan link is one of many reasons why the eclogue reaches out in the direction of other forms. Needless to say, Petrarchism is also the mother element of the pastoral lyric, as of all other varieties of love-lyric in that age. The landscape also features largely – perhaps more largely – in many genres that Renaissance poets read, edit and imitate alongside the eclogue: odes and epodes, sonnets, epigrams and elegies. They also generate new forms by recasting or merging the old – for instance, melding ode and epigram into the Latin lusus pastoralis (pastoral sport or recreation), a brief lyric often implying a background narrative, as practised by Marcantonio Flaminio or Andrea Navagero. Because Thyrsis has obtained from his longed-for Leucas some reward at last, he gives you these violets, blessed Venus. Coming stealthily upon her behind the hedge, I took three kisses; I could do no more, for her mother was near. This time I bring violets. But if all my desire is fulfilled I will dedicate to you, goddess, a myrtle carved with this verse; ‘Because he has possessed his love, Thyrsis dedicates to Venus this myrtle, as well as himself and his flocks.’55 54 ‘Hae testes mihi sunt silvae, vicinaque silvis / Populus haec: cuius tale est in cortice carmen. / Vellera cum setis aries mutarit, et hircus / Velleribus setas, Amaryllida linquet Iolas.’ ‘Iolas’ 74–7 (Lusus XXVII): Andrea Navegero, Lusus, ed. and trans. Alice E. Wilson, Nieuwkoop: B. De Graaf, 1973, pp. 54–5. 55 ‘Quod tulit optata tandem de Leucade Thyrsis / Fructum aliquem: has violas dat tibi sancta Venus. / Post sepem hanc sensim obrepens, tria basia sumpsi: / Nil ultra potui: nam prope mater erat. / Nunc violas, sed plena feram si vota: dicabo / Inscriptam



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A series of lusus might actually make up a connected story, as in the last book of Flaminio’s Carmina. In a corresponding movement in vernacular Italian, a series of sonnets might also contain a narrative, as in the work of Benedetto Varchi, Lodovico Dolce or, with less focus, Bernardo Tasso. Even the epigram can be given a pastoral bent, as can the loosely defined form called the silva (literally ‘wood’ or ‘forest’). The lusus pastoralis proves a major site of a prominent feature of Italianate pastoral that we may call ‘pastoral religion’. Its single most important source is Sannazaro’s Arcadia, and perhaps its biggest repository the Italian pastoral drama. But in all non-allusive, non-didactic pastoral, the shepherds are usually pagan, worshipping a distinctive selection of classical Graeco-Roman gods: Venus (as in Navagero’s lusus above), Diana and perhaps Apollo (but seldom the other Olympians), with wood-gods and other nature-gods and nymphs in abundance. The most important festival is the feast of Pan, featured in many excerpts in this collection. This ‘religion’ is embellished with a wealth of rites and festivals, often the concoction of particular poets. In fact, it seems to consist chiefly in these observances: as one might expect, this fictional construct includes little or nothing of meaningful faith, philosophic depth or moral seriousness. There is a strong mythic component, cultivated for narrative content and picturesque effect, drawn from Ovid’s Metamorphoses. This is expanded in Guarini’s Il pastor fido into a more elaborate structure of oracles and supernatural signs, drawn from Greek Hellenistic romance. These trappings become more and more important in Renaissance pastoral romance: the whole story of Sidney’s Arcadia turns on an oracle, though there is relatively little else by way of the supernatural. The Spanish Diana has somewhat more to offer in this respect.56 All these elements are retailed in the profusion of pastoral lyrics in the vernaculars. All the generic forms cited here are adopted or modified to this end. A particularly pleasing and varied collection in French is Vauquelin de la Fresnaie’s Idillies et pastoralles, following on the more hoc myrtum carmine Diva tibi. / Hanc Veneri myrtum Thyrsis, quod amore potitus / Dedicat, atque una seque suosque greges.’ Navagero, Lusus VI: Lusus, pp. 26–7. Cf. Boiardo (Latin) II, VIII; Hessus III, VII, X; Stephanus I, showing the pronounced impact of Longus’ Daphnis and Chloe (all Latin). 56 In Diana, see Montemayor Bk II (Felismena’s story), Bk V (the magician Alfeus), Perez Bk III (Stela and the river-nymphs); also the account of ‘pastoral religion’ in Perez Bk IV. L’Astrée makes much of an enchanted ‘fountain of the truth of love’, guarded by unicorns, and a much more active operation of oracles than in Sidney. There is also a variant version of ‘pastoral religion’ centred on the god of love and a ‘good goddess’.

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mixed Les Foresteries (1555). Idillies et pastoralles remained in manuscript until 1605. A slighter but more influential French model for English pastoral lyricists was Philippe Desportes’s Bergeries et masquarades (1583). Its delicate lyrics are matched by those in Joachim du Bellay’s Divers jeux rustiques (nearly all translations of Navagero’s lusus), and there are graceful, light yet sophisticated lyrics by Ronsard and Jacques Peletier du Mans. The extent of pastoral lyrics in Italian or French can match, if not exceed, the English; but the latter is very different in bent. Most importantly, the vernacular pastoral lyric occupies a contested territory alongside the ubiquitous pastoral song, especially the madrigal – a form specially associated with the pastoral. There was an earlier, somewhat formal type of song called the madrigal, but the lighter and more versatile product of that name developed only in the sixteenth century, achieving its first major success in Venice in the 1530s. While a certain pastoral content was present from the start, the pastoral madrigal truly came into its own in the 1570s in the work of Andrea Gabrieli and Luca Marenzio. The latter – the ‘pastoral musician par excellence’, as Jerome Roche calls him57 – confirmed the status of Sannazaro’s Arcadia as a prime source of madrigal material. Two celebrated pastoral plays, Tasso’s Aminta and Guarini’s Il pastor fido (The Faithful Shepherd) were the two other major sources. Two key factors make the madrigal important in the history of not only Renaissance music but Renaissance poetry. One is a renewed interest in vernacular poetry and popular song – but an interest on the part of a humanist-educated elite wishing to recast those light and unpolished products in more sophisticated mould. The other is the rise of the printed song-book, usually with only one ‘part’ to the volume rather than the full score. For the first time, the song-lyric was being presented as a text to be read. This could induce the lyricist to add more body to the conventionally thin fabric of the words: the text remained light, brief and intrinsically musical, but could also present an independent verbal construct, even an embryonic fiction and an expansive natural setting as in this instance by Luca Marenzio: Phyllis was weeping, and turned both her eyes to the sky, which was also weeping. ‘O Thyrsis, O Thyrsis,’ she said dolorously. ‘O Thyrsis, O Thyrsis,’ murmured the waves, ‘O Thyrsis, O Thyrsis’ the winds, ‘O Thyrsis, O Thyrsis’ the flowers, grass, and branches.58 57 Jerome Roche, The Madrigal, London: Hutchinson, 1972, p. 60. 58 ‘Piangea Filli e riuolce ambe le luci / Al Ciel c’han ch’ei piangea, / ‘O Tirsi o Tirsi.’ /



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This tendency towards a modest elaboration was countered by a move in the direction of the lighter villanesca, with a new folk overlay and a simpler and more colloquial structure. The madrigal provides the biggest and most influential body of short pastoral lyrics, supplemented by (and perhaps overlapping with) the lusus pastoralis. It sets up such brief poetic exercises as a serious adjunct not only to the eclogue or other moderate-sized genres but even to the full-blown pastoral romance or drama: taking the latter’s material, scaling it down to a new brief compass and imparting to it a new episodic but affectively intenser note. As remarked above, much of the material of earlier pastoral madrigals comes from Sannazaro’s Arcadia, and of the later from Tasso and Guarini’s pastoral plays. Yet the madrigal must remain a limited, not to say rudimentary poetic form, restricted by its brevity and by the inevitable subordination of the verbal to the musical design. Despite their volume and impact, neither the madrigal nor the total body of continental pastoral lyrics provides adequate precedent for the wealth of such poems in the Elizabethan age, nor their importance – one might almost say centrality – to pastoral practice as a whole. But the continental madrigal and pastoral lyric create the conditions and provide the general store of material (plus many direct models and originals). They reshape the contours of Renaissance pastoral to introduce a lyric element not only in these particular forms and genres, but in the pastoral convention as a whole. The commitment to poetry and song inherent in pastoral from the outset are actualized in this body of poetry as never before. No wonder they popularized the notion of the ‘shepherd’ as a virtual synonym of the poet. The spectrum of Neo-Latin pastoral lyric shades off towards Horace’s odes or Martial’s epigrams; so do many vernacular equivalents, in further admixture with more recent and popular forms. Scarcely less important is the nature-elegy, in both Neo-Latin and the vernacular. This can reach out towards the pastoral in one direction and, more importantly given the provenance of such poems, the georgic on the other, populating a middle ground where the poet and his upper-class friends can coexist with Thyrsis and Neaera (as in Giambattista Amalteo’s Latin elegy ‘O Tirsi o Tirsi’ / mormorauan l’onde, i venti, / ‘O Tirsi o Tirsi’ i fior l’herbe et le fionde.’ Text constructed by combining Canto and Alto versions of Luca Marenzio, Madrigali a sei voci, Antwerp: Pietro Phalesio & Giovanni Bellero, 1594, fol. 27r. Translation from Alfred Einstein, The Italian Madrigal, ed. A. H. Krappe et al., Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1949, II.651.

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addressed to Lodovico Dolce).59 So also a conventional bucolic scene can be juxtaposed with realistic glimpses of farming, fishing or vine-culture.60 Henri Estienne or Stephanus starts his long Latin praise of the country life with ‘Beatus ille…’, the opening line of Horace’s Epode II, works in a reference to the Golden Age early on (and repeats it later), brings in Pan and other rural gods, yet describes a real landscape through the cycle of the seasons, and populates it with shepherds in conventional pastoral vein.61 Different again, yet in constant interaction with these models, is the longer ode or canzone, drawing on the Petrarchan canzone where the lover withdraws into and communes with nature. In continental pastoral poetry as a whole, we see that on the one hand, the Virgilian eclogue is recognized as a distinctive genre, holding its own ground more forcefully than ever before. At the same time, its elements are placed in new combinations with others both traditional and novel, native and classical, folk or popular as well as elite, to create a whole new universe of the pastoral, virtually redefining the term and making it decisively a mode rather than a mere genre (the eclogue). All these sources and models are reflected in the translations included in the Anthology62 from classical poets and their Renaissance imitators. There are surprising omissions like Petrarch’s eclogues (not to mention Boccaccio’s) and Sannazaro’s Arcadia. One assumes they circulated sufficiently in the original, obviating the need for translations. But these and other Italianate models are all reproduced in English, as (usually earlier) in other vernaculars; and alongside them, English poets (like their compatriots in Italy, France or Spain) practise new poetic genres developed in the Middle Ages or the Renaissance itself, like the sonnet, the madrigal and various veins of song and lyric – even one-off precedents like a verse interlude on the Golden Age in Boethius’ The Consolation of Philosophy 59 Cf., in Latin, Navagero Lusus XXV (which combines this vein with a mythological tale) and Flaminio’s invitation to Franciscus Turrianus (Carminum libri IIII, Florence, 1552, p. 186); in Italian, Bernardo Tasso, Elegy II; and in French, Ronsard, ‘Les Plaisirs rustiques’ (‘The Pleasures of the Countryside’) and ‘De l’election de son sepulcre’ (‘On the Choice of His Tomb’). 60 As in Giambattista Amalteo’s elegy ‘Ad Ludovicum Dulcium’ and George Buchanan’s elegy ‘Majae calendae’ respectively. See also Andrelini V, Cayado IV, Camerarius VIII, and the detailed season-by-season account of rural activities in Strozzi I–II. Other poems like Cordus IV and Hessus IX describe the shepherd’s tasks. (All poems in Latin.) 61 Henricus Stephanus, ‘Oda, de laudibus vitae rusticae’, Moschi, Bionis, Theocriti … ­idyllia … Eiusdem carmina, Paris: Robert Estienne, 1556, sigs D2r–E3v. 62 In this Introduction, ‘the Anthology’ always refers to Pastoral Poetry of the English Renaissance: An Anthology, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2016.



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(#14). We may compare the same theme in choruses from two Italian pastoral plays, Tasso’s Aminta and Guarini’s Il pastor fido (#33, #34). In a general way, practitioners in all these veins pass from direct translation to excerpt and imitation: they are ‘translating’ a poetic mode and ambience, and perhaps specific topoi, rather than a particular poem. In other words, the reach of translatio extends much wider than actual rendering from one language into another, to approach something very like the translatio studii postulated in the Middle Ages, transference of the material of art and learning from ancient to new locations. The Anthology illustrates the reception, renovation, and above all interaction of classical, medieval and contemporary forms of pastoral and quasi-pastoral. Renaissance English pastoral: the beginnings. Spenser and Sidney In Renaissance England, the most attractive and productive synthesis of classical and medieval forms is in the corpus of pastoral odes and lyrics; but chronologically, the story begins with a group of sterner moral eclogues. Early in the sixteenth century, Alexander Barclay composed five eclogues, two based on pieces by Mantuan and the others on a non-pastoral didactic tract ‘On the Miseries of Courtiers’ by Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini (later Pope Pius II). Formally, these pieces are anything but Virgilian, even the two derived from Mantuan. They are long diatribes where the attack on the corrupt ruling class expands into general accounts of the miseries of shepherds and rural folk. At the same time, they make effective use of the metaphor of the shepherd as priest to deplore the state of the Church.63 The most notable point about Barclay’s eclogues is the way they assimilate the eclogue to traditions other than the strictly pastoral – most ­notably the satire, protest and social commentary of the Plowman literature deriving from the late Middle Ages, though not the spiritual, even mystical dimension with which Langland endowed it. English Renaissance pastoral does not really get off the ground for another half-century; but already we see the passage from formal pastoral towards other, thematically more compelling vehicles. Barclay’s poems are called eclogues, but their long, meandering course and narrow range of themes almost belie the label. It is a sign of things to come. I have described how formal pastoral always tends to diffuse and combine its energies with other modes and genres; but there seems no doubt that the process is more marked in English than in other vernaculars, 63 Barclay was a priest and, for a time, first a Benedictine and then a Franciscan monk.

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let alone Neo-Latin. The most obvious pointer is the relative paucity of formal eclogues, especially in the sixteenth century: outside Spenser, the only sequence to speak of is Drayton’s Idea the Shepherd’s Garland (1593); and the tally of individual pieces is modest, even after trawling manuscript sources. The connected narrative of Thomas Watson’s Latin Amyntas and its ‘prequel’ Amintae Gaudia (both with English translations) lie outside the Virgilian mainstream in intent even if not in form. The ‘Eclogues’ in Sidney’s Arcadia seldom formally qualify for that label, and those in Lodge’s A Fig for Momus are devoid of genuine pastoral content. I have anticipated my account, for the story really begins with Spenser’s The Shepheardes Calender (1579). Before that, we have only the undistinguished Mantuanesque eclogues of Barnabe Googe and a few lyric pieces touching generally on nature or rural life. The one sparkling exception, ‘Harpelus’ Complaint’ (#31) from Tottel’s Miscellany (1557), can be explained as a late instance of a basically medieval line of short lyric narrative. Into this unpromising world, albeit with a rich library of classical and continental models awaiting use, The Shepheardes Calender burst anonymously in 1579. Its author had previously published only a few short translations in 1569 while in his teens. After graduating from Cambridge, he had spent some time in the employ of John Young, Bishop of Rochester. He may have entered the Earl of Leicester’s service and gained acquaintance with the latter’s nephew Philip Sidney as early as 1577, certainly by 1579. The Calender was largely composed by then; it appeared the same December with a dedication to Sidney. By this time, Sidney appears to have composed most of the poems that later went into his Arcadia, and had also begun the prose narrative of the earlier version (the Old Arcadia). Even on such a late encounter, it would be surprising if the two pioneering Elizabethan pastoralists remained untouched by each other’s practice. Spenser seems to have made a few late revisions to the Calender as a result. Sidney offered the Calender high praise in An Apology for Poetry, and presumably had it in mind during his further work on the Arcadia. But there is no marked impact in either direction. It seems fair to say that each had formed his own pastoral strategy before encountering the other, and saw no reason to modify it to any degree. Later practitioners thus obtained the benefit of two wide-ranging yet widely variant and differently sourced models. This may be a major cause of the unusual trajectory of English Renaissance pastoral. There is a great deal of allusion in the Calender. The single biggest topic



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of allusion (treated in three eclogues, ‘May’, ‘July’ [#41] and ‘September’) is the state of the Church, of concern to Spenser since his time with John Young but also, more broadly, from his general Puritan leanings – a tendency no doubt enhanced by contact with Leicester and Sidney. But there is also a eulogy of Queen Elizabeth (‘April’, #38); a lament for an unidentified dead maiden (‘November’); and all through, a strand of allusion to Spenser’s own life under the persona of Colin Clout, especially the trials of his poetic career and his frustrated love for a girl here named Rosalind. This account can take on a moral dimension, and there are other moral themes as well, as in the debate between an old and a young shepherd in ‘February’. (Both ‘February’ and ‘May’ incorporate moral fables of some length.) The topical allusions in the church allegory are anchored in a general discourse on a churchman’s duties and personality. In other words, the discursive content of the Calender is as much didactic as allusive. The allusions in the Calender, with many ancillary details, are treated by an ‘E.K.’ (perhaps one Edward Kirke, perhaps Spenser himself) in an elaborate apparatus of introduction, ‘argument’ and commentary accompanying the poems. Needless to say, they have been closely explored by later scholars. It therefore bears stressing that the truly notable ­element in the Calender is not the extent of the allusions but their relative absence, the marked presence of an imaginative setting and implicit narrative. The autobiographical element in Colin’s unhappy love does not destroy its status as an independent fiction: it belongs with the similar tales of poet-shepherds (perhaps autobiographical too) in Italian pastoral drama. It yields two fine if conventional love-laments in ‘January’ and ‘December’, and a striking projection of the restless and inspired poet in ‘June’ (#40). ‘June’ inverts the paradigm of Virgil’s Eclogue I by identifying the poet with the displaced and wandering shepherd, not his opposite number in secure repose. Spenser may have consciously followed Petrarch’s Eclogue I, described above. But Colin’s wandering figure also recalls the restless lover of Petrarch’s love poems, roaming the wilderness to assuage his unhappy love. We should also note how Spenser’s shepherds constantly burst into song. In this they are no different from most shepherds in pastoral convention; what is unexpected is the nature of the songs. The praise of ‘Eliza, Queene of shepheardes all’ in ‘April’ (#38) is a cross between an ode and a dance song. The movement of the framing eclogue in ‘March’ is so tripping that a light-hearted song about the infant Cupid can be fitted to the same metre. ‘August’ works an unusual variation on the

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amoebean eclogue: the contending shepherds contribute interweaving lines to a single composite song,64 again in a light dance-like metre. The poem ends with a love-lament by the absent Colin, here sung by Cuddie: a weightier, more sombre sestina anticipating the intricate ode-like lament in a ten-line stanza in ‘November’. These two pieces may be late additions to the Calender, made after Spenser’s acquaintance with Sidney and access to the elaborate eclogues in the manuscript Arcadia. But with these two exceptions, the song-interludes embedded in the eclogues are light, pronouncedly lyrical pieces. The eclogues themselves display a store of metrical and stanzaic innovations, a greater approximation to lyric forms, and more decisive endings than the arbitrary close of many other eclogues. Spenser makes exceptionally good use of the vernacular poet’s freedom from the unvarying iambic pentameter of classical pastoral, exploiting that freedom over the space of twelve poems. These formal innovations align him more closely with the shepherd-poets of his fiction. The span of twelve eclogues affords other advantages too. The Calender conveys a strong sense of an integrated shepherd community with its web of relationships and year-round tasks and observances. The woodcuts preceding each eclogue visualize this milieu in concrete terms. It was a brilliant strategy to fit the arbitrary length of an eclogue series to the pattern of the seasons, imposing both a narrative and a societal structure to the fiction, attuned moreover to the natural cycle. Further, by recalling the Kalendrier motif, even if in name rather than content – ‘applying an olde name to a new worke’, in E.K.’s words in his introductory epistle to Gabriel Harvey – Spenser evokes a still wider range of real and conceptual shepherd life, virtually the entire range of rural experience in that age. The Calender enshrines a way of life current in the community hosting the fiction. All this is within a single poem; but the impact of the Calender on subsequent English pastoral creates a still greater continuum, virtually a shared setting populated by each new poet with his own cast of ­characters – which are often shared characters. The most important presence in this sustained scene is Colin himself. Spenser adopted the name as his persona in all subsequent works; later poets (not only of the pastoral) habitually call him Colin. This gives an integrated Spenserian cast to 64 This is matched, presumably by coincidence, in Jean Dorat’s Latin Eclogue VI (published 1586), where one shepherd does most of the singing, another merely repeating a one-line refrain.



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the whole body of English Renaissance pastoral, indeed impregnates all English Renaissance poetry with an endemic pastoral association. All in all, Spenser gifts English pastoral with a second, more proximate control point alongside the Virgilian, supplementing or even exceeding the latter. There is nothing comparable in any other European language: even Sannazaro’s reach is not so pervasive. The genres, forms and topoi in the Calender range well beyond Virgil’s Eclogues while, of course, incorporating the latter. One or more of these precedents could be adopted by any later pastoralist, to compose anything from a lyric or ode to a panegyric, satire, fable or dirge, in structures and verse-forms variously diverging from the conventional eclogue. The arch-themes of love and poetry are unfolded in good measure, and there is enough allusive reference to the real world: any later poet can draw out any of these lines where Spenser left off. Even the latent narrative is sufficiently open to absorb any later construct. Thus Spenser stakes out the whole territory of English Renaissance pastoral for his successors. Virtually the entire contents of the remarkable anthology England’s Helicon can, in one way or other, be read back to the Calender. That is another way of saying that the Calender is the well-spring of the exceptional range of forms and practices found in English Renaissance pastoral, and the unusually strong presence of art-pastoral. Even the small corpus of English pastoral pre-dating the Calender seems to link up with one or other element in it. In Spenser’s own career, the Calender proved an unusual inseminating presence. Diverging from the traditional path of ‘Virgil’s wheel’, Spenser invested nearly all his subsequent work with an element of the pastoral. Astrophel, the pastoral elegy for Sidney, has nothing specially innovative, though it is an unusually elaborate compendium of all the conventional elements of such a poem. Colin Clout’s Come Home Again (#42) may also be seen as an unusually complex and skilful application of the twin topoi of the ‘admiring shepherd’ and the ‘critical shepherd’, traditionally used to view court life through a pastoral lens. It is perhaps unusual in the force and scale of combination of the two modes: most pastoralists fight shy of letting moral strictures on court life impinge too closely on their praise of rulers and patrons. Perhaps Spenser was emboldened in his task by his patron Ralegh’s own uncertain relations with Elizabeth and her court: Ralegh’s visit to Ireland, which initiated the events of the poem, stemmed from the need to take stock of his estates there as a fall-back to his career at court. Spenser himself seems never to have ceased to set his sights on the court, or a more attractive preferment in London rather than Ireland, where he was secretary to the Governor. He dedicated Colin

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Clout to the Queen, as later The Faerie Queene, where he celebrated the monarch virtually at mythic level. The point to remark is that even this hyper-ambitious romantic epic is impregnated with a vein of pastoral. This pastoral exists in close combination with myth. The landscape is imbued with vital and supernatural presences in an openly Ovidian vein: the pastoral components are not so directly Virgilian. The pastoral presence in The Faerie Queene is uniquely Spenser’s own. Against a setting of nature and in subtle but organic relation with it, he projects a succession of encounters between rural and courtly, ‘simple’ and ‘complex’ humanity, in a sustained assessment of the courtly ideal (‘to fashion a gentleman or noble person in vertuous and gentle discipline’)65 which is his purpose in the work. The core themes and values of pastoral are, as it were, extracted from a specifically shepherdly setting and worked deep into the human negotiations foregrounded against the natural setting. But those negotiations are not quite human either: the participants are nearly all of the Faerie race, with a subtly fictive and supernatural dimension comparable to the shepherds of pastoral, though most of them are knights. The setting, again, modifies ‘real’ nature in a fictive and mythic direction, refashioning the Irish landscape to new imaginative purpose. One may say that Spenser’s entire attitude to nature in Ireland is that of any pastoral poet to the rural landscape: an arena of the imagination, a fit setting for certain removed poetic values in a fictively modified community, resuscitative yet finally alien, redefining but not overthrowing the courtly and urban order. Significantly, the climax of the narrative – seen by many as the designed culmination of a formally unfinished work – openly reverts to pastoral convention. Towards the end of Book VI (the last complete book of The Faerie Queene) Calidore, the knight of courtesy, comes upon a community of shepherds and casts in his lot with them, having fallen in love with the most prominent shepherd maiden. The Anthology includes the most salient passages from that section (#44, #45). ‘Courtesy’ in that age did not mean niceties of behaviour; it meant the perfected graces of the human state as most desired and best realized in the courtier, the ‘vertuous and gentle discipline’ of Spenser’s letter to Ralegh. (‘Gentle’, of course, means noble, even if Spenser, like others of his age, finely weighs nobility of birth against nobility of being.) Yet Calidore, the finest 65 Letter to Sir Walter Ralegh ‘expounding his whole intention in the course of this worke’: Spenser, Poetical Works, ed. J.C. Smith and E. de Selincourt, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1912, rpt. 1970, p. 407.



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flower of court life, not only finds his most congenial retreat among humble shepherds, but obtains among them an experience beyond his sophisticated conception. On Mount Acidale, haunt of a trans-erotic Venus, Calidore sees the three Graces and their followers dancing to the tune of Colin Clout’s rustic pipe, surrounding a country girl who is Colin’s beloved. The vision has a Stoic significance, explained by Colin, of the giving and receiving of gifts and ‘offices’; also Neoplatonic implications that, though not elaborated here, are implicit in the setting and narrative and were common knowledge to Spenser’s educated readers.66 Human acts and relations are linked to an ideal, transcendent world, but one enshrined in nature and myth. It is the pinnacle of Calidore’s ideal of courtesy, but enshrined in a pastoral scene and accessible to the shepherd more readily than the knight: Calidore’s approach makes the dancers vanish, leaving Colin distraught and inducing Calidore to beg pardon of him. At the same time, it is the point towards which the entire nature-setting of The Faerie Queene has been tending, now made philosophically explicit. It is arguably the profoundest revaluation of pastoral ever made, the high point of the entire mode. Few poets, if any, follow Spenser to this philosophic height, but there are interesting reflections: lyrics like ‘Theorello. A Shepherd’s Idyllion’67 (#132) in England’s Helicon, or longer works like Edward Benlowes’s Christian-mystical Theophila, or Love’s Sacrifice (#255). There is also a philosophic or symbolic undertext in certain narratives, locally or in extenso, starting with the figure of Urania in Sidney’s Arcadia. Sidney’s romance is a mine of pastoral poetic models, besides the importance of the narrative structure itself. Many of the poems hark back to the 1570s, and may have been composed independently of the narrative in which they were later embedded. This too was begun in the 1570s, and the first version (the Old Arcadia) completed in 1580–81, chiefly during Sidney’s enforced leisure at Wilton, the Wiltshire estate of his sister and brother-in-law the Earl of Pembroke. (He was avoiding the court, even if not actually banished from it, after gratuitously 66 See notes to #45 in the Anthology. 67 This poem, presenting a Neoplatonic allegory of the created universe, has an interesting precedent in the First Eclogue of Gervais Sepin (Sepinus, fl.1550): ‘Behold, unheralded Nature, suddenly revealed in marvellous shape, stunned my dazzled eyes. Ah me, what beauty, and how much of brightness there was in her!’ (‘Ecce inopina mihi Natura oblata repente / Egregia specie stupidos perstrinxit ocellos: / Hei mihi quis decor? et quantum fulgoris in illa?’): Delitiae C. poetarum Gallorum, Frankfurt, 1609, III.750.

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c­ ommenting on the Queen’s proposed marriage to the Duke of Alençon.) In fact, Sidney’s full title is The Countess of Pembroke’s Arcadia, adapting the title of Sannazaro’s work, much though Sidney’s might differ from it. Later, Sidney set about a radical revision (the New Arcadia), but left it unfinished in mid-sentence halfway through Book III. Neither version appeared in Sidney’s lifetime. There is an intricate history of posthumous publication from 1590 onwards, the New Arcadia being supplemented by the latter part of the Old. The full text of the Old Arcadia was only recovered from manuscript and published in the twentieth century. The five books of the Old Arcadia are divided by groups of ‘Eclogues’, purportedly songs sung by the shepherds of the narrative. Some are eclogues on the Virgilian model, though often extended in length. Others are short lyrics, or more elaborate odes or canzones, or still more sophisticated variants like the sestina, dizaine or crown, with intricate rhyme schemes. Several are exercises in quantitative metre, using a pattern of long and short syllables as in classical Greek and Latin, rather than the stress-based prosody customary in English. Owing to the prestige of the classical languages, quantitative verse was an accepted model in the Renaissance. It attracted special though brief attention in England in the 1570s, apparently following the precept of the obscure Thomas Drant. Spenser discusses the matter in his correspondence with the Cambridge scholar Gabriel Harvey, though he never practised the form. There is also a sizeable body of poems, chiefly lyrics of short or medium length, woven into the prose narrative of the five books of the Arcadia. Most of them are not ascribed to shepherds but to courtly characters, sometimes in shepherds’ guise. The number and placing of the poems varies from version to version, edition to edition. The distribution of poems in the New Arcadia is specially indeterminate as it stands, though Sidney had clearly devoted much thought to the matter. As this account indicates, Sidney’s primary purpose in the Arcadia poems was not to develop pastoral poetry as such, but generally to present a range of Renaissance poetic forms, sometimes for the first time in English. (As Sidney’s editor Ringler notes, Sidney had earlier introduced the amoebean eclogue in English, worked into the structure of The Lady of May, #46.) This is specially so with the poems embedded in the narrative: there the pastoral element, if any, is usually present in the context rather than the poem itself. Of the 27 Eclogues, only 9 have any pastoral content at all, and that, sometimes, merely in a passing reference to sheep or shepherds. But even where not pastoral, the poems in the Arcadia are, so to



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speak, conductors of pastoralism: that is where their importance lies. They offer a very large range of verse forms that, owing to their location in the Arcadia, are assimilated to the pastoral and can henceforth be used with that mode. Sidney’s unique position as a literary icon would have enhanced their importance; and because in English, these poetic forms originated in the Arcadia, the pastoral would be recognized as the seminal theme or context for their use. This did not happen anywhere on the continent. No doubt in Italian or French, a poet could readily be called a shepherd, his beloved or any young woman a nymph; but the underlying pastoral themes were developed only in the eclogue and a clutch of associated genres as described above: they did not pervade the entire range of poetic forms. There was no seminal resource presenting that full range in a pastoral setting. The year 1600 saw the publication of the anthology, England’s Helicon. Its compiler remains unknown, though variously guessed to be John Flasket, the publisher; John Bodenham, recipient of a dedicatory sonnet that seems to credit him with the task; an unidentified ‘A.B.’, author of this sonnet and a dedicatory letter in prose; or Nicholas Ling, author of a longer dedication ‘To the Reader, if indifferent’ (uninterested). The Helicon trawls the range of Elizabethan writings – poetic collections, prose narratives, plays, entertainments, translations – for every kind of poem with a pastoral bearing, however remote. It even tweaks a number of originally non-pastoral pieces to make them conform. This is done with surprising ease, the results hardly distinguishable from other poems formally pastoral in origin. This confirms what the very appearance of the Helicon indicates: how by 1600 – twenty-one years after the Calender and just ten since the publication of the Arcadia – pastoral was accepted as a unifying presence, virtually a mother element, across the spectrum of Elizabethan literature. It links up with the entire formal range of Elizabethan poetry. Of the long line of Early Modern verse miscellanies, in English or any other modern language, the Helicon is the only one devoted to a single mode.68 The formal developments that culminate in the Helicon can be sourced back to the Calender and the Arcadia poems; so can the thematic and fictive sources. This has implications also for the controlling constructs in the sources themselves. In English Renaissance pastoral, Sidney’s Arcadia and the Calender afforded large-scale prototypes of structure and theme from the very outset – and within them, a diverse range of shorter models. 68 Johannes Oporinus brought out a major Neo-Latin collection in 1546 (see p. 46).

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This too had not happened in any other language, arguably excepting the narrower model of Sannazaro’s Arcadia. There, the Virgilian eclogue had provided an authoritative and allusively fecund but formally limited prototype. The supporting genres current in the period – ode, elegy, lyric, lusus, sonnet, madrigal – were structurally limited and often conceptually restrictive, though they covered a great deal of thematic ground between them. Continental pastoral overcame these limitations by generating more ambitious forms: extending eclogue, song and lyric into cycles, pageants and narratives, consolidating them in full-fledged romance and drama. The thematic implications of these larger forms could then be redirected to the eclogue and lyric. Because of its late start, English Renaissance pastoral profited from these continental developments: it could begin where they left off, with the bonus of initial participation by two writers of genius. It could open its account with a uniquely integrated eclogue-cycle and a pastoral romance of complex form and great intellectual sophistication, even more so in revision. Subsequent developments of form and theme are like smaller constructs selectively abstracted from these grand designs. In other languages, the process had rather been one of building up, synthesizing smaller units into bigger structures: Arcadia had to be constructed by putting together its partial glimpses. Hence my earlier premiss, that all pastoral seems to share in a common world and present the same community, is especially true in the Elizabethan instance. There, Virgil’s Arcadia is overlain, sometimes virtually replaced by the more integrated settings supplied by Spenser’s seasonally oriented shepherdly annals and Sidney’s connected narrative. Conflating the two, England and Arcadia could be run together, as Virgil combined his native Mantua with Theocritus’ Sicily. The Calender had further editions in 1581 and 1586. Work on the Arcadia obviously ceased with Sidney’s death in 1586, if not earlier. However, Elizabethan pastoral comes to full growth only in the next decade. The consolidation of Elizabethan pastoral The real impact of the Arcadia came from its publication rather than its composition. There are many extant manuscripts of the Old Arcadia; no doubt there were others now lost or undiscovered. (The incomplete New Arcadia is known from a single manuscript.) They must have circulated in courtly circles, and pastoral poetry seems to have been largely confined to those circles in the 1580s. Aristocratic poets scorned the ‘stigma of print’ (see p. 114) and fought shy of exposing their work to public gaze.



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Circulated only in manuscript, works by courtier-poets like Edward de Vere, Earl of Oxford, Ferdinando Stanley, Earl of Derby and Sir Edward Dyer are now largely lost – or perhaps waiting to be discovered, like the poems of Edward Sandys in the 1950s or of Robert Sidney in the 1970s. Manuscripts have also provided dramatically different readings of Thomas Wyatt in recent times, though his misguidedly edited works had always been available in Tottel’s Miscellany (Songs and Sonnets, 1557). There is a quantity of published work by humbler poets (often professional writers) like Anthony Munday and Thomas Lodge;69 but even their poems remain surprisingly often in manuscript, as do even the extensive pastoral output of Nicholas Breton. He published prolifically, and his canon is hard to demarcate; but his long list of published works includes only one pastoral volume, from 1604. He seems to have reserved a body of finely turned lyric verse, chiefly pastoral (probably rather earlier in date) for a separate niche of reception, and desisted from publishing them. They are preserved in BL MS Addl 34064, and were printed only by the nineteenth-century editor Grosart. The most notable body of published pastoral in the 1580s occurs in the prose romance: Robert Greene’s Pandosto (1588), Menaphon (1589), Ciceronis Amor (1589) and Greene’s Mourning Garment (1590) (see #71 to #77), and Lodge’s Rosalynde (1590, perhaps composed by 1587) (see #79, #80). The poems in these romances are more markedly pastoral than in the Arcadia, because they are set in short rustic interludes in a story of often different bent: the pastoral ambience has to be created within the poem’s compass. And from time to time, a writer can think of endowing the pastoral with a more pivotal role in the plot, as Longus did some 1400 years earlier in the context of the Hellenistic Greek romance. The pre-eminent Elizabethan examples are Greene’s Pandosto and Lodge’s Rosalynde, the sources of Shakespeare’s The Winter’s Tale and As You Like It respectively. Lodge’s Euphues Shadow (1592) also has a notable pastoral sequence. A special development starting in the 1580s is what we may call the Amyntas cycle. In 1585, Thomas Watson published his Latin Amyntas, a series of eleven eclogues constituting the querelae (lamentations) of the shepherd Amyntas on the death of his beloved Phyllis. At the end, Amyntas kills himself. Integrated narratives conveyed through eclogues 69 Mundy’s Sweet Sobs and Amorous Complaints of Shepherds and Nymphs in a Fancy Confused was registered in 1583: the work has not survived, so we can only guess at the contents. Lodge appended a number of pastoral and other short pieces to his mythological poem Scilla’s Metamorphosis (1589).

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are relatively rare (the shorter lusus or sonnet being more often used for the purpose), and Watson’s is one of the most notable. It was translated into English hexameters by Abraham Fraunce, Sidney’s protégé and avowed follower, in 1587 (see #57, #58). The English version was reprinted twice in the next two years, and twice more in the 1590s. The popularity of Amyntas’ story increases in the 1590s, for reasons I will suggest below. Watson’s own Latin Amintae Gaudia, a ‘prequel’ of the courtship and love of Amyntas and Phillis before the latter’s death, appeared in 1591, with a partial English translation in 1594 (see #59). But much more importantly, Amyntas became a recognized figure in the world of English pastoral, evoked casually in poem after poem.70 There is a little poem in a Bodleian Library manuscript (#60) with a resumé of the Amyntas story, eked out with familiar topoi and even verse-movements from contemporary pastoral lyrics. It shows how deeply the story had penetrated the fabric of Elizabethan pastoral. Even more remarkable is its assimilation to the world of classical myth. At the end of Watson’s poem, the dead Amyntas is transformed into the amaranthus flower. In subsequent English (and Scottish) poetry, he is drawn into the gallery of metamorphosed figures derived from Ovid’s Metamorphoses, and the mythic population of the pastoral landscape generally. ‘The Maids which haunt the Springs [i.e. Naiads or water-nymphs] / Daunce on these Pastures, here Amintas sings’ (#199.101–2), writes Drummond of the pastoral world he shared with the dead Anthony Alexander. Most memorably of all, Spenser places Amyntas alongside Hyacinthus and Narcissus among the ‘sad louers … transformd of yore’ (FQ III.vi.45). The canonization of Amyntas – not just as a work but as a common literary possession, a freely circulating pastoral topos – best indicates how pastoral production burgeons spectacularly in the 1590s. Britain’s Bower of Delights (1591) and The Arbour of Amorous Devices (1594) are the first two Elizabethan poetic miscellanies with substantial pastoral content. Drayton’s Idea the Shepherd’s Garland (1593) is the only full-fledged eclogue cycle besides Francis Sabie’s brief Pan’s Pipe (1595), though Abraham Fraunce republished his translation of Watson’s Amyntas in The Countess of Pembroke’s Ivychurch (1591) and again separately in 1596. Barnabe Barnes’s Parthenophil and Parthenope (1593) and Richard Barnfield’s The Affectionate Shepherd (1594) are sizeable pastoral compendia of more varied form. Thomas Lodge (Phillis, 1593), Richard Barnfield (Cynthia, 1595) and William Smith (Chloris, 1596) 70 See e.g. #96.101, #106.91.



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develop the pastoral sonnet. There are diffuse pastoral narratives in Sabie’s two-part The Fisherman’s Tale and Flora’s Fortune (both 1595) and John Dickenson’s The Shepherd’s Complaint (1596) – unmemorable exercises recalling continental models like Rémy Belleau’s La Bergerie (1565, 1572) in French. (Belleau’s work was known to the Sidney circle, and Dickenson at least was a Sidneian.) The spurt in published pastoral from 1590 may be related to another event in publishing history the same year: the first printing of Sidney’s Arcadia in the incomplete ‘New’ text, followed in 1593 by a version completed from the ‘Old’. In the meantime, an unauthorized text of Astrophil and Stella appeared in 1591, followed by others. Though Astrophil and Stella has little pastoral content, it seems to have supplemented the Arcadia in inseminating pastoral poetry. In pastoral celebrations of his memory, Sidney is usually called Astrophel rather than Philisides, the name of his persona in the Arcadia. The appearance of Sidney’s works led to a revival of the Sidney cult. More pertinently, it provided both models and inspiration to the poets of the day to write pastoral in a variety of veins. A remarkable number of them seem to have enjoyed the patronage of Sidney’s sister Mary Herbert, Countess of Pembroke.71 Special mention should be made of Abraham Fraunce, long associated with the Sidney and Pembroke families, who undoubtedly knew of the Arcadia before its publication. (He cites it extensively in The Arcadian Rhetoric, published in 1588.) This may have influenced his decision to translate Watson’s Amyntas in 1587, with a dedication to Mary Herbert. The first three books of The Faerie Queene were published in 1590. Spenser visited London around this time, and recounts his experiences in pastoral guise in Colin Clout’s Come Home Again. The volume of which this is the title-poem (also containing Astrophel, Spenser’s lament for Sidney: #43) did not appear till 1595, but its dedication is dated from Ireland in 1591, apparently soon after the London visit in question. The poem (and possibly its accompaniments like Astrophel) may have been written at the time; or curiously – but still more tellingly – Spenser wished to make it appear so. The next three books of The Faerie Queene, culminating in the pastoral sequence in Book VI (#44, #45), followed in 1596. In other words, the contributions of the living Spenser supplemented those of the dead Sidney in creating a strong pastoral ambience in literary circles in the 1590s. Spenser died in 1599; this phase of pastoral, which we may fitly call Elizabethan, declined soon after. England’s Helicon is 71 See Chaudhuri, Renaissance Pastoral, pp. 458–60.

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its summing-up in a negative as well as a positive sense. The line lingers on through Francis Davison’s miscellany A Poetical Rhapsody (1602, but with many pieces of much earlier date) to Breton’s The Passionate Shepherd (1604). From James’s reign (though the change of rule may be a coincidence) pastoral follows a new course. The Elizabethan pastoral lyric Before tracing that course, we must look more closely at the earlier movement. Again, England’s Helicon provides the best starting point, as the climax of a remarkable growth of the English pastoral lyric. Few poems in the Helicon are eclogues proper: most are lyrical in some way or other, often clearly intended to be sung. Some are song-interludes or other extracts from formal eclogues; many are taken from prose narratives, or from stage-plays, pageants and entertainments; many more from ­single-author collections, poetic miscellanies or song-books. A good many are not known from any other source, or only from manuscripts (which might, rarely, have been copied from the Helicon). Some read as though they are part of a longer story or performance, though no such source-text has been found. The pastoral lyric was developing through all these channels in the later reign of Elizabeth. I have already noted how pastoral thereby becomes the basic or default mode of all lyric poetry, and arguably other kinds of poetry. There is an opposite development as well: pastoral drew into itself the concerns of other kinds of poetry, vastly expanding its scope. Classical models played a notably smaller part in this development than with other vernaculars. As suggested, the impact of The Shepheardes Calender and Sidney’s Arcadia induced a strikingly different trajectory of growth. In particular, it made for unusually robust development of the simple pastoral lyric. Going by quantity of output, we might equally have expected an anthology of pastoral poetry in Italian, French or Spanish on the lines of England’s Helicon. The attempt was never made; had it been, the contents would have shown a very different mix, with a far stronger presence of the formal eclogue, nature elegy and ode. This guess is borne out by an anthology of Neo-Latin pastoral that does exist, probably edited by Erasmus’s one-time secretary Gilbert Cousin of Nosseroy and published from Basle by Johannes Oporinus in 1546. It collects the works of 38 poets, plus another 96 single pieces, virtually all eclogues. The shortest and formally simplest lyrics in the Helicon develop a fertile vein of art-pastoral. Their brevity precludes complex themes or



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allusions, but this limitation is turned to positive use. The simple, almost naive tone and structure project a happy uncomplicated world, an ideal state of being where even sorrow and loss are framed within a joyful acquiescence in life. Ah wanton eyes my friendlie foes, and cause of woes: your sweete desire, breeds flames of Ise and freese in fire: ye skorne to see me weepe so sore, hey ho chil loue no more. (#70.19–24)

The pangs of love are the stuff of delicate pleasure. ‘Complex emotions are reduced to their simplest primary components and scaled down to a point of easy assimilation.’72 Ultimately, everything is part of an aesthetic design. As I have suggested, the markedly aesthetized nature of pastoral makes it, almost organically, a trope for poetic creation: pastoral has a metatextual dimension, projecting its own poetic process as other modes and genres seldom do. The lyric form presents this poetic identity in its purest and most unforced state. Hence Renato Poggioli’s view that the lyric mode is the ‘common denominator’ of all pastoral in whatever form: the pastoral romance is not narrative; pastoral drama is not dramatic … The pastoral is not merely lyrical in the modern or general sense; it is also melic in the special and traditional meaning of the latter term … [P]astoral poets … treat poetry and music not as conscious cultural activities but as spontaneous sentimental manifestations.73

The preponderance of songs and lyrics brings Elizabethan pastoral specially close to this basic function of the pastoral mode. The easy aesthetization captures the core intent of pastoral composition: to create an imaginatively remote world that reflects back on our own owing to its very difference. That reflection imbues pastoral with its allusive and didactic concerns, deflecting the primary or controlling force of the imaginative construct. These lyrics present that construct before the mirroring has begun, when it is still pleasurably immersed in untaxing, self-absorbed, self-contained fulfilment, almost implying a poetic 72 Chaudhuri, Renaissance Pastoral, p. 181. 73 Renato Poggioli, The Oaten Flute. Essays on Pastoral Poetry and the Pastoral Ideal, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975, pp. 39–40.

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e­ quivalent of the unfallen state of humankind. Even an elaborate prosodic exercise can, by its tone, suggest an untutored pleasure in its overdone flourishes: Jolly Sheepheard, Sheepheard heere or there,      heere or there so merrily,      heere or there so cherily, Or in thy chat, eyther at thy cheere, In every Jigge, in every Lay:      both sing and say; Love lasts for aye.74

Or there may be a designedly reductive, childlike delight in an equally naive misunderstanding, like the confusion between the flower and the girl Daffadill in Drayton’s Eclogue IX of 1606 (#162.85–132). Drayton leavens the pace and thrust of the heavier verse in the body of the eclogue by interspersing it with lighter lyrics, of which the ‘Daffadill song’ is the first and lightest. Needless to say, it is a fragile and unreal world. Its naïveté is contrived, actually a marked expression of the Schillerian sentimental.75 What – if anything– saves it from being imaginatively invalid is the easy energy of utterance. This derives partly from precedents in folk poetry, direct echoes reinforcing the characteristic non sequiturs of folk song even within a sophisticated rhetorical framework: Oh blessed brestes, the beawtie of the springe,   oh blessed springe that suche a beawtie showes. Of highest trees the hollye is the kinge   and of all flowres faire fall the Quene the Rose. (#118.21–4)

Such traces of folk sensibility (whose authentic form was still very much alive) also anchor the poem in a vestigial reality, evoking the genuine country culture that would still be a liminal part of the consciousness of the most courtly Elizabethan. As Raymond Williams, by no means an admirer of conventional pastoral, remarks, ‘it is still a known country, and not merely Arcadia’.76 Another factor enlivening and validating the Elizabethan pastoral lyric is its root affinity with song, so that anything sparse or banal in the verbal utterance is condoned by the implicit musical structure. 74 John Wootton, ‘Jolly Sheepheard, Sheepheard on a hill’: Helicon 28. 75 For a discussion of Schiller’s ideas in the context of pastoral, see Alpers, What Is Pastoral?, pp. 28–37. 76 Raymond Williams, The Country and the City, London: Chatto & Windus, 1973, p. 22.

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Words I spent, Sighs I sent,   sighs and words could never draw her, Oh my Love, Thou art lost,   since no sight could ever ease thee.77

The affinity between the read and the sung lyric is very close indeed. It is doubtful whether the Elizabethan could have conceived of reading a lyric aloud without a tune. The lyrics embedded in plays were, of course, sung; more tellingly, those occurring in ‘read’ romances are almost always sung by a character in the story, sometimes gratuitously given the narrative situation. It is as though the unheard music of these songs provides the reader with a change from the unheard movement of the prose. It is a read equivalent of the practice of making characters in musical drama, then as now, break improbably into song. It is a convention of all drama and romance in that age; but given the common equation of shepherd life with poetry, it can be seen as a special corollary of pastoral. In fact, especially in the romance, the embedded songs and other poems often function as nodes of concentrated pastoralism, underpinning the pastoral affinities of the work, from which the course of the narrative might deviate markedly. A large proportion of pastoral lyrics formally originate as songs – airs for single voices, or madrigals harmonizing many – in the wealth of song-books in English as in other languages. These are musically sophisticated productions, sometimes translated from and generally modelled on Italian song-lyrics; hence they are strongly rooted in Petrarchan ­convention. The rare exception like Thomas Ravenscroft, who compiles folk songs, stands out in striking contrast. But in either vein, the songs rarely engage with the more complex premisses of pastoral: their form precludes it. Even the praise of country life in William Byrd’s ‘The Herdman’s Happy Life’ (#69) does not pass beyond conventional didacticism. To the extent that the words of the song are more than a mere base for the music, they draw their purpose from their very simplicity, as I suggested in my account of the Italian madrigal. The song-books also contain many pieces that did not begin life as formal musical compositions – that is to say, they first appeared elsewhere without notation, in manuscript or print. The original text is often reduced to suit the shorter span and simpler diction demanded of the 77 Lodge, Rosalynde: Helicon 29.

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song-lyric. In the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance, the lyric took on many extended and complex shapes in the hands of ambitious practitioners. Here we see the opposite process: music and musicality become the means whereby elaborate poetic exercises revert to the root simplicity of the lyric. Relatively intricate ode-like poems, like those in Sidney’s Arcadia, may have a stanza or two set to music – perhaps specifying that the rest should be sung to the same tune, but sometimes not so. The dominance of the lyric over the formal eclogue in the Helicon reflects the ground realities of Elizabethan pastoral. The eclogue cycles cited above are virtually the only ones in that age. Even single eclogues are far less frequent than in continental languages; those that occur usually commemorate public events (like Peele’s Eclogue Gratulatorie on the Earl of Essex’s return from Portugal: #64) or praise the monarch or some other celebrity or patron. Some might revert allusively to the world of lyrics and song-books, like the manuscript eclogue ‘Amor Constans’ (#204). Its curiously named central character, Bonnyboots, also features in a number of songs by various composers, above all Thomas Morley: the poem may be the work of his half-brother. There is undoubtedly a quantity of manuscript eclogues awaiting publication or indeed discovery. If those recovered and printed are a fair indication, they may include, alongside amateur exercises, accomplished pieces like those in Davison’s A Poetical Rhapsody (1602), or the work of Arthur Gorges or Robert Sidney, which had to wait until the twentieth century to see the light of day.78 But even the manuscript collections contain a greater quantity of lyrics and miscellaneous lighter forms. Drayton’s cultivation of the full-scale eclogue, continued into the next century through repeated revisions, marks an idiosyncratic and somewhat old-fashioned Spenserian bent. Spenserianism is an important though not unified movement in the early seventeenth century and indeed later. Drayton may be said to stand at its head. But he follows a line all his own. Even his closest younger associates – William Browne, George Wither et al. – follow a different course.

78 Gorges’s poems were first edited from manuscript in The Poems of Sir Arthur Gorges, ed. Helen Estabrook Sandison, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1953. A selection of Robert Sidney’s poems appeared in Katherine Duncan-Jones, ‘“Rosis and Lysa”: Selections from the Poems of Sir Robert Sidney’, ELR 9, 1979, 240–63, and the entire contents of the manuscript in The Poems of Robert Sidney, ed. P.J. Croft, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984.



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The pastoral ballad Before proceeding through Drayton’s career to seventeenth-century pastoral, we may look at a class of material that spans both sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, even if the extant examples chiefly date from the latter. There is a surprising amount of pastoral content in the broadside ballad, of greatly varied literary provenance and complex social affinity. Surveying this mass of material is made doubly difficult by the high rate of mortality of fragile and unregarded broadsides: a title known to exist from the sixteenth century may be extant only in a version from the late seventeenth, or a reference from an early source doubtfully linked to an extant ballad of much later date. Some of the stories go back to the Middle Ages; others are of recent sophisticated origin, perhaps derived from an identifiable work of elite literature. The registers of language and allusion range across the spectrum of contemporary literary practice. All in all, the broadside ballad must be viewed, with respect to pastoral as to most other concerns, as a broad field of production and circulation, not a specific genre or category; yet it has clear parameters of material form, dissemination and reception. It illustrates the variety of the pastoral mode as presented through a specific portal, the broadside. It thus offers interesting parallels to the ramifications of the Elizabethan pastoral lyric. Virtually by definition, any material circulated as a broadside – that is to say, an unfolded sheet of paper, printed continuously across its entire face and thus most cheaply – can be categorized as popular. But the most marked instances of pastoralism in them sometimes appear patronising: She puts finger in the eye, And checkes him for his qualitie.   She bids him to her mothers house,   To Cakes and Creame and Country souce. (#150.21–4)

and sometimes as a conventional set-piece: The Sheep for woe goe bleating, That they their Goddesse misse,   And sable Ewes,   By their mournfull shewes,   Her absence, cause of this; The Nymphs leaue off their dancing, Pans Pipe of joy is cleft. (#152.17–23)

This is no closer to popular literature than any other pastoral exercise. And the register of phrasing and allusion can be very sophisticated indeed:

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A companion to pastoral poetry The golden god Hyperion  by Thetis is saluted Yet comes as Shepard Coridon   in Brydall cloothinge suited. (#149.1–4)

This poem shares its refrain (as ballads commonly did) with another, beginning ‘As att noone Dulcina rested’ (#159), which also occurs as a song in the famous manuscript song-book of Giles Earle (BL MS Addl 24665). C.R. Baskervill contrasts the genuinely popular ballad (marked by its ‘naïveté of tone’) with the courtly pseudo-ballad.79 But the two are hard to tell apart, and harder still to separate in terms of provenance and identity. In fact the broadside ballad straddles various class and cultural divides by playing off its cheap production and popular market appeal against the varied, often complex and sophisticated nature of its material. It is intricately linked to elite and even courtly literature. For instance, The Lover’s Delight (#154) begins plainly enough: Come love, lets walke into the springe, where wee will heare the blackbird singe,

but progresses to a string of names and motifs from classical pastoral, not to mention Strephon and Klaius from Sidney’s Arcadia. Celebrated lyrics from elite literature reappear as ballads, like ‘Harpelus’ Complaint’ (#31), Marlowe’s ‘Come live with me and be my love’ (#84), Breton’s ‘On a hill there grows a flower’ (#116) and Barnfield’s ‘As it fell upon a day’. The Good Shepherd’s Sorrow (#147) is a curious instance. In the broadside version, King James mourns the death of his son Henry in 1612. (James was even credited with authorship of the poem – a piquant royal ascription for a popular work.) But the poem seems to be a reworking of an earlier piece mourning the death of the Earl of Arundel, adapted to the new context to exploit the market demand for mourning-poems on Prince Henry’s death. A similar but more urgent need after the execution of Charles I was met by a curious piece, Jack the Plough-Lad’s Lamentation (#259). Couched as a ploughboy’s grief at the death of his master, this royalist lament anticipates much later political propaganda in using popular life and subaltern rhetoric to bestow mass appeal on ­ruling-class political interests. This may also be the place to mention a much earlier work, A Tale of Robin Hood (#62), allegorizing the dissolu79 C.R. Baskervill, The Elizabethan Jig, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1929, pp. 156–7.



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tion of the monasteries in terms of folk legend and folk heroes. The Tale survives in a single incomplete manuscript, but in a popularized vein of political allusion exactly befitting the broadside ballad. Some extant ballads develop themes of genuine mass appeal: homely patriotism conveyed through a shepherd couple’s encounter with King Alfred (#153), or the proud class loyalty of a ‘Countrey Lasse’ with a ‘lofty mind’ (#151). A Beautiful Shepherdess of Arcadia (#158), in which a shepherdess pays back the knight who seduced her, continues the tradition of such encounters since the medieval pastourelle. This tale, like The Shepherd and the King (#153) or Robin Hood and the Shepherd (#156), harks back to ballads in the original sense – narrative poems of authentic folk provenance.80 Yet they take their place on the same continuum as fragments of classical and humanist culture, in a linguistic and generic register that deliberately underplays the more sophisticated elements in the compound. It is not unlike the formal mix of Elizabethan drama. It bears recall that Empson saw a pastoral design in the balance of main plot and subplot, high-born and low-born characters in that drama.81 Beyond any specific pastoralism of theme, this ambiguity makes the entire category of the broadside ballad ‘pastoral’ in the underlying Empsonian sense. By its nature, it is a sustained counter-movement against elite and canonical culture; yet it draws heavily on the material of that culture, purveying a poor man’s version of it in every sense – ­purportedly the simple man’s version of complex man’s culture, but often retaining the latter’s complexities or (by a still more involved sequence) generating fresh complexities out of the latter through that very simplification. Again, though the ballad-monger Autolycus in The Winter’s Tale had his real-life counterparts in the countryside, the broadside ballad emanated from the city and found there its most immediate and intensive clientele. In such urban conditions of reception, any occurrence of myth, romance or actual pastoral enshrines the same pristine escapist or nostalgic impulse that has motivated pastoral since the days of Theocritus. There is a strikingly idiosyncratic variant on the framing of pastoral in a city context in Taylor’s Pastoral (1624: #213) by the Thames ferryman or ‘water poet’ John Taylor. As the two excerpts in the Anthology show, Taylor works every variation from scriptural and classical precedents for pastoral to its application to contemporary London life. Again we 80 There is also The King and the Forester, and a manuscript ‘King Edward III and the Shepherd’. 81 Empson, Some Versions of Pastoral, ch. II: ‘Double Plots. Heroic and Pastoral in the Main Plot and Sub-Plot’.

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seen how the contrasts and tensions of pastoral, more and more glossed over in canonical Stuart writings, are reflected or even heightened in less privileged genres and contexts. The shepherd preserves the ethos lost to the courtier and city man. Michael Drayton Drayton was born in 1563, a year before Shakespeare, and lived until 1631, so it is hardly surprising if he seems increasingly to cultivate a solitary, retrospective path of his own. Yet he holds a prominent place in Jacobean and Caroline poetry, interacts with most notable writers of the age, and has a band of enthusiastic followers. The range and originality of his work has not yet received its due. Drayton wrote in many veins and genres; yet one can say of him, as of Spenser, that his poetic bent adopted the pastoral as its basic medium. In his last phase, he resorted more and more to strikingly original versions of pastoral, in a marked spirit of Elizabethan nostalgia. It is thus paradoxical that at the start of his career in Elizabeth’s own day, his practice of pastoral was out of step with the general trend at that time. Idea the Shepheards Garland appeared in 1593. Its eclogues are clearly modelled on Spenser’s Calender, the work of a poet committed to the mode and profiting from deep attention to its best English exemplar. It treats all the conventional themes of pastoral even while constructing, from eclogue to eclogue, the fiction of a consistent shepherd community. But the movement of the verse is heavier, the didactic note rather more stressed, the basic seriousness of tone much less leavened by the Calender’s lyric grace. Even the inset songs are slower, closer to the norm of read rather than sung verse, except in Eclogues VII and VIII. The long inset tale in the latter holds out the only real promise of the lively, finely turned verse of Drayton’s later pastorals. Drayton was an indefatigable reviser of his work. Idea the Shepherd’s Garland was substantially revised twice, in 1606 and 1619. The current volume includes two eclogues in two versions each (#160, #161), showing the extent and direction of the change. He travels farther in that direction in a new eclogue (no. IX) added in 1606 (#162). The new poem, describing a shearing-feast, presents the fictional shepherd community in new terms, at once more subtly imaginative and closer to the actual ­shearing-feasts of Cotswold shepherds in Drayton’s native Warwickshire. Its three inset songs are striking examples of a new, more delicate and playfully energetic lyric mode. Drayton has clearly learnt much from the development of the pastoral lyric since 1593: he has absorbed the legacy



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of the Helicon. In fact, he contributes to that legacy: of the five Drayton poems in the Helicon, four, in a perceptibly lighter lyric vein, appear there for the first time. Three were later assimilated in the 1606 Eglogs, including the first two songs of Eclogue IX (#162). (The fourth is known only from the Helicon.) In other words, he is incorporating the lyric within bigger pastoral structures. This is the point of entry to another paradox in Drayton. He comes to command a radiantly lyrical line of pastoral – increasingly with the years, which too is unusual: it is certainly un-Spenserian. At the same time, he works that lyricism into more extended structures: long poems, or a series of transformed eclogues in a vein of mythic fantasy. I had said of the Helicon lyrics that their very brevity and lightweight forms preclude complex themes, ensuring a felicitous simplicity of effect. Drayton works a novel variation on this practice, again a paradox in formal terms. His late pastorals are long poems of complex concerns; but those concerns are mediated – and given their nature, must be mediated – through an extended exercise in lyric versification. Drayton’s 1627 volume with The Battle of Agincourt as its title-piece contains two long poems in light metres, The Quest of Cynthia and The Shepherd’s Sirena (#164). The latter was probably composed much earlier, at least in part: again, its inset song may have preceded the narrative. The narrative itself, in both Sirena and The Quest, are cast in the formal mould of protracted lyrics. But Sirena takes on board a substantial if rather baffling story with complex allusions, perhaps on more than one level. (See the commentary in the Anthology.) The Quest has no story to speak of, only a lovers’ encounter after a long search through an ideal landscape that breathes mythic and symbolic associations all through without passing decisively into either. It is like a greatly enlarged and idealized version of the Daffadill Song in Eclogue IX of 1606. The Quest presents a secure world, Sirena a threatened one. But it is essentially the same world, and presented in both lights in Drayton’s last major exercise in pastoral, The Muses’ Elizium (1630: #165 to #167). Here pastoral convention is closely combined with mythic fancy and a patently artificial but aesthetically consistent company of nymphs and swains that is all Drayton’s own. The ten ‘Nymphals’, following an introductory ‘Description of Elizium’ (#165) are a far cry from the ten Virgilian eclogues to which, however, they finally hark back. There is little or nothing literally pastoral in the Elizium; nor in The Quest of Cynthia, though Dorilus in Sirena is a fair specimen of the conventional shepherd. In these poems, Drayton is drawing out what I have

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earlier marked as the core impulse of pastoral, the sense of a removed and aesthetized world that the poet sees, nonetheless, as somehow reflecting his own – but not by way of allegory or allusion. He transplants this impulse in a new imaginative soil, far removed even from the idealized rural life of conventional pastoral. The nymphs and swains of Elizium are like Platonized versions of the shepherds of pastoral. In fact, there is a clear presence of a somewhat precious Platonism in the setting. So removed and so aesthetized is Elizium that it has little contact with the material world. Its inhabitants are not without occupation: Nymphal VI (#166) recounts the activities of a forester, a fisherman and a shepherd. But they show a curious lack of purpose and impact. Their world affords such an ideal ambience that there is nothing they need do to make it work: their actions are reduced to play or ritual or both. They bask in a specially inviolable version of otium, validated within a self-contained mythic universe and not simply by a nuanced rendering of earthly rural life. Elizium is a variation on the Earthly Paradise, ‘farre from vulgar sight’. There is even a suggestion that its people have been exempted from the Fall of man. This is clearly so with the ‘secret shades’ of The Quest of Cynthia, which merges Eden with the Golden Age:   But here our sports shall be: Such as the golden world first sawe,   Most innocent and free. (182–4)

As the spelling ‘Elizium’ suggests, this remote and exotic universe of the mind is also implicitly identified with the reign of Queen Elizabeth. In the earlier Stuart period, Elizabethan nostalgia became a potent political weapon of the oppositional ‘Country’ party. A removed, idealized version of Elizabeth’s reign was projected as a contrast to the alleged decline under James and Charles. The aesthetizing function of pastoral played its part in the exercise: it cast Elizabeth’s reign, viewed in retrospect, as an ideally ordered and beneficent age. A recharged Sidney cult (as in the Life composed by his friend Fulke Greville) was another aspect of this development, of course with effects on the practice of pastoral and related genres of country poetry. Drayton’s younger followers, William Browne above all, point the contrast much more openly. For Drayton himself, his late mythic pastoral provided a perfect distancing device for Elizabethan nostalgia in line with his more discreet political programme. This is most explicit in the last Nymphal (#167), where a satyr escapes from Felicia (the actual England of the day) to take refuge in Elizium. By a customary trope, ‘satyr’ stood for satire.



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The smooth texture of the Elizium is never ruptured by an openly satiric note, but Drayton has transferred the function of satire to the antipodal mode of mythic pastoral. The latter’s grossly artificial fictions have an immediate bearing on the reality of the times. The Elizium is the best demonstration ever of the impossibility of separating ‘art’ from ‘allusion’ in pastoral, hence the impossibility of dismissing any artefact as irrelevant to the world that created it. Yet there is something coy and unsatisfactory about this tangential engagement with reality, this insistence on aesthetic rarefaction and escape. That is the less happy paradox implicit in pastoral, of which too The Muses Elizium affords a classic instance. Drayton executed another monumental work subsuming the pastoral with much else in a very different synthesis. Poly-olbion (first 18 Songs 1612, another 12 songs 1622: #163) is a vast survey of England and Wales – a chorographical poem, to designate it formally – combining a geographical with a historical account. It may be linked to the major line of surveys and annals headed by William Camden’s Britannia. But as a poetic adjunct to the line (though its array of facts and apparatus is formidable), it contributes some special elements. Chief among them is a sustained vein of lively mythopoeia: the features of the landscape are not merely personified but involved in animated interaction, populating a landscape curiously de-peopled of human beings. The impact is not quite Ovidian: there is little of gods or the supernatural, a great deal of real and contemporary events. There are few human figures; but in the maps accompanying each song, the features of the landscape are depicted, in lively if rudimentary manner, as authentic rustics. Again, there is little that formally qualifies as pastoral, but a great deal touching on its wider purlieus. At least one passage (the only one in the entire poem with a human cast to speak of) describes a Cotswold shearing-feast in a clear echo of the poet’s own Eclogue IX of 1606 (#162): by 1612, probably reinforced by The Winter’s Tale. And despite the many passages lamenting the degeneration of the times and the decay of the land, the poem is imbued with a basic vein of patriotic celebration, evoking motifs of the Golden Age and Earthly Paradise right at the start: Of Albions glorious Ile the Wonders whilst I write, The sundry varying soyles, the pleasures infinite (Where heate kills not the cold, nor cold expells the heat, The calmes too mildly small, nor winds too roughly great, Nor night doth hinder day, nor day the night doth wrong, The Summer not too short, the Winter not too long) … (Song I.1–6)

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This is not quite eternal spring, but at least a realistic substitute; and it is followed by a suggestion of the world before the Fall: Thou Genius of the place (this most renowned Ile) Which livedst long before the All-earth-drowning Flood… (Song I.8–9)

Even in this singular genre, the core pastoral vein of Drayton’s sensibility operates through the vast and complex material. The absence of human figures from Poly-olbion has an obvious consequence: it removes politics from the scene, bases its patriotic appeal on the most uncontroversial source there could be, the landscape. But the poem is full of historical narrative and, more importantly, a running critique of contemporary society. The landscape provides an elemental contrast to the evils of the times, an anchor-point for a disappearing ideal of England. The features of the countryside, the most stable and enduring of objects, are paradoxically presented in a spirit of nostalgia: they look back to the past as the time when they were most truly themselves. As in Drayton’s formal pastoral, his apparent withdrawal to a remote plane of the imagination proves to carry a pointed message for his times. The younger Spenserians seem to have registered the influence of Poly-olbion. Browne’s Britannia’s Pastorals (#189, #190) has a strong chorographical element, and Wither’s Fair-Virtue (#186) a more localized one. The politics with which they infuse their accounts is much more explicit and strident. This is an aspect of the intricate interaction between Drayton and his most immediate followers. The Spenserian poets The formal eclogue is found much more often in the new century, but for reasons almost the opposite of Drayton’s in 1593. This is true even of Drayton’s associates and followers, banding themselves under a common allegiance to Spenser – which, among other implications, indicates a common political position. But Spenserianism can mean different things to different people. The younger Spenserians use pastoral to treat public matters much more intensively and explicitly than Drayton. The Virgilian eclogue in its allusive avatar offered the readiest vehicle for the purpose. This was the form they adopted in their first venture, the joint volume The Shepherd’s Pipe (1614), with seven pieces by William Browne of Tavistock, two by George Wither (#185), and one each by Christopher Brooke (#183) and John Davies of Hereford (#184).



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Wither’s The Shepherd’s Hunting (1615) reprints his two eclogues from the Pipe along with three new ones. Allusion is crucial to the pastoral as practised by these young Spenserians. Their pastoral settings are vivid and lively but not self-­ contained. One consistent vein of allusion is personal. The chief shepherds are the poets themselves, with pastoral sobriquets reflecting their real names: Willy (William Browne), Roget (George Wither), Cuttie (Christopher Brooke). The shepherd community they jointly create in their eclogues represents an actual community of poets. The metaphoric projection of the poet in the shepherd is validated by a literal identification: the fiction, viable in its own terms, also reflects an external narrative. This may seem incidental to a more crucial blend of the actual and the metaphoric, in the context of contemporary politics. The Spenserians exploit the didactic and allegoric potential of the shepherd metaphor: seldom the shepherd as ruler, but sometimes as priest and consistently as poet – not an isolated artist or singer, but a committed commentator on the times. The poet-shepherd thus merges with the shepherd as an actual rural citizen, member of a community and a nation: he is both a metaphoric and a literal entity. This lends unusual body to the trope: the shepherd truly is what his allegoric function requires him to be. As we shall see, the politics of the ‘Country’ party make for interesting redactions of the pastoral, but few handle it so effectively as the young poets of The Shepherd’s Pipe. They are not merely using pastoral as a ready tool for their needs but shaping it imaginatively, with as much active attention to the vehicle as the tenor. Hence Browne, Brooke and Davies’s work presents a substantial pastoral fiction and a genuine sense of landscape and country life. This is no less apparent in Wither’s early work Fair-Virtue (#186), projecting the poet himself as a shepherd in his native Hampshire in a philosophically symbolic narrative. But when he takes up the underlying issues in The Shepherd’s Pipe and The Shepherd’s Hunting, he reduces the pastoral content, and dilutes it further by overlaying the shepherd’s life with the hunter’s as a fitter trope for his satirical vein. A sprinkling of poetical shepherds have always doubled as hunters, as real shepherds must have done. This activity is seldom stressed, as the violence of the hunter’s pursuit obviously clashes with the nurturing peace of the shepherd’s. The two occupations can be opposed in an amoebean debate, as in Sidney’s The Lady of May (#46). Wither is unusual in making his hunting down of evil an aspect of his caring and protecting role. The shepherd Roget’s

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dogs (hounds rather than sheepdogs) are named after the poems in his satirical work Abuses Stript and Whipt. Wither’s prolific career includes few other pastorals, apart from one or two late ‘hymns’ (#187, #188). But Browne went on to adopt pastoral as his signature mode more directly than Spenser himself: his magnum opus is the unfinished narrative poem Britannia’s Pastorals (#189, #190). As one might expect, this is not uniformly pastoral, more like a romantic epic with strong motifs of journeys, voyages and myths – even a long fairy episode in the unfinished Book III. ‘Romantic epic’ might be too grand a term, as the poem has little that is heroic, let alone martial. Perhaps Browne followed his master too simplistically in choosing pastoral as his basic setting and narrative core. This greatly limits the possible lines of plot development: to introduce any variety or complexity, he must step beyond the confines of pastoral, however generously defined. Whatever the allegorical possibilities of pastoral, it clearly cannot accommodate radically different settings and actions on the literal plane. Even the extensive political satire and social commentary is couched, more often than not, in literal terms. Yet Britannia’s Pastorals – at least its first two books, which seem to have exhausted Browne’s original impetus – remain anchored in the pastoral. This is the home ground to which the tale returns after every excursus, the control mode to which every element must finally be attuned. So the pastoral asserts its inclusiveness after all: it cannot embrace every type of theme or action, but it can weave them together. Britannia’s Pastorals is exceptional in using the pastoral as the framework for a narrative of such broad scope. The usual structure of the pastoral romance is in reverse: the pastoral occupies the central sequence of the plot (not necessarily of the story as recounted), framed by courtly passages and dominated by courtly characters. Browne is setting a uniquely ambitious structural function for the pastoral, not matched by any of his contemporaries. Perhaps they knew better than to try; perhaps it did not occur to them to try. Browne alone extends his Spenserian legacy by framing a lifetime’s poetic agenda around the pastoral. Within this framework, Browne unfolds an elaborate narrative of shepherds’ loves and adventures, combined with some elements clearly derived from Spenser, such as tales of moral and philosophic allegory, and a highly mythicized landscape where gods of local forests and rivers coexist with classical deities. But compared to Spenser, Browne offers much more direct description of nature, usually in his native Devonshire. This is in line with changing approaches to the countryside in the seven-



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teenth century. Interspersed with these again is a large measure of topical allusion. Browne’s brand of anti-court politics is in clear evidence. Allusions, political and personal, are many and extensive: often by way of digression, like an elegy for Prince Henry (I.5.163–306), another for Browne’s associate William Ferrar (II.1.241–80), and a celebration of Spenser with a lament at the despoiling of his memory (II.1.986–1044). All these exercises reflect standard pastoral themes as developed in the eclogue or other shorter forms. These disparate concerns have been worked into a single narrative flow. The episodes are often over-long; the plot is bewildering, sometimes almost directionless. But Browne has thought big about pastoral – bigger, perhaps, than any of his peers. Britannia’s Pastorals demonstrates how much could be expected of pastoral in that age, even if it was hard to meet those expectations. Long narratives within a pastoral framework also distinguish the work of two other Spenserians, the brothers Phineas and Giles Fletcher, not closely associated with Browne and his circle. (Their father Giles Fletcher the elder wrote Latin eclogues in his day.) Phineas’s bizarre work The Purple Island (#221) presents a long allegorical account of the human body as a song sung over successive days to regale a shepherds’ meet. This improbable exercise has a certain rationale in that the shepherds represent Fletcher and his circle, who appear with the same pastoral names in a collection of coterie verse appended to The Purple Island. This provides a parallel to a non-Spenserian work, a series of linked verse-tales by the neglected Richard Brathwait. The Shepherds’ Tales (two parts, 1621: #206 to #208) consists of elaborate accounts of Brathwait’s own career and his associates’, cast as a sustained pastoral fiction. In its integration of allusion with allegory, and both with the non-tropic description of shepherd life, the Tales recalls The Shepherd’s Pipe. At the same time, it is structurally much more integrated, the separate tales set within a framing narrative, each shepherd recounting his tale to the assembled company. Brathwait is making a stand-alone set of stories of the kind that the Spenserians, whether Browne’s associates or Phineas Fletcher, use as their framing narrative; but they all equally present their poetic circle in shepherdly terms. This was clearly an established practice, not only as a device in actual poems but in the general conduct of poets’ groups. William Hammond’s poem in this collection reflects the custom (#262), and the elaborate web of names devised for her circle by Katherine Philips are pastoral at source: they recall the courtly trappings of the full-blown pastoral romance. The practice originates in the pastoral identity frequently adopted in Italian poetic circles, starting with

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the iconic Neapolitan Academy comprising Pontano (Meliseus) and Sannazaro (Sincero) among others. Returning to the Spenserians, the pastoral element is thin and sporadic in Giles Fletcher the younger’s Christ’s Victory and Triumph (1610: #178). The wonder is that it should be there at all. Even at this relatively early date, the Book of Nature is clearly being seen as concomitant to the Book of God: Christ’s glory must be validated in terms of both texts. But in Fletcher’s day, the only viable idiom for the purpose had to be accessed from pastoral convention. Later in the century, he might have been less strapped for choice. Another work, this time by Phineas Fletcher, illustrates a major variant on the pastoral eclogue, namely the piscatory. As we have seen, pastoral can present rural activities other than sheepkeeping: several pieces, starting with Sidney’s The Lady of May, present competitions between shepherds and foresters, hunters, fishermen and so on. Jeffrey S. Theis has specified a ‘sylvan pastoral’ set in the forest though not necessarily foregrounding foresters.82 But the most prominent line of such niche eclogues features the fisherman. The line was initiated in five Latin poems by Sannazaro (published 1526, probably begun much earlier). He may have had in mind the Halieutica, a Greek poem on fishing by the third-century poet Oppian, and a Latin poem of the same name, known only in a fragment wrongly attributed to Ovid. But his chief inspiration must have been the actual life in and around his native Gulf of Naples. Berardino Rota, another Neapolitan, followed Sannazaro’s Latin model in Italian (composed 1533, published 1560). The line continued, in Latin and Italian, into the eighteenth century. In Italy, the piscatory eclogue was essentially a Neapolitan innovation, celebrating the local seascape as the more conventional pastoral of Pontano, Sannazaro and their followers celebrated the landscape. Fletcher – the first Englishman to write piscatories – is an inland man, confined to his home rivers, the Medway and later the Trent, and his academic haunt, the Cam. He chiefly uses the last for intensive allusion to his Cambridge circle, and in particular to his father’s and his own discontents with the university; and in Eclogue VII (#219), seems to contrast the ‘fishers’ of the Cam with the ‘shepherds’ of Oxford, adjoining the sheep-farming Cotswolds. It is an ingenious transplanting of a convention from a radically different context, both geographical and cultural. 82 Jeffrey S. Theis, Writing the Forest in Early Modern England. A Sylvan Pastoral Nation, Pittsburg: Duquesne University Press, 2009.



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The eclogue in the early seventeenth century. Court and country, royalist and Puritan The Virgilian eclogue provides a formal rallying point amid these complex developments of the pastoral: its importance grows in the new century. Three eclogues by Thomas Randolph indicate the diverse directions such growth can take. The pastoral metaphor is memorably enlivened by a real-life narrative in Thomas Randolph’s ‘Eclogue to Master Jonson’ (#226), where the poet presents himself in dialogue with his mentor Ben Jonson. Randolph’s poem makes exceptionally imaginative use of the metaphor of the shepherd as poet. The details of the pastoral fiction relate closely to the circumstances of Randolph and other ‘sons of Ben’: Ah woe is me, another’s flock to keep; The care is mine, the master shears the sheep! … And now I would return to Cham, I hear A desolation frights the Muses there! With rustique swains I mean to spend my time; Teach me there father to preserve my rime. (#226.169–70, 175–8)

Another piece by Randolph (#228) shows how the eclogue can provide the core structure for many singular and unclassifiable variants. There is a curious literalization of the pastoral in this poem celebrating the Cotswold games inaugurated by an energetic original, Captain Robert Dover. Dover instituted a new festival to revive traditional country sports: he (like his eulogist Randolph) makes real the idealized substance of pastoral, and uses those idealized terms to justify it. In a rarer variant, Randolph uses pastoral metaphor in a theological context in an amoebean eclogue where the ‘shepherds’ debate the doctrine of predestination (#227). But the debate is extinguished in a different pastoral trope, that of Christ as good shepherd. Randolph makes little use of the explicitly pastoral elements of the trope, but he recounts Christ’s life and sacrifice in terms of pastoral lowliness and simplicity. It is a remarkable infusion of theological debate with affective content, in the direct line of ‘July’ or ‘September’ in Spenser’s Calender. By way of contrast, Edward Fairfax’s eclogues (only two, plus a fragment, survive of the twelve he wrote) are almost baroque in their intricacy of conceitful detail (see #202). Fairfax’s editors remark that ‘these poems hardly pretend to make sense on the literal level’.83 They recall Petrarch’s eclogues, 83 K.M. Lea and T.M. Gang (eds.), Godfrey of Bulloigne, … Together with Fairfax’s Original Poems, Oxford, 1981, p. 660.

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which Fairfax may well have known. Yet the allegory is less pervasive than appears at first sight: the general metaphoric lines are clear enough, but the details often resist analysis, or (in the eclogue included here) draw on the visionary imagination of the Book of Revelation more than on metaphoric logic. Francis Quarles’s eclogues are political rather than doctrinal, hence the allusions chiefly relate to contemporary events. In the one included here (#239), the central concern is the relation between King and Parliament, the latter rocked by its Puritan component; but the climax of the poem pours scorn on a truly anarchic (and socially inferior) group, the Separatists. The political bent might be different, but the allegorical contours are again not unlike the ecclesiastic pieces in Spenser’s Calender. On the whole, in the growing court-country, Anglican-Puritan, ­royalist-parliament divide, the former party in each pair – more privileged, more refined, more establishmentarian –inclines more to conventional pastoral, the latter to divergent, sometimes anti-pastoral ‘country’ themes. Robert Herrick, Francis Quarles, Elizabeth Brackley, Jane and Margaret Cavendish, Thomas Weaver, Charles Cotton and Izaak Walton are all royalists (though Margaret Cavendish plays quizzical tricks with pastoral). So indeed is George Herbert, who identifies his loyalties with pastoral virtues: Shepherds are honest people; let them sing: Riddle who list, for me, and pull for Prime: I envie no mans nightingale or spring; Nor let them punish me with losse of rime, Who plainly say, My God, My King.84

Some royalist or Cavalier poets – Thomas Carew, James Shirley – practise a light, graceful vein of lyric pastoral. Others, like Richard Lovelace or John Suckling, have little pastoral content in their work beyond some conventional names and turns of phrase. But their cultivation of the lyric form in its lightest, most elegant version – the most direct continuation of Elizabethan lyric practice – acquires an implicit political charge it did not have in Elizabethan times: it becomes specifically a practice of the anti-Puritan courtier. This may or may not be linked to another new development in Stuart times: the ready use of the pastoral lyric, no less than the eclogue, to convey allusion. 84 George Herbert, ‘Jordan (I)’, The Temple: The English Poems of George Herbert, ed. C.A. Patrides, London, J.M. Dent, 1974, p. 75.



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A remarkable use of sustained pastoral allusion is seen in the poems of Katherine Philips or, more specifically, the network of pastoral sobriquets by which she works her whole extended circle into those poems. Philips herself is Orinda; her two closest friends, with both of whom she enters into an intricate web of relations, are Rosania and Lucasia; and her entire circle are given pastoral names (see #273). As there is seldom any pastoral material in the poems, we cannot even say with certainty that their fiction is pastoral. (The two pieces included here are exceptional in having clear pastoral content.) But fiction there certainly is: or perhaps one should say annals, as the pieces offer sporadic accounts of life in Orinda’s circle rather than a sustained narrative or even a glimpse of one. Philips seems virtually to have defined her life in terms of these personae and their doings, in a remarkable interiorization of allusive pastoral practice, anchored solely in its nomenclature. More widely and crucially, the pastoral lyric also assumes a substantial public role. Except for courtly compliment, chiefly in pageantry and entertainments, the Elizabethan pastoral lyric had been overwhelmingly the preserve of art-pastoral. But now the King himself writes of his son’s secret trip to Spain to woo the Infanta: The Fleecye fflockes reffuse to Fede, The Lambes to playe, the Ewes to breede.   The Altars smoake, the offeringes Burne   That Jacke and Tom may saffe Returne. (#212.3–6)

Where the allusion is not overt, it lurks in the apparent fiction: Mirtillo. Ah! Amarillis, farewell mirth and pipe;   Since thou art gone, no more I mean to play,   To these smooth Lawns, my mirthfull Roundelay. (#242.8–10)

This poem by Robert Herrick is a dialogue where the eclogue form dissolves into the elaborate sung lyric. Amarillis may be Queen Henrietta Maria, fleeing to the country to evade the gathering clouds of the Civil War. Songs and lyrics feature no less than the eclogue in the most prominent body of royalist pastoral, that mourning the death of Charles I. This body of poems combines the standard metaphor of shepherd as king with the ambience (not always the formal structure) of a pastoral elegy. Where England’s Damon us’d to keep,   In peace and awe, his flocks,

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This proves an enduring and compelling trope: the last example in this volume is by Anthony Spinedge, born more than two years after Charles’s execution. Yet the most celebrated pastoral of the seventeenth century was written by a young man who later played a part in the Commonwealth. John Milton was 30 when he wrote ‘Lycidas’ (#230) to mourn his drowned Cambridge compatriot Edward King. Around the same time, he also wrote the Latin ‘Epitaphium Damonis’ for Charles Diodati.85 The latter poem, though composed in a dead language, conveys a greater sense of personal grief, however couched in pastoral fiction: Nymphs of Himera … Sing of the cries and moans which poor Thyrsis uttered; his ceaseless laments, which shattered the peace of the caves and the streams, of the wandering rills and the woodland dells, when he wept for Damon, who was snatched from him before his time. Through lonely fields he wandered, filling even the depths of the night with his cries of grief.86

There is nothing like this in ‘Lycidas’. Dr Johnson’s famous remark about ‘Lycidas’, that ‘It is not to be considered as the effusion of real passion’,87 is entirely valid; the only problem is that Johnson turns the design of the poem inside-out. We must note at the outset how different ‘Lycidas’ is from any other eclogue of the age. Despite its unifying theme of lament for Edward King, it is more varied in its material than most. Again, it is remarkably personal in tone: most eclogues are third-person narratives in some sense or other. But as Johnson recognized, the personal tone does not 85 King died in 1637; ‘Lycidas’ appeared in 1638. Diodati died in 1638; the ‘Epitaphium’ was published in 1645. 86 ‘Himerides nymphae … / Dicite … / Quas miser effudit voces, quae murmura Thyrsis, / Et quibus assiduis exercuit antra querelis, / Fluminaque, fontesque vagos, nemorumque recessus, / Dum sibi praereptum queritur Damona, neque altam / Luctibus exemit noctem loca sola pererrans.’ ‘Epitaphium Damonis’ 1–8: trans. by John Carey. The Poems of John Milton, ed. John Carey and Alastair Fowler, London: Longman, 1968, pp. 279, 269. 87 Samuel Johnson, ‘Life of Milton’, The Lives of the Poets, 2 vols, London: J.M. Dent, 1925 rpt. 1964, I.95.



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convey an emotional charge, at least not at the loss of Edward King. To borrow Lionel Trilling’s terms, ‘Lycidas’ is hardly ‘sincere’ in its expression of grief, though it may be ‘authentic’ in a completely different perspective.88 The actual recalling of King’s death is affectively charged only at one strikingly unconventional point, the account of his body ‘hurl’d’ among ‘the shores and sounding seas’ (#230.154–8). This is prefigured at the start in the harrowing paradox of the body ‘parching’ in the middle of the sea (#230.13). The physicality of the picture corrodes the emollient texture of pastoral convention. It is followed and arguably balanced by the description of Lycidas in heaven; but the poem does not end on that note. It returns to earth and concludes with the poet, an ‘uncouth swain’ in his own removed spot. It is a disconcerting close to a poem of mourning, focusing on the mourner and not the person mourned. In the last line, Milton explicitly dismisses the bereavement and turns to his own affairs: ‘To morrow to fresh woods and pastures new.’ Remarkably, the account of King’s drowning as well as his heavenly state are devoid of all touch of pastoral. Both in death and in resurrection, Lycidas is removed from the shepherd world, which relates essentially to the life of the living: their grief at King’s death, their life as scholars, poets and priests, their spiritual life and redemption. The ‘pastoral’ component is separated from the ‘elegiac’ component. This is the truly destabilizing element in the poem. Yet the destabilizing is owing to enrichment. Pastoral is used in ‘Lycidas’ for purposes other than lament: specifically, to critique academia and the Church. King’s death activates the metaphors of the shepherd as scholar-poet and as priest. The movements into which the poem can be divided are aligned in three interwoven strands. One is the actual lament for King’s death, with the eventual consolation of his translation to heaven. The second concerns the scholar’s life (especially as set in Cambridge); the third, the priest’s duties and the Church within which he performs them. Milton further complicates the structure by entwining himself into all three strands in a big way: beyond his declared presence as King’s mourner, he becomes an insidious but more substantial presence as a commentator and aspiring participant in the public spheres of scholarship and poetry, priesthood and the Church. King becomes the mirror of the young Milton’s image of what he is and what he wishes 88 See Lionel Trilling, Sincerity and Authenticity, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971.

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to be. The poem is a self-declaration and a manifesto: an elegy oriented to the mourner rather than the mourned, and to the former’s identities other than as mourner. ‘Lycidas’, then, is not a simple eclogue but a compendium of pastoral resources. To read it with a single expectation – as it may be, as a poem of lament – is to invite disappointment, even bewilderment. It marks a high point of many lines of pastoral practice; but by combining them and playing off each against the rest, it redefines them all and sets up a dramatically new structural principle for what, externally considered, we must call an eclogue. On closer view, we may declare it sui generis – not by way of sentimental praise, but in terms of structure and intent. This may be the point to speak of the Scottish William Drummond of Hawthornden, with his wide and varied range of pastorals. They include conventional eclogues whose shepherds seem often if not always to stand for the poet (Damon) and his associates: there is a specially moving elegy for Anthony Alexander, son of Drummond’s old friend. But the notable point about Drummond’s pastoral is that it provides a general trope for the life of his circle and the landscape of his native region: he does for Scotland what Spenser had done for Ireland and, prototypically, Pontano and Sannazaro for the Campania. The mythopoeia is light, but it is there: Faire Tanais Nymphes and ye Nymphes of the voods Vhich usse in schadie growes to dance and sing, Ye Montaine Sisters, Sisters of the floods On softest sand vhich oft ar carroling … (#196.25–8)

This Tanais is not the Don, the river classically so called, but a Scottish river, probably the Tyne. In many respects, the Scottish Renaissance interacted more closely with the continental than did its English neighbour. Drummond himself translated from the varied spectrum of continental pastoral lyric, including the work of leading poets like Passerat and Marino. But his pastoralism still seems an individual trait, the expression of a poetic sensibility attuned to the pastoral as base mode, as with Spenser or Drayton. This may have owed something to the removed setting of Hawthornden; but it is important to recognize that – perhaps barring an exceptional manuscript fragment (#200) – any infusion of ‘real’ nature in Drummond’s pastorals merely adds embellishment to what is essentially a trope for a socially and politically sophisticated culture and the urbane circle where it is located.



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Pastoral structures and pastoral frames In the second century ce, the shadowy writer Longus wrote Daphnis and Chloe, the sole work before 1500 to base a long narrative on the pastoral convention. There are pastoral interludes in some medieval romances, as well as Renaissance romantic epics like Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso, Canto 11 and Tasso’s Jerusalem Liberated, Book 7. They are brief episodes in stories of utterly different scope, though Spenser makes pastoral intrinsic to the same narrative model. There are also pastoral episodes in looser, more varied compendiums like William Warner’s Albion’s England, and in popular romance cycles like Amadis de Gaul. None of these works belongs to the line inaugurated by Jacopo Sannazaro in his Arcadia (1504, but probably composed in the 1480s and circulated in manuscript). Arcadia (which, following Virgil, decisively if unfactually identifies that region of Greece with the conventional pastoral landscape for all time) probably began life as a series of eclogues, sometimes one-off compositions for specific occasions. They came to be linked by an increasingly elaborate prose narrative, describing the ­courtier-turned-shepherd Sincero’s sojourn in Arcadia. Sincero is patently Sannazaro: the name became his poetic sobriquet. Some or all the other shepherds might represent his Neapolitan poetic circle. Though notionally set in Greece, the poem works in much of the landscape of Campania and the Gulf of Naples. Arcadia is almost wholly set in a pastoral landscape, but Sincero is a courtier who comes from, and returns to, the court. As the pastoral romance progresses, this embedding of the country sojourn in a courtly framework grows more and more pronounced. The pastoral becomes virtually an extended interlude in a story about royalty, courtiers and other ‘complex men’. This is the most prominent development in a trajectory of growth extending across several major languages, the high points marked by Montemayor’s Diana (1559) in Spanish, with continuations in 1564 by Gaspar Gil Polo and Alonso Perez; Sidney’s Arcadia in English, published posthumously in 1590; and Honoré d’Urfé’s L’Astrée (1607–28) in French. The pastoral sequence in The Faerie Queene, though a small fraction of the work in terms of bulk, has a comparable structural importance in Book VI and indeed in the poem as a whole. Simultaneously, and for the first time ever, there developed a line of pastoral drama – first, as usual, in Italy. It starts with Angelo Poliziano’s Orfeo (1471), an elaborate musical entertainment featuring shepherds within a mythological framework. The mythological element, and the ‘pastoral religion’ emanating from it, remain or even intensify as the

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plays grow in length and substance over the next hundred years, but shepherds come to be the dominating presence. In fact, in contrast to the romance across Europe, Italian pastoral drama presents shepherds almost, or quite, exclusively. They often evince a refinement and complexity of mind associated with courtiers (and largely restricted to the latter in the pastoral romance). This is especially marked in the two classics of the genre, Torquato Tasso’s Aminta (performed 1573, published 1581) and Battista Guarini’s Il pastor fido (‘The Faithful Shepherd’, ­completed 1584, published 1589–90). The plot (though not the stage action) of Guarini’s play covers cities and courts far beyond the shepherd world, drawing on the resources of the Greek romance. But only later, in other languages – most prominently in Shakespeare’s As You Like It and The Winter’s Tale – does pastoral drama adopt the court-to-country-tocourt pattern characteristic of pastoral romance. And even in England, the Italianate, purely pastoral play (as typified in John Fletcher’s The Faithful Shepherdess) holds its own (see #174, #175). The basic design of the cyclically structured pastoral romance, sometimes reflected in pastoral drama, is easily told. These stories begin at court, but a court that is disordered, corrupt and unhappy. Its chief characters, especially the good ones, move into the countryside, often owing to banishment or deliberate escape. There they come in contact with shepherds and experience a life and value-system opposed to their own. In this milieu, the complications of their lives are resolved, transforming their relationships and, sometimes, their internal states. At the end of the story, they return to a newly ordered and energized court. The compulsions of the narrative invest the pastoral setting with a reforming and sustaining function. The transformative mental holiday implicit in pastoral since Theocritus is made actual and explicit: the courtiers physically move to the country to recharge their batteries and, more clearly than before, to improve their lives, perhaps undergoing a moral change. The factors behind this change are not always clearly defined. They may simply be rendered in terms of plot, or at most as a psychological process. Any religious influence is either sketchy in the extreme (like the hermit who reforms the villainous Oliver in As You Like It) or presented in terms of fictional rather than formal religion. All the same, the power of pastoral as a transforming force is organically enhanced. The recreative country sojourn, as celebrated in the classical and humanist nature-elegy and ode, intensifies into a more deeply restorative process, embedded in country life yet having its most direct and tangible impact on court or urban life. This development combines with others



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to advance country life in a more realistic garb – and ultimately nature itself – as a moral and spiritual presence. There are major consequences for formal pastoral convention as well. Most importantly, the cyclical pattern places the pastoral binaries of court and country in a new structural relationship. Both worlds are now projected explicitly – as contrasting yet connected entities, allowing free movement from one to the other and finally, in a full circle, back to the starting point. Such a pattern allows much clearer articulation of the terms of each world, hence there is less need to infuse one with the other, impairing the presentation of both – in particular, the distortion or artificiality with which the country is notoriously presented in conventional pastoral. Now the court and the country can both come into their own. This is a major factor behind the expansion of the pastoral into more realistic and socially engaged forms, even while conventional pastoral is increasingly enfeebled: its premisses have been superseded by a new encounter of court and country. The effects of the ‘pastoral cycle’ are not confined to extended narrative. It impacts on all generic forms, including the eclogue and, more especially, the range of lyrical and ode-like forms emanating from the eclogue. Interestingly, the change is least apparent in the songs and lyrics implanted in pastoral romances and plays. As noted, such lyrics often carry the most explicit pastoralism in the work, but it is seldom more than a conventional pastoralism of setting and sentiment. The deeper changes of theme commonly involve generic innovations as well. There is another change of crucial importance. In the cyclic pastoral structure, courtly characters often dominate the action as a whole, including the inset pastoral sequence. Shepherds and other rustics are rendered subordinate, if not subservient. The pretty shepherdess beloved of the knightly hero proves, more often than not, to be herself of noble birth. There may be a moralizing wise shepherd advocating the values of pastoral life, but his role may equally be played by a hermit – and either figure might once have been a courtier.89 Hence by a paradox, the formal expansion of the pastoral results in drastically marginalizing the shepherd. This shows most pronouncedly in Sidney’s Arcadia, where none of the chief characters is a native rustic. Sidney’s niece Mary 89 Even a genuine shepherd like Spenser’s Meliboeus spent time at court (FQ VI.ix.24–5), like his creator’s persona Colin in Colin Clout’s Come Home Again. The courtier-turned-hermit figure was particularly common in pageants and entertainments, and became a standard persona adopted at such events by Sir Henry Lee, the Queen’s Ranger of Woodstock. See references in Chaudhuri, Renaissance Pastoral, pp. 343–4.

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Wroth keeps up the practice in The Countess of Montgomery’s Urania (see #209, #210). The alternative to such shepherdless pastoral romances is seen in Montemayor’s Diana with its sequels, and d’Urfé’s L’Astrée (see #22–24, #176, #177). Here, many major characters are indeed shepherds or shepherdesses, but of a degree of sophistication – in love, in speech, sometimes in intellectual exercise – that would grace any actual courtier of the age. The poems they exchange and the songs they sing are elaborately structured, and treat of the extreme refinements of Petrarchan love with Neoplatonic overtones, just like the compositions of the ­courtiers-turned-shepherds in Sidney’s Arcadia. These features reach their height in L’Astrée: the ground is already laid for Marie Antoinette’s play-farm on her hameau – though it was a real farm too, supplying the queen’s table at the Petit Trianon. This ‘optional extra’ of a dispensable functionality may be thought the most unreal aspect of the whole outfit. Shepherds and other rustics: country house and Country party There was no Petit Trianon in England, in the seventeenth century or later; very shortly, in fact, the pendulum of history would swing towards regicide and Commonwealth rule. But a patent narrowing of the class base of conventional pastoral shows in the lyrics of the early seventeenth century. Robert Herrick is most adept at this line of engaging artifice masquerading as rustic simplicity. The ‘meaner Minstralsie’ of his Muse addresses the ‘poore and private Cottages’, but in terms suggesting the literary sophistication of the humanist: There with the Reed, thou mayst expresse The Shepherds Fleecie happinesse: And with thy Eclogues intermixe Some smooth, and harmlesse Beucolicks. (#243.7–10)

In external form, Herrick perfects the patterns found in England’s Helicon: his lyrics are delicate and playful, using their light formal grace to thematic ends. But in context and purpose, he is committed to courtly allegiance and neo-feudal values, even when not explicitly celebrating some event at court or a stately home. Thomas Carew, William Strode or Mildmay Fane practise the same vein, which grows diffuse in the notional pastoralism of Cavalier poets like Robert Lovelace or John Suckling. Here is their associate, the royalist (and Catholic) Patrick Cary. W’are to meete all on the greene, To dance and sport together;



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O what brau’ry will bee seene! I hope ‘twill proue fayre weather. (#254.5–8)

There is a tell-tale preciousness here: the shepherds are celebrating the distinctly un-demotic ‘feast of Pan’. One had seen this mix in Italian, and more grandly French, country poetry much earlier on. It now surfaces in England, charged with the political context of its own land and own time. The class paradox of pastoral moulds the fictional landscape and mythology associated with the convention. The poetic miscellanies of the earlier seventeenth century contain a sprinkling of pastoral lyrics that trivialize the mode or present the rustic in a comic and derogatory light (see #264, #265). Although a recognized sub-genre in Italian and French pastoral, this depressing outcrop of pastoral had been little apparent in Elizabethan times except in a bevy of comic rustics (usually alongside more estimable ones) in pastoral romance and drama. Tellingly, the vein is now opened up in lyric poetry for the first time in England. As James Turner says, ‘Idealization and virulent contempt can therefore exist side by side; Arcadia borders on the sterile wilderness of the Helots.’90 The last clause is a reference to the geography of Sidney’s Arcadia. All in all, elite pastoral in the early seventeenth century allows far less meaningful space to the common rustic than in Elizabethan times, however the earlier age might have idealized or falsified him. This is a symptom of more momentous social changes, whereby widely differing angles on rural life are opened up in new types of texts, of diverse class origin and political affinity, sometimes too far beyond the purview of the pastoral to find a place in this book. Some of these afford far more space to the common or suffering rustic than pastoral ever did. The pastoral convention decisively loses its integrity in the seventeenth century. It ramifies into a number of new developments, to many of which the term ‘pastoral’ seems less and less relevant. Raymond Williams sees pastoral in this period as breaking up into a ‘major course’ of ‘strong and moving’ nature poetry, and an increasingly thin and artificial line of ‘theatrical and romantic’ productions that might still be termed ‘pastoral’.91 This is correct, but it does not go far enough. The diffusion of pastoral in this period is much more intricate.92 90 James Turner, The Politics of Landscape, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1979, p. 173. 91 Williams, The Country and the City, p. 20. 92 Cf. Montrose’s remark that in his treatment of Renaissance pastoral, ‘Williams uncharacteristically oversimplifies the ideological complexity of a large and heterogeneous

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Again, Anthony Low sees conventional pastoral as increasingly confined to the court and aristocracy, while other circles engage more deeply in a ‘georgic revolution’.93 The new involvement with agrarian and agricultural reform can certainly be seen as a movement from pastoral to georgic; but both its class and political affinities, and its actual literary expressions, are much more varied and complex than any simple account may suggest. Among other conduits, the ‘georgic revolution’ matches both the programme and the rhetoric of the ‘Country’ party, a growing opposition group to the narrow court politics of the monarchs and their favourites. The Country party bids to engage more seriously with rural life and rural uplift, locating themselves mentally in the country. Yet it is allied to the ruling class, and the politics reflected in its poetry does not differ radically from its opponents’. Leah Marcus argues that, ‘Stuart pastoral [including, or especially, the royal and aristocratic] was designed to reduce the distance between the urban and the rural’. She notes the repeated royal directives to the aristocracy to spend more time in the country: James I himself has a poem to this effect, prefiguring Fanshawe’s in the Anthology (#217). I would not agree with Marcus’s position, but she draws attention to the implicit tensions of all pastoral and rural poetry in that age.94 Here, for instance, is George Wither, the most outspoken and radical-minded of the Spenserians. In Wither’s Haleluiah, a labourer addresses his superiors in course of a prayer: You that enjoy both goods and lands,   And are not forc’d by sweat, And, by the labour of your hands,   To earn the Food you eat; …95

This reverses the premiss of Herrick’s admonition to farm labourers, calling them back from their holiday: corpus of cultural texts.’ Louis Adrian Montrose, ‘Of Gentlemen and Shepherds. The Politics of Elizabethan Pastoral Form’, ELH 50, 1983, 419. 93 Anthony Low, The Georgic Revolution, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985, esp. chs 1 and 2. Contrast Montrose’s remark that ‘the georgic mode was fundamentally uncongenial to Elizabethan poets’ (Montrose, ‘Of Gentlemen and Shepherds’, 427). See also Supriya Chaudhuri, ‘Designs of Plenty. Gardens, Landscapes and Literature in Early Modern England’, in Indrani Haldar (ed.), Interrelations. Literature and the Other Arts, Kolkata: Macmillan India, 2003, pp. 92–132. 94 Leah Marcus, ‘Politics and Pastoral: Writing the Court on the Countryside’, in Kevin Sharpe and Peter Lake (eds), Culture and Politics in Early Stuart England, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1994, pp. 140, 144. 95 George Wither, ‘Hymn XL. For a Labourer’, Haleluiah or, Britans Second Remembrancer, Third Part, London: Andrew Hebb, 1641, p. 434.



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And, you must know, your Lords word’s true, Feed him ye must, whose food fils you. (#244.51–2)

Yet Wither’s prayer for servants also recommends content and tolerance. Another recognized Puritan, Edward Calver, presents a labourer’s complaint in a way recalling Barclay’s shepherds: Some feed on dainties, and I fed with drosse, They take no paines, I labour like a horse.   When other men are pamper’d, or doe feast, I pine with hunger, or do want; at least, Their Fragments are too good for me; tis well If I can be partaker of the smell.

But this is merely the voice of ‘Passion in Want’ in an allegorical poem. ‘Discretion’ counters: Thy life is no such Tragedy of woe As thou conceiv’st, thou dost but thinke it so.96

The pastoral’s potential for protest is diffused by a moral context of utterly different bent. This is very different from turning the morality play into unequivocal social critique, as seen over a hundred years earlier in Of Gentleness and Nobility (#19), in a work of ruling-class provenance. That belonged to the circle of Thomas More, whose Utopia contains one of the bitterest denunciations of the enclosure system in Tudor England. A hundred years later, poets of the ruling elite might still admit the implicit contradictions in the politics of pastoral, indeed in the mode as a whole: the simple man vis-à-vis the complex, hence the hired versus the hirer, the labourer versus the landowner – ultimately, the fictional versus the real. But this last opposition is in different terms from the others: both sides of the pastoral fiction, rural and courtly, can be seen as equally unreal. This awareness underlies Margaret Cavendish’s gracefully witty poem with which I began this Introduction. But more commonly, the underlying social contradiction is simply suppressed. James Turner analyses in detail how the poet’s life and circumstances cruelly undercut the rural content of Katherine Philips’s praise of a country life (#274).97 No doubt the same contradictions underlie courtly Tudor pastoral as well; but Elizabethan art-pastoral escapes the issue (I use the phrase 96 Edward Calver, Passion and Discretion, in Youth, and Age, London: Francis Grove, 1641, pp. 90–9, 93 (sigs N1v–N2r, N3r). 97 Turner, The Politics of Landscape, pp. 2–4.

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advisedly) by passing entirely onto a plane of formalized fancy, while the allusive eclogue is clearly an instrument of metaphor disengaged from actual rural politics. It becomes rather the vehicle of an idealized national politics, celebrating the queen and serving, in Louis Montrose’s words, to ‘variously [both mark] and [obfuscate] the hierarchical distinctions – the symbolic boundaries – upon which the Elizabethan social order was predicated’.98 (Montrose recalls Empson’s dismissal of the ‘essential trick of the old pastoral, which was felt to imply a beautiful relation between rich and poor’).99 Thus, says Montrose, ‘literal pastoralism is variously appropriated by and excluded from the discourse of figurative pastoralism’.100 The important thing to recognize is that ‘figurative pastoralism’ does not here mean what it would in many other contexts – ­allegorical pastoralism. It means the creation of a fictive universe, a sustained exercise in art-pastoral, figuring a world different from one’s own and symbolizing a different set of motives and longings. The formalized, aesthetically determined lines of Elizabethan pastoral break up into a much more intricate design in the new century. The conventional ingredients of pastoral meld with many other veins of rural poetry, but also diverge in telling ways. Further, the new ingredients are themselves cast in diverse combinations, reflecting divergence and overlaps in their social provenance and political identities. More than one vein, sometimes counter to each other, might originate from the same class or political group, even the same individual; conversely, the same vein might be explored by markedly opposite groups. And all of them may be at odds with a very different body of material treating of, or even emanating from, the dispossessed rural underclass. Andrew McRae makes a persuasive case for seeing this ‘fracture’ of Elizabethan pastoral as creating a range of more realistic and constructive types of rural poetry. But his account also bears out a new and crucial limitation of purpose: an endemic ‘commitment to the interests of property’.101 This is truest of the category that has most achieved canonical status: the country-house poem, suffused with the glow of a latter-day feudalism. As might be expected, this body of poetry was pronouncedly royalist in bent; yet one of its high points is Marvell’s ‘Upon Appleton  98 Montrose, ‘Of Gentlemen and Shepherds’, p. 418.  99 Empson, Some Versions of Pastoral, p. 17. 100 Montrose, ‘Of Gentlemen and Shepherds’, p. 421. 101 Andrew McRae, God Speed the Plough. The Representation of Agrarian England, 1500–1600, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996, pp. 274, 275; see also ch. 9 (‘Rural Poetics’) generally.



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House’, where a servant of the Commonwealth celebrates a general of the Commonwealth, though the allegiance of both to their party may have been equivocal. While necessarily celebrating a hierarchic order, the country-house poem reflects the divisive politics of the age. It is the politics of the court, though superficially opposing court and country: in this sense, the country-house poem preserves the binary character of traditional pastoral. From one angle, it contrasts the house of human proportions and human functions – Marvell’s Appleton House actually expands when Lord Fairfax enters it102 – with that built for show and royal entertainment: in other words, a patrician life lived in the country and in tune with it, and one which sees the country seat as an outpost of court life. Ben Jonson’s ‘To Penshurst’, the prototype of all such poems, contrasts the house of Robert Sidney, Earl of Leicester with ‘proud, ambitious heaps’: ‘their lords haue built, but thy lord dwells’ (#191.101–2). The swing in social structure, and in the balance of court and country in aristocratic life, is reflected in changing architectural styles: the country-house poem invariably favours the old. There is an inevitable nostalgia suffusing the country-house poem: it might explicitly evoke the Golden Age, like Ben Jonson’s ‘To Sir Robert Wroth’ (#192.63–6).103 It combines with the Elizabethan nostalgia found in other sectors of early seventeenth-century poetry, including conventional pastoral. It also links up with the other tradition of the ‘blessed’ country-dweller celebrated in Horace’s Epode II (#12). But while the Horatian countryman is an individual, the lord of a country house is the head of a community. That is why compliment to the owner is geared to, or virtually phrased as, praise of the house: the poem is celebrating a social institution, an ‘establishment’ in every sense. It also celebrates a self-sufficient economic order centred in the countryside: we are repeatedly told that the manorial table is stocked with the produce of the soil.104 The lord and tenants sustain each other in this ideal system. The former’s bounty is best symbolized by his unstinting hospitality (a recurrent and elaborate theme in nearly all such poems), the latter’s contribution by the curious recurrent trope of the animals on the estate willingly sacrificing themselves for the lord’s table.105 It is 102 Andrew Marvell, ‘Upon Appleton House’, 49–56. 103 There can even be shades of Paradise: see ‘All hail to Hatfield’, 330, or the word ­‘innocent’ concluding ‘To Sir Robert Wroth’. 104 ‘To Penshurst’, 19–44; ‘To Sir Robert Wroth’, 13–14; ‘To Saxham’, 15–30. 105 ‘To Penshurst’, 29–38; ‘To Saxham’, 23–8.

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a latter-day version of the Golden Age, contrasted with a court-oriented order where the country exists simply to supply the town. Even in a full and balanced portrayal, as in Jonson’s two poems, the estate seems to be stocked by nature rather than the labour of human hands: The mowed meddowes, with the fleeced sheepe,   And feasts, that either shearers keepe; The ripened eares, yet humble in their height,   And furrowes laden with their weight; The apple-haruest, that doth longer last;   The hogs return’d home fat from mast; … (#192.39–44)

Cultivated nature seems to ensure its own growth: humans appear only to feast, and that by the lord’s generosity. Here and elsewhere, the year-long hospitality reaches its pinnacle in specific celebrations of harvest, Christmas and so on. The Christmas festivities afford obvious scope to project the figure of the loyal and happy shepherd, as in the piece by Robert Chester (#137). Not unlike the shepherds of pastoral, the tenants of such an estate seem to labour little and obtain much, looked after by nature and by the lord. The latter might himself become a master-­shepherd, as in Chester’s piece: a ‘Lordlike sheapheard lord of vs’ (#137.26). At the other end of the spectrum, there is a striking variation of the same design in Thomas Weaver’s poem on the Isle of Man (#261), where the whole island becomes (as in fact it was) the estate of James Stanley, Earl of Derby. Manxmen enjoy the same prosperity and security as do the tenants of mainland country-house demesnes. In simpler versions of the design, the intricate order whereby nature interacts with the human owner to a common end is replaced by mere praise of the lord’s bounty, as in Carew’s ‘To Saxham’ (#234). But the slip of the actual economic order can show all too clearly, as in Herrick’s ‘The Hock-Cart’ (#244.51–2) cited above (not formally a country-house poem): the food that fills the peasant’s belly is said to be the free bounty of the lord. Another interesting development appears at almost painful length in the recently discovered ‘All Hail to Hatfield’ (#237).106 Marvell’s ‘Upon Appleton House’ (and still more his ‘Upon the Hill and Grove at Bill-Burrow’) might be called a vastly more energetic and witty exercise in the same vein. Here, there is no discernible social or economic order at all. The country house is presented in isolation, apparently the one 106 The manuscript was acquired by Leeds University in 1981, and first described in Tom Lockwood, ‘“All Hayle to Hatfeild”: A New Series of Country House Poems from Leeds University Library, Brotherton Collection, MS Lt q 44’, ELR 38, 2008, 270–303.



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human structure in the midst of nature, bound to it in a symbiotic relation. It is related on the one hand to developments in the visual arts, and more fundamentally on the other to a new pattern of land-holding and rural economy, whereby the countryside is transformed into ‘landscape’. A landscape could be, and often was, any scene of nature assimilated to art, brought to order by human agency – perhaps horticultural, perhaps merely mental. Increasingly, however (as in the Hatfield poem) it is identified with proprietorial land holdings. In Aemilia Lanyer’s ‘The Description of Cooke-ham’, the very natural features seem to be feudal subjects of the Countess of Cumberland: Hills, vales, and woods, as if on bended knee They had appeard, your honour to salute, Or to preferre some strange unlook’d for sute:… (68–70)107

A landscape comes to be an estate, naturally or artificially patterned into aesthetic form: a possession, as the work of art is another. Nature yields to an aesthetic order captured in art; but both are subservient to the determining order, which is economic.108 Landscape poetry is discreetly – or just insensitively – reticent about that economic order and its impact on the human population. If any land on such an estate has been enclosed for sheep-farming by evicting the tenants, we do not hear of it: sheep, if there be any, are simply a visual feature of the scene. The situation in Virgil’s first eclogue (#6) is poignantly human by comparison. Pastoral, it seems, is not necessarily more unreal than the genres that succeed it. Landscape art negotiates the tension between private ownership and impersonal contemplation, material substance and aesthetic abstraction. (Paradoxically, the proprietorial is hidden behind the material landscape, the aesthetic embodied within it.) As John Berger says of a painting from the next century, Gainsborough’s portrait of Mr and Mrs Andrews on their estate, ‘the pleasure of seeing themselves depicted as landowners … was enhanced by the ability of oil paint to render their land in all its substantiality’.109 Yet as Berger also points out, the general tendency of 107 The Poems of Aemilia Lanyer: Salve Deus Rex Judæorum, ed. Susanne Woods, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993, p. 133. 108 A remark by Simon Schama suggests a depressing coda: a further scaling down of ‘the two arcadias perennially defined against each other’ in a context of modern urban space and the industrial economy, pitching ‘the idea of the park (wilderness or pastoral)’ against ‘the philosophy of the front lawn (industrially kempt or drifted with buttercups and clover; civility and harmony or integrity and unruliness?’ Landscape and Memory, p. 525. 109 John Berger, Ways of Seeing, London: BBC & Penguin, 1972 rpt. [n.d.], p. 108.

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landscape art was to lead oil painting ‘from the substantial and tangible towards the indeterminate and intangible’.110 Here, obviously, the verbal medium has an advantage over the visual, for it subjects concrete forms to a process of abstraction in any case. Plac’d on yon’ fair, though beetle brow That on the pleasures frowns below, Let us with sprightly phancie thence Teach the dumb Rhetorick, Eloquence; And leave the Painters Art out-gone Inliv’ning by transcription. (#266.1–6)

This is from Eldred Revett, a Cavalier poet, friend of Lovelace and Suckling – complicit with the landed classes, enjoying the cultivated leisure to engage in such fancies. Such landscape poetry presents the visual premisses of the estate poem to a diametrically opposite end, the discovery of aesthetic design in nature. William Strode’s ‘On Westwell Downs’ (#235) tends in the same direction. In a manuscript fragment by William Drummond, a striking extended simile is based on a comparable perspective (in the precise visual sense), inducing a moral and philosophic abstraction: As vhen a sheaphard boy from fearful hight Of steepie rocke lookes to some groundless deep, Each thing semes dance vnto his dazeld sight And trembling feare doth thruch his sinnowes creep. (#200.1–4)

In one direction, this sensationalizes nature in a way foreshadowing the Gothic and the Romantic, already seen in the early seventeenth century as in Saint-Amant’s much-read and twice-translated poem (#203). In another direction, Drummond’s fragment links up with the more orthodox spiritualism, sometimes deepening into mysticism, that grows more and more prominent in seventeenth-century nature poetry. Elizabethan nature-poetry may have extolled the moral excellence of rural life – a theme continued in poems like the manuscript ‘Thenot’s Abode’ (#236), or Cowley’s ode ‘That a pleasant poverty is to bee preferred before discontented riches’ (#224). But it seldom or never looked for an explicitly religious dimension to rural life and landscape.

110 Berger, Ways of Seeing, p. 105.



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Religious and spiritual pastoral This new development in the seventeenth century might owe something to landscape art with its focus on God’s great works. But landscape painting is not primarily religious in nature. To trace this general line of spiritual nature-poetry, we must return to Horace’s Second Epode (#12). As described earlier, this epode extols a model of homely plenty and peaceful virtuous living in the countryside, in contrast to the pomp and corruption of the court. The poem gained extraordinary currency in the Renaisssance, though the last four lines, ironically recasting all that has gone before by putting it on the lips of a city usurer, were usually ignored. It was repeatedly translated and adapted, and supplemented from 1625 by the work of the so-called ‘Horace reborn’, the Polish Neo-Latin poet Casimir Sarbiewski. An expanded edition of Casimir’s poems appeared in 1628. They were printed twenty times in his lifetime, and translated into various languages including English. Casimir’s odes crown the pleasures, benefits and virtues of rural life in Horace’s account with a Christian piety that the pagan poet obviously could not command. The epode included here (#232) directly addresses Horace and advances the countryman, superior to the classical poet’s, who adores Christ and shares in the eternal life. Another piece (#231) is full of motifs from the Song of Songs. Casimir was a Jesuit priest and author of a range of devotional poetry; the Pope appointed him to revise the hymns in the Catholic breviary. The same motive suffuses his odes, epodes and lyrics on country life; but their wider impact extended in several directions, always moral or spiritual but not necessarily charged with biblical or theological trappings. In her study The Happy Man, tracing the reception of Horace’s Epode during and after the Renaissance, Maren-Sofie Røstvig classifies the resultant figures as the ‘serene contemplator’, passing into the ‘hortulian [garden] saint’ and, in another direction, the ‘innocent Epicurean’ or ‘detached spectator’.111 These developments again – like the opposite line recording rural poverty and oppression – often take us far beyond the confines of pastoral, however broadly defined, coming to rest in the spiritualized, sometimes mystical projection of nature in Henry Vaughan or Thomas Traherne. But in country-house poems, or other poems on upper-class rural retreats, both the master and the poet can be cast in the mould of Røstvig’s figures; and occasionally, a deeper vein of spirituality 111 Maren-Sofie Røstvig, The Happy Man. Studies in the Metamorphoses of a Classical Ideal, 2nd edn, vol. 1, Oslo: Norwegian Universities Press, 1962, titles of chs 3–5.

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is projected on fragments of classic pastoral convention. The outstanding example is in two cantos of Edward Benlowes’s Theophila or Love’s Sacrifice (1652: #255). These two cantos, very different from the allegorical mysticism of the rest, introduce literal shepherds in the landscape, and also turn them into a trope:   With harmlesse Shepherds we sometimes do stay,   Whose Plainnesse does outvie the Gay, While nibling Ewes do bleat, and frisking Lambs do stray.  With Them, we strive to recollect, and finde    Disperst Flocks of our rambling Minde; Internal Vigils are to that due Work design’d. (#255.16–21)

Specifically pastoral elements enter religious poetry from other, more obvious sources. One is metaphoric: the presentation of God or Christ as the Good Shepherd, classically in Psalm 23 (not only translated but repeatedly adapted: see the pieces by Henry Lok, #110, and Nicholas Breton, #111) but also in the Gospels and elsewhere.112 The metaphor can be used in unexpected ways – for instance, by presenting Christ as a stricken shepherd snatched away from his flock. He is so presented in the manuscript poem ‘A Jollie sheppard that sate on Sion hill’, which has little pastoral content until we reach two moving stanzas at the end: ‘O come away, come away,’   this shepard cales and cryes, ‘Take vp your crosse, and follow me,   and doe this worled dispise.’ Like sheepe in humble sort let vs   vnto his voice giue eare And in his lawes still walke vpright   while we abyden heere. (#192.145–52)

The poem is cast like a ballad, and may have been intended as one. Christ as a stricken shepherd is also central to a poem from Jean Chassanion’s French treatise on persecutors of God’s church, included here in Thomas Beard’s translation (#35). But the full conceit of this poem incorporates two other ideas. First, Christ is not a mere victim but his own avenger 112 See Psalms 23, 80.1, Isaiah 40.11, Ezekiel 34.11–23 for God as shepherd; Matthew 26.31, John 10.11–16, Hebrews 13.20, 1 Peter 3.25, 5.4 (also Zechariah 13.7) for Christ as shepherd; Jeremiah 3.15, 23.1–4, 50.6, Zechariah 11.16–17 for the priest and guide as shepherd.



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(perhaps sharing that role with God the Father). Second, and paradoxically, he is not only the shepherd but the Lamb, the sacrifice; yet he punishes those who harm him and his flock: The gentle puisant lambe, their Champion bold, So helps to conquer all that hurts his fold, That quickly they and all their progenie, Confounded is and brought to miserie. This is of Iuda the couragiouse Lyon The conquering captaine, and the rocke of Syon … (#35.69–74)

The subsidiary paradox in ‘gentle puisant lambe’ leads on to yet another: this lamb is also the lion of Judah, identified with Christ. The Blakelike combination of lion and lamb in the Christian Redeemer reflects the coexistence between various opposite animals in Isaiah 11.6. This is equally a feature of the Golden Age, here (as often) assimilated to the paradise of martyrs. On this divine model, the priest too is presented as a shepherd. But more interesting are the variations worked on the literal shepherds of the Annunciation: the coming of Christ was first announced to them because they were ordinary men – typical fallen mortals in the symbolism of the medieval miracle plays – but, at the same time, of a virtue and simplicity that made them specially deserving and receptive of the message. This is how they are presented by Henry Vaughan: Sweet, harmles lives! (on whose holy leisure   Waits Innocence and pleasure;) … How happend it that in the dead of night   You only saw true light …? (#251.1–2, 5–6)

The Lamb of God becomes a subsidiary motif in this pastoral of human exaltation. In another direction, Joseph Beaumont creates a fantasy of the Annunciation merging literal and tropological pastoral: O how our pretty Lambs did leap and dance! What Troops of merrie Wolves came tripping in! How were the Bears seiz’d with a gentle Trance! How did this Harmony the Lyons win!   All Salvagnesse was quickly charm’d asleep,   And every Beast was now a gentle Sheep. (#249.79–84)

But the most interesting modification is perhaps George Herbert’s, who interiorizes the pastoral ethos literally embodied in the shepherds of the Annuciation:

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This also interiorizes the trope of Psalm 23: the mention of God’s grace does not negate the soul’s role in guiding and nurturing itself. This can be thought to have implications for the high-church Herbert’s views on predestination. Going a step further, two hymns in Wither’s Haleluiah or, Britain’s Second Remembrancer (1641: #187, #188) charge the shepherd’s specific actions with an ethical purport, making the literal act simultaneously symbolic. Pastoral and Play. Drama, pageants and entertainments It would be structurally satisfying to end this account on a spiritual plane, but it would not answer to the development of the mode. Religion or spirituality has even been considered inimical to the pastoral mode. ‘The critical mind’, writes Renato Poggioli, ‘can only treat as failures all attempts to Christianize the pastoral, or to translate Christianity into pastoral terms.’113 One might argue the same for reasons different from Poggioli’s. Religious pastoral can vary greatly in nature; but by its core seriousness, and at least liminal conventionality, it remains distinct from the main currents of pastoral literature. In some sense or other, pastoral typically embodies an element of play. This does not preclude its addressing extremely serious themes by way of allegory or allusion, or indeed within the pastoral fiction; but the fiction, more patently than other fictions, relies on creating an aesthetic distance, remoulding the theme in terms of a basically unserious tropology: a realm of otium, where things are ordered differently and matter less than in the real world. We might think of this ludic element as the differentia of authentic pastoral, as opposed to more literal and realistic perceptions of shepherds and rural life – though needless to say, the latter invade pastoral ‘proper’ habitually and substantially. Not surprisingly, then, pastoral easily aligns itself with the ‘play’ in another accustomed sense. A dramatic performance actualizes its fiction in visual and physical terms; but by doing so, it also stresses that it is a fiction, that what we are seeing are not the purported events but 113 Poggioli, The Oaten Flute, p. 19.



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their re-enactment on a different plane of reality. By its translation of an open-ended range of themes into a single mode of projection, pastoral is specially conditioned to match the implicit premisses of stage illusion. Significantly, in Polonius’ account of dramatic genres, pastoral finds separate mention alongside the tragical, comical and historical. Here pastoral might simply mean tragi-comedy: after the publication of Guarini’s Il pastor fido in 1590, a surprisingly fierce debate broke out over the legitimacy of mingling tragic and comic elements in the same play. At the same time, pastoral drama had been cited as a separate category long before Guarini, in the section on stage architecture in Sebastiano Serlio’s influential Architettura (1537 and later). Serlio’s term is not ‘pastoral’ but ‘satyric’, but it is clear from the illustration in his book that he has in mind plays with a rural and natural setting (as opposed to the contemporary urban setting of comedy and the classical architecture proposed for tragedy). The body of Italian Renaissance drama meeting this description is obviously the pastoral, with the satyr-play an occasional variant as in Cinthio Giraldi’s Egle (performed 1545). As we have seen, the Italianate pastoral drama focuses on shepherds and other rustics much more closely than does the pastoral romance. Their stories of shepherds’ loves, vicissitudes and worship read like a connected version of the narratives glimpsed fleetingly between the meshes of the brief lusus pastorales. The cross-currents of love are, of course, a perennial concern, and ‘pastoral religion’ a running discourse. Besides the embedded songs, even stretches of dialogue can read like the exchanges incorporated in many eclogues. A few such instances, where a modicum of dialogue is woven round a song, have been included in the Anthology, slightly modifying a general policy not to include dramatic extracts apart from stand-alone songs or poems. The pastoral comes into its own in several lines of pageants and entertainments. These span many themes and occasions, from city pageants to court masques. Here too the style changes radically between Elizabethan and Jacobean. Eliza as the shepherds’ queen was a standard topos of court compliment, even brought into city pageants to signify, in particular, the Queen’s peaceful reign (as in Peele’s Descensus Astraeae, #65). But obviously, it was her country progresses that lent most occasion for entertainments of pastoral fancy and compliment. Contrary to general impression, the occasion was seldom exploited.114 114 See the detailed account of pastoral commemorations of Elizabeth in Elkin Calhoun Wilson, England’s Eliza, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1939, ch. 4.

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There is only one markedly pastoral entertainment for Elizabeth, the combined fare at Bissham and Sudeley in 1592 (see #66), and that is with respect to sheep-farming in the Cotswolds rather than any pastoral identity of the Queen. Well before this, Sidney’s The Lady of May (1578/9) certainly qualifies as pastoral, but there Elizabeth herself is solely Queen and not shepherdess (#46). As late as 1602, the miscellany A Poetical Rhapsody prints a dialogue between two shepherds written by Sidney’s sister, Mary Countess of Pembroke, for the Queen’s visit to her estate at Wilton (#139). But the date is left blank, and the visit seems not to have taken place.115 Apart from this, there is only a sprinkling of rustic figures in these rustic entertainments, and those, more often than not, are not shepherds or even courtiers-turned-hermits.116 There is somewhat more of mythology, classical gods and goddesses placed in the English landscape and written into the topical dialogue. George Peele’s masque-like play The Arraignment of Paris is subtitled ‘A Pastorall’, but its chief point is mythological: the three goddesses competing before Paris agree to yield to the nymph Eliza. All in all, ‘Fayre Elisa, Queene of shepheardes all’ remains a name and a trope rather than a realized discourse: she is celebrated less in actual country entertainments than in formal poetry assuming or fictionalizing such entertainments, from Spenser’s ‘Aprill’ (#38) through the topical interpolation in Angel Day’s translation of Daphnis and Chloe (#63) to the third eclogue in Drayton’s Idea the Shepherd’s Garland. Even in the two latter, Elizabeth is the queen of shepherds but not herself over-shepherdly, though Drayton’s poem closely echoes Spenser’s at points. Nonetheless, the general substance of these entertainments could not but correspond at least to the broad sphere of Elizabethan pastoral: nature and myth, the mythicizing of nature, rural activities and the rural economy, an endemic ambience of poetry and song, anchored in the figure of the ‘admiring rustic’ before whom the great Queen has suddenly appeared. The entire Elizabethan pastoral discourse is strongly oriented to the Queen at the apex of the exercise, an implicit presence even where she does not appear. She is Astraea, the virgin goddess of justice; but far from fleeing the earth at the end of the Golden Age, she is inaugurating 115 According to John Nichols (The Progresses and Public Processions of Queen Elizabeth, London: Society of Antiquarians, 1883, III.529, n. 2), the Queen ‘meditated’ a progress to north Wiltshire in 1600, but the poem may actually have been delivered in London in 1601. 116 See Chaudhuri, Renaissance Pastoral, pp. 340–41.



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a new Golden Age in her realm.117 This is the effective message of innumerable works, Thomas Blenerhasset’s A Revelation of the True Minerva (1582: #55) being a relatively early instance. Whether or not present within the fictional space of the entertainment, Elizabeth could always be read into Elizabethan (or indeed Stuart) pastoral: the pastoral aura built around her image was sufficient link. Her reign was articulated as a pastoral age. That is why The Faerie Queene can be markedly pastoral in spirit even though Gloriana, the queen of the title who is also Elizabeth, is nowhere conceived in pastoral terms. The actual pastoral content in the performances and entertainments of James and Charles’s combined reigns is arguably greater. No less a person than Ben Jonson composed most of James’s masques, and Inigo Jones designed the sets and stage machines. If anything, myth plays a greater role in these shows than before: James is Pan as Elizabeth was Astraea. The change, though understandable and indeed unavoidable, makes for a depressing contrast. And the presentation of the myth changes sharply: instead of open-air entertainments interweaving local custom and imagination with quasi-Ovidian classical myth, we get a more focused fiction, generally confined to classical figures and ideas, acted indoors in halls and the new private theatres. This makes for a radical change in the politics of court entertainment, and its part in English social history. No royal entertainment was written exclusively for the monarch. In the immediate context, it was presented equally if not more to his entourage; and beyond them, to the common Englishmen who might never witness such shows but, by imbibing them through report and conjecture, arguably formed a more crucial target of reception. Any message the entertainment might carry for the King was outweighed in importance by the message of royal mystique and allegiance it emphatically conveyed to his subjects. By confining such performances indoors, and aiming them at a smaller and more select audience, the common viewer was virtually excluded from the ambit of Stuart entertainments and masques. The underlying message was of self-assertion, veering towards self-congratulation, within the confined group of the audience and their class. The Civil War soon proved how baseless such complacence might be. The precise extent of pastoral in such entertainments thus becomes a matter of little moment. They are not ‘pastoral’ in the structural and 117 See Frances Yates, Astraea. The Imperial Theme in the Sixteenth Century, 1975, rpt. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977, pp. 59–69.

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conceptual sense defined by Empson: they do not play off one mode of life against another, the simple against the complex, but uncritically celebrate a single one – simplistically presenting the complex, one might say. As observed above, when Elizabeth is presented in a pastoral fiction, her own shepherdly identity may be sporadic and minimal, but she is drawn into a pastoralism embracing the nation she rules. Her pastoral role relates her to this greater reality: she might preside over it, but she is ultimately governed by its terms. At least in this tangential way, her pastoral role brought her closer to her subjects, defined her royal identity in terms notionally rustic and demotic. By contrast, when Queen Henrietta Maria and her ladies performed in William Montague’s The Shepherd’s Paradise (1632–33), the artificiality of the fiction distanced them from the common subjects who might actually keep sheep. Montague’s play does not feature any rustic characters at all, not even in minor roles. It is a deracinated pastoral peopled solely by aristocrats. We are within mental distance of Marie Antoinette’s farm. It is worth recalling that Henrietta Maria’s royal husband shared the fate of Marie Antoinette’s, though Henrietta herself was spared the latter’s doom. The Shepherd’s Paradise is an extreme case; but Stuart court pastoral, especially as performance or spectacle, patently narrows the possibilities of the mode. It exchanges the custom-made English myth of the nymph Eliza for a much more routine application of standard ‘pastoral religion’ with the King as Pan. Hee is the Father of our peace; Shee, to the Crowne, hath brought encrease. Wee know no other power then his,  Chorus. PAN only our great Shep’ard is.      (Jonson, New Year’s Gift) (#194.40–3)

Even with a panegyrist as skilful as Jonson, the result of his labours is to thin out the pastoral trope, rob it of imaginative body: this Pan is patently neither shepherd nor god but king. The clergyman Herrick works the same reductive exercise even with the shepherds of the Nativity: Prince Charles’s birth, says Herrick’s speaker Mirtillo, was marked by the appearance of a star Bright as the Wise-mens Torch, which guided them To Gods sweet Babe, when borne at Bethlehem; … Amintas. O rare! But is’t a trespasse if we three Sho’d wend along his Baby-ship to see? (#241.21–4)



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There is a happier aspect to the contrast with Elizabethan pastoral. The Stuart pastoralists show a surer and more consistent elegance of touch, an easy, witty fancy yet more deeply tinged with myth, allusion and philosophic sallies. This is the dimension expanded to heroic scale in the Jonsonian court masque, not only through stage machinery but by a grandeur of fancy and rhetoric that validates and almost requires the spectacle. If we still feel a lurking sense of disproportion, it may expectedly be with pastoral tropes. Interestingly, James I himself writes in a homelier vein of political pastoral about his son’s controversial ­wooing-trip to Spain (#212): he was not burdened with the onus of court compliment. There is a shift also in the nature of formal pastoral drama. One important development is the rise of an Italianate vein of pastoral love-comedy, or sometimes tragi-comedy on the celebrated model of Guarini’s Il pastor fido. The most notable English example is also one of the earliest, John Fletcher’s The Faithful Shepherdess (?1610): Chapman’s prefatory poem (#174) indicates the novelty of the genre. This play was performed on both the public and the private stage; but its successors inclined more and more to the latter with its select audience, or even to purely private and exclusive productions like Goffe’s The Shepherd’s Paradise. Of course, home-grown pastoral did not disappear from the public theatre: to look no further, The Winter’s Tale may be of slightly later date than The Faithful Shepherdess. The celebrated pastoral interlude in the Tale dramatizes the Cotswold shearing-feast, even if it is formally set in Bohemia. It may owe something to Drayton’s Eclogue IX of 1606 (#162), but Shakespeare too was a Warwickshire man. The line continues to Jonson’s last, unfinished play, The Sad Shepherd (?1634). The Sad Shepherd clearly adopts a conscious agenda to revive an English vein of pastoral as part of a traditional country-based ethos (and clear nostalgia for the Elizabethan age), as in Robert Dover’s institution of the Cotswold games and its celebration in the Annalia Dubrensia. There is a common political agenda too: explicitly anti-Puritan, but also implicitly anti-court to the extent of sharing in the politics of the Country party. Editorial policy precluded any major inclusion of pastoral drama in the Anthology; but its presence is reflected not only in the excerpted songs but a general tendency to the removed, fanciful and lapidary. This marks the most prominent influence of late Italian and French pastoral on English literature. The continental pastoral romance of the day, epitomized by Honoré d’Urfé’s French L’Astrée, finds few or no imitators, certainly none of note. The most esteemed pastoral romance

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of early Stuart England is Mary Wroth’s The Countess of Montgomery’s Urania (1621). The title recalls The Countess of Pembroke’s Arcadia by Wroth’s uncle, Philip Sidney, but the structure and cast of characters are (whether or not consciously) more akin to Montemayor’s Diana. The vast and intricate plot has many pastoral scenes, virtually none of them developed in terms of pastoral convention. There is a general overloading of the plot, so that few episodes can be developed to any purpose; pastoral, being especially reliant on ambience and affective expression, suffers most of all. There are few rustic characters, and the chief among them (including the shepherdess Urania herself) often prove to be of royal birth. Yet as the example included here may show (#210), Wroth knows how to exploit the pastoral love-plot even while loading it with courtly allusion. And as evinced by the love poems headed ‘Pamphilia, to Amphilanthus’ (see #209), appended to the romance and featuring two of its characters, she is fully alive to the affective potential of such a plot. If she cannot accommodate it in her narrative, she diverts it to a separate cycle of poems. Again we see how any form adopted by pastoral carries many other forms in embryo. Conclusion. Why pastoral, why not, and what instead Neither drama nor romance offers a clinching development of late Renaissance pastoral: we could just as well have ended with any other genre or corpus. As my account indicates, many genres and conventions were being practised in the age, but traditional pastoral was running out of steam. Its innovative developments were being diverted to other modes, non-pastoral or at best quasi-pastoral. (Raymond Williams coins the term ‘neo-pastoral’.118) We have reached the point where the energies of the pastoral mode can only be traced by giving wider and wider application to the term ‘pastoral’. That is precisely the direction that pastoral scholarship has taken since the mid-twentieth century if not earlier. Where, in retrospect, did the energies of traditional pastoral lie? How is it that this artificial, not to say mendacious genre, designedly presenting its subject in an unreal light – ‘the poetry of illusion’, in Lerner’s phrase119 – was seen as a fit medium for poets to engage with the most crucial issues of their time, and define some of their deepest mental compulsions? It is not too perverse to say that one reason lies in the very unreality 118 Williams, The Country and the City, p. 22. 119 Lerner, The Uses of Nostalgia, p. 80.



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of the mode. It is so far removed from actuality, whether of court, town or country, that it allows complete freedom of interpretation, as donning a mask might allow greater freedom of speech. No other mode would allow a writer to engage with reality so much on his own terms. Pastoral allows unique scope for either openness or concealment, simplification or obfuscation – or indeed both at the same time. Any situation, however complex, can be reduced either to its essentials or to a simplifying fiction by shepherdly naïveté. At the same time, ‘translation’ to pastoral terms allows any degree of obliqueness or outright mystification: Renaissance pastoral theory is almost excessively tolerant of this practice. George Puttenham cites, though he does not accept, the general view that pastoral is primitive and unsophisticated; on the contrary, says he, I do deny that the eclogue should be the first and most ancient form of artificial poesy, being persuaded that the poet devised the eclogue long after the other dramatic poems, not of purpose to counterfeit or represent the rustical manner of loves and communications, but under the veil of homely persons and in rude speeches to insinuate and glance at greater matters, and such as perchance had not been safe to have been disclosed in any other sort.120

A rigid, limited and artificial mode thus proves uniquely suited to varied and multiple treatment of complex themes. Further, it lends a kind of psychological validation to the process by linking it to certain very basic mental paradigms. One of these can be broadly called nostalgia. We have already seen how the concept of nostalgia enters repeatedly into considerations of the pastoral. This nostalgic dimension helps to ensure that the fictions and idealizations of pastoral are seen not as total fictions but as past realities, something possible and viable in a different order of things: pastoral claims to present such an order. It is an extreme version of the tales we tell of an idealized past to contrast with the degenerate present. It is the paradigm enshrined in the myths of the Golden Age and the Earthly Paradise. Another factor that has received little attention is the element of play. John Huizinga’s classic Homo Ludens enlists so many features found in pastoral that one wonders why he never cites pastoral poetry as a prime instance of play. Among these features are defined limits of time and, even more, space, ‘a playground marked off beforehand either materially or 120 George Puttenham, The Art of English Poesy, I.18: in Sidney’s ‘The Defence of Poesy’ and Selected Renaissance Literary Criticism, ed. Gavin Alexander, London: Penguin, 2004, p. 89.

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ideally’; an ‘absolute and peculiar order’ generated by an aesthetic impulse (‘Into an imperfect world … it brings a temporary, a limited perfection’); an action ‘devoid of purpose’, beginning and ending in itself; a contest for a ‘prize’ and ‘praise’, but not a ‘price’; the extension of such contests in a dialogue or agon (vide the amoebean eclogue); the association with myth. Above all, in Huizinga’s linking of play to poetry, we can discern the purely aesthetic urge for expression, the unforced and undirected ordering of words, typified in the songs of shepherds in pastoral which (as Thomas G. Rosenmeyer perceptively points out) mark the high point of pastoral song itself.121 But even Rosenmeyer, whose reading of pastoral could so fitly have drawn on Huizinga, does not link pastoral to play. The element of play again places pastoral at the balancing point of two opposite impulses: the serious and the unserious, the literal and the figurative, the specific and the open-ended. In other words, the naive simplicity at the surface level of pastoral is seen to conceal complex possibilities of figurative language and representation. ‘From its earliest days, pastoral has in fact been at war with its own claims to simplicity’, says Robert N. Watson.122 We talk of pastoral as marking the encounter of the simple and the complex; it would be truer to call it an incorporation of the complex in the simple, allowing for the presentation of varied and weighty matters with an otherwise impossible clarity and directness – no less clear and direct for being conveyed through a trope, indeed for constituting a trope. To most practitioners of the pastoral, this potential of their chosen mode may only have appeared as a convenient metaphoric platform for their worldly theme. That may have been their subliminal reason for choosing the mode. Above all, it is this metaphoric potential of pastoral that makes it such a prolific vein to exploit. I have already dealt with this matter at length. Shepherd life provides metaphors for many major areas of human activity: it is an exceptionally rich poetic resource, a fiction that is also a trope, functioning simultaneously on a literal123 and a figurative plane. 121 Johan Huizinga, Homo Ludens. A Study of the Play Element in Culture, trans. from the German, 1950; rpt. Boston: The Beacon Press, 1955, pp. 9–10, 49, 50–1, 132–3, 143–4 respectively. For play and poetry, see ch. 7; for play and myth, chs 7, 8. See also Rosenmeyer, ch. 3 (for the simple and undirected structure of Theocritean pastoral), ch. 7 (for the song-contest). 122 Robert N. Watson, Back to Nature. The Green and the Real in the Late Renaissance, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006, p. 67. 123 By ‘literal’ I do not mean ‘realistic’. I mean only that pastoral usually presents a story, situation or ambience that makes sense in literal terms, even if it does not conform to the actual conditions of rural life.



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This gives unusual imaginative energy to what would otherwise have been a jejune artificial contrivance: even (or especially) where it does not harbour any direct allegory, it is touched by resonances from worlds beyond its immediate fiction. That fiction124 serves as both vehicle and tenor: the King in his country retreat, the wise rustic, the loving shepherd – these are figures in a pastoral account, but also types of all such figures in non-pastoral contexts. It is unusual to find a trope embedded in this way in other types of fiction: their terms are not charged with the same figurative content. The implicit metaphor imparts a double texture to the pastoral fiction, investing the literal scene with a thematic or conceptual aura: Phillis againe was woont with Amyntas, sheepe to be washing, Phillis againe was wont my sheepe thus washt to be shearing, Then to the sweete pastures my sheepe thus shorne to be driuing, And from fox and woolfe my sheepe thus dryu’n to bee keeping With watchfull bawling and strength of lustie Lycisca, And in folds and coates my flocke thus kept, to be closing: Least by the Northern winds my sheepe might chance to be pinched Least by the frost or snow my kids might chance to be grieued. (#57.29–35)

This is a literal account of shepherdly care, but infused with a deeper emotive and ethical charge that can apply to other situations: the royal, the priestly, the pedagogic. That is to say, it is loaded with the stuff of pastoral metaphor, though there is no metaphoric context to this passage. Hence too, pastoral can readily span the divide between the allegorical or mythical and the immediate and topical, as in this compliment to Queen Elizabeth in Spenser’s ‘Aprill’: And whither rennes this beuie of Ladies bright,    raunged in a rowe? They bene all Ladyes of the lake behight,    that vnto her goe. Chloris, that is the chiefest Nymph of al, Of Oliue braunches beares a Coronall: 124 ‘Fiction’ in this sense goes beyond ‘narrative’. A pastoral ‘fiction’ is not necessarily a romance or drama with a defined plot, but any composition (idyll, eclogue, lusus, elegy) that assumes a sustained shepherd world, and a latent situation or ambience that may not be spelt out in the work.

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If we accept the common (though not uncontested) assumption that poetry is intrinsically metaphor, pastoral might be adjudged the quintessential vein of poetry by this line of reasoning as well. But whereas my earlier argument to that end relied on the simplifying function of pastoral (typified by the lyric mode), the new line demands a nuanced but sustained complexity. Relatively seldom does pastoral practice meet that demand. This is not the collective failure of innumerable poets but a defect of the mode. However versatile, the range of pastoral fiction cannot match the range of external reality: the metaphor proves inadequate to the subject it addresses. Its core content, the actual life of shepherds, bears many implications in potential but can express each of them only in limited terms. The details of a shepherd’s life, upholding his metaphoric role as king, poet, priest, lover or whatever, are restricted by the sparse components of the life of ‘simple man’. If those details are expanded, they are either reduced to frills empty of metaphoric content, or (rarely) burdened with the impossibly intricate tropology of Petrarch’s pastorals as illustrated above. Hence the success of pastoral as lyric (of its nature a formally limited success), and its mixed and diffuse fortunes in more elaborate forms. Even its earliest and most traditional vehicle, the eclogue, illustrates a markedly repetitive paradigm. The Virgilian design is endlessly reworked, with few new components and virtually no structural innovations of note. The subject of allusive reference might vary (though chiefly confined to a few standard categories), but the techniques of reference remain largely the same. The overt variations (e.g. piscatory rather than pastoral) do not substantially extend the formal possibilities of the mode. In genetic terms, we may say that the pastoral line shows prolific reproduction but little evolution. That is no doubt why, after the exhaustive exercises of the Renaissance, further meaningful development of the pastoral crosses the border into other modes with different demands of form and genre, from georgic and ode to romance and drama: even that paradoxical product, the ‘city pastoral’. If we are to relate these developments to the pastoral at all – and there is nearly always an umbilical link – it can only be by expanding our definition of the mode, applying it to more and more diverse and intri-



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cate discourses: of the country vis-à-vis the city, the ‘simple’ vis-à-vis the ‘complex’, the ‘primitive’ vis-à-vis the ‘evolved’, the imaginary or fanciful vis-à-vis the real or mundane, the spatially and temporally remote vis-àvis the proximate. Pastoral is now distinguished by its thematic or conceptual paradigm rather than by specific points of fiction or convention. Empson provides the all-time justification for this extended view of pastoral. It is incorporated in Renato Poggioli’s The Oaten Flute (1975),125 and continued in such works as Andrew V. Ettin’s Literature and the Pastoral (1984), Annabel Patterson’s Literature and Ideology (1987), John Dixon Hunt’s collection The Pastoral Landscape (1992), Paul Alpers’s What Is Pastoral? (1997) and (perhaps most extensively) in Allan R. Ruff’s Arcadian Visions (2015). In a different direction, the non-pastoral sources and analogues of Theocritus’ work are explored by Alpers and by David M. Halperin in Before Pastoral (1983). Ettin’s study is anchored in conventional pastoral, and Patterson keeps track of the Virgilian line all through her survey. Ruff sees an Arcadian vision of the landscape as surviving, sometimes unsuspectedly, down to modern times and reincarnated in current ecological thinking. But the dominant line of modern thinking on the pastoral was already marked out by Poggioli: Thus pastoral poetry finally died, and disappeared from sight. Yet the pastoral ideal survived, although devitalized and unrecognizable. As such it is still able to inspire a few modern versions of the pastoral, which go under many names and disguises.126

We might question that ‘few’: what might be called the post-pastoral appears in endless versions and syntheses. These can draw deep sustenance from other sources. Later scholars usually focus on these alternative energies: their accounts of the post-pastoral replace Poggioli’s elegiac note with a recognition of new richness and variety. But the new gains lie almost wholly outside the purview of conventional pastoral as traceable, even indirectly, to Virgil’s legacy. Despite the examples assiduously collected by Patterson (chiefly presentations of Virgil’s own text rather than its creative extension), that line loses its force in the mid-seventeenth century, and virtually dies out after the eighteenth. The ‘pastoral’ of later periods traces its course through Wordsworth, Hardy and Frost, to take three obvious practitioners. Many other examples are far more opaque, 125 The essays in the volume had been separately published from 1957 onward. 126 Poggioli, The Oaten Flute, p. 33.

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even if we stop short of Empson’s instances of The Beggar’s Opera and Alice in Wonderland. At their most radical, these extensions of pastoral are openly anti-pastoral: No shepherds now in smooth alternate verse, Their country’s beauty or their nymphs’ rehearse; Yet still for these we frame the tender strain, Still in our lays fond Corydons complain, And shepherds’ boys their amorous pains reveal, The only pains, alas! they never feel.

George Crabbe, the author of these lines, therefore puts the inevitable question: Must sleepy bards the flattering dream prolong, Mechanic echo’s of the Mantuan song? From truth and nature shall we widely stray, Where VIRGIL, not where fancy leads the way?127

In that pre-Coleridgean era, ‘fancy’ denoted a rough approximation to what we would today call ‘imagination’. It is interesting that Crabbe does not dismiss the Virgilian dream as a product of the imagination: it has become a mere ‘mechanic’ exercise, whereas ‘fancy’ addresses the reality of the times, as in Crabbe’s own poem. But such imaginative treatment of rural life does not simply result in dismissing the assumptions of conventional pastoral. In his earlier and happier vein, Thomas Hardy could even write of a shearing-scene (though perhaps not of rural life generally): ‘God was palpably present in the country, and the devil had gone with the world to town.’128 Post-pastoral is not necessarily, or even primarily, anti-pastoral. It preserves some basic motifs of the pastoral paradigm while dismissing, perhaps stridently, the latter’s Virgilian trappings. Mutatis mutandis, Wordsworth’s ‘Michael’ recreates the subverted yet vindicated idyll of Virgil’s First Eclogue, and the residual pastoralism of the Wordsworthian landscape retains its restorative function. In The Prelude, the poet describes a childhood visionary experience that, for unexplained reasons, required his ‘chastisement’ by being orphaned; yet its long-term assimilation assumes another cast: 127 George Crabbe, The Village, ed. Arthur Sale, London: University Tutorial Press, 1950, I.9–14, 17–20. 128 Thomas Hardy, Far from the Madding Crowd, ch. 22: The Works of Thomas Hardy in Prose and Verse (Wessex edition), vol. 2, London: Macmillan, 1912, p. 163.



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And, afterwards, the wind and sleety rain, And all the business of the elements, The single sheep, and the one blasted tree, And the bleak music of that old stone wall, The noise of wood and water, and the mist … All these were spectacles and sounds to which I often would repair, and thence would drink, As at a fountain; …129

This complicates but does not destroy the traditional restorative impact of a pastoral scene. A century later, in Louis MacNeice’s ‘Eclogue from Iceland’, Craven (Auden) and Ryan (MacNeice) arrive at the Arnarvatn Heath and find it a haven of peace and otium: C. I like this place. My personal choice Is always to avoid the public voice. … To stay here a week like a placid brute To explore the country, to fish and shoot. R. That would be life, not having to shave, Clocking in as a wage-slave. C. That would be life, Ryan, that would be life, Without kowtowing to boss or wife. R. And beside this cold and silicate stream To sleep in sheepskin, never dream.130

The idyll does not last. They encounter the ghost of Grettir, last of the saga heroes, and exchange experiences of folly and injustice: Grettir has been exploited by ‘the men with many sheep’, and the newcomers too know ‘the brute / Stare of stupidity and hate’. Yet Grettir exhorts them to ‘Go back to where you belong.’131 He himself, in his time, had returned to Iceland to engage with life, not to escape. The same logic demands that the visitors return to their homes, their pastoral holiday over before it has well begun. This is a lightly updated version of the traditional pastoral cycle, the return to court after a sojourn in the country. But MacNeice puts the classic Virgilian structure in disarray. ‘We are exiles,’ says Craven. ‘Gad 129 William Wordsworth, The Prelude 1805–6, XI.376–85: The Prelude. A Parallel Text, ed. J.C. Maxwell, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1971, p. 484. 130 Louis MacNeice, ‘Eclogue from Iceland’, in W.H. Auden and Louis MacNeice, Letters from Iceland, London: Faber, 1937, p. 124. 131 Ibid. pp. 128, 132, 134.

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the world for comfort.’132 This aligns the pastoral sojourners with Virgil’s displaced and wandering Meliboeus rather than the secure Tityrus. Craven and Ryan think they have found rest, but in fact they are still in exile and must return home – the home that Meliboeus has lost for good, and where his modern successors, even if they return, would still feel exiled. Few modern or postmodern pastorals mesh so decisively with classical structures, even by way of contrast or opposition. As a rule, they do not problematize those structures so much as disregard them, or recall them only to reject and denigrate, perhaps in aesthetic terms rather than the reality test applied by Crabbe long ago. The aesthetization implicit in pastoral now becomes its artistic undoing. Oh, damn your soul, Chater! Ovid would have stayed a lawyer and Virgil a farmer if they had known the bathos to which love would descend in your sportive satyrs and noodle nymphs!133

This is Septimus Hodge addressing the poet Ezra Chater in Tom Stoppard’s Arcadia. But this 1993 play is set in 1809, and turns a double lens of historical irony upon the successive views of nature and landscape (rural life hardly enters the scene) from the sixteenth to the early nineteenth centuries: But Sidley Park is already a picture, and a most amiable picture too … The rill is a serpentine ribbon unwound from the lake peaceably contained by meadows on which the right amount of sheep are arranged – in short, it is nature as God intended, and I can say with the painter, ‘Et in Arcadia ego!’134

As Lady Croom, who speaks these lines, knows and as Erwin Panofsky has documented at length,135 the famous line Et in Arcadia ego (‘And I too am/was in Arcadia’) does not occur in a pastoral or any other work of literature. It first appears in a painting by Guercino of c.1620, as an inscription on a stone pedestal supporting a skull. It was originally a reminder that death lurked even in Arcadia, though it soon came to be sentimentalized as a poet-shepherd’s nostalgic recall of pastoral bliss. Lady Croom even applies it in the present tense to her happy state of 132 133 134 135

Ibid. p. 126. Tom Stoppard, Arcadia, London: Faber, 1993, sc. 3, p. 55. Ibid. sc. 1, p. 16. Erwin Panofsky, ‘Et in Arcadia Ego: Poussin and the Elegiac Tradition’, Meaning in the Visual Arts, 1955; rpt. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970, pp. 340–67.



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landed proprietorship. Today we may take it, if we choose, as a lament for the decline of the pastoral convention itself. Arcadia, that rude uninviting terrain transformed by Virgil into an idyllic paradise, disintegrates into an unviable illusion that can only be revalidated by drastic overwriting. This was already apparent to Margaret Cavendish in the passage quoted at the start of this Introduction, and to many of her contemporaries even when they practised the mode. It is fatal for a literary practice to be seen, after centuries of cultivation, as merely literary. As Poggioli writes: Wishful thinking is the weakest of all moral and religious resorts; but it is the stuff dreams, especially daydreams, are made of … The bucolic dream has no other reality than that of imagination and art.136

‘Wishful thinking’ may be another way of regarding utopian dreams; but utopianism – essentially projected to the future, as opposed to ‘GoldenAgery’ which idealizes the past – makes little use of pastoral, preferring more evolved and sophisticated models of society. Why then should we still read pastoral? Can we find a positive use for nostalgia? Robert Frost seems to think so:      swift there passed me by On noiseless wing a ‘wildered butterfly, Seeking with memories grown dim o’er night Some resting flower of yesterday’s delight.137

One obvious use of nostalgia is environmental, as applied to the receding and decaying countryside. The English had already discovered this in the Renaissance: Ken Hiltner’s eco-critical argument starts with John Stow, Aemilia Lanyer and Ben Jonson (while overlooking Drayton and William Browne), and proceeds to the Victorian age.138 But though pastoral has played this role through history, its incrementally heightened relevance to our times is too obvious to need labouring. This specific application serves to mediate a vastly wider set of social and moral concerns. In his essay ‘Does Pastoralism Have a Future?’, Leo Marx asserts the lasting value of 136 Poggioli, The Oaten Flute, p. 2. 137 Robert Frost, ‘The Tuft of Flowers’, 11–14: Robert Frost, Selected Early Poems, ed. Thomas Fasano, Claremont: Coyote Canyon Press, 2008, p. 32. 138 Ken Hiltner, What Else Is Pastoral? Renaissance Literature and the Environment, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2011, pp. 42–64.

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the characteristic pastoral preference … for accommodation or harmony rather than domination or conquest; … for the satisfactions of immediate, personal experience rather than for the triumphs of what the Elizabethans called “the aspiring mind”; … for workable ideas in the here and now rather than a permanently grounded, absolute, or context-free truth. It seems probable, in sum, that a twenty-first century version of pastoral will lend expression to a yearning for an altered relation to the natural.139

This is no more than the shepherd Corin had avowed more succinctly in Shakespeare’s Arden: Sir, I am a true labourer. I earn that I eat, get that I wear; owe no man hate, envy no man’s happiness; glad of other men’s good, content with my harm; and the greatest of my pride is to see my ewes graze and my lambs suck.140

Of all works of literature, As You Like It perhaps prompts the most animated debate as to whether it is pastoral or anti-pastoral. The polemics over pastoral may never end, but both sides seem to base their case on the same human premisses.

139 Leo Marx, ‘Does Pastoralism Have a Future?’, in John Dixon Hunt (ed.), The Pastoral Landscape, Washington: National Gallery of Art, 1992, p. 223. 140 As You Like It, 3.2.70–4.



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Works on the pastoral mode and related issues: A select bibliography Alpers, Paul J., What Is Pastoral?, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996. Chaudhuri, Sukanta, Renaissance Pastoral and Its English Developments, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989. Cooper, Helen, Pastoral: Mediaeval into Renaissance, Ipswich: D.S. Brewer, 1977. Cooper, Helen, ‘Pastoral and Georgic’, in Patrick Cheney and Philip Hardie (eds), The Oxford History of Classical Reception in English Literature, vol. 2, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015. Empson, William, Some Versions of Pastoral, 1935; rpt. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1966. Ettin, Andrew V., Literature and the Pastoral, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984. Giamatti, A. Bartlett, The Earthly Paradise and the Renaissance Epic, 1960; rpt. New York: Norton, 1989. Grant, W. Leonard, Neo-Latin Literature and the Pastoral, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1965. Greg, Walter W., Pastoral Poetry and Pastoral Drama, London: A.H. Bullen, 1906. Halperin, David M., Before Pastoral: Theocritus and the Ancient Tradition of Bucolic Poetry, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983. Hiltner, Ken, What Else Is Pastoral? Renaissance Literature and the Environment, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2011. Hubbard, Thomas K., The Pipes of Pan. Intertextuality and Literary Filiation in the Pastoral Tradition from Theocritus to Milton, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998. Hunt, John Dixon (ed.), The Pastoral Landscape, Washington: National Gallery of Art, 1992. Jones, Mike Rodman, Radical Pastoral, 1381–1594: Appropriations and the Writing of Religious Controversy, Farnham: Ashgate, 2011. Kegel-Brinkgreve, E., The Echoing Woods. Bucolic and Pastoral from Theocritus to Wordsworth, Amsterdam: J.C. Gieben, 1990. Lerner, Laurence, The Uses of Nostalgia. Studies in Pastoral Poetry, London: Chatto & Windus, 1972. Levin, Harry, The Myth of the Golden Age in the Renaissance, 1969, rpt. New York: Oxford University Press, 1972. Loughrey, Bryan (ed.), The Pastoral Mode: A Casebook, London: Macmillan, 1984. Low, Anthony, The Georgic Revolution, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985. Marcus, Leah, ‘Politics and Pastoral: Writing the Court on the Countryside’, in Kevin Sharpe and Peter Lake (eds), Culture and Politics in Early Stuart England, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1994.

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Marinelli, Peter, Pastoral, London: Methuen, 1971. McClung, William A., The Country House in English Renaissance Poetry, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977. McRae, Andrew, God Speed the Plough. The Representation of Agrarian England, 1500–1660, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Panofsky, Erwin, ‘Et in Arcadia Ego: Poussin and the Elegiac Tradition’, Meaning in the Visual Arts, 1955, rpt. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970. Patterson, Annabel M., Pastoral and Ideology. Virgil to Valéry, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987. Payne, Mark, Theocritus and the Invention of Fiction, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Poggioli, Renato, The Oaten Flute. Essays on Pastoral Poetry and the Pastoral Ideal, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975. Rosenmeyer, Thomas G., The Green Cabinet. Theocritus and the European Pastoral Lyric, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969. Røstvig, Maren-Sofie, The Happy Man: Studies in the Metamorphoses of a Classical Ideal, 2nd edn, 2 vols, Oslo: Norwegian Universities Press, 1962–71. Ruff, Allan R., Arcadian Visions: Pastoral Influences on Poetry, Painting and the Design of Landscape, Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2015. Sambrook, James, English Pastoral Poetry, Boston: Twayne, 1983. Schama, Simon, Landscape and Memory, London: HarperCollins, 1995. Skoie, Mathilde and Sonia Bjørnstad Velazquez (eds), Pastoral and the Humanities, Exeter: Bristol Phoenix Press, 2006. Snell, Bruno, ‘Arcadia: The Discovery of a Spiritual Landscape’, in The Discovery of the Mind, trans. Thomas G. Rosenmeyer, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1953. Toliver, Harold, Pastoral Forms and Attitudes, Berkeley: University of California, 1971. Turner, James, The Politics of Landscape. Rural Scenery and Society in English Poetry 1630–1660, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1979. Watson, Robert N., Back to Nature. The Green and the Real in the Late Renaissance, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006. Williams, Raymond, The Country and the City, London: Chatto & Windus, 1973. Wilson, Elkin Calhoun, England’s Eliza, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1939.



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Text A body of poetry as vast as English Renaissance pastoral utilizes every means by which poetry is recorded and transmitted in that age. An anthology like the present is not only a collection of poems but a platform for engagement with all these transmissional interfaces. To explore the scene, let me first review the sources of the items included here, with some additional examples. It goes without saying that the sources are not mutually exclusive: the same poem may appear in two or more formats. (A) Print 1. Formal publications sourced from an author. Here we can assume that in some sense or other, the text derives directly from the author and is published with his or her authority and consent. Rarely, the publication may be personally overseen by the author, as with Ben Jonson’s First Folio of 1616. It needs pointing out that (especially if we exclude longer works like romances and dramas) this is not the normal or default source we might assume. Only some 60 per cent of the poems in the Anthology are clearly sourced from such publications. Occasionally an original volume (as opposed to a miscellany or edited compilation) can club the works of several poets. A good example is The Shepherd’s Pipe (1614), containing the work of four Spenserian poets. Elsewhere, miscellaneous poems can be added to a volume chiefly consisting of a single work by the same poet: Daniel’s translation of Tasso’s Golden Age chorus (#33) appended to the sonnet sequence Delia in Daniel’s 1601 Works, or Fanshawe’s ‘An Ode upon Occasion of His Majesty’s Proclamation’ (#217) to his translation of Guarini’s Il pastor fido (1647). These additions can be so extensive (as in Phineas Fletcher’s The Purple Island volume, 1633: #221), as virtually to constitute a ‘select works’ of the poet. This is also the appropriate point to place sponsored collections, usually for some specific cause or occasion, like Annalia Dubrensia (1636) celebrating the Cotswold games (#228), or Justa Edovardo King naufrago (Obsequies to the memorie of Mr Edward King, 1638) where Milton’s ‘Lycidas’ (#230) first appeared. These volumes are different from miscellanies or secondary compilations of material from various original sources. 2. Formal publications from authentic sources but edited or published by others – perhaps after the author’s death, or by drawing material from

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manuscripts or earlier publications. Within our ambit, the outstanding example is the posthumous publication of Sidney’s works sponsored and supervised by his sister Mary Herbert, Countess of Pembroke, and his friend Fulke Greville. 3. Unauthorized editions. We cannot always be certain that an edition is unauthorized, as authors could be coy about admitting their willingness to accept the ‘stigma of print’ (see p.  114). But Sidney’s Astrophil and Stella first appeared in an unauthorized imprint of 1591, as did Katherine Philips’s poems in 1664. Needless to say, there are countless instances of ‘unauthorized’ inclusion of poems in miscellanies, in the sense that the authors were dead or had not been consulted. It makes sense to treat such texts as unreliable only if the sources are inauthentic, or where we can detect an editorial intent to deceive (as perhaps in The Passionate Pilgrim). 4. Miscellanies or anthologies, with works by two or more authors. These collections can be of very different constitution, provenance and authority. At one end are volumes like The Passionate Pilgrim (1599), its text acquired by the publisher William Jaggard by uncertain means, and attributing the entire contents to Shakespeare on the strength of five authentic pieces. At the other end is England’s Helicon (1600), a unique piece of imaginative editing: its poems selected (and to some extent arranged) with a sensitive eye to their content, or sometimes even ­rewritten to suit the pastoral agenda. Such rewriting is textually unwelcome in principle, but may be accepted in a rare case like the Helicon which helps to define the mode that it documents: in a very real sense, Elizabethan pastoral is what the Helicon represents it to be. If the editor has added pastoral touches to a piece originally devoid of them, it shows a certain flair in identifying suitable poems for the purpose – poems, that is to say, whose general tenor is in tune with pastoral, and which can be placed on the outer margins of the convention. That is why, even when a poem has been printed earlier, I have generally drawn on Helicon for the control text. Tottel’s Miscellany (Songs and Sonnets, 1557) is an earlier instance of a diligent and exhaustive collection of this nature; but here, the intensive editing might have done a disservice by radically modifying the original text (especially Wyatt’s) as determined from manuscript sources. 5. Song-books. Song-books constitute a special category of miscellanies, incorporating musical notation. In a sense, they are often single-author



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publications too, as the same composer will have set to tune words by many different authors (perhaps including himself) or derived from traditional sources. Where all the stanzas of a song are sung to the same tune, the notation is usually supplied for the first stanza alone. For part-songs, the same book would be published in parallel volumes for the different ‘parts’ or voices. The words allocated to the different ‘parts’ can vary: to reconstitute the full song-lyric, their texts need to be combined. On the other hand, as all repetitions for musical reasons are necessarily recorded with the notation, it is sometimes difficult to extract a reading-text. This is true of both manuscript and print song-texts. A specially difficult example is the manuscript song ‘Hey troly loly lo, maid, whither go you?’ (#30) in BL MS. Addl 31922, which repeats stanzas and refrains in whole and part in an intricate and somewhat arbitrary way. The edited text printed here is the best version it seemed possible to extract. 6. Poems inserted in longer works (romance, drama, discursive prose). Poems extracted from plays and romances abound in the Anthology, as they must. Sources are indicated in the headnotes and textual notes. Such poems fall into two categories. Some are formal compositions in terms of the narrative: a song sung by one character to another (e.g. as a serenade) or to an audience, or on a religious or social occasion (e.g. a hymn); occasionally a verse-letter. Other poems are integrated in the general flow of narrative or dialogue, intensifying the impact of a situation or relationship: sometimes as a kind of soliloquy, sometimes a piece of dialogue resembling an amoebean eclogue. A poem may even be directly introduced by the third-person narrator to heighten the tone, like the ‘Description of Arcadia’ in John Dickenson’s The Shepherd’s Complaint (#105). Such poems or songs might be grouped in clusters at some appropriate point, like the Eclogues in Sidney’s Arcadia. One of the extracts from William Browne’s Britannia’s Pastorals (#189) works in a number of short verse inscriptions on gifts, chiefly pattern poems, structurally and metrically set off from the narrative in couplets: although the body of the narrative is in verse, this example seems to belong here rather than in the next group. Interesting in a different way is the group of poems entitled ‘Pamphilia, to Amphilanthus’ (#209) appended to Mary Wroth’s The Countess of Montgomery’s Urania (1621): poems outside the framework of the romance, but relating to characters in the story and constituting a

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kind of secondary or background narrative. This is true in a more general way of most songs in the Eclogue sequences in Arcadia, by Wroth’s uncle, Philip Sidney. It is relatively rare to find poems embedded in non-fictional prose, but they may be used to reinforce a point, as in a poem (#35) from Jean Chassanion’s French work translated by Thomas Beard as The Theatre of God’s Judgements (1597). Or they may illustrate some point of logic, rhetoric or prosody, as in the sample translations from Theocritus and Virgil in A Rich Storehouse or Treasury for Nobility and Gentlemen (#4), the version of Virgil’s Eclogue II in Abraham Fraunce’s The Lawyer’s Logic (#7), or the rendering of Spenser’s in sapphics in William Webbe’s A Discourse of English Poetry (#39). Poems can be appended to a composition entirely in prose, like Abraham Cowley’s translations from Virgil’s Georgic II (#10), and from his own Latin Plantarum libri sex (Six Books on Plants) (#225), found with other poems at the end of his essay ‘Of Agriculture’ (published 1669). 7. Extracts from longer works. Obviously, this is not a formal category per se but the anthologist’s recourse. The sources can be verse narratives – Spenser’s The Faerie Queene (1596; #44, #45), Browne’s Britannia’s Pastorals (#189, #190), Wither’s Virtue (#186), Heywood’s Oenone and Paris (#92) – or verse discourses (Drayton’s Poly-Olbion, #163); rarely plays (Goffe’s The Careless Shepherdess, #195), entertainments (Sidney’s The Lady of May, #46, Peele’s Descensus Astrææ, #65, the Bissham ­entertainment, #66), or masques (Jonson’s Pan’s Anniversary, #193). Such examples shade off into those in the previous category. An item might constitute an entire part or chapter of a long work: for example the story of Argentile and Curan from William Warner’s Albion’s England (#56). 8. Ballads. Ballads constitute a special category by virtue of their physical form (the broadsheet), methods and economics of production, and class affinities. As noted earlier, many ballads draw their material from elite literature. They may repeat the precise text of the source, but defined afresh by its social context. Or they may abridge or recast the text to suit their different clientele. But however diverse in source or content, the tone and target of ballad literature is popular and, more often than not, anti-establishment at least by implication. Given the generally poor quality of paper and printing, the unwieldy broadsheet form, and circulation in humble non-bibliophilic circles,



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most broadside ballads have disappeared.141 Surviving copies are usually found in specialized collections like the Pepys collection in Magdalene College, Cambridge; the Douce collection in the Bodleian Library, Oxford; the Roxburghe collection in the British Library; or the Ewing collection in Glasgow University Library. Poems known to be current in Elizabeth’s time or even earlier may survive only in imprints of much later date. Most ballads were published anonymously (at most with the author’s initials), but a few poets are noted as ballad-writers, like Thomas Deloney, Martin Parker or Thomas Robins. Needless to say, the same poem may appear in one or more of the above categories. A poem first published in one volume can migrate to a later volume by the same author (as distinct from its inclusion in anthologies). Thus George Wither’s eclogues in the collective volume The Shepherd’s Pipe (1614) were later included in his The Shepherd’s Hunting (1615). Poems can also be included in the author’s collected works: outstanding examples in this book are from Ben Jonson’s Folios of 1616 and 1640, the former supervised by Jonson himself. And of course individual poems or extracts (from print or manuscript sources) can be anthologized in miscellanies. The words of songs might be taken from song-books and printed in miscellanies; conversely, what were originally ‘read’ poems might be set to music and placed in song-books. (B) Manuscript 142 1. Authorial manuscripts (holographs). These can be of two chief types, rough copies (‘foul papers’ as traditionally termed) and fair copies. Among the sources tapped for the Anthology, the Hawthornden manuscripts of William Drummond in the National Library of Scotland are a good example of the former, and the holograph manuscripts of Robert Sidney (BL MS Addl 58435),143 Thomas Weaver (Bod MS Rawl. Poet. 211), Nicholas Oldisworth (Bod MS Don.c.24) and William Denny’s play 141 The broadside ballad is widely regarded as a species of ephemera: see Thomas R. Adams and Nicolas Barker, ‘A New Model for the Study of the Book’, in Nicolas Barker (ed.), A Potencie of Life. Books in Society, London: British Library and Oak Knoll Press, 1993, rpt. 2001, p. 13. 142 Information about manuscripts not credited to other sources is usually drawn from library catalogue descriptions. For a full and lucid account of the chief types of literary manuscripts in Renaissance England, their making and circulation, see Henry Woudhuysen, Sir Philip Sidney and the Circulation of Manuscripts, 1558–1640, Part I, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996. 143 Like many such manuscripts, this carries later revisions in the poet’s own hand: see notes to #102.

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The Shepherd’s Holiday (BL MS Addl 34065) of the latter. Needless to say, there can be many stages between a first draft and the final fair copy. The manuscript of Ralegh’s The Ocean to Cynthia in Hatfield House MS Cecil Papers 144 is an authorial fair copy with some later revisions. Robert Sidney’s manuscript has been described as ‘one stage down from a fair copy’.144 Milton’s Trinity Manuscript (Trinity College, Cambridge MS R3.4) combines drafts and fair copies in the poet’s own hand along with some pieces transcribed by amanuenses. There are partially autograph manuscripts of many other kinds, some of which will feature among the other categories below. 2. Scribal copies. Without external evidence, these can be hard to tell from authorial fair copies if we do not know the author’s handwriting. But a neat hand with no revisions or corrections suggests a professional scribe, especially if the author is of wealthy or aristocratic station and likely to farm out routine labour. She or he can proceed to make revisions in that copy in their own hand. One such instance is BL MS Egerton 3165 containing the poems of Arthur Gorges: Gorges not only made corrections and annotations but added a couple of poems in his own hand. This matches scholarly conjecture about the history of the Old Arcadia: that Sidney commissioned a scribal copy of his original draft and made continual changes in it, the stages of revision being reflected in the various manuscripts that have come down to us.145 This is the opposite situation from Milton’s Trinity Manuscript, largely drafts and fair copies in his own hand but with some transcriptions by amanuenses. The only extant manuscript of the New Arcadia (Cambridge University Library MS Kk.I.5 (2)), left incomplete at Sidney’s death, is scribal, no doubt following the single manuscript from which Sidney’s 144 Katherine Duncan-Jones, ‘“Rosis and Lysa”: Selections from the Poems of Sir Robert Sidney’, ELR 9, 1979, 241. 145 See The Poems of Sir Philip Sidney, ed. William A. Ringler Jr, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962, pp. 369–70; Philip Sidney, The Countess of Pembroke’s Arcadia (The Old Arcadia), ed. Jean Robertson, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973, pp. lii–lvi. But Skretkowicz argues that the source manuscript was Sidney’s own foul papers: Philip Sidney, The Countess of Pembroke’s Arcadia (The New Arcadia), ed. Victor Skretkowicz, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987, pp. lxiii–lxv. The latest survey of the evidence, eschewing any easy conclusions, is in Henry Woudhuysen, ‘The Circulation of Sir Philip Sidney’s Arcadia’, in Margaret P. Hannay et al. (eds), The Ashgate Research Companion to the Sidneys, Volume 2: Literature, Farnham: Ashgate, 2015, pp. 42–55.



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friend Fulke Greville published the first printed edition of the Arcadia in 1590.146 It breaks off in mid-sentence like the print edition, but lacks the last few pages of the latter. Both extant manuscripts of poems and plays by Jane Cavendish and Elizabeth Brackley, now in the Bodleian Library (MS. Rawl. Poet. 16) and the Beinecke Library, Yale University (MS Osborn b.233), are presentation copies to their father the Duke of Newcastle, copied by the latter’s scribe John Rollston. The Bodleian catalogue dates its copy as late as c.1670 (though the play excerpted here, #240, was written in the 1640s). This corroborates the view that aristocratic women’s writings tended to circulate in manuscript long after their menfolk’s writings were routinely entrusted to print.147 The gender factor is supplemented by another, that of rank: aristocratic women tended to favour manuscript circulation, as the men too had uniformly done until late in the previous century.148 But resort to the manuscript medium by seventeenth-century women writers is increasingly being seen not merely as a constraint but a creative resource. As George Justice puts it, ‘Women responded to the medium’s particular advantages and opportunities, even if their adoption of manuscript circulation was influenced by external social and political conditions.’149 A crucial instance is provided by Katherine Philips’s manuscripts. Although well known as a poet in her lifetime, her work first appeared in print in 1664, the year of her death, and in an unauthorized edition at that. The surviving manuscripts include a holograph (National Library of Wales MS 775B), a copy made by the poet’s friend Edward Dering (Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center, University of Texas at Austin, Pre-1700 MS 151), and scribal copies of varied nature including a posthumously made presentation copy (National Library of Wales: MS 776B), and another of the authorized 1669 print edition of her works (Folger Library MS V.b.231). The exchange of manuscript poems clearly served to bond Philips’s large and far-flung ‘Society’ of associates. 146 Again, Ringler (p. 371) and Robertson (p. lvii) think this lost manuscript was a scribal copy, but Skretkowicz (pp. lxiv–lxv), Sidney’s own foul papers. 147 See Wendy Hall, The Imprint of Gender. Authorship and Publication in the English Renaissance, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993, pp. 279–82 and passim. But Margaret J. M. Ezell views this manuscript in a different light in ‘“To Be Your Daughter in Your Pen”: The Social Functions of Literature in the Writings of Lady Elizabeth Brackley and Lady Jane Cavendish’, Huntington Library Quarterly 51.4, 1988, 281–96. 148 See Kathryn Sutherland’s review of George L. Justice and Nathan Tinker (eds), Women’s Writing and the Circulation of Ideas. Manuscript Publication in England, 1550–1800 (2002) in RES 55, 2004, 135–7. 149 George Justice,’ Introduction’, in Justice and Tinker (eds), Women’s Writing, p. 8. See also the various essays in that collection.

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Copies could be made by persons other than professional scribes, like the Dering Manuscript of Katherine Philips mentioned here. The Ottley Manuscript in the National Library of Wales – a neat copy of poems by Sidney, with one piece by his associate Edward Dyer – was perhaps transcribed by Arthur Ottley, member of a leading Shropshire family.150 Edward Fairfax’s nephew Thomas, third Baron Fairfax, copied his uncle’s works in Bod MS Fairfax 40 containing, inter alia, the eclogue ‘Hermes and Lycaon’ (#202). William Basse had a fair copy of his Eclogues (Folger MS.V.b.235) not only made for printing but visually laid out like a printed book. His optimism was unfounded, for the book never appeared in print. By contrast, a scribal copy (Bod MS Tanner 307) of George Herbert’s The Temple, perhaps made after the poet’s death, was endorsed for printing by Cambridge officials: the book appeared from Cambridge University Press. However, this does not appear to be the actual press copy. William Browne bound a scribal copy of the incomplete and unpublished Third Book of his Britannia’s Pastorals with a printed copy of the first two books, and other poems in his own hand, making up a kind of ‘complete works’ for his personal use.151 3. Manuscript miscellanies and commonplace-books. These are usually scribal in not being holographs, but were not necessarily copied by ­professional scribes. More often, they are compilations by individual readers of items from their reading, transcribed in their own hand: sometimes various kinds of material in admixture (e.g. the Waferer Commonplace Book, BL MS Addl 52585, or John Rous’s chiefly political miscellany, BL MS Addl 28640); sometimes poems alone, as in Henry Stanford’s miscellany (Cambridge University Library MS Dd.5.75) or Henry Coningsby’s (BL MS Harley 7392).152 The earliest poem in the Anthology, Robert Henryson’s ‘Robene and Makyne’ (#18), comes from the celebrated Bannatyne Manuscript (National Library of Scotland MS Adv.1.1.6), named after its compiler, the Edinburgh merchant George Bannatyne. He started the collection while house-bound during a plague in 1568. It grew into a major 150 See Woudhuysen, Sir Philip Sidney, pp. 266–7. See also Peter Beal, ‘Poems by Sir Philip Sidney: The Ottley Manuscript’, The Library, 5th ser. 33, 1978, 284–9. 151 See Woudhuysen, Sir Philip Sidney, pp. 106, 111. 152 This had earlier been chiefly attributed to St Loe Kniveton, but Woudhuysen, Sir Philip Sidney, pp. 278–80, makes out a convincing case for seeing it as chiefly Coningsby’s compilation.



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repository of Middle Scots poetry, with a substantial stock of English poems as well. A still more voluminous collection, this time of Tudor English poetry, is the Arundel-Harington Manuscript at Arundel Castle, a commonplace-book-cum-miscellany put together by two Sir John Haringtons, father and son. The Skipwith Manuscript (BL MS Addl 25707) from the earlier seventeenth century was also maintained by the family of that name. Such manuscripts may combine the collector’s own script with other people’s, like the Bannatyne Manuscript or John Finet’s ­commonplace-book (Bod MS Rawl. Poet. 85).153 Henry Stanford’s compilation (Cambridge University Library MS Dd.5.75) has what his modern editor Steven W. May calls a ‘public’ and a ‘domestic’ section, the latter containing his own poems plus the juvenilia of boys he tutored.154 John Lilliat’s manuscript book (Bod MS Rawl. Poet. 148) comprises poems by himself (and perhaps other first-time inclusions) besides a large number of other pieces, some by celebrated poets. Manuscript Lt  q  44 in the Brotherton Collection, Leeds University Library also places poems by the author alongside a far larger number from other sources; but the whole collection appears to have been copied by several scribes. In the seventeenth century, Henry King had scribal copies made of his own poems, preceded by a large number of others, in the Stoughton Manuscript, so called after the family that owned it. Of little literary value but fascinating as a personal document is Bod MS Douce 280, the commonplace-book of John Ramsey.155 Apart from varied personal information and many pieces by other poets (though sometimes carrying Ramsey’s name), it contains a group of poems ascribed to a ‘Shepherd Montanus’, apparently Ramsey himself, mostly modelled on others’ work with almost plagiaristic closeness. Manuscript collections display all conceivable combinations of authorship and inscription. An example is BL MS Addl 15232 (the Bright Manuscript), containing the poem ‘Peace, shepherd’ (#123). The 153 This marks the first-time appearance of poems by some of Finet’s Cambridge friends as well as himself, besides pieces derived from earlier sources. See L.G. Black, ‘Studies in Some Related Manuscript Poetic Miscellanies of the 1580s’, unpublished DPhil. dissertation, Oxford University, 1971, I.40–2, 335ff.; Woudhuysen, Sir Philip Sidney, pp. 260–2. 154 Steven W. May, Henry Stanford’s Anthology, New York: Garland Publishing, 1988, pp.vii–ix. 155 See Edward Doughtie, ‘John Ramsey’s Manuscript as a Personal and Family Document’, New Ways of Looking at Old Texts, ed. W. Speed Hill, Binghampton: Renaissance English Text Society, 1993, pp. 281–8.

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manuscript has a letter from Philip Sidney’s sister Mary, Countess of Pembroke, bound in with it, and is undoubtedly associated with the Sidney family. It was thus too readily assumed that a number of poems from Astrophil and Stella, found in this manuscript, might be in Sidney’s own hand. Another instance is BL MS Harley 6910, with substantial runs of poems by Spenser and Chapman followed by more varied contents. This appears to be the work of a single scribe.156 The Cosens Manuscript (BL MS Addl 34064), once owned by Bishop Percy, combines material from different poets, chiefly Nicholas Breton and Spenser, transcribed at different times by different scribes.157 Less personalized are manuscript books associated with great houses or persons of importance. MS Lt q 44 of the Brotherton Library, Leeds University contains eight poems about, or associated with, Hatfield House in Hertfordshire. Christ Church College MSS 183 and 184 contain varied material related to the Salusbury family of Lleweni, Wales: it is a kind of archival miscellany. Still more varied, and in a sense fortuitous, is Bod MS Tanner 306, its multifarious contents linked only as relating to William Sancroft, Archbishop of Canterbury, often simply through his receiving or possessing them. The material of such miscellanies can be, and often was, taken from printed books. This is a micro-level variant of the common practice of copying an entire printed book by hand. Specially interesting, among the sources of the Anthology, is the Shirburn Ballads manuscript, once the property of the Earl of Macclesfield and now BL MS Addl 82932. This contains transcripts of printed broadside ballads, over half of which are now lost in printed form. 4. Manuscript song-books. Most of the points made about printed songbooks apply to their manuscript equivalents as well. But especially in manuscripts, the same volume may contain pieces with and without notation. Manuscript song-books can be of varied provenance: perhaps descending directly from the composer (like John Wilson’s song-book, Bod MS Mus.b.1), more often compiled by a collector like David Melvill (BL MS Addl 36484) or Giles Earle (BL MS Addl 24665), or built up by accretion over time. They may be transcribed by a professional scribe or the 156 See Katherine K. Gottschalk, ‘Discoveries concerning BL MS Harley 6910’, MP 54, 1979, 121–31. 157 See P.M. Buck, Jr, ‘Add. MS. 34064 and Spenser’s Ruins of Time and Mother Hubberd’s Tale’, MLN 22, 1907, 41–6.



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collector himself, or conceivably the composer; in one go, or piecemeal like a miscellany or commonplace-book, like the mid-sixteenth-century BL MS Addl 31922 with 112 pieces from Henry VIII’s day, some composed by the King himself; or the Henry Lawes Manuscript (BL MS Addl 53723), compiled by the famous musician in his own hand. Of their nature (if they contain notation), draft or ‘foul’ song-books are rare: they are almost necessarily fair copies. 5. Addenda to other items. Poems could be added to blank pages of manuscripts primarily devoted to other material. Two examples from this book are Bod MS Eng.misc.d.239 with the sole text of ‘Amor Constans’ (#204), and BL MS Harley 4286 with variant texts of ‘Phillida’s Love-Call to Her Coridon’ (#134) and ‘The Milkmaids’ (#267). The first is chiefly devoted to the Emperor Charles V’s dying instructions to his son, but contains the eclogue and sixteen sonnets in a different hand on the spare pages. The latter is a collection of court records and documents; but some totally unrelated lyric poems were added in inverted format on the blank spaces of the last sixteen leaves, even where partly filled in earlier with official material. This is a very different case from BL MS Addl 34324, a compilation of political texts and documents by the statesman Sir Julius Caesar, including a number of political poems at the end. Similarly, Bod MS Douce d.152 is chiefly a collection of Latin prose passages made by John Mansell, later President of Queens’ College, Cambridge, but with a number of Latin and English poems, some perhaps written by him (see #130). The opposite could also happen. Nicholas Oldisworth’s manuscript book of his own poems (including #215), presented to his wife, contains cookery recipes on the blank pages, added later by their daughter presumably after the book passed into her hands. Manuscript texts could be written on blank pages in printed books, or on separate sheets bound in with a printed book. A prominent instance is John Lilliat’s poetic miscellany (Bod MS Rawl. Poet. 148), on sheets bound in with a printed copy of Thomas Watson’s Hekatompathia. Another example is William Alabaster’s ‘Alas, our shepherd’ (#181), one of a group of manuscript poems bound together with a printed French book of hours in St John’s College library, Cambridge. (C) Transcriptions of oral material This collection includes a single modern transcription of an orally transmitted song, ‘Oh! shepherd, oh! shepherd’ (#29). This is necessarily in modern spelling, punctuation and format.

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Looking at this hugely various body of texts, one is struck above all by the interactive process binding them together. There is a crucial interaction between manuscript and print; and because of the personalized nature of manuscripts, a melding of the roles of writer and reader. The world of Renaissance poetry is a world of textual circulation and exchange along dramatically different lines from the present; yet in some ways it prefigures the post-print age of electronic texts and the world-wide web. We have long known that circulation of texts exclusively in manuscript persisted long after the coming of print, but we are still in the process of finding out in how many fields and for how long. A well-known aspect is the ‘stigma of print’ factor, as classically phrased by E.J. Saunders,158 among aristocratic poets. I have referred above to this phenomenon. It shades off into an exclusivity of taste and outlook among other poets too: as often noted, neither Donne nor Herbert published their major works in their lifetime; nor Nicholas Breton his body of pastoral lyrics (see p. 43). This distinguishes Breton from authors who patently earned their living by the pen, yet offered specious reasons (like the request of friends, or the need to supplant a pirated version) for putting their writing on sale. No such apology prefaced any of the poems in the Anthology, though their composers were often professional authors in some sense or other. But their equivocal location can appear more subtly in the pursuit of a double receptivity: their works appear in print, yet they court royal or aristocratic patrons in eloquent and often multiple dedications. The order of patronage mingles with the order of the marketplace.There is a swing in the status of the publishing writer when the prefatory material of his books no longer comprises his own compliments to actual or potential patrons but his fellow writers’ compliments to him, as a stimulus to the reading and buying public. The anonymous reader is made privy to the exchanges within a defined literate community, to which he can obtain entry by acquiring the printed work. And, needless to say, poems of all categories drawn from all sources undergo a new class orientation, of reception even if not textual revision, when they are reprinted as cheap broadside ballads. Finally, what should engage us is not the social divisions among the poets and their audience but their shared poetic programme. The pastoral lyrics of commoner poets like Breton, Greene or Lodge bear an affinity of form and sensibility with those of aristocrats like Dyer, Gorges 158 E.J. Saunders, ‘The Stigma of Print: A Note on the Social Bases of Tudor Poetry’, Essays in Criticism 1, 1951, 139–61.



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or Robert Sidney. The social geography of English poetry changes in the seventeenth century; but as far as pastoral is concerned, there is still a continuity of artistic purpose, at least between the aristocracy and the gentry. Well into Charles I’s reign, Ben Jonson and Michael Drayton provide outstanding instances of the professional writer in engagement with elite (in Jonson’s case, royal) cultural concerns and enjoying their patronage. The closed world of the manuscript (especially courtly manuscript culture) opened out dramatically into the expanding world of print after the publication of Sidney’s works in the 1590s. But the two worlds had engaged and supported each other ever since Tottel’s Miscellany (1557). Manuscripts provided print with its material – not only in the obvious sense that the press copy was written out by hand, but as providing abundant sources for such copy. Print, in turn, provided that material with undreamt-of expansion of reach; and over time, modified and outwardly destroyed manuscript culture. But it would be simplistic to view the process in these terms, as a one-way triumphal march of the printed book. There was an intricate two-way traffic between manuscript and print. Nicolas Barker’s paradox is relevant here: ‘All manuscripts are copies: all printed books are unique.’159 The first part of this remark leaves authorial first drafts out of reckoning, but the second part proves surprisingly true on close view. The printed page itself could change from copy to copy in Early Modern times, as printing proceeded alongside proofreading: Shakespeare’s First Folio affords the most celebrated instance. The print medium had not yet acquired a notional fixity overriding the basic fluidity of the text. The proximity of manuscript transmission made even print publication a more personalized medium than in later times. Hence more choices and decisions were left to the reader. David McKitterick argues that with Early Modern printed books, the role of the reader is less passive than in later periods, still attuned to the interactive engagement allowed by manuscripts.160 Readerly intervention could take more concrete forms. Until quite recently in the West, printed books originated in manuscript copy, as they do even now in many other languages and cultures. But once 159 Nicolas Barker, ‘Manuscript into Print’, in Randall McLeod (ed.), Crisis in Editing. Texts of the English Renaissance, New York: AMS Press, 1994, p. 1. See also Sukanta Chaudhuri, The Metaphysics of Text, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, ch. 5, ‘The Writer’s Hand’. 160 David McKitterick, Print, Manuscript and the Search for Order 1450–1830, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003, pp. 132–4.

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printed, they extended their being through fresh manuscript intervention of many sorts. The most direct was marginal annotation – an important factor in the reception history of a text down to the nineteenth century or indeed later. Much more varied and complex was the incorporation of printed material in commonplace-books. Keepers of commonplace-books, a standard Renaissance practice among educated men, routinely copied items and extracts from printed sources into those books. Such collections could be specially compiled for print publication; but that was in parallel with (virtually an adjunct to) a much larger set of personal commonplace-books in manuscript. Among the latter were collections exclusively of poetry: manuscript poetic miscellanies that occasionally found their way into print. Here print played a subsidiary role to manuscript circulation.161 Even if specially compiled for print, like England’s Helicon (and, even more, Davison’s A Poetical Rhapsody), poetic miscellanies could include many items unknown in print form and presumably taken from manuscripts. Such collections may well have begun as commonplace-books, though we have no evidence on this point. Commonplace-books mark an offshoot of manuscript culture ­paradoxically brought about by the coming of print. They descend from the medieval florilegia but are fostered and expanded by the vastly increased supply of material from printed books. The commonplace-book reflects a personal choice of items from print and manuscript sources, subsequently embodied in a manuscript record. In the process, it creates a more individualized reader with his unique choice of material. This markedly individual subject of textual reception challenges the conventional notion of the anonymous reader of mass-printed texts, a faceless member of a group (the readership collectively) that is itself faceless. In actual fact, the circulation of texts in that age invests each reader with a definite identity, empowering them for creative intervention in the texts they read. More decisively still, a commonplace-book could include the compiler’s own pieces, or unpublished work by members of his or her circle, alongside printed items by others. The ‘original’ pieces could be close imitations of printed items by other hands, like the poems by ‘Shepherd Montanus’ in John Ramsey’s commonplace-book. Such manuscript 161 See Ann Moss, Printed Commonplace-Books and the Structuring of Renaissance Thoughts, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996. See also Chaudhuri, Metaphysics of Text, pp. 99–100.



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miscellanies show the impossibility of drawing a sharp line between public and private authorship, published and unpublished work. They grade off into unpublished manuscript books of a single poet’s work – sometimes by a published poet, perhaps prepared for the press or even, rarely, laid out like a printed book as with the manuscript of William Basse’s Eclogues. These books remain ‘manuscript’ only in their surface medium: the nature of their text, and even format, is no different from printed books, indeed more carefully put together than many instances of the latter. What, again, is the status of such ready-to-print compilations visà-vis the more usual authorial miscellanies meant for the poet alone or a restricted circle? The fact that the latter category is often scribal (i.e. formally planned and ordered) shows that the author had a certain desire to record and circulate his works. Some such manuscripts are declaredly presentation copies. This array of instances reminds us that the term ‘book’ predates print and is not coterminous with the latter. It also reminds us of the standard practice of making manuscript copies of printed books – sometimes, perhaps, because the printed work was unavailable or expensive; but sometimes for precisely the opposite reason, to have a personalized hand-crafted copy rather than the standard marketed artefact. We can thus identify several binaries in the world of literary texts in the English Renaissance: the closed world of manuscript circulation visà-vis the open world where manuscripts and printed texts intermingle and impact on each other; the manuscript made for oneself (carrying one’s own writings, or other people’s, or both) and that made for others to read (again with the same range of contents). It is not easy to discern the guiding motive in any given case; and what happens when the manuscript made for oneself or one’s associates falls into a printer’s hands and enters the public domain? I use the term ‘public domain’ advisedly, though its current legal meaning is hardly relevant to the Renaissance. In England, the operative distinction was between works registered with the Stationers’ Company and those not so registered: a legal and financial issue, not one of artistic ‘authoriality’. Clearly this did not prevent ‘stolne, and surreptitious copies, maimed, and deformed by the frauds and stealthes of iniurious impostors’.162 Yet the very fact that Heming and Condell, the editors of 162 ‘To the great Variety of Readers’, Mr. William Shakespeares Comedies, Histories, & Tragedies, London: Isaac Jaggard & Edward Blount, 1623, sig.A3r.

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Shakespeare’s First Folio, so described certain Shakespeare Quartos in apparent contrast to certain others, shows there was a criterion of authorial authenticity at work. The same applies when authentic editions are brought out declaredly to combat pirated ones, as of Sidney’s Astrophil and Stella (1591, 1598) or Katherine Philips’s Poems (1664, 1667). Because of its brevity and flexible form, the short lyric circulates more readily by various means, written and oral; it can adopt a great range of transmissional media, often affecting its form in turn. The Anthology includes strikingly variant versions of the same poem from manuscript and print sources (#241), or from ballads and more formal editions (#84, #85, #116), or a particular print version from our period and an orally transmitted version recorded at later date (#151). Such textual traffic is found in all ages, but seems specially rife in the Renaissance. Apart from intentional change, such wide and multifarious transmission affects the text in another telling way, of interest for understanding human communication generally. We may describe this process as a species of ‘Chinese whispers’. As the text circulates, it alters subtly in form. Sometimes this is in deference to the medium – for instance, the repetition of words in a sung version. The specially intricate example of the manuscript song ‘Hey troly loly lo, maid, whither go you?’ (#30) has already been cited. The version of ‘My flocks feed not’ (#108) in Thomas Weelkes’s Madrigals to Three, Four, Five, and Six Voices drastically reworks lines 1–4, 25–8 and 36 for the sake of musical repetition. Thomas Morley’s version of ‘Fair in a morn’ (#114) or Thomas Davison’s of ‘Willy and Cuddy’ (#205) are at points so very different from all other versions as to suggest a separate source altogether. Refrains are routinely repeated, as other lines can be. In the printed song-book text of William Byrd’s ‘The Herdman’s Happy Life’ (#69), the last two lines of the first stanza are repeated. Presumably the same applies to the last lines of subsequent stanzas, but there is no clear directive; in any case, should such repetition count as a musical device, or as part of the text? If the latter, one would have to admit an impossible quantity of single words and phrases repeated through every song-book one opened. There is an especially tricky case in ‘Neare to the Siluer Trent’, a ‘read’ song set in Drayton’s poem ‘The Shepheards Sirena’ (#164.165–331): in the refrain, the forms ‘Swanes’ and ‘Swanns’ alternate irregularly. Do they mark a deliberate swing between ‘swain’ and ‘swan’, or are they variant forms of one or the other word – and if so, which? Here the shift is not even from version to version, but from stanza to stanza of the same text.



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Scribal or compositorial error also changes readings: if the error makes sense, it can be repeated in subsequent versions. The usual text of Barclay’s Eclogue V.273 (#16.37) reads ‘For that man committeth sore dreadeth he again’ (variously spelt) – that is, he fears others may do him the wrong he has done them. But the earliest text reads ‘commynteth’ (=​ commenteth, does something bad) for ‘committeth’. This illustrates the phenomenon of the lectio difficilior, a correct but difficult or unfamiliar reading replaced by a more familiar one. Similarly, the earliest text of Barclay’s Prologue (#25.36) describes Petrarch as writing ‘playne and merely’ (purely, simply), where all later versions have the less appropriate ‘playne and meryly’. Such substitutions grade towards the untenable. In The Faerie Queene VI.ix.26.1 (#44.190), Sir Calidore originally listens to Melibee with ‘greedy eare’, but in the 1609 and 1611 texts with ‘greedy care’. This makes sense but seems infelicitous. Even patent errors might be repeated over and over. In Sidney’s ‘And are you there, old Pas?’ (#49.61), no fewer than five manuscripts describe the bay or laurel as not a ‘holy’ but a ‘holly’ tree. This may be a variant spelling of the right word, but is confusing at best. In Carew’s ‘To Spring’ (#233.7), two manuscripts share the minim error ‘makes’ for ‘wakes’. In Carew’s ‘To Saxham’ (#233.18) four manuscripts read ‘votary’ for the unfamiliar ‘volary’ – another case of lectio difficilior, but here the substitute is patently wrong. Conversely, a change can be a deliberate editorial decision. In Byrd’s song ‘Though Amarillis daunce in greene’ (#70), the song-book text refers to two women, Amarillis and Corina, leaving it uncertain which, if either, is the shepherdess featuring in the rest of the song. The Helicon text omits Corina’s name, and changes the subsequent ‘their eyes’ to ‘her eyes’. This is a planned and consistent change, matching the general editorial practice of Helicon. There, even Spenser’s The Shepheardes Calender is given a light editorial polish. But what are we to make of ‘Silence and ignorance’ in the Cardiff manuscript of Katherine Philips’s ‘A Country Life’ (#274.49), elsewhere reading ‘Silence and Innocence are safe’? Or ‘love’ for the usual ‘peace’ in line 64 of the same poem in the same manuscript? In Sidney’s ‘And are you there, old Pas?’ (#49.35), most manuscripts credit Nico’s cat with ‘after-mewing’, but two with ‘after meaning’: this seems patently wrong, one learns that meaning could mean ‘complaining’. Most interestingly, perhaps, changes continually take place in the ‘little words’ attracting small attention either orally or in a written text: quite inadvertently, a transcriber or performer can replace one such word by

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another. ‘In’ can readily change to ‘on’, or ‘by’ to ‘with’. Conjunctions like ‘and’ and ‘or’, definite and indefinite articles, can be added or omitted by a particular editorial, scribal or performative practice, or sometimes quite arbitrarily. Such changes make little difference to the meaning, usually none at all. They can be of great value in a linguistic corpus, as recording patterns of meaning and usage. But they carry another significance for students of textual communication. Such ‘minor’ shifts relate, as I have said, to words to which one pays little attention. One pays still less to phrasing not associated with a particular author whose intentions one needs to honour. As explained, this sense of precise authorial authenticity was generally lacking in the Renaissance: it was accepted, almost desired – and at times actively sought – that texts will change in transmission. Going further, we may say it was hardly noticed. The text was viewed impersonally in terms of its general sense and movement, a common possession that could not only be changed at will, but which had been so deeply imbibed that minor changes of thematically unimportant words would not register as change at all. At that level, the phrasing would be determined by the innate verbal bent of the particular reader, transcriber or performer. In some cases, certain versions clearly represent an earlier or later phase of the text. Sir Arthur Gorges’s ‘An Eclogue between a Shepherd and a Herdman’ (#67) appears in final form in BL MS Egerton 3165, often cancelling and replacing an earlier state of the text. This earlier state is preserved in Cambridge University Library MS Dd.5.75, and passed thence to a printed text of later date, Francis Davison’s A Poetical Rhapsody (1602). This illustrates how a printed text need not represent a later or better state of the text than an authoritative manuscript. A classic instance would be the poems of Thomas Wyatt as collected in print in Tottel’s Miscellany. Elsewhere, certain versions of a poem can be seen to belong to a distinct line of transmission – for example Bod MS Rawl. Poet. 31 and BL MS Harley 4064 of Jonson’s ‘To Sir Robert Wroth’ (#192), or St John’s College, Cambridge, MS 32, Bod MS Rawl. Poet.160 and BL MS Harley 6057 of Randolph’s ‘Eclogue to Master Jonson’ (#226). With Herrick’s ‘A Pastoral upon the Birth of Prince Charles’ (#241), all three manuscripts record an alternative to the printed text in Hesperides. The text of Milton’s ‘Lycidas’ (#230) in the Trinity Manuscript clearly predates any printed version, and often shows the latter coming into being; yet interestingly, some of its readings appear in the 1645 and 1673 editions of Milton’s Poems, bypassing the first printed text of 1638. It is often



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impossible to find a pattern in the variations. If one plotted each version on a graph, the lines would criss-cross bewilderingly. That, I suggest, would constitute the point of the exercise. The text will not and cannot be seen as a fixed and unilinear entity. It is a dynamically generated scene, a broadly demarcated channel within which words flow and change places. This can be said of most or all texts, but the brief widely circulated lyric offers exceptionally clear evidence. Good examples are Marlowe’s ‘The Passionate Shepherd to His Love’ (#84); Breton’s ‘Fair in a morn’ (#114), ‘Faire Phillis is the Sheepheards Queene’ (#115) and ‘In the merry month of May’ (#117); Carew’s ‘To Spring’ (#233); the anonymous ‘Cloris, since thou art fled away’ (#263); or ‘Tom and Will’ (#238), doubtfully attributed to Sidney Godolphin but popular in song and ballad form. The textual notes on all these poems document how a consistent poetic structure is raised on the shifting sands of pervasive textual variation. Outside the province of the lyric, Jonson’s ‘To Sir Robert Wroth’ (#192), Randolph’s ‘Eclogue to Master Jonson’ (#226) and Carew’s ‘To Saxham’ (#234) show the same intricate variation across a range of manuscripts. ‘In the merry month’ and ‘To Saxham’ are perhaps the most striking and complex examples. The identity of such poems seems to inhere not in any precise wording but in a semantic design one step behind it, a consistent meaning and purpose underlying the variations of structure, syntax or even substantive shifts in diction. On a theoretical plane, we may be tempted to extend the idea to all poems or all texts. Even relatively important words, of substantive rather than structural or grammatical function, may be so changed. One should leave mere poetic counters like ‘fair’ and ‘sweet’ out of account. But other words too can be inadvertently replaced by synonyms, or words of the same contextual impact, like ‘heals’ and ‘cures’ in ‘Fair in a morn’ (#114.15), ‘keep’ and ‘feed’ in ‘Phillida’s Love-Call to Her Coridon’ (#134.7, 10), or ‘greedy’ and ‘hungry’ in ‘To Sir Robert Wroth’ (#192.34).163 In ‘Cloris, since thou art fled away’ (#263.9), Amyntas’ dog variously howls, pines, whines and whings, depending on the version one is reading. (The last three words are graded by sound in a quintessential instance of ‘Chinese whispers’.) In Randolph’s ‘Eclogue to Master Jonson’ (#226.118), poets trust to their ‘flames’ (i.e. inspirational fire) in most versions, but their ‘fames’ in two. The variants in lines 3–4 of Marlowe’s ‘The Passionate Shepherd’ (#84) afford a more decisive example: a single manuscript text 163 Not all these readings are adopted in the texts in the Anthology. They can be found in the Textual Notes in this volume.

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carries two successive variants, though clearly this is not an authorial source. The refinements in Walton’s relatively late version (#84.6, 15) are also interesting, as are the stanzas unique to the ballad version of both this poem and the ‘Nymph’s Reply’. All this means that the authorial role is diffuse and extended. Without robbing Marlowe, Breton or Carew of their due as originators of the above lyrics, we must accept that they have clearly not exhausted the verbal possibilities of their output: they have simply chosen one set of options out of many. It makes sense in these contexts to talk with Foucault of an ‘author-function’ rather than an author.164 Such poems, and the ambience of such poems, are not only a possession but a creative resource for a whole cultural community. In other words, the community in which such poems arise and circulate can find a trope in the shepherd community as presented in pastoral convention. There too, while some shepherds are pre-eminent as poets, all shepherds sing. They exchange songs, sing each other’s work, and preserve songs through the years and generations by continuous r­ e-rendering. As argued earlier in this introduction, pastoral becomes a seminal trope, a mother-element for any type of poetic practice, any creation of a poetic persona. Hence poets habitually project themselves as shepherds rather than any other metaphoric persona. Hence ­non-pastoral names for poets (like ‘Astrophil’) are assimilated to the pastoral convention, and names native and contextually appropriate to pastoral (like ‘Colin’) become general appellations for particular poets. Hence a closet poet like John Ramsey can sign even non-pastoral poems, heavily based on the work of published predecessors, as ‘Shepherd Montanus’. Ultimately, that is no doubt why England’s Helicon was so titled: this collection of pastoral poems is a general arena of the Muses, like the mountain of that name in Greece. And so we return where we had arrived earlier, recognizing the pastoral as an exceptionally apt vehicle for poetic experience generally: it enfigures the experience it describes. An age that values poetic experience can find in pastoral an especially apt idiom in which to express itself: Not as twas wont now rurall be our rymes, Sheapheards of late are waxed wondrous neate. Though they were richer in the former tymes, 164 Michel Foucault, ‘What Is an Author?’, trans. Josué V. Harari, in Josué V. Harari (ed.), Textual Strategies: Perspectives in Post-Structuralist Criticism, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1979, pp. 141–60.



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We be inraged with more kindly heate. The withered Laurell freshly growes agayne Which simply shadowed the Pierian spring Which oft inuites the solitary swayne Thether, to heare those sacred virgins sing: …165

This is Drayton’s shepherd Motto on the age he lives in: with dogged nostalgia, Drayton celebrates the Elizabethan poetic scene more elaborately in 1606, after Elizabeth’s death, than in his original poem of 1593, written in her lifetime. One may find irony in Motto, a shepherd, dismissing ‘rurall’ rymes for more ‘neate’ (sophisticated) poetry, but the context is not ironical. Such pastoral celebration of the poetic abundance of the times harks back to Sannazaro: Not wholly mute, my Fronimo, are the woods,   as men believe; but rather they so resound    that I judge them almost equal to the ancients’.166

In the last analysis, it was the figuring, epitomizing quality of pastoral that ensured its popularity despite the many limitations of the mode. But unlike other modes such as the tragic, comic or elegiac, this popularity has not been uniform through cultural history. For sixteen hundred years after Theocritus, pastoral was a marginal presence on the literary scene, if not absent altogether. It gained striking momentum in a particular age when several factors came into simultaneous play: among them a redefined interest in the classics, a new nationally oriented literary culture, and wider (though still limited) engagement with the religious, social, political and cultural issues for which pastoral provides a ready trope. As the scene changed, formal pastoral lost importance and gradually disappeared; the new functions it had meanwhile acquired were transferred to new modes and the genres appropriate to them. Thus pastoral proves the most contrary of literary modes: rural in subject but urban in provenance, realistic in potential but fragile and artificial in default mode, charged with tropological intent yet painfully restrictive, widely cultivated but sporadic and almost marginal to literary history as a whole. These two volumes present the full range of its strengths and weaknesses in the age that most made pastoral its own. 165 Drayton, Idea the Shepheards Garland, Eclogue IV (1606 version).5–12 [#161.5a–12a]. 166 ‘Non son, Fronimo mio, del tutto mutole, / com’uom crede, le selve; anzi risonano, / tal che quasi all’antiche egual riputole.’ Jacopo Sannazaro, Arcadia, Ecloga 10.1–3: ed. Carlo Vecce, Rome: Carocci, 2013; trans. from Sannazaro, Arcadia and Piscatorial Eclogues, trans. Ralph Nash, Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1966, p. 112.

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Textual notes

Unless otherwise stated, the control text is the first printed version of the poem. All substantive variants in other versions have been noted, unless stated to the contrary. Variants in lineation, spelling and punctuation, and some unquestionable misprints, have not been noted except in special cases. A detailed account of the choice of texts and other editorial decisions is given under ‘Practices and Conventions’ in the Anthology (pp.xiii–xiv). Variant readings of the same word(s)/line(s) are separated by semi-­ colons. (The semi-colon never forms part of the reading.) Entries on different headwords from the same line are separated by a gap of five spaces. A reading enclosed in second brackets { } indicates a substantive reading but not the exact spelling. This device is commonly used to indicate the same substantive reading in different spellings in different versions. A number preceded by # indicates a poem number in the Anthology. Expansions of printers’ and publishers’ initials, and ascriptions of place, date and publishers’ names not documented in the work itself, are enclosed in brackets [ ] and generally taken from the English Short-Title Catalogue. Abbreviations: BL: British Library, London Bod: Bodleian Library, Oxford Helicon: Englands Helicon, London: I[?ames] R[?oberts]1 for John Flasket, 1600. Where a poem occurs in Helicon, its text has usually been followed in preference to that of earlier versions, as being in closest   1 The printer identified with these initials in the English Short-Title Catalogue and generally; but he may be James Rime or Rymer, who (like John Flasket) sold books to the Duke of Northumberland. See R.B. McKerrow (gen. ed.), A Dictionary of Printers and Booksellers … 1557–1540, Bibliographical Society, 1968, pp. 105, 228.



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accord with Elizabethan pastoral convention. Departures are noted below. 1. Theocritus, Idyll VIII Text based on Sixe Idillia that is, Sixe Small, or Petty Poems, or Æglogves, chosen out of the right famous Sicilian Poet Theocritvs, Oxford: Joseph Barnes, 1588, sig. A2 (misprinted H2)r–A3v. 2. Theocritus, Idyll XI Text based on Sixe Idillia that is, Sixe Small, or Petty Poems, or Æglogves, chosen out of the right famous Sicilian Poet Theocritvs, Oxford: Joseph Barnes, 1588, sigs A3v–A4v. 3. Theocritus(?), ‘The Pastoral Wooing’, trans. Edward Sherburne Text based on Edward Sherburne, Poems and Translations Amorous, Lusory, Morall, Divine, London: W. Hunt for Thomas Dring, 1651, pp. 118–21 (sigs H4v–H6r). 69 The original inserts the speech-heading Shepheardess here, obviously in error by analogy with its previous use. 4. Theocritus and Virgil, Fragments Text based on T.B., A Ritch Storehouse or Treasurie for Nobilitye and Gentlemen, London: Henry Denham, 1570 (a translation of Johann Sturm’s Nobilitas Literata), sigs G8r–H1r. 7 In the original, line-division after soyle 5. Moschus(?), ‘Epitaph on Bion’, trans. Thomas Stanley Text based on Thomas Stanley, Poems [London: Roger Norton], 1651, the second section Anacreon. Bion. Moschus. [etc.] with separate pagination and collation, pp. 45–9 (sigs C8r–D2r). 6. Virgil, Eclogue I, trans. William Webbe Text based on William Webbe, A Discourse of English Poetrie, London: John Charlewood for Robert Walley, 1586, sigs H2r–H3v.

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A companion to pastoral poetry 7. Virgil, Eclogue II, trans. Abraham Fraunce

Text based on Abraham Fraunce, The Lawiers Logike, London: William How, 1588, fols 121v–122v (sigs 2K2v–2K3v). 8. Virgil, Eclogue IV, trans. Abraham Fleming Text based on Abraham Fleming, The Bucoliks of Publius Virgilius Maro …Together with his Georgiks or Ruralls … All newly translated into English verse by A.F., London: T[homas] O[rwin] for Thomas Woodcocke, 1589, sigs C1v–C2v. These unrhymed translations are entirely different from the 1575 versions in rhymed verse, from which #9 below is taken. 13 any] emending my in original 23 bearefoot] emending beatfoot in original 9. Virgil, Eclogue X, trans. Abraham Fleming Text based on Abraham Fleming, The Bucolikes of Publius Virgilius Maro, London: John Charlewood for Thomas Woodcocke, 1575, pp. 29–32 (sigs F3r–F4v). See note on #8. 27 wallwort] In a list of ‘Sundry readings of divers words and clauses contained in the x. Eclogues’ (i.e., alternative readings or translations) at the end of the volume, an alternative reading hawethorne is given for wallwort, and red yearth for vermelon. 74 springtime doth awake] In the list of ‘Sundry readings’, these words have an alternative reading, the spring a show doth make. 10. Virgil, Georgic II.458–542, trans. Abraham Cowley Text based on Cowley’s essay ‘Of Agriculture’, published (as part of Several Discourses by Way of Essays, in Verse and Prose) in The Works of Mr Abraham Cowley, London: J[ohn] M[aycock] for Henry Herringman, 1669, pp. 113–14 (sigs P1r–P1v). 11. Virgil, Georgic III.295–9, 322–38, 404–7, 440 ff., trans. Richard Robinson Text based on Richard Robinson, A Proceeding in the Harmonie of King Dauids Harpe. That is to say, An exposition of 13. Psalmes … expounded



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by the reuerend Doctor Victorinus Strigelius, London: John Wolfe, 1591, pp. 27–30 (sigs E2v–E3v). 12. Horace, Epode II, trans. Richard Fanshawe Text based on Sir Richard Fanshawe, Selected Parts of Horace, Prince of Lyricks, London: M.M. Gabriel Bedell and T. Collins, 1652, pp. 62–4 (sigs I7r–K1r). 13. ‘On the Rustic Life’, trans. Richard Ashmore Text based on Richard Ashmore, Certain Selected Odes of Horace … With … sundry new Epigrammes. Anagramms. Epitaphes, London: H[umphrey] L[ownes] for Richard Moore, 1621, p. 81 (sig. N1r). 14. Boethius, The Consolation of Philosophy, Book II, Poem 5, trans. Queen Elizabeth Text based on facsimile of original manuscript (MS Domestic Elizabeth 289, Public Record Office, Kew) read with Queen Elizabeth’s Englishings, ed. Caroline Pemberton, Early English Text Society, o.s.113, London: EETS/Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, 1899. 15. Mantuan, Eclogue IV.1–75, trans. George Turberville Text based on The Eglogs of the Poet B. Mantuan Carmelitan, Turned into English Verse … by George Turbervile Gent., London: Henry Bynneman, 1567, fols 27v–32r (sigs E3v–E8r). 7–8 to] may be a misprint for the 51 your] So in the text, but in the light of the next phrase, may be a mistake for my 105 strongnesse] emending strongest in original 16. Mantuan, Eclogue VI.54–105, trans. Alexander Barclay Text based on Certayne Egloges of Alexander Barclay Priest appended to Barclay’s translation of Sebastian Brandt’s The Ship of Fools (Stultifera Nauis … The Ship of Fooles, London: John Cawood, 1570), sigs D3r–v (separate collation for the Eclogues). Earlier published separately as WW:

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The fyfte Eglog of Alexandre Barclay of the Cytezen and vplondyshman, London: Wynkyn de Worde, c.1518–21. 3 To] Absent in WW 5 founded] WW fourmed 17 twins she] WW twins forth she 18 WW When God assisteth, man worketh not for nought 37 committeth] WW commynteth [=​commenteth: comment, to do or contrive something bad: OED comment v 1] 43 his folde] WW the fold 45 babes] WW babys (making for smoother scansion. So in line 54.) 55 suppose] WW supposynge 65 saide: ‘O woman] WW said woman 68 At laste] WW At the last. 82 and governour] WW and a gouernoure 86 WW lacks second some 88 and haberiowne] WW and ye haberiowne 94 shiriffes] WW shrives 140 and] WW or 157 the worlde] WW this wyse 159 wonned] WW dwelled 17. Mantuan, Eclogue VII.1–50, trans. Thomas Harvey Text based on Thomas Harvey. The Bucolicks of Baptist Mantuan in Ten Eclogues, London: Humphrey Moseley, 1656 (1655?), pp. 64–6 (sigs E4v–E5v). 18. Robert Henryson, ‘Robene and Makyne’ Text based on the Bannatyne MS (National Library of Scotland, MS Adv.1.1.6), fols 365r–366v. Also compared: Ramsay: The Ever Green, ed. Allan Ramsay, Edinburgh: Thomas Ruddiman, 1724, vol. 1, pp. 56–63. This text differs from the Bannatyne manuscript in virtually every line, usually without affecting the sense in any basic way. Only a few specially prominent variants are recorded below. 23 Ramsay Preis ay to pleis, and blyth appeir 39 In] emending I in Bannatyne MS 62 ane quhyle] Ramsay and smyle 67 in hir intent] Ramsay and made Lament



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128 holtis hair] Ramsay rashy Gair (rashy =​ rushy, covered with rushes; Gair, ‘isolated strip of tender grass’ (OED) 19. From Of Gentleness and Nobility Text based on Of Gentylnes and Nobylyte. A dyaloge betwen the Marchaunt the knight and the plowman, John Rastell, 1535(?) (sigs A4v– A5r, A5v–A6r, B1v–B2r). The first two passages belong to the first part, and the third to the second part of the dialogue. 20. Marcantonio Flaminio, ‘To His Little Field’, trans. Richard Ashmore Text based on Richard Ashmore, Certain Selected Odes of Horace … With … sundry new Epigrammes. Anagramms. Epitaphes, London: H[umphrey] L[ownes] for Richard Moore, 1621, pp. 86–7 (sigs N3v–N4r). 21. Basilio Zanchi, ‘Kala’s Complaint’, trans. William Drummond Text based on William Drummond, Poems,?1604(so EEBO) /?1614(so STC), in the section ‘Madrigalls and Epigrammes’. No date, place or publisher’s name – perhaps Edinburgh, Andro Hart. No pagination or signatures in this section. Also compared: 1616: William Drummond, Poems, Edinburgh: Andro Hart, 1616 (sig. P2v). 1656: William Drummond, Poems, London: William Tomlins, 1656, p. 99 (sig. H2r). 1711: William Drummond, Works, Edinburgh: James Watson, 1711, section containing ‘Poems’, p. 20 (sig. E2v). No difference in substantive readings between 1604/1614, 1656 and 1711. 4 snowie] 1616 milke-white 22. Jorge de Montemayor, ‘O eyes, that see not him’, trans. Bartholomew Yong Text based on Diana of George of Montemayor: Translated out of Spanish into English by Bartolomew Yong, London: Edmund Bollifant, 1598, pp. 8–10 (sigs A4v–A5v).

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A companion to pastoral poetry 23. Jorge de Montemayor, ‘Passed contents’, trans. Bartholomew Yong

Text based on Diana of George of Montemayor: Translated out of Spanish into English by Bartolomew Yong, London: Edmund Bollifant, 1598, pp. 146–7 (sigs N1v–N2r). Also compared: Helicon, sigs T3v–T4r, titled ‘Syrenus his Song to Dianaes Flocke’. Contrary to the usual practice in this book, the base text is taken from 1598 to maintain parity with #22, which is not included in Helicon. 26 sometimes] Helicon sometime 35 Followed in Helicon by an additional line Now my ioues are dead and dombe. Such a line is needed to preserve the 7-line stanza form. It may have been present in the original, and accessed by the Helicon editor in manuscript: Yong’s Montemayor is known to have circulated widely in manuscript. 24. Alonso Perez, ‘I pray thee keep my kine’, trans. Bartholomew Yong Text based on Diana of George of Montemayor: Translated out of Spanish into English by Bartolomew Yong, London: Edmund Bollifant, 1598, pp. 326–8 (sigs 2E1v–2v). Also compared: Helicon (sigs M1r–2r), titled ‘The Sheepheard Carillo his Song’. Contrary to the usual practice in this book, the base text is taken from 1598 to maintain parity with #22, which is not included in Helicon. 1, 13 pray thee] at both points, Helicon pre-thee 2 Carillio] Helicon Carillo as in the source song in Spanish 7 this] Helicon thee 25. Alexander Barclay, Prologue to the Eclogues Text follows Certayne Egloges of Alexander Barclay Priest appended to Barclay’s translation of Sebastian Brandt’s The Ship of Fools (Stultifera Nauis … The Ship of Fooles, London: John Cawood, 1570), sig. A1r–v (separate collation for the Eclogues). Also compared: Treveris: Here begynneth the Egloges of Alexander Barclay prest [&c], London: [P. Treveris], c.1530, sigs [A]2r–[A]4r Powell: Here begynneth the Egloges of Alexander Barclay, priest [&c], London: Humphrey Powell, c.1548, sigs A2r–A4r



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King: Here begynneth the Egloges of Alexander Barclay, priest [&c], London: John King, c.1560, sigs A2r–A4r 5 delite] Powell, King deliteth 8 the] Absent in King 19 saide] Powell, King same 24 sometime of] King some in 36 meryly] Treveris merely (perhaps variant of merrily, but may be =​ purely) 40 the] Powell; Treveris, Cawood thy, clearly an error 41 obiect] Powell, King abject 44 haue] Powell hath 50 in] absent in Treveris, King 61 or] Powell ear (=​ere) 62 froward] Treveris forward 64 picture] Powell, King pictures 70 Proceeded] Powell, King Procedyng 76 did call] Treveris, Powell, King called 81 any] Powell, King my 89 obiect] Treveris, Powell, King abject 97 of] Powell, King and 103 of] Treveris yf, clearly an error   ensue] Treveris insure – a possible sense (affirm, pledge loyalty). 108 betokeneth] Treveris betokened 109 pleasour, freshe lust] Powell, King pleasaunt, fresh, lust. 112 lauret] Powell, King; Treveris, Cawood laurer, otherwise unrecorded but perhaps =​ laurel.  cowle] Powell cool 118 After this line, Treveris adds And that his mother the heavenly empress / Shall to good ending my wit and pain address; Powell and King add {That he me direct my mind for to express: / That he to good end my wit and pen address} 120 To laude] Powell, King To the laude 125 fiue] So Cawood, where five eclogues follow. Treveris, Powell, King x (i.e., ten, perhaps referring to a larger planned corpus) 126 imitation] Powell, King imitate 129 Sometime] Powell, King Some (but Sometyme in ll.130–35) 132 and] absent in Treveris, Powell, King

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A companion to pastoral poetry 26. Alexander Barclay, Eclogue I.175–304

Text based on Certayne Egloges of Alexander Barclay Priest appended to Barclay’s translation of Sebastian Brandt’s The Ship of Fools (Stultifera Nauis … The Ship of Fooles, London: John Cawood, 1570), sigs A1v–A2v (separate collation for the Eclogues). Also compared: Treveris: Here begynneth the Egloges of Alexander Barclay prest [&c], London: [P. Treveris], c.1530, sigs A4v–B4r Powell: Here begynneth the Egloges of Alexander Barclay, priest [&c], London: Humphrey Powell, c.1548, sigs A4v–B3v King: Here begynneth the Egloges of Alexander Barclay, priest [&c], London: John King, c.1560, sigs A4r–B2v Eclogue I was first printed c.1523, probably by J. Siberch of Cambridge. This edition (STC 1383.5) survives only in fragments, which do not include this passage. 10 as olde] Powell, King as the olde 11 woxen] Treveris, Powell waxed 20 auoyde] Powell, King voyde 53 lye] Treveris lay 54 our beastes doth] Powell doeth our beastes 66 helpe] Treveris, Powell, King might 76 we haue] Treveris haue we 88 I heart] Treveris, Powell, King {heard I} 97 thou] Treveris, Powell, King ye 118 where] King wherefore 119 euery] Treveris, Powell, King in some 126 me] emending Cawood we 145 bruse] Treveris brule 148 I killed] Powell I haue kylled 158 way] Powell, King awaie 166 always] Treveris, Powell alway 172 in] Treveris, Powell, King by 174 paynes are] Treveris, Powell, King payne is 186 time] Treveris, Powell tymes 194 midst] Treveris myddis; Powell, King myddes 195 they] Powell the  fooles but] Treveris, Powell, King wretches saue 197 see by experience] Treveris, King see experience 198 hast] Treveris, King hath



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27. Alexander Barclay, from Eclogue III Text follows Certayne Egloges of Alexander Barclay Priest appended to Barclay’s translation of Sebastian Brandt’s The Ship of Fools (Stultifera Nauis … The Ship of Fooles, London: John Cawood, 1570), sigs C1v–C2r (separate collation for the Eclogues). Also compared: Treveris: Here begynneth the Egloges of Alexander Barclay prest [&c], London: [P. Treveris], c.1530, sigs O3r–O4r Powell: Here begynneth the Egloges of Alexander Barclay, priest [&c], London: Humphrey Powell, c.1548, sigs N4v–O1v King: Here begynneth the Egloges of Alexander Barclay, priest [&c], London: John King, c.1560, sigs N4v–O1v 6 his] Treveris, Powell, King their 7 kept] King kepe 8 gave] Treveris, Powell, King have (a possible variant of the obsolete past tense ‘yave’) 12 winde] Treveris, Powell, King {winds} 17 an] Powell, King in 27 each one] Treveris echone 30 shadows] Treveris, Powell, King shadow 44 sores] Treveris, Powell, King sore 47 brambles] King bramble  pilled] Treveris pellyd (a possible reading: ‘pell’, to beat or strike)   skin] Treveris skayn (again, a possible reading: ‘skayn’ =​skein, with reference to wool) 54 death] Treveris dede 58 drome] Powell, King Dromo 66 be] Treveris, Powell, King to be 28. Alexander Barclay, from Eclogue IV Text follows Certayne Egloges of Alexander Barclay Priest appended to Barclay’s translation of Sebastian Brandt’s The Ship of Fools (Stultifera Nauis … The Ship of Fooles, London: John Cawood, 1570), sigs C3v–C4r (separate collation for the Eclogues). Also compared: Pynson: The Boke of Codrus and Mynalcas, London: Richard Pynson, 1521, sigs A2v, A3r–A5v. 23 Cuckowes] Pynson cocke crowes 28 Enemie] Pynson Enuy 36 shepheardes] Pynson shepherde 41 behelde] Pynson beholde

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45 since] Pynson sithe 51 neyther] Pynson nother 53 where so] Pynson wherso (=​wherever) 68 the shepe] Pynson a sheep 75 Welere] Pynson Wele ere  large] Pynson small 83 Yea, other] Pynson Ye other 107 oft time] Pynson oftyme 163 the] Pynson their 29. ‘Oh! shepherd, oh! shepherd’ The text follows the modern-spelling version in the Journal of the FolkSong Society 3, 1907, pp. 122–5. 30. ‘Hey troly loly lo, maid, whither go you?’ Text based on BL MS Addl 31922 (fols 124v–129v, with musical notation). There is a partial and unreliable transcript in Anglia 12, 1889, pp. 255–6. The full text is printed here for the first time. 31. Harpelus’ Complaint Text based on the first issue (STC 13860) of Songes and Sonettes (Tottel’s Miscellany), London: Richard Tottel (sigs R2v–R4r). Also compared: Helicon, sigs F1v–F3r. Contrary to the usual practice in this book, Tottel’s text is followed rather than Helicon, to draw attention to the unusually early provenance of the poem. 2 And] Later edd. of Tottel, Helicon As 25 waxt] Helicon woxe 26 clot] Helicon clod 32 spent] Tottel (1585) shent (destroyed, ruined) 49 wentest] Tottel (1585) wenest (=​weenest, ‘(you) think’) 52 her] Helicon a 60 reapes] Helicon reap’st 62 herken] Tottel (2nd issue), Helicon harke 65 beastes] Helicon beasts (which affects the scansion) 68 makes] Tottel (2nd issue), Helicon; Tottel (1st issue) face 81 is it] Tottel (1585) is that; Helicon is’t 101–4 Tottel (2nd issue) Here lieth vnhappy Harpelus / By cruell loue



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now slaine, / Whom Phillida vniustly thus / Hath murdred with disdaine. Tottel 1585 omits love in l.102, no doubt by error. 32. Barnabe Googe, Eclogue II: Dametas Text based on Barnabe Googe, Eglogs Epytaphes, and Sonettes, London: Thomas Colwell for Raffe Newbery, 1563, sigs A4v–A6r. 33. Torquato Tasso, Golden Age Chorus, trans. Samuel Daniel Text based on The Works of Samuel Daniel Newly augmented, London: Simon Waterson, 1601, final section (with separate collation and pagination) containing the sonnet sequence Delia, pp. 30–2 (wrongly numbered 30) (sigs C3v–C4v). 34. Giovanni Battista Guarini, Golden Age Chorus, trans. Richard Fanshawe Text based on Richard Fanshawe, Il pastor fido, The faithfull Shepherd. A Pastorall, London: R. Raworth, 1647, pp. 163–4 (sig. Y2r–v). 35. Jean Chassanion, ‘Along the verdant fields’, trans. Thomas Beard Text based on Thomas Beard, The Theatre of Gods Iudgements, London: Adam Islip, 1597, pp. 57–9 (sigs E5r–E6r). A manuscript text in BL MS Harley 6910, fols 138r–139r corresponds word for word with The Theatre, even (almost entirely) in spelling and punctuation. It has clearly been copied from the printed text. 36. Jean Passerat, Song, trans. William Drummond Text based on Drummond’s Hawthornden MSS, vol. X fol. 176r–v, in the National Library of Scotland. Also compared: 1711: William Drummond, Works, Edinburgh: James Watson, 1711, section on ‘Poems’, p. 56 (sig. O2v), titled ‘A Pastoral Song / Phyllis and Damon’: the first published version. The manuscript is in Scots, 1711 in standard English. 2 MS has two uncancelled variants, better then poore wordes can [tell] and mor then any wordes can tel; 1711 Better than weak words can tell.

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7–8 1711 Shepherd without mocking me / Have I any Love for thee, 7 without] MS has two earlier cancelled readings now but (=​without) and now sans 8 Beares] MS has earlier cancelled reading hath 12 MS has earlier cancelled reading t’haue said I loue as mine eiene; 1711 To say thou lov’d me as thine Eyne 13 I love them not] 1711 these I love not 16 Thy] MS has earlier cancelled reading Your  haire] 1711 Locks 17 good] 1711 dear (only here, not at other parallel points) 20 aske] in margin of MS, alongside earlier uncancelled reading speake 23–6 1711 No, for it is turn’d a Slave / To sad Annoys, and what I have / Of Life by Love’s stronger Force / Is reft, and I’m but a dead Cors. 29–30 MS has earlier cancelled reading leaue I pray this like to the / say I loue as I doe me; in a still earlier reading, l.30 reads say I loue the euen as me; 1711 Learn [for ‘leave’?] I pray this, like to thee, / And say I love as I do me. 31–2 MS has alternative incomplete (but uncancelled) reading: Alas my selfe I doe not loue / for I me split on Rockes of [ends here] 32 split] MS has earlier cancelled illegible reading   I me split] 1711 I’m split 37. Antonio Beffa, ‘There where the pleasant Eske’, trans. William Drummond Text based on Drummond’s Hawthornden MSS, vol. X, fol. 55r, in the National Library of Scotland. First published in French Rowe Fogle, A Critical Study of William Drummond of Hawthornden, New York: King’s Crown Press, 1952. 9 sheepheardes] emending sheepheard in MS. 12–13 In MS, these two lines are in parentheses, perhaps to indicate they are a draft version, awaiting revision. They do not read like a parenthesis: rather, beautyes and speeches seem to be the joint subject of shall byde (l.14). Note on the text of Spenser and Sidney As definitive critical editions of Spenser and Sidney’s works are readily available, full collation of all the witnesses has not been offered below. Only those variant readings that significantly alter the sense have been recorded.



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38. Edmund Spenser, The Shepherd’s Calendar, ‘April’ Text based on The Shepheardes Calender Conteyning twelue Æglogues proportionable to the twelue monethes, London: Hugh Singleton, 1579, fols 11v–14r (sigs C3v–D2r). There were four subsequent Quarto editions (1581, 1586, 1591, 1597), and the 1611 Folio of Spenser’s Works. It is commonly thought that each of these was printed from the last previous edition, and that no authority attaches to the variants. They have not been noted below. Colin’s song from this eclogue also occurs in Helicon (sigs C1v–C3v), mistakenly titled ‘Hobbinolls Dittie in prayse of Eliza Queene of the Sheepheards’. 41 eke you] Helicon you faire 45 Which] Helicon Who 51 of] Helicon on 52 the] Helicon her 60 Helicon With Daffadills and Damaske Roses set 64 seene her angelick] Helicon beheld her Angels 67 you] not in Helicon 68 with] Helicon and 76 amaze] Helicon maze 94 an] Helicon a 114 yeuen] Helicon given 122 chiefest] Helicon chiefe 127–35 not in Helicon 129 that] Helicon such as 136–44 not in Helicon 39. William Webbe, ‘O ye nymphs most fine’ Text based on William Webbe, A Discourse of English Poetrie, London: John Charlewood for Robert Walley, 1586, sigs I2v–I4r. 40. Edmund Spenser, The Shepherd’s Calendar, ‘June’ Text based on The Shepheardes Calender Conteyning twelue Æglogues proportionable to the twelue monethes, London: Hugh Singleton, 1579, fols 22v–24v (sigs F2v–F4v). 16 shroude] emending shouder in original

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A companion to pastoral poetry 41. Edmund Spenser, The Shepherd’s Calendar, ‘July’

Text based on The Shepheardes Calender Conteyning twelue Æglogues proportionable to the twelue monethes, London: Hugh Singleton, 1579, fols 26r–29v (sigs G2r–H1v). 42. Edmund Spenser, from Colin Clout’s Come Home Again Text based on Colin Clouts Come Home Againe, London: William Ponsonby, 1595 (sigs A3r–A4r, B2r–B3v, B3v–B4v, C4v–D2v). Also found in the 1611 Folio of Spenser’s Works. The only variant in the extracts given here is noted below. 220 glusters] 1611 clusters 43. Edmund Spenser, ‘Astrophel’ Text based on Colin Clouts Come Home Againe, London: William Ponsonby, 1595, sigs E4r–F4v. Also found in the 1611 Folio of Spenser’s Works: substantive variants noted below. 68 often] 1611, as required by the metre; 1595 oft 107 need] 1611 needeth 44. Edmund Spenser, The Faerie Queene, VI.ix.5–36 Text based on The Faerie Queene, London: William Ponsonby, 1596, pp. 467–76 (sigs 2G3r–2G7v). Also found in the 1609 edition and the 1611 Folio of Spenser’s Works, both printed at London by H[umphrey]. L[ownes]. for Matthew Lownes. 14 (the first) them] 1609, 1611 (and all later editions) him 174 amongst] 1611 among 190 eare] 1609, 1611 care 193 rapt] 1609 wrapt 45. Edmund Spenser, The Faerie Queene, VI.x.5–30 Text based on The Faerie Queene, London: William Ponsonby, 1596, pp. 480–8 (sigs 2H1v–2H5v). Also found in the 1609 and 1611 editions (see previous entry). 31 course about] 1609, 1611 course-about 69 middest] 1609, 1611 midst  three] 1611 there



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77 them] 1611 him 178 forward] 1611 froward 46. Philip Sidney, from The Lady of May Text based on The Countesse of Pembrokes Arcadia … now the third time published, London: William Ponsonby, 1598, pp. 572–3 (sigs 3B4v–3B5r). Also compared: Hm: manuscript formerly at Helmingham Hall, Norfolk, now with Arthur A Houghton Jr. This offers a somewhat different version of the entertainment that does not materially affect this extract. Accessed here in the transcript in Robert Kimbrough and Philip Murphy, ‘The Helmingham Hall Manuscript of Sidney’s The Lady of May: A Commentary and Transcription’, Renaissance Drama ns 1 (1968). Helicon, sig. O4r–v: ll. 11–37 of this extract, entitled ‘Espilus and Therion, their contention in Song for the May-Ladie’ 7 the] not in Hm 8 recorders] Hm Recordes 9 of] Hm on 12 conceipts] Helicon conceite 14 or] Helicon die 17 comes oft] Hm come of 20 stars] Hm starre (perhaps a misprint, as it reads stars in l.13)   thy] Hm the 33 if] Hm of 35 Espilus kneeling] Helicon has the more appropriate direction Both kneeling to her Maiestie 37 Helicon follows with the note This Song was sung before the Queenes most excellent Maiestie, in Wansted Garden: as a contention betweene a Forrester and a Sheepheard for the May-Ladie. The Text of Sidney’s Arcadia The first or ‘Old’ version of Sidney’s The Countess of Pembroke’s Arcadia contains five books, divided by ‘Eclogues’ sung by the shepherds at singing-­meets. There are many other poems and songs scattered through the narrative. This version survives in a number of manuscripts; many other manuscripts contain one or more of the songs. The greatly expanded and recast ‘New’ Arcadia exists in a single manuscript in the

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Cambridge University Library. Sidney appears not to have completed the revision: the manuscript breaks off in the middle of a sentence, half-way through the Third Book. The incomplete New Arcadia was printed in 1590 by John Windet for William Ponsonby. The posthumous publication of Sidney’s works in the 1590s was overseen by his sister Mary, Countess of Pembroke, and his friend Fulke Greville. Greville probably edited this volume himself. The next edition (1593), also by Windet for Ponsonby, ‘completed’ the text by adding Books III–V of the very different narrative of the Old Arcadia. Further editions followed in 1598 (London: Richard Field for William Ponsonby), 1599 (Edinburgh: Robert Waldegrave) and 1613 (London: Humphrey Lownes for Simon Waterson). All these three editions added other works after the Arcadia. All printed editions are cited in these notes by year of publication. The following abbreviations (following Woudhuysen, Ashgate Research Companion, 2.42: see Introduction, p. 108, n. 145) have been used for manuscripts: Old Arcadia (OA) mss: As: Huntington Library MS HM.162 (Ashburnham MS) Bo: Bod MS e Mus. 37 Cl: Folger MS H.b.1 (Clifford MS) Da: BL MS Addl 41204 (Davies MS) Hm: BL MS Addl 61821 (Helmingham Hall MS) Je: Jesus College, Oxford MS 150 Le: BL MS Addl 41498 (Lee MS) Ph: BL MS Addl 38892 (Phillipps MS) Qu: The Queen’s College, Oxford MS 301 St: St John’s College, Cambridge MS I.7 New Arcadia ms: Cm: Cambridge University Library MS Kk.1.5 (2) Manuscript poetic miscellanies (only those cited in the notes: the poems may occur in other miscellanies as well): Fl: Folger MS 2071.7 Ma: Marsh’s Library, Dublin MS Z.3.5.21 Ra: Bod MS Rawl. Poet. 85



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47. Philip Sidney, ‘Come, shepherd’s weeds’ Text based on Philip Sidney, The Countesse of Pembrokes Arcadia, London: John Windet for William Ponsonby, 1590, fol. 77r (sig. L5r). Also found in all OA mss. except Je, and in Cm, 1593 (fol. 34r–v). 2 chance] 1590, Qu; all other mss., and 1593 and later edd. change 48. Philip Sidney, ‘My sheep are thoughts’ Text based on Philip Sidney, The Countesse of Pembrokes Arcadia, London: John Windet for William Ponsonby, 1590, fol. 111v (sig. P7v). Also found in all OA mss., Cm, 1593 (fol. 56r), Fl, Ma. 7 they] Fl, Ma I 49. Philip Sidney, ‘And are you there old Pas?’ Text based on Philip Sidney, The Countesse of Pembrokes Arcadia, London: John Windet for William Ponsonby, 1590, fols 237v–240r (sigs 2H5v–2H8v). Also found in all OA mss. except Le. Not in 1593. Only the most significant variants are noted below. Cosma] Hyppa all through in As, Cl, Da, Je, Hm, Ph, Qu Nico. Pas. Dorus] So, as it should be, in most mss., but Nico. Dorus in 1590. 3 thriue and thee] As, Cl thryving bee; PH yet surely I 8 Dorcas] Bo, Cl, Da, Je, Hm, Ph, Qu Dorus; St Dicus corrected to Dorcas 9 raged] emending raid, rayde, rayed in 1590 and all mss (raynd in As). Ringler explains by a misreading of g as y in a lost seminal ms. 16 was] all mss we  whence] Cl, Da, Je, Hm, Qu when 17 flie] Cl, Da, Qu flee; As fly in 20 pipe and song] Bo, Da, 1590; all other mss song and pipe 25 hat] Je, Qu hart 35 musing] Je, Qu musicke  after-mewing] Je, Qu after meaning (meaning: complaining) 36 licked] Cl like; Hm hooked 37 thou … thou] St, 1590; all other mss yow … yow, no doubt by misreading of contracted yo 39 fitter] all mss better 42 specled] all mss; 1590 spectled 45 eft] As, Je, Ph oft  to] all mss the

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52 Arcad] Other texts have variant forms: Arcades, Arcadia, Arcadias, Arcady 55 widely] Ph wildly; Hm wild 57 not this he … Syrinx] all mss {this not he, who for Siringa’s} 58 teach pastors first] all mss {first pastors taught} 61 holy] As, Cl, Hm, Je, Qu holly; Ph hollowe 98 emblemish] Bo, Da, St embellish 105 tine] Bo, Da, Hm, Je, Ph, Qu time 111 a walking] most mss; 1590 on walking; Ph to walking; Hm, Qu a washing[e] 112 bad] variants byd, bed, bidd in various mss; Ph did 119 vpon] Je, Qu about 122 farre] Je, Qu fayre 132 me] Cl, Ph my  Cosma] As, Cl, Da, Ph Hyppa; Hm, Je, Qu happy 134 Cosma, Cosma] As, Cl, Da Hyppa, hippa; Ph Hyppa; Hm, Je, Qu happy happy 141 me] all mss this 148 hauing] Cl, Hm, Je, Ph, Qu {having of} 149 As, Cl, Da, Hm, Ph, Je have a prose passage at the close, recorded in the notes in the Anthology. 50. Philip Sidney, ‘O sweet woods’ Text based on Philip Sidney, The Countesse of Pembrokes Arcadia, London: William Ponsonby, 1593, fol. 120r–v (sig. V6r–v). Also found in all OA mss except Je. Not in 1590. Only the most significant variants are noted below. Some other variants, inconsequential as to meaning, affect the quantitative metre. In such cases, the metrically correct variant has been adopted without always noting the others. 16 I do] Cl, Da, Le, Ph, Qu do I 17 nor] Bo not; all other mss no  innocence] Cl, Da, Le, Ph, Qu Innocency 20 conning] Ph Common; 1593 comming 21 ruin] Cl, Le Ruyning 23 Line not in Cl, Le   arrogance] Da, Qu arrogancie 26 is] not in mss 30 I do] Cl, Da, Le, Qu do I 32 a lilly] not in 1593 and Qu; occurs in all other mss. 34 safety] emending safely in 1593, Da, St 35 Line not in Le



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38 wants] Ph watches (i.e., looks out for, awaits) 39 lonely] Some mss (As, Bo, Cl, Da, Hm, Ph) appear to read louely (?=​given to love, admitting love) 51. Philip Sidney, ‘You goat-herd gods …’ Text based on Philip Sidney, The Countesse of Pembrokes Arcadia, London: John Windet for William Ponsonby, 1590, fols 95v–96v (sigs N7v–N8v). Also found in all OA mss. and 1593 (fols 113v–114v). Only the most significant variants are noted below. 2 that] 1593 and most mss; Da, Qu which  haunt] St hunt 3 forrests] St frosts 4 playning] Cl, Da, Ph playing 11 plaining] Cl, Da, Ph playing; Hm, Qu, Ra {pleasant} 12 tir’d] Je, Qu, St tryed; Ra cryde 14 sports] all mss except St sport  at] all mss in 16 Am] Cl, Le And 24 vales] As, Cl, Ph, Qu,Ra {valleyes} 35 beasts] Bo, Je, St beast 42 Turnde] Cl, Qu, Ra Turne  serene] Cl, Da, Je, Qu, Ra {Siren}; As serien; Le Sereme (presumably in error) 50 last] Hm, Ra late 53 despite] Cl, Da do spyte 54 day, and morning] Hm and morning 57 state] Cl, Du estate  are] Cl, Da, Qu, Ra {is} 59 hate] all mss, 1593; 1590 haue 75 is this] all mss this is 52. Philip Sidney, ‘Since that to death’ Text based on Philip Sidney, The Countesse of Pembrokes Arcadia, London: John Windet for William Ponsonby, 1590, fols 347v–349v (fols 346v–348v as wrongly printed; sigs 2Y2v–2Y4v). Also found in all OA mss. and 1593. Only the most significant variants are noted below. 2 pryse] St praise 7 cleaue] all mss, 1593; 1590 leaue 12 embassage] Ph imbusshed; Qu embashed (ashamed, reluctant); Cl embraced 18 our earthly] most mss; Cl or earthly; Je thy earthly; 1590, 1593 and such a

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28 in mourning] Cl, Le in morning; Da, Qu {O mourn in}; Je, Ph {O morn in}   thy whitenes die] Da, Hm, Je, Ph and whiteness fly 31 roaring] Ph scritching 32–4 not in As: presumably in error, as the omission disturbs the rhyme-scheme 33 out] all mss not 39 our] As, Ph your 43 doo so] Da, Ph {so do} 47 Vertues] Cl, Qu vertuous 50 playning] Bo, Cl, Da {playing} 54 night] all mss; 1590, 1593 light (obvious error, unless we take mourning =​ morning) 57 Fould] St, Bo, Da, Je Iould; Ph Would (no doubt in error)   thy] Cl, Ph the 75 thy] Cl, Da, Ph the 80 tasteth] St takeste; all other mss {taketh} 81 resolued] As, Da, Je, Le, Qu {dissolved} 83 againe, in youth doth] Cl, Qu in yowth ageane can 90 then] Le, Qu them 93 We] St When 94 reply] Cl, Le apply (i.e., address herself, take measures) 106 men] all mss they 109 restrained] all mss except Cl {refrained} 115 that] all mss which 116 God] Bo, Ph, Je, Qu good; not in Cl 53. Philip Sidney(?), ‘Philisides, the Shepherd good and true’ Text based on BL MS Harley 7392 fols 48v–49r (manuscript-book of Humfrey Coningsby, wrongly ascribed to St Loe Kniveton: see H.R. Woudhuysen, Sir Philip Sidney and the Circulation of Manuscripts, 1558–1640, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996, pp. 278–86). First published in Bernard M. Wagner, ‘New Poems by Sir Philip Sidney’, PMLA 53, 1938, pp. 118–24. Also compared: Ottley: Ottley MS (fol. 4v), National Library of Wales. 3 songes] Ringler reads as Tonges 4 made] Ringler reads as make 6 the] Ottley his 13 thought] Ringler reads as thoughtes 16 alwais] Ottley ever



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19 amonge] Ottley amongest 23 his whip] Ottley the whippe 24 till] Alternative reading in Harley margin: mill 28 best] Ottley reste 30 on (=​one)] Ottley once 54. Thomas Churchyard, ‘Of the Quietness That Plain Country Bringeth’ Text based on Thomas Churchyard, A pleasaunte Laborinth called Churchyardes Chance, London: John Kyngston, 1580, fols 21v–22r (sigs F1v–F2r). Also compared: AH: The Arundel Harington Manuscript, as transcribed in The Arundel Harington Manuscript of Tudor Poetry, ed. Ruth Hughey, 2 vols, Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press, 1960. This appears to reflect an earlier draft of the poem. A transcript of this manuscript in BL MS Addl 28635 shows no fresh variants. 1 rustie] AH Craggye 2 for] AH by 3 nor] AH ne 4 Where] AH nor 5 of] AH for 6 Nor] AH ne 8 as … staffe] AH as packstaff aye they bee 11 I thought] AH me thoughte 12 moste] AH moche 14 The feeld but asks a] AH the fieldes I lyke and 16 Courtly … Milke] AH better meates am well content with mylke 17 easily] AH easlye 18 in deede] AH plaine fare  haue] AH hath 19 doe] AH doth 21 laugh and speake] AH speake and laughe 22 namde] AH knowen 24 fether] AH feathers 25 dale likewise] AH Dales at all 26 doe .. despise] AH esteemes no princelye hall 27 sowre] AH cleare 28 gilted] AH goolden 30 the sured] AH th’assured  troe] AH knowe 33 with tong] AH hym selffe 34 make me] AH I wolde be

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35–6 AH Sence kinges the meane estate in no wyse do disdaine / Then blame me not thowgh i reioyce to rest wheare I remayne. 55. Thomas Blenerhasset, from A Revelation of the True Minerva Text based on Thomas Blenerhasset, A Reuelation of the true Minerua, London: Thomas Dawson for Thomas Woodcock, 1582, sigs A4v–B2r. 56. William Warner, ‘Argentile and Curan’ Text based on William Warner, Albion’s England, London: George Robinson for Thomas Cadman, 1586, pp. 83–7 (sigs L2r–L4r). 57. Abraham Fraunce, Amyntas: The Second Lamentation Text based on Abraham Fraunce, The Lamentations of Amyntas for the death of Phillis, London: John Wolfe for Thomas Newman, 1587, sigs A2v–A3v. Also compared: Yuychurch: Abraham Fraunce, The Countesse of Pembrokes Yuychurch, London: Thomas Orwyn for William Ponsonby, 1591, sigs G2v–G3v. 1–3 not in Yuychurch. 4 heares] Yuychurch rayes 7 no pity taking] Yuychurch noe-pyty-taking 10 goodman] Yuychurch good man 31 Then] Yuychurch And 32 And] Yuychurch Then 33 not in Yuychurch 34 folds] Yuychurch fyelds 37 (the second) lou’d] Yuychurch loued 76 not in Yuychurch 81 somtimes] Yuychurch sometime 85 good turns] Yuychurch good-turns 88 no pitie taking] Yuychurch Noe-pity-taking 91 that] Yuychurch shal 58. Abraham Fraunce, Amyntas: The Last Lamentation Text based on Abraham Fraunce, The Countesse of Pembrokes Yuychurch (London: Thomas Orwyn for William Ponsonby, 1591), sigs K4v–L2r. The lamentations form the second part of Yuychurch. The first part is



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a version of Tasso’s Italian pastoral play Aminta, which concludes with Aminta’s winning the hand of Silvia. Fraunce changes the latter’s name to Phillis, and links up Tasso’s comedy with Watson’s lamentations by writing in a connecting passage. The third part of Yuychurch (1592) opens with a celebration of the ‘feast of Amyntas’ inaugurated at the end of the present poem, and consists of a series of metamorphic tales told by the shepherds (including #61, ‘Arcadian Syrinx’). Also compared: 1587: Abraham Fraunce, The Lamentations of Amyntas for the death of Phillis, London: John Wolfe for Thomas Newman, 1587, sigs D4v–E1v, titled ‘The last Lamentation, and the death of Amyntas’. 2 Twelfth day came at last] 1587 Came th’eleuenth daie in accord with the plan of that volume. See headnote in the Anthology. 25 Thyrsis] 1587 (like the Latin) Damon 27 good Daphne, when soe thou] 1587 And thou faire Amarillis, when thou (Again, Amarillis is the name in the Latin.) 29 now, now at length] 1587 now tis certaine 30 Followed by these lines in 1587, translating the Latin: Hils and dales farewel, you pleasant walks of Amintas, / Wells and fludds farewell, sometime the delyte of Amintas, / Now shal I neuer more my sorrowes vtter among you, / Now shal I neuer more with clamors vainly molest you. 58 then] not in 1587 76 shafts] 1587 shaft 80 deare] 1587 due 81 and vines] 1587 rype grapes   1587 follows this line with another, translating the Latin: Popplar t’Alcides, and Oliues vnto Minerua. (Alcides: Hercules) 82 1587 Gentle Amaranthus thou fairest flowre of a thousand 85 parke] 1587 fields 92 hills and dales] 1587 hills, by the dales 93 The 1587 text (following the Latin) ends with this line. 59. John Trussel(?), An Old-Fashioned Love, Epistle I Text based on I[ohn?] T[russel?] Gent, An Ould Facioned Love. Or a loue of the Ould facion, London: P[eter] S[hort] for William Mattes, 1594, sigs B1r–B3v.

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Text based on Bod MS Rawl. Poet. 85, fol. 84v. Printed here for the first time. 9 growndes] conjectural spelling (following 10) of word lost in margin. 17, 18 remayninge, complayninge] conjectural spellings of words lost in margin. Final e clearly visible in remayninge. 61. Abraham Fraunce, ‘Arcadian Syrinx’ Text based on Abraham Fraunce, The Third part of the Countesse of Pembrokes Yuychurch. Entituled, Amintas Dale, London: Thomas Woodcock, 1592, fol. 10r–v (sig. C4r–v). See note on #58. 62. ‘A Tale of Robin Hood’ Text based on BL MS Harley 367, fol. 150r–v. First published in Furnivall, Ballads from Manuscripts, London: Ballads Society, 1868–73, vol. 1, pp. 295–8. 30 Lyghtning’s] MS appears to read lyghtmire’s: perhaps an error, or otherwise unrecorded conflation of lightning and nightmare. 99–100 These lines are indistinct in the ms owing to an early fold. The reading follows the (already conjectural, at seekinge) text in Furnivall, p. 298, as broadly confirmed by Helen Cooper’s reconstruction from the faint traces remaining. See Helen Cooper, ‘A Tale of Robin Hood: Robin Hood as Bishop’, Medieval Cultural Studies: Essays in Honour of Stephen Knight, ed. Ruth Evans, Helen Fulton and David Matthews, Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2006, pp. 75–90. 117 Thus] Supplied from the catchword at the bottom of the page. 63. Angel Day, from Daphnis and Chloe Text based on Daphnis and Chloe [with] The Shepheards Holidaie. By Angell Daye, London: Robert Waldegrave, 1587, sigs L3v–L4v.



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64. George Peele, ‘An Eclogue Gratulatory to Robert Earl of Essex’ Text based on George Peele, Eglogue Gratulatorie. Entituled: To the right honorable, and renowmed Shepheard of Albions Arcadia: Robert Earle of Essex and Ewe, for his welcome into England from Portugall, London: Richard Jones, 1589. The poem occupies the entire book. 4 lookes] emending the clearly wrong bookes 123, 125 thilk, thilke] emending the clearly wrong thick, thicke 168 thilke (second time)] again emending the clearly wrong original thicke (cf. 123, 125). 65. George Peele, From Descensus Astraeae Text based on George Peele, Descensus Astrææ. The Device of a Pageant, borne before M. William Web, Lord Maior, London: William Wright, [1591], pp. 3–6 (sigs A2r–A3v). 23 in vaine:] The 1591 text lacks any punctuation after vaine, inverting the obvious sense. 42 spring] emending the clearly wrong spiing in 1591. 66. ‘Apollo and Daphne’, from the Bisham Entertainment Text based on Speeches Delivered to Her Maiestie This Last Progresse, at the Right Honorable the Lady Russels, at Bissam, the Right Honorable the Lorde Chandos at Sudley, at the Right Honorable the Lord Norris, at Ricorte, Oxford: John Barnes, 1592, sigs B1r–B2v. 67. Arthur Gorges, ‘An Eclogue Between a Shepherd and a Herdman’ Text based on BL MS Egerton 3165, fols 101v–104v. First published in H.E. Sandison (ed.), The Poems of Sir Arthur Gorges, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1953. Also compared: Cam: Cambridge University Library MS Dd.5.75, fols 39v–40r Rhap: Francis Davison (ed.), A Poetical Rapsody, London: V[alentine] S[immes] for John Baily, 1602, sigs C8r–C10r (headed ‘II. Eglogve. Shepheard. Heard-man.’) These two sources present an earlier version of the text, as borne out by some earlier, cancelled readings in Egerton. 15117: BL MS Addl. 15117 fols 10v–11r, an incomplete text (ll.1–52 only, set to music) following Egerton

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1 with] Rhap by 4 hoate] Cam from (The preceding the thus becomes =​thee.) 5 framde] Cam, Rhap made (the earlier cancelled reading in Egerton) 6 for proofe of] 15117 of proofe for   Phoebus] Rhap Summer 8 thes] 15117, Rhap, Cam the 9 For Daphne evar] Rhap Where gentle Daphnee 10 flowringe] Rhap flowry; 15117 lowry 14 Rhap That should her Garland dight 17 Yett thoughe that] Rhap But, whereas  beare] 15117 bears 18 favoure] Cam favours 19 loveth] Cam loved 20 those] Cam these 21 nowe] Not in Rhap 22 love ys lodgd] Cam loue lodged   so] 15117 to 23 of] Rhap on  flockes] Rhap, Cam flocke 25 besott] 15117 befitt 27 beyonde] Rhap aboue 32 shephearde] Rhap, Cam {shepherd’s} 33 ys] Rhap be 35 favoure scornes] Cam favou[r]s scorn 36 of] Rhap By 37 Rhap Wherefore I warne thee to be wise 38 wake] Rhap, Cam {walke} (presumably a misprint) 39 lovely] Rhap lowly 40 make] Cam mate 41 nor] Rhap no   Pearles nor golde] Cam gold nor pearles 42 sylken] 15117 silk in 44 that vayles] Rhap Which vaile 45–8 These lines are a later marginal insertion in Egerton, transplanted from Gorges’s translation of a French poem by Desportes about Daphne. This explains the different metrical pattern. Lines 43–4 also echo this piece. 15117 regularizes the metre in a variant version: wher is noe muske nor amber fyne to please the dayntie nose, / but wher is worne the sweet woodbynd the violet and the rose; The lines are missing in Cam, Rhap. 49 Turtles] Rhap Lasses  bynn] 15117 bee 53 raveste] Cam liest 55 hyghe] Cam, Rhap great (the original, cancelled reading in Egerton) 57 for] Rhap the  I] Cam Ile [=​I’ll]



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61 And … tales] Cam, Rhap {for proof whereof old books} (the original, cancelled reading in Egerton) 62 how] Cam, Rhap that 65, 67 esteemd, deemd] Changed from the earlier {beloved … proved}, as found in Cam, Rhap, and original, cancelled readings in Egerton. Sandison suggests the change was made to avoid the repetition of prove … proved in 66–7 66 Shepheard] Rhap Shepheards 69 wee] Rhap I 71 Cam, Rhap {Our courages take as large scope}   Our] Rhap My 72 happ] Cam, Rhap {haps} 74 nor] Rhap And 77 other] Cam others (=​other’s, about anyone else) 78 Eye] Cam eyes (A plural subject with singular verb was accepted practice.) 79 passion] Cam passions (See previous note.) 83 fevar] Cam fier 84 Shepheards] probably =​‘shepherd is’. But cf. Rhap Such faith’s in Shepheards found. 88 endure] Cam t’endure 90 fancye breeds] Cam fancies breed 95 And tyll out of this dreame] Rhap And whilst out of thy dreame  this] Cam thie 97 happlesse] Rhap wretched  flocks] Cam flocke 98 this prowde desyre] Cam these proud desires 99 wreched plyght] Rhap woefull state 119 delaye] Rhap allay 68. Arthur Gorges, ‘The Country Lass’ Text based on BL MS Egerton 3165, fols 97v–98r. First published in H.E. Sandison (ed.), The Poems of Sir Arthur Gorges, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1953. 69. William Byrd, ‘The Herdman’s Happy Life’ Text based on William Byrd, Superivs. Psalmes, Sonets, and songs of sadnes and pietie, made into Musicke of fiue parts, London: Thomas East, 1588, song 19 (sig. E1r). Also compared: Helicon sig. S3r–v, titled ‘The Heard-mans happie life’: substantively

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identical with the 1588 text, though 1588 repeats the last two lines of the first stanza, and by implication the others too, presumably for musical reasons. 4286: BL MS Harley 4286 fol.  67v, exactly following Helicon but ­omitting the first stanza Robin: Poor Robin 1697. An Almanack, London: J. Leake, 1697, sig. B1v, omitting the second stanza. 1–6 Not in 4286 3 heardmen wild] Robin Shepherds poor 7–12 Not in Robin 20 ‘steeme] Robin weigh 22 it] Robin it’s 30 it] Not in Robin 70. William Byrd, ‘Though Amaryllis dance in green’ Text based on William Byrd, Superivs. Psalmes, Sonets, and songs of sadnes and pietie, made into Musicke of fiue parts, London: Thomas East, 1588, song 12 (sig. D1v). Also compared: Helicon, sig. T4v. 4 Corina can] Not in Helicon. 5 their] Helicon her. 71. Robert Greene, ‘The Shepherd’s Ode’ Text based on Robert Greene, Ciceronis Amor. Tullies Loue, London: Robert Robinson for Thomas Newman and John Winington, 1589, pp. 53–6 (sigs H3r–H4v). 72. Robert Greene, ‘Doron’s Jig’ Text based on Helicon, sigs G3v–G4r. Also compared: Menaphon: Robert Greene, Menaphon, London: T[homas] O[rwin] for Sampson Clarke, 1589, sigs D4v–E1r. Title] Menaphon Dorons Iigge. 2 little] Menaphon; Helicon pretty 3 pretty] Menaphon; Helicon little (Menaphon text followed in 2–3 as its order of epithets better suits lambs and nymphs respectively.) 6 Like as] Menaphon Like



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73. Robert Greene, ‘Doron’s Eclogue Joined with Carmela’s’ Text based on Robert Greene, Menaphon, London: T[homas] O[rwin] for Sampson Clarke, 1589, sigs K3v–K4v. 14 are] Menaphon, 2nd edn 1599; emending and in the 1st edn 74. Robert Greene, ‘The Description of the Shepherd and His Wife’ Text based on Robert Greene, Greenes Mourning Garment, London, I[ohn] W[olfe] for Thomas Newman, 1590, pp. 10–12 (sigs B4r–C1v). 75. Robert Greene, ‘The Shepherd’s Wife’s Song’ Text based on Robert Greene, Greenes Mourning Garment, London, I[ohn] W[olfe] for Thomas Newman, 1590, pp. 12–13 (sigs C1v–C2r). 76. Robert Greene, ‘The Song of a Country Swain at the Return of Philador’ Text based on Robert Greene, Greenes Mourning Garment: Given Him by Repentance at the Funerals of Love, London: George Purslow, 2nd edn, 1616, sigs K1r–K2v. The only extant copy of the first edition (1590) is imperfect, lacking the full text of this song. The surviving part of the text differs substantively from the second edition only in one minor variant noted below. 44 would] 1590 could 77. Robert Greene, ‘Of the Vanity of Wanton Writings’ Text based on Robert Greene, Greenes Vision: Written at the instant of his death, London: Thomas Newman [1592], sigs B1r–B2v. 56 pleasing] emending pleasings in original 92 places] emending place in original 78. Thomas Lodge, Old Damon’s Pastoral Text based on Helicon (sigs D1v–D2r). Also compared: Parnassus: lines 25–8 only in Englands Parnassus, London: N[icholas]. L[ing].[,] C[uthbert]. B[urby]. and Thomas Hayes, 1600, p. 43 (sig. D6r). 28 assembling] Parnassus dissembling, obviously an error

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Text based on Helicon, sigs P1v–P2r. Also compared: Ros: Thomas Lodge, Rosalynde. Euphues golden legacie, London: Thomas Orwin for T[homas] G[ubbin] and John Busbie, 1590, fol. 64 (wrongly printed 59)v–65r (sigs R4v–S1r). 2 bonny-Lasse] Ros the bonnie Lasse 29 an] Ros a 30 hoe many an] Ros ho with manie a 32 Ros And to the Church they hied them fast 80. Thomas Lodge, ‘A Pleasant Eclogue between Montanus and Corydon’ Text based on Thomas Lodge, Rosalynde: Euphues’ Golden Legacy, London: Thomas Orwin for T[homas] G[ubbin] and John Busbie, 1590, fols 16v–19r (sigs E4v–F3r). 33 A gaine in seeming] emending the original Againe, in seeming 81. Thomas Lodge, Phillis, Sonnet 4 Text based on Thomas Lodge, Phillis, London: John Busby, 1593, sig. B3v. 82. Thomas Lodge, Phillis, Sonnet 12 Text based on Thomas Lodge, Phillis, London: John Busby, 1593, sig. C3v. Also compared: Helicon sig. M3r, titled ‘The Sheepheard Damons passion’. Contrary to the usual practice in the Anthology, the text follows Phillis rather than Helicon, to ensure parity with Sonnet 4 (#81). 12 you] Helicon ye 83. Thomas Lodge, ‘To Reverend Colin’ Text based on Thomas Lodge, A fig for Momus: Containing Pleasant varietie, included in Satyres, Eclogues, and Epistles, London: Clement Knight, 1595, sigs B4r–C2r.



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84. Christopher Marlowe, ‘The Passionate Shepherd to His Love’ Text based on Helicon, sigs Aa1v–Aa2r. Also compared: 148: Bod MS Rawl. Poet. 148, fol. 96v (43v in sectional sequence) PP: The Passionate Pilgrime, London: William Jaggard, 1599, sig. D5r–v Ballad: (BL, ‘Roxburghe’ Collection I.205): ‘A most excellent Ditty of the Louers promises to his beloued. To a sweet new tune called, Liue with me and be my Loue.’, London: Thomas Symcock, c.1629 Walton: Izaak Walton, The Compleat Angler, London: T[homas] Maxey for Richard Marriot, 1653, pp. 66–7 (sigs F1v–F2r), titled ‘The Milk maids Song’ 1 Come liue] PP, Ballad Live 3–4 PP That hilles and vallies, dales and fields, / And all the craggy mountaines yeeld.; Walton That vallies, Groves, or hils, or fields, / Or woods and steepie mountains yeelds.; 148 That hills and valleis, groves, and fields, superseding earlier reading That valleis, groves, the hills and fields 5 And] PP There; Walton Where 4 or] 148 and  steepie] 148 steepest 5 And] 148 Where 6 Seeing] 148, PP, Walton And see  theyr] Walton our, which gives a very different class orientation to the poem. The wooing shepherd and his love now become owners of flocks and employers of hirelings. 7 to] PP by 8 sings] 148, PP, Walton, Ballad sing 9 PP There will I make thee a bed of Roses   And] 148 Wher 10 And] PP With Walton And then   poesies] PP poses 13–16 not in 148, PP 15 Fayre lined slippers] Walton Slippers lin’d choicely 17–20 Replaced in Ballad by the following stanza: Thy silver dishes fild with meate, / As precious as the Gods doe eate, / Shall on an Ivory Table be / Prepar’d each day for thee and me. (meate: food of all kinds: the basic meaning) 19 148 If these delightes thy minde may move? replacing earlier reading And if these thinges thy minde may move? 20 Come] PP Then 21–4 not in PP 22 May-morning] Ballad faire morning 23 may] Ballad might 24 Then] Ballad To

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Text based on Helicon, sig. Aa2r–v. Also compared: 148: Bod MS Rawl. Poet. 148, fols 96v-97r PP: The Passionate Pilgrime, London: William Jaggard, 1599, sig.D5v Ballad: BL, Roxburghe Collection (I.205), titled ‘The Ladies prudent answer to her Loue. To the same tune’, London: Thomas Symcock, c.1629 (following the previous piece) Walton: Izaak Walton, The Compleat Angler, London: T[homas] Maxey for Richard Marriot, 1653, pp. 67–8 (sig. F2r–v), titled ‘The Milk maids mothers answer’ 1 If all the] in 148, replaces earlier cancelled reading And if the world  all] PP that 3 pleasures might] 148 thinges my mynde 5–8, 9–12 148, Ballad transpose these two stanzas. 5 Time driues the flocks] Walton But time drives flocks 6 When] 148 The 8 And] Walton T’hen  complains] 148 complayne  cares] Ballad times. 9 The flowers doe fade in] Ballad But flowers fade, and; 148 But flowers fade in 10 To] 148 And 13–16 not in 148 15 wither] Ballad withers 13–20 148 amalgamates these two stanzas in a single one: Yie belt of straws, and bedds of roses, / Yie capp, yie kirtle, and hie poses: /   Soone wear, soone wither, soone forgotten, / In follie ripe, in reason rotten. In these lines, {yie} is always the replaced reading for cancelled {your}. 17–20 Ballad replaces this stanza with the following, to match the corresponding stanza introduced there in #84: What should you talke of dainties then, / Of better meate than serueth men: / All that is vaine, this onely good, / Which God doth blesse and send for food. 21 148 Could yeers but last, and loue but feede   But could youth] Ballad If you [perhaps error for youth] could 23 these] Walton those



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86. ‘Another of the Same Nature’ Text based on Helicon, sigs 2A2v–2A3v. 87. Psalm 23, trans. Sir John Davies Text based on Edinburgh University Library MS Laing III.444, fol. 11r. First published in Davies’s Works in Verse and Prose, ed. A.B. Grosart, Blackburn: Fuller Worthies’ Library, private circulation, 1869–76. 6 righteous] emendation suggested by Grosart for MS right 88. Andrew Willett, ‘On Lazy and Sleeping Shepherds’ Text based on Andrew Willett, Sacrorum Emblematum Centuria Una, Cambridge: John Legatt, printer to the University,?1592, sig. E2v. 89. Edward Dyer(?), ‘Coridon to His Phillis’ Text based on Helicon, sig. L2r–v. Also compared: Phoenix: The Phoenix Nest, London: John Jackson, 1593, pp. 61–2 (sig. I3r–v). 22 richest] Phoenix brauest (i.e., most beautiful) 90. Barnabe Barnes, ‘One night I did attend my sheep’ Text based on Barnabe Barnes, Parthenophil and Parthenophe. Sonnettes, Madrigals, Elegies and Odes, London: [John Wolfe, 1593], pp. 121–3 (sigs R1r–R2r). 4 they] emending original the 91. Barnabe Barnes, ‘Sing sing (Parthenophil)’ Text based on Barnabe Barnes, Parthenophil and Parthenophe. Sonnettes, Madrigals, Elegies and Odes [London: John Wolfe, 1593], pp. 105–7 (sigs P1r–P2r). 47 Capplettes] emending Clapplettes 59 without] Grosart’s emendation of the obviously wrong with

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Text based on Thomas Heywood, Oenone and Paris [London: Richard Jones, ?1594], sigs C1v–C3v. All publication details are conjectural, as the only known copy lacks a title-page. 93. Thomas Heywood, from Amphrisa the Forsaken Shepherdess Text based on Amphrisa the forsaken Shepheardesse in Thomas Heywood, Pleasant Dialogves and Dramma’s, London: R[ichard] O[ulton] for R[ichard] H[earne], to be sold by Thomas Slater, 1637, pp. 192, 200–1(sigs N8v, O4v–O5r). 94. Thomas Heywood, Mercury’s Song Text based on Jupiter and Io in Thomas Heywood, Pleasant Dialogves and Dramma’s, London: R[ichard] O[ulton] for R[ichard] H[earne], to be sold by Thomas Slater, 1637, pp. 172–3 (sigs M6v–M7r). 95. Richard Barnfield, from The Affectionate Shepherd, the Second Day Text based on Richard Barnfield, The Affectionate Shepherd, London: John Danter for T[homas] G[ubbin] and E[sic: for Thomas?] N[ewman], 1594, sigs B4v–C2r. 23 not] missing in the 1594 text – an obvious error 96. Richard Barnfield, from ‘The Shepherd’s Content’ Text based on Richard Barnfield, The Affectionate Shepherd, London: John Danter for T[homas] G[ubbin] and E[sic: for Thomas?] N[ewman], 1594, sigs E1v–2r, E5r–F[wrongly printed E]3r, F4r–v. 97. Richard Barnfield, Cynthia, Sonnet XV Text based on Richard Barnfield, Cynthia. With Certaine Sonnets, and the Legend of Cassandra, London: Humfrey Lownes, 1598, sig. C5r. Also compared: Helicon, sig. P2r, titled ‘The Sheepheards Sonnet’. 1 A] Helicon My 7 pleasure] Helicon pleasures



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98. Richard Barnfield, Cynthia, Sonnet XVIII Text based on Richard Barnfield, Cynthia. With Certaine Sonnets, and the Legend of Cassandra, London: Humfrey Lownes, 1598, sig. C6v. 99. Robert Parry, from Moderatus Text based on Robert Parry, Moderatus, The most delectable and famous Historie of the BLACKE Knight, London: Richard Jones, 1595, sigs S4v–T1r. 100. Francis Sabie, ‘Damon’s Ditty’ Text based on Francis Sabie, Pan’s Pipe: Three Pastorall Eglogues … with other poetical Verses delightfull, London: Richard Jones, 1595, sigs D2v–D3r. 40 droue] emending original driue (This form of the word is not recorded in the past tense.) 101. Robert Sidney, ‘Shepherd, i’faith now say’ Text based on BL MS Addl 58435, fols 5r–6v. First published in Katherine Duncan-Jones, ‘“Rosis and Lysa”: Selections from the Poems of Sir Robert Sidney’, ELR 9, 1979, pp. 248–50. 1, 3 Nymphe, Shepheard] Full speech-headings inserted in this edition, following the spellings in the manuscript heading to the poem. The manuscript indicates speakers only by N and S. 102. Robert Sidney, ‘Day which so bright did shine’ Text based on BL MS Addl 58435, fol. 27r–v. First published in P.J. Croft (ed.), The Poems of Robert Sidney, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984. From differences of ink and script, the last two stanzas seem to be afterthoughts, possibly made at different times, and (perhaps later still) lightly scored through. The corrections in the earlier stanzas appear to have been made at the same time that the sixth stanza was composed. 4 thee] replaces deleted yow in ms. 28 all usefull] replaces deleted the strongests [sic] in ms. 30 all may] replaces deleted the hils in ms. 33 as now with new] replaces deleted as with now new in ms.

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34 which had not] replaces deleted not from him in ms. 35 owne] replaces deleted flock in ms.  vnknown] replaces deleted others in ms. 38 greeuing] replaces deleted sighing in ms. 40 are] replaces deleted shew in ms.  blott] Croft’s persuasive reading, though the indistinct ms. seems to read lott. 41 foyld] Indistinct; may be fayld  ease] replaces deleted help in ms. 42 safety] This word is very unclear. It may possibly be salving (i.e., either ‘saving, salvation’ or ‘cure’) 103. William Smith, Chloris, Sonnet 3 Text based on William Smith, Chloris, or the Complaint of the passionate despised Shepheard, London: Edmund Bollifant, 1596, sig. A3v. 104. William Smith, Chloris, Sonnet 5 Text based on William Smith, Chloris, or the Complaint of the passionate despised Shepheard, London: Edmund Bollifant, 1596, sig. A4v. 105. John Dickenson, Description of Arcadia, from The Shepherd’s Complaint Text based on John Dickenson, The Shepheardes Complaint. A passionate Eclogue, written in English Hexameters, London: William Blackwall [?1596], sig. A3r–v. 106. John Dickenson, from The Shepherd’s Complaint Text based on John Dickenson, The Shepheardes Complaint. A passionate Eclogue, written in English Hexameters, London, William Blackwall [?1596], sigs B1v–B3r. 107. ‘In a field full fair of flowers’ Text based on BL MS Harley 6910, fols 169v–170r. Published here for the first time.



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108. ‘The Unknown Shepherd’s Complaint’ Text based on Helicon, sig. H1r–v. Also compared: 6910: BL MS Harleian 6910, fol. 156r Weelkes: Thomas Weelkes, Madrigals to Three, Four, Five, and Six Voices, London: Thomas Este, 1597, sigs B1v–B2v (with music). Repetitions in this text for obviously musical reasons have not been noted below. PP: The section ‘Sonnets to sundry notes of Musicke’ in The Passionate Pilgrime, London: William Jaggard, 1599, sigs C6r–C8r 1–4 Weelkes My flockes feed not, all is amisse, all is amisse, Loue is dying, Causer of this, causer of this, of this. Weelkes compresses the first 4 lines of each stanza into two. 1 Flocks feede … breede not] 6910 My flocke feedes not, my Ewes breeds not 2 speede … amisse] 6910 speedes not in their blis 3 PP, 6910 {Love is dying, faith [PP Faithes] defying}  denying] 6910 dying, and omits the second is 4 Harts renying] 6910 her [i.e., the mistress’s] denyinge [of love to the speaker] 5 my] Weelkes our  Iiggs] Weelkes gigs  quite] 6910 cleane 6 Ladies loue is] 6910 layes of Loue are 7 6910 Where my ioyes were firmely linkt by loue  her] Weelkes our 8 a nay is] 6910 annoyes are; Weelkes annoy is 9–12 6910 One silly poore crosse hath wrought me this losse / O fickle fortune cruell cursed Dame / Now you may see that inconstancie / In women more then I my selfe haue found. (The last line, with neither rhyme nor obvious sense, is clearly corrupt.) 9 One] Weelkes our 12 men remaine] Weelkes many men to be 13,15 These lines not in Weelkes. 14 6910 lo how forlorne I, liue in thrall 15 helpe] 6910 helpes 16 cruell] 6910 cursed  fraughted] 6910, Weelkes fraught 17 can… deale] 6910 will sound no [deal presumably omitted in error]  can] Weelkes will 18 bell rings] 6910 ring a 19 curtaile] 6910 curtail’d   that wont to] 6910 which would 20 afraide] 6910 dismayd

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21–4 6910 My sights [sighes?] so deepe, doth cause him to weepe / With howling noyse to wayle my woefull plight, / My shrikes resoundes, throughe Arcadia groundes / Like thousandes vanquisht men in deadly fight. 21 With] Weelkes my 22 In howling-wise] Weelkes with howling noyse 23 hartlesse] Weelkes has the attractive reading harcklesse (not harking, unheeding) 25–8 Weelkes Cleere wells spring not, cheerefully spring not, cherefully cheerefully, / heardes stand weeping, ferefully, fearefully. 26 plants] 6910 palmes 27 stand] PP stands  Flocks all] 6910 Ecchoes 28 back] 6910 looke PP blacke  fearefully] 6910 pittyfully 29 our pleasure] 6910 the pleasures; Weelkes our pleasures 30 meeting] 6910, PP, Weelkes {meetings} 31 sports … are] PP sport … is   vs] 6910 greenes 32 our loue] 6910 alas   our loue is] Weelkes our loues are   for Loue] 6910 now Dolus 33–6 Not in 6910. The lamenting shepherd thus adopts the name Dolus rather than Coridon in the MS version. 33 Loue] Weelkes lasse  thy] Weelkes the 34 For sweete] Weelkes for a sweet   moane] Weelkes, PP woe 36 Weelkes other help for him ther’s none, other help for him I know ther’s none. 109. Thomas Bastard, ‘To Thomas Strangways’ Text based on T[homas] B.[astard], Chrestoleros. Seuen bookes of Epigrames, London: Richard Bradock for I[ohn] B[roome], 1598, Book 7, sonnet 23 (pp. 170–71, sigs M5v–M6r). 110. Henry Lok, Sonnet from Sundry Christian Passions Text based on H[enry] L[ok], Ecclesiastes, Otherwise Called the Preacher … Whereunto are annexed sundrie Sonets of Christian Passions, London: Richard Field, 1597, p. 6 of this section (sig. K3v). Also compared: H[enry] L[ok], Sundry Christian Passions, contained in two hundred Sonnets London: Richard Field, 1593, p. 6 (sig. A3v). There are no substantive variants between the two texts.



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111. Nicholas Breton, ‘The Lord he is my shepherd’ Text based on Nicholas Breton, The Sovles Heavenly Exercise Set downe in diuerse godly Meditations, both prose and verse, London: William Leake, 1601, pp. 103–8 (sigs H4r–H6v). 112. Nicholas Breton, ‘Upon a dainty hill’ Text based on BL MS Addl 34064, fol. 15r–v. First published in A.B. Grosart (ed.) The Works in Verse and Prose of Nicholas Breton, Chertsey Worthies’ Library, 1879. 113. Nicholas Breton, ‘In time of yore’ Text based on BL MS Addl 34064, fol. 18r–v. First published in A.B. Grosart (ed.), The Works in Verse and Prose of Nicholas Breton, Chertsey Worthies’ Library, 1879. 10 sexes] emending ms? sences or ?seuces. Grosart emends safely and feebly to shepperds. 114. Nicholas Breton, ‘Fair in a morn’ On the relation of this poem to #115, see headnote to #115 in the Anthology. Text based on Helicon, sig. G4r–v. Also compared: 85: Bod MS Rawl. Poet. 85 fol. 1v 6910: BL MS Harley 6910, fol. 140r 34064: BL MS Addl 34064, fol. 17v Morley: Thomas Morley, The First Booke of Ayres, London: William Barley, 1600, D3v–D4r Every two lines in Helicon are set as a single line in all manuscripts and in Morley. 1 ô] 6910 the  fairest] 85 fayre 2 neuer] Morley euer 3 Morley When as the sun but not the same that shined in the ayre  shone] 85 shinde  though] MSS {yet} 5–8, 9–12 transposed in Morley 5–8 Morley offers a notably different version: But of the earth no earthly Sunne, and yet no earthly creature, / There stoode a face was neuer face, that carried such a feature

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5 of] not in Helicon, no doubt by error 6 34064 thoughe not an earthly creature; 85 as 34064 but with yet for though; 6910 as 34064 but with and yet not for thoughe not an 7 6910 There shonne a face, Ô neuer face   was] 34064, 85 oh 8 that carried] 85 did carye 9 Morley And on a hill, oh fairest hill was neuer hill so blessed   Vpon] MSS {Now on}  Ô] 6910 a 12 woman] 34064, 85 one man (presumably an error, though may imply ‘So much sorrow was never piled on a single man’); Morley no man (even more difficult to explain). Morley also repeats ll.11–12, presumably as a sort of refrain 13 a] 34064, 85 oh 14 which did] 34064 that doth; 6910 as did; 85 that did   vertue] 6910 vertues 15 helps] 6910, 34064 {heals}; 85 cures 16 man] 6910 to; 85 men 17 This] 6910 That   happy man] 85 happy hap 18 more happy none] Morley no man so hapt (hapt: ?lucky) 19 he] MSS, Morley none  the] 6910 that 20 none] MSS, Morley he 21–4 Morley And as he behold this man beheld [sic], he saw so faire a face, / The which would daunt the fairest here, and staine the brauest grace; 21–4 precede 17–20 in 34064 21 This] 6910 The 22 are] 85 or 23 6910 Had yet the hap, o heauenly hap   guest] 34064 guifte 85 grace 24 hap] 34064 gaze 25 He pitty] Morley Pittie he 26 and] 6910 which  so] 34064 of Morley for 27 As] Morley That 30 as] 34064, Morley that  woods] Morley world 31 with] Morley for   Swaines came foorth] 85 Satyres came   Swaines] Morley Nimphes 32 Sheepheard] Morley Shepherds 33 Song] 85 singe, clearly an error 34 shall] 334064, 85 will  shall be sung] 6910 nor neuer shall; Morley nere will be



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115. Nicholas Breton, ‘Fair Phillis is the shepherds’ queen’ On the relation of this poem to to #114, see headnote in the Anthology. Text based on Helicon, sigs G4v–G5r. Also compared: 85: Bod MS Rawl. Poet. 85 fol. 2r 34064: BL MS Addl 34064, fols 17v–18r Camb: Cambridge University Library MS Dd.5.75, fol. 38v In the manuscripts, every two lines in Helicon are printed as a single long line. 1, 5 Faire] 34064, 85 Sweete at both points; Camb Faire in l.1, Swete in l.5. 2 such a Queene] Camb quene so fair 3 her] 85 the 5 Faire] Camb Sweete 6 eye did yet] MSS {yet did eye} 7 constantst faith] 85 trwest harte  constantst] Helicon constants; 34064 constant 8 kept flocke] 34064, 85 had lambe; Camb kept lambs Followed in 34064, 85, Camb by the additional lines {fair Phillis hath the fairest [85, Camb finest] wit, that [85 as] ever yet the world did breed / and Coridon the truest heart [85 constantest faith], that ever yet ware shepherd’s weed} 9 sweetest] 34064, 85, Camb {onlie} 12 kept Lambs in] 34064, 85, Camb {did keep the} 13 Philomell] 34064 Philomen Sweete Philomell is] Camb Philomila [sic] is 14 though] 34064 yitt; 85 but  be] 34064 was; 85 is 15 dooth] Camb did 16 though] 85 but  be] 85 is 17–20 In the MSS these lines come after 21–4 20 though] 34064 yitt; Camb, 85 but  be] MSS is 21 loue] 85, Camb loues 22 though] 34064, 85 {yet} 23 MSS {And [Camb the] Gardens sweet are Phillis’ grounds} 24 though] MSS {yet}  be] MSS is 25 85 Sith than that only Philis is 26 Sheepheards] Camb sheapheard and (probably by misreading ­contraction for es in earlier copy) 27 the] Camb her 28 her] Camb a

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30 though] MS yitt  be] MS is 31 No Sheepheard no] 34064, Camb {No shepherd go}  the] 34064, Camb {thy} 32 shall] 34064 will 116. Nicholas Breton, ‘A Pastoral of Phillis and Coridon’ Text based on Helicon, sigs E2v–E3r. Also compared: 34064: BL MS Addl 34064 fol. 8r–v Bowre: Brittons Bowre of Delights, London: Richard Jones, 1591, sig. C2r–v, titled ‘A pastorall of Phillis and Coridon’ Arbor: The Arbor of amorous Deuises, London: Richard Jones, 1597, sig. F2r–v, titled ‘A Pastorall of Phillis and Coridon’ Festum: Samuel Pick, Festum Voluptatis, Or the Banquet of Pleasure, [ed.] By S[amuel] P[ick] Gent., London: E. P. for Bernard Langford, 1639, pp. 19–20 (sig. D2r–v). Hyder Rollins adjudges that Helicon followed Arbor and Festum followed Helicon. There is also a ballad version, ‘The Shepheards Delight’ (London: Thomas Symcock, c.1620), printed separately here from the copy in the Roxburghe Collection, BL. 2 dainty] Festum gentle 8 34064, Bowre, Arbor, Festum {That did ever eye behold} 14 that] 34064, Bowre, Arbor and 21 yet] Festum but 117. Nicholas Breton, ‘In the merry month of May’ Text based on Helicon, sig. D3r–v. Also compared: 57: Bod MS Don.c.57, fol. 77 85: Bod MS Rawl. Poet. 85, fol. 3r. 3991: BL MS Harley 3991, fol. 81v, titled ‘Coridon and Phillida’ 34064: BL MS Addl 34064, fol. 16r. 36484: BL MS Addl 36484, fol. 66v 52585: BL MS Addl 52585, fol. 57r Mus.24: BL MS Royal Music 24.d.2 (with music), fols 171v–173r Mus.b: Bod MS Mus.b.1, fol. 135r Mus.d: Bod MS Mus.d.8, fols 3v–5v Adv: National Library of Scotland MS Adv.19.3.4, fol.  13v, titled ‘Phillida and Corydon’; divides the poem into four stanzas Elvetham: The Honorable Entertainement gieuen to the Queenes



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Maiestie in Progresse, at Eluetham in Hampshire, London: John Wolfe, 1591, sig. D3r–v. Este: Michael Este (East), Madrigals to Three, Four, and Five Parts, London: Thomas Este, 1604, sigs B1v–B2r: with music Play: Select Musicall Ayres and Dialogues Book 3 (added in the 2nd edn), London: T[homas] H[arper] for John Playford, 1653, additions p. 27 (sig. Gg2r): with music Many texts, especially those with music, divide the poem into stanzas. 36484, Este, and to a lesser extent Play, repeat words and phrases for musical effect. These repetitions have not been noted below. 2 In] 57, 3991, Play, Mus.b On; 85 Vp in   morne] 52585 morninge Followed in 34064 by these additional lines: with a troope of damsells playinge / forthe the wode for sooth a maying / when anon by the wode side / where that may was in his pride; 85 has the variant version I sawe a troupe of damsells playenge / Forthe they wente than one a mayenge [sic] / And anon by the wood syde / Where that may was in his pride 3 Foorth I walked] 34064 When anon   foorth] Adv Hath  walked] 52585 waked   by the Wood side] 57, 3991, Mus.b, Play {the wood [3991 woods] so wide} 4 When as] Elvetham, 36484, 52585, Mus.24, Este, Mus.d {Where as}; 34064 Where that  his] 57, Adv, 3991, Este, Play, 36484, 52585, Mus.b, Mus.d her 5 There I spied] 34064 I espied; Mus.24 (1st part) I spyed; Mus.24 (2nd & 3rd parts) And there I spyed all alone] not in 36484, Este 6 52585 follows l.6 (as also ll.12, 18 and 24) with ll.25–6 – i.e., the poem is divided into stanzas of 6 lines with ll.25–6 as a refrain. 6 and] 57, Mus.b with 7 there was] 85 they made   God] 3991 I 8 Play, Adv He did love, but she could [Adv would] not  He would] Mus.24 (3rd part) for he would   and] Mus.24 but 8–10 3991, 57 {he could Loue but she could not / His love he said was ever true / nor was mine ere false to you} 9–10 Play, Adv {He said his love was ever true, / She said, none was false to you} (i.e., you have not had to suffer in this way) 8–10 Mus.b follows 3991 for l.8 and Play for ll.9–10 (with spelling variants) 9 Line not in Mus.24 1st & 3rd parts neuer man was] 52585 man was never

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10 none was] 34064, 85 {never} 11 Line not in Mus.24 2nd part 12 should] 34064 cold  haue] 3991 doe; Play, Mus.b, Adv take 13 kisse] Play have kist 15 Till] Adv vntill  did] 57, 3991, Play, Adv, Mus.b {kiss}; 85 had 16 Then] 34064 When  made] Play bade  Sheepheard] 3991, Adv, 52585, Mus.b {shepherds} 17 All] Mus.24 (all parts) and all  heauens] 57, Adv, 3991 {Gods}  truth] 57, 3991 {sooth}  heauens] Play, Mus.b Gods 18 3991, Adv, 57 {Ne’er was lov’d a fairer [Adv sweeter] youth} Play, Mus.b {Ne’r was loved so fair a youth} Neuer] Mus.24 (all parts) that never   lou’d] 34064 lyvde 19–20 52585 Thus with many a prettye toye / naye and yea noe little ioye 19 Thus] 34064, 85, 3991, Adv, Mus.b {Then}  a] not in Mus.24 (all parts)  pretty] Mus.d petty 20 Yea] 57, 3991, Play, Adv, Mus.b {As Yea}  (the second) and] not in Mus.24 (all parts), Mus.b 21 Such] 52585 even 22 will] 34064, 85 {do} Play, Adv would 23 which] 34064, 85, 3991, Mus.b that   had beene long] 36484, 52585 {long had been} 25–6 See note to l.6 on reading in 52585 25 Phillida] 34064, 85 the mayde 26 Was made the Lady] 34064 was the lady; 57, 3991, Play, Adv, Mus.b {was Crown’d the Lady}; 85 was made lady; Mus.d in one part only was made a lady 118. Nicholas Breton, ‘The fields are green’ Text based on BL MS Addl.34064, fol. 6v. First published in A.B. Grosart (ed.) The Works in Verse and Prose of Nicholas Breton, Chertsey Worthies’ Library, 1879. 1 springe] emending MS springes 23 Of] emending MS oh 119. Nicholas Breton(?), ‘A Shepherd’s Dream’ Text based on Helicon, sigs K3v–K4r. Also compared: 34064: BL MS Addl 34064, fols 11v–12r.



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Bowre: Brittons Bowre of Delights, London: Richard Jones, 1591, sigs F5v–F6r, with the same title. 2 among] 34064 amongst 11 sore] 34064 so 15 foorth] 34064, Bowre oute 31 stand] 34064 staie 120. Nicholas Breton, ‘Coridon’s Supplication to Phillis’ Text based on Helicon, sig. H4r–v. Also compared: Bowre: Brittons Bowre of Delights, London: Richard Jones, 1591, sig. F4r–v, with the same title; divided into 8-line stanzas. 34064: BL MS Addl.34064, fol. 10r–v. 9 so] 34064 to 17 bruise] Bowre bruise 21 If it be so] 34064 yf so it be 28 it be so] Bowre so it be 33 consent] 34064 content 35 content] 34064 consent 121. Nicholas Breton, ‘The Second Shepherd’s Song’ Text based on Breton’s The Passionate Shepheard, London: E[dward] Allde for John Tappe, 1604, sigs A3v–B1r. 122. Nicholas Breton, ‘A Farewell to the World’ Text based on Breton’s The Passionate Shepheard, London: E[dward] Allde for John Tappe, 1604, sigs C1v–C4r. 44 purer] emending puer (=​pure) in original. The metre demands two syllables. 46 not] emending now in original, clearly an error 105 flockes] emending flocke in original. All other stanzas rhyme abab. 110 panting] emending painting in original 123. ‘Peace, Shepherd’ Text based on BL MS Addl 15232, fol. 18r–v. Published here for the first time.

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1 The end of this line is missing as the manuscript is damaged at this point. 37 worse] emending worst in ms. to ensure a better rhyme with curse in l.39, in accord with the general rhyme-scheme. 121–2 These lines too are partly missing, being on the verso of the same damaged page. 124. Nicholas Breton(?), ‘When I was a little swain’ Text based on Cambridge University Library MS Dd.5.75, fol.  40r. First published in the edited text of this manuscript, Henry Stanford’s Anthology, ed. Steven W. May, London: Garland, 1988. 23 that] MS that that, the first that in contracted form 125. A Pastoral Riddle Text based on Cambridge Univ. Lib. MS Dd.5.75, fol. 46r. First published in the edited text of this manuscript, Henry Stanford’s Anthology, ed. Steven W. May, London: Garland, 1988. 126. John Lilliat, ‘Upon a Kiss Given’ Text based on Bod MS Rawl. Poet. 148, fols 97v–98v. First published in the edited text of this manuscript, Liber Lilliati: Elizabethan Verse and Song, ed. Edward Doughtie, Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1984. 23 And I] revision in MS of earlier cancelled reading For which 127. John Lilliat, ‘The Shepherdess Her Reply’ Text based on Bod MS Rawl. Poet. 148, fols 100v–101r. First published in the edited text of this manuscript, Liber Lilliati: Elizabethan Verse and Song, ed. Edward Doughtie, Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1984. 25 may] revision in MS of earlier cancelled reading doth 128. John Ramsey(?), ‘An Excellent Pastoral Ditty’ Text based on Bod MS Douce 280, fol. 35v. Published here for the first time.



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129. ‘On the Reported Death of the Earl of Essex’ Text based on BL MS Harley 6910, fols 187r–189v. First published in W.R. Morfill (ed.), Ballads from Manuscripts, vol. 2, Part 2, Hertford: for the Ballad Society by Stephen Austin and Sons, 1873. 130. John Mansell, ‘Votum Primum’ Text based on Bod MS Don.d.152, fol. 24r. Printed here for the first time. 131. ‘The Page’s Pleasant Rustick’ Text based on The Heroicall Adventures of the Knight of the Sea … Oceander, London: William Leake, 1600, sigs E1v–E2v. 132. Edmund Bolton(?), ‘Theorello. A Shepherd’s Idyllion’ Text based on Helicon, sigs B2r–B3v. 133. Edmund Bolton(?), ‘The Shepherd’s Song for Christmas’ Text based on Helicon, sig. R3r–v. 134. ‘Phillida’s Love-Call to Her Coridon, and His Replying’ Text based on Helicon, sigs I4r–I5r. Also compared: 148: Bodleian MS Rawl. Poet. 148, fols 35v–37r (with musical setting: headed ‘Coridon and Philida: In an Italian verse’). See headnote in the Anthology on the possible author. 4286: BL MS Harley 4286, fol. 70v–r (sic: inverted on the page); lacks speech-headings. Crown: Crown Garland of Golden Roses, ed. Richard Johnson, London: G[eorge] Eld for John Wright, 1612, sigs E6r–E7v, titled ‘A new Sonnet of Coridon and Phillida’. This text omits several speech-headings, no doubt in error. 3 calleth] 148 calles me 4 that] not in 148, Crown 7 keepe] Crown feed  flocks] MSS flock 8 Loue] not in Crown, no doubt by error 10 keepe my flock] Crown feed my flocks

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16 knit … knit] 148 make … make 18 neate] 148 feat 24 put] Crown set 27 his] 148 thie 33 goes to] Crown sits at  to] 148 by 34 cherilie] 148 merely (=​merrily) 37 our] 148 Sir 38 And] 148 Sure 40 be so bright] 148 Siren hight (Siren revising earlier cancelled reading sweet are) 42 alack] 148 alas 44 in Ida] 148 on yonder 45 Endimion] In 148, revising earlier cancelled reading in denyinge 48 148 Perdica dame Venus had refus’d 52 flie] 148 flee 58 me not] 148 not me 60 heauen … loues] 148 The heauens … loue   loues] Crown loue 135. John Wootton, ‘Damætas’ Jig in Praise of His Love’ Text based on Helicon, sigs G1v–G2r. 136. ‘W.H.’, ‘Wodenfride’s Song in Praise of Amargana’ Text based on Helicon, sig. I2r–v. 137. Robert Chester, ‘A Poor Shepherd’s Introduction’ Text based on Christ Church College, Oxford MS 184, fol. 46r–v. First published in Poems by Sir John Salusbury and Robert Chester, ed. Carleton Brown, EETS es113, London and Oxford, 1914. 17 these giftes] Carlton Brown’s emendation of MS giftes giftes. befreind] MS befreinds 138. ‘A.W.’, Eclogue upon the Death of Sir Philip Sidney Text based on Francis Davison’s collection A Poetical Rapsody, London: V[alentine] S[immes] for John Baily, 1602, sigs C3v–C7v. Also compared: 85: Bodleian MS Rawl. Poet. 85, fols 93v–98r. 4 Nor] 85 No



Textual notes 23 let] 85 but 25 the] 85 my 32 vnknowne a part of] 85 a parte of vnknowne 36 dolefull] 85 mournfull 41 sits] 85 & later edd. of Rapsody fits  sorrow] 85 sorowes 42 our] 85 do 50 ne’re] 85 neuer 51 paine] 85 paynes (but gayne in the rhyming l.49) 54 Which] 85 That  could] 85 couthe (i.e., knew) 58 minde] 85 will 61 which] 85 that 65 a space] 85 apace 67 with griefe] not in 85 70 help] 85 heart 71 wont] 85 wontst 72 sweete] 85 deepe 82 this] 85 the 83 Ye Shepheards] 85 You sheepherd  leade] 85 leads 85 that] 85 which 87 all] 85 our 92 could] 85 couth 94 Of] 85 Mongst 96 from out] 85 out of 101 Me] so 85, Rhapsody 1611 ed.; earlier edd. Ne 103 Ithe] 85 his 105 Willies] 85 Willye (in error, or as indirect object of raise) 106 set] 85 satt 108 water, wood, and mount] 85 waters, woodes and mountes 120 rend] 85 teare 123 reft] 85 rafte 124 turned] 85 tornd our 139 full colde] not in 85 143 greatest] not in 85 144 feately] 85 sweetlye 151 from] 85 fro 153 waste] 85 must (making away a verb, i.e., depart) 155 the drooping] 85 my dropynge 159 the Earth] 85 vs of 160 with] 85 by 167 ye] 85 you  boyes] 85 swaynes  waking] 85 wakefull

173

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170 can] 85 doth 177 Thy] 85 These  spill] 85 kyll 181 flow] 85 showe 182 jet] 85 lurke 184 could] 85 did 191 Come] 85 And  ye] 85 the 194 These] 85 The  griefe] 85 greeues 203 Alacke] 85 Alas  welladay] 85 welawaye 204 Collin] 85 Cuddy 208 Ay] 85 Ah 208 ruefull Verse hath prickt] 85 ruthfull ryme doth pryck (ruthfull: pitiful) 209 hath hee] 85 he hath  my] 85 our 211 vpkest] 85 upcast 212 water] 85 waters 213 Rimes] 85 rythmes 214 To] 85 In 215 homeward] 85 homewardes 139. Mary Herbert, Countess of Pembroke, ‘A Dialogue between Two Shepherds in Praise of Astraea’ Text based on Francis Davison’s collection A Poetical Rapsody, London: V[alentine] S[immes] for John Baily, 1602, sigs B5r–B6r. 3 The venue, and last two digits of the date, are left blank. 37 there] later edd. of Rapsody, correcting three in 1602 140. ‘Fiction How Cupid Made a Nymph Wound Herself with His Arrows’ Text based on Francis Davison’s collection A Poetical Rapsody, London, V[alentine] S[immes] for John Baily, 1602, sigs B3v–B4v. Also compared: 105: Bod MS Addl B.105, fols 79v–81v (wrongly attributed to Sidney Godolphin) Prince: Le Prince d’Amour, ed. Sir Rudyerd Benjamin, London: William Leake, 1660, pp. 156–8, in appendix with separate titlepage, A Collection of several Ingenious Poems and Songs By the Wits of the Age, with the title ‘Cupids Pastime’ 1 Shepheards] Prince Shepherd 2 a strayed] Prince his stray’d; 105 his wand’ring



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3 the] Prince a 6 cast] Prince spread (destroying the rhyme with l.8) 11 When] Prince Whilst; 105 While 12 Did guide] 105 guided 13 that] 105, Prince thus 15 seekes] 105 strives 18 puttes] Prince put 19 Ne] 105, Prince Nor 21 when] 105, Prince but 22 standing] 105 gazing 24 let] 105, Prince {lets} 27 105 Yet soon he up again did start 32 yeeldeth] 105 yeilding   in midst of] 105, Prince amidst his 33 are] 105, Prince were  great] 105 big 34 hands] 105, Prince hand 37 sweet] 105 fair  the] 105, Prince thy 38 pricke the] 105, Prince {pierce thy} 39 thou knowest] Prince then know’st 41 try she wil] 105 she will try   prick] 105, Prince pierce 42 and] Prince but 45 prickt] 105, Prince peirc’t 46 findes] 105, Prince found 48 the] 105, Prince this  doth] 105, Prince did 49 now] 105 more 50 shaftes and bowe] 105 Bow, and shaft (destroying the rhyme with l. l.52)  shaftes] Prince shaft 51 that] 105, Prince what 54 So] 105 What; Prince But  and so doo] 105 just so did   doo] Prince did 55 sittes] 105, Prince sate 56 laughes] 105, Prince laught   that pleasant] 105 the pleasing 141. Francis Davison, ‘A shepherd poor’ Text based on Francis Davison’s collection A Poetical Rapsody, London, V[alentine] S[immes] for John Baily, 1602, sigs B10r–C3r.

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A companion to pastoral poetry 142. Walter Ralegh, ‘From The Ocean to Cynthia’

Text based on the autograph ms in Hatfield House, Cecil Papers 144, fol. 240r. First published in John Hannah (ed.), The Courtly Poets from Raleigh to Montrose, London: Aldine edition, 1870. 143. Walter Ralegh, ‘Epitaph on Robert Cecil’ Text based on BL MS Harley 1221, fol.  74r. There are at least 20 mss with variant versions of the poem; this is one of the fullest. Variants in other mss have not been noted. First published without ascription in a briefer version in Francis Osborne, Historical Memoires on the Reigns of Queen Elizabeth, and King James, London: John Grismond for Thomas Robinson, 1658, Memoirs of King James, p. 89 (sig. L1r). 1 whilere] i.e., once, for a time. Some mss. like MS Folger V.a345 read {while here} (i.e., while alive). 8 serue for] Some mss read both, making the meaning clearer. 17 BL MS Egerton 2230 among others has the notable variant Till Atropos payde him, a pox on the drabbe (Atropos was one of the Parcae or Fates. Her task was to cut the thread of life.) 144. Henry Chettle, ‘Feed on my flocks’ Text based on Helicon, sig. L3r–v. Also compared: Piers: Henry Chettle, Piers Plainnes seauen yeres Prentiship, London: I[ohn] Danter for Thomas Gosson, 1595, sig. B2r–v. 1 Flocks] Piers flocke 6 flocks] Piers flocke 10 I] Piers we 145. Henry Chettle(?), ‘A Pastoral Song between Phillis and Amarillis’ Text based on Helicon, sig. X4r–v. 146. Henry Chettle, ‘The Shepherds’ Spring Song’ Text based on Henry Chettle, Englandes Mourning Garment: Worne here by plaine Shepheardes; in memorie of their sacred Mistresse, London: V[alentine] S[immes] for Thomas Millington, 1603, sigs F4r–G1v. 7 Mauis] emending Manis in the original



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The text of the ballads See the Anthology, ‘Practices and Conventions’, p. xiii, for the editorial practice respecting the text of the ballads. Variants in versions other than the control text have only been noted for a few points of special interest. 147. ‘The Good Shepherd’s Sorrow’ Text based on the broadside ballad The Good Shepheards Sorrow for the Death of His Beloued Sonne, London: Henry Gosson, 1619 (Ballad). Also compared: 58: Bod MS Don.d.58, fol. 21v (first part only, titled ‘vpon the death of Prince Henry’) 160: Bod MS Rawl.Poet.160, fol. 26r–v (first part only, titled ‘A Poeme On the death of Prince Henry’) Crown: The Crown Garland of Golden Roses, ed. Richard Johnson, London: John Wright, 1631, sigs D8r–E3r. (The poem is not included in the first edition of 1612, presumably published earlier that year before Prince Henry’s death.) Merc: Mercurius Democritus, 15–22 February 1654, pp. 477–9 (sigs 4Q3r–4Q4r) (first part only, misleadingly described as a son’s lament on his father’s death) 2 160, Merc {I sigh, I sob, I pine, I mourn}; 58 I sigh I sob I mourne 3 My] 160 Myne  Oates] Merc Oat 4 58 to iett and Ebon now I turne 5–8 In 58 these (and the corresponding lines in each stanza) are divided in two. 5–7 Merc My sorrows, cheeks o’re-flow, / All Heaven knows why / Men mourn as I, 5 vrged] 58 wartry [sic]; 160 wretched 6 ore-flow] 58 overflow 7 knows] 58 know 9 roabes] 58 rocks (clearly in error) 11 sorrow sees] Crown sorrowes see 12 light through sorrowes] Merc Eyes through sorrow   sorrowes] 58 sorrow 13 now … date] Merc, 58 why … {days}   date] 160 daye 14 58 and doth his spheare forgett 17 flockes] Merc Flock  I] 58 i’le

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18 That] 58 the  senceles] Crown, 58 silly  griefs] Merc, 58 grief 19 to] 58 may 20 presum’d] 58 presume 21 enuy] Merc, 58 hate the  it] 58 I 22 Still] Merc To 23 Merc A vault now doth / Intombe his worth   Hate] 58 The 24 my] 58 this 25 Not I] Merc Aye me; 58 To me 26 Aloane, how can] 58 how may 27 58 deletes make mone and changes to alone 28 with me] Merc for thee; not in 58 29 greenes .. mountaine Queenes] Merc, 58 {green … mountains’ queen} 30 Faries circled] Merc fair and sacred   Faries] Crown Fairy 31 Merc The Nimphs devine, / The Muses nine; 58 the powers devine / and muses nine 32 and] Merc doe; 58 They  all] Crown doe 33 Merc Thou awfull guider of the Skie, 34 you] Merc the (=thee) 35–6 Merc What Death could supply / To take away his gentle breath from us? 37 fled .. dead] 58, 160 dead … fledd 38 seate] Merc Sphere; 58 throne 39 he stoole] Merc Is stol’n 40 Merc O who can blame my Woe. 41 heauen] Crown; Ballad, 58 heauens 42 160 Aswell adore your light before   light as well] Merc worth as much  light] 58 starrs 43 But that amidst] Merc, 58 {As now unto}; 160 As now among’st 44 added] Merc, 58 added  one] 160 this; Crown no 45 You well may] Crown You may well; Merc, 58, 160 Well may you 46 Merc And your black shine bestowe; 58, 160 On our blacke tymes bestow 47 powers haue] 160 powre hath  from vs a Sonne] Crown, Merc, 58, 160 {another Sun} 48 my] Crown our 49 At your great] Merc, 58 {Yet at your} 50 easily] 58 safely 51 Till my vtmost] 58 If I in endless; 160 If that in endles; Merc I in endless



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52 of death, I still may moane] Merc, 58 Of sorrow may condole  death, I] 160 sorrow 53 Since] Merc Sure 54 bright] Merc, 58 good  vs] 160 worlds 55–6 Merc The Earths black breast, / His Donies rest,/ Can I intombe him so? 55 sad] 58, 160 black  entombes his] Crown is all the   entombes] 58 entombe 56 58 Lett me condole his woe; 160 Let myne entombe the woe 57 Crown Coridons Comfort. The second part of the good Shepherd. To the same Tune. 60 mo] Crown mo 61 And] Crown But 68 is] Crown as 77 Brook] Crown; Ballad Brookes 87 this] Crown the 94 Virid dye] Crown; Ballad Virid’ die. 102 thy sorrowes] Crown of sorrow 148. ‘The Shepherd’s Lamentation’ Text based on The Shepheards Lamentation, London: [by G. Eld for] I. W., c.1615. Broadside ballad in the Pepys Library, Cambridge. A few words in stanza 5 are lost owing to a tear. The gaps and some conjectural readings are indicated in the text in angular brackets. Also compared: 38: Bod MS Ashmole 38, fol. 127v (first part only). 4 your] 38 the 5 with me, since] 38 since I am 7 38 nor neuer any sheaperd lost 12 loue molested] 38 wenches pressed 13 Your losse I must] 38 That lasses may [sic] 14 so, so] not in 38 21 them] 38 those 22 that] 38 as 23 knew, knew, knew] 38 knowes 24 was plaine] 38 was a plaine 25 For … pretty] 38 Att … Inward 28–31 38 It [for Yet?] she all harts came vnder. / hur Inwarde Ioyes weare sweet / but not soe sweet as common / Sheaperd shall neuer meete

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A companion to pastoral poetry 149. ‘Fair Dulcina Complaineth’

Text based on BL MS Addl 82932, fols 28v–30r (the Shirburn Ballads, formerly MS North Lib.119.D.44; from the collection of the Earl of Macclesfield). 84 keepes] perhaps an error for peepes 85 Giues] emending giue in ms. 150. ‘A Pleasant Country Maying Song’ Text based on A Pleasant Countrey Maying Song. To the Tune of the Popes Machina, London: T[homas] L[angley], ?c.1625 (ESTC): broadside ballad in the Pepys collection, Magdalene College, Cambridge. 44 Payes] Hyder Rollins’s emendation for Playes in the original 151. Martin Parker(?), ‘The Country Lass’ Text based on The Countrey Lasse, London: Assigns of Thomas Symcocke, ?1628 (ESTC: cannot be later than 1629, when Symcocke stopped printing): broadside ballad in the Pepys Collection, Magdalene College, Cambridge, carrying the initials ‘M.P.’ (?Martin Parker). Also compared: Rox: Another copy (without the initials ‘M.P.’) in the Roxburghe Collection (I.52–3), BL, apparently a reprint with some corrupt readings. The notably different version printed separately is from David Herd, Ancient and Modern Scottish Songs, Edinburgh: John Wotherspoon for James Dickson and Charles Elliot, 1776, vol. 2, pp. 76–7. 46 a] missing in Rox 48 and] Rox or 64 pleasure] Rox surely 81 is] Rox this 112 there] Rox then 118 no] Rox nor 152. ‘The Obsequy of Fair Phillida’ Text based on The Obsequy of Faire Phillida, London: A.M., c.1630: broadside ballad in the Roxburghe collection (I.330), BL. Also compared: 24665: BL MS Addl 24665 (Giles Earle’s ms song-book), fols 76v–77r.



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1 that] 24665 the 5 24665 For whome they all lamented – i.e., referring to the time after Phillida’s death, which does not suit the immediate context. 6 on] 24665 o’er 9 Sweet] 24665 they 10 by] 24665 of 11 beauties] 24665 graces 13 So] 24665 nowe 14 vnkindly] 24665 vntimely 15 the] 24665 this  vntimely] 24665 vnkindly 17–32 missing in 24665 39 And] 24665 with 40–2 24665 whoe did desire / vnto her loue t’aspire / in sable sad did goe 44 Fair Phillis louely] 24665 Phillidas daintie 45 sweet fragrant] 24665 sweet and fragrant 46–7 24665 nowe hir graue adorninge / and hir flowres mourninge: 48 powres] 24665 showers 51 Who did] 24665 as in 54 boy] 24665 God 55 24665 and shaftes in vaine had spent 58 24665 nor would to loue assent 59 affront … repined] 24665 affronts … repining 60 ‘Cause] 24665 caused 61 Had pierc’t] 24665 to pearce 63 such] 24665 those 64 24665 which neuer more shall depart 153. ‘The Shepherd and the King’ Broadside ballad; text based on a BL copy c.1640. There are other imprints of roughly the same date, with few or no significant variants, in the Pepys Collection, Magdalene College, Cambridge, and the Ewing Collection, University of Glasgow. 133 following] variant foolish 187 wrathfull] variant watchful 154. ‘The Lover’s Delight’ Text based on The Lovers delight: OR, A pleasant Pastorall Sonnet, London: Francis Coules, ?1640 (so ESTC). Broadside ballad in the Roxburghe

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Collection, BL. Also compared: Youll: Henry Youll, Canzonets to Three Voyces, London: Thomas Este, 1608, sigs B1v–B2r (first three stanzas only: repetitions for musical reasons have not been noted). 2 will] Youll may 4 on] Youll in 5 Their musick] Youll the Mauis 6 that … may] Youll These … will 7 sweete] Youll fine 8 with] Youll And 9 with] Youll whose 10 all … with] Youll Are … by 11–12 Youll Which stealing through the trees for feare, / Because Diana bathes her there. 13 Youll this nimph 15 Youll And in this groue here will shee stay 17 will] Youll may 22 varied] Chapell’s emendation for varie in ballad 25 Strephan] emending Srephan[?] in ballad. This is the form found later in 138, 141, as in Sidney’s Arcadia. 43 thence] emending there in ballad: both sense and rhyme demand the change. 46 Cytharea] emending the obvious error Cylharea in ballad. 57 mirtle] Chapell’s emendation for mir in ballad. Mir (myrrh) would make sense, but is metrically imperfect. 67 Iudge is come] Chapell’s emendation for Judges comes in ballad 81–2 The defective punctuation has been emended after Chappell to make the meaning clear. 126 did] Chapell’s emendation for had in ballad 136 leaving … asleepe] Chappell suggests the attractive emendation leaving her, when halfe asleepe 145 but] Chappell emends to bent 155. ‘Phillida Flouts Me’ Text based on Phillida flouts me. or, the Country Lovers Complaint, London: Francis Coles, ?1650 (so ESTC). Broadside ballad in the Roxburghe collection (III.142), BL.



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156. ‘Robin Hood and the Shepherd’ Text based on Robin Hood and the Shepheard, London: John Andrews [?1685]. Broadside ballad in Bod (Wing R1630B: not in ESTC). Also other copies with no notable difference: a very popular ballad. 157. ‘The Arcadian Lovers’ Text based on The Arcadian Lovers or, Colin and Amarillis, London: T. Mabb for R. Burton, [1650–55 ESTC, 1660–65 EEBO]. Broadside ballad in the Ewing Collection, Glasgow University Library. 158. ‘The Beautiful Shepherdess of Arcadia’ The first extant version of this broadside ballad is in an imperfect 1660 copy in the Roxburghe collection (III.160), BL, of which only the first part survives. The present text follows a version, perhaps c.1666–70, printed for ‘W. Whitwood, in Duck-Lane’, from a copy in Bod (Douce Ballads 1, fol. 14r), with variants in the 1660 text noted below. Other versions from the late seventeenth century have no significant variants. Title] 1660 The beautifull Shepherdesse of Arcadia. A new pastarell Song of a courteous young Knight, and a supposed Shepheards Daughter. To a gallant tune, called the Shepheards Delight. 6 you] 1660 you you 9 I’ve] 1660 I have 13 courteous Knight] 1660 courteous yong knight 16 about] 1660 by 17 on] 1660 down on 20 sing trang, &c] 1660 Trang dang 22 body to] 1660 body thus to 25 sing trang, &c] 1660 trang dil do le 30 sing trang, &c] 1660 Sing trang dang 34 ran] 1660 run 35 sing trang, &c] 1660 Sing trang 37 took] 1660 set  swam] 1660 swom 39 ran] 1660 run 40 sing trang, &c] 1660 Sing trang 45 sing trang, &c] 1660 Sing trang 46 When] 1660 but when  court] 1660 cour 50 sing trang, &c] 1660 Sing trang

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55 sing trang, &c] 1660 Trang 59 finger] 1660 fingers 60 sing trang, &c] 1660 Trang 159. ‘As at noon Dulcina rested’ Text based on BL MS Addl 24,665 (Giles Earle’s Song Book), dated 1615, fols 35v–36r. In the first seven stanzas, every two lines as printed here are combined into a single line. Also compared: Ballad: An excelent Ditty, called The Shepheards woing faire Dulcina. To a new tune called Dulcina, a broadside ballad printed several times. The earliest extant copy is in the Manchester University Library (perhaps c.1615: Stationers’ Register entry 22 May 1615). 7 pray’d … say’d] Ballad prayes … sayes 11 t’alure] Ballad to allure 13 delighte … inuite] revising the earlier cancelled readings inuite … delight (probably to correct a scribal error, as the manuscript is not a draft but a finished transcript with musical score); Ballad inuite … delight 17 hope] Ballad hope 27–8 Ballad She sayes men may say their pleasure / yet I of it doe not alow: 31 soe] Ballad For 33 perswation] Ballad profession 34 armes] Ballad hands  scope] In MS, the word appears on the verso of the page, at the end of a line carried over from the recto. 38 ioyes of present] Ballad pleasant ioyes of 39 n’er … promise] Ballad none … speeches 43–6 Ballad If youle beleaue me I will tell yee: / true loue fixed lasteth long. / He said my deere, / My love not feare, / bright Phœbus beames outshine the moone; 49 Ballad The Second Part of faire Dulcina, To the same tune 57 In Ballad, the lines corresponding to ll. 90–97 of the song version come between those corresponding to l.57 and l.58 of the song version. 61 night] Ballad moone 67 mountaine] Ballad mountaines 70 whise] Ballad wisht 72 For] Ballad Then 73 He] Ballad Ile



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76 the day away] Ballad away the day 88 t’was] Ballad Tis 90–7 The corresponding lines in Ballad are placed after l.57 of the song version 93 breedeth] Ballad bringeth 95 and] Ballad or 97 y’are] Ballad th’art 98–122 not in Ballad 160. Michael Drayton, Idea the Shepherd’s Garland, Eclogue VII Text based on Michael Drayton, Idea the Shepheards Garland, Fashioned in nine Eglogs. Rowlands Sacrifice to the nine Muses, London: Thomas Woodcocke, 1593, pp. 45–53 (sigs G3r–H3r). Also compared: 1606: Michael Drayton, Poemes Lyrick and pastoral. Odes, Eglogs, The man in the Moone, London: R[ichard] B[radock] for N[icholas] L[ing] and I[ohn] Flasket [1606], sigs F2v–F6v. This offers radically different versions of the songs at 127–50, 165–91, printed separately in the Anthology. This version of the Eclogue is also found in 1619: Michael Drayton, Poems, London: W. Stansby for John Swethwicke, [1619], pp. 457–462 (sigs 3N1r–3N3v). Variants from 1619 have been noted below only where they differ from 1606. Headverses] Not in 1606 3 1606 with too much learning doth the shepheard doat? 5–6 1606 A hermets life, or meanst thou to professe? / or to thy beades, fall like an anchoresse? 9 rose-water] 1606 her selfe in 10 welcome] 1606 hasten 11–12 1606 far of [1619 Neere-hand] that in her yellow robe appears, / Crowning ful summer with her ripened ears 13 layne … awaie] 1606 lay theyr winter weeds awaye 14 their] 1606 neate 16 none] 1606 who 18 1606 like as a man put quick into his graue? 22 contented] 1606 the happy 23 1606 free from the worlds vile and inconstant qualms 28 and liuen still] 1606 content to liue 30 which] 1606 that

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33 hearbs and flowers] 1606 sondry hearbs 36 else entrap] 1606 laugh t’intrap 37 thou wilt] 1606 thee please 39 atchieu’d their noble] 1606 did many a famous 41–2 1606 or shepheards skil i’th course of heauen to know / when this starre falls[,] when that it self doth show. 43 Shepheard] 1606 shepheards (probably in error); 1619 Shepheard 45 1606 Whose youth is spent in iolity and mirth 45 These mister] 1606 syke hidden 46 1606 whose dayes are fast declyning to the earth 47–8 1606 mayst thou suppose that I shall ere endure / to follow that noe pleasure can procure? 49 as make them votarie] 1606 them votarye doe make 50 take them to] 1606 do accept 51–2 1606 and the long night continually doe wake / musing, themselues how they to heauen may bring. 53 And] 1606 that 54 done … all] 1606 do … both 59 fareth now with thee] 1606 with thy state doth fare 60 1606 and with all those that such like wisards are 61 full soone I see] 1606 soone I perceiue 64 rough … sodayne] 1606 Lowd … stormy 65 wring] 1606 much 66 be] 1606 ill 67 inly pittie thee] 1606 at thy madness greeue 68 misgouerned] 1606 That art abus’d 69 1606 those hidden bayts that canst not yet perceaue 70 find’st … which] 1606 find … that 72 1606 But art deceau’d, and that I truely know. 79 I see thou ginst] 1606 thou now beginst 80 done] 1606 do 81 beene] 1606 be 83–4 1606 tush, I am young, nor sadly can I sit, / But must do all that youth and loue befit. 85 legges been … done] 1606 back is … do 86 And] 1606 whilst 87 1606 thou like a bird art shut vp in a cage 88 field] 1606 fields 90 1606 on the worlds ioyes, the whilst my fancy feeds 91 1606 Say what thou canst, yet me it shall not let



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94 1606 How to enioy and please my paramour 97 been] 1606 be 1619 are 99 striketh] 1606 woundeth 101 When … sits and giues] 1606 whilst … stands to giue 102 And smiles] 1606 smiling  little] 1606 wanton 106 an] 1606 one 107 1606 and in her Coche faire Cypria set aboue 109 him] 1606 them 110 1606 with Cleopatra Egypts cheefe renown 112 Then] 1606 and 113 Which] 1606 who 118 1606 to whom we offer sacrifice each yeare 116 hard it is] 1606 it is hard 117 euen as thy god] 1606 as thy poore god 118 sike … sike] 1606 such … such 119–20 1606 then of this loue wilt please thee heere a song, / that’s to the purpose, though it be not longe? 123 Borrill] 1606 shepheard 125 els I] 1606 tis a 127–50 Replaced in 1606 by a radically different version of the song, printed separately in the Anthology. 151 Ah worthy Borrill] 1606 Now surely sheepheard 152 now by my belt … heard] 1606 vppon my word heard] 1606 had 1619 heard 153 1606 away ould fool, and learne to rule thy toong 156 Yet … is] 1606 though … be 157 that … which] 1606 the … that 158 aueng … time] 1606 reuenge it and deferre noe time 159 in such sorte as now] 1606 in this manner as 160 repeat … rime] 1606 recite thee a substancyall ryme 161–2 1606 that to thy teeth sufficiently shall prooue / there is no power to be compard to loue. 163 Batte] 1606 Boye 165–92 Replaced in 1606 by a different song, printed at the end of this poem in the Anthology. 193 Is loue in thee?] 1606 Remoue from thee 194 1606 to soone shalt thou be weary of thy guest 196 so is he still sworne] 1606 that is an open 197–8 1606 I greeue to thinke ere many years be spent, / How much thou shalt thy time in loue repent.

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201 1606 vppon thy Judgement much I shall rely 202 some] 1606 such 203–4 1606 would I might watch when euer thou dost warde / so much thy loue and frindship I reguarde. 131a extreamst] 1619 th’extremest 166a the thing that] 1619 that thing the 175a vnmooued them] 1619 vnmou’d doth 178a all things doth] 1619 Which doth things 185a that’s] emending 1606, 1619 that 188a his] 1619 the 161. Michael Drayton, Idea the Shepherd’s Garland, Eclogue VIII Text based on: (a) 1593: Michael Drayton, Idea the Shepheards Garland, Fashioned in nine Eglogs. Rowlands Sacrifice to the nine Muses, London: Thomas Woodcocke, 1593, pp. 45–53 (sigs G3r–H3r). (b) 1606: [As Eclogue IV in] Michael Drayton, Poemes Lyrick and pastoral. Odes, Eglogs, The man in the Moone, London: R[ichard] B[radock] for N[icholas] L[ing] and I[ohn] Flasket, [1606], sigs D7r–E3v. This version is also found in 1619: Michael Drayton, Poems, London: W. Stansby for John Swethwicke, [1619], pp. 442–8 (sigs 3L1v–3L4v). The 1619 text prints the verses (except for the song) as four-line stanzas, as in 1593. 54a garlands] 1619 garland 56a Then when] 1619 When first 63a loue] 1619 Gloue (perhaps given as a love-token) 70a pleasant] 1619 pleasant’st esteemed] 1619 esteem’d the 77a Then] 1619 And 81a purest] 1619 the pure 89a cut] 1619 hew’d 103a after ward] 1619 afterwar (either misprint, or =​‘after war’) 105a woe] 1619 (rhyming with flow, l.108). 1606 has woes. 110a reuoketh what] 1619 reuoke that which 113a shepheard] 1619 Shepheards (presumably =​Shepherd’s) 143a feature] 1619 features 161a leard] 1619 learn’d



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162. Michael Drayton, Eclogue IX, 1606 Text based on Michael Drayton, Poemes Lyrick and pastoral. Odes, Eglogs, The man in the Moone, London: R[ichard] B[radock] for N[icholas] L[ing] and I[ohn] Flasket [1606], sigs G2r–G6r. Also compared: 1619: Michael Drayton, Poems, London: W[illiam] Stansby for John Swethwicke [1619], sigs 3O2r–3O4v. Helicon: only the first two songs (ll.85–132, 145–72) as two separate pieces titled ‘The Sheepheards Daffadill’ (sigs C3v–C4r) and ‘A Roundelay betweene two Sheepheards’ (sigs L3v–L4r). 10 Now] 1619 When 40 now] 1619 then 44 that] 1619 be’ng 52 them] 1619 which 53 Which neighboring vale not] 1619 The Neighb’ring Vale dispoyled 67 Anbrie] 1619 Ambry 81 should] 1619 could 82 When] 1619 Who 83 1619 Batte his daintie Daffadil there mist 85–132 Helicon omits the speech-headings in the song. 85 Whome] 1619 Him 91 1619 Which colour likes her sight 94 trim] Helicon dresse 96 tho] Helicon Are 101 my faire flower] Helicon with my flower 102 didst] Helicon doest 103 And yet] Helicon Yet is 104 Daffadill] 1619 Daffadil’s (The name is uniformly spelt in c­ apitals in 1619.) 122 as she went along] 1619 along shee went 128 lowe] 1619 lowd 145–72 In Helicon, the speech-headings are consistently 1.Shep. and 2. Shep. 145 skilfull] Helicon gentle 148 or] Helicon the 149 or] 1619 the 150 stay] Helicon Fixe 151 Helicon Because the Sunne is strooken blind 152 gazing] Helicon looking 154 was their] Helicon were thy

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157–8 Helicon 1.Shep. Why looke these flowers so pale and ill, / That once attir’d this goodly Heath? 158 these] 1619 those 160 comforts] Helicon sweetens 162 Helicon Whose bubling murmur pleas’d thine eare? 163 O muse … that] Helicon Oh meruaile not although 165 goodly] Helicon Sheepheards 168 thy Siluia] Helicon our faire the 169 Siluia] 1619 Syl: our 170 Brooks and flowers, can] Helicon flowers, and brookes will 171–2 Helicon These Nimphs and Sheepheards all doo know, / That it is she is onely faire. 179 dearest] 1619 fayrest 188 as] 1619 was 195 1619 Chorvs. Come, let vs sing, yee faithfull Swaynes. 201 1619 Chorvs. Then can poore Shepheards Songs expresse 207 1619 Chorvs. So all things in her sight doe ioy 211 destroy] 1619 annoy 213 1619 Chorvs. A sight most fit for Iove to see: 217 vnto Ioues] 1619 To his bright 219 1619 Chorvs. That moued with the gentle Ayre 225 1619 Chorvs. O happy Flocks that shee did keepe 231 1619 Chorvs. When shee is placed in the skies 163. Michael Drayton, from Poly-olbion Extracts A, B and C, from Part I Text based on Michael Drayton, Poly-Olbion, London: H[umphrey] L[ownes] for Matthew Lownes, I[ohn] Browne, I[ohn] Helme and I[ohn] Busbie [1612] [STC 7226], p. 135 (sig. N2r), pp. 213–18 (sigs T5r–V1v) and pp. 232–3 (sigs X2v–X3r) respectively. Sheets from this edition were used for the issues of 1613 [STC 7227] and 1622 [STC 7228], the latter bound up with Part II under a joint title-page (see below). However, the variant in Extract B line 33 (Song XIII.45) is hard to explain. 33 on] 1613, 1622 in

Extract B



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Extract D, from Part II Text based on A Chorograpicall Description of All the Tracts, Rivers, Movntains, Forests, … of Great Britain, London: John Marriott, John Grismand and Thomas Dewe, 1622 [STC 7229, 7230], pp. 1–3 (sigs B1r–B2r). 164. Michael Drayton, ‘The Shepherd’s Sirena’ Text based on The Battaile of Agincourt [with] … The Shepheards Sirena [etc.], London: William Lee, 1627, pp. 143–52 (sigs T2r–V2v). 165. Michael Drayton, ‘The Description of Elizium’ Text based on Drayton, The Muses Elizium, Lately discouered, by a new way over Parnassus, London: Thomas Harper for John Waterson, 1630, pp. 1–4 (sigs B1r–B2v). 166. Michael Drayton, The Muses’ Elizium, Nymphal VI Text based on Drayton, The Muses Elizium, Lately discouered, by a new way over Parnassus, London: Thomas Harper for John Waterson, 1630, pp. 50–7 (sigs H1v–I1r). 167. Michael Drayton, The Muses’ Elizium, Nymphal X Text based on Drayton, The Muses Elizium, Lately discouered, by a new way over Parnassus, London: Thomas Harper for John Waterson, 1630, pp. 81–5 (sigs M1r–M3r). 168. William Basse, From Pastoral Elegy III Text based on William Basse, Three Pastoral Elegies, London: V[alentine] S[immes] for I[ohn] B[arnes], 1602, sigs E2v–E4r. 169. William Basse, ‘Laurinella, of True and Chaste Love’ Text based on Folger Shakespeare Library MS.V.b.235, fols 9r–11v. First published in J.P. Collier, The Pastorals and Other Workes of William Basse, Miscellaneous Tracts, London: T. Richards, 1870.

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170. Giovan Battista Marino, ‘ Phillis’, trans. William Drummond Text based on Drummond’s Hawthornden MSS, vol. X, fol. 170r, in the National Library of Scotland. Also compared: 1604: William Drummond, Poems, ?1604 (so EEBO) /?1614 (so STC), in the section ‘Madrigalls and Epigrammes’, titled ‘Phillis’. No date, place or publisher’s name – perhaps Edinburgh, Andro Hart. No pagination or signatures in this section. 1616: William Drummond, Poems, Edinburgh: Andro Hart, 1616, sig. N3v 1656: William Drummond, Poems, London: William Tomlins, 1656, p. 99 (sig. H2r) 1711: William Drummond, Works, Edinburgh: James Watson, 1711, section containing ‘Poems’, p. 20 (sig. E2v) 5 Mong that sweet strained] 1616 Among that strained; 1656, 1711 ’Mongst that sweet-strained 6 milke, …white] 1604 punctuates Milke in Milke, it was so white. 171. Girolamo Preti, ‘A Shepherd Inviting a Nymph to His Cottage’, trans. Edward Sherburne Text based on Edward Sherburne, Poems and Translations Amorous, Lusory, Morall, Divine, London: W Hunt for Thomas Dring, 1651, pp. 114–15 (sig. H2v). 14 be] emending 1651 by 172. Thomas Ravenscroft, ‘Jolly shepherd and upon a hill as he sat’ Text based on Thomas Ravenscroft, Pammelia. Musicks Miscellanie, London: William Barley for R[ichard] B[onian] and H[enry] W[alley], 1609, song 3 (sig. B1v). 173. Thomas Ravenscroft, ‘Come follow me merrily’ Text based on Thomas Ravenscroft, Pammelia. Musicks Miscellanie, London: William Barley for R[ichard] B[onian] and H[enry] W[alley], 1609, song 75 (sigs F2v–F3r).



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174. George Chapman, ‘To His Loving Friend Master John Fletcher’ Text based on John Fletcher, The Faithfull Shepheardesse, London: R[ichard] B[onian] and H[enry] W[alley], [1610], sig.  A3v: Bod copy, Malone 242(5). This page is missing in the BL copy used for EEBO. 175. John Fletcher, ‘Hymn to Pan’ Text based on John Fletcher, The Faithfull Shepheardesse, London: for R[ichard] B[onian] and H[enry] W[alley], [1610], sig. B3r. 176. Honoré d’Urfé, ‘A Sonnet’, trans. ?John Pyper Text based on The History of Astrea. The First Part. In Twelue Bookes, London: N[icholas] Okes for John Pyper, 1620, pp. 294–5 (sigs 2N3v–2N4r) 177. Honoré d’Urfé, ‘A Song’, trans. ?John Davies Text based on Astrea. A Romance … Translated by A Person of Quality, London: W[illiam] W[ilson] for H[umphrey] Moseley, T[homas] Dring and H[enry] Herringman, 1657, pp. 49–50 (sig. H1r–v). 178. Giles Fletcher, from Christ’s Victory and Triumph Text based on Giles Fletcher, Christs Victorie, and Triumph in Heauen, and Earth, over, and after death, Cambridge: Cantrell Legge, 1610, pp. 67, 71, 82–3 (sigs I3r, K1r, L1v–L2r). 179. David Murray, ‘The Complaint of the Shepherd Harpalus’ Text as in Murray’s Cælia. Containing certaine Sonets accompanying Murray’s play The Tragicall Death of Sophonisba, London: John Smethwick, 1611, sigs E6r–E7r. 180. ‘A jolly shepherd that sat on Sion Hill’ Text based on BL MS Addl 15225, fols 1r–2r. The first two stanzas are repeated with minor variations in fol. 33r. First published in Hyder E. Rollins (ed.), Old English Ballads 1553–1625, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1920.

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3 and] not in main MS text, but in that repeated on fol. 33r 10 knowe] replacing the earlier cancelled reading goe (which is found in fol. 33r) 50 visiblie] MS visiblelie 151 its] emending MS is 181. William Alabaster, ‘Alas, Our Shepherd’ Text based on the ms text bound into a printed French Book of Hours in the library of St John’s College, Cambridge. First published in G.M. Story and Helen Gardner (ed.), The Sonnets of William Alabaster, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959. 182. Anthony Munday, The Shepherd’s Speech from Himatia-Poleos Text based on Anthony Munday, Himatia-Poleos. The Trivmphs of olde Draperie, or the rich Cloathing of England, London: Edward Allde, 1614, pp. 11–12 (sig. B4r–v). 183. Christopher Brooke, ‘To His Much Loved Friend Master W. Browne’ Text based on The Shepheards Pipe, London: N.O. for George Norton, 1614, sigs F5r–F6v. 184. John Davies of Hereford, ‘An Eclogue between Willy and Wernocke’ Text based on The Shepheards Pipe, London: N[icholas] O[kes] for George Norton, 1614, sigs G3r–G7r. 185. George Wither, The Shepherd’s Hunting, Eclogue V Text based on Wither’s The Shepherds Hunting: Being, Certaine Eglogs written during the time of the Authors Imprisonment in the Marshalsey, London: Thomas Snodham for George Norton, 1615, sigs G1v–H1r. Also compared: Pipe: The Shepheards Pipe, London: N[icholas] O[kes] for George Norton, 1614, sigs F7r–G2v, titled ‘Thirsis and Alexis’ 1622: Wither, Juvenilia, London: John Budge, 1622, sigs 2M4r–2N1r



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1626: Wither, Juvenilia, London: Robert Allott, 1626, sigs 2M4r–2N1r: corresponds word for word with 1622, even in accidentals and collation, and appears to have used sheets of the same printing. Sectional title-pages read ‘1622’. 1633: Wither, Juvenilia, London: Robert Allott, 1633, sigs V12v–X4v: newly set (separate title-page for The Shepherd’s Hunting says ‘Richard Badger for Robert Allot’), but with only one substantive variant from 1622 (l. 188). Pipe has Thirsis for Roget throughout 1622, 1626, 1633 have Philaret(e) for Roget throughout All variants in 1622 occur in 1626 and 1633, except at l.188. Argument] Absent in Pipe 0.1 ROGET here] 1622 Philaret 11 rare] Pipe rude 12 their] Pipe thy 20 I might be] Pipe to make me 31 Where] 1622 But 33 Roget, I doe] 1622 Philaret, I 35 not thou] 1622 thou not 48 Roget] 1622 thee halfe 50 had all] 1622 all had 61 Roget] Pipe Thirsis; 1622 Phila   this I say] 1622 this to thee Ile say 67 iniury] 1622 iniure much 77 1622 Philarete, I willingly obey. 79 that] 1622 thy 96 to] 1622 in 101 trained] Pipe, 1622 framed 104 Roget will] 1622 I will for 113 O spayre] Pipe, 1622 Despaire 123–49 In these lines, 1615 erroneously transposes the speakers’ names, awarding two successive speeches to Roget at ll.  117 and 123 and again at ll. 149 and 183, and making Alexis address a speech to himself at l. 143. These errors have been corrected in the present edition. 123 haunteth] Pipe hateth 136 Their] Pipe our (in which case heads =​leaders) 153 of each] 1622 each of 171 Hauing] 1622 And haue 182 his] 1633 this 183–234 not in Pipe 221 1622 Although I still should into troubles runne

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230 feele] 1622 feare 235 Thou … Roget] 1622 Th’hast so well (yong Philaret) 240 Pipe Two Shepheards, walking on the lay-banke be (lay: lake (OED 1)) 241 Cutty] 1622 Cuddy 186. George Wither, from Fair-Virtue Text based on George Wither, Faire-Virtue, the Mistresse of Philarete, London: John Grismand, 1622, sigs B1r–B6r. (The preface mentions John Marriot as the ‘stationer’.) Also compared: 1633: Wither, Juvenilia, London: Robert Allott, 1633 (separate title-page for Fair-Virtue says ‘by Thomas Harper for Iohn Grismond’), sigs D11v–E4r. 20 or] 1633 nor 22 There] 1633 Three 62 a] 1633; not in 1622 151 Is] emending It in 1622, 1633 178 Ignobly] emending Ignoble in 1622, 1633 253 Thy] 1633 The 187. George Wither, ‘Hymn for a Sheep-Shearing’ Text based on George Wither, Haleluiah or, Britans Second Remembrancer, London, I[ohn] L[egate] for Andrew Hebb, 1641, pp. 68–70 (Part I, ‘Hymns Occasional’, Hymn 42: sigs D10v–D11v). 188. George Wither, ‘Hymn for a Shepherd’ Text based on George Wither, Haleluiah or, Britans Second Remembrancer, London, I[ohn] L[egate] for Andrew Hebb, 1641, pp. 436–8 (Part III, ‘Hymns Personal’, Hymn 41: sigs V2v–V3v). 189. William Browne, from Britannia’s Pastorals, Book I Text based on Browne, Britannia’s Pastorals (Book I), London: George Norton,?1613, pp. 50–62 (sigs H1v–I3v).



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190. William Browne, From Britannia’s Pastorals, Book II Text based on Browne, Britannia’s Pastorals. The second Booke, London: Thomas Snodham for George Norton, 1616, pp. 22–8 (sigs D3v–E2v). 191. Ben Jonson, ‘To Penshurst’ Text based on The Workes of Beniamin Jonson, London: W[illiam] Stansby for Richard Meighen, 1616, pp. 819–21 (The Forrest, poem II: sigs 3Z2r–3Z3r). Also compared: 1640: Ben Jonson’s Second Folio: The Workes of Benjamin Jonson, London: Richard Bishop for Andrew Crooke, 1640 (separately paginated section of poems), pp. 47–9 (sigs D6r–E1r). 31 high-swolne] 1640; 1616 high swolne 69 call] 1640 call for 192. Ben Jonson, ‘To Sir Robert Wroth’ Text based on The Workes of Beniamin Jonson, London: W[illiam] Stansby for Richard Meighen, 1616, pp. 822–4 (The Forrest, poem III: sigs 3Z3v–3Z4v). Also compared: 31: Bod MS Rawl. Poet. 31, fols 34r–36r, entitled ‘To Sir Rob’te wroth in prayse of a countrye lyfe: Epode’ 4064: BL MS Harley 4064, fols 257r–259r, entitled ‘To Sir Robert Wroth in praise of a Cuntry lief, Epode’ ‘Epode’ in these two titles indicates the poem’s imitation of Horace’s Epode II. 1640: Ben Jonson’s Second Folio: The Workes of Benjamin Jonson, London: Richard Bishop for Andrew Crooke, 1640, separately paginated section of the poems, pp. 49–51 (sigs E1r–E2r). 4 nor] 31, 4064 or 6 Sheriffes … Maior’s] 31, 4064 {Sergeant’s} … {Sheriff’s} 9 when] 31 where 11 stuffes] 4064 stuffe 16 hoofes] 31, 4064 spell houghes 19 shade] 31, 4064 shades 21 list] 31 lists 23 spring, oft] 31, 4064 {spring time}  thy] 1640 their 24 house] 31, 4064 lodge

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25 heart] 31, 4064 heate (i.e., summer) 26 Diuid’st] 31, 4064 {dispend’st} 27 mak’st] 1640; 1616 makes 31, 4064 makest 28 gladder] 31, 4064 welcome  sight] 4064 right 29 And] 4064 Or   And … winter] 31 Or in wynter 30 thy] 31, 4064 the 31 SYLVANE] 31 Siluans  rites] 31 Rightes 34 greedie] 31, 4064 {hungry} 35 dost] 31, 4064 canst 37 whil’st] 31, 4064 while 38 of] 31, 4064 or 40 feasts] 31 feast  that] 31, 4064 which 41 eares … height] 31, 4064 {ears cut down in their most height} 43 that … last] 31, 4064 {and ploughed land [31 landes] up cast} 44 from] 31, 4064 with 45 log] 31, 4064 {logs} 46 lent] so mss.  1616, 1640 lend 47 Thus] 31, 4064 When 55 grace] 31, 4064 place 60 Followed in 31, 4064 by the additional lines {The milk nor [31 or] oil did ever flow so free / Nor yellow honey from the tree.} 62 lawyer] 31, 4064 {lawyers} 66 liue] 31, 4064 {be} 68 a] 31, 4064 some 77 31, 4064 {Then hardest, let him more disherit} 79 orphanes, widdowes] 31, 4064 {widows, orphans} 87 honor …glad] 31, 4064 {honors … proud} 91 can] 31, 4064 may 92 shalt] 31 shall 94 he there] 31 hee, then 96 t’himselfe] 4064 to himselfe 98 knowes] 4064 thinks 99 be] 31, 4064 art 100 Thy … thy] 31, 4064 Whose … whose   morning’s … euening’s] 4064 morning … euening; 31 Morninges, … eueninge 101 Be] 31, 4064 Is  and] 4064 an 104 doe] 31, 4064 should



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193. Ben Jonson, ‘Hymns from Pan’s Anniversary’ Text based on Pans Anniversarie; or,The Shepherds Holy-day, in Ben Jonson’s Second Folio: The Workes of Benjamin Jonson The second Volume, London [John Beale, John Dawson, Bernard Alsop and Thomas Mawcet] for Richard Meighen [,Thomas Walkley and Robert Allot], 1640 [1641], pp. 121–4 (sigs Q4v–R2v). Some lines from this song are closely repeated in The Under-wood, 79 (‘A New-yeares-Gift sung to King Charles, 1635’: #194). 194. Ben Jonson, ‘A New Year’s Gift Sung to King Charles, 1635’ Text based on Ben Jonson’s Second Folio: The Workes of Benjamin Jonson The second Volume. London: [John Beale, John Dawson, Bernard Alsop and Thomas Mawcet] for Richard Meighen[, Thomas Walkley and Robert Allot], 1640 [1641], pp. 246–7 (The Under-wood 79, sigs 2K3v–2K4r). Some lines are closely repeated from a song in Pan’s Anniversary (#193). Also compared: 36: The last part (ll. 46–66), included as a separate song in Bod MS Ashmole 36–7, fol. 166r, titled ‘A Pastorall Song, to the King on New yeares day: Anno Domini 1663’, dated 1663 and attributed to Nicholas Lanier. 45 Followed in 36 by two lines reworking ll.9–10 of Jonson’s original: Looke Shephards looke, Old Janus doth vnfold / A glorious bright New yeare, and shuttes the old. gentler] 36 gentle 47 a] 36 or 52 Whose] 36 His 54–7 36 replaces with this very different version, headed Chorus. The words underlined (as in the original) are marked Eccho: ’Tis he, O Pan, ’tis he / In chase of savage beastes exceedeth thee./ His pipe and voyce, with heavenly harmonie / Procures all Plenty and our Flockes encrease, / He, only he, is Author of our peace. (This version reintroduces the pipe, present in Pan’s Anniversary but replaced in the ‘New Year’s Gift’ by more sophisticated and courtly instruments.) 66 36 ’Tis he, O Pan etc. with the heading Chorus

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Text based on T[homas] G[offe], The Careless Shepherdess. A TragiComedy, London: Richard Rogers and William Ley, 1656, pp. 23–5 (sigs D4r–E1r). 196. William Drummond, ‘Damon and Moeris’ Text based on Drummond’s Hawthornden MSS, vol. X, fols 108r–114v, in the National Library of Scotland. An incomplete version, up to l. 162, was published in L.E. Kastner’s edition of Drummond’s Poetical Works, Edinburgh: William Blackwood and Sons for the Scottish Text Society, 1913. Cancellations and revisions in the heavily worked-over draft manuscript are indicated below as far as possible. Cancellations that merely correct errors, or seem to indicate tentative jottings without providing a clear alternative reading, have not been noted. 1 Damon and Moeris] replacing earlier, cancelled reading Idas and Daphnes. These changes occur all through the MS, wherever the names occur. 2 did make] replacing earlier, cancelled reading had given 3 fairest] replacing earlier, cancelled reading meades best 7 grassie] replacing earlier, cancelled reading flourie 7 now] replacing earlier, cancelled reading vhiles 10 Then] replacing earlier, cancelled reading vhiles shephard captiue] These words were first written in reverse order; a 2 and 1 in the text indicate subsequent transposition. 19 knots replacing earlier, cancelled reading vyse (=​wise) 20 replacing earlier version of the line, Vith painted dezies and bleu violets 21 Vhit lilies, vith] replacing earlier reading Faire lilies and 22 Doth blush and] alternative reading, partly cancelling this one, apparently Blushing, most 23 Damon … had] replacing earlier, cancelled reading Idas vith gref and passion 29 Some words in this line have been transposed in the MS from their earlier positions. 30 vpon … amber] replacing earlier, cancelled reading about … golden 32 fairest] replacing earlier, cancelled reading suetest



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33 replacing earlier version of the line, Roses and lilies far surpassing yours 34 cinabre … milke vhit] replacing earlier, cancelled reading vermilion … vhitest 36 Them …flowres)] replacing earlier, cancelled reading Ye sal not grace them but 38 replacing earlier version of the line, If ere of Adon ye did take delight 39 hath touched] replacing earlier, cancelled reading oprest hath 40 Enambushd … by] replacing earlier, cancelled reading Come lay yourselues about 41 The line contains three extra syllables. It is likely that coronet and’anademe were alternative readings, the poet omitting to cancel one in the MS. There is a third, cancelled alternative, hyacynthes. 42 steal] alternative (uncancelled) reading wade (i.e., go) 44 yet precious as] replacing earlier, cancelled reading more precious than 46 shoot] replacing earlier, cancelled reading hit 47 But he that fort] replacing earlier, cancelled reading But couard he  to essay] replacing earlier, cancelled reading say 48 you] replacing earlier, cancelled reading him This line is followed by a cancelled part-line, apparently the start of an aborted stanza: The flouds sal break and both 52 and] replacing earlier, cancelled reading but 56 Bell-bearer] replacing earlier, cancelled reading Belweder vho   that vsd] replacing earlier, cancelled reading vas vont 57 vsuall] replacing earlier, cancelled reading vontet 59 walkes] replacing earlier, cancelled reading trees   which … yore] replacing earlier, cancelled reading vher I vas vont to be 60 replacing earlier version of the line, sem’d al to plaine of Phillis crueltie (uncancelled, but obviously rhyming with the cancelled ending of the previous line) 62 Did solemnize] replacing earlier, cancelled reading Hath solemnized 64 vide spred] replacing earlier, cancelled reading outspred 68 Vert thou but] replacing earlier, cancelled reading if thow var 73–8 This stanza is heavily and confusingly worked over in the MS. I have followed Kastner’s readings. Among the decipherable earlier readings are: 73 The flowres, the gemmes] replacing earlier, cancelled readings The pleasant trees and The Herbes the trees

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74 The lambes, the doues] replacing earlier, indecipherably cancelled reading  bremes] replacing earlier, cancelled reading trouts 76 inbred] replacing earlier, cancelled reading vontet (=​wonted) 77 all where] replacing earlier, cancelled reading nooght but 80 And louelesse liue] replacing earlier, cancelled reading And liue but loue is (but: without; a Scots use) 81 most] replacing earlier, cancelled reading al 82 euen makes] replacing earlier, cancelled reading can make 83 replacing earlier, cancelled reading Beleiue me Nymphe this is felicitie 87 replacing earlier version of the line, but as they grow they perrish in ther prime 88 thus must dye] replacing earlier, cancelled reading such to be 90 sigh] replacing earlier, cancelled reading say  would] replacing earlier, cancelled reading ah. The ‘ah’s in ll.96, 102 have been replaced by vould on analogy with this line and l.108. 91 Cancelled traces of an abortive stanza Cloris both lov’d … 92 each day] replacing earlier, cancelled reading her dayes 94 sweet yonglings doe … playe] replacing earlier, cancelled reading yong babies round … playes 95 the want sal find] replacing earlier, cancelled reading sal find the void 96 sigh] earlier (uncancelled) reading say  vould] emending MS ah. See 90n, 108n. 99 Gay is hee] replacing earlier, cancelled reading faire, some with faire later replaced by grac’d 102 vould] emending MS ah. See 90n, 108n. 100–2 There is an alternative line in the left margin, partly concealed by the binding and not easy to decipher. 108 vould] replacing earlier, cancelled reading ah. 116 replacing earlier version of the line,The pleasant spring sal be but flours, the flours (but: without; cf. l.80n) 117 barren rockes] replacing earlier, cancelled reading mountaine high 119 Heauns … be] replacing earlier, cancelled reading the heauns sal be but starrs (but: without; cf. l.80n) 120 replacing earlier cancelled reading or I leaue off my Phillis for to loue 121 Pant my hart doth] original My hart doth pant transposed in MS 125 oke] emending MS oxe



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128 beside the sreames] replacing earlier, cancelled reading I saw her sit 129 Then …vhere] earlier uncancelled ms reading sitting it sem’d the sune to kysse her socht 131 few] replacing earlier, cancelled reading some 132 To vhich] replacing earlier, cancelled reading Vherto 127–32 There are other insertions and corrections in the left margin, not easy to decipher. 130 replacing earlier, cancelled reading til sche vith vayle his beames avay did hit (rhyming with sit in cancelled ending of l.128: see above) 131 few] replacing earlier, cancelled reading some 132 To vhich] replacing earlier, cancelled reading Vherto 133 Decu’d perchance] transposing the earlier order 134 that mad her] replacing earlier, cancelled reading vher at sche 135 And … chin] replacing earlier, cancelled reading Vatring her cheekes and eyne. There is another reading on the facing page: and moysten cheekes faire flowres with sweetest dew 139 Angerlie mild] replacing earlier, cancelled reading not far from thence 141 Kala] replacing earlier, cancelled reading Nisa 142 made] replacing earlier, cancelled reading can 143–4 replacing earlier, cancelled reading of al her rarest gems to spoile the meade / vhile I vith hungrie lookes my eies did fead. 145 plump] replacing earlier, cancelled reading faire. Another, uncancelled reading red inserted above plump in MS. 147 precious] replacing earlier, cancelled reading golden 148 Amazd to find] replacing earlier, cancelled reading aschemed to see (aschemed =​ashamed) 150 Thus] earlier, uncancelled reading So 152–3 Repeated, complicated revisions in MS, not always cancelled, perhaps best interpreted as follows: a) Several abortive beginnings at 152: (i)  Leaving a hundred [replacing earlier, cancelled diuerse] thoughts within my brest (ii)   Leauing my Muse vith thousand thoughtes possest (iii)  Leauing strang thoughts my reason to appall b) An abortive beginning at 153: Like ciuill foes vhich invardlie … c) The final version, earlier reading hundred instead of thousand (l.152) and vho for vhich (l.153) 154 earlier reading All their best sports and loosse ther libertie.

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155 Then tyrd] replacing earlier, cancelled reading vearied 158 then vhen] replacing earlier, cancelled reading vhil as 160 Life promising] replacing earlier, cancelled reading protesting lyff (protesting: announcing, testifying to) 170 lighting] Two MS readings at this point, lighting and chearing, both cancelled. Lighting used here, as chearing seems to have been reserved for use in 172. 172 atlas] replacing earlier, cancelled reading Neptunes 174 staff] emending MS starff 175 A few words are indecipherable or lost in the binding. 176 heale crew here vnder] text unclear; conjectural reading 184 Alcon] emending Alcons in ms 197. William Drummond, ‘Erycine at the Departure of Alexis’ Text based on William Drummond, Poems, Edinburgh: Andro Hart, 1616, sig.  Q3r–v, where it is printed just before #198. Also compared: 1711: William Drummond, Works, Edinburgh: James Watson, 1711, separately paginated section with poems, p. 23 (sig. F2r) – i.e., far removed from #198. This text has no substantive variants from 1616. Does not occur in the 1614 or 1656 volumes containing the next poem (see below). 198. William Alexander, ‘Alexis to Damon’ Text based on William Drummond, Poems, Edinburgh: Andro Hart, 1616, sig. Q3v. Also compared: 1614: William Drummond, Poems, ?1604(EEBO) /?1614(STC), titled ‘Alexis’. No pagination or signatures in this section. 1656: William Drummond, Poems, London: William Tomlins, 1656, p. 66 (sig. F1v) 1711: William Drummond, Works, Edinburgh: James Watson, 1711, separately paginated section with poems, p.iii (sig.  A2r), titled ‘Alexis. On the Madrigals’. 7 while, whiles] 1656 whiles [once only]; 1711 whiles, whiles  Bodotrias] 1711 Bodotrian 8 1614 By Ecchoes are resounded from the Rockes; 1656, 1711 The Ecchoes did resound them from the Rocks 11 mayst] 1656 may



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199. William Drummond, ‘A Pastoral Elegy on the Death of Sir Anthony Alexander’ Text based on William Drummond, Poems, London: Richard Tomlins, 1656, pp. 172–6 (sigs M6v–M8v). Earlier published in a separate volume: 1638: To the Exequies of the Honourable Sir Antony Alexander, Knight, &c., A Pastorall Elegie, Edinburgh: George Anderson, 1638. A single imperfect copy remains in the Edinburgh University Library, with the title-page and last page only, containing ll.113–38. Also compared: 1711: William Drummond, Works, Edinburgh: James Watson, 1711, separately paginated section with poems, pp. 44–5 (sigs L2v–M1r) 47 these] 1711 those 54 Eaglets] 1711 Eagles  Titans] 1711 Titan 55 Swans] 1711 Swains (obviously in error) 63 Contemn’d] 1711 Condemn’d 68 carv’d] 1711 crav’d 124 at last] 1638 in end 125 you] 1638 yee 132 do] 1638 doth 136 ceas’d] 1638 left 200. William Drummond, ‘Fragment of a Greater Work’ Text based on William Drummond, Hawthornden MSS, vol. X, fol. 66v, in the National Library of Scotland. First published in French Rowe Fogle, A Critical Study of William Drummond of Hawthornden, New York: King’s Crown Press, 1952. 24 earth’s] emending earth in ms. 201. George Lauder, from ‘Damon: or a Pastoral Elegy’ Text based on the first published version, in William Drummond, Works, Edinburgh: James Watson, 1711, pp. xiv, xvi–xvii (sigs D1v, D2v–E1r). 202. Edward Fairfax, ‘Hermes and Lycaon’ Text based on transcript by Fairfax’s nephew Thomas, third Baron Fairfax, in Bod MS Fairfax 40, pp. 647–56, titled ‘An Egloge maide by my vncle M[aste]r Ed: Fairfax in a Diologe betwixt tow sheapards’. First

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published in Godfrey of Bulloigne. A critical edition of Edward Fairfax’s translation of Tasso’s Gerusalemme Liberata, ed. Kathleen M. Lea and T. M. Gang, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981, pp. 665–70. 22 loues] Lee & Gang’s emdenation of loue in MS 73 loue and faith] Lee and Gang’s emendation of loue, faith in MS 10 saued] Lee and Gang’s emendation of saue in MS 11 Flourisht] emending Floursht in MS 148 the] Lee and Gang’s emendation of ther in MS 159 Dorado] Lee and Gang’s emendation of Dorad in MS 203. Antoine Girard Saint-Amant, ‘The Solitude’, trans. Thomas Fairfax Text based on Bod MS Fairfax 40, pp. 552–63. The entire manuscript volume is titled (in a ms title-page) ‘The Imployment of my Solitude’. Also compared: 38: Bod MS Fairfax 38, pp. 307–14: an earlier draft 11744: BL MS Addl 11744, fols 71v–78v: an inferior copy, with many omissions and apparent scribal errors, creating a metrically and poetically weaker version, though recorded in BL catalogue as being in Fairfax’s own hand. 3 Ther wher] 38 Those; 11744 Wher 5 pleas’d] 11744 please 6 spreadinge] 11744 huges [sic]  beare] 11744 bears 15 Fawnes satyrs Demy-Gods] 11744 Satyres Fauns and demy Gods 16 retird] 11744 cancels came and substitutes retird 17 with] 11744 and 21 Ther vnder] 11744 Ther lieng vnder 23 Philomela’s] 11744 Phelomene’s 24 Doth … entertaine] 11744 Sweetly entertain’s 28 Are] 11744 Is 29 soe] not in 11744; 38 sore (probably the correct reading: soe in MS Fairfax 40 by contamination from soe in previous line)   fate] in MS Fairfax 40, replaces earlier, cancelled reading death 30 Death’s sought for] 38 Death sought me   for] not in 11744 33 raginge torrents] 11744 swift torrent 34 skipps] supplied from 38 in place of a scribal error in MS Fairfax 40 35 th’arbored] 11744 the arbored 37 playes] 11744 play 38 the] 38, 11744 these



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41 Marshe] 11744 Marches 42 bounded is] 11744 bordered are   bounded] 38 bordred 46 them] 11744 themselues 47 Bulrush] 11744 Bulrushs [sic] 48 se] 11744 and 50 11744 Any that approche’s nie   A] 38 Or 52 All voyd of] 11744 Without 57 findinge] 11744 finds 58 allsoe] 38 coole can 65 Sayters] 11744 Sorcers 66 inspire] 11744 inspires 67 doe] not in 11744 68 Doe] omitted in 11744  retire] 11744 retier’s 70 scritchinge] 11744 scriking 72 Who] 11744 Whose  makes] 38 make 73 singe and skipp] 11744 sing skip 74 snakes] 38 snake 75 in] 11744 on 76 poore] not in 38 78 Hanged himselfe] 11744 Hanged here himselfe 79 nott] not in 11744 82 leaue] 11744 leauing 84 all] not in 11744 89 And] not in 11744  were] 11744 was 97 as] not in 11744 101 Ruings] so first in 38, altered to Ruines  doe] 11744 did 102 Hill] so first in 38, altered to Rock   Rock nott] 38 Rock I cum not 105 And then] 11744 Then 106 the] not in 11744 107 greater] 11744 great 117 hiddious tunes i’the] 11744 strange tunes the 118 With] 11744 Ther 121 Sometimes] 11744 Somtime 122 rise] 38 raise 125 itt’s] 11744 it 126 an] 38 his 127 In MS 38 the line ends with a dash, indicating the structure and syntax of the sentence.  finde] 11744 finds 128 11744 How to his finny subiects they’r for food 131 and soe serene] 11744 and serene

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133 preuenting] 11744 presenting 134 heauens] 11744 heauen   heauens … waters] 38 Heauen … water 136 That contemplating] 38 Contemplatinge of 140 he had] 11744 he’ad 141 Thus] 38 deletes Thus and replaces with From 142 labor] 38 labour’s; 11744 labors 143 Rustick] 11744 rude 144 That’s] 11744 That 150 Then] 11744 As the 204. Christopher Morley, ‘Amor Constans’ Text based on Bod MS Eng.misc.d.239, fols 2r–4r. The ms (then in Wiltshire) was recorded in Notes and Queries, vol. 1 (1850) but lost to sight thereafter. Rediscovered and first published in Sukanta Chaudhuri, ‘Marlowe, Madrigals, and a New Elizabethan Poet’, RES 39, 1988. 23 liefer then life] emending the meaningless leather and life in MS 68 woe] emending wee in MS 165 thy] emending they in MS 205. The Shepherds’ Dialogue of Love Text based on The Golden Garland of Princely Pleasures and Delicate Delights, 3rd edn, London: A[ugustine] M[athewes] for Thomas Langley, 1620, sigs G7v–G8r, titled ‘The Shepheards Dialogue of loue betweene Willy and Cuddy’. Also compared: 16: Bod MS Eng.poet.f.16, fol. 3v (ll. 1–8 only) 184: Bod MS Mus.d.184, fol. 40r 39481: BL MS Addl 39481, fol. 10r Cantus: Cantus. Songs and Fancies, ed. T[homas] D[avidson], Aberdeen: John Forbes, 1662, sigs X1r–X2r Speech-headings only in Garland. 2 16 wearst thou willow in thy hatt.; 184 whie werste willowe in thine hatt:; Cantus why wears thou willowes in thy Hat? 3 Why] not in 184, 39481, Cantus   thy] 184 the 4 turnd] 184, 39481 changd 5 and] not in Cantus 6 Sorrow lives] 16 Sorrows liue  but] Cantus when  pleasure dyes] 184, 39481, Cantus Ioyes doe die 7 184, 39481 tis my {Phill} tis onlie shee; Cantus It is Phylis onely she



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8 makes] 184 make; 16, Cantus that makes   the] 184, 39481 this 9–10 Cantus Is it the Lass that loved thee long / Is it she that doth thee wrong?  Phillis] 184, 39481 that {Phill} 10 Is … Lasse] 184, 39481 is it shee 11 that] Cantus who 12 turned to a] 39481, Cantus now turnd to 13 that] Cantus who 14 Biddes] missing in sole mutilated copy of Garland: supplied from 39481, Cantus; 184 bidde  heart] Cantus mynde 15 Cantus She loves a new Love, loves not me   For] not in 184, 39481 16 That] Cantus Which not in 39481   makes] 184 make  the] 184 this 17 then] Cantus now 18 Since] 184, 39481 for 19 the wight] 184, 39481, Cantus {even she} 20 Now hath] Cantus Hath also 21–2 184, 39481, Cantus {Herdman if thy hap be so, / Thou art partner of my woe.} 23 Thy hard] 184, 39481 thine ill; Cantus Thy ill 24 sorrowes] 184, 39481, Cantus sorrow  ease] Cantus cease 25–32 Not in 184, 39481, Cantus. Instead, Cantus has the two following stanzas, of which the last 3 lines correspond to ll.30–2: Is it she who lovde the now, And sweare her oath with solemn vowe, Faith and trueth so truely plight, Cannot be so soon neglect. Faith and Trueth, Vowes and Oaths Are forgot and broken both. Cruell Phylis false to me, Which maks me wear the Willow Tree. Courage man and do not mourne For her who holds thy loue in scorne, Respect not them who loves not thee, But cast away the Willow Tree: For thy now shall I live in paine,   For thy] therefore, for the reason that Phylis once was true love mine, Which shall ne’re forgotten be, Although I wear the Willow Tree.

33–4 Cantus Shepherd be thou rulde by me / Cast away the Willow Tree  Heards man] 184, 39481 Shepard

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35 thy greeffe breeds] Cantus her sorrow doth 36 Shee] Cantus And she 37 Then I will] 184, 39481, Cantus {Herdman (Cantus Herdsman) I’ll} 38 There] Cantus Here  lies] 184, 39481 lie 39 Hence I will] 184, 39481 And henceforth ile   do] Cantus be 40 Loue] 184, 39481; Cantus That loves; reading in Garland mutilated, cannot be deciphered. 206. Richard Brathwait, ‘Technis’ Tale’ Text based on Richard Brathwait, The Shepherds’ Tales, Part I, London: Richard Whitaker, 1621, pp. 3–12 (sigs A3r–A7v). 207. Richard Brathwait, ‘The Shepherds’ Holiday’ Text based on Richard Brathwait, The Shepheards’ Tales, Part II, London: Richard Whitaker, 1621, sigs P1r–P3r (appended, with separate titlepage but continuous signatures, to Brathwait’s Natvres Embassie: or, The Wildemans Measures). 208. Richard Brathwait, ‘Tell me love what thou canst do?’ Text based on Richard Brathwait, The Shepheards’ Tales, Part I, London: Richard Whitaker, 1621, pp. 43–5 (sigs C7r–C8r). 209. Lady Mary Wroth, ‘Song: Love as well can make abiding’ Text based on ‘Pamphilia, to Amphilanthus’, appended to Wroth’s romance The Countesse of Montgomeries Urania, London: John Marriott and John Grismand, 1621, sig. 4D2v. 210. Lady Mary Wroth, ‘A shepherd who no care did take’ Text based on Wroth’s The Countesse of Mountgomeries Urania, London: John Marriott and John Grismand, 1621, pp. 520–9 (sigs 3T3v–3V4r). 211. Lady Mary Wroth, ‘You pleasant flowery mead’ Text based on holograph ms of Love’s Victory at Penshurst Place, Kent, fol. 2r. First published in Michael G. Brennan (ed.), Lady Mary Wroth’s



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Love’s Victory. The Penshurst Manuscript, London: Roxburghe Club, 1988. Also found in an incomplete ms., Huntington Library MS HM 600 (formerly at the Proprietary Library, Plymouth). 212. James I, ‘Of Jack and Tom’ Text based on BL MS Harley 837, fols 74r–75r. Also compared: 26: Bod MS Rawl. Poet. 26, fol. 21r–v, titled ‘A Poëme made by Kinge James, vpon the voyage of his sonne Charles and Marquesse Buckingham, into Spayne. March: 1622’ 1048: Bod MS Rawl.D.1048, fol. 73r–v, titled ‘The kings verses 1623. when the Prince went to Spaine with the duke of Buckinghame’ 28640: BL MS Addl 28640, fols 128v–129r (second page mutilated: part of text missing) 34324: BL MS Addl 34324, fol. 312r–v 1 Chaunce] 26, 28640 change 5 That … may] 26 Till … doe 8 Contynuall] 26 with mightie 10 smyle] 26 smell 13 this] 28640 thy  move] 26 mooves 14 afflicts] 26 affectes   Want afflicts] 1048 wants afflict 16 the] 28640 and 18 His … and] 28640 the … his; 34324 his … his   truest … cheiffest] 26 chiefest … truest; 1048 cheifest … dearest 21 freshe] 26, 1048, 28640, 34324 sweete  fflye] 1048 flee 22 Boundes] 1048, 28640 {land} 23 Which] 1048 And 24 this] 28640 the   this wynde came] 26 it issued   Coast] 1048 coasts 25 stoute] 1048 suite 26 turnes] 1048 turne  butt] 34324 and 28 Love, successe] 1048 fortune loue 30 The] 1048 A   Beauteous prize] 26 best of price 34 turne] 1048, 34324 turnes 35 Butt] not in 1048 36 Where] 1048, 28640, 34324 whom  doth] 1048 doe 37 26 Thy grandsire, godsire, father too 38 this] 1048, 28640, 34324 thus; 26 so 39 Whose] 26 Their 40 Both denmarke] 26 France, Scotland, Denmarke 41 jacke … doe] 1048 venterous Jack doth   doe] 34324 doth

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42 When … they] 1048 if … he 43 them] 1048 him 44 soe] 26, 1048,28640 too 46 will] 26 shall  their] 1048 his 47 Remitt … Royall] 26 Committ … Regall 213. John Taylor, from Taylor’s Pastoral Text based on John Taylor, Taylors Pastorall: Being Both Historicall and Satyricall: Or the Noble Antiquitie of Shepheards, with the profitable vse of Sheepe: With a small touch of a scabbed Sheepe, and a caueat against that infection, London: G[eorge] P[urslowe] for Henry Gosson, 1624, sigs B1r–B3v, E3r–E4r. Passage (A) 35 some] emending sowe in original Passage (B) 64 Gold] emending God in original 214. James Shirley, ‘Woodmen Shepherds’ Text based on James Shirley, Love Tricks: or, The School of Complements, produced 1667, printed London: R.T. for Thomas Dring Jr, 1667, p. 55 (sig. H4r). 215. Nicholas Oldisworth, ‘An Eclogue between a Carter and a Shepherd’ Text based on Bod MS Don.c.24, fols 41v–42r. First published in John Gouws (ed.), Nicholas Oldisworth’s Manuscript. Bodleian MS. Don.c.24, MRTS 380, Renaissance English Text Society, Tempe: Arizona Centre for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 2009. 216. William Herbert, ‘A Sonnet’ Text based on William Herbert, Poems, London: Matthew Inman for James Magnes, 1660, sigs D3v–D4r.



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217. Richard Fanshawe, ‘An Ode upon Occasion of His Majesty’s Proclamation’ Text based on that appended to Fanshawe’s translation of Il Pastor Fido. The faithfull Shepherd. A Pastorall, London: R[obert] Raworth, 1647, sigs 2G1r–G3r. Also compared: Firth: Bod MS. Firth c.1, pp. 82–7, Titled ‘An Ode vpon occasion of His Majesties Proclamation in the Yeare 1630. Com’anding the Gentrie to repaire to their Estates in the Countrie’. 3 the … late] Firth her … new 9 that] Firth which 13 Gustavus in the] Firth Germanicus i’th’ 16 fiercer] Firth brauer 23 furied] Firth furred 26 on worke] Firth a-worke 27 Axe] Firth Sword 29–32 Firth Who gainst the Persian now unsheathes / his crooked Cemetar sharp-sett, / And Mahomet dire furie breathes / gainst Mahomet 33 sowe] Firth owe 46 sang] Firth sung 53 Wives] Firth wife 58 his Realmes] Firth our State 77 Tytirus] Firth, emending Pytirus in 1647   that] Firth who 78 praise] Firth raise 85 glory] Firth glories 86 may] Firth might 98 That waste] Firth Which spend 105 Beleeve] Firth And trust 113 shall] Firth may 117–28 Not in Firth 135 Cherrye] Firth Cherries 218. Jasper Fisher, Songs from Fuimus Troes Text based on Jasper Fisher, Fuimus Troes, London: printed by I[ohn] L[egatt] for Robert Allot, 1633, sigs B4r–C1r.

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Text based on Phineas Fletcher, The Purple Island … together with Piscatorie Eclogs and Other Poeticall Miscellanies, Cambridge: [Thomas Buck and Roger Daniel, printers to the University], 1633, pp. 43–54 of the separately paginated section containing the Eclogues and ‘Poeticall Miscellanies’ (sigs F2r–G3v). 220. Phineas Fletcher, ‘To My Beloved Thenot in Answer of His Verse’ Text based on Phineas Fletcher, The Purple Island … together with Piscatorie Eclogs and other Poeticall Miscellanies, Cambridge [Thomas Buck and Roger Daniel, printers to the University], 1633, pp. 65–6 (sig. I1r–v). 221. Phineas Fletcher, from The Purple Island Text based on Phineas Fletcher, The Purple Island, or The Isle of Man, Cambridge [Thomas Buck and Roger Daniel, printers to the University], 1633, Signatures: (A) pp. 1–3 (sigs A1r–A2r), pp. 5–6 (sig.  A3r–v), pp. 8–9 (sigs A4v–B1r); (B) p. 46 (sig. T1v); (C) pp. 159–60 (sig. V4r–v). 222. George Herbert, ‘Christmas’, Part II Text based on George Herbert, The Temple, Cambridge: Thomas Buck and Roger Daniel, printers to the University, 1633, p. 73 (sig. D1r). Also compared Bod MS Tanner 307 fol. 56r, which agrees entirely with The Temple, 1633 in substantive readings. This, the second part of the poem, is not found in the early Williams MS of Herbert’s poems. 223. William Habington, ‘To My Noblest Friend, I.C. Esquire’ Text based on William Habington, Castara, 2nd edn, London: B[ernard] A[lsop] and T[homas] F[awcet] for William Cooke, 1635, pp. 140–2 (sigs G10v–G11v). The poem appeared for the first time in this edition, in the newly added ‘Second part’. 51 our] emending are in original



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224. Abraham Cowley, ‘That a Pleasant Poverty Is To Be Preferred before Discontented Riches’ Text based on Abraham Cowley, Poetical Blossomes, London: E[lizabeth] P[urslowe] for Henry Seile, 2nd edn, 1636, sigs F4v–F5r. Also compared: 213: Bod MS Rawl. Poet. 213, fol. 64v–r (reversed): wrongly ascribed by Margaret Crum (First Line Index  of Manuscript Poetry in the Bodleian Library, Oxford, 1969) to Robert Fleming, whose commonplace-book it is. 28 the Nimphes] 213 my Muses 29 I would] 213 would I 225. Abraham Cowley, ‘The Country Life’ Text based on Cowley’s essay ‘Of Agriculture’, published (as part of Several Discourses by Way of Essays, in Verse and Prose) in The Works of Mr Abraham Cowley, London: J[ohn] M[aycock] for Henry Herringman, 1669, pp. 105–7 (sigs O1r–O2r). 226. Thomas Randolph, ‘Eclogue to Master Jonson’ Text based on Thomas Randolph, Poems with the Muses Looking-Glasse: and Amyntas, Oxford: Leonard Lichfield, printer to the University, for Francis Bowman, University Press, 1638, pp. 97–103 (sigs N1r–N4r). Also compared: 32: St John’s College, Cambridge MS 32, fols 32r–36v, titled ‘An Eclogue to his worthy father m[aste]r Ben. Jonson’ 160: Bod MS Rawl. Poet. 160, fols 31r–33r, titled ‘An Eglogve to his worthy father M[aste]r Beniamin Johnson’ 6057: BL MS Harley 6057 (compiled by Thomas Crosse), fols 25r–27v, titled ‘An Eglouge To his worthy Father M[aste]r Ben: Johnson vnder the Persons of Titerus and Damon’ 1 this] emends 1638 his   sit’st] 6057 sits 2 wast] 6057 wert   a joviall] 32, 160, 6057 {so blyth a} 3 These] 32 those 4 while] 6057 whilst 6 32,160, 6057 {His Pegasus must have wings will thither fly} 10 never to joynt] 6057 ever to joyne; 32 euer to ioint   it] 32, 160 him 11 Fond … done] 32, 160, 6057 {’Twas rashly done, fond boy} 15 doe] 32, 160, 6057 could 17 ’tis] 160 is

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18 has … it self] 6057 hath … herselfe; 160 hath … its selfe   it self] 32 himselfe 21 yon] 6057 that 22 on] 160 in 25 Tytirus] Expanding the abbreviated speech-heading Tyt. here (and later, wherever this spelling is used); 6057 Titerus 27 no … ewes] 160 noe more, noe more the tender Eawes (may be eyeslip from tender in next line)  the teeming] 32 our teeming; 6057 our tender (again, by possible eyeslip: see above) 30 them] 160, 6057 {’em}; 32 um 33 which] 160, 6057 that 36 has] 6057 hath  sweet] 32, 160, 6057 full  the] 160 thy 39 the] 160, 6057 thy 41 thy] 160, 6057 the 43 Mavius … Mavius] 6057 Menius … Menius; 32 Memius … Memius 44 but a Tavern] 32, 160, 6057 {nothing but a} 46 Altar] 32 altars 49 while] 6057 whilst 50 numerous] 6057 innumerous 52 hast] 32 haue 53 6057 whence springs this passion, did thi partial eare   thy fury] 32, 160 this passion 55 which] 32, 160, 6057 who 57 high] 160, 6057 sad 58 thy] 6057 this 62 Not in 6057. The absence seems to be noted by a mark in the left margin, presumably made by a later reader.  wears] 32, 160 beare  and shafts] 160 a shaft  shafts] 32 shaft 65 could] 32, 160 can 67 quickly] 6057 shrewdly 68 built] 6057 build 69 aread] 6057 thee feede [sic] 71 those] 6057 theis 72 I dare unload] 6057 unloade to thee 73 whetted siccles] 32 crooked sickle 74 i’ th’ other] 160 in th’other 76 heat] 6057 heate (no doubt by eyeslip repeating previous line) 78 yet] 32, 160, 6057 but   has] 160 hath 82 think us worth the] 6057 thanke our worthy   worth the] 32, 160 {worthy}



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83 perchance] 6057 perhaps 85 6057 yett after lett him sterve with paine   But] 32 yet 86 him] 160 them  their] 6057 his (both readings presumably in error) 89 look] 6057 doe 90 doe] not in 160 92 I, and ’tis] 32, 160, 6057 {nay it is} 93 swel’d] 32, 6057 swolne 94 should] 6057 could 95 Swine] 6057 Swines 99 hath] 6057 haue 100 Has … fram’d] 160, 6057 {hath … formed} 103 various] 6057 varied 106 to pay for] 160 to part with 113 fortunes] 6057 fortune  my] 32, 160 mine 114 Who can] 32, 160, 6057 that doth 118 successions … Flames] 32, 160, 6057 succession … fames 120 shear] 160 yoake (no doubt by eyeslip from previous line)   thousand] 32, 6057 hundred 122 should’st … prune] 32 shalt … proue 123 fruit … might … thy] 6057 blood … would …the; 32 blood … should … the; 160 blood … should … thy 124 ravishing, high and lofty] 32, 160, 6057 {lofty, full and ravishing} 128 on] 32, 160, 6057 to 133 on] 32, 160, 6057 in 138 closet] 32, 160, 6057 {closets} 139 sense, motion, place and] 32, 160, 6057 place, motion and the 141 How Elements doe change] 6057 howe th’elements doe move 144 this is … that] 32, 160, 6057 some are … some 146 her] 6057 the 147 travelling] 6057 travaling 149 parch’t with the] 6057 and parcht with   soultry] 160 sweltry 152 Doth] 32 does  more] 32, 160, 6057 such 153 Then] 32, 160, 6057{As} 155 when] 6057 where 156 made] 32 makes 158 self in flakes] 32, 160, 6057 fleece in locks 160 wore] 160 were 162 mazers] 6057 masters (no doubt in error) 165 Whence Thunders are] 6057, Where thunder is; 32 whence thunder is; 160 when thunder is   (the second) whence] 160 where

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166 What foot] 6057 which forct 167 And] 6057 but 168 flock] 32, 160 {flocks} 169 me … to] 32, 160, 6057 {he…doth} 170 mine] 160, 6057 his 172 when] 32, 160, 6057 till 173 Nor] 32, 160 ne 175 I would] 6057 if I 176 frights] 160 fright 177 swains] 6057 swain 178 there] 6057 then  rime] 32 rithme; 160 rythme 179 counsel] 160, 6057 meet with 180 Faunus] 160 famous (obviously an error) 180–2 Given to Damon in 6057 180 you] 6057 I 181 shadows] 6057 shades doe 183–6 6057 gives this section to Tityrus, but omits 185, no doubt in error (cf. l.62) 183 flock] 6057 flocks  were] 32 was 184 did you not erst] 32, 6057 didst thou not nowe; 160 did’st thou not then 185 clouds] 32,160 {cloud} 186 leading] 32, 6057 {driving} 32,160 close with a Latin tag, Alcinoo nullum poma dedisse putas (Martial, Epigrams 7.42: ‘Do you think no-one has given apples to Alcinous?’) In the Odyssey, Alcinous, ruler of the Phaeacians, had large orchards. The idea is to give something to someone who already has it in abundance – i.e. give wealth to those already rich and not to starving poets. 227. Thomas Randolph, ‘An Eclogue Occasioned by Two Doctors Disputing upon Predestination’ Text based on Thomas Randolph, Poems with the Muses Looking-Glasse: and Amyntas, Oxford: Leonard Lichfield, printer to the University, for Francis Bowman, University Press, 1638, pp. 93–7 (sigs M3r–M5r). Also compared: 38: Bod MS Ashmole 38, pp. 66–7, titled ‘An Eglogue by Master Tho: Randall’ 3357: BL MS Harley 3357, fols 88r–91r, titled ‘A diuine Pastorall



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Eglogue’. Transcribed by Ralph Crane according to BL catalogue. Firth: Bod MS Firth e.4, pp. 66–9, titled ‘An Eglogue. Coridon Thirsis. Thenot and Collin’ 1 Thirsis] Firth Shepheard 2 that you] Firth you do 3 houre] Firth Time  yon] 3357 yond 4 Does] Firth, 38 Doth 6 Alexis] Firth Thenot had 38, 3357 Thenot hath  Tityrus] MSS {Colin Clout} [Corresponding changes in these shepherds’ names right through all mss.] 9 Alexis read] Firth, 38 {Colin, areed} 10 two lambs at once] Firth at once two lambs 11 Th’one] Firth One  the other] 38, 3357 th’other 12 it could] not in Firth; 38, 3357 could it 13 you] not in 38, no doubt by error 14 given thee] Firth gaue you; 3357 given you 15 by] Firth of 16 merit then so] Firth, 38, 3357 then merit a 17 3357 Poor lamb, and couldst thou yet (alas) unborn; yet] Firth then 20 hallowed] so Firth, 38, 3357; 1638 hollowed 22 Pales] Firth, 38 Pallas (presumably in error) 24 knowing, ’tis] Firth knowing this 30 fold, and drive] 38, 3357 {drive and fold} 32 That fed] 38 This feed  in] Firth on 34 the] Firth, 3357 our 37 MSS {Dotard, you foul on Pan’s omniscience fall} 38 Firth Dunce, into question you Gods godnes call; 38, 3357 {Dunce, you his goodness into question call} 39 these strifes] Firth this strife 41 To] 38 On 48 and] MSS but 50 Followed in Firth, 38 by two additional lines: {Deep sages by a star his mansion sought, / Poore swains by his own harbingers were [Firth ar] taught.} 54 The harvest bring, nor] Firth his haruest beare, or; 38, 3357 {The harvest bear, nor} grind] Firth grine 56 thousand Hungers] 38, 3357 {thousands’ hunger}

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58 he was] he missing in 38; 3357 was he   Lilly, or with Rose?] 38 lillies? or the Rose?   Lilly,] Firth lillies? 59 winding] binding 61 Girts] Firth Girt  Shepheards] 38, 3357 {ah shepherds} 62 head] MSS {soul} 67–8 Firth gives the words ô sing … betray’d! to Collin; Thenot resumes from ’twas with 71 so] Firth for 73–4 Missing in MSS 78 made] 3357 more 82 Alexis] Firth, 3357 {Palemon’s}; 38 Palæmon 83–4 Missing in MSS 85 dead] emending lead in 1638 89 our] Firth, 38 your 94 Cornet’s blowne] 3357 Cornet blowes  Sheepshears] Firth, 38 {sheepshear} 228. Thomas Randolph, ‘An Eclogue on the Palilia on Cotswold Hills’ Text based on Annalia Dvbrensia. Vpon the yeerely celebration of Mr. Robert Dovers Olimpick Games vpon Cotswold Hills, London: Robert Raworth for Matthew Walbank, 1636, sigs C3r–D1v. Also compared: Firth: Bod MS Firth e.4, pages 60–65, titled ‘An Eglogue Vpon the Pallalia: at Cotswold hill’ 1638: Thomas Randolph, Poems, Oxford: Leonard Lichfield, printer to the University, 1638, pp. 114–20 (sigs P1v–P4v), titled ‘An Eglogue on the noble Assemblies revived on Cotswold Hills, by M. Robert Dover’. 3 um (also in 37, 63)] 1638 ’em; Firth them 6 windings] 1638, Firth winding 11 Virgins] Firth lasses 12 Aire] Firth age (no doubt in error) 13 Firth omits speech-heading Thenot  Yet] Firth Yea 15 lustie] Firth lastly 16 hurle] Firth lugge 18 Great] Firth Big  strengths are] 1638 strength is 25 limbes] Firth armes 26 numb’d] Firth myr’d 27 goe] Firth got



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28 aboute:] 1638; aboute, Firth. Annalia has no punctuation, perhaps taking spread as a participle referring to the men described in the next few lines. 31 A second … supple] Firth Another … subtill 34 throw] Firth Pitch 37 um] 1638 ‘em; Firth them 39 Crown’d] Firth Grac’d 41 Gilliflowre] Firth gilly flowres 42 Encourage] Firth To courage (=​encourage) 43 languisheth] Firth languishes 47 Lowt] Firth soul 48 flocks] Firth flock 52 Religions] Firth (apparently) religious (i.e., a religious person) 56 Followed in Firth by two additional lines: And blind mans buffe to any man of sense / A Type of popish blind obedience. 58 have silenc’d] Firth will silence 59 harmlesse] Firth guiltlesse  rail’d] Firth calld 60 Followed in Firth by two additional lines: Nice Justices that sure must vnderstand / for They haue store of beards, and store of land 61 Some think it] Firth Think it not 62 Citie] 1638, Firth country 63 um] 1638 ‘em; Firth them 65 Besides … their] Firth Beside … these 66 When] Firth That 71 At] Firth On 73 Courtly way] Firth courtlier Fray (Fray replacing earlier cancelled reading play) 74 more] Firth now 76 Quintain] Firth Quintill (a variant form) 77 And these old-pastimes] Firth Beside These Pastimes 78 That] Firth Which 83 although] Firth if that 84 an others] Firth another 86 what is] Firth what’s a 87 their harmlesse] Firth those lawfull 88 an] Firth their 89 Where] Firth When 91 againe of Innocent] Firth of innocent sweete 94 Mantuan song] Firth Mantick Tongue 98 a] Firth the

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100 Her] Firth His 101 Through all] Firth Throughout 105–46 not in Firth 122 ‘um] 1638 ‘em 128 ‘um] 1638 ‘em 132 woon’d] 1638 did winde 146 vm] 1638 ‘em 147 bee] Firth ar 151 Isthmian] Firth Ismenian 152 on] Firth in 153 Happy oh hill!] 1638, Firth {Oh happy hill} 155 Clift] Firth cliffe 156 shall on thy] Firth on thy sweet 160 his snowie] Firth their aged 162 reach] Firth touch 163 Eies] not in Firth, presumably by error 168 each] so 1638, Firth; Annalia earth 169 1638 mistakenly inserts the speech-heading Coll. here, and another wrong speech-heading The. at l.171. 172 your] Firth the 173–6 not in Firth 177 Rams] Firth Lambs 179 For] Firth To 180 make him up a] Firth work vp Douers 181 man] Firth may 182 Saint] Firth fame 229. Thomas Randolph, ‘A Dialogue betwixt a Nymph and a Shepherd’ Text based on Thomas Randolph, Poems with the Muses Looking-glasse: and Amyntas, Oxford: Leonard Lichfield, printer to the University, for Francis Bowman, 1638, pp. 75–6 (sig.  K2r–v). Also compared: 10338: BL MS Addl 10338, pp. 72–3, titled ‘Song Nymphe and Sheaphard’: set to music 1, 3 Nymph, Shepheard] Full speech-headings inserted in this edition, in the spellings found in the title. The original has Nymp and Sh or Shep as speech-headings. 4 toy] 10338 thinge 7 Saint] 10338 Lamb



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14–18 In 10338, these four lines are sung together by the shepherd and shepherdess, varying the order of the words and the tune. 230. John Milton, ‘Lycidas’ Text based on Justa Edovardo King naufrago, Cambridge: Thomas Buck and Roger Daniel, printers to the University, 1638, English section with separate title-page and pagination, Obsequies to the memorie of Mr Edward King, pp. 20–5 (sigs H3v–I2r). Also compared: Tr: Trinity College, Cambridge MS R3.4, pp. 31–4, with separate drafts of some short passages on p. 30. Unless otherwise mentioned, Tr readings are from the main body of the poem on pp. 31–4. 1645: Poems of Mr John Milton, both English and Latin, London: Ruth Raworth for Humphrey Moseley, 1645, pp. 57–65 (sigs D5r–E1r) 673: Poems, &c. upon Several Occasions. by Mr John Milton: Both English and Latin, &c, London: Thomas Dring, 1673, pp. 75–83 (sigs E6r–F2r). Headnote] From 1645; not in 1638; second sentence not in Tr. 4–5 And … leaves] Tr p. 30 has what appears to be a first draft of these lines: before the mellowing year / and crop yo[u]r young 8 For] In Tr p. 30, replaces the earlier cancelled reading young 10 he knew] Tr he well knew 22 And] In Tr, replaces the earlier cancelled reading to 24 1645, 1673 end this line with a full stop, and begin a new verse-­ paragraph at 25. 26 glimmering] Tr deletes and replaces with opening; 1645, 1673 opening 30 Tr deletes and replaces with oft till the starre that rose in evning bright; 1645, 1673 have the same substantive reading, with at for in. 31 burnisht] Tr deletes and replaces with westring; 1645, 1673 westering 39 shepherds] Tr shepheard 47 wardrobe] In Tr, replaces the earlier cancelled reading buttons wear] Tr vacillates between weare and beare but finally chooses weare 51 lord] Tr lov’d, replacing the earlier cancelled reading youn[g]  1645, 1673 lov’d 53 the] 1645, 1673 your 57 Tr cancels had hee and for without replacement 58–63 Heavily worked over in Tr. The first (largely cancelled) version reads what could the golden-haird Calliope /   for her inchaunting

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son / when shee beheld (the gods farre sighted bee) / his goarie scalpe rowle downe the Thracian lee In the margin, after the line for her inchaunting son there is a new version: whome universal nature might lament / and heaven and hel [?dement – page mutilated] [this line cancelled] / when his divine head downe the streame was sent / downe the swift Hebrus to [?the – page mutilated] Lesbian shore. An asterisk in the margin guides us to the final manuscript version on Tr p. 30. This agrees substantively with the printed 1638 text. 62 goary] In Tr, replaces the earlier cancelled reading divine 65 tend] 1673 end (presumably in error) 66 strictly] 1645 (also Tr), emending stridly in 1638 67 do] Tr, 1645, 1673 use 69 Hid in] Tr deletes and replaces with or with; 1645 Or with 73 where] Tr, 1645, 1673 when 82 perfect] 1673 perfet 85 honour’d] Final reading in Tr after two deletions, smooth and fam’d 86 Smooth] In Tr, replaces earlier deleted reading soft 105 Inwrought] In Tr, this is an alternative reading in the margin to the uncancelled scrawl’d ore in the text 107 has] Tr, 1645, 1673 hath 114 Enough] 1645, 1673 Anow 121 herdmans] Tr heardsmans 129 little] In Tr, replaces the earlier cancelled reading nothing; 1645, 1673 nothing 131 smites] Tr, 1645 smite 139 Throw] Tr replaces earlier cancelled reading bring with thrown [sic] in the margin 142–50 that … tears] not in main text of Tr. A somewhat different cancelled version appears on Tr p. 30: Bring the rathe primrose that unwedded dies colouring the pale cheekes of uninjoyd love and that sad floure that strove to write his owne woes on the vermil graine next adde Narcissus that still weeps in vaine the woodbines and the pancie freak’t with jet the glowing violet the cowslip wan that hangs his pensive head and every bud that sorrows liverie weares



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let Daffadillies fill thire cups with teares bid Amaranthus all his beautie shed

This is cancelled, and another version, closer to the printed text, placed after it. Variants from this are noted below. 144 pink … pansie] Tr p. 30 pinks … pansis 146 well-attir’d wood-bine] In Tr p. 30, replaces earlier, cancelled reading garish columbine 148 embroidery] Tr p. 30 escutcheon as alternative reading in margin, alongside the original 149–50 In Tr p. 30, the lines were originally in reverse order. 149 beauty] Tr p. 30 beauties (The s appears to be an afterthought.) 150 And] In Tr p. 30, replaces earlier, cancelled reading let after ­transposition with 149. 153 frail] In Tr, replaces earlier, cancelled reading sad 154 shores] In Tr, replaces earlier, cancelled reading floods 157 humming] 1645, 1673 whelming 160 Bellerus] In Tr, replaces earlier, cancelled reading Corineus [‘one of the legendary warriors who, as M[ilton] notes in [his] History of Britain, came to Britain with Brutus, Aeneas’ great-grandson, and ruled over Cornwall’ (Carey & Fowler)] 164 helplesse] Tr, 1645, 1673 {hapless} 176 And heares] In Tr, replaces earlier, cancelled reading listening Tr, 1645, 1673 follow with the line {In the blest kingdoms meek of joy and love} 231. Casimir: Ode IV.21: from the Song of Songs Text based on The Odes of Casimire Translated by G[eoffrey] H[ils], London: T.W. for Humphrey Moseley, 1646, pp. 83–9 (sigs E6r–E9r). 232. Casimir Sarbiewski, ‘The Praise of a Religious Recreation’ Text based on The Odes of Casimire Translated by G[eoffrey] H[ils], London: T.W. for Humphrey Moseley, 1646, pp. 125–35 (sigs G4r–G9r). 233. Thomas Carew, ‘The Spring’ Text follows Thomas Carew, Poems, London: I[ohn] D[awson] for Thomas Walkley, 1640, pp. 1–2 (sig. B1r–v). Also compared:

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21: Bod MS Malone 21, fol. 45r, titled ‘The Spring’ 25: Bod MS Eng.poet.f.25, fols 13v–14r, titled ‘Vpon the springe’ 3511: BL MS Harley 3511, fol. 55v 11811: BL MS Addl 11811, fol. 4r–v, titled ‘The Spring’ 23229: BL MS Addl 23229, fol. 53r, titled ‘On the springe’ 25303: BL MS Addl 25303, fol.  174r, titled ‘On a Lady of exquisite beauty but moste inexorable of disposition’ 1 that the winter’s gone] 25303 is the winter gone and 2 snow-white] 23229 snowy 3 or] 21 nor 4 or] 23229 nor 5 25 For now Sols glittering beames thawes germes[?] of earth  benummed] 25303 hardened 6 it] not in 11811  sacred] 21, 25, 11811, 23229, 25303 {second} 7 Swallow] 21 swallowes  wakes] 21 revives; 11811, 3511 makes (no doubt in error) 8 the] not in 11811 9 Now doe a] 25303 and now the   doe] 21 doth  bring] 11811 sing 11 The] 25 Both  hill] 3511 hill  and] 21 the  hills, and woods] 25303 woodes, and Hylls 13 doth] not in 11811, no doubt in error 14 25 And scalding Phœbus raies have not the powre  the] 21 a  scalding Noon-day-sunne] 25303 scorchinge Noone-dayes Sunne 15 that marble yce] 25 her icy brest  that marble] 21, 11811 the marble  marble] 25303 frozen  yce] 11811 yet  which still] 3511 that still 16 and] 25 which  makes] 21, 23229 make 17 which] 25 that  lately did for shelter] 11811 did for shelter lately; 21, 25 did of late for shelter 19 fields] 21, 11811, 23229 {field} 20 in the] 25 by some  cooler] 23229 colder 21 now] not in 3511   with]11811 by  Cloris] 23229 Phillis 23 the] not in 23229 24 25 A face of June but heart of January   eyes] 25303 face 234. Thomas Carew, ‘To Saxham’ Text based on Thomas Carew, Poems, London: I[ohn] D[awson] for Thomas Welkley, 1640, pp. 45–7 (sigs D7r–D8r). Also compared:



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227

142: Bod MS Rawl. Poet. 142, fol. 44r, titled ‘Vpon Entertainment at Saxham, in Kent’ 199: Bod MS Rawl. Poet. 199, pp. 81–3, titled ‘On an entertainement’ 209: Bod MS Rawl. Poet. 209, fol. 1r as now constituted (ll. 47–58 only: the previous page is lost) 1792: BL MS Sloane 1792, fols 66v–67v, titled ‘A winters entertainment. To: Cary’ 6931: BL MS Harley 6931, fols 24v–25v, titled ‘A Gent. on his Entertainment at Saxum in Kent’ 11811: BL MS Addl 11811, fol. 9r–v, titled ‘To Saxam’ 22118: BL MS Addl 22118, fol. 44v, titled ‘To Saxam’ 30982: BL MS Addl 30982, fols 154r–153r (reversed), titled ‘A gentellman on his entertainement at Saxum in Kent’ 33998: BL MS Addl 33998, fol. 72r–v, titled ‘Vpon his Entertaynment at Saxum in Kent’ 1 lockt] 199 tooke; 30982 flocke  mine] 33998 my 2 That] 30982 The 3 Thy] 142 The; 30982 That  walkes] 30982 walles 4 thy] 142 the  pleasures] 1792 pleasure 7 sweets … blesse] 30982 sweetenesse and of blisse  native] 142 natures 8 roofe with inward] 22118 inward roof with   inward] 30982 inwards 9 As] 142, 199, 1792, 6931, 30982, 33998 That  nor] 142, 199, 22118 or 10 Winter takes … Spring addes] 11811 Winters take … springs adde  Spring addes] 30982 or summer 11–16 Not in 142 11 had] 11811 hath 12 if not by thee] 199 unlesse by you; 6931, 30982, 33998 {unless by thee} 15–16 30982 interchanges these lines. 17 142 Thy tables fruitfull still, as if the skie   as the] 199 as if the 18 Volarie] 199, 6931, 30982, 33998 {votary}, presumably in error 19 birds] 1792 bird 20 Might] 199 Should; 1792 would 22 the] 199 theyr 24 Home to the] 142 Vnto thy  the] 11811, 22118, 33998 thy 25 did thither] 30982 himselfe did [while retaining Himselfe in the next line] 28 the] 142, 30982 thy

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29 did all] 11811, 22118 all did; 142, 199, 1792 and all; 30982 doe all 30 tributes] 199, 1792, 6931, 11811, 22118, 30982 tribute  thy] 11811 the 31 themselves] 142 themselve 32 where they] 142 where men  where] 1792 whilst 35–46 not in 142 35 seeme to] 22118 some doe 36 all] 199 them; 1792, 6931, 30982, 33998 those 37 seeme to] 11811 some doe 39–40 199 Where hee’s refresht, will he away / Hee’s fairely wellcome: but if stay 39 6931 Where when refresht yf hee’le away 40 or] 1792, 6931, 30982, 33998 but 41 shall hearty] 33998 most true shall  hearty] 199, 6931, 30982 truly 42 Hinde] 30982 frind [sic] 43–4 199, 1792, 6931, 30982, 33998 place after l.48. 44 weare] 1792, 6931, 11811, 22118, 30982, 33998 beare 45 doth this] 199, 1792, 30982, 33998 is his [30982 if by confusion with is]; 6931 is [by error for is his?]  this] 11811, 22118 his 46 199, 6931, 33998 {The worse cause he stayed longer there [199 here] }  Grow] 1792, 30982 The  staies] 30982 stayd 48 sups] 30982 sup  or] 142, 33998 and 49–54 not in 142 49 the] 199, 209, 11811, 30982, 33998 thy 51 199 Nor bolts vppon thy gates are seene   locks … bolts] 30982 lockt [sic] … boult 52 Made onely] 199 They’re made but 55 142 Thy gates are careless, for they know 57 theeves] 142, 199, 6931, 30982 {thee} 235. William Strode, ‘On Westwell Downs’ Text based on autograph ms, Corpus Christi College, Oxford MS. 325, fols 59v–60r. First published in Bertram Dobell (ed.), The Poetical Works of William Strode, London: published by the editor, 1907. Also compared: 97: Bod MS Eng.poet.e.97, p. 145, titled ‘On Westwell Downes’ 1446: BL MS Sloane 1446, fol. 22v (ll. 5–16 only), titled ‘On Westwelldownes’: no substantive variants from copy-text 19268: BL MS Addl 19268, fol. 41v, titled ‘On Westwell Downes’ 30982: BL MS Addl 30982, fol. 18r–v, titled ‘On Westwell Downes’



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2 doe] 97 did 3 a] not in 30982, no doubt in error   there] 97, 30982 {here} 7 shaddowings] 97 shadowes doe; 1446 shaddowes 9 doe … a] 97 did … the 13 they haue] 97, 30982 haue they 14 trimly] 19268 liuely 17 foode] 97 Foot (no doubt in error) 18 As] 19268, 30982 is 25 hilly] 97 little 28 Vale] 97, 19268, 30982 {fall} 29 play] 97 pray 236. ‘Thenot’s Abode’ Text based on BL MS Harley 6917, fols 8r–9r. Printed here for the first time. 237. ‘All Hail to Hatfield’ Text based on MS Lt q 44 in the Brotherton Library, Leeds University, fols 15r–19v. First published in Tom Lockwood, ‘“All Hayle to Hatfeild”: A New Series of Country House Poems’ [etc.], ELR 38, 2008. 69 me thinkes] emending my thinkes in MS 192 sceales] may also be read as steales 238. Sidney Godolphin(?), ‘Tom and Will’ Text based on the ballad Tom and Will. or, The Shepherds Sheepfold, London: F. Coles, [1655?]. Also compared: 173: Bod MS Rawl. Poet. 173, fols 73r–74r, titled ‘A Song by Sidney Godolphin Esq. on Tom Killegrew and Will Murrey, the disappoynted Rivalls’ 196: Bod MS Rawl. Poet. 196, fols 52v–54r, titled ‘Tom and Will a Ballad’ Sportive: Sportive Wit: The Muses Merriment. … Collected …, by … C.F.[,] B.F.[,] L.M.[,] W.T. Cum multis aliis, London, Nath[aniel] Brook, 1656, second page-sequence pp. 112–15 (sigs 2G8v–2H2r), titled ‘The admirable Song of Tom and Will’. Also printed later in Dryden’s Examen Poeticum, London: R[obert] Everingham] for Jacob Tonson, 1693, pp. 425–8 (sigs 2E6r–2E7v), and

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1706, pp. 250–4. 1–4 Not in Sportive 1 Shepherds Swains] 173 Shepherds twain 2 who] 196 That 3 173 Till fair Pastora crost the plain   grac’d the] 196 crost their 4 alack] 196 Alas 6 had] 196 felt 7 the] Sportive their  grac’d] Sportive; Ballad grav’d 8 alack] Sportive Alas 9–12 173 has these corresponding lines as the second stanza of the poem, not counting a deleted version of 13–16 (see below): Pastora’s fair and lovely Locks / Set both their Hearts on fire, / Altho’ they did divide their Flocks / They had but one desire. 10 had] Sportive had had 11 Pastora’s] 196 Pastora 13–16 In 173, these lines are written immediately after 1–4, but then deleted. The underlying text, which is quite legible, is substantively the same, but reads a for honest in l.13. 13 honest] 196, Sportive a 17–18 Tom … Hunts-Man] 173 Neither of them no Huntsman was, / No Filder 17 toysom] Sportive; Ballad toilsome; 196 Folorn [sic] 19 held] 173 stil’d  proper] 196, Sportive properer 20 Followed in 196 by the additional lines Tom was young, but something Bald, / It Seemd no Imperfection; / Will was Grey, but yet not Old, / And Browner of Complexion; 21–4 not in 173 21 scorching … hearts] 196 Touching … Breast 22 then they] 196, Sportive They 23 Although] 196 For tho’ 24 another] Sportive and other 26 196 His very Ghost shoud haunt her;   will] 173, Sportive could 27 would] 173; Ballad could not, which reverses the sense.  ear] Sportive haire 29 keeps] 173 was; Sportive kept 30 forgets] Sportive forgot 31 Will] 196 But Will; Sportive Tom (obviously in error) 32 some] 173, Sportive Sweet 33–6 not in 173; 196 places after l.40, which itself comes later (see ll.37–40n).



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36 And] 196 Yet 37–40 196 places the corresponding lines after l.52. 37 196 Yet so Charming so Sweet was she   Yet] 173 And yet 38 and of so sweet] 173 So comely of; 196 So pleasing of 40 chiefly] 173 greatest; 196, Sportive chiefest 41 loving] 173 bounteous; 196, Sportive lovely 42 173 Of a Charming sprightfull nature   comely feature] 196 Gentle Nature 43 fair] 173 Kind 44 kind to] 173 smil’d on 45 favour] 173, 196 Favours 46 and] 173, 196 But 47 less] 196 loose 48 them] 173, 196, Sportive men 49–52 173 places after l.32 instead of ll.33–6, which are missing in 173. 49 these two] 173 them  best] 196 deletes and replaces with most 51 ’Tis thought they’l find] 173 ’Twas thought they found  they’l] Sportive they will 53–6 Not in 173. 196 places after 36, which itself comes in a different sequence (see above). 53 favour] 196, Sportive favours 55 She … both] 196 And … still 57 Tale-telling] 173 Now flying; 196 Till Tatling  hath] 173, 196 had 58 Pastora’s] 196 Pastora 59 Pastora’s sent for to] 173 That she must needs unto 60 for] not in 173 62 it had been] 196 There were   had been] 173 were 63 173 The Queen her self with all her Train   Our] 196 The  all] not in 196   amongst] Sportive ’mongst 64 not half] 173 Had none  not] 196 Was 65 hung] 196 hangd  threw] 173 flung; 196 cast 66 Sheep-crook] Sportive sheep-hook; 173 sheepeshook; 196 Shepheard’s Hook   and his Wallet] 196 and Wallet 67 burst] 173, 196 broke 68 Sonnet] 173, 196 {Ballad} 69 break] 173, Sportive brake; 196 Broke 70 their joys are] 173 The Tunes were; 196 Their Sports Were   are] Sportive were  tears] Sportive; Ballad fears 71 an end to make] 173 to make an end

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Text based on Francis Quarles, The shepheards oracle: delivered in an eglogue (no place or printer, 1644). Also compared: 1646: The shepheards oracles: delivered in certain eglogues, London: M[iles] F[lesher] for John Marriot and Richard Marriot, 1646 (as the 11th and last eclogue), two editions: Wing Q115A (pp. 129–43, sigs S1r–T4r) and Wing Q115B (pp. 115–29, sigs Q1r–R4r). Another edition, Wing Q115, also dated 1646 but probably from 1645, lacks this eclogue. 49 Had the] 1656 (Wing Q115B only) Had but the 151 Ferme] 1646 Terme 162 there’s] 1646 (Wing Q115A only) there 178 Our] 1646 The 284 turnes] 1656 (Wing Q115B only) turn 301 bands] 1656 (Wing Q115B only) bans 240. Jane Cavendish and Elizabeth Brackley, Scenes from a Pastoral Play Text based on Bod MS Rawl. Poet. 16. These excerpts are from p. 61 and pp. 67–9 respectively. Also found in Yale University, Beinecke Library MS Osborn b.233: these excerpts are on p. 55 and pp. 59–61 respectively. There are no substantive variants between the two manuscripts in these passages. First published in this volume. 241. Robert Herrick, ‘A Pastoral upon the Birth of Prince Charles’ Text based on Herrick’s Hesperides: or, The Works both Humane and Divine, London: John Williams and Francis Eglesfield for Thomas Hunt, 1648, pp. 95–7 (sigs G8r–H1r). The (probably earlier) version given afterwards has a different arrangement of lines of varying length, indicating a more obvious musical setting. Its text is based on Rosenbach Foundation, Philadelphia, MS 293/23, pp. 94–5. This version also occurs in: 14: Bod MS Eng.poet.e.14, fol. 48r–v 27: Rosenbach Foundation, Philadelphia, MS 293/27, pp. 250–1, titled ‘A dialogue on Prince Charles his birth betwene 3 Sheepherds; Amintas, Martillo, Ambo’ (‘Ambo’ no doubt a mistake for ‘Amarillis’)



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The following collation is of this alternative manuscript version. 1 Aminta] 14 and 27 have Amint[as], and 27 has Mar[tillo] all through. 2 14 gives this line to Amintas. 3 And … to yow] 27 gives to Martillo. 3 And mirthfull pipes] 14 A mirthfull pipe 4 Sheepewalkes] 14 Sheep-walk  None] 27 gives to Amarillis.   that] not in 14 5 My] not in 27 7 27 gives to Amintas. 7 maks] 14 hath 7–8 Or … shearers] 14 gives the corrresponding section to Amarillis. 8 To … Sheepeshearers] 14 For his sheepards too  These] 27 Tut these 9 But] 27 Come deere Aminta’nd faire Amarillis 10 List but] 27 Rest; 14 Rest you  this] 27 thy  Banke] 14 bed 11 to a] 14 to one 12 Ambo] 14 Both 13 Two] 14 Three 14 Whiter] 27 whitest  becladd the] 14 be clad that 17 Ambo] 14 Amar: 18 14 Sing lullabies to rock the prince as sleepe: 18 this] 27 the 19 that] not in 14   might] 14 sho’d 20 Att] 14 In  appear’d] 14 was seene 21 guided] 27 lighted 23–4 14 ascribes to Ambo. 23 But] 27 And   is’t … if] 14 tis … that 25–6 14 Not soe, not soe I think, but if proue [sic] / A fault, at most, tis but a fault of loue.   soe bee it] 14 it chance to 26 Allmost] 14 At most 27–30 14 gives these lines to Amar. 27 Yea but Mirtillo] 14 I But Amyntas 31–5 14 gives these lines to Amyn. 31–2 14 Amyn: Tis true, tis true: Myr: And both of us will bringe / Vnto our Charming king 31 27 interchanges Amarillis’ and ‘Martillo’s’ speeches. 32 our Blooming] 14 our smiling, and our Blooming 35 27 follows in the next line with a heading or direction Offerings. 36, 39 27 interchanges the speeches of Aminta[s] and Amarillis. 40 the] 14 with

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45 tymely] 27 trimly; 14 fairly 46 Grace] 14 guift 47–8 treasures, pleasures] 27, 14 treasure, pleasure 242. Robert Herrick, ‘A Pastoral Sung to the King’ Text based on Robert Herrick, Hesperides: or, The Works both Humane and Divine, London: John Williams and Francis Eglesfield, to be sold by Thomas Hunt, 1648, pp. 184–5 (sigs N4v–N5r). 243. Robert Herrick, ‘To His Muse’ Text based on Robert Herrick, Hesperides: or, The Works both Humane and Divine, London: John Williams and Francis Eglesfield, to be sold by Thomas Hunt, 1648, pp. 1–2 (sig. B1r–v). 244. Robert Herrick, ‘The Hock-Cart’ Text based on Robert Herrick, Hesperides: or, The Works both Humane and Divine, London: John Williams and Francis Eglesfield, to be sold by Thomas Hunt, 1648, pp. 113–15 (sigs I1r–I2r). 245. Robert Herrick, ‘A New-Year’s Gift Sent to Sir Simeon Steward’ Text based on Robert Herrick, Hesperides: or, The Works both Humane and Divine, London: John Williams and Francis Eglesfield, to be sold by Thomas Hunt, 1648, pp. 145–7 (sigs L1r–L2r). 246. Mildmay Fane, ‘A Dialogue Weeping the Loss of Pan’ Text based on Houghton Library, Harvard MS.645, pp. 138–9. First published in The Poetry of Mildmay Fane, ed. Tom Cain, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001. 247. Mildmay Fane, ‘My Happy Life, to a Friend’ Text based on Mildmay Fane, Otia Sacra, London: Richard Coles, 1648, pp. 134–40 (sigs R4v–S3v).



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248. Mildmay Fane, ‘In Praise of a Country Life’ Text based on The Poetry of Mildmay Fane, ed. Tom Cain, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001, which uses the MS at Fulbeck House (Fulbeck 3) as copy-text. 249. Joseph Beaumont, From Psyche Text based on Joseph Beaumont, Psyche: Or Loves Mysterie In XX. Canto’s: Displaying the Intercourse Betwixt Christ and the Soule, London: John Dawson for George Boddington, 1648, Canto VII, stanzas 184–204 (pp. 109–11: sigs P3r–P4r). 250. ‘A Pastoral Dialogue between Coridon and Thyrsis’ Text based on BL MS Harley 393, fols 1r–4r. There is a modern transcript in the Thorn-Drury MS., Bod MS Eng.misc.e.255. First published in this volume. 251. Henry Vaughan, ‘The Shepherds’ Text based on Henry Vaughan, Silex Scintillans: or Sacred Poems and Private Eiaculations, London: T[homas] W[alkley] for H[umphrey] Blunden, 1650, pp. 97–8 (sig. G1r–v). 1 lives] The editor Henry Francis Lyte, followed by others, emended this to livers. This improves the metre but seems an unnecessary emendation, though Vaughan uses the word in ‘Retirement’ II.4. 252. Henry Vaughan, ‘Daphnis: An Elegiac Eclogue’ Text based on Thalia Rediviva. The Pass-Times and Diversions of a Countrey-Muse, London: Robert Pawlet, 1678, pp. 67–73 (sigs F2r–F5r). 253. William Denny, from The Shepherd’s Holiday Text based on BL MS Addl 34065, fols 6r–7r. First published in Inedited Poetical Miscellanies 1584–1700, ed.W.C. Hazlitt with introduction by Henry Huth, London: Chiswick Press, 1870 (pages not numbered).

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Text based on the first printed edition, Trivial Poems and Triolets, London: John Murray, 1820, pp. 17–20. It has no substantive differences from the ms dating c.1651 in the Walter Scott Library, Abbotsford. 255. Edward Benlowes, ‘The Pleasure of Retirement’ Text based on Edward Benlowes, Theophila. or Loves Sacrifice. A Divine Poem, London: R[oger] N[orton] to be sold by Henry Seile and Humphrey Moseley, 1652, pp. 236–9 (sigs 2E2v–2F2r). 256. Margaret Cavendish, ‘A Description of Shepherds, and Shepherdesses’ Text based on Margaret Cavendish, Poems, and Fancies, London: T[homas] R[oycroft] for J[ohn] Martin and J. Allestrye, 1653 (sigs 2A3v–2A4r: wrongly paginated 142–3). 257. Margaret Cavendish, ‘A Shepherd’s Employment Is Too Mean an Allegory for Noble Ladies’ Text based on Margaret Cavendish, Poems, and Fancies, London: T[homas] R[oycroft] for J[ohn] Martin and J. Allestrye, 1653 (sig. 2A4r– v: wrongly paginated 143–4). 258. Margaret Cavendish, ‘Similizing the Sea to Meadows and Pastures’ Text based on Margaret Cavendish, Poems, and Fancies, London: T[homas] R[oycroft] for J[ohn] Martin and J. Allestrye, 1653, pp. 142–3 (sigs U1v–U2r). 259. Thomas Robins(?), ‘Jack the Plough-Lad’s Lamentation’ Text based on Jack the Plough-Lads Lamentation, London: Richard Burton, 1654. Broadside ballad no. 26 in a bound volume in the British Library (BL C.20.f.14) known as the ‘Book of Fortune’ from an inscription on the earlier binding. The author’s initials are given at the end as ‘T.R.’.



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13 liu’d] emending livy in original 15 Man] conjectural reading of damaged text 40 again] In the original, this word is omitted in this stanza only, no doubt in error. 260. Thomas Weaver, ‘A Pastoral Dialogue’ Text based on T[homas] W[eaver], Songs and Poems of Love and Drollery [London: publisher not known], 1654, pp. 86–7 (sigs G3v–G4r). Also compared Bod MS Rawl. Poet. 211 fol. 9r–v: Weaver’s autograph, with no substantive variants from the 1654 text. 261. Thomas Weaver, ‘The Isle of Man’ Text based on T[homas] W[eaver], Songs and Poems of Love and Drollery, [London: publisher not known], 1654, pp. 64–7 (sigs E8v–F2r). Also compared: 211: Bod MS Rawl. Poet. 211 fols 26v–28r (Weaver’s autograph ms.) 13 whilst twelve] 211 7 English 14 Hath in the Noble Stanlies blood remain’d] 211 in 7 noble Stanleys still remain’d 16 More … then] 211 So … as 49 heard] 211 heare 53 share] 211 sheare 60 forsake] 211 forsooke  friends] 211 freind 71 Swelling] 211 And swell’d 81 in the intrim] 211 ith’ Interim 262. William Hammond, ‘Upon Cloris Her Visit after Marriage’ Text based on W[illiam] H[ammond], Poems, London: Thomas Dring, 1655, sigs B1r–B2r. 263. ‘A Pastoral Song: with the Answer’ Text based on Sportive Wit: The Muses Merriment. … Collected …, by … C.F.[,] B.F.[,] L.M.[,] W.T. Cum multis aliis, London, Nath[aniel] Brook, 1656, pp. 15–17 (sigs D8r–E1r). Also compared: LG: Additions to the 4th ed. of The Loyal Garland … Published by S.N., London: T. Johnson for T. Passenger, 1673, sigs C7r–C8r

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The first part, without the ‘answer’, is found in 38: Bod MS Ashmole 38 fol. 238r 65: Bod MS Rawl. Poet. 65, fol. 36r 84: Bod MS Rawl. Poet. 84 fols 88r–87v (reversed), titled ‘Vpon The Queens Departure’, following a poem titled ‘Vpon The Queens coming over’ 28622: BL MS Addl 28622, fols 39r–40r, as the last of a series of poems (the major contents of the ms) attributed to Robert Aytoun Adv: National Library of Scotland, MS Adv.19.3.4, fol.  12v, titled ‘Cloris and Amyntas’ 2 sheep are] 38, 84 flock is 3 took] 28622 us’d 4 his] 65, Adv Those  pretty] LG merry 5 65, 28622, Adv {She’s gone, she’s gone, and he alone [28622 allday] }  alway] 38 al day 6 Sings nothing now] 28622 Cry’s nothing else   Sings] 65 Sing 7–12 65 places after 30, and follows with the following stanza (the last in this ms). Adv has substantially the same stanza, differently positioned (see 18n below). His grey coat and his flops of green When worn by him were comely seen His tarrebox too is throwne away And he himself doth nothing say But, Chloris, come away Amyntas dying welladay, welladay.

7 Th’] 28622 His  us’d] 65 was wont 8 lies] 38, 65, 84, Adv hangs; 28622 hings (recognized variant of ‘hangs’) 9 His Crook broke, his] 38, 65, 28622, Adv, LG His crook is broke  howling] 65, Adv pining; 38, 84 whineing; 28622 whinging 10 65, 28622, Adv {And he himself nothing but cries}   While] 38 Whilest  cries] LG eyes 11 28622 Cloris, o cloris come away   I decay] 65, Adv come away 12 65, 28622, Adv {And hear [28622 heal] Amyntas’ welladay, welladay}  cry] not in 38, 84 13 65, Adv {The oaten pipe that [Adv pipes which] in her praise}   28622 His pype wheron he us’d to play 14 65, Adv {Was [Adv Were] wont to sound such Roundelays}   his sweet] 38, 84 her his; 28622 her a 15–16 28622 Is cast aside and not an Swane / Darrs pype or play upon



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that plain; Adv Are cast aside, and noe Content, / Came to Amyntas since shee went 15 flung] 65 thrown 16 LG, 65 dares pipe or sing upon the [LG his] plain  Dares] 38 Dare 17 LG ’Tis death to any that shall say; 65 All that whoever heard him say  ’Tis] 28622 It’s; Adv Twas 18 One word to him] 65 Was nothing now   One] 38, 84 A  but] 38, 84 then 18 Adv follows with 25–30, and then the following stanza (cf. that in 65: see 7–12n above): His grey Coate, and his flops of greene, when wane [error for worn?] by him were comely seene, His Tarbox too, is cast away, And noe Content with him doth stay.   But all that hee was heard to say   was cloris, Cloris, come away.

Adv then closes with 19–24, in a version still more distinctive than that in 65 and Rawl.84 (see below, 21–4n.). 19–20 65 The maypole where her little feet / So roundly did in measure meet; 38, 84, Adv The maypole where her dainty [Adv pretty] feet / Were wont in their due measures meet; 28622 Yon may pull where her prettie feet / In their dew measure oft did meet 19 wherein] LG whereon. 21–4 Adv Is broken downe and nott one swaine, / Darst pipe and singe within the plaine. / But all that hee was heard to say, / was etc. (The poem ends here in Adv.) 21 no] 28622 not 22 Came] 28622 Com’s  neer] 65 to 23–4 65 O Chloris Chloris come away / And hear Amyntas welladay welladay. 23 For] 28622 But  ere] 28622 ever 24 28622 Was Cloris Cloris Come away come away. 25 On the ground] 65 The Bank; 28622 The ground; LG Th’ground 27 28622 And suffered ther such pining woe;   Still … forth] 65 And whispers out; 38, 84 Thus breathing out   woes] 65 woe 28 That not one] 38, 84 That not a   there grows] 65 can grow; 28622 do growe 29 Ah] 65, 28622, LG Oh 34 pretty] Not in LG

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39 Maiden-crue] LG Maidens crew 42 Ah] LG And 48, 54 will away?] (in both lines) LG will away, will away? 60 will away?] LG wil away, wil away 264. ‘A Pastoral Song’ Text based on Sportive Wit: The Muses Merriment. … Collected …, by … C.F.[,] B F.[,] L.M.[,] W.T. Cum multis aliis, London, Nath[aniel] Brook, 1656, pp. 102–3 (sigs 2G3v–G4r). 265. ‘A Song’ Text based on Sportive Wit: The Muses Merriment. … Collected …, by … C.F.[,] B.F.[,] L.M.[,] W.T. Cum multis aliis, London, Nath[aniel] Brook, 1656, pp. 52–3 (sigs 2D2v–2D3r). 266. Eldred Revett, ‘The Land-Schap between Two Hills’ Text based on Eldred Revett, Poems, London: E.T. for the author, 1657, pp. 30–1 (sigs C3r–C4v). 267. ‘The Milkmaids’ The two very different texts in Wit Restor’d in severall Select Poems Not formerly publish’t, London: R. Pollard, N. Brooks and T. Dring, 1658, pp. 167–8 (sig.  N4r–v) and in BL MS Harley 4286, fol.  62v are given separately. The latter is published here for the first time. Harley MS, 8 strawen] emending ?strawer in original 268. Aston Cokayn, ‘Coridon and Strephon’ Text based on Aston Cokayn, Small Poems of Divers sorts, London: Wil. Godbid, 1658, pp. 24–8, sigs C4v–C6v. Also compared: A Chain of Golden Poems … Together with … The Obstinate Lady, and Trappolin, London: W. G. for Isaac Pridmore [?1658 EEBO, ?1659 ESTC], pp. 24–8 (sigs C4v–C6v) Poems. With the Obstinate Lady, and Trapolin … Whereunto is now Added The Tragedie of Ovid, London: Phil. Stephens Junior, 1662



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Choice Poems of Several Sorts. With Three New Plays, London: Francis Kirkman, 1669, pp. 24–8 (sigs C4v–C6v) These later publications correspond precisely with Small Poems in page layout and details of text and spelling, at least as far as this poem is concerned. They seem to be reissues of Small Poems under new titles, and the addition of a new play (The Tragedie of Ovid) in 1662 and 1669. 269. ‘The Old Ballet of Shepherd Tom’ Text based on Wit Restor’d in severall Select Poems Not formerly publish’t, London: R. Pollard, N. Brooks, T. Dring, 1658, pp. 169–71 (sigs N5r–N6r). 270. ‘The Jolly Shepherd’ Text based on Wit and Drollery, Joviall Poems: Corrected and much amended, with Additions, By Sir J.M.[,] Ja. S.[,] Sir W.D.[,] J.D. and the most refined Wits of the Age, London: Nathaniel Brooke, 1661, pp. 254–5 (sigs R7v–R8v). Not in the first edition of 1656. 271. Izaak Walton, ‘To My Ingenious Friend Master Brome’ Text based on Alexander Brome, Songs and Other Poems, London: Henry Brome, 1661, prelims. (sigs A6v–A7v). Also compared: 1664: Alexander Brome, Songs And other Poems … The second Edition Corrected and enlarged, London: Henry Brome, 1664, prelims (sigs B2r–B3r). 7 shrunk] 1664 sunk 20 with mirth and mery-gle] 1664 so oft and merilie 34 businesses] 1664 business 41–2 Go with me, / Dorus] Follows the reading of 1664. 1661 has Dorus as a speech-heading after 41, and attributes the rest of the speech to Dorus, beginning with a metrically short line To … tree. The vocative Dorus, part of Daman’s address to his companion, seems to have been wrongly taken as a speech-heading. 272. Alexander Brome, ‘Pastoral on the King’s Death’ Text based on Alexander Brome, Songs and Other Poems, London: Henry Brome, 1661, p. 47 (sig. E1r). Also compared: Alexander Brome, Songs and Other Poems … The Second Edition

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Corrected and Enlarged, London: Henry Brome, 1664, pp. 58–9 (sigs F3v–F4r). There are no substantive variants in this edition. 47: Bod MS Ashmole 47, fol. 146r 15 Swain] 47 Charles 16 flocks o’re-rul’d] 47 people rul’d 17 Cattle] 47 Subjectes 19 And] 47 Where  Loyalty] 47 Honesty 20–1 47 Downe King and Kingdome goes / When Tyrantes Rulers be. 273. Katherine Philips, ‘A Dialogue betwixt Lucasia and Rosania’ Text based on Katherine Philips, Poems By … The matchless Orinda [with] Pompey and Horace, London: J[ohn] M[acock] for H[enry] Herringman, 1667, pp. 126–7 (sigs 2K1v–2K2r). Also compared: NLW: National Library of Wales MS 776, pp. 302–3 Folger: Folger MS V.b.231, fol. 78r. This has no substantive variants from the printed text of 1667. 8 go] NLW come 19 thine] NLW thy 21 the World … gone] not in NLW 26 us] NLW so 274. Katherine Philips, ‘A Country Life’ Text based on Katherine Philips, Poems By … The matchless Orinda [with] Pompey & Horace, London: J[ohn] M[acock] for H[enry] Herringman, 1667, pp. 88–91 (sigs Z2v–2A2r: irregular collation). There was an earlier unauthorized edition in 1664. Also compared: Austin: University of Austin in Texas, Harry Ransom Center MS HRC 151, fol. 93r. This is written in the hand of Philips’s friend Sir Edward Dering, and thought by Philips’s editor Patrick Thomas to represent Philips’s latest intentions. NLW: National Library of Wales MS 776B, pp. 267–70, titled ‘Content’ Cardiff: MS 2 1073, Cardiff City Library, fols 9r–10v Folger: Folger MS. V.b.231, fols 60r–61r. Except for an obvious scribal error, this agrees fully with 1667 in substantive readings. Worc:Worcester College, Oxford MS.6.13, pp. 24–5 65: Bod MS Rawl. Poet. 65, fols 14v–15r . This agrees fully with 1667 in substantive readings, and may have been copied from it.



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90: Bod MS Rawl. Poet. 90, fol. 3r–v, titled ‘In praise of a Countrye Life’ Yale: Yale MS Osborn b.118, pp. 75–8. This agrees fully with 1667 in substantive readings. The poem is also found in a number of manuscript collections among poems by various hands. 4 or] Austin, Cardiff and 5 This] Austin That 9–12 Austin, Worc, Cardiff {‘Twas here the poets were inspired, / And sang their mysteries, / And while [Cardiff whilst] the list’ning world admired, / Men’s minds did civilize.} 15 Ruling and] NLW Empire or   and] Austin or 16 ne’re their Fancies] NLW no mans fancy 17 then did] Yale did then (marked with crosses as if indicating an intended change) 18 nor] 90 not 23 remain] Cardiff remaines 24 this is it] Austin this it (no doubt by scribal error) 25 Blessings] Austin, NLW blessing  doth this] NLW does the 27 Her] Worc for 31 Though] Worc So 32 but] Cardiff be 33 Them that] Austin, Worc, NLW, Cardiff {Such as}  do] 90 doth 35 brave] NLW Great 38, 41 hence] 90, Cardiff whence  doth] NLW does at both points 40 it] 90 mine 41 doth] NLW does 44 Who] Austin, NLW, Worc That  could] Austin, NLW, Cardiff would (i.e., wished to) 47 case] 90 fate 48 Ambition’s] 90 ambitious; NLW usurped 49 Innocence] Cardiff Ignorance (presumably of the world) 50 A heart that’s] Cardiff That heart is 51 At all these] NLW, Cardiff Which at those 52 do] 90 doth 53–6 not in NLW. 53 While] 90, Cardiff Whilest  others] Cardiff other 56 Wealth … admit] Cardiff all their wealth or witt   and] Austin or 56 Cardiff follows with four more lines: Let some in finding fashions out / Become fantastique Asses / And others beat their Braines about / New Teeth or painted faces.

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57 Courtship] NLW, Cardiff, Worc Courtships  take] Cardiff see (for seek?) 58 th’ Exchange] NLW a Ball 59 Then] Austin, Cardiff, NLW There 61 know] 90, Austin, Cardiff, NLW knew 63 While] NLW, Cardiff, NLW {Whilst} 64 Peace] Cardiff Love 65–72 not in NLW 67 fears] Worc feare (no doubt in error, as the rhyming 65 has appears) 69 others] Cardiff other 73 But] NLW For 75 intend] NLW desire 77 And] Austin I 78 NLW Banish both cares, and Joy’s   I] Austin Do  wild] Cardiff these 80 Joyes] NLW choice 81–4 not in NLW 83 Worc And only those I only would   those] Austin these  of all] The unauthorized 1664 edition has alone. 85–8 Austin, Cardiff, Worc {In this retir’d integrity / Free from both war and noise [Austin choice, no doubt by error] / I live not by necessity / But wholly by my choice.} 85 this retir’d and humble] NLW my safe and hidden 86 Free from both War] NLW Remote from noise 87 not] Folger now (obviously in error) 275. Charles Cotton. ‘Eclogue’ Text based on Charles Cotton, Poems On several Occasions, London: Thomas Bassett, William Hinsman & Thomas Fox, 1689, pp. 108–13 (sigs H6v–I1r). 276. Charles Cotton, ‘An Invitation to Phillis’ Text based on Charles Cotton, Poems On several Occasions, London: Thomas Basset, William Hinsman and Thomas Fox, 1689, pp. 463–7 (sigs 2G8r–2H2r).



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277. Anthony Spinedge, ‘On the Execrable Murder of Charles I’ Text based on Bod MS Tanner 306, fol.  102v. First published in this volume.

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Notes on authors

Names of the original authors of translated works are in italics. All titles are in modernized spelling and standardized format. Alabaster, William (1568–1640), scholar, poet and clergyman. MA and fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Converted to Roman Catholicism, underwent periods of persecution and imprisonment between sojourns on the continent, but seems finally to have made his peace with the authorities and even spied on Catholics. His religious sonnets were written when he first turned to Catholicism. A deeply learned man, he contributed materially to Hebrew scholarship, and published a commentary on the Book of Revelation and treatises on the occult. Also composed the Latin play Roxana and an unfinished (now lost) epic on Queen Elizabeth. (#181) Alexander, William, first Earl of Stirling (1577–1640), statesman, colonial entrepreneur and poet. May have studied at the universities of Glasgow and Leiden. Went on a grand tour of Europe. A loyal servant of both James I and Charles I. Became Scottish Secretary of State under the latter, and fought on the King’s side in the ‘Bishops’ Wars’ of 1639–40: this was partly sparked off by the promulgation in Scotland of Alexander’s revision of the Psalms along with the Anglican Book of Common Prayer. Also launched abortive mining schemes and colonial ventures. Wrote the Senecan ‘Monarchic tragedies’ Darius and Croesus; also Paraenesis, a book of advice to princes (specifically Henry, Prince of Wales); the sonnet-sequence Aurora; and the long poem Doomsday. In late life, collected his major works as Recreations with the Muses. A friend of William Drummond and other Scottish poets like Alexander Hume and Robert Aytoun. English poets like Drayton, Daniel and John Davies of Hereford also praise him. (#198)



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Ashmore, John (fl.1621), poet and translator, probably a native of Yorkshire. Little is known of his life except as reflected in Certain Selected Odes of Horace, Englished (1621), which includes other poems as well. He seems to have been familiar with Ben Jonson and perhaps with other eminent people of the day. (#13, #20) Aytoun, Robert (1570–1638), Scottish poet and courtier. Obtained an MA from St Andrews, then studied in Paris. Moved to London and established himself at court, obtaining various offices, pensions and a knighthood. Wrote in Latin, Scots and English. (#263) Barclay, Alexander (c.1484–1552), poet and clergyman. Perhaps of Scottish origin, though he seems to have lived entirely in England. Ordained priest at Ottery St Mary, Devon. During his tenure there, he translated Sebastian Brandt’s satirical The Ship of Fools from German. He then became a Benedictine monk at Ely; during his time there, wrote his Eclogues and several other works including translations and a French primer. Subsequently converted to the Franciscan order, possibly living at Canterbury, and exchanged his literary activities for theological study. He may have inclined quite early to Lutheranism, spending some time on the continent in this connection, though other evidence suggests he was pronouncedly Catholic in his beliefs and practices at this stage. He finally made his peace with the newly founded Church of England, and appears on its rolls as a secular priest successively in Somerset, Essex and London. (#16, #25 to #28) Barnes, Barnabe  (1571–1609),  son of a Bishop of Durham. Went to Oxford but did not graduate, and briefly took part in the Earl of Essex’s Normandy expedition. Besides the poetical collection Parthenophil and Parthenophe (1593), wrote A Divine Century of Spiritual Sonnets (1595), a moral treatise Four Books of Offices (1606), and an anti-Catholic drama, The Devil’s Charter (1607). Appears to have been something of an Italophil, and to have followed no profession but lived on his paternal inheritance. (#90, #91) Barnfield, Richard  (1574–1620), belonged to Shropshire. Graduated from Oxford and perhaps attended Gray’s Inn. Besides the markedly homoerotic The Affectionate Shepherd (1594), wrote Cynthia, an encomium to Queen Elizabeth, with twenty sonnets and The Legend of

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Cassandra (1595). His last volume, Lady Pecunia (1598), is a collection of moral, satirical and lyric pieces. (#95 to #98) Basse, William (c.1583–1653?), perhaps hailed from Northamptonshire but spent most of his life in the service of Sir Richard (later Lord) Wenman of Thame, Oxfordshire. May have begun as Wenman’s page, for his first work Sword and Buckler, or the Serving-Man’s Defence (1602) is a kind of manifesto for pages and other servants. This work already shows a strong Spenserian bent, continued in Three Pastoral Elegies (1602) and a set of manuscript Eclogues. The same manuscript contains a mythological poem, Urania: The Woman in the Moon, and The Metamorphosis of the Walnut-Tree of Boarstall. Basse also wrote a popular elegy on Shakespeare. His friends included Ben Jonson, William Browne and George Wither. (#168, 169) Bastard, Thomas  (?1566–1618),  poet, scholar and clergyman, hailing from Dorset. Educated at Winchester and Oxford, where he obtained an MA and perpetual fellowship. Held livings in Suffolk and Dorset. His only notable work is a 1598 volume of 285 epigrams called Chrestoleros, ‘a coinage suggesting “useful” and “trifling”’ (ODNB). Marston’s play The Malcontent quotes one of the epigrams. Fell foul of the law on charges of libel. A man of many friends, he nonetheless invited trouble and died in poverty. (#109) Beard, Thomas  (c.1568–1632), priest and author. Despite pro-Puritan leanings, he kept his peace with the Church of England and held a plurality of church livings and offices, perhaps owing to his strong anti-Catholic views (which made him attack William Alabaster). An MA of Cambridge, his chief base was Huntingdon (probably his home town), where he was priest, lecturer, warden of the hospital and justice of the peace. As master of the grammar school there, he taught Oliver Cromwell, and kept up his links with the Cromwell family. Wrote various anti-Catholic tracts and a play on the life of Christ, preserved in manuscript. His The Theatre of God’s Judgements (1597), a book of Christian moralizing with exempla, was translated from the French of the Protestant minister Jean Chassanion, based in turn on a German Lutheran work. It proved popular, with expanded editions appearing even after Beard’s death. (#35) Beaumont, Joseph (1616–99), poet and academic. Went to Cambridge, where he became MA and fellow along with his friend the poet Richard



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Crashaw. Ordained a priest, he was denounced by the Puritans for his High Church views and ejected from Cambridge in 1644, though he continued to enjoy church livings until the coming of the Commonwealth. After the Restoration, he served as royal chaplain and became master of two Cambridge colleges, Jesus and Peterhouse. A reputed theologian of High Church views. Besides theological writings, sermons and a body of manuscript poetry, he published the long religious-allegorical poem Psyche, or Love’s Mystery in 1647–48. A revised version appeared in print only in 1702. (#249) Beffa (Beffanegrini), Antonio (1532–1602), Italian poet and lawyer of aristocratic descent. Spent much of his early life in Mantua and Brescia, where he became a notary. Later held various offices in Piubega. Had links with the poet Tasso, with whom he exchanged sonnets, and Castiglione, whose family history he compiled. Wrote many other histories of patrons and their familes, and volumes of verse. Associated with the Academy of the ‘pastori frateggiani’ or Shepherds of Fratta, where the palace of the literary hostess and patron Lucrezia Gonzaga was located. (#37) Benlowes, Edward (1602–76), born of a Catholic family settled in Essex, he rejected the family faith but not the family wealth. He could thus make the grand tour of Europe, indulge his artistic tastes, and patronize poets like Phineas Fletcher and Francis Quarles. Went to Cambridge and Lincoln’s Inn. Despite his anti-Catholic bent, joined the royalists during the Civil War, fought at the siege of Colchester in 1648, and was heavily fined under parliamentary rule. After the Civil War, devoted his enforced country sojourn to composing the mystical-allegorical poem Theophila, or Love’s Sacrifice (1652). It was lavishly printed at Benlowes’s own press on his Brent Hall estate. May have interacted with Joseph Beaumont, then composing his Psyche, or Love’s Mystery not far away. Ruined by the destruction of Brent Hall in a fire in 1653, and even briefly imprisoned for debt. Spent his last years in Oxford. (#255) Blenerhasset, Thomas (c.1550–1624), poet, soldier and Irish colonialist. Of a Norfolk family, went to Cambridge but did not graduate. Having joined the army, spent several years on the island of Guernsey. Then moved to Ireland, where he chiefly remained for the rest of his life, playing a major role in English colonization. Obtained large grants of land and made ambitious proposals for settlement, fortification and suppression of the native Irish.

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While in Guernsey, wrote the Second Part (1578) of the celebrated compendium of moralized history The Mirror for Magistrates, dealing with figures of much earlier date than in the original volume. A Revelation of the True Minerva, a panegyric of Queen Elizabeth, appeared in 1582. In its dedicatory letter, Blenerhasset implies having made more than one Atlantic voyage. (#55) Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus (480–524), Roman administrator, scholar and philosopher. Served under the Emperor Theodoric. Imprisoned and executed for defending an enemy of the Emperor. Wrote major commentaries on some treatises of Aristotle and the Neoplatonic philosopher Porphyry. Celebrated for his Consolation of Philosophy, where Lady Philosophy comes to console Boethius in prison. Boethius’ Christian faith is not made explicit in the work, which nonetheless became a chief source of Christian philosophy for a thousand years and more. It consists of alternate sections in prose and verse. (#14) Bolton  [Boulton], Edmund (1575–?1634), historian and poet. Usually identified with ‘E. B.’ of England’s Helicon. A Roman Catholic from birth, he faced persecution late in life and was imprisoned for failing to pay recusant’s fees. Attended Cambridge and the Inner Temple. A keen antiquary, especially in the field of heraldry, on which he wrote extensively. With the Duke of Buckingham’s support, proposed an English academy on the lines of continental ones, among whose ‘essentials’ were John Selden, Kenelm Digby, Edward Coke, Henry Wotton, Robert Cotton, Ben Jonson and Michael Drayton. Wrote Hypercritica, a treatise on historiography, and was a noted scholar of Roman history. His unpublished magnum opus, Vindiciae Britannicae, an elaborate history of London, is now lost. (#132, #133) Brackley (Egerton), Elizabeth, Countess of Bridgewater (1626–63), second daughter of William Cavendish, first Duke of Newcastle. Brought up in an ambience of wealth, privilege and literary culture, fostered by her father and later her stepmother Margaret Cavendish. Married John Egerton, later Viscount Brackley and Second Earl of Bridgewater, in 1641. The Cavendishes were committed royalists. The Duke and his sons left for the continent, while the women remained, beleaguered and confined but largely unmolested, on the family’s country seats. (See Cavendish, Jane.) Died in 1663 while giving birth to her tenth child. She has left an extensive body of work in manuscript, including many



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devotional writings and meditations, some in presentation copies for each of her children. But her most notable work is contained in a manuscript anthology co-authored with her sister Jane and dedicated to her father, with copies at Oxford and Yale. The leading item in that collection is the play The Concealed Fancies. (#240) Brathwait, Richard  (1588–1673), a prolific  poet and writer. Attended Oxford, Cambridge and Gray’s Inn, but returned on his father’s death to his family estates in Westmorland, while retaining some London connections. He seems to have been a royalist. After the Restoration, he moved to an estate in Yorkshire. Wrote abundantly with two periods of peak production, 1611–22 and 1630–41. His most popular works were A Strappado for the Devil (1615), a collection of satires, and (under the pseudonym Corymbaeus) Barnabae itinerarium, or Barnabee’s Journal (1638). The latter, repeatedly reprinted, is a boisterous account of journeys between Kendal and London. Also produced two conduct books, The English Gentleman  (1630) and  The English Gentlewoman (1631), and the satiric political drama Mercurius Britannicus, or The English Intelligencer (1641). (#206 to #208) Breton, Nicholas  (1555–c.1626), son of a wealthy London tradesman. His widowed mother later married the poet George Gascoigne. Listed in Puttenham’s The Art of English Poesie among the ‘courtly makers’ who have ‘written excellently well’, a view echoed by Francis Meres in Palladis Tamia. Breton’s work first appeared in print in A Small Handful of Fragrant Flowers (1575), then in various miscellanies including England’s Helicon. His name seems to be punningly worked into the title of Brittons Bower of Delights (1591), though he declared that this volume contained only a few poems by him. Seen as the quintessential lyric poet of his time, so that not all poems ascribed to him may actually be his work. Courted a wide range of patrons, most prominently and successfully Mary Herbert, Countess of Pembroke. But equally tapped the new print medium to access a wider public. Some of his lyrics and pastorals (most notably those in BL MS Addl 34064) remained in manuscript; but others appeared in The Passionate Shepherd (1604) and, of course, the miscellanies. Breton also practised other types of poetry: Spenserian allegory in The Pilgrimage to Paradise, Joyned with the Countess of Pembroke’s Love (1592); satire, above all in the’Pasquil’ series of poems (1600); maxims and aphorisms; and a large body of devotional poetry and biblical para-

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phrase, including the widely popular The Soul’s Harmony (1602). He was no less prolific in prose, covering everything from romantic narrative to satire, social sketches to spiritual tracts. (#111 to #122, #124) Brome, Alexander  (1620–66),  poet and lawyer hailing from Dorset. Began life in London as a law clerk, later joining the Inns of Court. As a royalist, he wrote satirical poems against the Commonwealth, as also love songs, drinking songs, other lyrics and epigrams in the general style of the Cavalier poets. These were collected in Songs and Other Poems (1661, expanded in 1664). Styled ‘the English Anacreon’ after the Greek lyric poet. Edited and partly composed a volume of translations from Horace, and wrote a play, The Cunning Lovers (1654). (#272) Brooke, Christopher (c.1570–1628), politician and poet, son of a wealthy York merchant. Possibly went to Cambridge, then became a prominent member of Lincoln’s Inn, also participating actively in its cultural activities. Six times MP for York, and a promoter of the Virginia Company. A close friend of John Donne, he connived in the latter’s secret marriage and was jailed as a result. Also a prominent member of the literary group that met at the Mermaid Tavern in London. But his closest literary affinities were with the Spenserian circle including William Browne and George Wither. He contributed with them to The Shepherd’s Pipe (1614), and features in their poetry. His best-known poem is the politically loaded The Ghost of Richard the Third (1614). (#183) Browne, William (c.1590–1645?), of Tavistock, though his family hailed from Surrey. Attended Oxford but did not graduate; then proceeded to the Inner Temple, where he became a kind of resident poet, providing (inter alia) an especially popular Christmas masque in 1614. May have obtained the patronage of Henry, Prince of Wales, on whose death he and Christopher Brooke wrote companion elegies. His circle included antiquarians like John Selden, and poets such as Chapman, Jonson and Daniel, besides the elder Spenserian, Michael Drayton. Obtained the lasting patronage of William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke, and his family. All these links suggest an affinity with the ‘Country party’ in the political alignment before the Civil War. Acquired another circle of literary acquaintances at Oxford, where he went as tutor to Robert Dormer, a ward of the Herberts. Later, went to live with his wife’s family in Sussex. Browne published Book I of Britannia’s Pastorals in 1613 and Book II in 1616. In between came The Shepherd’s Pipe (1614) with eclogues



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by Browne, Wither, Brooke and John Davies of Hereford. The social and political concerns of the Pipe are closely woven into the narrative of Britannia’s Pastorals; but the poem also celebrates the Devonshire landscape and reflects Browne’s bond with his native countryside. (#189, #190) Byrd, William (?1539–1623), a leading composer of Renaissance England. Of a London family migrated from Essex. Perhaps, like his elder brothers, a member of the Chapel Royal choir as a boy. Appointed organist and choirmaster at Lincoln Cathedral in 1563 but fell foul of the authorities, perhaps for his lack of reformist austerity. Moved to the Chapel Royal in 1572, where he had Thomas Tallis as a colleague. For a time, the two held a virtual monopoly of music publishing in England. In 1577, moved to Harlington, Middlesex, where he was known for his Catholic leanings, including links with the Catholic underground. But he never suffered more than routine penalties, no doubt owing to powerful patrons: he even retained his link with the Chapel Royal. Around 1594, moved again to Stondon Massey, Essex. His most important publications were his own song-books, starting with Psalms, Sonnets, and Songs of Sadness and Piety (1588). Though he contributed substantially to the Anglican liturgy, his religious pieces often reflect Catholic tradition and propaganda: his Gradualia even provides settings for the Catholic mass. Composed music for lyrics by both himself and others, and introduced and popularized musical forms like the motet and dance forms like the pavan galliard. Played a leading part in integrating English music to the continental practices of the time. (#69, #70) Carew, Thomas (1594–1640), was born in Kent but brought up in London. Graduated from Oxford, and also attended Cambridge and the Middle Temple. Spent over two years in Italy in the employ of Sir Dudley Carleton, administrator and diplomat, with significant effect on his literary works; and later in Paris with Sir Edward Herbert (later Lord Herbert of Cherbury). Enjoyed the support and friendship of the Crofts family of Little Saxham, Suffolk. Most importantly, was patronized by Christopher Villiers, brother of the Duke of Buckingham, and in 1630, appointed sewer (food-taster) to the King. He acquired the image of a reformed rake and syphilitic. Most of Carew’s poems were written in the 1620s and circulated widely in manuscript, but were printed only in 1640, shortly after his

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death. His associates included Jonson and the antiquarian John Selden, and he was part of the literary fraternity of the London taverns. Authored the court masque Coelum Brittanicum (1634). Many of his poems were set to music by the courtly musician Henry Lawes. (#233, #234) Cary, Patrick (c.1624–57), son of Henry Cary, Viscount Falkland, born in Ireland but brought up in poverty in England by his Catholic mother. Spent some time as a boy in contact with Suckling, Carew, Hobbes, etc., but was sent for a Catholic upbringing to France and Rome. Finally renounced Catholicism, embraced the law, and led a successful career in Ireland as administrator and justice of the peace. Left behind 37 poems, both secular and divine. The only complete manuscript is in Walter Scott’s library at Abbotsford, from which Scott published them in 1820. (#254) Casimir: see Sarbiewski Cavendish, Jane (Lady Jane Cheyne) (1621–69), eldest daughter of William Cavendish, first duke of Newcastle. Like her sister Elizabeth (see Brackley, Elizabeth), she enjoyed the ambience of wealth and literary culture on the Cavendish estate of Welbeck, Nottinghamshire. With their menfolk’s departure for the continent during the Civil War, Lady Jane was left in effective charge of Welbeck, soon captured by parliamentary forces. The sisters were held in confinement there and at their other estate of Bolsover. Married Charles Cheyne, later Viscount Newhaven, in 1654. She shared authorship with her sister Elizabeth of the play The Concealed Fancies and other literary productions contained in twin manuscripts at Oxford and Yale. She also wrote a number of other poems, the last being an elegy on Elizabeth’s death. Her husband commemorated her own death in a monument by Bernini. (#240) Cavendish (née Lucas), Margaret, duchess of Newcastle (?1623–73), one of the most productive and celebrated women poets of the seventeenth century. Daughter of a privileged but untitled family. Brought up by her widowed mother in London and Colchester and, when the Civil War broke out, in Oxford, where the court was then resident. Became a maid of honour to Queen Henrietta Maria in 1644. Accompanied the Queen to Paris, where (against the Queen’s pleasure) she met and married William Cavendish, marquess of Newcastle. The couple spent time in Rotterdam (where she later returned) and Antwerp. Margaret then returned to



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England in an unsuccessful bid to rescue her husband’s estates from the parliamentarians. In her more relaxed life after the Restoration, acquired a reputation for idiosyncratic behaviour. Her Poems and Fancies (1653; rev. 1664 and 1668) was followed the same year by Philosophical Fancies. These and later volumes took up philosophical and metaphysical issues, culminating in the prose Grounds of Natural Philosophy (1668). These pursuits won her an invitation to the Royal Society in 1667. Orations of Divers Sorts (1662; 2nd edn 1668) and CCXI Sociable Letters (1664) address various societal issues, above all the status of women. Also published two collections of plays and a volume of model orations. (#256 to #258) Chapman, George (1559–1634), poet and playwright. Native of Herefordshire but moved to London. Fought in the Netherlands under Robert Sidney. Associated with an intellectually adventurous circle sometimes called the ‘School of Night’, led by Walter Ralegh and the Earl of Northumberland. This phase of his life is reflected in the poems The Shadow of Night (1594) and Ovid’s Banquet of Sense (1595). From the late 1590s, became one of the chief playwrights for the Admiral’s Men. He now also composed his famous translation of the Iliad (1598, revised 1609), and later of the Odyssey (1614–15) and other classics. Retired from the stage c.1612 and withdrew to the countryside. His plays, written for both public and private theatres, include a group of (mostly city) comedies, plays on classical themes, and sensational tragedies like Bussy d’Ambois (1603–4) and two plays featuring Charles, Duke of Byron. Eastward Ho! (1605, co-authored with Jonson and Marston) landed him in prison for its satire of the Scots. Won patronage from Henry, Prince of Wales, and mourned his death in An Epicede or Funeral Song (1612). Also wrote other poetry and several court masques, some of which are lost. (#174) Chassanion, Jean (1531–98), French Protestant writer, whose most important work is a history of the Albigensians (1595). Two of his books circulated widely in English translation under the titles The Theatre of God’s Judgements (Histoires mémorables des grands et merveilleux jugements et punitions de Dieu, 1586) and The Merchandises of Popish Priests (Excellent traité de la marchandise des prêtres, 1603). (#35) Chester, Robert (fl.c.1586–1604), chiefly remembered for his obscure allegorical poem, Love’s Martyr: or Rosalin’s Complaint (1601), in the

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same volume as Shakespeare’s’The Phoenix and Turtle’ and pieces by Jonson, Chapman etc. Little known of his life, except that he belonged to the household of Sir John Salusbury of Lleweni Hall, Denbighshire, Wales. (#137) Chettle, Henry (?1564–1607), poet and playwright, son of a London dyer. Trained as a printer; admitted to the freedom of the Stationers’ Company in October 1584. Had links with Robert Greene and probably with Shakespeare, Marlowe et al., perhaps more as a dramatist than as a publisher. The theatre-owner Philip Henslowe’s papers ascribe at least forty-nine plays to him in part or whole (including, with Anthony Munday, The Downfall and The Death of Robert, Earl of Huntington, published 1601), but no printed play acknowledges him as author. Probably contributed to the incomplete manuscript play The Book of Sir Thomas More in which Shakespeare’s hand has been detected. Little known of him after 1603, the year in which Henslowe’s diary ends: also the year of Queen Elizabeth’s death, mourned by Chettle in England’s Mourning Garment. (#144 to #146) Churchyard, Thomas (?1523–1604), writer and soldier. Little known about his life, despite a great deal of autobiographical writing, largely unreliable. Served as page to the Earl of Surrey, and fought under him at the siege of Landrecy in Flanders (1543). Continued with intermittent soldiering in Scotland, Ireland, the Netherlands and France, and performed some diplomatic errands. His great range of works often incorporate his name alliteratively in the title: Churchyard’s Chips (1570), Churchyard’s Chance (1580), Churchyard’s Charge (1580), Churchyard’s Challenge (1593), etc. Contributed the legend of Shore’s wife to the Mirror for Magistrates (1563), and wrote many works on war and social satire, besides The Worthiness of Wales (1587). His long career won him some acclaim and a royal pension, but the course of late Elizabethan poetry left him marginalized. (#54) Cokayn (Cokayne, Cokaine), Sir Aston, baronet (1608–84), poet and playwright. Of a Derbyshire family. Attended Cambridge and the Inns of Court, and knew many literary men including, by his own account, Donne, Suckling, Randolph and Drayton. Toured Italy and France in 1632–33. Fought for the King in the Civil War, and was imprisoned for nearly three years. A theatre enthusiast, he composed the plays The Obstinate Lady, Trappolin Supposed a Prince, The Tragedy of Ovid and



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a masque. His shorter poems were collected in Small Poems of Divers Sorts (1658), later expanded as Choice Poems of Several Sorts (1669). (#268) Cotton, Charles (1630–87), poet and translator. Son of a distinguished but dissolute father. Probably educated privately, then proceeded on a grand tour. Kept up links with Davenant, Lovelace and other members of his father’s circle, and also with Aston Cokayn and, most famously, Izaak Walton. But his most popular work was Scarronnides (1664–65), a comic imitation of Virgil. His The Wonders of the Peak (1681), a poem on his native county of Staffordshire, bears an autobiographical note. Cotton added a ‘second part’ to the fifth edition (1676) of Walton’s The Compleat Angler (1653). He also translated Robert Triquet’s gardening treatise The Planters Manual (1675) and various French military memoirs. His shorter poems were posthumously collected in Poems on Several Occasions (1689). Some pieces evince a vein of Elizabethan nostalgia. He also made a popular translation of Montaigne’s Essays (1685–86). After the Restoration, he briefly joined the army but made little or nothing of his position. His last years were spent in very stretched circumstances. (#275, #276) Cowley, Abraham (1618–67), Born in London. Educated at Westminster School and Cambridge, where he was elected fellow of Trinity College but ejected for his royalist sympathies in 1643, moving thereafter to Oxford. Besides composing works of royalist bent, he followed Queen Henrietta Maria to France and was employed on various, often secret missions. Imprisoned by the Protectorate, but wrote an anti-royalist preface to his Poems that stood in the way of royal reward after the Restoration. However, he was given a grand public funeral and buried at Westminster Abbey. Spent his last years in Surrey as a retired gentleman farmer in the Horatian mould. Cowley was something of a child prodigy. His Poetical Blossoms (1533) appeared when he was 15. He composed two narrative poems even earlier, and the comedy Love’s Riddle when 16. He also wrote other plays. His love poems appeared in The Mistress (1647) and Poems (1656). The latter, prepared in prison, included inter alia the unfinished epic Davideis, Anacreontics and Pindarique Odes. On release from prison, seriously pursued botany and wrote a long Latin poem on the subject, Plantarum libri sex. In 1661, wrote a pamphlet proposing a college for experimental sciences, and lent broad support to the Royal Society. The

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biggest collection of his writings is contained in the posthumous folio Works of 1668. (#10, #224, #225) Daniel, Samuel (1562–1619), born in Somerset or Wiltshire. Went to Oxford but did not graduate. Through friendship with John Florio and employment under the Italophile Sir Edward Dymoke, acquired an early interest in French and Italian culture. Enjoyed but then lost the patronage of Mary Herbert, Countess of Pembroke, falling into penury as a result. Later patronized by Margaret Clifford, countess of Cumberland, and after James I’s accession by Queen Anna. Some sonnets from his sequence Delia appeared in 1591, and the full sequence in 1592 along with the narrative The Complaint of Rosamond. His varied poems include The Civil Wars (1595 and later) on the Wars of the Roses; the didactic Musophilus (1599) and Certain Epistles (1602); and the epistolary narrative Letter from Octavia. He greeted James I in 1603 with a portfolio including a Panegyric Epistolary and A Defence of Rhyme. To his early The Tragedy of Cleopatra (1594) he now added other plays like the pastorals The Queen’s Arcadia (1606) and Hymen’s Triumph (1614), and court masques like The Vision of the Twelve Goddesses (1604) and Tethys’ Festival (1610). A revived interest in English history in late life led to a expanded edition of The Civil Wars and an innovative prose history of medieval England (1612, 1618). (#33) Davies, John (1625–93), translator. Came from Carmarthen, Wales. Went to Oxford and then, during the Civil War, to the more Puritan milieu of Cambridge. But allied himself to the royalists, spent some years in France during the interregnum, and wrote The Civil Wars of Great Britain and Ireland (1661) from a royalist perspective. A professional translator from French, Spanish and Latin. (#177) Davies, John, of Hereford (1565–1618), poet and writing-master. Of Welsh descent, probably born a Catholic but did not adhere strongly to the faith. Calligrapher and teacher of handwriting at Oxford and then London. Wrote The Writing Schoolmaster and won acclaim for his art. He thereby came to know many rich and influential persons as well as poets and writers, to some of whom he addresses epigrams in The Scourge of Folly (1610). Mentor and admirer of William Browne and George Wither. His own works are voluminous but undistinguished. (#184)



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Davies, Sir John (1569–1626), lawyer and poet, of a Welsh family settled in Wiltshire. Went to Oxford, then joined the Inns of Court and was called to the bar in 1595, where he pursued a distinguished but undisciplined career. Spent most of his working life in Ireland, serving as solicitor-­ general, attorney-general and speaker of the Irish Parliament. Did much to establish the rule of law in Ireland, though on deeply anti-Catholic lines. Continued his legal career in England after 1619. Knighted in 1603 and appointed Chief Justice in 1626, but died of apoplexy the very morning he was to take the oath. His poetic reputation rests on the philosophic poems Orchestra (1596) and Nosce Teipsum (‘Know yourself’, 1599). He also composed Hymns of Astraea in praise of Elizabeth, many short poems, and translations of the Psalms. Wrote various works on the law, and played a part in founding the Society of Antiquaries. (#87) Davison, Francis (c.1575–1619), poet and anthologist. Son of William Davison, secretary of state. Father and son enjoyed the patronage of the controversial Earl of Essex. Went to Cambridge and then to Gray’s Inn, where his Masque of Proteus was performed before the Queen. Made a long European tour, and briefly studied law at Padua. Remembered chiefly as editor of A Poetical Rapsody (1602), where his own works and his brother Walter’s figure largely. Wrote and compiled other works and planned more. (#141) Day, Angel (fl.1563–95), stationer, writer and translator. Wrote the immensely popular The English Secretary (1586), a handbook of letter-writing. Otherwise remembered chiefly for his translation of ­ Longus’ Greek pastoral romance Daphnis and Chloe (1587). Little else known of his life. (#63) Denny, Sir William, baronet (?1603–76), Born in Norwich. Graduated from Cambridge, then admitted to Gray’s Inn in 1621. A staunch royalist, he was imprisoned by the parliamentarians in 1643. Besides The Shepherds’ Holiday, which remained in manuscript untll 1870, he wrote the moral treatise Pelecanicidium, or The Christian Adviser against Selfmurder (1653). Died in poverty. (#253) Dickenson, John (c.1570–1636), author and administrator. Probably went to Cambridge, and spent much time as an English official, and possibly a spy, in Germany and the Netherlands. Wrote Speculum tragicum

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(1601), a ‘mirror-for-magistrates’-type compendium in Latin prose of tales of royal downfalls in the sixteenth century; two romances, Arisbas: Euphues amongst his Slumbers (1594) and The Shepherd’s Complaint (1596?); and other fictional and non-fictional works. In later life, abandoned literature for a career in politics and diplomacy, which took him as far afield as Poland. (#105, #106) Drayton, Michael (1563–1631), a Warwickshire man. Little known of his early life. Entered the service of the Goodere family of Polesworth, whose daughter Anne is the original of the ‘Idea’ celebrated in his poetry. Later enjoyed the patronage of Mary, Countess of Pembroke, Lucy, Countess of Bedford, and Edward Sackville, Fourth Earl of Dorset (whose estate Knole Park may underlie the setting of The Muses’ Elizium). A friend of Ben Jonson and William Drummond (also Shakespeare, according to unconfirmed report), not to mention Spenserians like William Browne and George Wither. Appreciated by Elizabeth and her court, but fell out of favour in James’s time, aligning himself with the oppositional ‘Country party’. He had links with the theatre but wrote little for it. Drayton’s vast (and much revised) works are hard to classify, but there are some major categories. His sonnet sequence Idea’s Mirror (1594) was revised more than once. He wrote a range of historical poems, from The Legend of Piers Gaveston (1593) to The Battle of Agincourt and The Miseries of Queen Margaret (1627), besides the more elaborate Mortimeriados (1596), later expanded as The Barons’ Wars (1603). England’s Heroical Epistles (1597) imitates Ovid’s Heroides in imaginary letters from women in English history. His satires include The Owl (1604), The Man in the Moon (1606) and The Moon Calf (1627). He also composed a great range of miscellaneous poems, including the fairy poem Nimphidia and the patriotic ‘Ballad of Agincourt’. Balancing this variety is the huge chorographical Poly-olbion (1613, 1622). As with Spenser, pastoral seems to have been his master-vein, running in various versions and infusions from Idea the Shepherd’s Garland (1593) to The Muses’ Elizium (1630). However, both his first work The Harmony of the Church (1591) and his two last, Noah’s Flood and Moses’ Birth and Miracles (revising a 1604 work), both published in 1630 with Elizium, are in his least memorable vein, the religious. (#160 to #167) Drummond, William (1585–1649), of Hawthornden, Midlothian, Scotland, scholar and poet. Graduated from Edinburgh University and spent two years studying law in France. Returned to Scotland to s­ ucceed



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his father, a gentleman usher at the Scottish and English courts, as laird of Hawthornden Castle, his birthplace. Well connected in Scottish political and literary circles, above all through Sir William Alexander. Corresponded extensively with Drayton, and was visited by Ben Jonson in 1618. The record of their rich conversation has been preserved. Kept up his links with political and literary developments on the continent, reinforced by extensive travel between 1625 and 1630. Drummond’s first publication was an elegy on the death of Henry, Prince of Wales (1613). His spiritual poems appeared in Flowers of Sion. The Latin burlesque poem Polemo Middinia, or The Midden has been convincingly ascribed to him, though not printed until 1684. He also translated widely from European poets. His History of Scotland appeared posthumously in 1655, in a compendious volume containing nearly all his prose works, including the meditation on death A Cypress Grove, political tracts and selected letters. There were many editions of his poems, the earliest perhaps dating from 1604. But a large body of unpublished writings (some printed later) remains in the ten volumes of Hawthornden Manuscripts in the National Library of Scotland. (#21, #36, #37, #170, #196 to #200) D’Urfé, Honoré (1567–1625), Count of Châteauneuf. Born in Marseilles of old noble stock. Joined the Catholic Holy League during the French wars of religion, was imprisoned and then banished to Savoy. Spent much of his life in Savoy, and was made court chamberlain there. At Savoy, wrote the Epîtres morales (Moral Epistles, 1598), and conceived of his immense pastoral romance Astrée, set in d’Urfé’s native province of Forez. Written largely in Virieu-le-Grand in eastern France, it appeared in four parts between 1607 and 1627, with a fifth part added in 1628 by his secretary Balthazar Baro. It dominated the fashion in pastoral romance for much of the century. D’Urfé also wrote two plays. (#176, #177) Dyer, Sir Edward (1543–1607), courtier and poet. Came of a Somerset family. Went to Oxford, and was admitted to the Inner Temple. Entered court circles in the service of the Earl of Leicester, and was appointed steward of Woodstock. Acquired more benefits from the Crown, largely nullified by his extravagance. A reputed courtier and parliamentarian, entrusted with various diplomatic missions, but seems to have lost favour at court under James I. Interested in voyaging and exploration, he helped fund Frobisher’s fruitless search for a north-west passage to the Indies. Also interested in alchemy: a friend of the scientist and occultist John

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Dee. A close literary associate of Sidney and Fulke Greville: a ‘happy blessed Trinitie’, as Sidney phrased it (Two Pastorals: ‘Join mates in mirth to me’). His poems circulated entirely in manuscript and reached print only fortuitously; hence only a dozen or so can be ascribed to him at all confidently. (#89) Elizabeth I (1533–1603), Queen of England from 1558. Daughter of Henry VIII by his second wife Anne Boleyn. Succeeded her half-sister Mary. Never married, despite a probable affair with Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, and some largely political marriage negotiations; instead made a powerful political instrument of her virginity. Her religious settlement immediately on ascending the throne consolidated the break from Rome initiated by Henry VIII, and laid the foundation of the Church of England. Her long reign brought welcome stability after much political uncertainty. But the absence of a child caused new uncertainties in her final years, averted by the unexpectedly smooth succession of James I. In politics as in religion, steered a middle course between Catholic alliances and radical Protestantism or Puritanism. Offered minimal military support to Protestant forces in the Netherlands and elsewhere. The failure of the projected naval attack of the Spanish Armada strengthened her position at home and abroad, but also had depressing consequences like factional politics, greater persecution of Catholics and a more repressive police state. The authority and mystique with which she invested her person and her rule, and the great cultural flowering in its last decades, made her reign a nostalgic model in the troubled century to follow, as in later times. Elizabeth was intensively educated by a succession of excellent tutors. She mastered many languages including Latin, Greek, French, Italian and Spanish. Many poems (15 in the most recent collection) are attributed to her in manuscripts, though the authorship cannot always be confirmed. Translated from Horace and Plutarch as well as Boethius. (#14) Fairfax, Edward (?1568–1635), poet and translator. Probably attended Cambridge. Third but favourite son of a Yorkshire family; deprived of his paternal estate by his eldest brother. Finally made peace with the latter and withdrew to a quiet, studious country life, broken by a curious episode of alleged witchcraft in which his daughters were involved. His Godfrey of Bulloigne, a translation of Tasso’s Gerusalemme liberata, appeared in 1600. Most of his twelve eclogues, never published at the



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time, are now lost, like a ‘History of Edward the Black Prince’ attributed to him. (#202) Fairfax, Thomas (1612–71), third Baron Fairfax, celebrated parliamentary commander in the English Civil War. Led the parliamentarian forces to victory in the Battle of Naseby and the sieges of Oxford and Colchester, besides participating in Marston Moor and many other battles. But was overtaken in power and authority by Cromwell, refused to take public part in the trial of Charles I, and finally resigned as commander-in-chief, withdrawing to his country estate at Nun Appleton (celebrated by his protégé Andrew Marvell). Author and person of literary interests; nephew of Edward Fairfax. (#203) Fane, Mildmay (1602–66), second earl of Westmorland, politician and writer. Of a Kentish family, but brought up in his mother’s family home in Northamptonshire. MA of Cambridge. Joined Lincoln’s Inn very briefly before proceeding on a two-year tour of France. Obtained royal honours and joined Parliament, but also experienced various conflicts with the law and administration. Of the royalist camp in the Civil War; briefly imprisoned and fined, but made his peace with the parliamentarians and lived quietly through their rule, obtaining modest rewards after the Restoration. His religious poems appeared in the privately printed Otia sacra (1560). Much of his verse in Latin and English remained in manuscript, as did seven plays. A friend of Robert Herrick. (#246 to #248) Fanshawe, Sir Richard (1608–66), first baronet, diplomat and translator. Of a cultivated courtly family of Hertfordshire. Attended Cambridge and the Inner Temple. After his mother’s death, spent much time in Paris and Madrid. His mastery of Spanish, French and Latin won him an appointment as secretary to Walter, Lord Aston, ambassador to Madrid. Other appointments followed. Active in the royalist cause in the Civil War; moved between England and the continent, and was briefly imprisoned. After some quiet years during parliamentary rule, rejoined the future Charles II in exile. Received royal favour at the Restoration: made ambassador successively to Portugal and to Spain. There are several manuscripts of his poems and translations. A selection, with his translation of Guarini’s Il pastor fido (The Faithful Shepherd), was published in 1648. Among other works, a volume of translations from Horace followed in 1652, of Camõens’s Lusiad in 1655,

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and a Latin translation of John Fletcher’s The Faithful Shepherdess in 1658. (#12, #34, #217) Finet, Sir John (1571–1641), courtier and writer. Hailed from Kent. Went to Cambridge, where he might have met Abraham Fraunce; then spent a few years travelling in Europe. Along with the physician Lister, acted as tutor to the Earl of Salisbury’s son during the latter’s tour of France. Continued in service to the earls, and obtained other court appointments including, in 1627, that of Master of Ceremonies (i.e. with charge of looking after diplomats and foreign dignitaries). Also acquired an equivocal reputation as a bon vivant at court. Knighted in 1616. A part of his notebooks was published by James Howell in 1656 as Finetti Philoxenis: Some Choice Observations of Sir John Finet Knight. Bodleian MS Rawl. Poet. 85, compiled 1584–1590, contains many poems by Finet and his Cambridge associates like Robert Mills, James Reshoulde and Edward Chapman, besides material from other poets. (#60) Fisher, Jasper (1591–1643), clergyman and playwright. His career at Oxford was crowned by a doctorate in divinity. Rector of Wilsden, Bedfordshire. The play Fuimus Troes was anonymously published in 1633, the title-page stating it was performed at Magdalen College, Oxford. Fisher’s authorship rests on the authority of Anthony à Wood’s Athenae Oxonienses, but is generally accepted. (#218) Flaminio, Marcantonio (c.1497–1550), Italian humanist and poet. Born in the Veneto but moved south after the Austrian invasion. Went in his youth to Rome and then Naples, where he met Sannazaro. Led a life of humanist scholarship and literary activity, moving between many Italian cities. Passed from a wayward youth to a more serious and disciplined life. His most sustained stay was in the household of the Bishop of Verona. Published his first collection of Neo-Latin poetry in 1515, then the Lusus pastorales in 1526. Composed a great deal more poetry, paraphrased 62 psalms in prose and verse, and translated many works. The religious Carmina sacra was published posthumously in 1551. (#20) Fleming, Abraham (c.1552–1607), author, translator and clergyman. Graduated late in life from Cambridge, after several years in the London publishing trade. Worked for at least fifteen printing houses, and contributed editorially to at least fifty-seven works. The second (1587) edition of Holinshed’s Chronicles is his greatest editorial achievement, though



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marked by an extreme Protestant outlook provoking review and censure. He was later ordained priest, and served successively as the Countess of Nottingham’s chaplain, Rector of St Pancras and public preacher. Besides two different renderings of Virgil’s Eclogues (1574 and 1589, the latter along with the Georgics), translated Aelian’s A Register of Histories and Savonarola’s commentary on the 51st Psalm, among other works. He also published devotional writings like The Conduit of Comfort (1579) and the much-reprinted The Diamond of Devotion (1582). (#8, #9) Fletcher, Giles, the younger (1585–1623), son of the poet, courtier and diplomat Giles Fletcher the elder. Brother of Phineas Fletcher and cousin of the dramatist John Fletcher. Graduated from Trinity College, Cambridge and became a fellow there, proceeding to a university readership in Greek; but like his father and brother, seems to have harboured a sense of grievance against the university. Ordained priest in 1613, with strongly Protestant views. Held a number of benefices, some through the patronage of Francis Bacon. Christ’s Victory and Triumph (1610) is his sole poetical work. Also wrote a homiletic prose treatise, The Reward of the Faithful (1623). (#178) Fletcher, John (1579–1625), playwright, cousin of Phineas and Giles Fletcher. Born in a strongly Protestant Sussex family; his father became Queen’s Chaplain and Bishop of Bristol, Worcester and London in succession. John’s first known association with the London theatre world is in the play The Woman Hater (1606), written together with his long-term co-author Francis Beaumont. They were both part of the authors’ circle centred round Ben Jonson at the Mermaid Tavern. Began by writing for the Children of the Queen’s Revels, but (like Beaumont) moved to the King’s Men and after 1614, wrote exclusively for them. Associated with some 60 plays. Thirty-five titles appeared in the first Beaumont and Fletcher Folio (1647) and 53 in the second (1679). Thought to have collaborated with Shakespeare in Henry VIII, The Two Noble Kinsmen and the lost Cardenio; also extensively with Philip Massinger, and with other dramatists including Jonson, Middleton and Shirley. The Faithful Shepherdess (?1608, published 1609) was probably performed by the Children of Blackfriars. The King’s Men later obtained rights to it, and performed it before Charles I and the Queen on Twelfth Night 1634, using the lavish costumes from a performance of William Montague’s The Shepherd’s Paradise in which the Queen took part. (#175)

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Fletcher, Phineas (1582–1650), elder son of Giles Fletcher the elder, brother of Giles Fletcher the younger and cousin of the dramatist John Fletcher. Graduated from King’s College, Cambridge; proceeded to a fellowship there and was also ordained priest in 1611. His Sicelides (pub. 1631), a piscatory pastoral play, was produced for James I’s visit to Cambridge in 1615, though James did not stay to see it. Like his father and brother, Phineas felt slighted and neglected by Cambridge and left in 1615. Spent most of his life thereafter in two benefices, Risley in Derbyshire and Hilgay in Norfolk, the gift of his patron Sir Henry Willoughby. Most of Fletcher’s poetry was written at Cambridge though published much later. The first to appear were the anti-Jesuit satire The Locusts (1627, with a Latin version) and the mythological poem Britain’s Ida (1628), wrongly attributed to Spenser. His magnum opus The Purple Island appeared in 1633, accompanied by Piscatory Eclogues and Other Poetical Miscellanies. This handsome volume from Cambridge University Press was funded by his friend Edward Benlowes. With his brother Giles, Phineas forms a subgroup of Spenserians distinct from William Browne and his associates. (#219 to #221) Fraunce (France), Abraham (1559?–92/3?), poet and lawyer. MA and fellow of Cambridge (where he wrote one, perhaps two Latin comedies). Called to the bar from Gray’s Inn in 1588. Returned to practise law in his native Shropshire. Enjoyed the patronage of Philip Sidney, his brother Robert Sidney, their sister Mary Herbert and her husband William, Earl of Pembroke, and others of their circle. His writings did much to implement Sidney’s programme of introducing continental literary culture into English. Fraunce’s The Arcadian Rhetoric and The Lawyer’s Logic (both 1588) draw extensively on Sidney’s works for their examples. His Lamentations of Amyntas (1587), translated from Thomas Watson’s Latin, was finally incorporated in the larger design of The Countess of Pembroke’s Ivychurch (1591–92). Also authored The Countess of Pembroke’s Emanuel (1591), a compendium of religious writings, and a book on imprese or heraldic signs and symbols (1588) dedicated to Robert Sidney. (#7, #57, #58, #61) Godolphin, Sidney (1610–43), poet and courtier. Son of Sir William Godolphin of Cornwall, a mine-owner and mining expert. Attended Oxford, and perhaps the Inns of Court, before travelling on the continent. Entered court service as a gentleman of the privy chamber extraordinary.



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Among the last royalist members of the House of Commons. Died fighting on the King’s side in the Civil War. Composed 30 short poems and translated a short section of the Aeneid. These were not printed until the twentieth century. Among his friends were Thomas Hobbes and Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon. (#238) Goffe (Gough), Thomas (1590/91–1629), playwright and clergyman. Born in Essex. Graduated from Oxford and proceeded to Bachelor of Divinity, then took up a living in Surrey. All his plays were written and acted in Oxford, though published posthumously: The Raging Turk (1631), The Courageous Turk (1632), The Tragedy of Orestes (1633) and The Careless Shepherdess (1656), the last questionably his. Also acted in other plays. (#195) Googe, Barnabe (1540–94), son of a Yorkshire MP, but brought up by his grandmother in Kent and made a royal ward. Attended Cambridge but left for the Inns of Court. Kin to William Cecil, Lord Burghley. Went to Spain with the ambassador Sir Thomas Chaloner, returned in 1563 to the court and Parliament. Also made several trips to Ireland on official work. Spent his last years in his Lincolnshire home. A strong Protestant, Googe translated Marcellus Palingenius’ long work Zodiacus vitae (The Zodiac of Life), proscribed by the Catholic church, and Thomas Kirchmeyer’s The Popish Kingdom, or Reign of Antichrist; also Conrad Heresbach’s Foure Bookes of Husbandry. His own poems appeared in Eclogues, Epitaphs and Sonnets (1563). The first English writer to draw on Montemayor’s pastoral romance Diana. (32) Gorges, Arthur (c.1569–1625), knight, courtier and poet. Son of a seafarer. Graduated from Oxford and took up service at court, becoming a gentleman pensioner or Queen’s bodyguard. MP for many years. Close associate of Sir Walter Ralegh in both his voyaging and his politics. Obtained brief patronage from James I and more stable support from Prince Henry, until the latter’s death. Had a controversial marriage with his first wife, Douglas, whose death is mourned by Spenser in Daphnaida. Dogged by controversies and lack of resources through his life. His poems, collected in BL MS Egerton 3165 (entitled ‘The Vanities of Sir Arthur Gorges’ Youth’), were published only in 1953. (A few had appeared earlier in anthologies.) Many are translations and imitations of French poets. (#67, #68)

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Greene, Robert (1558–92), writer and playwright. Came from Norwich. Graduate of Cambridge, MA of both Cambridge and Oxford. One of the wayward ‘University Wits’ of London’s literary world, he struggled to sustain himself as a professional writer. Hard to tell how far his racy, pseudo-confessional accounts of a dissolute life are to be taken at face value. This life is foregrounded in his late ‘repentance pamphlets’: among others, Greene’s Never too Late, Greene’s Mourning Garment (both 1590), and Greene’s Farewell to Folly (1591). There is more general satire in A Quip for an Upstart Courtier (1592). Earlier works include euphuistic romances from Mamillia (1583) to Pandosto (1588), Ciceronis Amor or Tully’s Love and the pastoral Menaphon (both 1589), and accounts of the London underworld (the ‘coney-catching pamphlets’). But the confessional and sensational element coexists with a simpler vein of pastoral, as the pieces in this collection testify. None of Greene’s plays was printed in his lifetime. They include Alphonsus, King of Aragon; Selimus; A Looking-Glass for London and England; Orlando Furioso; Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay and The Scottish History of James the Fourth. Attacked Shakespeare fiercely in Greene’s Groatsworth of Wit (1592); but long after Greene’s death, Shakespeare drew on Pandosto and, less directly, on the coney-catching pamphlets in The Winter’s Tale. (#71 to #77) Guarini, Giambattista (1538–1612), Italian poet, dramatist and diplomat. Born in Ferrara and appointed professor of literature there. Served Duke Alfonso II of Ferrara for a long time, then moved to Savoy and various Italian cities. Distinguished as a poet, his lasting reputation rests on his play Il pastor fido (The Faithful Shepherd), performed at the wedding of the Duke of Savoy in 1585 and published in 1590. The work won attention not only for its artistic merits but as the centre of a controversy over the hybrid genre of tragicomedy. Guarini himself wrote a tract on the issue. His works were widely drawn upon by composers of madrigals. (#34) Habington, William (1605–54), Of a Worcestershire recusant family: his father was imprisoned and his uncle executed for involvement in Catholic plots. Educated by Jesuits in France, returning to a life of private study in England. Mixed in courtly circles, especially the Catholic group around Queen Henrietta Maria. Fought for the royalists in the Civil War. His home, Hindlip Hall, was ransacked and the estate sequestrated. Appears to have been one of the ‘sons of Ben’ or disciples of Ben



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Jonson. His collection of poems, Castara, appeared anonymously in 1634, and later, in expanded editions. Also wrote a single but acclaimed play, The Queen of Aragon, and historical works including a History of Edward the Fourth (1641). (#223) Hammond, William (b.1614), His Kentish family appears to have had literary connections, but very little is known of his life, not even the year of his death. His Poems appeared in 1655. Brother-in-law and associate of the poet and scholar Sir Thomas Stanley. (262) Harvey, Thomas (fl.1656), translator of Mantuan (1656) and John Owen’s Neo-Latin epigrams (1677); cited in the title-page of the latter work as a scholar of Winchester College. Virtually nothing else is known of his life. (#17) Henryson, Robert (d.c.1490), First mentioned in the records of Glasgow University in 1462 as venerabilis, thus presumably of some age and scholarship. Seems to have studied both law and the humanities. Also a priest, appointed to a university chaplaincy in 1460. Moved to Dunfermline c.1468 as a schoolmaster, and also became a notary public by 1478. His three earliest printed poems appeared c.1508, including an Orpheus and Eurydice based on Boethius. Most of his work remained in manuscript: among others, the Makculloch MS (Edinburgh University Library), the largely destroyed Asloan MS and the famous Bannatyne MS (both in the National Library of Scotland). His most celebrated works are The Testament of Creseid and Moral Fables, the latter based on Aesop (in Caxton’s edition). His death was lamented by William Dunbar in his famous ‘Lament for the Makaris’. (#18) Herbert, George (1593–1633), poet and priest. Born in Montgomery, Wales; younger brother of Lord Herbert of Cherbury. Went to Westminster School. King’s Scholar, then fellow and public orator at Cambridge. Entered Parliament and mixed in courtly circles. Numbered Bacon and Donne among his friends. Ordained in 1624, canon of Lincoln Cathedral in 1626. Associated with the spiritual community at nearby Little Gidding, established by his Cambridge contemporary Nicholas Ferrar. Acquired a reputation for piety and charity. His religious poems, entrusted to Ferrar before his death, were brought out the same year (1633) as The Temple. His other works include A Priest to the Temple (or The Country Parson), a prose por-

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trait of a model country parson, published among his Remains in 1652. (#222) Herbert (née Sidney), Mary, Countess of Pembroke (1561–1621), writer and literary patron, sister of Philip Sidney. Her father Sir Henry Sidney was Lord President of the Council in the marches of Wales (as her husband was later), then lord deputy of Ireland in two spells. Her mother Mary was a close friend of the Queen and sister of Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester. Received a humanist education. Attended court, and was married in 1577 to Henry Herbert, second Earl of Pembroke. William Herbert, third Earl, poet and prominent politician, and Philip Herbert, fourth Earl and Earl of Montgomery, were her children. Her spirituality was balanced by a bold and independent lifestyle. She wrote extensively in both secular and religious veins, as indicated respectively by her translations of Petrarch and the Psalms. The latter constitute her most serious poetic output, completing her brother Philip’s unfinished task. She also translated from French an ethical tract, A Discourse of Life and Death by Philippe de Mornay, and Robert Garnier’s Senecan play Antonius. Some have thought that ‘The Dolefull Lay of Clorinda’ in Spenser’s Astrophel is her composition, though it appears to be Spenser’s own. The Herbert estate, Wilton in Wiltshire, was a centre of literary activity and patronage. Philip Sidney composed much of his Arcadia there and dedicated it to his sister. She mourned his death for two years. Later, she and Fulke Greville oversaw the printing of Sidney’s unpublished manuscripts. Between them, Mary and her husband patronized many major writers of the time. Her niece Mary Wroth admired and imitated her, modelling on her the admirable Queen of Naples in the romance Urania. (#139) Herbert, William (1580–1630), third Earl of Pembroke, courtier, poet and patron, son of Mary Herbert and Henry, the second Earl. Educated at home by Samuel Daniel among other tutors, then proceeded to Oxford. Established himself at court before he was 20, and became Earl on his father’s death in 1601, but lost the Queen’s favour owing to a scandalous liaison with Mary Fitton, a lady at court. Regained royal favour under James I and was appointed Lord Chamberlain in 1615. Had a long-­ standing affair with his cousin Lady Mary Wroth, allegedly fathering two ­children by her. Engaged intensively in colonial ventures. His influence at court continued or even increased under Charles I, but he pressed the



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authority of Parliament and was associated with the ‘Country party’ at court. Herbert had serious scholarly and literary interests. Was Chancellor of Oxford University, to which he bequeathed his rich collection of Greek manuscripts. An outstanding patron of arts and letters, following the example of his mother and uncles, the Sidney brothers. Shakespeare’s First Folio was dedicated to him (along with his brother), besides works by (among others) Ben Jonson, Thomas Middleton, George Herbert, Inigo Jones, the painters Nicholas Hilliard and Marcus Gheeraerts the younger, and the composers Thomas Tompkins and John Dowland. His own poems appeared posthumously in 1660. (#216) Herrick, Robert (1591–1674), son of a wealthy London goldsmith, orphaned at two and brought up by his uncles. Apprenticed to his goldsmith uncle William; left to join Cambridge, where he proceeded to an MA and met his later patron Mildmay Fane among other literary contacts. Ordained in 1623. After service with the Duke of Buckingham, appointed vicar of Dean Prior, Devonshire, in 1629, where he remained until driven out by the parliamentarians in 1646. Stayed in London until 1660, largely supported by Fane and other friends, but recovered his living after the Restoration. Nearly all his poetry (some 1400 items) is organized in one major volume, Hesperides (1648). The poems bear out his royalist and Anglican position. More importantly, they testify to his well-turned, ready lyric grace, recalling the Elizabethan lyric and evoking a literary nostalgia not unrelated to political nostalgia for a past age. (#241 to #245) Heywood, John (?1497–?1578), playwright, poet and musician. Probably born in London and studied at Oxford, then attended the court as a singer and musician. A follower of Sir Thomas More; married the daughter of More’s associate John Rastell. Remained a Catholic like his patrons, and two of his sons later joined the Jesuits. His worldly fortunes advanced nonetheless, until he courted danger by opposing Thomas Cranmer. Regained favour in Mary’s reign, but fled the country after the Act of Uniformity against Catholics was enforced in 1564. Joined the English College in Antwerp; when the College was sacked, he fled to Louvain. Besides Of Gentleness and Nobility (of debated authorship, ?1525–35), he wrote six short plays, apparently light sketches but with a Catholic orientation and possible political allegory; also other court entertainments and a poem of political and religious allegory, The Spider and the Fly (1556). (#19)

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Heywood, Thomas (c.1573–1641), playwright and poet. Son of a Lincolnshire clergyman. Went to Cambridge but left for a writing career in London. Joined Philip Henslowe’s theatrical company, the Admiral’s Men, but changed by 1601 to the Earl of Worcester’s Company, later Queen Anne’s Men; after its dissolution, worked freelance. In his fifty-year career, claimed to have had a hand in over 200 plays, most notably domestic drama (the best-known being A Woman Killed with Kindness) but also many in other veins. Wrote several pageants for the Lord Mayor of London. Heywood’s engagement with women’s lives and issues also appears in the huge prose Gunaikeion, or Nine Books of Various History Concerning Women (1624). Other prose works include An Apology for Actors (1612) and subsequent polemics with the Puritan William Prynne. His poems include the mythological Oenone and Paris (1594), the mythic-­historical Troia Britannica (1609), and a long poem of diverse contents, The Hierarchy of the Blessed Angels (1635). Translated Sallust (from a French version) and Ovid’s Ars Amatoria, and worked on a compilation of ‘The lives of all the poets modern and foreign’. (#92 to #94) Hills, George (b.c.1606, fl.1655), schoolmaster and translator. Graduated from Cambridge and lived for a time in London, finally becoming headmaster of a school in his native Newark, Nottinghamshire. Besides a few short poems, his only known output is his translation of The Odes of Casimire (1646). (#231, #232) Horace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus) (65–8 bce), Roman poet. Studied in Rome and Athens, and fought on Brutus’ side in the Roman Civil War. Rescued from poverty by Maecenas, the famous patron of letters, who gifted him the Sabine farm featuring in many of Horace’s poems. Wrote several books of Satires and Epistles, Odes and Epodes, and a verse epistle, the Ars poetica. One of the greatest Graeco-Roman influences on all subsequent European poetry. (#12) Hughes, Henry (1602–?1652), physician and poet. A native of Kent. Graduated from Oxford, then proceeded to Padua to study medicine. Returned to practise in London. Entered court circles and came to know the musician Henry Lawes. Took up the royalist cause, and was branded by the parliamentarians as a recusant. His polished lyrics appeared in various collections, most numerously in Lawes’s song-books. ‘Cloris, since thou art fled away’ is attributed to Hughes in the Third Book of Lawes’s Select Airs and Dialogues (1669). (#263)



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James I of England and James VI of Scotland (1566–1625), reigned in Scotland from 1567 (after the abdication of his mother, Mary Queen of Scots) and in England from 1603. The cultural activity of Elizabeth’s reign continued in his time, but there were new political challenges, above all from radical versions of Protestantism that could not accept James’s moderate and pro-Catholic stand. There were persistent courtly intrigues and divisions, as over James’s appointment of favourites like Robert Carr, later Earl of Somerset, and George Villiers, later Duke of Buckingham; or his plans of a Spanish bride for Prince Charles and the latter’s French marriage. There was also persistent conflict with Parliament, escalating in Charles I’s reign, and culminating in the Civil War. The reign also saw Catholic conspiracies like the Gunpowder Plot of 1605. James had serious literary and intellectual interests. A strong believer in the divine right of kings, he is the probable author of The True Law of Free Monarchies (1598) and Basilikon Doron (The Royal Image, 1599), addressing his son on the duties of a king. Daemonology (1597) reflects his belief in witchcraft and support for witch-hunting. Also wrote a poem on the Battle of Lepanto and a prose Counterblast to Tobacco (1604). Translated thirty psalms as well as Lucan and Du Bartas. (#212) Jonson, Ben (1572–1637), dramatist and poet. A posthumous child. His stepfather was a bricklayer. Went to Westminster School but not to university. Briefly saw army service in the Netherlands. Joined the theatrical company of the Admiral’s Men by 1597. Imprisoned for his part in the play The Isle of Dogs the same year, then again in 1598 for killing a man in a duel. Converted to Catholicism while in prison, suffering intermittent problems as a result, but reverted to the Church of England in 1610. Took part in the ‘war of the theatres’ or rivalry between public playhouses and children’s companies. After James’s accession, became a leading writer of court masques, often in collaboration with the artist-designer Inigo Jones. His standing at court declined under Charles I, though his pension was increased. Made a memorable journey on foot to Scotland in 1618–19, meeting William Drummond among many others. A man of exceptional erudition, Jonson is arguably the most classically oriented of English Renaissance dramatists. His first major play was Every Man in His Humour (1598, published 1601). There followed, among others, the comedies Every Man out of His Humour (1599, pub. 1600), Volpone (1605–6, pub. 1607), Epicoene, or the Silent Woman (1609, pub. 1616), The Alchemist (1610, pub. 1612), Bartholomew Fair (1614, pub. 1631), and the Roman tragedies Sejanus (1603, pub. 1605)

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and Catiline (1611). Set a historic precedent by initiating a folio collection of his own plays in 1616 and withdrawing from the stage; but poverty brought him back after 1626 to write plays such as The New Inn (1629, pub. 1631), The Staple of News (1626), The Magnetic Lady (1631) and The Tale of a Tub (1633) – all first published in the Second Folio of 1640 – and the incomplete pastoral, The Sad Shepherd. Composed about two dozen court masques; several volumes of poetry, including Epigrams (1612), The Forest (1616), and Underwood (Second Folio, 1640); a commonplace-book with critical observations, Timber (1641); a translation of Horace’s Ars Poetica; and various other works. (#191 to #194) Lauder, George (fl.1622–77), a Scotsman, and probably a graduate of Edinburgh University. Joined the English army and saw service under the Duke of Buckingham. Being a royalist, withdrew to the continent where he lived for many years, chiefly at Breda in the Netherlands in the service of the Prince of Orange. Wrote various tracts and poems, the most notable being his elegy for Drummond, #201. Lilliat, John (c.1555–1629), chorister and poet. Chorister at Christ Church, Oxford, then vicar choral at Wells Cathedral and, finally, at Chicester Cathedral for nearly forty years from 1591. Under James I, was gentleman extraordinary to the Chapel Royal for a time. His commonplace-book, bound in with a copy of Thomas Watson’s Hekatompathia, dates from the 1590s. It contains his own poems as well as works by well-known poets. (#126, #127) Lodge, Thomas (1558–1625), author and physician. Son of a Lord Mayor of London. Spent part of his childhood in the Earl of Derby’s household. Went to Merchant Taylors’ School, graduated from Oxford and proceeded to Lincoln’s Inn. Had Catholic inclinations and sympathies. Took part in a voyage to the Canaries (c.1585–86) and Sir Thomas Cavendish’s unsuccessful voyage to Brazil in 1591. Obtained a medical degree from Avignon in 1598, and practised medicine in London, France and the Netherlands. Published A Treatise of the Plague (1603) and other medical works. Lodge was one of the ‘University Wits’. His chief productions are prose romances. Besides the well-known Rosalynde (1590), the source of As You Like It, he wrote another pastoral romance, Forbonius and Prisceria (1584), as well as Euphues’ Shadow (1592) and A Margarite of America (1596). His non-fiction comprises moral, satirical and spiritual



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works including An Alarum Against Usurers (1584); his poems, a mythological epyllion Glaucus and Scilla (1589), a pastoral sonnet sequence Phillis (1593), and a satirical volume A Fig for Momus (1596). Only two plays survive, probably from the late 1580s: The Wounds of Civil War and (with Greene) A Looking Glass for London and England, both conveying a political message through ancient Roman and biblical history respectively. Translated Josephus (1602) and Seneca (1614) among other authors. (#78 to #83) Lok, Henry (d.c.1608). Little known of his life, except for apparently perennial indebtedness and abortive hunting for patronage. Briefly employed by Sir Robert Cecil on secret service in France. Author of two large collections of religious sonnets: 200 in Sundry Christian Passions (1593), reprinted with 100 more in Ecclesiastes (1597), which also carried 60 dedicatory sonnets to potential patrons. (#110) Mantuan (Battista Spagnuoli Mantovano) (1447–1516), poet, scholar and Carmelite monk, of a Spanish family settled in Italy. After a humanist education at Mantua and Padua, joined a reformed branch of the Carmelite order in Bologna. Held many offices in his order and contributed to its development, finally becoming its general. Returning to Mantua in 1493, joined an informal academy of famous writers and thinkers including Baldassare Castiglione. A voluminous writer in prose and verse. His fame rests on ten Latin eclogues, the Adulescentia, conceived as a Christian equivalent of Virgil’s Eclogues, and as such universally read in schools through Europe. (#15 to #17) Marino, Giovan Battista or Giambattista (1569–1625), Italian poet. Born and brought up in Naples, but lived largely in Rome, Turin and Paris, leading a brilliant but wayward life with spells of imprisonment. Chief exponent of a much admired style of highly rhetorical Baroque poetry, source of the so-called ‘Marinismo’. His lyrics were collected in La Lira (The Lyre, 1614) and La Sampogna (The Rustic Pipe, 1620), a book of pastoral and other rural verse; but perhaps most celebrated for his mythological epic L’Adone on the love of Venus and Adonis. (#170) Marlowe, Christopher (1564–93), dramatist and poet, son of a Canterbury shoemaker. Most prominent among the ‘University Wits’ of the London literary scene of his day. Went to Cambridge and proceeded to MA. Seems to have engaged in espionage work for the Crown already

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from that time. Also built up a reputation for violence and heterodox belief (even dubbed ‘atheism’). Died in a tavern brawl that may have had a dimension of politics or espionage. His earliest play was perhaps Dido,Queen of Carthage (published 1594). It was followed by the two parts of Tamburlaine (pub. 1590), The Jew of Malta (pub. 1633), Edward II (pub. 1594), The Massacre at Paris (pub. c.1593–94), and Doctor Faustus, published in two widely differing texts in 1604 and 1616. Also wrote the first two books of the epyllion Hero and Leander (completed by George Chapman and published in 1598), and translated some of Ovid’s love-elegies and Lucan’s Pharsalia, Book I. ‘Come live with me …’ is his only known lyric poem. (#84) Martial (Marcus Valerius Martialis) (c.40–104), Roman poet of Spanish origin. A professional poet, he wrote various works but is chiefly remembered for his twelve books of Epigrams on an exhaustive range of themes. Most important in a pastoral context is the twelfth book, written after he moved from Rome to a quiet farm in his native Bilbilis in Spain. (#13) Milton, John (1608–74), born in London, educated at St Paul’s School and Cambridge, from where he proceeded MA. While at Cambridge, began writing poetry in English, Latin and Italian, beginning with ‘On the Death of a Fair Infant’, perhaps mourning a niece. His first major poem was the ode ‘On the Morning of Christ’s Nativity’ (1629), followed by the companion pieces ‘L’Allegro’ and ‘Il Penseroso’ (?1632) and ‘Lycidas’ (1637, published 1638). Had meanwhile composed two masques, Arcades (?1630) and Comus (performed at Ludlow Castle, 1634, with music by Henry Lawes; pub. 1637). From 1637 to 1639, travelled in Europe, chiefly Italy. During the Civil War and interregnum, Milton was intensely active in writing tracts and pamphlets on the parliamentarian cause, including The Reason of Church Government (1642), The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates (1649), and Eikonoklastes (‘Image Breaker’, 1649) after the execution of Charles I. He also wrote a number of pamphlets on divorce, reflecting his own unhappy married life; a short treatise Of Education (1644); and the Areopagitica (1644), condemning censorship of the press. Latin Secretary to the Council of State from 1649 to 1660, despite his visual impairment which required assistants including Andrew Marvell. He had totally lost his vision by 1651. Briefly persecuted after the Restoration, he devoted himself to ­completing Paradise Lost, published in 1667. Paradise Regained and



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Samson Agonistes followed in 1671, though a much earlier date is sometimes proposed for the latter. Produced sonnets and occasional poems through his life; and at the other extreme, the monumental Latin De Doctrina Christiana (Of Christian Doctrine), not printed until 1825. (#230) Montemayor, Jorge de (1520–61), Spanish writer of Portuguese origin, born near Coimbra. A chorister in his youth, then served in the army, visited England with the Spanish King Philip II when the latter’s wife Mary was Queen there, and travelled elsewhere in Europe. Killed in the violent outcome of a love affair. Wrote much poetry, but his fame rests on the pastoral romance Diana (1559), widely read, imitated and translated into English (by Bartholomew Yong) and French. Its popularity is best attested by the fact of two sequels, by Alonso Perez and Gaspar Gil Polo. (#22, #23) Morley, Christopher (d.1596), sometimes confused with his Cambridge contemporary, the dramatist Marlowe. Born in Norwich, probably related to the composer Thomas Morley. Proceeded MA of Cambridge in 1585–86 and became a fellow of Trinity College. Likely author of the eclogue ‘Amor constans’ and sixteen sonnets in Bodleian MS Eng. misc.d.239. (#204) Moschus (fl.c.150 bce), a Greek poet of Syracuse, like Theocritus, though the ‘Lament for Bion’, the chief pastoral poem attributed to him, may not be his work. His other productions include a poem on the rape of Europa and a dialogue between Alcmena and Megara, Herakles’ mother and wife. (#5) Munday, Anthony (1560–1633), born and educated in London. Apprenticed to a printer, but left to travel in Europe, then joined the stage. In the 1590s, wrote plays extensively for the Lord Admiral’s Men, often in collaboration: for example, The Downfall and The Death of Robert, Earl of Huntington (published 1601) with Henry Chettle and Sir John Oldcastle (1599, published 1600) with Drayton and others. Contributed largely to the manuscript play John a Kent and John a Cumber (c.1590) and the incomplete Sir Thomas More (c.1593), thought to contain pages in Shakespeare’s hand. After 1600, turned to writing civic pageants, especially Lord Mayor’s shows, like The Triumphs of Re-United Britannia (1605) to mark James I’s accession. Himatia-Poleos (1614) celebrated

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the Drapers’ Company, to which he himself belonged. His son Richard painted banners and props for many of these shows. His other works include the prose romance Zelauto: The Fountain of Fame (1580) and moral writings in both verse and prose, such as The Mirror of Mutability (1579), The Pain of Pleasure (1580), and A Courtly Controversy between Love and Learning (1581). Translated many continental romances including several instalments of Amadis de Gaule. Also wrote anti-Catholic tracts, interlaced in English Roman Life (1582) with an account of his travels and life in the English College in Rome. Worked as a spy to track down both Catholics and Puritans. The latter target involved him in the Martin Marprelate controversy. He also wrote historical works, and published a revised edition of John Stow’s Survey of London (1618). (#182) Murray, Sir David (1567–1629), Scottish poet and courtier. Attached to Prince Henry’s household, and accompanied him to London after the union of England and Scotland in 1603. Knighted in 1605. After Henry’s death, turned to business. Wrote the play The Tragical Death of Sophonisba (1611), accompanied by a sonnet-sequence Cælia and other poems including ‘The Complaint of the Shepherd Harpalus’. (#179) Oldisworth, Nicholas (1611–45), clergyman and poet. Nephew of Sir Thomas Overbury. Proceeded from Westminster School to Cambridge, thence to Douai and finally to Oxford, proceeding to an MA there. Became a priest at his birthplace Bourton on the Hill, Gloucestershire, but moved to Warwickshire in late life. A moderate royalist during the Civil War. His poems, numbering more than 120, were nearly all written at Oxford but only two published. Most of the others survive in a manuscript prepared in 1644–45 and dedicated to his wife, to fill the time during a plague that finally took his life. (#215) Parker, Martin (fl.1624–47), ballad writer. Probably a Londoner. Little is known of his life, though he was picked up as a vagrant and thief in 1629. The occurrence of his initials in nearly 100 ballads and chapbooks points to his work, but not always reliably. May have been the first to convert broadside ballads into the quarto and octavo chapbooks. His royalist bent appears in his own writings and is cited by political opponents. His celebrated piece ‘When the King enjoys his own again’ was applied to Jacobite and other situations until the mid-eighteenth century. (#151)



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Parry, Robert (1563–?1613), Welsh writer and diarist. Worked for the judge Sir Henry Townshend, to whom he dedicated his prose romance Moderatus (1595). Some of his poems appear in Sinete’s Passions upon His Fortunes (1597), dedicated to Sir John Salusbury (see Chester, Robert) but apparently containing much work by the latter. An elaborate diary of personal and national events might be his work or a namesake’s. His family were recusants, and his son Foulk became a Jesuit priest. (#99) Passerat, Jean (1534–1602), French poet and scholar. After a drifting youth, served the councillor of state Henri de Mesmes for twenty-nine years and took to serious scholarship. Appointed professor of rhetoric at the Collège de France, succeeding the renowned Pierre de la Ramée or Ramus. Besides a treatise on grammar and commentaries on classical poets, produced several volumes of poetry, collected posthumously in his 1606 Works. Cultivated an elegant lyric vein alongside more weighty poetic models. (#36) Peele, George (1556–96), poet and playwright, of a London family. MA of Oxford. Commenced writing in Oxford, including the poem The Tale of Troy (published later in 1589) and a lost translation of Euripides. Wrote plays for the court, like The Hunting of Cupid, surviving only in fragments, and The Arraignment of Paris (1581–84); and for the public stage, like The Battle of Alcazar (?1589; published 1594), Edward I (1593), The Old Wives’ Tale (1595) and David and Bethsabe (?1592; published 1599). Also wrote mayoral pageants like his father, and celebratory verses like An Eclogue Gratulatorie for the Earl of Essex (1589) and Polyhymnia (1590) for Elizabeth’s accession day. One of the ‘University Wits’, Peele kept up a scholarly link with Oxford. These identities are reversed in a scurrilous jestbook of 1607 presenting him as a dissolute wastrel. (#64, #65) Perez, Alonso (fl.1564), Spanish physician and writer of Salamanca. Brought out a continuation to Montemayor’s Diana in 1564. (#24) Philips (née Fowler), Katherine (1632–64), daughter of a London cloth merchant, educated at a boarding school for girls. Went to Wales with her mother after the latter’s third marriage. In 1648, married James Philips, a Cardiganshire landowner and moderate parliamentarian. Katherine too had Puritan connections, especially on her mother’s side, but her own sympathies were royalist. She lived in Cardigan for the rest of her life, sometimes visiting London. She died of smallpox on one such visit.

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Philips set up a celebrated ‘society of friendship’ among her circle, with names suggesting characters from the fashionable French pastoral romance. She herself was Orinda, her husband Antenor; her closest friends Mary Aubrey and Anne Owen, Rosania and Lucasia. (Aubrey lived in London after her marriage and Owen in Ireland after her second marriage, inviting the charge of ‘apostasy’.) Philips’s poems establish her as an exponent of the theme of friendship. Two treatises on friendship were addressed to her, one by Jeremy Taylor. In 1662, she accompanied Anne Owen to Dublin and found a congenial circle including James Butler, Duke of Ormond, and the playwright Robert Boyle, Earl of Orrery. Boyle encouraged her to translate Corneille’s Pompey. It was produced with acclaim and published in 1663, prompting an unfinished rendering of Corneille’s Horace. Philips also left a large body of letters. Her poems, circulating widely in manuscript, appeared in an unauthorized edition in 1664 and an authorized one in 1667. (#273, #274) Preti, Girolamo (1582–1626), Italian poet and courtier. Served in the courts of Ferrara and Modena and the establishments of various churchmen. A leading follower of Giambattista Marino, practising the same ornate figurative style in a distinctive Neoplatonic vein. His most celebrated poem, translated into several languages, was La Salmace, on the story of Salmacis from Ovid’s Metamorphoses. (#171) Quarles, Francis (1592–1644), of a Norfolk family settled in Essex, with Puritan connections. Graduated from Cambridge and attended Lincoln’s Inn. Accompanied the Princess Elizabeth to Germany on her marriage to the Elector Palatine. Settled in London in 1617, leading a literary and scholarly life on a sufficient landed income. In 1626, went to Ireland as research secretary to James Ussher, Archbishop of Armagh and church historian. Returned to London by 1630, then to his native Essex for the most productive phase of his life, followed by a decline into poverty and litigation. Of royalist sympathies, he supported Ussher’s fruitless plan of a moderate episcopalism acceptable to the Puritans. He died in penury. Quarles’s first publication was A Feast for Wormes (1620), a version of the story of Jonah. He is best known for Emblemes (1635) and Hieroglyphikes of the Life of Man (1638). His other works include the verse romance Argalus and Parthenia (1629), based on Sidney’s Arcadia; the topical and satirical pastorals of The Shepherd’s Oracles (published 1646 but composed in the 1630s); Observations Concerning Princes and



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States upon Peace and War (1642); and Enchiridion (1640), a book of aphorisms, besides biblical verse paraphrases and royalist tracts. His comedy The Virgin Widow appeared posthumously in 1649. (#239) Ralegh, Walter (c.1554–1618), courtier, soldier, voyager and poet, one of the most colourful members of the Elizabethan and Jacobean courts. Born in Devonshire. Was a soldier in Ireland and later acquired landed property there: hence his interaction with Spenser. Also based in Ireland for many years. Played a major role in the early colonization of North America, and led two expeditions to South America in search of El Dorado. Initially a favourite of Queen Elizabeth, he fell from grace and was imprisoned in 1592 for secretly marrying a court lady, Elizabeth Throckmorton. Gradually regained his standing in court and Parliament, and was Governor of Jersey for three years. Soon fell out of favour with James I for his alleged role in the Main Plot to oust the King. After long imprisonment, was released to lead his second El Dorado expedition, in course of which he attacked a Spanish post in South America. On return, was re-arrested to appease the Spaniards and executed in 1618. There is much doubt about the date and authenticity of poems attributed to him, including the famous lyrics ‘The Lie’ and ‘Give me my scallop-shell of quiet’. Only a manuscript fragment survives of The Ocean to Cynthia, a projected long poem lamenting his fall from Elizabeth’s favour. His many prose works include The Discovery of Guiana (1596) about his first El Dorado voyage, and the monumental History of the World (1614) written during his long imprisonment. (#142, #143) Ramsey, John (1578; fl.1633), courtier, landowner and poet. Attended Cambridge and the Middle Temple. Introduced to court by his kinsman Sir John Ramsey, later Earl of Holderness. Accompanied the Princess Elizabeth to Germany after her marriage to the Elector Palatine, and travelled widely in Europe. Finally settled on his family estate. Lost the use of his right hand in a duel, but learnt to write with his left. Disappears from the records after sailing on a voyage to Guiana in 1633. We know of his life chiefly from his own manuscript commonplace-book in the Bodleian Library, the sole survivor of twelve ‘paper books’ he claimed to have compiled. (#128) Randolph, Thomas (1605–35), poet and playwright of a Northampton­ shire family. A gifted child, said to have composed a verse History of the Incarnation of our Saviour at the age of nine, and distinguished himself

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in Latin verse composition at Westminster School. Continued verse-­ writing and theatre at Cambridge, and obtained a special fellowship there on graduation. A favourite ‘son’ or disciple ‘of Ben’ (Jonson). Wrote a moral play The Entertainment (1629), a pastoral drama Amyntas, or the Impossible Dowry (1631) and a comedy The Jealous Lovers (1632). His ‘Eclogue to Master Jonson’ (#226) indicates that at some point he left Cambridge entirely for the London theatre world. Ended his short life in his native county while engaged on a tutorship. His poems were published only after his death, at his brother Robert’s instance, in Poems with the Muses’ Looking Glass and Amyntas (1638), which ran to five reprints. (#226 to #229) Rastell, John (c.1475–1536), lawyer, printer and writer, brother-in-law of Sir Thomas More. Probably a native of Coventry. A member of the Middle Temple. Practised law in Coventry and became the city coroner, but presently moved to London as a barrister. Also set up as a printer and publisher, specializing in law books but printing many works of More and his circle. A pioneer in printing music, his own interlude The Nature of the Four Elements is thought to contain the first score to be printed anywhere in Europe. An abortive American expedition left him stranded in Ireland for two years. Parted ways with More by converting to the nascent Protestantism, but shared More’s fate when his increasingly radical beliefs brought about his imprisonment and death in the Tower of London. (#19) Ravenscroft, Thomas (?1592–1635), musicologist, composer and song collector. In his childhood, a chorister at St Paul’s Cathedral, London and child-actor in the company of the Children of St Paul’s. Graduated in music from Cambridge, and was music master at Christ’s Hospital. Made pathbreaking collections of rounds, catches, other popular songs and street cries (alongside sacred texts) in Pammelia, Deuteromelia (both 1609) and Melismata (1611). Later compiled the important The Whole Book of Psalms (1621). Also wrote the treatise A Brief Discourse of … the Degrees … in Measurable Music (1614). Later life obscure. (#172, #173) Revett, Eldred (fl.1650–59), of an East Anglian family. Entered Cambridge in 1650, but left without a degree to join the Middle Temple. No further records of his life. Helped to bring out Lovelace’s posthumous volume of poems in 1659: this indicates his royalist sympathies. Revett’s own Poems appeared in 1657. He also wrote some occasional pieces, and a



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few more poems may lie unidentified in four of his commonplace-books, now in the Cambridge University Library. (#266) Robins, Thomas (fl.1654–85), Derbyshire ballad writer, staunch Anglican and royalist. There are two groups of works credited to this name: ballads such as ‘The Lover’s Battle’, ‘Robin Hood and the Beggar’, ‘Robin Hood and the Butcher’ and ‘Robin Hood’s Chase’, and moral chapbooks (citing the author as a Bachelor of Divinity) such as Man’s Chief Guide to Salvation and News from Darbishire. The especially popular The Trial and Indictment of John Barleycorn (with variant titles) combines both veins. (#259) Robinson, Richard (c.1544–1603), translator and scribe. Member of the Leathersellers’ Company and Lord Mayor of London in 1571–72. Called himself ‘Citizen of London’ to avoid confusion with another poet of the same name. Author of some twenty printed books, chiefly translations. Shakespeare used his rendering of Gesta Romanorum for the casket plot in The Merchant of Venice. A zealous Protestant, he focused on works appropriate to his faith in his later translations. (#11) Sabie, Francis (fl.1587–96), probably hailing from Northamptonshire, perhaps a Catholic; sometime schoolmaster at Lichfield. Wrote a verse tale in two parts, The Fisherman’s Tale and Flora’s Fortune (1595), as well as Pan’s Pipe: Three Pastoral Eclogues (1595) and three versified biblical tales, published together in 1596. (#100) Saint-Amant, Antoine Girard de (1594–1661), poet and member of the Académie Française. Travelled and voyaged widely to England among other places, and later served the Queen of Poland. Gifted with a particularly original poetic vein anticipating Romantic poetry, most markedly in ‘La Solitude’ (#203). His varied repertoire includes the sensational, the demotic and the burlesque, besides the epic Moise sauvé (Moses Rescued, 1653). (#203) Sarbiewski, Casimir (1595–1640), Neo-Latin poet and Jesuit priest, called ‘the Horace of Poland’. Joined the Jesuit notiviate in 1612, and studied at Vilnius and Rome. Ordained in 1623. Taught at the University of Vilnius and was preacher to King Wladislaw, who crowned him Poet Laureate. Wrote much religious poetry, and was one of the group appointed by Pope Urban VIII to revise the hymns of the Catholic Breviary. But his

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greatest fame is for nature poetry spiritualizing the Horatian tradition. His lyric poems, finally reaching four books (Lyricorum libri IV) were widely published and translated across Europe. He also wrote several prose works. (#231, #232) Sherburne, Sir Edward (1616–1702), poet and translator. Born and educated in London. Son of a civil servant and secretary of the East India Company. Obtained the reversion to his father’s post of ordnance officer. Served the royalists in this capacity, but withdrew to a country retreat after Charles I’s execution. Became steward to Sir George Savile c.1651, and made the grand tour of Europe as guardian of the latter’s nephew. Reinstated as ordnance officer after the Restoration, and knighted in 1683. Turned Catholic in late life and again lost his office, suffering ­poverty in his last years. Related to the poet and scholar Thomas Stanley, to whom he dedicated Poems and Translations Amorous, Lusory, Moral, Divine (1651), consisting chiefly of translations. Cultivated astronomy and translated (1675) the first book of Manilius’ Astronomica. Also translated Seneca’s Troades, Phaedra and Hippolytus, and François Blondel’s French treatise on Pindar and Horace (1696). Friend of Carew, Herrick, Randolph and Shirley. (#3, #171) Shirley, James (1596–1666), playwright and poet. Born in London, attended Merchant Taylors’ School and graduated from Cambridge. Ordained, but became a schoolmaster in St Albans. Perhaps a Roman Catholic. Gave up teaching to become a playwright: first with Queen Henrietta Maria’s Men in London, then in Dublin with John Ogilby, Master of the Revels there, and again in London with the King’s Men at the Blackfriars. Admitted to Gray’s Inn in 1634. Joined the royalists in the Civil War, but gradually withdrew to obscurity in London and resumed his career as a schoolmaster. Enjoyed the friendship and patronage of the poet and scholar Thomas Stanley. Died of the shock and strain of the great fire of London (1666). His first extant play is Love’s Tricks, or The School of Compliment (1625), followed by comedies like The Witty Fair One (1628, published 1633), The Changes, or Love in a Maze (1632), Hyde Park (1632, published 1637) and The Gamester (1633). Also wrote tragedies like The Maid’s Revenge (1626) and Love’s Cruelty (1631, published 1640), tragicomedies like The Young Admiral (1633), and moral interludes. Continued writing plays for a royalist audience until the theatres were closed in 1642. This



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phase includes the tragedies The Politician (?1639, published 1655) and The Cardinal (1641, published 1652), plus a few comedies. His masque Cupid and Death, among a number written for his school pupils, was improbably performed at Whitehall before the Portuguese ambassador during Cromwell’s rule in 1653. (#214) Sidney, Sir Philip (1554–86), courtier, poet and prose writer. Son of Sir Henry Sidney, Lord Deputy of Ireland; nephew of Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester; elder brother of Mary Herbert, Countess of Pembroke, and Robert Sidney. (For more details see Herbert, Mary.) Went to Oxford, then joined Parliament in 1572. In the same year, commenced a long tour of Europe, interacting with a galaxy of statesmen, writers and intellectuals and winning great acclaim. On his return, served as one of the first and most important purveyors of continental literary thought and practice to England. Despite his remarkable popularity (as demonstrated at his funeral) and his obvious abilities, Sidney’s career at court was peripheral, largely decorative and often fraught, even making him retire at one point from the royal presence. This was chiefly owing to his over-enthusiastic espousal of the Protestant cause. Appointed governor of Flushing in 1585. Died of his wounds at the Battle of Zutphen, 1586, while fighting with the English contingent in the Protestant forces against Spain. Sidney’s principal works remained in manuscript in his lifetime. Chief among them were the sonnet-sequence Astrophil and Stella fictionalizing his love of Penelope Devereux, daughter of the Earl of Essex; An Apology for Poetry (A Defence of Poesie), a discourse of literary criticism and theory; and two versions (the second incomplete) of the pastoral romance The Countess of Pembroke’s Arcadia, dedicated to his sister Mary and commenced at her home in Wilton. These were edited and published posthumously through the efforts of his sister Mary and his friend Fulke Greville. Greville’s Life of Sidney, though not published until 1652, circulated widely in manuscript and reinforced Sidney’s image as the ideal Elizabethan courtier. (46 to #53) Sidney, Robert, first Earl of Leicester (1563–1626), courtier and poet. Son of Sir Henry Sidney, nephew of Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, younger brother of Sir Philip Sidney and Mary Herbert, and father of Lady Mary Wroth. (For more details see Herbert, Mary.) Went to Oxford but did not graduate, then made an extended tour of Europe, in course of which he lodged in Strasbourg with the scholar Johannes Sturm.

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Encouraged to model himself on his elder brother. They both went on the Netherlands expedition in which Philip lost his life, while Robert was knighted. Negotiated successfully with James VI of Scotland at the time of the Spanish Armada in 1588, and served as governor of Flushing, then in English control. Court politics prevented further rise under Elizabeth, but James I bestowed high office on him, making him successively baron, Viscount Lisle and Earl of Leicester. He extended his stately home at Penshurst, and exemplified the lifestyle celebrated by Jonson in ‘To Penshurst’ (#191). He has left behind the longest known autograph poetical manuscript of his time, consisting chiefly of poems written in the 1590s. (#101, #102) Smith, William (fl.1596). Little known about him beyond his sonnet sequence Chloris (1596) dedicated to Spenser, and a manuscript (BL MS Addl 35186) of two poems, ‘A New Year’s Gift’ and ‘A Posie Made upon Certain Flowers’, dedicated to Mary Herbert, Countess of Pembroke. (#103, #104) Spagnuoli, Battista: see Mantuan Spenser, Edmund (1552–99), born in London, attended the Merchant Taylors’ School (where Richard Mulcaster was headmaster) and Cambridge, proceeding MA in 1577. Briefly secretary to John Young, Bishop of Rochester. Went on to serve the Earl of Leicester, thereby coming in contact with Leicester’s nephew Philip Sidney. Went to Ireland in 1580 as secretary to Lord Grey, the Lord Deputy. Stayed there for the rest of his life, acquiring an estate at Kilcolman and other property. Hence made contact with Walter Ralegh, also a colonist, with whom he made the 1590 journey to London described in Colin Clout’s Come Home Again. Imaginatively absorbed the Irish landscape, but his distrustful and hostile view of the land and its people appears in his prose treatise A View of the Present State of Ireland (published 1633). His home in Kilcolman was burnt to the ground in the Tyrone rebellion of October 1598. Escaped with his family and came to London, bearing despatches to the Queen, but took ill and died almost immediately after, in January 1599. After early translations contributed to A Theatre for Worldlings (1569), made an acclaimed, though anonymous, debut with The Shepheardes Calender (1579). Probably began work on The Faerie Queene soon after, but the first three books appeared only in 1590. Armed with them,



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Spenser visited London, perhaps hoping for preferment nearer home, but was disappointed. A collection of poems of varied dates and themes appeared in the 1591 volume of Complaints. Amoretti, a sonnet-sequence courting his second wife Elizabeth Boyle and culminating in an Epithalamion, followed in 1595, and the Neoplatonic Four Hymns in 1596. 1596 also saw Books IV–VI of The Faerie Queene with a reprint of Books I–III, adapting the ending of Book III to allow continuity. This is all that Spenser published of his magnum opus, intended for completion in twelve books (with another twelve to follow), as laid out in a famous letter to Ralegh. A fragment of Book VII, the so-called Mutability Cantos, appeared in the 1609 edition of The Faerie Queene. (#38, #40 to #45) Spinedge, Anthony (1651–94), entered Cambridge in 1666, proceeded MA, Bachelor of Divinity and Fellow of Jesus College. Was also a priest at various churches in Cambridge and London. A correspondent of William Sancroft, Archbishop of Canterbury, among whose papers the poem included here is found. Author of a 1681 treatise on church government. (#277) Stanley, Thomas (1625–78), poet and classical scholar. Son of a Hertfordshire landowner, cousin to Richard Lovelace, nephew of William Hammond and kinsman of Edward Sherburne. Tutored by William, son of Edward Fairfax. Joined Cambridge and proceeded MA. Left England for some years during the Civil War, but then returned to London. Supported distressed royalist poets, and paraphrased Charles I’s autobiographical Eikon basilike in verse set to music (1657). Published Poems and Translations in 1647, much extended in Poems (1651). The translations are from both classical and later sources, including a complete version of the Greek lyric collection Anacreontea, the Neo-Latin poetical collection Basia (Kisses) by Johannes Secundus, and a prose discourse on love by Pico della Mirandola. His translations of the Spanish romance Aurora by Montalvan, and an Italian poem Oronta by Girolamo Preti, are also sometimes bound up in the same volume. From 1648, led a retired scholarly life at home in Hertfordshire. Published a History of [chiefly Greek] Philosophy in four parts (1655–62) and an elaborate edition of Aeschylus (1663). His notebooks contain other scholarly drafts and notes on classical subjects. Elected to the Royal Society, and lent support and patronage to many poets and translators. Many of his poems were set to music by eminent composers. (#5)

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Strode, William (1601–45), poet and playwright, of Devon. Went to Westminster School and then Oxford, finally qualifying as Doctor of Divinity and becoming proctor and public orator, as well as canon of Christ Church. Despite his own royalist leanings and association with Archbishop Laud, his family backed the parliamentary cause. His poems circulated in manuscript, most intensively in his younger days at Oxford. They were printed only in 1907. Wrote an unsuccessful play, The Floating Island, for Charles I’s visit to Oxford in 1636. A few of his sermons also survive in print. (#235) Tasso, Torquato (1544–95), celebrated Italian poet and dramatist. Born in Sorrento, brought up in Naples and Rome. Son of the poet Bernardo Tasso. Joined the court at Urbino, studied law at Padua, and took up service in Ferrara, first under Cardinal Luigi d’Este and then Duke Alfonso II. His pastoral play Aminta (1573) was performed at the court of Ferrara, and his magnum opus, the romantic epic Gerusalemme liberata (Jerusalem Liberated) completed there in 1574. Won great renown, but fell prey to mental illness and was confined to an asylum for seven years. Rescued by the Prince of Mantua, he wandered across Italy, dying in Rome just as Pope Clement VIII was preparing to crown him Poet Laureate. (#33) Taylor, John (1578–1653), born and brought up in Gloucester but became a waterman or boatman on the Thames at London, hence calling himself the ‘Water Poet’. A King’s Waterman and, in two spells, ‘bottleman’ or bringer of wine cargo to the Tower of London. Claimed to have served seven times in the navy, as Thames watermen did in time of war. Of unusual education and refinement for his trade, he held offices in the Watermen’s Company, and was part of an official expedition to survey the upper Thames. A flamboyant personality, undertook many sponsored, much-publicized visits and voyages: among others, to Germany, Scotland, and (on a more serious Protestant mission) Prague, of which he then wrote accounts. Also composed tracts on a range of themes. Taylor’s poetical output is abundant and diverse though of limited merit. Published his collected works in 1630, on the model of Jonson or Shakespeare’s folios. Suffered from the changes during and after the Civil War, including an upheaval in the Watermen’s Company that ended his fifty years’ association with it. Served the royalist cause as water bailiff as well as propagandist. After the royalist defeat, lived in poverty, running an alehouse and making more sponsored journeys. (#213)



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Theocritus (fl.c.270 bce), Greek poet. A native of Syracuse. Spent much of his life on the island of Cos and then the city of Alexandria, where he won recognition as a poet. Later returned to Syracuse. Virtually the progenitor of pastoral poetry. Thirty idylls, including about a dozen pastoral pieces and some mime-like dialogues, and some other short poems are attributed to him, though many are undoubtedly not his work. (#1 to #4) Trussel, John (1575–1648), antiquary, historian and poet. Born in London, educated at Westminster. No record of a legal education, but became an attorney in Winchester and held various public offices there, including that of mayor. Conjecturally identified with J.T., author of An Old-Fashioned Love (1594) and Raptus I. Helenae: The First Rape of Fair Helen (1595). His authenticated works are some historical writings: A Continuation of … the History of England (1636, beginning where Samuel Daniel left off); and two manuscripts, ‘Touchstone of Tradition’, and ‘Benefactors to Winchester’, that reach out from a central concern with Winchester to embrace a range of historical and political issues. (#59) Turberville, George (c.1543–97), poet and translator. Of an old Dorset family, the original of Hardy’s ‘D’Urbervilles’. Went to Winchester College and Oxford; also resided at the Inns of Court, where he made literary friendships with Barnabe Googe, George Gascoigne and others. Probably the G.T. who compiled Gascoigne’s A Hundred Sundry Flowers. Travelled to Russia in 1568–69. The family had Catholic links, Turberville himself less so. Three of his volumes appeared in 1567: a translation of Ovid’s Heroides; a collection of his own Epitaphs, Epigrams, Songs and Sonnets (1567), with many poems addressed to Pyndara or Pandora, identified with Anne Russell, daughter of the Earl of Bedford; and a translation of Mantuan’s Eclogues. Also wrote The Book of Falconry or Hawking (1575) and a book of Tragical Tales (?1574) translated from various sources. Seems to have abandoned poetry for the life of a landholder in Dorset. (#15) Vaughan, Henry (1621–95), poet and translator. Belonged to Brecknockshire, Wales, the valley of the river Usk, a landscape he celebrated in his poetry. Related to two old Welsh families, one Catholic and one Protestant; kin to George Herbert. Welsh was probably his first language. Went to Oxford, then to the Inns of Court. Fought for the

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royalists in the Civil War. May have worked for the judge Sir Marmaduke Lloyd. Otherwise, spent his remaining life in his native village. Practised there as a doctor, though no medical degree or training is recorded. Suffered from bouts of illness. Published Poems, with the Tenth Satire of Juvenal Englished (1646); Olor Iscanus (‘The Swan of the Usk’: 1651, apparently written by 1647); Silex Scintillans (‘The Sparking Flint’: two parts, 1650 and 1655), containing his best-known poems of nature mysticism besides other themes; Flores Solitudinis  (‘Flowers of Solitude’, 1654); and Thalia Rediviva (‘Thalia [the Muse of Comedy] Reborn’, 1678), the last including poems by his brother Thomas. His poems, especially in Silex Scintillans, show a strong element of hermeticism, which he imbibed from his p ­ hilosopher-brother Thomas. His prose works include The Mount of Olives, or Solitary Devotions (1652) and several homiletic tracts. (#251, #252) Virgil (Publius Vergilius Maro) (70–19 bce), the most famous and influential of the ancient Roman poets. Born near Mantua of humble stock, he was intensively educated at Cremona, Milan and Rome. Returning to his Mantuan farm, began writing poetry of which he chose ten selected pieces (eclogae), all pastoral, for revision and preservation. The loss and recovery of his farm in a time of political and military turmoil is reflected in Eclogue I. Supported by the celebrated patron Maecenas and the Emperor Augustus, he went on to compose four Georgics, didactic poems on agriculture, and the epic Aeneid, whose narrative, drawn from early Greek history and legend, extends to the foundation of Rome and incorporates the classic Roman ethos. (#4, #6 to #11) Weaver, Thomas (1616–62), born in Worcester. Graduated from Oxford and proceeded to an MA and canonry at Christ Church. Sided with the royalists in the Civil War; dismissed from his position by the parliamentarians and perhaps imprisoned. Seems to have drifted for years thereafter. His Songs and Poems of Love and Drollery (1654) was adjudged so violently political as to have led to his trial for treason and narrow escape. Obtained an official position after the Restoration. The contents of Songs and Poems circulated in manuscript in Oxford: a manuscript collection is now in the Bodleian Library. (#260, #261) Walton, Izaak (1593–1683), son of a Stafford innkeeper. No formal education beyond grammar school, after which he was apprenticed to his brother-in-law, a draper in London. Set up many literary contacts includ-



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ing Ben Jonson. A close friend of John Donne, meeting other eminent writers through him. Seems to have assisted in the posthumous publication of Donne’s poems. Sided with the royalists, and may have travelled much of the time during the 1640s and 1650s. After the Restoration, became steward to his friend George Morley, who was appointed Bishop of Winchester. From 1640, began an intermittent series of biographies: of Donne, Sir Henry Wotton, Richard Hooker, George Herbert and Robert Sanderson, cleric and theologian. All these were repeatedly revised, sometimes appearing as independent volumes, sometimes as adjuncts to those writers’ works or other publications. The Complete Angler, Walton’s celebrated fishing manual (with much poetic, social and philosophic content) appeared in 1653 and was repeatedly and substantially expanded. Its quasi-pastoral nature is an implicit (rarely explicit) comment on the troubled times. Walton’s close friend Charles Cotton added a section of his own in 1676. (#271) Warner, William (1558–1609), poet and lawyer. Practised as an attorney in London. His magnum opus, Albion’s England, a versified history of Britain from biblical and classical times to the Norman Conquest, first appeared in four books in 1686, and was gradually expanded to sixteen, bringing the account up to Elizabeth’s reign. He also brought out a Continuance in 1606. Albion’s England was extremely popular, a sourcebook for many later writers including Drayton in Poly-Olbion. An earlier prose romance, Pan his Syrinx (1584), also achieved reprint. (#56) Watson, Thomas (c.1556–92), poet (in Latin and English) and translator. Proceeded from Winchester College to Oxford, where his circle included John Lyly, George Peele and William Camden. Travelled in Europe for the next seven years, ostensibly studying law. Settled in London on return and entered literary circles. Imprisoned after killing a man in self-defence in a brawl also involving Marlowe. Enjoyed the patronage of, and sometimes acted as agent for, Sir Francis Walsingham, Elizabeth’s spymaster (on whose death he wrote an elegy, ‘Meliboeus’, in Latin and English versions). Discredited by his dishonourable role in a plot to compromise the daughter of the recusant William Cornwallis, of whose son Watson was tutor. His first major English work was The Hekatompathia, or Passionate Century of Love (1582), a series of 18-line ‘sonnets’. There followed the Latin Amyntas (1585), laments by the shepherd Amyntas for his dead

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love Phillis: his most famous work, largely owing to the English version (1587) by Abraham Fraunce. The ‘prequel’ Amintae gaudia (The Joys of Amyntas), recounting the love of Amyntas and Phillis before the latter’s death, appeared posthumously in 1592 under Marlowe’s supervision. The sonnet-sequence The Teares of Fancy (1593) is another posthumously published work. Played a major role in introducing the Italianate madrigal into English, writing lyrics for settings by William Byrd and others. Also wrote a treatise on the old ‘art of memory’. His translations include Latin versions of Sophocles’ Antigone and Petrarch’s love poems. (#57, #58) Webbe, William (fl.1566–91). Little known of his life. Was Spenser’s contemporary at Cambridge, and subsequently a private tutor to young boys. His A Discourse of English Poetry (1586) contains an enthusiastic discussion of quantitative verse, in which medium he also made a manuscript translation of Virgil’s Georgics. (#6, #39) Willett, Andrew (1562–1621), clergyman and poet. Son of an Ely clergyman, went to Cambridge and proceeded to a fellowship. Ordained priest in 1585, served in Cambridgeshire and Huntingdonshire. Became a Doctor of Divinity, lectured at Ely Cathedral and St Paul’s Cathedral, London. Maintained links with court circles, and was chaplain to Prince Henry. Briefly imprisoned for opposing Prince Charles’s projected Spanish marriage. Died after a fall from his horse. Published Sacrorum emblematum centuria una (A Hundred Sacred Emblems, c.1592). His Synopsis papismi, a compendium of all controversies between Protestants and the Catholic Church, appeared in 1592 and was repeatedly revised and expanded. Entered closely into the theological and ecclesiastical controversies of the Church of England, besides campaigning for higher pay for clerics. Gradually turned to biblical commentary, bringing out monumental exegeses on several books of the Bible. (#88) Wither, George (1588–1667), a native of Hampshire, which he celebrates in his poetry (see #186). Left Oxford without a degree and joined the Inns of Court. Imprisoned for libel in 1614 following Abuses Stript and Whipt, but later enjoyed court favours. Took the parliamentary side in the Civil War and saw active service. Published a parliamentarian newspaper borrowing a royalist name, Mercurius rusticus. Identified with radical groups like the Levellers, and was imprisoned in 1645; but after Charles



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I’s execution, was appointed a trustee to value and dispose of royal goods and property. Gained further office under the Protectorate, but was gradually estranged from Cromwell. Imprisoned after the Restoration, but continued pamphleteering during and after confinement. Began his prolific writing career with a sonnet sequence mourning the death of Prince Henry (1612). Made his mark with the satirical Abuses Stript and Whipt (1613), the satirical eclogues of The Shepherd’s Hunting (1615), and the philosophic love-narrative Fidelia (1615). Also made new versions of psalms and hymns, culminating in The Hymns and Songs of the Church (1623). James I granted Wither a patent allowing copyright in this work for 51 years, with authority to bind it with every copy of the metrical psalter. The resultant legal issues later caused much conflict with the Stationers’ Company, making it hard for him to publish his work. Of the flow of later titles that appeared nonetheless, the most notable are Wither’s Motto (1621), whose satire again landed its author in prison; Fair-Virtue, the Mistress of Philarete (1622); Britain’s Remembrancer (1628); A Collection of Emblems (1635); and Vox pacifica (1645), a topical series of sonnets. (#185 to #188) Wootton (Wotton), John (fl.1579), half-brother of Sir Henry Wotton according to Egerton Brydges, 1812 editor of England’s Helicon. Described by Isaak Walton as ‘a gentleman excellently accomplished both by learning and travel … knighted by Queen Elizabeth’. He died young. Perhaps the John Wotton charged for assault in 1579 along with the courtier Henry Noel. (#135) Wroth (née Sidney), Lady Mary (?1587–1651/1653), Daughter of Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, and niece to Philip Sidney and Mary Herbert, Countess of Pembroke. Carefully educated at home. Married Sir Robert Wroth (see #192). Friend and patron of many writers including Ben Jonson, William Drummond, George Chapman, John Davies of Hereford and George Wither. Lost her husband in 1614 and infant son in 1616. Said to have had two children by a liaison with her cousin William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke. In 1621, published the pastoral romance The Countess of Montgomery’s Urania (the first romance written by an Englishwoman) with a continuation in manuscript (now in the Newberry Library, Chicago). It carries much hidden court allusion and an incipient autobiographical presence. Wroth was also the first Englishwoman to author a sonnet sequence, ‘Pamphilia to Amphilanthus’: first circulated in manuscript,

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then ­incorporated as a separate item at the end of Urania. (The lovers are characters in the romance.) Her play Love’s Victory, extant in two holographs, was first published in 1988. (#209 to #211) Yong, Bartholomew (1560–1612), translator of Montemayor’s Diana. From a Catholic but outwardly conformist family. Went to the Inns of Court, and made his translation of Montemayor’s Diana (with Perez’s and Gil Polo’s continuations) around that time (c.1582–83), though it was not published until 1598. Other translations include (from the Italian) Stefano Guazzo’s Civil Conversation (1586) and Boccaccio’s Fiametta (1587). (#22 to #24) Zanchi, Basilio (1501–58), humanist scholar and poet. Born Pietro Zanchi, hence a member of the Roman Academy under the name Petreius Zanchus. Became a canon of the Catholic church, but left this position and took the name Basilio. Moved between many Italian cities. Perhaps a librarian at the Vatican, but imprisoned for his Protestant views and disobedience to the Pope. He died in prison. Published a volume of biblical commentary, a Latin lexicon, four volumes of short poems and the long De horto Sophiae (The Garden of Truth, 1540), expounding Catholic doctrine. (#21)



Analytical indices

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Analytical indices

(A) Index of genres An entry in square brackets indicates approximation to the genre. Poem number followed where appropriate by line number. Ballad 116(B); 147; 148; 149; 150 (more a lyric); 151; 152; 153; 154; 155; 156; 157; 158; 159; 238; 259 Biblical narrative and paraphrase (see also Psalms) 178; 202; 231; 249; 255/67–81 Chorography 163; 186/1–88; [190/89–154]; 261 Country-house poem [137]; 191; 192; 234; 237; [244]; [247]; [276] Dedicatory/complimentary poem 174; 271 Dialogue love-dialogue, wooing dialogue 3; 36; 73; 101; 134; 189/47–74; 229; 240(B); 260 other dialogue 1; 6; 19; 26; 28; 40; 41; 67; 139; 145; 205; 208; 241; 242; 246; 250; 262; 268; 273 Drama chorus from 33; 34 song from 93(B); 94; 175; 193; 195/1–10, 55–70; 211; 214; 218 other extract 93; 193; 195; 240; 253 Echo device 91

Eclogues 4; 6; 7; 8; 9; 15; 16; 17; 25; 26; 27; 28; 32; 38; 39; 40; 64; 67; 80; 83; 141; 160; 161; 162; 169; 196; 215; 262; 271 allusive/allegorical 42; 43; 62; 129; 138; 139; 140; 146; 183; 184; 185; 199; 201; 202; 204; 206; 226; 227; 228; 230; 239; 241; 242; 250; 252; 268; 275; 277 amoebean 1; 46; 49; 51; 139; 145; 166; 169/137–78; 202; 219; 227/9–38 from eclogue series 38; 40; 41; 57; 58; 59; 83 piscatory 219 Elegy (for the dead) or other mourning-poem 5; 43; 52; 57; 58; 138; 147; 148; 152; 199; 201; 230; 252; 259; 272; 277 Emblem/motto at close 1; 2; 38; 40; 41; 141; 169 Epigram 13; 21; 130; 143; 170; 248 Epistles: see Letters Epode (after Horace) 12; 225; 232 Eulogy 6; 27; 38; 63; 64; 65; 130; 137; 138; 139; 146 Fable 83/31ff.; 206/145–220

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Folk song or imitation 24; 29; 30 (See also ‘Song’) Georgic 10; 11 Hymn to pastoral/classical gods 175; 193 Hymn (Christian) 187; 188 Idyll (Theocritus) 1; 2; 3; 4 Letter or verse epistle [13]; 59; [109]; 164/37–84; [220]; 223; 245; 247 Lyric (see also Song) 67; 78; 84; 85; 86; 89; 90; 91; 101; 107; 108; 112; 113; 114; 115; 116; 117; 118; 119; 120; 123; 124; 126; 127; 128; 134; 135; 136; 150; 170; 171; 179; 209; 216; 222; 229; 235; 236; 243; 246; 248; 251; 260; 263; 272; 273; 274; 276 Mythological tale 61; 66; 92; 94 Narrative 31; 90; 164; 210 ‘Nymphal’ 166; 167 Ode or ode-like form 22; 71; 77; 90; 91 (canzon); 102; 146; 217; 224; 231 Pageant/entertainment/celebration 46; 63; 65; 66; 137; 182 Pastourelle 30 Prefatory poem 174, 271 Prose narrative, verse from 22; 23; 24; 47; 48; 49; 50; 51; 52; 63; 71; 72; 73; 74; 75; 76; 77; 79; 80; 99; 105; 131; 144; 176; 210; 221

Prose treatise, verse from 14; 35 Psalm 87; 111 Quantitative verse 6; 50; 61; 100; 106 Riddle 49/141ff.; 125 Sestina (double) 51 Song embedded in eclogue 38/37ff.; 83/31ff.; 100; 160/127ff., 165ff.; 161/123ff.; 162/85ff., 145ff., 193ff.; 164/165ff.; 168/33ff.; 169/137ff.; 183/19ff.; 189/47–74, 235–62 (in verse narrative); 207; 208; 215/16–43, 64–80 (verses); 239/229–302 Song, other (see also Folk song, Lyric) 69; 70; 133; 144; 170; 172; 173; 194; 205; 241; 242; 254; 264; 265; 267; 269; 270 Sonnet 81; 82; 97; 98; 103; 104; 109; 110; 125; 126; [176]; 181; 197; 198 Translation 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11; 12; 13; 14; 15; 16; 17; 20; 21; 22; 23; 24; 33; 34; 35; 36; 37; 57; 59; 170; 171; 176; 177; 203 Verse narrative, extract from 44; 45; 55; 56; 92; 95; 96; 100; 121; 122; 142; 168; 186; 189; 190; 206 Verse treatise, extract from 249 Wooing-speech 2; 7; 84; 86; 95; 99; 116/21–8; 120; 126; 154; 155/25–48; 169/33–112, 137–78; 171; 216; 276

(B) Analytical index of themes Poem number followed where appropriate by line number. The span of themes and issues treated in these poems is wide-ranging and complex. It seemed best to present them analytically rather than in a single alphabetical list, so that related issues might appear together as much as possible. The first group of general themes and motifs is followed by eight others:



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  Shepherds’ lives   Court and country, simple and complex man  Love  Nature   Golden Age/Paradise  Allegory/allusion/didacticism   Myth and the supernatural   Religious and moral themes General themes and motifs Range of subjects in pastoral 25/129–36 ‘Virgilian cycle’: pastoral to epic 25/27–30, 49–76 Pastoral decorum: humble style 25/80–88, 128; 40/65–80; 64/13; 215/64–72; 220/9–16; 243/1–10 Higher themes (paulo maiora) 8; 42/236–47; 64/30–33, 150–2; 161/17–60; 221(B)/8–21; 221(C)/50–56; 230/87 higher wisdom, above pastoral 10/29–42, 49–54; 183/33–68 Praise of shepherds: their venerable lineage: famous shepherds in myth and history 17/39–56; 41/127–52; 100/15–40; 188/1–4; 213(A); 251/1–4 Types of herdsmen (neatherd, shepherd, goatherd etc.) 1; 41/1–8 Shepherd vs other occupations 56/78–80; 166 shepherd vs ploughman/farmer 17/20–38; 100/5–14 shepherd vs forester/hunter 46; 166/45–98; 246 shepherd vs fisherman 166/115–68; 219 shepherds and sailors 258 shepherd and ‘herdman’ 67 Ploughman 19, 259 Sheep vs goats 41/1–8; 188/53; 202/6

Shepherds’ lives Pastoral/rural content 6/52–9; 10; 44/10–14, 127–234 passim; 54/9–36; 56/82–95; 69; 75; 78; 93(B); 96/1–14, 113–19; 97/8ff.; 160/19–30; 163(B)/172–82; 168/33–60; 185/161–80; 186/173–242; 206/60–106; 208/8–42; 213(A)/7–10; 217/105–8; 221(A)/120–40; 223/21ff.; 225; 247; 248/1–10; 221(C)/22–42; 224; 236/1–49; 247/1–18; 251/31–8; 253/21–2, 43–6; 255/15–24, 52–7; 261/51–64; 270 under beech (cf. Virgil, Eclogue I) 4/7–10; 6/1–5; 12/21–6; 221(A)/127; 274 happy family life 10/97–100; 12/37–46; 29/57–60; 191/89–98; 217/105–12; 221(A)/122–7; 221(C)/37–40; 237/327–48; 247/157–70; 261/59–64 blessedness (cf. Horace, Epode II) 10/55ff; 12; 20/31–5; 69/25; 225; 232; 253/20 gods have favoured country/ shepherd life 7/60–61; 9/17–18; 97/5–6; 204/86–96; 213(A)/1–7; 219/246 Shepherds’ virtue 96/123–6; 186/153–206; 251/1–2; 253/37–54 humility 17/69–72; 41/9–16,

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93–104; 44/127–234 passim; 78/9–16; 93(B)/5–8; 97/8–12; 100/8–10; 160/19–30; 169/67–72; 186/153ff.; 187/33–6; 190/69–80; 206/27–40; 208/29–42; 215/65–70; 220/1–4; 247/11–16; 253/37–54; 274/43–4 Shepherd lore; shepherd wisdom 10/29–42; 160/41–2; 183/33–70; 206/67–78, 225–32; 226/133–60; 232/11–52; 253/19–32 Shepherds’ prosperity 2/34–8; 3/35–6; 7/20–22; 10/3–4, 81–96; 28/83–8; 46/19–21; 55/58–64; 99/13–20; 155/29–36; 194/14–17; 213(A)/67, 86, 126–7; 226/120–21; 252/59–64 contented poverty 10/1–24; 44/116–17; 236/40–42 austere but ample food 12/51–4; 19/1–28 (‘sufficiency’); 153/93–108; 232/53–74; 261/5–10 shepherds’ hospitality 6/79–83, 44/15–23, 100–17, 235–61; 219/284–7 Pleasures of shepherd life 56/82–98; 185/155–82. See also ‘Pastoral/ rural content’ above. Hardships of shepherd life: ‘real’ shepherds and rustics 26/39–80; 28; 55/9–50; 183/72–3; 256 complaint against poverty 28; 254/33–48; 256; 259; 275 Mourning dead shepherd/ shepherdess 5/26–30; 27; 43; 52; 57; 58; 148; 152. See also ‘Elegy’ in Index of genres. Evil among shepherds or in rural life 26/97–104; 28/41–74

Satire/derogatory treatment of shepherds/rustics 21; 264 Discontented/uprooted/wandering shepherd 6; 40/9–16; 141; 167 (satyr) Comic shepherds 21; 49; 73; 79; 206/126–8; 264; 265; 269 Description of shepherd and dress 56/56–64; 71/59–70; 74/17–42; 149/49–54; 153/9–20, 25–8; 161/177–88, 173a–184a; 162/9–16; 207/21–30; 256/36–8; 269/3; 275/53–4 Description of shepherdess & dress 67/39–48; 68/21–36; 71/31–50; 74/43–68; 126/33–8; 161/141–52, 137a–148a; 207/11–20; 267/13–20 Shepherds’ tasks 10/81–96; 11; 12/7–20, 37–46 (countrywoman); 16/129–52 (all working classes); 28/101–16; 57/24–36; 59/10–20; 95/13–38; 122/95–106; 151/88–95 (shepherdess); 166/185–236; 187; 188; 204/173–6; 244 Sheep-farming 163(C)/19–54; 166/185–236; 182 Shepherds’ remedies: curing sheep 41/85–8; 160/31–4 Shepherd as hireling/owner 55/58–64; 115/17–24; 193/67–74; 226/167–70; 254/33–6 Shepherds’ feasts and country delicacies 29/7–12, 25–8, 41–4; 56/59–61; 73/1–4; 95/39–48, 55–6; 62; 113/17–18; 150/24, 39–42; 153/93–108; 155/37–44; 162/41–8; 163(C)/58–60; 166/221–2; 191/51; 253/51–2; 270/33; 275/49–52



Analytical indices

Hunting 12/27–36; 26/143–8; 43/97–168; 44/163–6; 95/19–38; 160/35–6; 163(B)/81–149; 166/45–98; 192/23–36; 193/9–11; 194/20–23; 196/180–5; 228/131–9; 247/25–7; 276/59–70 Fishing 166/115–68; 276/25–8 Shepherds’ festivals/ sports/‘shepherd’s holiday’ 10/101–10; 43/49–50, 91–6; 49/69–71; 53/7–12; 58/100–9; 59/21–60; 67/38; 91; 96/71–84; 106/22–30; 131; 136/25–32; 137; 150; 151/61–8; 154/79–102; 155/13–24; 162; 163(C)/55–62; 164/130ff.; 185/23–4; 189/157–367; 193; 195; 207; 214; 228; 244; 252/110–12; 254; 255/25–7; 275/2 Lady of May 46; 117/26; 228; 239/72–8; 245 maying 117/25–6; 150; 161/154, 150a; 221(A)/8–11; 228/27–42; 256/33; 258/9–10 dances, catalogue of 207/55–62 music 164/133–48 Country sports and games 26/149–54; 43/43–50, 91–6; 136/29–32; 154/15–16; 166/200–1; 228/27–36, 73–8; 245/14–24; 253/53–4 Aristocrat/city-dweller’s country retreat 13; 109; 192/91–106; 216; 217; 223; 232/54–5; 247; 248. See also ‘Country house Poems’ below. Country house poems 191; 192; 234; 237; 244; [245] country house prosperity 191/19–44 country house hospitality

299

191/57–88; 192/47–60; 234; 244/26–44; 245 country house festivities 137; 192/48–60; 244; 245 the lord’s family 191/83–98 Court and country, simple and complex man Pastoral/country vs court/city 16; 20/44–5 contrast with courtly disquiet, corruption, opulence, etc 10/5–16, 57–80; 12/3–6, 47–54; 14/6–9; 19/87–98; 20/44–5; 26/131–98; 34/9–12; 42/280–307; 44/127–234 passim; 50/15–28; 54; 56/82–95; 67/53–6; 69; 75; 76; 78; 93(A)/1–12; 93(B); 96/85–91, 97/8–12; 113/25–36; 122; 131/107–10; 160/19–30; 162/25–8; 163(B)/172ff.; 163(D)/9–14; 167/137–48; 168/43–4; 185/161–2; 186/207–252; 192/1–16; 208/29–42; 209/1–8; 217/81–108; 221(A)/134–40; 221(C)/8–21; 223; 224; 225; 232/1–12; 236/1–49; 237/321–6; 243/17–26; 245/1–10; 248; 253/45–52; 255/22–4, 52–7, 64–9; 256; 274/33–68 such contrast as religious/moral allegory 251 contrast between shepherds’ misery and courtiers’ prosperity 26/19–30, 43–6, 119–20, 165–82 disillusioned courtier turned shepherd 44/172–89; 76; 78/37–44; 163(B)/163–5 (hermit) shepherd’s disillusionment with court 42/280ff.

300

A companion to pastoral poetry

shepherd’s wonder at city/court 6/20–26; 42/166–203 Peace: contrast to war 14/16–22; 51/63–4; 146/67–78; 169/1–5; 192/67–72; 217/33–48; 218/57–72; 223; 261/51ff. Class differences 16; 19; 26/19–30; 28/35–40; 183/74–5; 204/83–4; 254/33–48 Criticism of/protest against the rich 19/129–45; 26/19–30, 131–82; 28/35–40, 83–96; 259/57–63 Higher orders reliant on shepherd/ rustic 19/1–60 King and shepherd 153 Courtier among shepherds 42/60–97; 44; 45; 92 Royal/aristocratic heroine as shepherdess 44; 56; 67; 204/83–4; 158/116–35 Shepherdess/country lass as ideal: contrast with court ladies 67/41–52; 68; 93(A)/1–12; 148; 151; 185/167–8; 186/207–10; 228/83–92; 247/129–48; 267/33–4 Royal/aristocratic man as shepherd 44; 45; 56; 166/233–4; 188/3–4; 216; 256/30–32; 257 Hermit 163(B)/152–87; 255/15 Love (see also ‘Nature’ below.) Nature of love 18/17–24; 80; 145; 160/91–204, 127a–200a; 208; 209; 212/25–36 Purer love among shepherds 217/105–12; 228/78–92; 253/37–40; 261/59–64 Transience of love 85 Same-sex love 7; 95; 97; 98; 204 Infatuation in love 15/67–94, 215–26; 38/25–8, 154–9; 67/85–120; 80/21–8; 210/33–56, 113–16

Advice to besotted lover: dialogue with/discourse of older/ wiser shepherd 67; 77; 80; 160; 204 Evil of love; cruelty or evil in women 15/211–14; 31/49–56; 76/67–72; 77; 80/21–44, 105–32; 96/90–112; 102/17–22; 106/53ff.; 122/17–20, 45–8; 123; 138/52–3; 145; 160/115–50, 127a–150a; 179/29–52; 196/67–108; 269/35–8 Freedom from love 208 General situations/expressions of love 23; 24; 37; 43/71ff.; 47; 48; 50; 51; 53/1–18; 66; 67; 71; 72; 79; 81; 82; 98; 112; 114; 115; 116; 118; 119; 121; 124; 135; 149; 150; 157; 162/85–132, 145–72, 193–234; 196; 197; 209; 210; 219; 220; 238; 263; 265; 277/5–26 General love-narrative 18; 31; 56; 60; 140; 164; 210; 238 Changing affections 18; 31; 40; 123; 138/52–3; 205; 254/57–64; 260 Courtier wooing/seducing shepherdess 30; 44/25–72, 262–88; 158; 173 Gods/royalty/noblemen in love with shepherd(esse)s 61; 66; 67/59–68; 97/5–6; 106/11; 176/17–28; 204/85–96 The Amyntas story 57; 58; 59; 60; 96/101; 106/91 Wooing speech, invitation to love 2; 7; 30; 73; 84; 86; 95; 97; 99; 101; 116/21–8; 117/9–18; 120; 126; 154; 155/25–48; 169/33–112, 137–78; 171; 210/65–80, 133–52; 216; 236/64–70; 270/30–44; 276



Analytical indices

Shepherdess’s love-speeches 29; 85; 149; 159; 161/201ff., 197ff.; 164/37–84 (letter); 197; 263/31–60 Love-dialogue 3; 30; 36; 73; 101; 117; 134; 189/47–74; 210/163–272; 229; 240(B); 260 Asking for or exchanging kisses 24; 71/87–91; 95/79–84; 117/13–15, 23–4; 126; 127; 157/55–66; 229/13–14 Love-letter 59 ‘Love’s feast’ 53/9 Other courtship and love-exchanges 40/41–6; 56/54–98; 59; 71/73–102; 72/19–30, 79; 101; 107; 117; 126; 127; 131/29–58; 154/25–36, 79–150; 157; 159; 161/123–242, 120a–238a; 207/63–110; 265 Shepherds’ love-gifts 2/40–42, 56–9; 7/40–55; 40/43–4; 49/81–6; 59/25–38, 45; 60/7–8; 71/95–8; 84/9–20; 85/13–18; 95/15–18, 49–54, 64–75; 98/8–11; 106/53–6; 113/21–4; 134/11–30; 149/33–8; 189/265–355; 216/33–6; 219/223–34; 265/19–20; 269/32–4; 270/32–3 Lover’s complaint; unhappiness/ frustration in love 31; 32; 38; 40; 47; 48; 51; 67; 70; 80; 81; 89; 92; 102; 103; 104; 106; 108; 123; 128; 141; 142; 155; 169; 176; 177; 179; 196/43–108; 204; 205; 210/90–112, 133–52, 273–96; 211; 233; 242; 254/17–40; 260; 262; 263; 268; 269 Women’s complaint against men 85; 92; 145; 149/5–8; 159/96–116; 210/133–52; 263/31–60

301

Love frustrated by poverty 254/33–48; 260; 262/31–42; 268/53–60 Absence of beloved 51/61–72; 164; 263/1–30 Lover addresses his flocks 23/25–37; 31/61–4; 32/1–2, 53–60; 57/13–49; 102/38–40; 103; 169/25–32; 210/90–104 Flocks pine in sympathy with shepherd, mourn the dead etc. 57/13–49; 67/97–104; 108/1–2, 17–24, 27; 120/5–8; 129/31–48; 138/28–30, 155, 188–90; 141/10–18; 152/17–20; 169/17–32, 41–2; 196/55–8; 212/3–6 Dying for love 9; 31; 32; 58; 70/7; 81/9; 106/107–9; 147/17–20; 179; 269/14ff. Lament for dead beloved 57; 58; 148; 152 Willow wreath for despair or mourning in love 31/40; 93(A)/13–15; 123/87–8; 148/2, 74; 205; 210/65–76; 269/4 Nature Description of Arcadia 105, 106/100–1 Beautiful landscape or setting, springtime scene etc. 10/17–22; 12/21–6; 45/1–45; 50; 63/1–8; 105; 106/100–2; 107/1–6; 118; 122/115–18, 131–4; 132/11–20; 136; 146; 154; 160/7–16; 165; 178/1–24; 186/21–88; 189/1–28; 206/107–20, 185–98; 216/9–16; 218/1–36; 224/13–28; 231/10ff.; 232/75–92; 233; 237/243–84; 247; 255/4–14, 28–48; 276; 277/7–22. See also ‘Locus amoenus’ below.

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Locus amoenus 2/45–8; 20; 22/16–22; 40/1–8; 45/1–45; 71/1–30; 80/5–6; 86/3–32; 99/37–45; 154/7–10; 171; 189/179–98; 196/1–8; 206/107–16, 185–98; 211; 224/25–6; 252/43–56; 253/1–12 Other nature-description 163(A)/8–22; 163(C)/7–26; 163(D)/3–8; 166/75–91; 186/1–88; 203; 255; 266 Landscape (artistically formalized) 163; 186/1–82; 235; 237/181–226; 258; 266 Rugged nature as retreat 54 Solitude in nature 50; 203; 274/29–32 Landscape moralized 237/143–62; 252/73–82; 253 Nature as a spiritual or contemplative power; nature mysticism 232/37–46; 255 Beloved’s presence affects/ embellishes landscape 1/41–8; 50/29–42; 57/59–67; 114/1–20; 121/45–76; 136; 162/85–132, 149–64, 205–10; 164/182–280 passim; 194/36–9; 196/127–32, 145–50; 216/29–32; 231/10–14; 237/285–316; 242/11–16, 23–8; 276/39–40, 73–80 Nature responds to poet’s/lover’s happiness 146; 157/62–7; 277/3–12 Nature affected by poet’s unhappy love 102/1–30; 108/25–6; 121/76–82; 142; 196/59–60 Frustrated lover retreats to nature 51; 106/110–22; 159/65–8; 196/52–4 Contrast between happy nature and unhappy shepherd 141/7–12, 181–228; 215/16–43; 232/37–48; 233

Address to nature; pathetic fallacy 5/1–19, 32–5; 23/11–13; 38/73–95; 39/33–44; 50; 51; 52/4–30; 81; 82; 102/1–30; 141; 179/9–16; 211; 215/15ff. Nature mourns with poet or at general calamity 5/23–4, 32–5; 9/12–14; 52/1–30; 57/13–49; 129/97–108; 138/31–2, 74–9, 155–67; 152/17–21; 199/23–31; 212/7–18; 230/39–43; 252/119–50; 263/25–30 Nature responds to birth of Christ 249/79–88 Animals willingly yield/sacrifice themselves 91/57–63; 164/ 250–57; 191/27–38; 234/23–8 Catalogue of flowers 7/45–50; 38/136–44; 39/87–94; 155/73–80; 161/155–7, 151a–3a; 162/15–24 (language of flowers); 165/21–30; 171/6–7; 186/44–50; 206/191–8; 217/119–25; 228/39–41; 230/141–51; 232/37–44; 237/166–72, 285–92 Catalogue of fruits 191/39–44; 237/285–318 Catalogue of birds 95/15–36; 118/13–16; 146/5–10; 154/2–6; 163(B)/39–70; 165/15–20; 189/3–22; 217/113–18; 237/117–25; 247/38–90; 276/59–70 Catalogue of fish 247/101–10 Medicinal herbs 91; 63(B)/182–222 Destruction of forests and nature 163(B); 163(D)/30–54; 167/58–124 Golden Age/Paradise Golden Age 8; 10/115–16; 12/2; 14; 33; 34; 65/27–36; 161/0.1,



Analytical indices

65–116, 61a–112a; 174/21–30; 190/138; 192/50, 63–4; 274/5–8, 13–22 as reign of Saturn 8/5; 10/116; 192/50 eternal spring 33/7–11; 139/37–42; 165/9–16, 37–44, 73–88; 274/5–24 spontaneous crops 8/20–24, 34–6, 47–8; 33/3–6; 105/24; 231/45–8 no navigation 8/37–46; 14/13–16; 33/12–13; 34/7–8; 161/93–6, 89a–92a wool grows ready-dyed 8/50–54 Silver/Iron ages 221(A)/64–72 Other early pastoral times 113 Early pastoral times as sexually chaste 16/24–42; 34/17–26; 113/9–16; 228/91–2 as innocently promiscuous 33/14–68 Paradise/Earthly Paradise/Eden 40/10; 165 (Elizium); 166; 167; 184/194; 206/117; 231; 237/93, 142, 249–58, 271, 329–34; 239/146–50; 255/67–82 Prelapsarian/redeemed state 40/10; 231/41–2; 237/253–8, 329–32; 255/47 Allegory/allusion/didacticism Theory of allegorical pastoral 25/43–6, 83–102; 83/89–94; 213(A)/34–8 Allegory and allusion 27; 42; 43; 213(A)/33–8 personal (poet’s or others’) 4; 6; 42; 141; 142; 147; 164; 178/49–64; 183; 184; 185; 186; 197; 198; 199; 201; 206; 215; 219; 220; 221(A); 226; 238(?); 252; 262; 268; 273; 275 philosophical 132; 186; 255/19–21

303

moral/religious 186; 187; 188; 190/205–22; 206/145–214; 222; 257/13–24 political/historical 9, 38/22–153; 55; 56; 62; 64; 129; 130; 141; 142; 143; 146/31–54; 147; 163(A)/1–6; 167; 185; 212; 217; 239; 241; 242; 261/11–84; 271. See also next entry.   execution of Charles I 246; 250; 259; 272; 277 theological 227 ecclesiastical 41; 62; 202; 227; 228; 230/109–31; 239 academic 178/60–64; 206; 219; 221(A); 226/129–76; 230/23–36, 103–7 praise of rulers/patrons/ eminent persons 4/11–16; 6/6–10; 8/10–11; 27; 41/213–230; 42/60–67; 43; 64; 91; 129; 137; 138; 146; 169/65–88; 191; 192; 193; 194; 228/169–82; 261/65–84. See also next entry.   praise of Queen Elizabeth 38/33–153; 39; 42/40–51, 88–93, 135–65, 204–67; 45/208–16; 46; 55; 63; 65; 66; 91/52–76; 130; 139; Satire 122/1–72; 143; 164/348–79; 167/109–20, 137–48; 185; 190/9–68, 211–30; 213(B); 221(A)/99–105 Complaint against the times 28/61–70; 34/27–36; 41/169–206; 183/73–6; 184; 185; 190/9–68; 192/67–90; 206/32–48; 206/247–68; 221(A)/71–91; 228/1–22; 238/1–40, 197–204; 239; 259; 274; 275 Moral themes in pastoral 25/95–9, 83; 184; 186; 187; 188

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Local history 163(A), 191/19–26 Shepherd(ess) as ruler 38/33–153; 52/1, 128; 65; 91/48–76; 96/22–63; 118; 130; 132/1–8; 146/92–6; 147; 213(A)/164; 166/75, 93–4 (forester), 213–14; 193/13–15; 194/43; 213(A)/164; 236/49ff.; 241/44; 250/25ff.; 253/13–15; 256/31; 272 Shepherd(ess) as courtier 43/25–96; 52; 96/120; 141; 142; 143; 256/32; 257 as ‘leader of the flock’ (shepherd? bell-wether?) 129/55–66 Shepherd as country lord 137 Shepherd as warrior 43/97–168; 64; 96/122; 218/57–72 Shepherd as scholar; academic allegory 62; 96/121; 178/61; 206; 219(?), 219/282; 230/23ff., 64ff. Shepherd as poet 28; 38; 40/33–96; 77/16; 80; 138/50; 183; 184; 186/97–268; 215/44–64; 221(A)/1–63; 252/51–66; 268/79–108 shepherd-singer affecting nature: Orpheus figure 5/47–50; 42/19–31; 91/17–20; 138/173–5; 201/6–16; 202/187–92; [214/15]; 226/33–4; 230/42–4 ‘poets’ paradise’ 165/101–4 master shepherd/poet 40/81–2, 226 ‘poet-shepherd-king’ (David) 221(C)/23 shepherd designates ‘heir’ in singing 7/36–9; 168/61–84; 226/11ff. advice by fellow poet/shepherd 184; 185; 204; 205 rivalry/comparison bet. shepherds and singing gods 5/56–7; 8/69–70 earlier pastoral poets 25

poets of old generally 5/72–5; 25/1–18; 77; 161/41–8, 5a–8a; 190/116–38; 206/225–32 decline in poetry 161/61–4, 1a–60a frustrated in love, hence lacking inspiration 40/46–8, 97–112; 45/122; 138/43–53; 204/15–22, 195–202 breaks/throws away pipe in frustration/grief 38/14–15; 138/27, 85, 197; 141/19; 152/23; 226/9–10; 228/171; 238/63; 263/13–15; 269/11 poetry impaired by poverty and neglect 138/43–53; 184/49–96; 185/105–182; 221(A)/71–98; 226 poets, contemporary/community 5/87–104; 96/99–102, 164; 183; 184; 185; 219; 226 Song-contests 1; 4 pledging stakes 1/13–24; 4/1–6; 49/29–48 contest ends in decisive judgment 1/82–7 honours divided 219/268–83 Other rewards for telling a tale 15/27–48 Shepherd as priest 27; 41; 88; 190/53–4; 213(A)/164; 230/113–29; 238; 239 their corruption and neglect of duties 28/67–8; 41/169–204; 65/21–6; 190/53–4; 227/39–40; 230/113–31; 239/9–26 Shepherd as devotee or worshipper 222/3ff. Myth and the supernatural Metamorphosis 43/199–216; 49/57–62; 58/57–75; 61; 66; 94; 131/2–8; 219/66–7, 165, 206–10; 220/25–8



Analytical indices

Worship of pastoral gods 175; 195/22ff.; 193; 194. See also ‘Shepherds’ Festivals’ above. Muses, Graces, wood-gods, nymphs, fairies See Index of mythological names and allusions. Making of pan-pipe/syrinx 61/30–39; 94/25–30; 131/1–8 Hyacinth: marks of mourning 5/5–6; 52/29; 196/156 Dreams 119 Pan as God/Christ 41/49; 160/24; 239/67, 151; 227; 239/67, 151–4; 262/1; 268/26(?); 271/36 Pan as monarch 146/92, 193; 185/42; 194; 212/17ff.; 226/37–52; 228/97; 241(A)/42; 241(B)/43; 246; 250; 268/26; 271/36; 275/5–32; 277/28–40

305

Religious and moral themes (See also ‘Allegory/allusion/didacticism’ > ‘moral/religious’ above.) God/Christ as shepherd 17/69; 35; 87; 110; 111; 130/6; 133/33; 178/28–32; 180; 181; 187/17; 188/45; 194/46–66; 202/85–6; 213(A)/23, 149–62; 213(B)/196; 221(A)/141–54; 221(A)/141–8, 221(C)/43–9; 249/126; 251/45 Lamb of God 35/69–76; 41/53–6; 249/126; 251/48–50 Nativity shepherds 17/57–68; 100/43–7; 133; 188/9–12; 213(A)/129–32; [241]; 249; 251 Religious themes vision, exaltation 17; 200; 237/57–76 homily 35 moral reading of shepherd’s tasks 187; 188 religious satire 65/21–8; 239 narrative 178, 180 Contemplation in/of nature 50/1–11; 223/23–54; 232/11–52; 253/19–32; 255/49ff.

(C) Pastoral and other fictional names Pastoral names of real persons are listed below. Their actual names are listed under ‘Historical Names’. Poem number followed where appropriate by line number. Speech-headings are cited only at the point of first occurrence. Aegon 59/25 (Egon); 98/12; 226/55 Aglaia 121/9ff.; 122/75 ff. Aglaura 42/204 Alcon 196/183; 199/2ff. Alcydon/Alcidon 201/65; 203/ 141 Alexis 7/1ff.; 185/0, 1ff.; 189/165; 197/1ff.; 198/1ff.; 201/28; 227/6ff., 82 Alope 93(B) /19

Alpheus 12/61 Alphus 15/1ff.; 17/1ff. Amargana 136/0, 5ff. Amarillis/Amaryllis 4 (Virgil)/10 (Amaryll); 6/5, 31, 37; 7/15ff.; 58/96; 70/1; 106/50ff.; 123/55ff. (Amarill); 143/12; 145/0, 5ff.; 157/0, 3ff.; 196/11ff.; 226/57ff.; 227/75; 230/67; 241/3ff.; 242/8ff.; 271/44

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Amintas/Amyntas 7/35ff.; 9/37ff.; 36/2ff.; 57/1ff.; 58/2ff.; 59/2ff.; 60/2ff.; 83/2ff.; 96/101; 106/91; 123/2ff.; 152/38; 154/31, 94; 157/51; 169/132ff.; 199/102; 227/79; 233/21; 241/1ff.; 263/2ff., 16 Amphrisa 93(A)/0 Anander 168/84ff. Anarchus 239/0, 217ff. Anbrie 162/67 Arion 202/192 Arodeame 210/298 Ascopart (Ascleparte) 62/22 Astraea 139; 141 Astrophel 43/10ff.; 91/4ff.; 96/100ff.; 114/0 Atlanta 154/100 Batte 160/0, 1ff.; 162/77ff. Bavius 221/78; 226/42 Bembus 55/9ff. Betty/Bess 254/30, 67 Bevis 62/21 Bilkin 253/0 Bion 5/1ff. Bonnyboots 204/11ff. Borrill 160/0, 1ff. Calidore 44/6ff.; 45/109ff. Caridon 59/41 Carill[i]o 24/2 Carimell 204/68ff. Carmela 73/1ff. Cassemen 161/124ff., 120a Caucus 131/24 Chanticleer 161/163, 159a Chlorin 236/64 Chloris/Cloris 38/122; 103/13; 104/1ff.; 131/55; 146/1; 157/51; 196/91; 199/66; 233/21; 260/5ff.; 262/3; 263/1ff. Chores 39/76 Cilrana 154/81 Claia 167/21ff.

Claius (Clayes) 154/26 Clarida 131/17 Clitias 59/35 Cloden 131/53 Clora 71/47; 271/45 Clorinda 43/229 Cloris: see Chloris Clotten 273/1ff. Codrus 28/1ff.; 262/1ff. Coladine 131/53 Colin (Clout) 38/0, 21ff.; 40/0, 1ff.; 42/16ff.; 45/103ff.; 55/23 (Colon); 83/0; 91/48; 146/1ff., 106; 96/99; 138/41, 85, 135, 204; 156/9ff.; 157/0, 9ff.; 161/232, 228a; 164/145; 168/61ff.; 190/170ff.; 220/10ff.; 221/85; 265/1ff.; 96/99; 138/41ff.; 228/1ff. (Collen) Colliden 169/1ff. Comma 55/23 Corbilus 167/1ff. Corima 77/51 Corin 31/0, 5ff., 57, 93; 104/3ff. Corina 70/4 Cornix 16/3ff.; 26/1ff.; 27/65ff. Coridon/Corydon 7/1ff.; 26/1ff.; 27/1ff.; 42/10; 44/50, 99; 59/41(Caridon); 71/56ff.; 74/9, 56; 77/28; 79/0; 80/1ff.; 89/5ff.; 107/7ff.; 108/35; 112/3ff.; 114/0, 36; 115/3ff.; 116/0, 24; 117/0, 6ff.; 118/9 (Choridon); 120/0, 33; 131/55; 134/0, 1ff.; 147/56.1; 149/0, 3ff.; 154/32, 84; 157/53; 159/83; 196/178ff.; 206/78ff.; 208/4ff.; 220/20; 226/168ff.; 227/1ff.; 250/1ff.; 260/11; 268/0, 1ff.; 275/0, 1ff.; 277/0, 1ff. Cosma 49/10ff., 38, 79ff.; 132/20ff. Cuddy 42/166ff.; 138/55, 192ff.; 205/5ff. Curan 56/19ff.



Analytical indices

Cusse 162/66 Cut (dog) 269/43 Cuttie 183/1ff.; 185/241 Cynthia (Synthia) 126/43 Cytheris 9/0 Daffadil 162/82ff. Damian 83/1ff. Damoetas/Dametas 7/36ff.; 32/4ff.; 98/12; 106/26; 135/0; 230/ 36 Damon 37/3; 78/3; 82/16; 100/0; 196/1ff.; 198/1ff.; 199/5ff.; 201/0, 5ff.; 226/2ff.; 250/25ff.; 252/0, 1ff.; 262/1ff.; 271/1ff. (Daman); 272/1 Daniel 155/21 Daphne 1/43, 72; 36/1ff.; 58/27; 66/0; 67/9ff.; 68/31; 106/41–2; 145/19; 148/118; 202/131 Daphnis 1, 0/1ff.; 3, 0/1ff.; 7/27; 9/0; 135/31ff.; 196/175; 219/0, 16ff.; 227/5; 228/170ff.; 252/0, 24ff. Diana 22/0; 23/0 Dick 153/9; 155/19; 254/1ff. Dickeye 204/1ff. Dicus 49/27 Doll 155/89ff. Dorcas 49/8ff. Doricles 206/13ff.; 208/2ff. Doridon 189/27ff. Dorilus 164/1ff. Doris 202/124ff. Doron 72/0; 73/1ff. Dorus 197/8; 271/1ff. Dory 189/127 Dowsabell 161/0.4, 126ff. Driades 59/30 Driope 146/1 Duddy 189/164 Dulcina 149/0, 5ff.; 159/1ff. Dymnus 206/40ff.; 208/3ff. Eclecta 178/54ff. Eglantine 131/54

Egliset 178/41 Egon: see Aegon Eliza 38/34ff.; 39/9ff.; 91/49ff. Epizenes 55/51 Era 37/16 Ergasto 83/1ff. Erycine 197 Espilus 46/1ff. Eubulus 141/1ff. Faustulus 59/41 Faustus 16 Felicia 167/65ff. Felisa 106/30 Ferin 131/54 Fida 189/47ff. Flaccus 232/1ff. Flora 196/103ff./ 202/27ff. Fusca 220/5ff. Galatea 5/31; 106/39; 226/58.ff./ 227/4; 268/63ff. Galbula 17/1ff. Ganymede 97/1; 98/4ff. Gemma 221(A)/38 Gill 164/139; 207/35; 259/7 Gillian 153/0, 87ff. Glaucus 219/217ff. Glicery 59/37 Gorbo 161/0, 17ff.; 162/79ff. Gouldy-Locks 162/64 Guerim 215/9ff. Halcius 166/111ff. Harpelus 31/0, 3ff.; 179/1ff. (Harpalus) Hay 240(A)/4ff. Henn 240(A)/1ff. Hermes 202/0.3, 6ff. Hobbinoll 38/0, 1ff.; 40/0, 1ff.; 42/15ff.; 143/1; 189/164 Hyalus 106/4 Hylas 252/65 Hylax (dog) 202/138 Idea 162/179 Idmon 199/4ff.

307

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Innocence 240B Iolas 7/57 Isenbras 161/125 Jack 254/1ff.; 259/0, 7ff.; 212/0, 6ff. Janus 15/1ff. Jeffrey 62/1 Joan 161/245, 241a; 239/298; 254/27; 256/21; 269/23 (Jone) Kala 21/1; 196/141 Kate 207/38; 269/24 Kit 207/38 Klaius 51/7ff. Lalus 49/14ff. Lampur (dog) 1/65 Laurinella 169/8ff. Lettice 162/65 Leuca 49/76ff. Lightfoot (dog) 270/19 Linus 206/31ff.; 208/6; 221/75ff. Lucasia 273/0,1ff. Luciscus 232/54 Lycanthe (dog) 252/170 Lycaon 202/0.1, 6ff. Lycidas/Licidas 5/98; 106/27ff.; 230/8ff. Lycisca (dog) 57/33 Lycoris/Licoris 9/0, 2, 42; 227/81 Lysis 201/18ff. Makyne 18/3ff. Malkin 173/7 Marina 207/1ff. Mary 254/28 Meg 254/26 Melampo (dog) 266/36 Melanthus 166/177ff. Meleager (Meliager) 154/99 Melibeus 4/1; 6/0, 1ff.; 44/100 (Melibœe); 59/34; 268/54 (Melibe) Menalcas/Menalchas 1; 3/48; 7/14ff.; 9/20; 28/1ff. (Minalcas); 40/0, 4, 102ff.; 47/6; 49/15; 53/2ff.; 59/38; 74/41; 76/8ff.; 77/19;

129/3ff.; 152/38 (Menalchus); 154/31, 82; 241/7ff.; 252/0, 1ff. Mersa 99/1ff. Milo 1/47ff. Mira 194/18ff.; 219/16, 175ff., 227; 268/61 Mirrha 53/3 Mirtillo 241/1ff.; 242/0, 23ff. Moeris 196/1ff. Moevius 221/79; 226/43ff. Molorchus 97/13 Montanus 80/0, 9ff.; 242/0, 1ff. (Montano) Mopsa 265/15ff. Mopsus 21/1; 59/37; 207/1ff. Morrell 41/1ff. Motto 161/1ff.; 162/137ff. Muridella 168/84ff. Musella 211 Myrtil 220/13ff. Naiis 7/46 (Nais); 167/1ff. Neera 230/69 Nell 254/11ff.; 269/24 Nemincini 232/55 Nicias 2/0, 1ff. Nico 49/1ff. Nilkin 189/164 Nisa 252/3 Nomaea 3/45 Olcon 164/368 Palinode 41/181; 64 Paloemon 106/26; 268/64ff. Parnell 162/65 Parthenophe 91/29ff. Parthenophill 91/1ff. Pas 49/1ff. Pastora 131/29; 238/3ff.; 271/46 Pastorella 44/45ff.; 45/2ff. Pegg 228/38 Perigot 189/166; 268/24ff.; 271/44 (Perrigot) Perin 138/0, 1ff. Perkin 162/137ff.



Analytical indices

Persiu(s?) 240(B) Peter, Sir 26/88 Philarchus 239/1ff. Philarete 186/94ff. Philemon 95/52 Philena 179/37ff. Philisses 211 Phillida 114/0, 35; 116(B)/9; 31/1ff. (Phylida); 117/0, 6ff.; 119/15; 134/0, 1ff.; 152/5ff.; 155/0, 12ff.; 162/64; 270/30 Phillis/Phyllis 9/37ff.; 57/20ff.; 58/1ff.; 59/1ff.; 60/1ff.; 71/32ff.; 74/57; 77/2ff.; 81/4ff.; 82/16; 89/2ff.; 106/40; 107/7ff.; 112/10ff.; 115/1ff.; 116/0, 9ff.; 117/6ff.; 118/20; 120/0, 1ff.; 138/143ff.; 143/11; 145/0, 1ff.; 148/102; 152/0, 5ff. (also as Phillis, 44); 154/34, 84ff.; 157/53; 160/111; 169/140, 173ff.; 170/3; 196/12ff.; 205/9ff.; 218/47; 269/29ff.; 271/43; 276/0, 70ff. Philorthus 239/0, 27ff. Phoebe 80/11ff. Phyllis: see Phillis Piers 64/0, 5ff.; 139/0, 4ff.; 189/164 Poemenarcha 169/66ff. Pollux 17/2ff. Pratt 240A/2ff. Proteus 219/110 Psyche 202/21ff. Ralph 164/137; 215/59 Remond 189/49ff. Ringde 83/3 Robin 18/1ff. (Robene/Robyne); 254/28 Rock 164/141 Roget 185/0, 1ff. Rollo 164/141 Rosalind 38/27ff.; 40/0, 44ff.; 45/103ff.; 161/232ff.. 228a; 162/62 (Rosalynde); 220/23

309

Rosania 273/0, 1ff. Rowland 96/102; 162/39, 193ff. Rowly 189/166 Rye 240(A)/3ff. Sapphus 206/26ff.; 208/5 Sarah 265/22 Silvan 189/165 Silvia 260/1ff. Silvio 242/0, 1ff. Silvius 166/42ff. Sirena 164/7ff. Sophi(a) 132/27 Stella 43/73; 91/38ff.; 219/19, 117ff., 181ff. Strephon 51/1ff.; 154/25, 138ff. (Strephan); 268/0, 1ff. Susan 113/6; 228/38 Sylvanus 22/0 Sylvia/Silvia 162/138; 195/0, 5ff.; 260/1ff. Syrenus 22/0, 15ff.; 23/0 Tahah 215/4 Technis 206/1ff.; 208/1ff. Teddy 189/165 Thelgon 221(A)/28 Thenot 38/0, 1ff.; 138/0, 1ff.; 139/0, 1ff.; 146/1; 189/164; 220/0, 1ff.; 228/1ff.; 236/0; 268/38 Theorello 132/120 Therion 46/1ff. Thestylis 7/10, 43; 106/41–2; 42/271ff., 296; 106/41ff.; 227/ 77 Thirsil 219/0, 46ff.; 220/14ff.; 221(A)/25ff.; 221(B)/7ff.; 221(C)/6ff. Thirsis: see Thyrsis Thomalin 41/1ff.; 219/18ff. Thump (ram) 269/43 Thyrsilis 178/51 Thyrsis/Thirsis 58/25; 250/1ff.; 252/170; 262/25; 273/10; 277/5ff.; 154/32, 86 (Thersis);

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202/125ff.; 227/1ff.; 260/1ff.; 271/45 (Tyterus) Tib 207 /40 Tim Crowd (fiddle?) 207/67 Tityrus/Tytirus/Titirus 4/1; 6/0, 1; 32/65; 40/81; 42/2ff.; 59/29 (Titerus); 63/13; 74/40; 77/1ff.; 217/77; 226/1ff.; 227/6ff.; 268/83ff. Tom 153/9; 164/133; 207/40; 212/0, 6ff.; 215/1; 238/0, 1ff. / 254/27; 269/0, 41ff.; 271/46 Tom T– 239/297 Tom-Piper 184/83 Topas, Sir 161/128, 124a

Turnus 220/21ff. Umber 17/19 Urania 154/28, 126 Watt 62/1ff. Wernocke 184/0, 1ff. Wilkin 169/137ff. Will 153/199; 207/36; 238/0, 1ff.; 254/29; 271/46 William 158/73ff. William, Sweet 158/29ff. Willy 138/89ff.; 183/1ff.; 184/0, 1ff.; 185/241; 205/1ff. Winifred 155/91 Wodenfride 136/0

(D) Mythological names and allusions References under alternative names, sobriquets and paraphrases have been documented as far as possible. There are entries under generic (Dryades, Fauns, Fairies) and allegorical (Aletheia) as well as individual names. Biblical names are in a separate list. Poem number followed where appropriate by line number. Achilles 5/80 (‘Thetis’ great son’); 8/43; 59/113 (his Pelian spear); 221/61 Admetus 213/6 Adonis 9/18; 5/70; 106/44; 196/38 (Mirrhas child); 199/11; 204/89; 219/172 Aecidee: see Peleus Aeolus 230/96 (Hippotades); 237/32, 168 Aesculapius 51/116 Aglaia 45/161; 65/37; 122/75ff. See also Graces. Ajax 154/126 Alcinous 219/169 Aletheia (Alathea) 25/39 Amphion 7/23; 252/55ff. Amphitrion 161/70, 66a

Apollo 5/26; 7/57 (Phoebus); 8/68; 9/21; 13/5 (Phoebus); 17/53; 35/4 (Phoebus); 38/73 (Phoebus); 39/33 (Phoebus); 40/68; 49/54ff., 120, 144 (Phoebus); 52/55 (Phoebus); 55/1; 57/59, 65; 58/3ff. (Phoebus), 80; 63/29 (Phoebus); 64/0.2ff. 61; 66/0, 1ff.; 67/7ff. (Phoebus); 71/34, 59 (Phoebus); 74/4 (Phoebus); 76/2 (Phoebus); 77/45; 80/8 (Phoebus); 86/8 (Phoebus); 92/55 (Phoebus); 97/5; 103/3; 106/60; 132/103; 138/99ff. (Phoebus), 120; 141/56ff., 80ff., 129, 157ff. (Phoebus); 147/38 (Sol); 148/117 (Phoebus);



Analytical indices

149/83ff (Phoebus); 154/10 (Phoebus); 159/51; 160/171a (Phoebus); 161/71, 67a; 162/96 (Phoebus); 163B/29 (Phoebus); 165/23, 65ff. (Phoebus), 86, 110; 167/133 (Delphian God); 184/161, 255 (Phoebus); 185/130; 186/86ff. (Phoebus), 90; 188/2 (Phoebus); 189/2; 190/172; 192/51; 193/3 (Phoebus); 196/169 (Phoebus); 198/6; 199/10, 99 (Phoebus); 204/87; 213(A)/1ff.; 219/61ff. (Phoebus), 165, 215ff., 246, 265; 220/26; 221(A)/75; 225/28; 228/149; 230/77 (Phoebus); 232/27 (Phoebus); 237/37ff. (Phoebus), 232; 252/164 (Phoebus); 255/4 (Phoebus), 40 (Sol); 266/15 (Sol); 276/33 (Phoebus) Argo (ship) 8/40 Argus 41/154 Ariadne 45/73; 162/219 Arion 202/192; 219/154 Astraea 8/5; 10/27; 65/1; 139/0, 1ff. (Elizabeth); 141/87 (Elizabeth) Athena: see Minerva Atlanta 154/100 Atropos 52/111 Aurora 5/44; 149/81; 159/57; 219/1ff., 152; 227/87; 237/29; 141/127; 196/171; 253/11 Bacchus 10/105; 58/81; 161/8ff., 75, 71a; 191/11; 195/40, 45 (Lyæus); 219/170; 226/125 Bellona 55/34; 92/96; 161/7 Boreas 55/44; 141/33; 258/16; 276/75 Brutus (of Troy) 63/41; 65/3; 146/35ff. (Brute) Calliope 5/73; 8/67; 38/100; 40/57; 39/55; 230/58 Camus: see Cam in list of place names

311

Caucus, King 131/24 Centaurs 45/76; 228/126 Cerberus 161/31 Ceres 58/81; 148/18, 107; 160/10; 185/163; 189/2, 119; 195/39; 196/49; 199/99; 237/168 Cerylus 5/42 Ceyx 5/40 Chamus: see Cam in list of place names Chimaera 62/45 Chloris 38/122; 39/76 (‘Chores’) Circe 199/84 Clarida 131/17 Clio 25/117. See also Muses. Colossus 228/18 Comus 192/48 Cupid 3/67 (Love); 5/68 (‘Cupids’); 31/89; 32/12; 33/55; 44/61; 53/9; 60/2ff.; 67/59; 71/83; 72/13; 73/26ff.; 77/3, 50; 90/20; 77/3ff.; 92/91; 116/12; 116(B)/12; 118/17; 127/23; 128/13; 140/0,39ff.; 140/12ff.; 147/37; 148/39,129; 149/31, 66; 151/83; 152/54; 154/51, 76; 155/49; 159/23; 160/97ff., 127ff., 127ff.; 189/353ff.; 196/136; 210/54; 217/109; 221(A)/36; 229/16; 257/22; 268/50 (Paphian archer); 276/32 Cyclops 5/61; 161/97a; 199/84 Cyparissus 95/34 Daphne 66/0, 6ff.; 106/60; 148/118; 204/88; 219/66, 165, 207ff. Demophoon 160/111 Diana 3/16, 19, 32, 66 (Phoebe); 8/7 (Lucina); 38/65 (Phoebe), 82 (Cynthia); 39/26ff. (Phoebe), 41 (Cynthia); 40/31 (Phoebe); 41/63 (Phoebe); 42/88ff. (Cynthia=​Elizabeth), 136, 160ff. (Cynthia); 51/8; 61/8ff.; 64/67

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(Phoebe); 63/33 (Phoebe); 71/50; 80/11ff. (Phoebe); 90/8 (Cynthia); 91/56 (Delian Nymph); 92/40, 95 (Cinthia); 92/95 (Cinthia); 94/1 (Dian); 118/19; 126/53 (Synthea); 134/45 (Cinthia); 148/49ff., 105; 151/85; 152/33; 154/12 (Dyana), 44, 103ff. (Phoebe); 162/225 (Cynthia); 163(B)/88; 166/81 (Cynthia); 167/73 (Cynthia); 169/100; 176/21; 186/6 (Cynthia); 189/120; 196/85; 204/95; 219/150 (Dian), 250 (Delia); 237/238ff., 295 (Cinthia); 276/38 (Cynthia) Dido 160/112; 176/17 Dryades (Wood-Nymphs) 61/2; 121/59; 148/93; 149/65; 154/55; 159/85; 163(B)/5; 163(D)/22; 166/79; 189/37; 191/10; 193/6, 36; 196/25; 201/11; 219/290; 252/21. See also Napaeae. Echo 5/55; 9/58; 49/134; 51/12; 52/31ff.; 82/10ff.; 91/8ff., 64; 106/119; 141/229; 186/106ff.; 190/121ff.; 193/42; 194/28; 202/20, 171; 242/28 Endimion 41/64; 134/45; 176/22; 204/93–6; 219/251 ‘Erynnis’ 217/2 Euphrosyne 45/160; 65/26. See also Graces. Euronyme 45/155 Europa 228/116 Eurydice 5/130; 190/178 Eurynome 45/155 Fairies 40/25; 45/24, 114; 49/63; 86/39–40; 146/86; 147/30; 149/26; 157/8; 161/24, 24a; 166/81; 167/74; 193/33; 199/92; 202/11; 214/12; 218/40 Fates: see Parcae

Fauns 5/28; 41/77; 49/63; 61/4; 91/17; 104/1; 136/22; 149/47; 166/79; 167/75; 191/18; 199/92; 203/15; 230/36 Faunus 57/60; 92/41, 70; 226/180 Feronia 183/95 Flora 35/2; 71/2, 76; 86/27; 105/21; 106/33; 121/45; 122/134; 131/9; 136/6; 138/166; 141/28; 151/72; 152/43; 160/7; 165/61; 218/11; 228/161; 237/30, 167 Fortune 131/93 Furies 2/11; 217/2 (Erynnis); 52/111 (Atropos) Galatea 2/0, 8, 19ff.; 5/59; 83/29; 106/39; 226/58; 227/4ff.; 268/63ff. Ganymede 97/1 Glaucus 219/219ff., 248ff. Goblins 203/73 Graces 38/109; 39/63; 40/25; 45/41ff., 66, 91–6, 147–80, 196–8; 65/9, 39; 132/108; 136/34; 149/67; 164/170; 165/95; 174/23; 189/241; 221/85; 228/153. See also Aglaia, Euphrosyne, Thalia. Gyges 225/27 Halcyon 5/40; 217/80 Hamadryades 9/62; 132/16; 136/22; 166/79 Hebe 127/20; 164/16 Helen (of Troy) 3/1; 5/79 (Tyndarus’ fair daughter); 92/89 (Tindaris); 184/156; 204/91 Hercules 5/124 (Alcides); 161/25ff.; 219/164 (Alcides); 228/148 (Alcides) Hermes 51/10 (Mercury); 147/37; 183/100; 192/51; 193/7 Hesperus 212/20 Hippotades: see Aeolus Hobgoblin 256/22 Hyalus 106/44



Analytical indices

Hylas 252/65 Hymen 147/88; 149/69ff.; 257/22; 260/21 Hyperion 149/1 Icarus 190/71 Ixion 190/73 Janus 194/9; 221/118 Jason 213(B)/8, 68ff. Jove 8/58; 40/66; 45/154; 58/53 (Jupiter); 63/11ff., 59; 64/117; 65/1, 8, 31; 83/51; 89/10; 97/5; 100/1ff.; 106/72ff.; 129/158; 132/33, 71; 147/37; 148/113ff.; 161/69, 65a; 162/211ff; 163C/72; 167/107ff.; 183/44ff.; 190/3; 202/19; 203/18 (Jupite) r; 206/36; 217/41; 219/163ff.; 228/150; 230/16, 82; 232/5; 237/240; 268/18 Juno 100/25; 226/87; 237/240; 247/85 Jupiter: see Jove Lapiths 45/77 Latona 38/86; 39/46 Leander 190/100 Leda 148/114 Leviathan 62/49 Linus 8/66; 221(A)/75 Lucina: see Diana Mars 9/44; 64/130; 67/63; 92/93; 163C/72 Maevius 221(A)/79; 226/43 Medusa 219/201 Meleager 154/99 Melpomene 25/117. See also Muses. Memnon 5/43 Menelaus 5/80 Mercury 51/7; 94/0 Merlin 160/2; 161/63, 47a Midas 221(A)/76; 224/4 Minerva 7/51ff.; 64/65; 100/26; 121/36; 148/106; 154/41ff.; 169/100; 206/93, 243; 219/ 170

313

Mirrha 196/38 Molorchus 97/13 Momus 139/15 Muses 2/3; 5/8ff., 17 (Oeagrides), 66; 8/1ff.; 9/70ff. (Pierides); 10/31; 13/14; 15/49–50 (Parnasides); 20/36; 25/1; 38/41,102; 39/5, 56; 40/28, 57ff.; 41/45/8; 42/19, 48; 46/6.1; 64/74; 77/47; 52/3ff.; 80/74; 91/10ff.; 95/11; 100/15ff.; 107/2; 112/7; 116/4; 118/7; 121/1, 25, 34ff.; 122/135; 136/35; 138/38ff., 59, 71, 107; 139/2ff.; 147/31; 148/109; 160/173; 161/12ff., 12aff.; 163(B)/1ff.; 163(D)/1ff.; 164/169; 165/6ff., 89ff.; 167/32ff., 130ff.; 178/60; 183/64; 184/54ff.186ff., 246; 185/0, 2ff., 90, 106ff., 130ff.; 186/91ff., 197; 190/69ff., 117; 201/16ff.; 191/14; 192/52; 194/1; 213/1ff., 25; 219/162ff.; 220/6; 221/8ff.; 221(A)/8ff., 104ff.; 226/25ff.; 228/156; 230/15, 58ff.; 237/57ff.; 243; 271/36. See also Clio, Melpomeme. Naiads 9/10; 61/2; 106/36; 138/96; 166/149; 190/149; 193/6, 35; 196/27, 63ff.; 199/101; 203/37 Napaeae 92/73 Narcissus 196/104 Nemesis 83/75 Neptune 55/1; 163C/72; 166/158; 186/7; 203/110ff., 126ff.; 224/2; 230/90 Nereids 166/158; 219/33, 289; 230/50, 99 Nereus 106/75; 190/150, 195 Niobe 38/87; 39/46; 237/197 Nymphs 38/37, 122; 39/1, 71; 40/26; 41/80; 45/24, 114; 49/66, 73; 51/2; 63/4, 57; 86/13; 92/38, 77; 106/31; 112/7; 116(B)/30;

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121/59; 132/14; 134/40; 136/22; 138/59, 96; 140/0, 9ff.; 147/31; 148/51, 89; 152/22; 163(D)/17; 165/89; 166/149; 167/77; 174/23; 178/53; 179/15; 184/75; 185/84; 186/12, 92; 190/3; 193/35; 196/4ff.; 202/11; 203/40ff.; 214/2; 219/24ff., 289ff.; 224/28; 230/50 Oeager 5/17 Oenone 44/287; 71/72; 92/16ff.; 161/72; 176/20 Oreades 147/29; 163/0, 24; 196/27 Orion 123/15; 228/135 Orpheus 5/18, 123, 130; 8/65ff. (Orph); 57/73ff.; 161/43, 51a; 190/177; 202/192; 214/16; 228/93; 230/58 Pales 57/59, 65; 183/94; 193/15; 194/30, 61; 199/100; 202/16; 227/22; 242/31 Pallas: see Minerva Pan 3/22, 38, 55; 5/56ff., 81; 7/31ff.; 8/69ff.; 9/26ff.; 38/51, 91; 39/14, 47; 40/30, 68; 41/49, 144, 179; 49/53, 141; 55/1ff.; 61/18ff.; 63/1; 77/15; 79/31; 91/5; 92/67; 94/7ff.; 106/24; 114/31; 131/2; 134/37; 136/25; 138/99; 141/7; 143/7; 145/21; 146/92; 148/19ff., 121; 152/23; 159/85; 168/29; 169/100; 175; 183/45, 93; 186/90, 138; 191/11; 192/47; 193/1ff.; 194/14ff.; 195/22ff.; 196/185; 206/75ff.; 213/7ff.; 214/2ff.; 215/75; 218/38; 219/163ff., 211ff., 265, 278; 226/37ff., 94; 227/13ff.; 228/97, 171ff.; 239/67; 241/17; 242/31; 246/0, 16ff.; 254/3ff.; 262/1; 268/26ff.; 271/36; 275/2ff.; 277/37 Panope 230/99

Parcae 138/171ff.; 152/27; 160/24; 184/77; 230/75 (‘blind Furie’) Paris (of Troy) 3/1; 7/61; 17/45ff.; 41/145ff.; 44/286; 67/65; 71/71; 92/15ff.; 100/24; 176/19; 184/154; 204/91; 212/17 Pegasus 228/124; 237/115 Peleus 45/158 (Aecidee); 221/61 Pelops 1/53 Penates 191/79 Penelope 169/83 Phaeton 63/35; 190/73ff.; 239/52 Phanes (Phanetas) 202/173 Phillis (lover of Demophoön) 160/111 Philomela (chiefly referring to the nightingale) 15/34; 52/61; 63/37; 85/6; 92/61 (Dawlian Bird); 95/52 (Philomen); 103/5; 106/47; 107/6; 112/19ff.; 115/13; 142/12; 147/80; 163(B)/60; 164/199; 165/15; 203/23; 214/13; 247/38; 252/14 Piramus 190/200 Pluto 5/22, 125; 57/74; 106/6 Polyphemus 2/0, 8, 79; 5/61 Pomona 62/8; 105/11; 219/169 Priam 67/68 Priapus 5/27 (Priapuses); 12/19 Proteus 1/52; 42/150; 219/110ff., 217ff., 258 Pseustes (Sewstis) 25/39 Psyche 148/129 Saturn 8/5; 10/116; 63/40; 65/27; 192/50 Satyrs 51/3; 61/4; 86/14; 91/17; 92/67; 106/33; 116(B)/30; 132/17; 136/22; 148/20, 125; 149/25; 166/79; 167; 185/38ff.; 191/17; 197/7; 203/15, 65; 214/19; 230/36 Silenus 57/47 Sirens 59/101; 106/71; 228/139; 229 Sol: see Apollo



Analytical indices

Sybil 8/0.4ff. (of Cuma); 57/76; 161/61, 45a Sylvans 41/78; 61/4; 104/1; 132/14, 77 (wood-gods); 166/75; 191/16; 196/61; 199/100 Sylvanus/Silvanus 9/24; 12/20; 61/4 (Silvani); 92/70; 131/16ff.; 148/127; 167/57; 192/47; 193/11; 194/22; 206/188 Syrinx 38/50, 93; 39/13, 48; 49/57ff.; 61/1ff.; 94/1ff.; 148/122; 131/5 Tantalus 103/2 Terpander 83/9 Tethys 141/168 Thalia 45/161, 65/39. See also Graces. Theseus 45/75; 161/29; 228/148 Thetis 5/80; 45/158; 106/75; 141/168 (Tethis); 149/2; 159/81; 186/8; 190/ 1ff., 82 (Achilles mother); 201/64; 219/230; 276/42 Thisbe 160/109 Thoosa 2/26 Titan (Sun) 41/59; 71/64; 105/9; 129/135; 134/2; 151/41; 199/54 Tithonus 219/1ff. Triton 42/147; 203/115; 230/89ff. (‘the herald of the sea’) Trophonius 201/50

Turnus 220/21 Tyndarus 5/79; 92/89 Typhis 8/40 Ulysses 5/124; 154/126 Venus 2/16; 3/15, 16, 60, 67; 5/69; 25/130; 43/74; 45/37ff., 92ff., 148; 51/9; 58/19, 32 (Cytheræa); 60/1ff.; 61/7 (Cytherea); 72/11; 77/50, 58; 67/62; 71/60; 73/18; 76/51; 77/50; 100/25; 105/30; 116/11; 116(B)/11; 127/24; 134/48; 148/17, 35, 101, 111; 149/27, 68; 151/84; 159/50, 74; 160/101ff., 128ff., 128aff.; 152/49ff., 59 (Citharia); 61/7 (Cytheræa); 154/46ff. (Citharea); 169/ 99 (Cytherea); 184/155; 196/37 (sea-borne queene); 204/90 (bewtyes queene); 219/171ff., 252; 226/186ff.; 227/60; 276/41 Vera 160/9 Vesper 145/54 Vesta 105/20; 144/7; 247/158 Vulcan 8/75; 161/101 Zephyrus 92/82; 141/33; 199/29 (Zephires); 203/12; 255/5 (Zephyrs)

(E) Biblical names and allusions Poem number followed where appropriate by line number. Aaron 41/161 Abel 161/175; 213(A)/42 ff. Abimelech 213/62 Abraham (Abram) 100/17; 213(A)/52ff. Adam 16/6ff.; 40/10; 213(A)/43; 237/330 Amos 213/119 Antichrist 239/321 Apostles 180/35

315

Baal 239/325 Belial 239/323 Cain 161/176 Christ: see Jesus Dan 41/51 David 100/29; 133/41; 213/103 ff., 147; 221(B)/23; 249/50 Elias 237/70 Eve 16/6 ff.; 237/330 God/Lord 16/7; 17/21; 25/120;

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26/94 ff.; 35/53ff.; 41/9ff.; 67/106; 72/13; 87/1; 100/11, 37 (Jehovah); 110/1; 111/1ff.; 122/139; 187/1ff.; 188/6, 13; 247/19; 249/73; 254/32ff. Goliath 100/31; 213/108 Ishaye: see Jesse Jacob 35/75; 41/144 (? ‘the Mighty Pan’); 183/34; 213/77 Jehovah 100/37 Jesse (Ishaye) 213/103 Jesus Christ 8/Argument; 16/13; 17/57; 18/93; 35/73 (‘Juda’s Courageous Lion’); 100/44ff.; 111/36; 133/33; 138; 178; 180/52ff.; 202/51; 249/50; 255/73; 28/2; 133/33 (‘Greatest Shepheard’); 41/49 (‘Great God Pan’) Jethro 213/102 Jezebel 228/53 Job 213(A)/127; 202/32

Joseph 213(A)/91; 249/116 Laban 213/81ff. Leah 213/83ff. Lot 100/17; 213(A)/71 ff. Lucifer: see Satan Luke, St 213(A)/132 Magi 17/68 Mary 249/116; 271/25 Moses 17/49–52; 41/157; 100/36; 213/97 ff. Nimrod 161/51 Peter, St 230/109 (‘Pilot of the Galilean lake’) Philistine 35/76 Pontius Pilate 180/71 (‘the Judg’) Rachel 213/83ff. Rechab 202/32 Satan 110/12; 161/86, 82a (Lucifer); 221(B)/5 (Lucifer); 239/327 Saul 213/110 Solomon 202/139 (Salomon)

(F) Historical and other personal names and allusions References under alternative names, sobriquets and paraphrases have been documented as far as possible. Biblical names are in a separate list. Names of possibly historical persons better known from classical myth or legend (e.g., characters in Homer) have been listed under ‘Mythological Names’. The names of poets represented in this volume have been included only where occurring in works not their own. Poem number followed where appropriate by line number. Abdolonymus 225/13 Adam Bell: see Bell, Adam Adelbrit (Adelbright), King 56/3ff. Aglaus 225/23ff. Alcaeus 5/90 Alcock, John 27/16ff. Alexander (Emperor) 54/32; 161/41, 49a; 226/135 Alexander, Anthony 199

Alexander, William 197; 198; 201/28 Alfred, King 153/5ff. Anacreon 77/74 Antony, Mark 9/0 Archilochus 5/92 Argentile 56/10ff. Ariosto, Lodovico 190/125 Aristotle 206/10; 226/135ff. (‘Shepherd of Stagira’)



Analytical indices

Arthur, King 186/36 Astraea 10/27 Aubrey, Mary 273 Augustine, St 8/0 Augustus 6/0, 8/0, 15; 77/75ff.; 217/78; 221(A)/117 Aurora 5/44; 149/81; 159/57; 219/1ff.; 227/87; 237/29; 141/127 Aylmer, John 41/0 (Morrell) Aytoun, Robert 201/27 Barrow, Henry 239/250 Bavius 221(A)/78; 226/42 Beaumont, Francis 268/99 Beckett, Thomas 26/117 Bell, Adam 62/0, 34ff. Bernières, Charles de 203/141 (Alcidon) Bion 5 Brathwait, Richard 206 (Technis) Brome, Alexander 271/0 Brooke, Christopher 183 (Cutty); 185/241 (Cutty) Browne, Robert 239/228 Browne, William (Willy) 183; 184; 185/81–4, 241 Buckingham, Duke of 212/6ff. (Tom) Cartwright, Thomas (?Thomalin) 41/1ff. Cecil, Catherine 237/237ff. Charles I 194; 212; 221(A)/117; 226/37ff.; 228/97; 241; 242; 250; 259; 261/27; 272; 277 Charles II 250/135; 271 Cinnatus 12/40 Cleonymus 98/1 Cleopatra 160/110 Constantine 146/44 Curan 56/19 Cyrus 213(A)/139; 228/132; 237/279 Davies, John, of Hereford 184 (Wernock) Davison, William 141

317

Devereux, Penelope 43/0, 73 (?Stella); 91/38 Devereux, Robert, Earl of Essex 64/ Dedication; 129/74ff.; 221/92 Diogenes 54/31 Dodoens, Rembert 163B/221 Dover, John 228/172ff. Drake, Francis 64/130 Drayton, Michael 96/102 (Rowland); 162/39, 193 ff. (Rowland) Drummond, William 198 (Damon); 201 (Damon) Du Bartas, Joachim 190/127ff. Edelsie (Edell), King 56/3ff., 117 Edgar, King 163(A)/2 Elizabeth, Princess (daughter of James I) 185/43 (Thame) Elizabeth, Queen 38/0, 34ff. (Eliza); 42/40ff.; 45/210 (Gloriana); 48 (Cynthia); 55; 63 (Eliza); 64/51, 58, 69, 155; 65 (Astraea); 66/36; 91/49ff.; 130; 136 (Cynthia); 139 (Astraea); 141/87, 111ff. (Astraea); 142 (Cynthia); 146; 190/85 (Fayerie Queene), 195 (Nereus Queene); 221(A)/87 (Glorian) Epimenides 5/97 Essex, Earl of: see Devereux, Robert Eusebius 8/0 Fane, Mildmay 244/0 Ferrar, William 185 (Alexis) Fletcher, Giles, the Elder 221/28 (Thelgon) Fletcher, John 268/99; 174/0 Fletcher, Phineas 178/51 (Thyrsilis/ Thirsil); 219; 221(A)/25ff., 221(B)/7ff. Frederick V, Count Palatine 185/43 (Rhine) Gallus, Gaius Cornelius (Gallo) 9/0, 1ff. Gamage, Barbara 191/19

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Garnier, Robert 190/135 Gerard, John 163B/222 Grindal, Edmund (Algrind) 41/126ff., 213ff. Gustavus Adolphus 217/13 Helen, Saint 163(A)/25 Hengest 56/132 Henrietta Maria, Queen 194/18ff. (Mira) Henry, Prince of Wales 147; 185/42; 191/77 Henry VIII 62/93 Herbert, Mary, Countess of Pembroke 58/99 (Pembrokiana); 169/66 (Pœmenarcha) Hesiod 5/88 Homer 5/72 Hood, Robin: see Robin Hood Horace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus) 25/85; 232/1 (Flaccus) James I 146; 185/42 (Pan); 191/76; 192/23; 194.14ff. (Pan); 212/17ff. (Pan), 37 James V of Scotland 212/37 John, Little See Little John Jonson, Ben 226; 237/107; 268/100 Killigrew, Thomas(?) 238 (Tom) Lactantius 8/0 Lactantius Placidus(?) 25/37 Lawes, Henry 273/0 Little John 62/0, 34ff.; 156/96, 97ff. Livy 223/18 Ludwall, King 163A/2 Luke, St 213(A)/132 Machiavelli, Niccolò 223/18 Maecenas 184/65 Maevius 221(A)/79; 226/43 Mantuan (Baptista Spagnuoli) 25/33 Marot, Clément 190/135 Maxwell, Diana 237/238 Moray, Robert (‘noble Murrey’) 252/116

Morton, John, Bishop of Ely 27/5 Murray, William, Earl of Dysart(?) (Will) 238 Nicias 2/1 Norreys, John 64/130 Oldisworth, Michael 215/0 Ovid (Publius Ovidius Naso) 77/41ff.; 190/122 (Naso); 213/4 Owen, Anne 273 Paul, St 204/168 Peter, St 230/109ff. Petrarch (Petrarca, Francesco) 25/35; 190/125 Pharaoh 100/39 Philetas 5/99 Pindar 5/89 Plato 206/10 Plutarch 98/2 Pollio, Gaius Asinius 8/0, 1, 10ff. Ralegh, Walter 42/66 (‘Shepherd of the Ocean’); 142 (Ocean) Randolph, Thomas 226 (Damon) Remus 10/113 Robarts, Margaret 221/38 (Gemma) Robin Hood 62/0, 33ff.; 156/0, 4ff. Romulus 213(A)/137 Ronsard, Pierre de 190/135 Salonius 8/0, 3ff. Sappho 5/93 Shakespeare, William 268/98 Sidney, Robert 191/50ff Sidney, Philip 43 (Astrophel); 53 (Philisides); 64/64 (Philisides); 91 (Astrophil); 96/100 (Astrophel); 114/title (Astrophel, doubtfully Sidney); 138 (Willy) Solomon (Salomon) 231/0 Soloninus 8/0 Spenser, Edmund (alluded to) 190/185ff.; as Colin or Colin Clout, 38/0, 21, 154; 40; 42; 45/103ff.; 91/48; 96/99;



Analytical indices

138/41ff., 43, 86, 135, 204; 168/6ff; 190/86–8, 170ff.; 220/10ff.; 221(A)/85ff. Stanley, James, Earl of Derby 261/14 Strangways 109/1 Tamburlaine 161/172, 168a; 213(A)/144 Tasso, Torquato 190/126 Terpander 83/9 Theocritus 5/100; 25/19 Tifernate, Gregorio (Umber) 17/19 Tilly: see Tserclaes Tomkins, John 219 (Thomalin) Tserclaes, John, Count of Tilly 217/18 Virgil 25/27; 161/40, 40a (Maro);

319

190/120 (Maro); 217/76; 220/18–21; 221(A)/73 (Maro); 225/11; 228/94 Volumnius 9/0, 2 Walsingham, Frances, Countess of Essex 43/Dedication, 73 (?Stella) Watson, Thomas 96/101 Wenman, Lady Agnes 169/74 (‘great Lady of the house of Thame’) Westminster, Roger, Prior of Ely 27/40 Wilcox, Thomas (? Thomalin) 41/1ff. Wither, George 185 (Roget); 186 (Philarete) Wroth, Robert 192

(G) Place names (geographical and mythological) Places are entered under their current names, except where well-established classical versions exist. Archaic, poetic or other variants are given in parentheses. Poem number followed where appropriate by line number. Achernus 161/32 Acheron 106/6; 161/32 Acidale 45/36 Adriatic Sea 190/108 Aegean Sea 190/102 Aesacus 92/39 Aetna 2/48; 5/128; 104/9 Africa (Roman province) 6/65 Aganippe 9/12; 148/142; 184/39ff. Albion 65/52; 183/28; 190/169; 199/58 Allo 42/188 Alpheus 230/132 Alps 9/47; 51/67; 190/113; 228/160 Anglesey: see Mona Antaprium: see Boarstall Aonia 9/12 Arabia 10/11; 195/17 Aracynthus 7/24

Aran Fawddwy (Raran) 163(A)/17 Araris 6/62 Arcadia/Arcady 8/68ff.; 9/26ff.; 43/19; 49/52; 60/1; 61/1–3; 64/61; 91/3ff.; 96/69; 105; 106/20ff., 65, 79ff.; 131/1; 134/37; 137/2ff.; 148/147; 157/1ff.; 158/0; 186/69; 212/2ff.; 225/44ff.; 228/10; 237/114; 246/18; 250/21, 155; 262/1; 268/96 Arden 43/114; 161/123, 119a; 163(B)/1ff.; 186/69 Arethusa 5/10, 78; 9/1; 230/85 Arle 186/1 Arlesford 186/2 (Arlesford Pond), 33 Arlo 43/114 Ascra 5/88 Asia 190/104

320

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Aska Loua (Esk?) 196/18 Assyria 10/10; 17/39 Athens (for Oxford) 206/14ff., 268 Atlantic 199/39 Avernus 57/71; 106/9 Babylon 160/109; 228/60 Ballahoura: see Mole Bayona 230/162 Bellerium: see Land’s End Bezdan 232/55 Bethlehem 100/44; 133/36; 241/22; 249/50ff. (Royal David’s city); 251/21, 44 Black Sea: see Pontus Boarstall 169/82 Bodotria: see Forth Boeotia 5/89 Bohemia 217/17 Brenitia 56/132 Britain 6/67 (Britannia); 55/64; 163B/13; 164/281 (Brittany); 186/96 (Britany); 190/146 (Britany); 239/352 Brittany (‘Armorick deepes’) 190/142 Cadair Idris (Cadoridric) 163(A)/17 Caister (Cayastrus) 57/51 Cam 178/61 (Chamus); 219/48, 282 (Chame); 221(A)/13, 54 (Chamus); 226/129ff.; 230/103 Cambria: see Wales Cambridge 62/67 Canaan 41/142 Cank 163C/39 Carthage 160/112 Caucasus 89/12; 95/5 Ceos 5/91 Chamus: see Cam Cherwell 262/4 Chester 230/0 Colchis (Colchos) 213(B)/68 ‘Cornish Isles’ 146/67 Cotswold 162/58; 163(C)/3ff.; 184/30; 228/101ff., 146ff.; 162/58

Cydonia(ns) 5/97. 9/59 Cytheron (Cythera) 45/42; 228/154 Dalmatia 8/0 Darwin (river) 164/298 Denmark 56/19 (Danske); 212/40 Deva (Dee) 230/55 Diria 56/3 Dove (river) 161/148, 144a; 164/298; 276/26 Dovan (Doven) 199/125 Dunbar 277/39 Edghill 277/39 Egypt 8/23; 9/0; 100/39; 213/98 El Dorado 202/159 Ely 27/31, 54 Elysium 60/19; 91/40; 201/52 (Elysian fields); and as ‘Elizium’, 165/4ff.; 166/21; 167/0, 48; 183/86; 231/1 (Elyzium) England 56/128; 65/44; 146/14ff.; 228/9ff.; 259/6, 30; 261/1; 272/1 English Channel (?‘British Sea’) 190/152 Esk 37/1; 196/18(?); 201/43, 62 Essex 163(D) Ethiopia 9/67 Etna 5/128; 14/26 Etruria(ns) 10/112 Eubonia (Isle of Man) 261/4 Europe 190/104 Evesham 163(C) Forth/Firth of Forth 198/7 (Bodotria); 199/125; 201/41 France 212/40; 217/9; 223/21 Funchin 42/187 Germany 223/14 Greece 17/54; 212/29; 213(B)/68; 228/11, 152 Haemony: see Thessalia Hales 5/98 Hatfield 237 Hatfield Forest 163(D)/23ff. Hawthornden 201/46



Analytical indices

Hebrides 230/156 Hebrus 9/65; 230/63 Helicon 20/37; 38/42; 39/6; 95/10; 148/142; 161/10; 184/42ff., 80; 185/108; 190/117; 201/46; 230/16 Hellespont 190/99, 106 Herbert’s Way 163(A)/25 Heptaphonos 202/171 Hermus 132/34ff. ‘Hesperie’ 206/61 Hibernia: see Ireland Hippocrene 5/77 (‘the Pegasean One’); 148/142; 230/15 Holland 217/5 Humber 164/324 Hybla (Hibla) 80/117 Ida, Mount 17/46; 92/17, 87; 41/57, 146; 100/24; 134/44; 161/71, 67a; 184/153; 228/158 India 195/15; 199/104 (Inde) Indies 237/344 Indus 232/28 Ireland 146/68 (Hibernia); 188/12 (Hibernia); 189/12 (Hibernia); 261/1 Irish Sea 230/0 Isca: see Usk Isis 163(C)/65; 202/179; 252/113 Israel 65/42; 100/33; 213/23ff. Isthmia 228/151 Itchen 186/1, 35 Ithaca 169/84 Jerusalem 180/49; 251/17 (Salem) Jordan 100/40; 178/30; 221C/48 Kent 41/44, 82; 161/149, 145a; 178/49; 221(A)/113 Kerig i Druidion 230/53 Kirkland 56/116 Ladon 61/24; 94/25; 96/62 Lambeth 239/172 Land’s End (Bellerus) 230/160 Lea 163(D)/2ff.

321

Leominster (Lemster) 161/150, 146a; 163C /21 Lesbos 5/90; 230/63 Lestrigonia 99/2 Lethe 5/22 Libanus 231/6 Limbo 161/36 London 64/95; 65/2; 109/1; 163D/2ff.; 190/157; 228/108 Hyde Park 274/66 Royal Exchange 274/54 (Exchange) Vauxhall Gardens 274/68 (Spring-Garden) Lucrine 232/67 Lycaeum 193/56 Lycaeus 9/14 (Lices); 61/19 Maenalus 9/14ff., 55; 193/66; 212/19 Maas (Maes) 201/25 Man, Isle of 261 Mantua 6/0 Meander 201/42 Mediterranean (‘Midland Sea’) 190/107 Medway 41/79ff.; 191/31; 221(A)/114, 130 Meles (Melus) 5/72 Merionethshire 163(A) Mincius 201/44; 220/18; 230/86 Moesia 190/98 Mole (Ballahoura mountains) 42/57 Mona (Anglesey) 230/54 Moreland 162/138; 163C/39; 164/304 (Moorland) Mulla (Awbeg) 42/59, 178 Mytilene 5/94 Nemancos (Namancos) 230/162 Nemea 228/151 Newton Court 153/22, 98 Nile 65/57 Northumberland 56/134 Nulam 109/9 Oaxis 6/66 Ochil (Ochell) 198/7

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Olivet, Mount 41/50 Olympus 57/72; 58/53ff.; 65/31; 106/1, 72; 161/34; 228/159; 239/53 Orcades 146/67 Ore (Ora) 201/43 Oxford 206/14ff., 268 (‘Athens’); 235/32 Pactolus 164/182; 224/3 Padus: see Po Palestine 251/7 Paphos 92/48; 268/50 Parnassus 9/11; 38/41; 39/5; 40/28, 70; 41/48; 167/30; 185/111; 221(A)/87; 226/5; 228/155 Paros (Parus) 5/92 Parthenius 9/57 Parthia(ns) 6/62, 9/59 Peak District (Peaks) 164/305 Peneus 219/247 Penechia (Peniche) 64/144 Penshurst 191/1ff.; 237/108 Pieria 161/10a Pindus 9/11; 190/118 Plexippus 44/286 Po 92/18; 190/109ff. (Padus) Pontus (Black Sea) 190/97 Psophis 225/46 Quinsai (Quinzey) 202/157 Rhine 9/47; 185/43; 201/25 Rome 6/20ff.; 10/61ff.; 41/183ff.; 64/141 (Rhemus town); 77/66ff.; 146/47ff.; 213(A)/137; 239/311, 334 Sabia/Sabines 10/111; 12/39 Salem 251/17 Salisbury Plain (Sarum’s Plain) 163C/19 Salonius 8/0 Salonoe 8/0 Samos 5/96; 53/10 Sarum: see Salisbury Saxham 234 Scotland 261/1

Scythia 6/66 Serica 14/8; 221C/15 (Serian worms) Severne 138/131; 163B/4 Sicily 1/0; 5/11; 7/21; 8/1; 9/4 (Sicania), 51; 230/136 Sidon 221C/18 Sinai (Synah) 41/73 Sion 180/2; 239/351 Sithonia 9/66 Sodom 213(A)/73; 239/126 Somersetshire 153/21 Spain 64/93 (Western Coast); 212/31; 223/20; 228/67; 237/344 Sparta 11/41 St Bridget’s Bower 41/43 St Helen’s Way 163(A)/25 St Michael’s Mount 41/41 Strymon 5/14 Styx 161/32, 36a Syon 35/74 Syracuse 5/100; 25/20 Syria 8/30 Tagus 164/182; 224/1; 266/47 Tanais: see Tyne Tavy, Tavistock 185/81 Tempe 10/48; 199/103; 228/15 Tenedos 190/98 Tethys 106/10 Thame 169/74 Thames 41/83 (Themis); 57/1; 138/131; 184/29; 185/43, 84 (Thame); 190/157; 163C/65; 163D/20; 221(A)/130; 226/130; 228/108; 252/113 Thessalia, Thessaly 17/55; 43/21 (Haemony); 74/68; 76/17; 190/96 Thrace 5/17; 8/65; 57/73; 190/177; 214/14; 228/93 Tiber 201/44 Tigris 6/63 Trent 161/152, 148a; 163B/4; 164/165ff.



Analytical indices

Triopeum/Triopians 5/99 Troy 7/62; 8/42; 17/46; 64/85; 67/68; 92/85; 147/37 Tyne 65/57 (?Tanais); 196/14ff. Usk (Isca) 252/43ff. Wales (Cambria) 146/68; 163A/23; 163C/39; 261/1

Waltham Forest 163D/15ff. Westminster 173/12 Westwell Downs 235/1 Wight, Isle of 186/40 Winchester 186/35–6 Xanthus 92/19ff.

323

General index

Notes 1. Anonymous works are listed by title or first line as appropriate; all other works under (or subsumed in) the entry on the author. 2. Only authors are listed from the Textual Notes, not sources or editions. 3. Other than the authors in the main entries, only selective references are listed from the Notes on Authors, chiefly relating to literary relations and patronage. All works cited in the Notes on Authors are not included, nor names of personal relations. 4. Of manuscripts, only a few prominent ‘named’ examples (as opposed to those identified by shelfmark) have been listed. 5. Material in the Analytical Indices has not been repeated below. 6. Notes are indicated by ‘n.’ after a page reference. ‘A.B.’ 41 Adam 16 Adams, Thomas R. 107n.141 ‘admiring shepherd’ 23–4, 37, 86 Alabaster, William 113, 194, 246, 248 Alençon, Duke of 40 Alexander, Anthony 68 Alexander, William 204, 246, 261 Alfonso II, Duke of Ferrara 268, 288 allegory 7–8 pastoral as 4, 8, 23, 59, 63–4, 91 see also allusion; courtier/poet/ priest/ruler/scholar, shepherd as; metaphor ‘All hail to Hatfield’ 77, 78, 79, 229 allusion 7–8, 22, 25, 34–5, 59, 61, 65, 76, 91



see also allegory; courtier/poet/ priest/ruler/scholar, shepherd as; metaphor Alpers, Paul 3, 48n.75, 95, 101 Amadis de Gaul 69 Amalteo, Cornelio 15n.26, 27 Amalteo, Giambattista 15n.26, 27, 31–2, 32n.60 amoebean eclogue 4, 35, 59 ‘Amor constans’ 50, 113 Andrelini, Publio Fausto 23n.41, 24, 25n.46, 26, 32n.60 Anisio, Giano 23n.40, 27 Annalia Dubrensia 63, 89, 103 Annunciation see Nativity Antoinette, Marie 72, 88 Apollo 29 Aratus 12



General index

Arbour of Amorous Devices, The 44 Arcadia 6–7, 42, 69, 98–9 ‘Arcadian Lovers, The’ 183 Ariosto, Ludovico 69 Armstrong, Elizabeth 14n.25 art-pastoral 5–6, 9, 22, 35, 46–7, 57, 75–6 Arundel, Earl of 52 Arundel-Harington Manuscript 111 ‘As at noon Dulcina rested’ 184 Ascensius, Jodocus Badius 11n.17 Ashmore, Richard 127, 129, 247 Aston, Walter, Lord 263 Astraea 12, 17, 85, 86 Aubrey, Mary 280 Auden, Wystan Hugh 97–8 Augustus Caesar 7, 290 ‘A.W.’ 172–4 Aytoun, Robert 246, 247 Bacon, Francis 265, 269 Baïf, Jean-Antoine de 25 balade 20 ballad 20, 51–4, 106–7 ballata 20 Banckett of Johan the Reeve 21 Bannatyne Manuscript 110–11, 269 Barclay, Alexander 21, 26, 33, 75, 119, 127–8, 130–4, 247 Barker, Nicolas 107n.141, 115 Barnes, Barnabe 44, 157, 247 Barnfield, Richard 44, 50, 158–9, 247–8 Baro, Balthazar 261 Baskervill, C.R. 52 Basse, William 110, 117, 191, 248 Bastard, Thomas 162, 248 Beal, Peter 110n.150 Beard, Thomas 82, 106, 135, 248 Beaumont, Francis 265 Beaumont, Joseph 83, 235, 248–9 ‘Beautiful Shepherdess of Arcadia, A’ 53, 184–5

325

Beffa, Antonio 136, 249 Belleau, Rémy 45 Belmisseri, Paolo 13, 23n.38, 25n.46, 26n.49, 50 Benivieni, Girolamo 22 Benjamin, Walter 8 Benlowes, Edward 39, 82, 236, 249, 266 Berger, John 79 Bernini 254 Bible 21 Ezekiel 82n.112 Genesis 16 Hebrews 82n.112 Isaiah 82n.112, 83 Jeremiah 82n.112 John 82n.112 Matthew 82n.112 1 Peter 82n.112 Psalms 82, 84, 157 Revelation 64 Song of Songs 81 Zechariah 82n.112 Bion 4, 6 Bissham 86, 106, 149 Black, L.G. 111n.153 Blake, William 83 Blennerhasset, Thomas 87, 146, 249–50 Boas, George 27 Boccaccio, Giovanni 12, 22, 32 Bodenham, John 41 Boethius 32, 127, 250, 262, 269 Boiardo, Matteo Maria 15n.26, 23n.40, 25, 29n.55 Boleyn, Anne 262 Bolton, Edmund 39, 171, 250 Boninsegni, Jacopo Fiorino de 24n.43 Boyle, Robert, Earl of Orrery 280 Brackley, Elizabeth 64, 109, 232, 250–1, 254 Brathwait, Richard 61, 210, 251

326

General index

Breton, Nicholas 43, 46, 50, 82, 112, 114, 121–2, 163–9, 170, 251–2 Brie, Jehan de 20 Bright Manuscript 111–12 Britain’s Bower of Delights 44 Brome, Alexander 241, 252 Brooke, Christopher 58–9, 194, 252–3 Browne, William 50, 56, 99, 110, 248, 252–3, 258, 260, 266 Britannia’s Pastorals 60–1, 105, 106, 196–7 Eclogues 58–9 Brydges, Egerton 293 Buchanan, George 32n.60 Buck, P.M., Jr 112 Butler, James, Duke of Ormond 280 Byrd, William 49, 118, 119, 151–2, 253, 292 Caesar, Sir Julius 113 Caesar see Augustus Caesar; Julius Caesar Calpurnius 14 Calver, Edward 75 Cambridge 25, 62, 66–7, 110 Camden, William 57, 291 Camerarius, Joachim 26n.48, 32n.60 Camõens, Luis de 263 Campania 68, 69 canzone 32, 40 Carew, Thomas 64, 72, 78, 119, 121–2, 225–8, 253–4, 284 Carleton, Dudley 253 carol 19 Carroll, Lewis 15, 96 Cary, Patrick 72–3, 236, 254 Casimir see Sarbiewski Castiglione, Baldassare 249, 275 Cavendish, Jane 64, 232, 250–1, 254 Cavendish, Margaret 1, 64, 75, 99, 109, 236, 250, 254–5 Cavendish, Thomas 274

Cayado, Henrique 14, 24n.45, 25n.46, 26n.49, 32n.60 Cecil, Robert 275 Cecil, William, Lord Burghley 267 Chaloner, Thomas 267 Chapman, Edward 264 Chapman, George 89, 112, 193, 252, 255, 256, 276, 293 Charles I, King 56, 65, 87, 88, 115, 265, 270, 273, 287, 288, 292 execution and poems thereon 52, 65–6, 263, 276, 284 Charles II, King 88, 263 Charles V, Emperor 113 Charles IX, King of France 14 Chassanion, Jean 82, 106, 135, 248, 255 Chaudhuri, Sukanta 22n.36, 47n.72, 71n.89, 86n.116, 101, 115n.160, 116n.161 Chaudhuri, Supriya 74 Chester, Robert 78, 172, 255–6 Chettle, Henry 176, 256, 277 chorographical poem 57–8 Christ, Jesus 13, 16, 81, 82–3 Churchyard, Thomas 145, 256 Clement VIII, Pope 288 Clifford, Margaret 258 ‘Cloris, since thou art fled away’ 121 Cokayn, Aston 240–1, 256–7 Coke, Edward 250 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor 96 Colin Clout 21, 35, 36 commonplace-books 116–17 community of shepherds 7, 10–11, 36–7, 42, 59, 61–2, 68, 69, 122 ‘complaining shepherd’ 23–4, 26, 37 complex man see simple and complex man Condell, Henry 117–18 Conflictus veris et hiemis 19 Coningsby, Henry 110 Cooper, Helen 19n.32, 19n.33, 24, 101



General index

Cordus, Euricius 14, 23n.38, 24, 26n.48, 32n.60 Cornwallis, William 291 Cos 3, 289 Cosens Manuscript 112 Cotswolds 54, 57, 62, 86, 89 Cotswold Games 63, 89, 103 Cotta, Giovanni 27 Cotton, Charles 244, 257, 291 Cotton, Robert 250 country and court 2, 4, 13, 16, 22, 23–4, 38–9, 64, 68, 69, 71, 72, 77, 88, 96 see also cycle, pastoral country-house poem 76–9, 81 ‘Country’ party 56, 59, 74, 89, 252, 260, 270 court and country see country and court courtesy 39 courtier, shepherd as 23, 74 Cowley, Abraham 80, 106, 126, 215, 257–8 Crabbe, George 96, 98 Crashaw, Richard 248–9 Cromwell, Oliver 248, 263, 293 Cronus see Saturn crown (verse form) 40 cycle, pastoral 69–72, 97 cyclic structure 16 see also drama, pastoral; romance, pastoral Daniel, Samuel 103, 135, 246, 252, 258, 270, 289 Dante 19, 24 Davenant, William 257 Davies, John, of Hereford 58, 194, 246, 253, 258, 293 Davies, John, translator 193, 258 Davies, Sir John 157, 259 Davison, Francis 46, 50, 86, 116, 120, 175, 259

327

Davison, Thomas 118 Day, Angel 86, 148, 259 de Ponte, Petrus 25n.46, 26n.49 d’Este, Luigi, Cardinal 288 de Vere, Edward, Earl of Oxford 43 Dee, John 261–2 Deloney, Thomas 107 Denny, William 107–8, 235, 259 Dering, Edward 109, 110 Desportes, Philippe 30 Diana 29 Dickenson, John 45, 105, 160, 259–60 didactic pastoral 25–6, 33, 35, 59 Digby, Kenelm 250 Diodati, Charles 66 dizaine 40 Dolce, Lodovico 29, 32 Donne, John 114, 252, 256, 269, 291 Doughtie, Edward 111n.155 Dover, Robert 63, 89 Dowland, John 271 drama, pastoral 31, 42, 69–70, 89, 105, 106 Drayton, Michael 50, 54–8, 99, 115, 246, 250, 252, 256, 260, 261, 277 Idea the Shepherd’s Garland and 1606 Eglogs 34, 44, 48, 54, 55, 57, 86, 89, 122–3, 185–90 Muses’ Elizium, The 55–7, 191 Poly-olbion 57–8, 106, 190–1, 291 Quest of Cynthia, The 55 Shepherd’s Sirena, The 55, 118, 191 Drummond, William 80, 107, 246, 260, 273–4, 293 eclogues 68, 200–5 elegy 44, 68 fragment 80 translations 129, 135–6, 192 du Bellay, Joachim 30 du Mans, Jacques Peletier 30 Dunbar, William 269 Duncan-Jones, Katherine 108n.144

328

General index

d’Urfé, Honoré 29n.56, 69, 72, 89, 193, 261 Dyer, Edward 43, 110, 114, 157, 261–2 Dymoke, Edward 258 Earle, Giles 112 eclogue, term and form 6, 10, 22, 32, 33–4, 36, 40, 42, 50, 58–9, 63, 66, 68, 71, 94 Eden 16, 56 Einstein, Alfred 31n.58 ‘E.K.’ 12, 35, 36 elegy 18, 31–2, 42, 70 Elizabeth I, Queen 37, 40, 56, 85–7, 123, 127, 260, 262, 285, 286 Empson, William 15, 22, 53n.81, 76n.99, 95, 96, 101 England’s Helicon 37, 39, 41, 45–7, 49n.77, 50, 54–5, 104, 116, 119, 122, 124–5 entertainments 85–6, 106 see also masques epigram 28, 29, 31 epode see Horace Estienne, Henri 29n.55, 32 ‘Et in Arcadia ego’ 98–9 Ettin, Andrew V. 95, 101 Ezell, Margaret J.M. 109n.147 ‘Fair Dulcina Complaineth’ 180 Fairfax, Edward 63–4, 110, 205–6, 262–3, 287 Fairfax, Thomas 77, 110, 206–8, 263 Fall of man: pastoral as exempt 17 Fane, Mildmay 72, 234–5, 263, 271 Fanshawe, Richard 74, 103, 127, 135, 213, 263–4 Faunus 13 Ferrar, Nicholas 61, 269 ‘Fiction How Cupid Made a Nymph Wound Herself’ 174–5 Finet, John 111, 148, 264 Fisher, Jasper 213, 264

Flaminio, Marcantonio 28–9, 32n.59, 129, 264 Flasket, John 4, 124n.1 Fleming, Abraham 125, 264–5 Fletcher, Giles, the elder 25, 61, 265, 266 Fletcher, Giles, the younger 25, 61, 62, 193, 265, 266 Fletcher, John 70, 89, 193, 264, 265, 266 Fletcher, Phineas 25, 103, 214, 249, 265, 266 Piscatory Eclogues 61, 214 Purple Island, The 61, 214 Florio, John 258 folk literature 2, 3, 19, 20, 48 Fortunate Isles 16 Foucault, Michel 122n.164 Foxe, John 21 Fraunce, Abraham 44, 45, 93, 106, 126, 146–7, 148, 264, 266, 292 Fresnaie, Vauquelin de la 29–30 Frost, Robert 95, 99 Gabrieli, Andrea 30 Gainsborough, Thomas 79 Galatea 4 Gallus 4 Garland, John of 12 Gascoigne, George 251, 289 Gay, John 96 georgic 11–12, 17–18, 26, 74 see also Virgil, Georgics Gheeraerts, Marcus 271 Giamatti, A. Bartlett 16n.29, 101 Gil Polo, Gaspar 69, 277, 294 Giraldi, Cinthio 85 Godolphin, Sidney 121, 229–31, 266–7 Goffe, Thomas 89, 106, 200, 267 Golden Age 7, 12–15, 16–17, 32, 56, 77–8, 83, 86–7, 91 Gonzaga, Lucrezia 249



General index

Goodere, Sir Henry, and family 260 Goodly Dialogue and Disputation between Piers Plowman and a Popish Priest, A 21 Good Shepherd’s Sorrow, The 52, 177–9 Googe, Barnabe 34, 135, 267, 289 Gorges, Arthur 50, 108, 114, 120, 149–51, 267 Gottschalk, Katherine K. 112 Grant, W. Leonard 6n.10, 101 Greene, Robert 114, 256, 268 Ciceronis Amor 43, 152 Greene’s Mourning Garment 43, 153 Greene’s Vision 153 Menaphon 43, 152–3 Pandosto 43 Greg, Walter W 101 Greville, Fulke 56, 104, 109, 262, 270, 285 Grey, Lord 286 Guarini, Giambattista 29, 30, 31, 33, 70, 85, 89, 103, 135, 263, 268 Guercino 98 Habington, William 214, 268–9 Hall, Wendy 109n.147 Halperin, David M. 3n.5, 95, 101 Hammond, William 61, 237, 269, 293 Hardy, Thomas 95, 96 Harington, John 111 ‘Harpelus’ Complaint’ 20, 34, 52, 134–5 Harvey, Thomas 128, 269 Heming, John 117–18 Henrietta Maria, Queen 65, 88, 254, 257, 265, 268, 284 Henry, Prince of Wales 52, 61, 252, 255, 261, 267, 278, 292, 293 Henry VIII, King 113, 262 Henryson, Robert 20, 110, 128, 269 Herbert, George 64, 83–4, 110, 114, 214, 269–70, 271, 289

329

Herbert, Lord, of Cherbury 253, 269 Herbert, Mary, Countess of Pembroke 112, 270, 293 patronage 45, 251, 258, 260, 266, 286 poems 86, 174 and Sidney 39, 104, 285 Herbert, William, Earl of Pembroke 1, 212, 252, 266, 270–1 hermits 71, 86 Herrick, Robert 64, 65, 72, 74–5, 78, 88, 120, 232–4, 263, 271, 284 Hesiod 11, 12 Hessus, Eobanus 23n.38, 23n.40, 24n.45, 26n.48, 29n.55, 32n.60 ‘Hey troly loly lo, maid, whither go you?’ 105, 118 Heywood, John 271 Heywood, Thomas 106, 158, 272 Hilliard, Nicholas 271 Hills, George 272 Hiltner, Ken 99, 101 Hobbes, Thomas 254, 267 Holinshed, Raphael 264 Horace 16, 31, 262, 263, 272, 284 Epode II 18, 32, 77, 81, 127 Howell, James 264 Hubbard, Thomas K. 101 Hughes, Henry 272 Huizinga, John 91–2 Hume, Alexander 246 Hunt, John Dixon 95 Hyde, Edward, Earl of Clarendon 267 idyll, term and form 9, 10 ‘In a field full fair of flowers’ 160 ‘I playne Piers...’ 21 Ireland 37, 38, 68, 249, 259, 280, 281, 286 Jack the Plough-Lad’s Lamentation 52 Jaggard, William 104 Jakobson, Roman 7–8

330

General index

James I, King 52, 56, 57, 87, 89, 260, 261, 266, 273, 286, 293 poetry 65, 211–12 Jesus see Christ Johnson, Samuel 66 ‘Jolly Shepherd, The’ 241 ‘Jolly shepherd that sat on Sion Hill, A’ 193–4 Jones, Inigo 87, 271 Jones, Mike Rodman 22n.36, 101 Jonson, Ben 63, 99, 115, 247, 248, 250, 252, 254, 255, 260, 261, 265, 268–9, 271, 273–4, 282, 291, 293 country-house poems 77–8, 120, 121, 197–8, 286 Folio 103, 107, 288 masques 87–9, 106, 199 poems 199, 256 Julius Caesar 7, 8 Jupiter 13 Justa Edovardo King naufrago 103 Justice, George 109 Kalendrier des Bergèrs 21, 36 Kegel-Brinkgreve, E. 101 King, Edward 66–8 King, Henry 111 king, shepherd as see ruler, shepherd as King and the Forester, The 53 ‘King Edward III and the Shepherd’ 53n.80 Kirke, Edward 35 landscape 27–8, 32, 38, 58, 60, 68, 81, 82 as aesthetic form 79–80, 95, 98 Langland, William 21, 33 Lanyer, Aemilia 79, 99 Laud, William, Archibishop 288 Lauder, George 205, 274 Lawes, Henry 113, 254, 272, 276

Lee, Henry 71 Leicester, Robert Dudley, Earl of 34, 261, 270, 285, 286, 293 Lerner, Laurence 15, 16, 90, 101 Levin, Harry 2, 101 Lilliat, John 111, 113, 170, 274 Ling, Nicholas 41 Lloyd, Marmaduke 290 Lockwood, Tom 78n.106 Lodge, Thomas 43, 114, 153, 274–5 Euphues’ Shadow 43 Fig for Momus, A 34, 154 Phillis 44, 154 Rosalynde 43, 49n.77, 154 Scilla’s Metamorphosis 43n.69 Lok, Henry 82, 162, 275 Longus 18–19, 29n.55, 69, 86, 148, 259 Lovejoy, A.O. 27 Lovelace, Richard 64, 72, 80, 257, 282, 287 lover, shepherd as 8–9, 35, 37, 85, 93 ‘Lover’s Delight, The’ 52, 181–2 Low, Anthony 74, 101 lusus pastoralis 28–9, 31, 42, 85 Lyly, John 291 lyric 19–20, 29–30, 31, 33, 37, 40, 42, 46–50, 55, 64, 65, 71, 72–3, 94, 118, 121 McClung, William A. 102 McKitterick, David 115 MacNeice, Louis 97–8 McRae, Andrew 76, 102 madrigal 20, 30, 42 Maecenas 290 Man, Isle of 78 Mansell, John 113, 171 Mantua 7, 42, 290 Mantuan 22, 24, 25–6, 26, 33, 127–8, 269, 275, 289 manuscripts, production and circulation of 42–3, 50, 107–22 passim



General index

Marcus, Leah 74, 101 Marenzio, Luca 30 Marinelli, Peter 101 Marino, Giovan Battista 68, 192, 275, 280 Marlowe, Christopher 52, 121–2, 155, 256, 275–6, 277, 292 ‘Another of the same nature’ 157 see also ‘Nymph’s Reply, The’ Marot, Clément 11–12, 25 Marston, John 255 Martial 31, 276 Martin Marprelate 21, 278 Marvell, Andrew 76–7, 78, 263, 276 Marx, Leo 99–100 masques 87, 89, 106 Massinger, Philip 265 May, Steve W. 111 Medici, Catherine de’ 14 Meliboeus 7, 10, 11 Melvill, David 112 metaphor, pastoral as 2, 4, 9, 24, 59, 64, 82, 88–9, 92–4 see also allegory; courtier/poet/ priest/ruler/scholar, shepherd as Middleton, Thomas 265, 271 ‘Milkmaids, The’ 113, 240 Mills, Robert 264 Milton, John 66, 108, 276–7 ‘Epitaphium Damonis’ 66 ‘Lycidas’ 24, 66–8, 103, 120–1, 223–5 miscellanies 104, 106, 112, 117 mode, pastoral as 3, 10, 94–5 Modoin 19 Montague, William 88, 265 Montemayor, Jorge de 29n.56, 69, 72, 90, 129–30, 267, 277, 294 Montrose, Louis 73n.92, 74n.92, 76 moral pastoral see didactic pastoral More, Thomas 21, 75, 271, 282 Morley, Christopher 208, 277

331

Morley, George 291 Morley, Thomas 50, 118 Moschus 4, 6, 125, 277 Moss, Ann 116 Mulcaster, Richard 286 Munday, Anthony 43, 194, 256, 277–8 Murray, David 193, 278 myth 4, 27, 29, 38, 55–6, 57, 60, 68, 69–70, 73, 86, 87 names of shepherds 10 Nativity shepherds 17, 20, 83–4, 88 Navagero, Andrea 26n.48, 27n.53, 28, 32n.59 Neoplatonism 39 Nero 14 Nichols, John 86n.116 Noel, Henry 293 nostalgia 2–3, 15, 56, 58, 77, 89, 91, 99 ‘Nymph’s Reply, The’ 122, 155 ‘Obsequy of Fair Phillida, The’ 180–1 ode 18, 28, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 40, 42, 70 Of Gentleness and Nobility 21, 75, 129 ‘Oh! shepherd, oh! shepherd’ 113, 134 ‘Old Ballet of Shepherd Tom, The’ 241 Oldisworth, Nicholas 107, 113, 212, 278 ‘On the Reported Death of the Earl of Essex’ 171 Oporinus, Johannes 41n.68 Oppian 62 otium 5, 10, 11, 15, 18, 27, 56, 84 Ottley, Arthur 110 Overbury, Thomas 278 Ovid 13, 27, 29, 44, 57, 62, 87 Owen, Anne 280 Oxford 62 pageants see entertainments ‘Page’s Pleasant Rustick, The’ 171 Pan 4, 13, 29, 32, 73, 87, 88 Panofsky, Erwin 99, 102

332

General index

Paradise, Earthly 16–17, 56, 91 Parker, Martin 107, 180, 278 Parry, Robert 159, 279 Passerat, Jean 68, 135–6, 279 Passionate Pilgrim, The 104 ‘Pastoral Dialogue between Coridon and Thyrsis, A’ 235 ‘Pastoral Riddle, A’ 170 ‘Pastoral Song, A’ 240 ‘Pastoral Song: with the Answer, A’ 237–40 pastourelle 20 Patterson, Annabel 95, 102 paulo maiora 13 Payne, Mark 10, 102 ‘Peace, shepherd’ 111, 169 Peasants’ Revolt 21 Peele, George 50, 85, 86, 106, 149, 279, 291 Percy, Bishop Thomas 112 Perez, Alonso 20, 29n.56, 69, 130, 277, 279, 294 Petit Trianon 72 Petrarch (Petrarca, Francesco) and Petrarchism 11–12, 16, 119 Bucolicum carmen 10, 22, 23n.38, 24, 25, 35, 63–4 love-poetry 9–10, 28, 32, 49, 270 Philips, Katherine 61, 65, 75, 104, 109, 118, 119, 242–4, 279 ‘Philisides, the shepherd good and true’ 144–5 ‘Phillida Flouts Me’ 182 ‘Phillida’s Love-Call to Her Coridon’ 113, 171 Piccolomini, Aeneas Silvius 33 Pierce the Ploughman’s Creed 21 Pisan, Christine de 20 piscatory eclogue 62, 94 see also Fletcher, Phineas; Sannazaro play 84, 91–2 ‘Pleasant Country Maying Song, A’ 180

plowman literature 21–2, 33 Plowman’s Tale, The 21 Plutarch 262 poet, shepherd as 4, 8–9, 10–11, 24–5, 37, 59, 61, 63, 67, 68, 69, 122 Poetical Rhapsody, A see Davison, Francis poetry, pastoral as trope for 5, 10–11, 46–7, 60–1, 92, 122 Poggioli, Renato 47, 84, 95, 99, 102 political allegory see courtier/ruler, shepherd as Poliziano, Angelo 69 Pollio, Gaius Asinius 7, 13 Polyphemus 4, 28 Pontano, Giovanni 27, 62, 68 popular literature 2, 19, 20, 51–4 Prayer and Complaint of the Plowman unto Christ, The 21 Preti, Girolamo 192, 280 priest, shepherd as; theological and ecclesiastical allegory 8, 24, 33, 35, 59, 63, 67, 83 primitivism 15, 26–7 Propertius 18 Prudentius 16 Puritans and Puritanism 35, 64, 75, 77, 89, 272, 280 Puttenham, George 25, 91, 251 Pyper, John 193 quantitative metre 40 Quarles, Francis 64, 232, 249, 280–1 Radbertus, Paschasius 19 Ralegh, Walter 37, 38, 108, 176, 255, 267, 281, 286–7 see also ‘Nymph’s Reply, The’ Ramsey, John 111, 116, 122, 170, 281 Randolph, Thomas 63, 120, 121, 215–23, 256, 282–3, 284 Rastell, John 271, 282 Ravenscroft, Thomas 49, 192, 282



General index

‘religion, pastoral’ 29, 69–70, 73, 85, 88 religious pastoral see spiritual pastoral Reshoulde, James 264 Revett, Eldred 80, 240, 282–3 Rime, James 124n.1 Ringler, William A., Jr 109n.146 Roberts, James 124n.1 Robertson, Jean 109n.146 Robin Hood and the Shepherd 53, 183 Robins, Thomas 107, 236–7, 283 Robinson, Richard 126, 283 Roche, Jerome 30 Rollins, Hyder 166 Rollston, John 109 romance, pastoral 18–19, 31, 39, 42, 43, 69, 89–90, 105 Ronsard, Pierre de 14, 23, 25, 27–8, 30, 32 Røstvig, Maren-Sofie 81, 102 Rota, Berardino 62 Rous, John 110 Ruff, Allan R. 95, 102 ruler, shepherd as; political allegory 8, 23, 59, 64, 65–6, 76, 85, 88, 93 Russell, Lucy, Countess of Bedford 260 Rymer, James see Rime, James Sabie, Francis 44, 45, 159, 283 Sabinus, George 23n.40 Sackville, Edward, Earl of Dorset 260 Saint-Amant, Antoine Girard 80, 206–8, 283 Salusbury, John, and family 112, 256, 279 Sambrook, James 102 Sancroft, William 112, 287 Sandys, Edward 43 Sannazaro, Jacopo 12, 27, 29, 31, 32, 37, 40, 41, 62, 68, 69, 123 Sarbiewski, Casimir 81, 225, 283–4 Sarno 27

333

satire 26, 33, 37, 59–60 Saturn 13 satyr-play 85 Saunders, E.J. 114 Savile, George 284 Schama, Simon 27, 79n.108, 102 Schiller, Friedrich 48 scholar, shepherd as 8, 24, 62, 67 Scotland 68 Scott, Walter 254 Scotus, Sedulius 19 Selden, John 250, 252, 254 Separatists 64 Sepin, Gervais 26n.50, 39n.67 sequence of eclogues 10, 19, 34, 36, 42 Serafino Aquilano 24n.43 Serlio, Sebastiano 85 sestina 40 Shakespeare, William 89, 115, 117–18, 256, 260, 265, 268, 271, 283 As You Like It 14, 17, 43, 70, 100 Hamlet 85 History Plays 15 Winter’s Tale, The 43, 53, 57, 70, 89 Shepherd and the King, The 53, 181 ‘Shepherd’s Lamentation, The’ 179 Shepherd’s Pipe, The 58–9, 61, 103, 252–3 Sherburne, Edward 125, 192, 284, 287 Shirburn Ballads 112 Shirley, James 64, 212, 265, 284–5 Sicily 3, 6, 7, 42 Sidney, Philip 34, 45, 56, 104, 110, 115, 122, 262, 266, 270, 285, 286, 293 Arcadia 29, 34, 36, 39–41, 42, 43, 45, 50, 69, 71, 72, 73, 90, 105, 106, 108–9, 119, 139–44 Astrophil and Stella 45, 104, 112, 118 Lady of May, The 59, 62, 86, 106, 139

334

General index

Sidney, Robert 43, 50, 77, 107, 115, 159–60, 255, 266, 285–6 silva 29 simple and complex man 15, 21, 38, 53, 69, 75, 92, 94–5 Skretkowicz, Victor 108n.145, 109n.146 Slupere, Jacob de 23n.38, 23n.40, 24n.43, 24n.45 Smith, William 44, 160, 286 Snell, Bruno 6n.11, 102 song 20, 30, 35–6, 48–50, 65, 71, 92, 118 ‘Song, A’ 240 song-books 30, 49–50, 52, 104–5, 106, 112–13 Songs and Sonnets see Tottel’s Miscellany sonnet 29, 42 sources of poems 103–13 Spagnuoli, Battista see Mantuan Spenser, Edmund 21, 34, 37–8, 60, 61, 68, 71, 112, 122, 136, 260, 266, 267, 281, 286–7, 292 ‘Astrophel’ 45, 138, 270 Colin Clout’s Come Home Again 24, 37–8, 45, 71, 138 Faerie Queene, The 38, 44, 45, 69, 71n.89, 87, 106, 119, 138–9 Shepheardes Calender, The 12, 17, 22, 34–7, 41, 42, 54, 64, 86, 93–4, 106, 119, 137–8 Spinedge, Anthony 66, 245, 287 spiritual pastoral 81–4 Stanford, Henry 110, 111 Stanley, Ferdinando, Earl of Derby 43 Stanley, James 78 Stanley, Thomas 125, 269, 284, 287 Stephanus see Estienne Stigel, Johann 23n.38 Stoicism 39 Stoppard, Tom 98 Stoughton Manuscript 111 Stow, John 99

Strode, William 72, 80, 228–9, 288 Strozzi, Tito Vespasiano 24n.45, 32n.60 Sturm, Johannes 285 Suckling, John 64, 72, 80, 254, 256 Sudeley 86 Surrey, Henry Howard, Earl of 256 Sutherland, Kathryn 109n.148 Sylvanus 14 Tale of Robin Hood, A 52–3, 148 Tallis, Thomas 253 Tasso, Bernardo 29, 32, 288 Tasso, Torquato 30, 31, 33, 69, 70, 103, 135, 249, 288 Taylor, Jeremy 280 Taylor, John 53, 212, 288 Theis, Jeffrey S. 62n.82 ‘Thenot’s Abode’ 80, 229 Theocritus 3–6, 7, 10, 11–12, 19, 27, 28, 70, 92n.121, 106, 123, 125, 277, 289 Thomas G. Rosenmeyer 5, 92, 102 Tibullus 18 Tityrus 7, 8, 10, 14, 18 ‘toiling shepherds’ see workers, rural Toliver, Harold 102 Tompkins, Thomas 271 Tottel’s Miscellany 34, 43, 104, 115, 120 Townshend, Henry 279 Traherne, Thomas 81 translation 32–3 Trilling, Lionel 67 trope see allegory, metaphor Trussel, John 147, 289 Turberville, George 127, 289 Turner, James 73, 75, 102 ‘Unknown Shepherd’s Complaint, The’ 161 Urban VIII, Pope 284 Ussher, James 280



General index

Varchi, Benedetto 29, 32 Vaucluse 16, 28 Vaughan, Henry 81, 83, 235, 289–90 Vaughan, Thomas 290 Venus 4, 28, 29 Vida, Girolamo 27n.53 villanesca 31 Villiers, Christopher 253 Villiers, George, Duke of Buckingham 250, 253, 271, 273, 274 virelai 20 Virgil 95–9, 290 Aeneid 11, 13 Eclogues 4, 6–8, 13, 14, 16, 19, 22, 25, 27, 28, 32, 37, 42, 94, 95–9, 106, 125–6 Georgics 11, 12, 14, 18, 106, 126–7 ‘wheel of Virgil’ 2, 11–12, 37 Virgilio, Giovanni del 19, 24 Waferer Commonplace Book 110 Walsingham, Francis 291 Walton, Izaak 122, 241, 257, 291–2, 293 Warner, William 69, 106, 146, 291 Watson, Robert N. 92, 102 Watson, Thomas 113, 274, 291 Amintae Gaudia 34, 44 Amyntas 34, 43–4, 45, 93, 146–7, 266 Weaver, Thomas 78, 107, 237, 290 Webbe, William 106, 125, 137, 292

335

Weelkes, Thomas 118 Wenman, Richard 248 ‘W.H.’ 172 Willett, Andrew 157, 292 Williams, Raymond 48, 73n.91, 90, 102 Wilson, Elkin Calhoun 85, 102 Wilson, John 112 Wilton 1, 39, 86, 270 ‘wise shepherd’ 71, 93 Wither, George 50, 58–60, 74–5, 84, 106, 107, 194–6, 248, 252–3, 258, 260, 292, 293 wood-gods 4, 13, 29 Wootton, John 48n.74, 172, 293 Wordsworth, William 95, 96–7 workers, rural; ‘toiling shepherds’ 20–1, 26–7, 33, 74–6, 78, 79 Wotton, Henry 250, 293 Woudhuysen, Henry 107n.141, 108n.145, 110n.150–2, 144 Wroth, Mary 71–2, 90, 105, 210–11, 270, 293–4 Wyatt, Thomas 43, 104, 120 Yates, Frances 87n.117 Yong, Bartholomew 129–30, 277, 294 Young, John 34, 35, 286 Zanchi, Basilio (Pietro) 27, 129, 294 Zeus see Jupiter