A Commentary on Paul's First Letter to the Corinthians [1 ed.] 1527591735, 9781527591738

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A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians

A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians By

Harm W. Hollander Edited by

Edward Hollander

A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians By Harm W. Hollander Edited by Edward Hollander This book first published 2023 Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2023 by Harm W. Hollander All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-5275-9173-5 ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-9173-8

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface ........................................................................................................ vi Introduction .............................................................................................. viii List of Abbreviations ............................................................................... xvii Part One ....................................................................................................... 1 Paul’s Attack on Apollos’ Adherents in Corinth: 1:1-4:21 Part Two .................................................................................................... 54 Sexual Immorality and Litigation in the Christian Community: 5:1-6:20 Part Three .................................................................................................. 77 Marriage and Asceticism: 7:1-40 Part Four .................................................................................................. 101 Limits to the Christian’s Freedom and Paul’s Apostolic Freedom: 8:1-11:1 Part Five .................................................................................................. 148 Bad Behaviour at Meetings of the Christian Community: 11:2-34 Part Six .................................................................................................... 170 The Gifts of the Holy Spirit versus the Love for One Another: 12:1-14:40 Part Seven ................................................................................................ 223 The Resurrection of Believers at the End of Time: 15:1-58 Part Eight ................................................................................................. 260 Concluding Matters and Final Greetings: 16:1-24 Short List of Commentaries ..................................................................... 273 Index of Ancient Sources ........................................................................ 275

PREFACE

Throughout my lectureship in New Testament Studies as part of the Faculty of Theology at the University of Leiden in the Netherlands, the analysis of Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians has been one of the central and favourite subjects of my study. I wrote several articles on individual passages from this NT letter, as well as a full commentary on the text of 1 Corinthians in Dutch. After my retirement in 2012, I decided to bundle a number of these articles in a single volume entitled Tradition and Rhetoric in Paul’s Correspondence with the Corinthians, which was published by Cambridge Scholars Publishing in 2020. It also occurred to me that it would be a good idea to make an English translation of my commentary on 1 Corinthians. This has, however, become much more than a simple translation, it is in fact a new and fully elaborated version of my Dutch commentary (1 Korintiërs I-III. Een praktische bijbelverklaring), published between 1996 and 2007 by the Dutch publishing house Kok of Kampen. I am fully aware that there are quite a number of commentaries on 1 Corinthians, but this one does differ from them in some respects. First, it contains a new, readable and modern functional equivalent or communicative translation of the Greek text, that is, a translation that attempts to elucidate the writer’s intentions for a new and modern audience, and one that incorporates the latest results of translation studies. Second, it offers a scholarly but pleasant to read exegetical/philological commentary on the text in the light of the historical and cultural environment in which it was written, avoiding difficult theological jargon as much as possible. I think I can say, in all modesty, that this approach has produced a number of new and surprising results, but I will leave that to the readers of this commentary to judge for themselves. I would like to thank Mr. Arjen van Trigt, publisher of KokBoekencentrum (Utrecht, The Netherlands) for permission to make an English version of my Dutch commentary on 1 Corinthians.

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I feel privileged to have collaborated in 2013 with Professor Dr Matthijs de Jong (head of the translation department of the Netherlands Bible Society) on a new Dutch translation of 1 Corinthians as part of “The Bible in Plain Language” (Bijbel in Gewone Taal), published by the Netherlands Bible Society in 2014. I am grateful to him for his indispensable help and his many apposite suggestions concerning the interpretation of a number of difficult passages in this letter to the Corinthians. Thanks are also due to Mrs. Peggy Birch (Norfolk, United Kingdom) who was so kind to edit and proofread the entire text. If there are still some imperfections, I will take the blame for them. My thanks also go to the editors and staff members at Cambridge Scholars Publishing for their willingness to publish this volume and for all their help in the preparation of the manuscript. The Author

In 2021 my father passed away unexpectedly, just after finishing the writing of this last book. On behalf of my mother, brother and sister, I would like to express my gratitude to Commissioning Editor Adam Rummens of Cambridge Scholars for making it possible to continue with publishing this book, to Professor Dr Matthijs de Jong and Professor Dr Martin de Boer for proofreading my father's manuscript and all the help in the final editing of this book. The feeling that this last book of my father will finally be published is an occasion for inexpressible gratitude and joy. We hope many will benefit from it. Edward Hollander

INTRODUCTION

The author of the letter The apostle Paul is mentioned in the prescript of the letter as its author, and there does not seem to be any reason to doubt this.1 It means that, together with Romans, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians and Philemon, the first letter to the Corinthians belongs to the seven authentic Pauline letters in the New Testament. By the time Paul wrote the letter, he had lived a rather eventful and turbulent life. A diaspora Jew from Tarsus and a member of the “party” of the Pharisees, a group of Jews known for their respect for and compliance with the Jewish law,2 he became one of the fiercest opponents of the followers of Jesus Christ. He violently persecuted the (Jewish) members of this “Jesus movement” and it could even be said he tried to “destroy” it.3 But around the year 35, while on his way to Damascus, he “saw” Jesus Christ; that is, the Lord “appeared” to him, because God decided to reveal his Son to him and commanded him to preach the Gospel among the Gentiles.4 We do not know exactly what happened that day, because Paul himself does not give more details and the story told in Acts 9:1-19a5 can hardly be considered to be historically reliable, but whatever it was, this “encounter” with Jesus Christ had far-reaching consequences. Paul no longer persecuted Christians; instead he became not only a follower of Jesus Christ, but also a dedicated apostle of the Lord. After wandering in Arabia, Syria and Cilicia and spending a short time in Jerusalem, he became a prominent member of the Christian community in the city of Antioch, a “mixed” community of Jewish and non-Jewish Christians, where he became good friends with Barnabas, the leader of the local community.6 However, a theological argument between Paul and 1On



Sosthenes as “co-author,” see the commentary on 1 Cor 1:1. 2See Gal 1:13-14, Phil 3:5, and cf. Acts 23:6. 3See, e.g., 1 Cor 15:9, Gal 1:13, Phil 3:6, and cf. Acts 8:3, and 9:1. 4See 1Cor 9:1, 15:8, and Gal 1:15-16. 5Cf. Acts 22:3-16, and 26:9-18. 6See Gal 1:17-24, and cf. Acts 11:25-26.

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Barnabas about the role of the Jewish law led to an almost complete estrangement between them.7 In Paul’s view, Christianity was “a new way” different to both Judaism and paganism, and as such, neither Jewish nor non-Jewish believers were obliged to observe the tenets of the Jewish law, the Thora, including circumcision, observance of the Sabbath, and all manner of dietary laws. Instead, all Christians had to observe a “new” law, viz., the law of Christ, centred on love for one another.8 Barnabas, and above all Peter and James, the leaders of the Christian community in Jerusalem, felt somewhat differently, but for Paul it was crystal clear. He left the community of Antioch and travelled to many places in Asia, Macedonia and Greece to proclaim the Gospel of Jesus Christ. From that time on, and without a local Christian community to support him, he was nevertheless very successful and became the founder of a number of Christian communities throughout the Roman Empire. Tragically, the fact that he had once been a fanatical persecutor of the “Jesus movement” and that after his conversion or call he became a missionary with a number of conflicting opinions, put him in a rather isolated position. Many Jewish Christians considered him too “liberal”, whereas many non-Jewish Christians considered him too “Jewish”. As a consequence, he had to defend himself more than once against people who denied his apostleship. Despite this, there were also many Christians like his favourite “son in Christ”, Timothy, who supported him or even became his co-workers in proclaiming the Gospel. Paul visited the city of Corinth for the first time in or around the year 50, and succeeded in founding a small Christian community there. According to Acts 18:1-18, he stayed there for eighteen months. It was in the year 55, at the end of a two-year stay in Ephesus, that he wrote 1 Corinthians.9 The letter was probably brought to the community in Corinth by Stephanas, Fortunatus and Achaicus, who are mentioned in 1 Corinthians 16:17.

The addressees of the letter Thanks to its favourable location between the Peloponnese and mainland Greece, Corinth was a thriving and prosperous city in ancient times. However, when the city took arms against the Romans in the second 7See



Gal 2:11-14. In Acts 15:36-40, this quarrel is wrongly presented as a personal fight between Paul and Barnabas. 8Gal 6:2. 9See 1 Cor 16:8, and cf. Acts 19.

Introduction

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century BCE, its revolt resulted in complete disaster, and Corinth was overrun and destroyed by the Romans in the year 146 BCE. It remained a desolate place for more than a century, until Julius Caesar decided to found a Roman colony at the place which had once been the prosperous city of Corinth in the year 44 BCE. A second period of prosperity dawned for Corinth, and many freedmen and freedwomen – people who had been slaves but had been freed by their masters – came from Rome and settled in this new colony, mingling with people from Greece. People from Egypt, Asia and elsewhere also settled in Corinth, and by the first century CE, Corinth was once again an important city, and had become the capital of the Roman province of Achaia. Although the Romans were the political leaders throughout the entire Roman Empire, including Greece, the lives of its inhabitants were greatly influenced by a kind of “unified culture”, namely that of Hellenism. Some time after the conquests of Alexander the Great (died 323 BCE), Hellenistic Greek had been the lingua franca, the language spoken by almost all inhabitants of the Roman Empire as either their mother tongue or as a second language. Many originally Greek ideas and concepts also became popular, in particular those of philosophical traditions such as Stoicism and Cynicism, which focused primarily on the practice of daily life. In addition to this, the “old” Greek and Roman religions, as well as several mystery cults, also had many followers. When Paul visited the city of Corinth in or around the year 50, he first looked for somewhere to rent; a place where he could live and earn his keep as a leather worker. He probably spoke about Jesus Christ with everybody he met, and he undoubtedly succeeded in persuading a number of people to become followers of the Lord. By the time he left the city in the year 51 or 52, a small Christian community had been formed thanks to his efforts. All (or almost all) these Christians were non-Jews by birth, and most of them were slaves or belonged to the lower classes of Corinthian society; only a few were powerful and of noble birth.10 Somewhat later, other missionaries, including Apollos, visited Corinth, and membership of the Christian community increased, so it probably numbered a few hundred people by the time Paul wrote 1 Corinthians. They would have come together weekly to celebrate their faith in one of the several “house churches” in the city.

10See

 1 Cor 1:26, and 12:2.

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The reason for writing the letter Thanks to the efforts of other missionaries, the Christian community had continued to grow after Paul left Corinth, but the community was not a particularly tranquil group, to say the least. Problems and differences of opinion arose among them, not so much about the content of the Gospel, but rather about the practice of leading a truly Christian life. When Paul heard about this, he decided to send them a letter. Unfortunately, this letter has been lost, but we know from 1 Corinthians 5:9 that it was sent by Paul to the Corinthians in the hopes of settling these ethical issues. In reaction to this letter, the Corinthians wrote a letter to Paul.11 Despite the common opinion of most scholars, their letter was not a friendly response to Paul’s earlier letter, nor did it simply contain a number of questions which they wanted him to answer. On the contrary, it was a critical response and a stern rejection of all that Paul had written to them. They made it perfectly clear that they did not agree with Paul about a number of important issues. It is likely that this letter was not written on behalf of the entire Christian community in Corinth, but was drafted by some of the more influential and eminent members of the community. In any case, Paul found it appropriate to answer this letter point by point. He sometimes introduces a particular issue with the word “About”,12 but elsewhere in his letter he also deals with issues, or uses particular vocabulary, that originate in that letter from the Corinthian Christians. Paul did not reply immediately when he received this critical letter from the Corinthians. Instead, he asked his closest co-worker, Timothy, to visit the Christian community in Corinth.13 No sooner was Timothy on his way than some “members of Chloe’s household” from Corinth came to Paul in Ephesus and told him about the many quarrels between, and abuses of, a number of Corinthian Christians.14 They told him about the “factions” or “parties” within the Corinthian community and about the hostility of some Corinthians towards Paul. Apparently, there was division among the Corinthians over Christian leaders like Cephas (Peter), Apollos and Paul. Some of the Corinthians had been deeply impressed by Apollos, who had preached the Gospel in Corinth after Paul had left the city; they had been struck by his rhetorical skills and his performance in general. As a

11See



1 Cor 7:1, “Now for the matters you wrote about.” 12 See 1 Cor 7:1, 25, 8:1, 12:1, 16:1, and 12. 13See 1 Cor 4:17. 14See 1 Cor 1:11.

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consequence, they began to question Paul’s message, authority and performance. This oral report by the visitors from Corinth seems to have been the trigger for the writing of 1 Corinthians. Paul obviously decided not to wait for Timothy’s return to Ephesus to hear his account of the situation in Corinth; instead, he sent his letter straight away to the Corinthian community, assuming that it would probably arrive before Timothy reached the city.15 In the letter, Paul deals with the issues brought up by “members of Chloe’s household”, as well as with the issues raised by the Corinthian Christians in their letter. As has been mentioned, this “official” letter from the Corinthians may have been written by leading Corinthian Christians who belonged to the higher classes of society, whereas the “members of Chloe’s household” were probably slaves or freedmen who belonged to the lower classes. These two groups of Corinthians held differing opinions: the former was critical of Paul and wanted to lead a life of freedom, whereas the latter was more prepared to listen to Paul and to lead a life according to his advice.

Content and structure of the letter One of the most striking themes in 1 Corinthians is Paul’s defence against the attacks of those Corinthian Christians who called into question his authority as an apostle of Jesus Christ. He had been told that there were divisions within the Corinthian community. The Corinthian Christians had heard of other apostles, Peter for example, who had known Jesus personally and become one of the leaders of the Christian community in Jerusalem. They had also met Apollos, another missionary whose ministry proved very attractive to a number of local Christians. As a consequence, some Corinthians began to question Paul’s authority as an apostle. In their eyes, Apollos in particular was a far better teacher than Paul; the latter did not excel in knowledge and eloquence and had led a miserable life of suffering and oppression which they found disproportionate and not befitting an apostle of the Lord. In chapters 1-4 in particular, Paul tries to restore his authority by telling the Corinthians that human or worldly wisdom or knowledge does not count, that no one except God himself may pass judgment on any missionary, and that he voluntarily accepts his life of suffering and misery.

15See

 1 Cor 16:10-11.

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The combination of the accounts of the “members of Chloe’s household” and the letter from the Corinthians made Paul realise that a number of Corinthian Christians held opinions that were very different to his own views on “the new way” of the Christian faith. Since their conversion, these Christians had experienced a feeling of “power”, “liberty”, or “freedom”, and felt they could do anything they wanted.16 So they thought they could indulge in all forms of sexual immorality (1 Cor 5-6), or eat food that had been sacrificed to idols, even when to do so weighed heavily on the conscience of their fellow Christians (1 Cor 8 and 10). There were also people whose disdain for all earthly or worldly matters led to complete asceticism: they preferred not to marry or to divorce if they were already married (1 Cor 7). Moreover, there was complete chaos at the weekly meetings of the congregation, with women who prayed and prophesied bareheaded and people who did not want to wait for their fellow Christians at the common meals, but ate as much and as quickly as they could (1 Cor 11). The chaos was made even worse by their enthusiasm for the spiritual gift of “speaking in tongues”, leading to a cacophony of loud sounds and noises which made the meetings a complete catastrophe (1 Cor 12 and 14). Finally, some Christians even ridiculed the idea that dead Christians would be raised to life at the end of time and would receive a human body (1 Cor 15). In his letter, Paul tries to convince these Corinthian Christians that, overall, their ideas and their behaviour are the opposite of what true Christians are expected to think and do. Sometimes, he panders to their feelings and tries to reach a compromise, but at other times he totally rejects their ideas and their way of living. In chapters 9 and 13, he makes it clear that the freedom of an individual should not be detrimental to the feelings and sensitivities of their fellow Christians and that, for Christians, the love of one another is more important than anything else. What really matters is the edification of all the members of the Christian community. In writing this letter, Paul is attempting to set all Corinthian Christians back on the right track, and to make peace with those Corinthians who were calling his apostleship into question. This attempt was not completely successful, however, and it becomes clear in 2 Corinthians that Paul was not treated respectfully when he visited Corinth a second time; on the contrary, he was deeply insulted and had to leave quickly.17 Somewhat later, after he had written a letter “in tears”, the conflict 16See

1 Cor 6:12, and 10:23. 17See 2 Cor 2:5, and 7:12.



xiv

Introduction

between Paul and his detractors among the Corinthians was more or less resolved, although the relationship between the apostle and the Christian community in Corinth remained rather strained. For a global division of the letter into eight parts or sections, see the “Table of Contents”.

The approach of this commentary This commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians seeks to explain what Paul was trying to communicate to the first readers of the letter, a group of Christians living in the Greek city of Corinth in the middle of the first century CE. In order to achieve this goal, a thorough and detailed analysis of the text is necessary, together with a critical eye on the structure of the letter as a whole. Knowledge and understanding of the Graeco-Roman, Hellenistic world, the world in which Paul and the Corinthians lived and worked, is therefore a prerequisite condition. Paul was a man of his time, and his world was that of (Jewish) Hellenism. His readers in Corinth were almost all of pagan birth, and lived in an economic, cultural and religious Hellenistic centre. Paul and his readers were undoubtedly acquainted with all kinds of Hellenistic concepts and traditions. All this makes it necessary to consult the primary sources of the time, that is, literary documents written in Graeco-Roman times, in order to understand the ideas and concepts of Paul and his readers in Corinth. It is only by consulting other pagan, Jewish and early-Christian writings that we are able to discover what the world in which Paul and his readers lived looked like and understand the ideas and concepts that Paul and his readers shared with their contemporaries, as well as the ways in which their ideas differed from the common Hellenistic ideas of the time. It is clear, for instance, that both Paul and his readers in Corinth were deeply influenced by popular philosophical schools such as Stoicism and Cynicism. Of course, Paul had been inspired by his “encounter” with Jesus Christ, when he was called to be an apostle and proclaim the Gospel, but he was and remained someone who lived in a Hellenistic world, and who, after his conversion or call, tried to integrate pagan and Jewish ideas and concepts into a new way of life, namely, that of a believer in Christ. Some pagan and Jewish concepts he rejected, but many other Hellenistic ideas were welcomed by him and were integrated into his views on the Christian faith, consciously or unconsciously. Finally, as a Jew by birth, Paul was

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quite familiar with the OT/LXX, and he also shared a number of ideas with people who had become Christians before him. It is not enough to trace the concepts and ideas Paul shared with his contemporaries in order to elucidate Paul’s way of communicating his ideas to the Corinthian Christians; it is also necessary to discover the ways in which he used and adapted them. Paul’s vocabulary, that is, the words and expressions he used, is also subjected to a thorough analysis here, so many references to OT/LXX passages, as well as to a number of pagan, Jewish and early-Christian writings, are given in this commentary, with the sole aim of explaining what Paul was trying to communicate to the addressees in Corinth and in what way. Needless to say, this approach has led to many new and original interpretations of a number of passages in 1 Corinthians, which I consider to be correct, or at least worthy of serious consideration. Despite this analysis, however, this is not a commentary that is difficult to read or to use. I have attempted to keep the text of the commentary (and the translation)18 as readable as possible, and Greek and Latin words are presented only when they may contribute to the understanding of a particular passage or sentence and are always accompanied by an English translation for the reader’s convenience. For the same reason, namely, to provide the reader with a commentary that is pleasant to read, discussions with other interpreters and NT scholars are omitted. That does not mean, of course, that I have not consulted their commentaries, monographs and articles on parts of 1 Corinthians – quite the contrary! Again for the reader’s convenience, a “short list of commentaries” has been added at the end of this volume so that the reader will be able to come across other (or the same!) interpretations of particular passages in Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians. The commentary on each major part of the letter begins with an introduction, which gives an overview of the content and the literary structure. All eight parts are subdivided into a number of smaller sections, each of which has the same tripartite structure: a translation, a short introduction, and finally, a full commentary of the passage in question.

18See

 also the next section “A note on the translation.”

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Introduction

A note on the translation In this commentary, all translations of ancient sources, including those of the text of Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians, are “functional equivalent” or “communicative” translations in idiomatic English. They are intentionally not literal word for word translations, for such translations are (almost) always incomprehensible to modern readers. It was also my aim to provide the readers of this commentary not only with an interpretation of the Greek text, but also with a pleasant to read translation of the text of 1 Corinthians that is in itself as clear and understandable as possible and serves to reflect my interpretation. Needless to say, in working on the translation of 1 Corinthians (and other biblical and ancient texts), I have consulted many modern Bible translations, the NEB and the NRSV in particular, and a number of modern translations of other ancient texts, for I am fully aware that I am not the first to translate these texts. However, my primary aim has always been to comply with the requirements I myself lay down for a modern, clear and communicative translation. In other words, the translations and the explanations are complementary to each other, and I hope that both will help the reader to understand what Paul meant to say when he wrote his first letter to the Corinthians. For the convenience of those readers who are acquainted with more literal Bible translations, or who for one reason or another want to know what a Bible passage literally says, I have often included the literal wording in the commentary sections, mostly between brackets.

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

LXX

Septuagint

NRSV

New Revised Standard Version

NT

New Testament

OT

Old Testament

REB

Revised English Bible

PART ONE PAUL’S ATTACK ON APOLLOS’ ADHERENTS IN CORINTH: 1:1-4:21

Immediately after the usual salutation and thanksgiving, we find a long passage in which Paul defends himself against a number of Corinthian Christians who do not regard him as a genuine apostle. There was obviously division within the community over Christian leaders like Cephas (Peter), Apollos and Paul. Apollos, who had worked as a Gospel preacher in Corinth after Paul left the city, had in particular made a lasting impression on many Corinthian Christians. They were impressed by his rhetorical skills and his performance in general, which fostered a sense of freedom, power and complacency among them, as a result of which they started to disdain other people in the community. They felt themselves to be redeemed, liberated, saved, and possessing the gifts of the Holy Spirit in abundance, they considered themselves to be “wise.” As a consequence, they began to question Paul’s message, authority and performance. They felt that they were “already there,” whereas they saw Paul worrying in his life. According to them, Paul had failed to draw the right conclusions from the consequences of his conversion to Christianity: he gave them the impression of being a rather “poor” man as compared to other Gospel missionaries. Paul defends himself against these attacks by pointing out to the Corinthians that God’s salvation plan centres around “Jesus Christ crucified,” and that although humiliation, suffering and oppression are considered signs of weakness or foolishness among humans, they are signs of wisdom and power in the eyes of God. This therefore explains Paul’s own life, which is characterised by persecutions and misery; oppression and misery are part of the daily life of Christians living at the end of times. As an apostle, Paul worries “for Christ’s sake,” about the need to “save” as many people as possible. Moreover, all Gospel preachers, including Apollos and Paul himself, are just the servants of God (or Jesus Christ); they are all equal, one is not more important than another. And finally, people should not judge

2

Part One

missionaries who proclaim the Gospel on behalf of God; it is God, and he alone, who will judge the missionaries at the end of time. In short: in chapters 1-4, Paul urges his readers in Corinth not to be divided, not to aggrandise a particular Gospel preacher and disdain another, but rather to imitate him and to live a life characterised by self-sacrifice and service to others. In this context, he disqualifies human “knowledge” (ȖȞ૵ıȚȢ), a favourite term within the Corinthian community and regarded by some Corinthian Christians as one of the greatest gifts of the Holy Spirit. He does so by quoting a couple of OT/LXX passages in which “wisdom” (ıȠijȓĮ) is explicitly denounced at crucial stages in the argument in an attempt to silence the supporters of Apollos.1

Salutation: 1:1-3 (1) Paul, called to be an apostle of Christ Jesus by the will of God, and our brother Sosthenes: (2) To the community of God in Corinth, to those who are sanctified through their connection with Christ Jesus, called to be saints, together with all those who invoke the name of our Lord Jesus Christ wherever they may be, their Lord as well as ours. (3) Grace and peace to you, from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.

This threefold salutation follows the traditional pattern of the NT letters. First, we find the name(s) of the author(s) of the letter (v. 1); next, the addressees are mentioned (v. 2); and finally, there is the traditional greeting or benediction (v. 3). Although the letter mentions two senders, it is perfectly clear that it is Paul who is the author of the letter. His name is mentioned first, and in ancient times it was not customary to put one’s name last out of politeness or modesty. Moreover, he uses the first person singular throughout the letter, as in verse 4: “I give constant thanks to my God.” In verse 1, Paul calls himself an “apostle” (ਕʌȩıIJȠȜȠȢ), that is–literally–a “sent one,” an “envoy.” The term refers to someone who is sent by God or

 1

Since “wisdom” (ıȠijȓĮ) and “knowledge” (ȖȞ૵ıȚȢ) are broadly synonymous in many OT/LXX writings (see, e.g., Prov 2:6, 30:3, Eccles 1:16-18, 2:21, 26, 9:10, Isa 11:2, Sir 21:18, 4 Macc. 1:16) and since “knowledge” (ȖȞ૵ıȚȢ) is not used in a pejorative sense in OT/LXX, Paul resorts to the term “wisdom” (ıȠijȓĮ) instead of the term “knowledge” (ȖȞ૵ıȚȢ) in this part of the letter.

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3

Jesus Christ to proclaim the Gospel. Paul very often calls himself an apostle in his letters.2 This is probably because there were many people who denied him his apostleship. Next, Paul emphasises that he is an apostle “by the will of God,”3 and that it was God himself who “called” him to become an apostle. Just as in Romans 1:1, he wants his readers to realise that his apostleship is not a human matter, not a personal ambition for instance, but goes back to an order from God, received by the grace of God, as he writes elsewhere in his letters.4 Unfortunately, we know almost nothing about Sosthenes, the “brother” who is mentioned as the other sender of the letter. He is not mentioned in Paul’s other letters, not even in 2 Corinthians. If he is to be identified with Sosthenes the official or president of the synagogue in Corinth mentioned in Acts 18:17, it would mean that he has become a Christian, and is now with Paul in Ephesus. Of course, none of this is improbable, but by mentioning Sosthenes as co-writer, Paul would be pointing out that the contents of the letter had his complete approval. The letter is addressed to the Christian community in Corinth. The formulation “the community of God” is rather distinctive. In the salutations of the NT letters, it recurs only in 2 Corinthians. Paul uses it another four times in 1 Corinthians (see 10:32, 11:16, 22, and 15:9).5 He wants to underline that the Christian community in Corinth is not only a community in the usual sense, but a community that belongs to God. Christians are people who are “sanctified,” that is, separated from the profane world and dedicated to God “through their connection with Christ Jesus.” They are “called” (that is, called and elected by God) to be “saints,”6 not in the ethical sense of the word, but in an eschatological sense; living in the end of times they belong to the new people of God. With the phrase “together with all those who invoke the name of our Lord Jesus Christ wherever they may be” Paul does not want to suggest that the letter is addressed to Christians all over the world. Instead, the phrase is meant to stress that the Corinthian Christians are nothing else but a part of

 2

See Rom 1:1, 11:13, 1 Cor 9:1-2, 15:9, 2 Cor 1:1, 12:12, Gal 1:1, and 1 Thess 2:6; cf. also 1 Cor 1:17. 3 Cf. 2 Cor 1:1, and see further Eph 1:1, Col 1:1, and 2 Tim 1:1. 4 Cf. 1 Cor 15:9-10, and Gal 1:15-16. 5 Cf. Acts 20:28, Gal 1:13, 1 Thess 2:14, 2 Thess 1:4, and 1 Tim 3:5, 15. 6 Cf. Rom 1:7.

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Part One

the one Christian Church scattered all over the world.7 Paul describes the Christians here as people “who invoke the name of our Lord Jesus Christ.” This formulation has been derived from the OT (“to invoke the name of the Lord/God”),8 but the name of “God” has been replaced by the name of “Jesus Christ.”9 Since the formulation is rather stereotypical, it is not very likely that Paul refers to a form of literal invocation, at the Christian gatherings for instance; it is rather a general description of people who “believe in and serve Jesus Christ.” The words “wherever they may be” (lit. “in every place”) are meant to emphasise the universal character of the Christian Church.10 The same is true of the phrase “their Lord as well as ours.”11 Christians all over the world serve the same Lord and belong to one and the same worldwide, like-minded community. In short: in the salutation of the letter, Paul wants his readers in Corinth to realise that they are part of the one and universal community of people who are elected by God. Finally, we find the usual greetings in verse 3. Being an apostle of the Lord, Paul can and may transmit “grace and peace,” that is, the salvation which will come to the elect; to the Christians in Corinth. They may be sure that they will inherit salvation and eternal life at the end of times. These greetings seem to hark back to Jewish blessing formulas: see, for instance, 1 Enoch 5:7, “There will be light, grace and peace for the elect, and they will inherit the earth,” and 2 Baruch 78:2, “Thus says Baruch … to his brothers who have been deported in captivity: ‘grace and peace be with you’.” In the greetings of the NT letters, the Christian twist is obvious: “grace” and “peace” are bestowed not only by God but also by “the Lord Jesus Christ.” Once again the name of Jesus Christ is mentioned in the salutation; without any doubt, he is the chief character in the entire passage 1 Corinthians 1:1-9.

Thanksgiving: 1:4-9 (4) I give constant thanks to my God for you, because of the grace of God that has been given to you through your connection with Christ Jesus.

 7

Cf. also 1 Cor 4:17, 7:17, 11:16, 14:33b, and 36. 8 See, e.g., Gen 4:26, Ps 105:1 (104:1), Joel 2:32, Zeph 3:9, and Zech 13:9. 9 Cf. Acts 9:14, 21. 10 Cf. 2 Cor 2:14, 1 Thess 1:8, 1 Tim 2:8, and cf. also Mal 1:11. 11 For this formulation, cf. Rom 1:12 (“your faith as well as mine”), 16:13 (“his mother as well as mine”), and Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 38.9.

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(5) For through this connection you have been enriched in every respect, that is, in every kind of speech and knowledge. (6) For the testimony about Christ has been firmly anchored in your community, (7) so you will not lack for any spiritual gift as you wait for our Lord Jesus Christ to be revealed. (8) He will strengthen you to the end, so that you will be blameless on the Day of our Lord Jesus Christ. (9) You can trust God: it is he who has called you to form a close community of believers in his Son Jesus Christ our Lord.

After the threefold salutation, we find the traditional thanksgiving. In such a passage, the author of the letter attempts to win over his readers and establish or deepen his relationship with them. He is hoping that, as a result, they will receive his opinions and advice very favourably. Paul thanks God that the Corinthian Christians have received “the grace of God” and that they do not lack in any spiritual gift, such as “inspired speaking” and “knowledge” (vv. 4-7a). They may be sure that Jesus Christ will be with them until the Day of Judgment and that God will keep his promise (vv. 7b9). First of all, Paul tells his readers in Corinth that he recalls them in his prayers,12 and thanks God for the Christian community in Corinth. But the reason he is thankful to God is not, as in other letters, something general like their strong faith, hope or love for one another. This time, Paul points explicitly to “the grace of God” they received when they came to believe in Jesus Christ. With the term “grace,” Paul refers above all to their spiritual gifts, which they possess because they have accepted the Gospel of Jesus Christ. At that time they became “rich” people through their connection with Jesus.13 They have been “enriched in every respect,” but particularly “in every kind of speech and knowledge.” When he refers to “every kind of speech,” Paul does not intend to imply that the Corinthians are masters of rhetoric, but rather that, as teachers, prophets and speakers in tongues, they are uniquely capable of using all kinds of words, phrases and messages whispered to them by the Holy Spirit (see esp. chs. 12-14). The Corinthian Christians also possess the gift of “knowledge” (ȖȞ૵ıȚȢ), that is, the gift of knowing God; of knowing his plan of salvation and the divine secrets of the Christian faith. They know what the Christian faith is all about and they know (or think they know) how people should behave as real Christians. They feel themselves to be “free” and “newborn” human beings, as it were, living “in high spirits,” and with the greatest disdain for all earthly and

 12

Cf. Rom 1:8-10, Phil 1:3-4, and 1 Thess 1:2. 13 Cf. 2 Cor 8:7-9.

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worldly matters. Their lives centre around “knowledge” or “wisdom” (ıȠijȓĮ), related terms, both of which recur rather often in this letter.14 These spiritual gifts–that of “speech” and that of “knowledge”–are closely related, and a number of Corinthian Christians have been boasting of having these very gifts, as will be clear later on in this letter. And although Paul cannot deny that these gifts are godly gifts, he will go on to warn his readers that these gifts may give rise to all kinds of abuses which are at odds with a truly Christian life. For him, some things are much more important than the gifts of speech and knowledge. Nevertheless, Paul praises the Corinthian Christians in this part of the letter, saying that they are “rich” people who “do not lack for any spiritual gift,” since “the testimony about Christ,”15 that is, the Gospel about Jesus Christ, has been firmly established in the Christian community in Corinth. The Corinthian Christians are not doubters, but faithful believers (vv. 6-7a). The apostle will return to the role of the spiritual gifts in chapters 12-14. The Corinthians will have all these gifts until the time that Jesus Christ will be “revealed,” that is, will return in glory, a moment they look forward to eagerly, as do all Christians (v. 7b).16 Then, at the end of times, the judgment of God will take place, but the Christians do not need to be afraid: Jesus Christ17 will “strengthen them to the end.” He will stand with them, so that they will not lose their faith but will be found “blameless” before God on the Day of Judgment, on “the Day of our Lord Jesus Christ”18 (v. 8). Paul ends the salutation with the statement that his readers can have confidence in God, for he is reliable and trustworthy (ʌȚıIJȩȢ), a term also connected elsewhere with God’s judgment.19 Moreover, it is God himself who has called the Christians in Corinth “to form a close community of believers in his Son Jesus Christ our Lord” (v. 9). In other words, they are called into a fellowship of believers based on their connection with God’s

 14

See further 1:17, 19-22, 24, 30, 2:1, 4-7, 13, 3:19, 8:1, 7, 10-11, 12:8, 13:2, 8, 14:6; cf. also 1:25-27, 2:8, 11, 14, 16, 3:10, 18-20, 4:19, 6:5, 8:2-3, 13:9, 12, and 14:7, 9. 15 Cf. 2 Tim 1:8. 16 Cf. Rom 8:19-30, and Phil 3:20. 17 Jesus Christ is probably the subject in v. 8; cf. Phil 3:21, and 1 Thess 3:13. 18 This formulation goes back to the OT phrase “the Day of the Lord” (see, e.g., Amos 5:18, and Joel 2:31); in the OT, “the Lord” refers to God, of course, whereas here “the Lord” is Jesus Christ (cf. 2 Cor 1:14, Phil 1:6, 10, and 2:16). 19 See, e.g., Deut 32:4, and Pss. Sol. 17:10.

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Son Jesus Christ.20 In this letter, Paul reminds his readers in Corinth again and again that they are called by God to be a close-knit community–a group of associates bound together by their faith in Jesus Christ–and as such, they should take care of each other.

Followers of no one else but Jesus Christ: 1:10-17 (10) I appeal to all of you, brothers and sisters, in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ: do not disagree with one another; let there be no divisions among you, but be perfectly united in thought and mind. (11) For, my brothers and sisters, members of Chloe’s household have informed me that there are quarrels among you. (12) What I mean is this: each of you supports a different preacher, that is, one says, “I am a supporter of Paul,” another, “I am a supporter of Apollos,” another, “I am a supporter of Cephas,” and yet another, “I am a supporter of Christ.” (13) Has Christ then been split into multiple people? Was it Paul who was crucified for you? Or were you baptised in the name of Paul? (14) No; I am thankful to God that I did not baptise any of you except Crispus and Gaius, (15) so no one can say that you were baptised in my name. (16) But wait–I forgot, I also baptised Stephanas and his household, but beyond that, I do not remember having baptised anyone else. (17) For Christ did not send me to baptise but to preach the Gospel, and that not with words of wisdom, lest the message of the cross of Christ be no more than empty talk.

Immediately after the salutation, Paul first appeals to his readers in Corinth to be united (v. 10). He has been told by some people from Corinth who visited him in Ephesus that there is division in the Christian community of Corinth: there are several “factions” or “parties” whose members are inspired by different preachers or leaders (vv. 11-12). Paul disagrees: all Christians should have only one “master” or “inspirer,” namely Jesus Christ. It is he who has been crucified for them, it is in his name they have been baptised. Moreover, no particular, magical bond exists between those who are baptised and the one who baptises (v. 13). Anyway, Paul is happy that he has baptised only a few people in Corinth, so that there is no basis for the existence of a “Paul party” (vv. 14-16). Besides, Paul has not been called by Jesus Christ to baptise, but to preach the Gospel (v. 17a). At the end of

 20

The term țȠȚȞȦȞȓĮ, “fellowship” or “partnership,” followed by a genitive means “sharing with one or more individuals who have a common interest in something or someone” rather than “participation in something or someone.” Thus, Paul does not refer to a fellowship of the Corinthians with Christ (through the Holy Spirit, for instance), an interpretation supported by almost all commentators, but to a community of Christian believers established on their faith in Jesus Christ. On Paul’s use of the term țȠȚȞȦȞȓĮ, see further at 10:14-22.

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this paragraph Paul specifies the typical contents of the Gospel: it is not a message characterised by (human) wisdom, but a (divine) message of “the cross of Christ” (v. 17b). This last phrase marks the transition to the section verses 18-31. Paul’s exhortation to be united, “not to disagree with one another,” is enforced by the words “in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ.”21 Paul is, as it were, begging his readers to be like-minded. By the term ਕįİȜijȠȓ, which is translated both here and elsewhere in the letter as “brothers and sisters,” Paul is probably referring to all Christians in Corinth, men as well as women. Also, linguistically, the (masculine) plural form does not exclude a “mixed” group of men and women. The same phenomenon can be found in many other languages, for instance: in Spanish, padre means “father” and madre means “mother,” but padres means “father and mother.” Likewise, hermano means “brother” and hermana means “sister,” but hermanos means “brothers” (if there are no sisters) as well as “brother(s) and sister(s).”22 Thus, Paul urges his readers to be united or, literally, “to speak the same,” (IJઁ Į੝IJઁ ȜȑȖİȚȞ), the Greek idiom for “agreeing with one another,” and not only in words.23 And being united excludes any form of division.24 At the end of verse 10, Paul once again exhorts his readers to be “perfectly united in thought and mind”; there should be no division among the members of the community caused by following certain “masters,” “missionaries,” or “leaders.”25 Paul does not refer to any doctrinal divisions among the Corinthian Christians, but rather to their lack of unity when it comes to the question of which preacher or leader is the best and most capable mediator to transmit the message of God. Paul mentions this division within the Christian community in Corinth because he has been informed about it by some “members of Chloe’s household” (v. 11). Since Paul does not say anything more about these people or about Chloe, we may conclude that they were well-known to the Corinthians. They were probably slaves or other members of Chloe’s household in Corinth who had been sent to Paul in Ephesus by Chloe, a

 21

Cf. Rom 15:30, and 2 Cor 10:1. 22 Cf. also Geschwister in German, which means “brother(s) and sister(s).” 23 Cf., e.g., Josephus, A.J. 18.378. 24 Cf. also 11:18-22, and 12:25. 25 For more or less similar phrases, cf. Rev 17:13, 17, Josephus, A.J. 7.60, Ign. Magn. 7:1, and Plutarch, Cam. 40.2 (Vit. par. 150CD).

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well-to-do woman, in order to inform him about the troubles in the Corinthian community.26 The controversies within the Christian community had to do with the existence of a number of different factions or parties. Paul states that every Christian in Corinth is a follower or a devotee of a different leader or preacher, which is without any doubt somewhat exaggerated. Nevertheless, there were clearly groups of Christians who centred around different leaders. Paul mentions four of them: “supporters of Paul,” “supporters of Apollos,” “supporters of Cephas,” and “supporters of Christ”27 (v. 12).28 According to Paul, these Corinthians do not realise that the apostles and other preachers are no more than servants of God, commissioned by God to preach the Gospel and to teach Christians, but that it is Jesus Christ who is the only Saviour; the only real leader. In this context, Paul feels that perhaps some of the Christians in Corinth have trouble with him and prefer more appealing missionaries like Apollos and Cephas, or prefer to turn directly to Jesus Christ. As to the four “leaders” mentioned by Paul in verse 12, he refers first of all to himself. That there was a group of Christians in Corinth who were followers of Paul is not surprising; he was the founder of the Christian community there, and had lived for a considerable period in the city.29 Nor is it surprising that Apollos is mentioned by Paul as another “leader” for a number of Corinthian Christians. We know from Acts 18:24-19:1 that a certain Apollos, a Jew who had become a Christian, had lived in Corinth for a while. If the author of Acts has provided historically reliable information it may be that this Apollos is the same person as the one mentioned here by Paul. According to the author of Acts, Apollos came from the important city of Alexandria and was “an eloquent man, competent in the use of the Scriptures.” If all of this is true, Apollos must have played an important role within the Christian community in Corinth. From the following chapters, it becomes clear that Paul realises that it is his colleague

 26

It is not very likely that they were the same people as those mentioned by name in 16:17. 27 Lit. “I belong to Paul … I belong to Apollos … I belong to Cephas … I belong to Christ.” Cf. also 3:4. 28 For this formulation (ਥȖȫ … ȆĮȪȜȠȣ, ਥȖȫ … ਝʌȠȜȜ૵, ਥȖȫ … ȀȘij઼, ਥȖȫ … ȋȡȚıIJȠ૨), cf. Diogenes Laertius, Vit. phil. 6.82, and Plutarch, Num. 17.3 (Vit. par. 71E). 29 Cf. Acts 18.

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Apollos in particular who is very popular among the members of the Christian community in Corinth, and who represents a real threat to his authority. Cephas, the third “leader” mentioned by Paul in verse 12, is Peter, the most prominent disciple of Jesus and one of the leaders of the Christian community in Jerusalem.30 We do not know whether Peter had once visited the city of Corinth; it is possible, but not very probable. Nevertheless, we can assume that the Corinthian Christians had heard about him31 and understood that he was one of those who had known Jesus in person and who was now one of the Christian leaders in Jerusalem.32 It is therefore quite understandable that there were Christians in Corinth who had become supporters of Peter. The fourth name mentioned by Paul is “Christ.” Many scholars think that what we are dealing with here is some kind of a practical joke by Paul; he wants to add a little force to his argument in order to show the Corinthians that their divisions are completely absurd and ridiculous. But Paul’s reaction to the division in the Corinthian community starts with verse 13, and rhetorically it would not be wise to add a fictitious and absurd example (a “Christ party”). It is therefore more likely that Paul was informed by some members of Chloe’s household that a “Christ party” did indeed exist in Corinth. Perhaps its members just opposed the other parties, not understanding that Jesus Christ’s role in God’s plan of salvation was completely different from the role of the apostles or missionaries of the Gospel. Being “followers” or “supporters” of Christ is something that applies to all Christians (see 3:23) of course, but when it goes hand-in-hand with the rejection of those apostles or preachers who are servants of God and ordained to proclaim the Gospel, there comes into being something which can be called a “Christ party”; and that is something which, according to Paul, is to be rejected. In verse 13, Paul wants his readers in Corinth to see how absurd and foolish such a division is. He attempts to achieve this by means of three rhetorical questions. With the first question, “Has Christ then been split into multiple

 30

His name was originally “Simon,” but he became generally known by his nickname “Cephas” (in Aramaic) or “Peter” (in Greek) (see John 1:42). Paul usually names him “Cephas” (1 Cor 1:12, 3:22, 9:5, 15:5, Gal 1:18, 2:9, 11, and 14), only twice “Peter” (Gal 2:7-8). 31 See also 1 Cor 15:5. 32 See Gal 2:9.

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people?” (lit. “Has Christ been divided?”), Paul wants to make clear that nobody can take Jesus Christ’s place in God’s plan of salvation (v. 13a).33 Paul, Apollos, Peter and other people are not “divisions” or “offshoots”–as it were–of Jesus Christ, with each one of them playing a more or less similar role to that of Christ himself. For it is Christ who was crucified for the sake of others, and not, for instance, Paul (v. 13b). That Paul uses the term “crucify” (“was crucified for you”) here in this context, instead of the usual formula “(He) died (for us),”34 shows that he wants to stress the fact that Jesus Christ died on the cross: he did not just die, but he was crucified, which implies the uttermost form of suffering and humiliation. This will become a central theme in the paragraphs which follow. The last phrase in verse 13, “Or were you baptised in the name of Paul?,” is another rhetorical question intended to make clear that all Christians have been baptised “in the name of Christ,”35 and not in the name of somebody else. When people are christened “in the name of Jesus Christ” they have accepted Christ as their Lord and Saviour. This shows once again that there can be no place for a “Paul party” or any other party whatsoever in the Christian community. In verses 14-16, Paul comments on the last phrase of verse 13, that is, on the event of any christening “in the name of” Paul (or any other Gospel preacher). Perhaps there were people in Corinth (or elsewhere) who held those who had baptised them in high esteem and, as a consequence, became “supporters” or “followers” of their baptisers. Paul makes it clear that he is happy that he baptised only a few people in Corinth: only Crispus and Gaius and, as he adds as a kind of afterthought, Stephanas and his household. In Acts 18:8, it is told that Crispus had been the official or the president of the synagogue in Corinth when Paul was preaching the Gospel in that city, and that he became a believer in Jesus Christ–that is, of course, if this Chrispus is the same as the one mentioned here by Paul.

 33

Here, “Christ” refers to Jesus Christ, as in the previous verse, not to “the body of Christ,” that is, the Christian Church. 34 See, e.g., Rom 5:6-8, 2 Cor 5:15, and 1 Thess 5:10. The formulation “(He) has been crucified for us” is unique in the NT. 35 Cf., e.g., Acts 2:38, 8:16, 10:48, and 19:5.

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Gaius may have been Paul’s host in Corinth when the apostle wrote his letter to the Romans (see Rom 16:23) if, once again, Paul is referring to the same person. This is far from certain; “Gaius” was a common name at the time. From 1 Corinthians 16:15-17 we can conclude that Stephanas and the people living in his household were the first ones in the Roman province of Achaia, of which Corinth was the capital, who came to believe in Jesus Christ. As such, they had a particular position in the Christian community in Corinth.36 Passages like Acts 11:14, 16:15, 32, 34, and 18:8 make clear that it was quite common when somebody became a Christian for his entire “household,” that is, all those who lived together with the master or the lady of the house (children, parents, relatives, and slaves) to become Christians and to be baptised. In short: Paul reminds his readers in Corinth that he has baptised only a few people. Probably he left the act of baptism to his associates.37 Paul ends this paragraph with the statement that “Christ did not send me to baptise but to preach the Gospel” (v. 17a). He knows that he has been sent by God or Jesus Christ to preach the Gospel,38 and this mission has dictated the path of his life.39 A new theme comes to the fore in the last part of verse 17, one which Paul will explain in detail in the following sections in Chapters 1 and 2. It is that his message about Jesus Christ has nothing to do “with words of wisdom, lest the message of the cross of Christ be no more than empty talk.” With the term “wisdom,” which Paul clearly rejects here, he refers to a kind of earthly, worldly, or human wisdom as opposed to godly wisdom (see vv. 18-31). His message is not a matter of worldly wisdom, but it is full of godly wisdom (see 2:1-5). Otherwise, his message about “the cross of Christ” would be “empty talk.”40 For in the eyes of humans, being saved by somebody’s death (or crucifixion) might seem a rather foolish message, and certainly not a message of wisdom. From the fact that Paul unexpectedly and abruptly introduces the term “wisdom” here, right after his words about the divisions and factions within the Christian community in Corinth, we

 36

Cf. also, e.g., Rom 16:5. 37 Cf., e.g., Acts 10:48, where it is said that Peter “ordered them (= Cornelius and his people) to be baptised in the name of Jesus Christ.” 38 Cf. Acts 22:21, and 26:17. 39 See, e.g., Rom 1:15, 15:20, 1 Cor 9:16, 18, 15:1-11, and 2 Cor 10:16. 40 Cf. Gal 5:11.

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may conclude with some degree of certainty that there was a connection between these two items. It seems likely that Paul’s performance in Corinth had made an unfavourable impression on a number of Christians, especially in retrospect when they had later got to know Apollos, who had turned out to be a far more eloquent and capable preacher and teacher than Paul. In all probability, this became the grounds for an “Apollos party” in the Corinthian community. It is surprising that the words “cross,” “crucify,” and “crucifixion” do not occur very often in the NT, except, of course, in the Gospels. Paul usually speaks of Jesus Christ’s death (and resurrection). The term “cross” (ıIJĮȣȡȩȢ) is found particularly in a polemical context, and has some special connotations.41 Jesus’ death on the cross means more than just his death; above all his death on the cross means humiliation, weakness, and shame.42 A message about being saved by an episode of weakness and humiliation does not sit well with a worldly concept of wisdom. That is why, according to Paul, a message of salvation that fitted a worldly, human concept of wisdom would nullify the power of the cross of Christ.

Jesus Christ, God’s power and wisdom: 1:18-25 (18) Indeed, the message of the cross sounds like foolishness to those who will be destroyed, but to those of us who are to be saved, it is the power of God. (19) For it is written: “I will destroy the wisdom of the wise and I will reject the intelligence of the intelligent.” (20) Where is the wise one? Where is the expert in the Law? Where is the enquirer of this age? Has God not shown that the wisdom of the world is in fact foolishness? (21) For since, according to the wisdom of God, the world was incapable of coming to know God by its wisdom, God has decided to save those who believe through the foolishness of his Gospel. (22) For the Jews demand miraculous signs and the Greeks look for wisdom; (23) but we proclaim a Christ who died on the cross, a message which is a stumbling block to the Jews and foolishness to the Gentiles, (24) but which, for those called by God, both Jews and Greeks, reveals a Christ who is a sign of God’s power and God’s wisdom. (25) For God’s so-called foolishness is wiser than human wisdom, and God’s so-called weakness is stronger than human strength.

In this paragraph, Paul gives a first explanation of the final phrase of verse 17. He argues that the message about the beneficial effects of Jesus Christ’s death on the cross is a sign of God’s wisdom, although it may be an offence

 41

Cf., e.g., 1 Cor 1:18, 23, 2:2, Gal 3:1, 5:11, 6:12, 14, Phil 2:8, and 3:18. 42 Cf. also 2 Cor 13:4.

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in the eyes of the Jews and complete foolishness in the eyes of the Greeks or the Gentiles (vv. 18, and 22-24). From the OT the Christians have learnt that God has annihilated all human wisdom; in fact, human wisdom is no wisdom at all, otherwise people would surely have found God. The Christians must realise that they are saved by their belief in a message that is completely foolish in the eyes of the world (vv. 19-21), and that God’s wisdom and power are far superior to all human wisdom and power (v. 25). Paul comes straight to the point at the beginning of this paragraph: God’s message of salvation is “the message of the cross.” This is, surprisingly, a unique formulation in the NT; Paul does not speak of “the message of God” or “the message of Jesus Christ,” but intentionally talks about “the message of the cross,” and the death of Christ on the cross will be the central theme in the verses that follow. In verse 18, Paul argues that unbelievers (“those who will be destroyed”) will consider this message about Jesus Christ to be complete foolishness; they will certainly not accept this message, and they will consequently be punished by God at the Day of Judgment. Of course, martyrdom, that is, voluntarily sacrificing oneself, is something that may earn respect,43 but to be saved by someone who died shamefully on a cross is nothing but foolishness.44 However, Paul continues by saying that to us, that is, to the people “who are to be saved,” this message about Christ is a sign of God’s power. Perhaps one might expect Paul to say that the Gospel is a sign of God’s wisdom, but here he prefers to use the term “power” (įȪȞĮȝȚȢ).45 “Wisdom” and “power” are terms that are traditionally often found together,46 and Paul’s preference for the word “power” in this verse is understandable, since in this world a death on the cross is generally seen as humiliation and weakness,47 but according to Paul, God has created a reversal of values: what people usually consider weak or powerless is rather an expression of godly power.48

 43

Cf. Rom 5:7. 44 Here the word “foolishness” (ȝȦȡȓĮ) occurs for the first time in this letter. This term, together with its cognates, occurs quite freqently in 1 Cor (see 1:18-27, 2:14, 3:18-19, and 4:10), as the opposite of “wisdom”; cf. further, e.g., Deut 32:6, Isa 19:11-12, and Sir 20-21. 45 For the expression “the power of God,” cf. Rom 1:16, 2 Cor 4:7, and 6:7. 46 See, e.g., Prov 8:12-14, 1 Kings 2:10, and esp. Jer 9:23-24 (9:22-23), a passage that is partly cited by Paul at the end of this chapter. 47 Cf. also 2 Cor 13:3-4. 48 Cf. Justin, 1 Apol. 60.11.

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Paul illustrates this reversal of values, which involves the failure of all earthly, human wisdom, by means of a quotation from the OT. Verse 19 is an almost literal quotation of Isaiah 29:14;49 only the last word of the LXX quotation (“I will reject,” ਕșİIJȒıȦ) is not found in the Isaiah passage, but seems to be derived from Psalm 33:10 (32:10 LXX).50 In Isaiah 29:14, it is a statement against the people of Israel and their (spiritual) leaders. In the text of the Psalm, it is a much more general statement against all people and their leaders. Paul combines, as it were, the two OT texts in an attempt to show to his readers in Corinth that God rejects all earthly wisdom; all human wisdom has been disqualified by God, since it is connected with human arrogance and pride (see below). Paul continues his argument in verse 20. This time he uses a traditional stylistic device to once again express the total destruction of human wisdom, namely by bringing up three questions, each introduced by the words “Where is …?” (ȆȠ૨ …).51 Style, as well as content, leads us to believe that Paul has in mind Isaiah 19:11-12 and 33:18 (LXX) in particular to make his point. The first passage from Isaiah runs as follows: “The leaders of Zoan are complete fools, the advice of Pharaoh’s wisest counsellors has turned out to be foolish. How can you say to Pharaoh: ‘I am a wise man … Where are your wise men?’” And in Isaiah 33:18, we read: “Where are the experts in the Law? Where are the ones who weigh? Where are the ones who count?” The third question (“Where is the enquirer of this age?”) makes clear once more what Paul wants to say. The rare Greek word for “enquirer” or “investigator” (ıȣȗȘIJȘIJȒȢ), mostly translated as “debater,” is related to the verb ıȣȗȘIJȘIJİ૙Ȟ, which means “to debate, to discuss,” but also “to enquire” or “investigate.” It is, therefore, much more likely that Paul uses the word in the sense of enquiry, that is, someone who questions and thinks about all manner of things and who, as such, is more or less comparable to a “wise” man and “an expert in the Law.” But the emphasis here lies on the additional clause “of this age.” It is the enquirer–the wise man–who lives in this age, who belongs to this age, whom Paul seeks to make ridiculous. The phrase “(the wisdom) of the world” at the end of verse 20 expresses the same idea.

 49

“I will destroy the wisdom of the wise and I will hide (țȡȪȥȦ) the intelligence of the intelligent.” 50 “The Lord … rejects (ਕșİIJİ૙) the plans of the peoples and he rejects (ਕșİIJİ૙) the plans of their leaders.” 51 See further, e.g., Isa 19:12, 33:18, 36:19, 37:13, Jer 2:28, Hos 13:10, 14, Rom 3:27, and 1 Cor 15:55.

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Both words–age and world–refer to the same thing in Paul’s eyes, namely the profane, non-Christian world which is doomed to perish.52 According to Paul, God has rejected every kind of earthly, worldly, human wisdom. This kind of wisdom has turned out to be complete foolishness. Indeed, God has decided “to save those who believe through the foolishness of his Gospel” (v. 21b). The world may find the message of Christ crucified to be “foolishness” but in reality it is “God’s saving power for everyone who believes” (Rom 1:16). It is the way in which God will save people, “since, according to the wisdom of God, the world was incapable of coming to know God by its wisdom” (v. 21a). In spite of all their so-called wisdom, not all people on earth have recognised the Creator of heaven and earth.53 All this is “according to the wisdom of God”;54 it has happened exactly as God has decided. In his wisdom he has decreed55 that the world would not and could not find him in order to save those who believe through the death of his Son, Jesus Christ. Over and above the wisdom of the world, which has been declared foolishness by God, there is the wisdom of God, which is true wisdom. Neither “the Jews” nor “the Greeks” (ਰȜȜȘȞİȢ)56 have been able to find or recognise God (v. 22), for the first of these “demand miraculous signs”; miracles or clear demonstrations of God’s power. In this context, Paul thinks of all those signs of God’s power which were visible in the history of the people of Israel and which were repeatedly demanded from God by the Israelites.57 But in the eyes of the Jews, someone crucified is not exactly a demonstration of God’s power! On the contrary. To them, such a message is something of “a stumbling block” (v. 23); dying on a cross is a curse, an

 52

Cf. also 3:18-19. 53 Cf. Gal 4:8-9, 1 Thess 4:5, and see further 2 Thess 1:8. 54 This phrase is sometimes interpreted as if we should read that the world has not found or recognised God “from his wisdom,” that is, from his wisdom that can be seen from his works, from the things he has made, from nature. In that case, one should translate the clause as follows: “since, as the wisdom of God was visible in all things, in its wisdom the world was incapable to come to know God.” However, knowing God from nature, from creation (cf., e.g., Rom 1:20), is not an issue in this paragraph. 55 Cf. 2:7, Rom 11:33, and see further Eph 3:10. 56 That is, all people who are not Jews (or Christians) and who live in the Roman Empire, which was deeply infuenced by Hellenistic culure, in short: all Gentiles. 57 See, e.g., Num 14:22, Deut 4:34, 6:22, 7:19, Isa 7:11, Joel 3:3, Mark 8:11-12, Matt 12:38, 16:4, Luke 11:16, and John 4:48.

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offence, it does not match Jewish conceptions of the Messiah and prevents the Jews from accepting the Gospel.58 But “the Greeks” have not found and recognised God either, for they “look for wisdom” (v. 22). They ask for things or events that are evidence of (God’s) wisdom, and not a message about someone dying on a cross. To Greeks or “Gentiles” (਩șȞȘ),59 such a message is nothing but “foolishness” (v. 23).60 Paul and his colleagues proclaim “a Christ who died on the cross” (v. 23), “a Christ who is a sign of God’s power and God’s wisdom,” to all who are “called by God, both Jews and Greeks” (v. 24). Verse 24 takes up verse 18, but there is a difference: this time Paul states that the message about the cross of Jesus Christ is not only a sign of God’s power, but also a sign of God’s wisdom. Over and above human wisdom, there is the wisdom of God; God’s wisdom is completely different from human wisdom. What people consider foolishness and weakness has turned out to be a manifestation of God’s wisdom and power, which transcend all human knowledge and ability (v. 25).

Jesus Christ, our wisdom from God: 1:26-31 (26) Yes, brothers and sisters, remember what you were when you were called by God: not many of you were wise by human standards, not many of you were powerful and few of you were of noble birth. (27) But in order to shame the wise, God has chosen what is foolish in this world, and he has chosen what is weak in this world to shame the strong. (28) He has chosen what is insignificant and despised in this world, that is, a mere nothing, in order to annihilate the things that are. (29) This has happened so that no human being may boast before him. (30) But thanks to him, you are connected with Christ Jesus, who, for us, has become wisdom from God, that is, our righteousness, our sanctification and our redemption. (31) Therefore, it is written: “Let the one who boasts boast of the Lord.”

 58

Cf. also Rom 9:33, Gal 5:11, Ign. Eph. 18:1, and see further Justin, Dial. 32.1, and 89.2. 59 The term “Gentiles” (਩șȞȘ) has fewer cultural but more theological connotations than the term “Greeks” (ਰȜȜȘȞİȢ), but both terms refer to the same group of people, namely non-Jews. 60 Cf., e.g., Justin, 1 Apol. 13.4, Lucian, Peregr. 13, Origen, Cels. 6.34, and see further Pliny the Younger, Ep. 10.96.8.

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In this paragraph, Paul addresses himself directly to his readers in Corinth. Obviously, most Corinthian Christians were among those who could not make their mark on society in Corinth (v. 26). Nevertheless, they have been called by God, and God has brought about a reversal of values (vv. 27-28). Being “nothing” seems to be a condition of being called by God, so there are no grounds for boasting (v. 29). The Christians in Corinth, however, feel connected to Jesus Christ, as a consequence of which they have become “wise,” “righteous,” “holy” and “liberated” (v. 30). This reversal of values means that one should boast of God, and of him alone (v. 31). By means of a direct exhortation, Paul urges his readers in Corinth to think of the past, of the moment when they were called by God to believe in his message of salvation. Most of them are not “wise,” “powerful” or “of noble birth” (v. 26) and almost none of them has received a fine Hellenistic education, and they are therefore not considered “wise,” at least not “by human standards”; a phrase added by Paul because, according to him, another type of wisdom–namely the true wisdom of God–also exists. Nor were most of the Corinthian Christians “powerful”; at the time of being called they did not belong to the Corinthian elite, the group of rich and powerful people who had much economic and political power in Corinthian society. Finally, most of the Corinthians were not from distinguished families; some, like Crispus (see v. 14), might have belonged to the higher classes of society, but they were, apparently, the exception. In the verses which follow, Paul makes clear why God has, in particular, chosen people regarded as “nothing” in society. In Paul’s eyes, God has chosen those considered to be foolish, weak, insignificant, despised and counting for nothing in this world (“what is foolish, weak, insignificant and despised in this world, that is, a mere nothing”). God has done this in order to “shame the wise and the strong,” or, in short, to “annihilate the things that are.”61 God’s choice of the foolish, the weak, the insignificant and despised means the end of the wise and the strong. The latter will be “put to shame.”62 The foolish and the weak have been chosen by God, whereas the wise and

 61

Cf. vv. 19-20. 62 For the expression “to be put to shame,” cf., e.g., Ps 6:10 (6:11), 35:4 (34:4), and esp. Jer 10:14/51:17, “Everyone is foolish and without knowledge; every goldsmith is put to shame.”

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powerful of this world have been rejected by him; as always he “exalts the humble” and “humbles those who exalt themselves.”63 In summary, God has chosen people who are “mere nothing,” who count for nothing in this world, precisely in order to “annihilate (țĮIJĮȡȖİ૙Ȟ)64 the things that are.” The terms “ a mere nothing” (IJ੹ ȝ੽ ੕ȞIJĮ) and “the things that are” (IJ੹ ੕ȞIJĮ) are traditionally found in passages dealing with the creation of the world; God has made “what is” out of “what is not.”65 In our text, Paul has personified these terms: “what is not” refers to people who count for nothing,66 whereas “what is” refers to people who are wise and strong by human standards.67 Because God has called people who are “mere nothing,” there is no place for boasting (v. 29). For Paul, this is a central theme in this paragraph as he attempts once again to make clear to the Corinthians that to be proud of having all kinds of spiritual gifts (above all the gift of “knowledge”) is a sure sign of foolishness. Therefore, by the same token, there are no grounds for being “supporters” of Apollos either. At the end of the paragraph (v. 31), Paul freely quotes the last clause of Jeremiah 9:23 (9:22), which “proves” that one should only boast of “the Lord”: “Let the wise not boast of their wisdom, nor the strong of their strength, nor the wealthy of their wealth, but if anyone must boast, let him boast of this: that he understands and recognises that I am the Lord.”68 In verse 30, Paul wants the Corinthian Christians to realise that they are connected with Christ Jesus “thanks to God,” because it is God himself who has called the Christians in Corinth to believe in Jesus Christ.69 Most of

 63

Cf., e.g., Job 5:11-13, Ps 37:34-40 (36:34-40), Prov 3:34, Let. Aris. 263, Matt 23:12, Luke 1:51-53, 14:11, 18:14, Jas 4:6, and 1 Pet 5:5. 64 This Greek verb is often used to describe the eschatological destruction of the world, God’s enemies, the devil or the power of death by God: see, e.g., 2 Thess 2:8, 2 Tim 1:10, and Heb 2:14, and also 1 Cor 2:6, 6:13, 13:8, 10, 15:24, and 26. God’s choice for the poor, the foolish and the weak will herald the end of all worldly powers. 65 Cf., e.g., 2 Macc 7:28, 2 Bar. 21:4, 48:8, Philo, Spec. 4.187, Rom 4:17, and Herm. Vis. 1.1.6. 66 Cf. also Sophocles, Aj. 1094-97, and Epictetus, Diss. 3.9.14. 67 Cf. 2 Clem. 1:8, “For he (God) called us when we were not, and he wanted that out of nothing we would come to being.” 68 Cf. Rom 5:11, 2 Cor 10:17, and 1 Clem. 13:1. As in the Jeremiah passage “the Lord” (țȪȡȚȠȢ) in 1 Cor 1:31 refers to God (cf. also Rom 5:11). 69 For the expression “thanks to God,” cf. 2 Cor 3:5, and 5:18.

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them were “foolish, weak, insignificant and despised,” but God has brought about a reversal of values, and now they are connected to his Son, Jesus Christ. For Christ has become our “wisdom from God,” that is: thanks to God, Christians have become “wise,” even if they were “foolish.” Moreover, Jesus Christ has become “our righteousness, our sanctification and our redemption,” three more or less similar terms referring to the new situation in which the Christians find themselves: they have been justified and declared righteous, which means that, at their conversion, their former sins were forgiven, they were sanctified, and have become “holy.”70 By their redemption they have been liberated from the power of sin.71

Paul’s message about Jesus Christ crucified: 2:1-5 (1) When I came to you and told you the secret of God, brothers and sisters, it was not as someone who wanted to stand out in words or wisdom. (2) For I decided that, while I was with you, I would have no knowledge but Jesus Christ– Christ who died on the cross. (3) I was with you as someone who was weak, anxious and insecure. (4) The message I preached, the Gospel I proclaimed, did not convince you with words of wisdom, but by a demonstration of the power of the Spirit. (5) For your faith should not rely on human wisdom but on the power of God.

In this paragraph, Paul reminds his readers in Corinth of his visit to the city. He fully understands that at the time, he appeared to be rather weak, scared and insecure (vv. 1 and 3), but he declares to the Corinthians that this was deliberate. He wanted to proclaim a Jesus Christ who had died on the cross (v. 2). The Corinthians must realise that their conversion was not due to a message full of human wisdom, but as a result of one accompanied by a demonstration of the power of the Holy Spirit (vv. 4-5). Paul was called by God (or Jesus Christ) to proclaim the Gospel, and that “not with words of wisdom” (1:17). This had been noted by the Corinthian Christians when Paul was with them in Corinth.72 At the time, he had told them of “the secret of God,”73 that is, God’s plan of salvation, with Christ’s death on the cross at its centre. His preaching was not characterised by an impressive display of words of (human) wisdom, by means of which he

 70

See also at 1:2. 71 Cf. also 6:11, Rom 3:24, and further Eph 1:7. 72 Cf. Acts 18:1-18. 73 Cf. 2:7, 4:1, Rom. 16:25, etc. Some Greek manuscripts read “the testimony of God” instead of “the secret of God,” but this reading is most probably not original and it does not recur elsewhere in the NT.

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might easily have made everyone accept his message. On the contrary, it was Christ’s death on the cross that was central to his message, and he is fully aware that such a message does not fit with most people’s idea of wisdom (vv. 1-2; cf. 1:23). His attitude was also characterised by weakness, anxiety and insecurity (v. 3).74 Paul’s message was not intended to be a demonstration of worldly, human wisdom; it “did not convince with words of wisdom.”75 Instead, he convinced the Corinthians “by a demonstration of the power of the Spirit” (v. 4). It is also obvious in this paragraph that Paul is defending himself against those Corinthians who found him to be a “weak” apostle and who had become “supporters” of Apollos. He defends himself by telling them that what they saw as his rather weak performance had been a deliberate choice, fully in accord with the content of the Gospel. Paul continues by telling his readers that they were ultimately convinced to accept his message “by a demonstration of the power of the Spirit” (lit. “by a demonstration of the Spirit and the power”). Paul is not referring to any kind of miracle or healing which accompanied his proclamation,76 rather, he wants the Corinthians to see how the Gospel had worked on them; what they experienced when they heard his preaching and converted to Christianity. At that time, the power of God and his Holy Spirit became visible to all those who had accepted Paul’s message about Jesus Christ.77 They did not become Christians because the message was a demonstration of human wisdom, but because they felt “the power of God” within themselves (v. 5) and received all those spiritual gifts which they now possessed in abundance (see 1:5-7).

The Gospel as a demonstration of God’s wisdom: 2:6-16 (6) We do speak wisdom, but only in the eyes of those who are mature in faith, and it is not a wisdom of this age nor of the rulers of this age, who will be annihilated. (7) No, we speak God’s wisdom, which was secret and hidden, and

 74

For the terms “anxious” and “insecure” to characterise such an attitude, see also 2 Cor 7:15, Phil 2:12, and cf. further Eph 6:5. In this context, the term “weak” is to be interpreted the same way; it does not refer to some kind of illness or trouble from outside. 75 Or “did not convince by wisdom,” according to some other Greek manuscripts, which perhaps present the original text. 76 So, e.g., in Rom 15:19. 77 Cf. 1:18-25, and 4:20, “The kingdom of God is not a matter of words, but of power.”

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which God decreed before the ages would serve to our glory. (8) None of the rulers of this age have understood this wisdom, for if they had, they would not have crucified the Lord of glory. (9) But it is about–as it is written–“things that no eye has seen, nor ear has heard, nor that had come to mind; things that God has prepared for those who love him.” (10) But it is to us, that God has revealed these things through the Spirit. For the Spirit understands all things, even the deepest secrets of God. (11) For what human being knows what is going on in another’s mind? Only the human spirit within him is aware of it. Likewise, nobody knows what is going on in God’s mind; only the Spirit of God is aware of it. (12) What we have received, however, is not the spirit of the world but the Spirit that comes from God, and therefore we know all the things that have been granted to us by God. (13) And we speak about these things not with words that human wisdom has taught us, but that we have learnt from the Spirit, so that we may link the things of the Spirit to the words of the Spirit. (14) He who is driven by worldly matters cannot accept the things that come from the Spirit of God; he finds them foolish and he cannot understand them, because they can only be understood by means of the Spirit. (15) But he who is driven by the Spirit understands all these things, while no other person can understand him. (16) For “who will know the mind of the Lord and will give him advice?” Well, we have the mind of Christ!

Although the Corinthian Christians were not touched by the “wisdom” of Paul’s message, it is indeed a message of wisdom nonetheless, as Paul indicates right at the beginning of this new paragraph. But the “wisdom” of his message is a godly wisdom, and as such can only be understood by those “mature in faith” (vv. 6-9). This wisdom has been revealed by God to Paul and his companions; to people driven by the Holy Spirit. They know the deepest secrets of God and God’s plan of salvation, and that is the message they proclaim (vv. 10-16). The message proclaimed by Paul and his colleagues is indeed a message of wisdom (cf. 1:24), but it is only understood as such by people who are “mature in faith”; by those Christians who have grown to maturity in matters of belief. In Paul’s view, the Corinthian Christians are still “infants in their belief in Christ” (3:1). They may have felt the power of God and the Holy Spirit in their souls, they may see themselves as “free and wise” people, but they do not understand that the fact that Jesus Christ died on the cross, is central to God’s message, and that this message involves true, godly wisdom. Such wisdom is certainly “not a wisdom of this age nor of the rulers of this age”; it is not a worldly, human wisdom nor is it considered to be wisdom by those who are in charge here and now (v. 6). Verse 8 and passages such as Romans 13:378 make it clear that “the rulers of this age”

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Cf. also Acts 3:17, 4:5, 8, and 26.

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refers to the human authorities in this world, and not to spiritual powers or evil spirits. The phrase “of this age” (in vv. 6 and 8)79 also indicates that Paul does not particularly or exclusively have Jewish leaders in mind, but is thinking of worldly leaders in general. At the same time, Paul points out that there will be an end to the earthly existence of these leaders, perishable as they are as human beings.80 As people who are still “infants in their belief in Christ,” the Corinthian Christians do not realise that the wisdom of the Gospel is wisdom of a different kind; it is the wisdom of God (v. 7).81 This wisdom has been “secret and hidden” for a long time,82 indeed, God made this secret plan “before the ages,”83 and it was meant to lead to our salvation; to “the glory” which will be shared by the Christian communities.84 In verse 8, Paul continues by saying that “none of the rulers of this age have understood this wisdom,”85 otherwise, “they would not have crucified the Lord of glory,”86 Jesus Christ.87 Paul demonstrates that God’s plan of salvation has been “secret and hidden” for such a long time, also from the “rulers of this age,” by means of a quotation from the Scriptures. That, at least, seems to be what is implied by the words “as it is written” in verse 9, as this is the usual Pauline introduction to a quotation from the OT/LXX, and it is likely that Paul believed that the phrases which followed were indeed a quotation from the OT/LXX. The problem, however, is that these phrases do not occur in the Scriptures. Passages like Isaiah 64:4 (3), “From time immemorial have our ears heard or our eyes seen any other God but you?” and 65:16 LXX, “because their former troubles will be forgotten and will not come to mind,” are often proposed, but strictly speaking, they are no more than vague reminiscences.

 79

Cf. also 1:20. 80 Cf. 1:28, 2 Cor 3:11, and 13. 81 Cf. 1:21, 24, and 30. 82 Cf. Eph 3:3-12, Col 1:26, and see also Rom 16:25. 83 Cf. (again) Eph 3:9, and Col 1:26. 84 Cf. 15:43, Rom 8:17, and 2 Cor 4:17. 85 Cf. at v. 6. 86 The title “(the Lord) of glory” was usually connected with God (see Ps 24:7 [23:7], 29:3 [28:3], 1 En. 22:14, 25:7, Acts 7:2, and Eph 1:17), but is used by Paul in this verse as an epithet for Jesus Christ (so also in Jas 2:1). 87 Cf. Luke 23:34, Acts 3:17, 13:27, and also Ascen. Isa. 9:14, “and they will crucify him, without knowing who he is,” and 11:19.

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Rather, Paul offers a traditional quotation that would have been well-known within Jewish and early-Christian circles at the time, where these phrases are found in more or less similar terms. See, for instance, the Coptic version of the Testament of Jacob 5, where it is told that, on his way to heaven, Jacob is allowed to see all the good things “that have been prepared for the righteous, that no eye has seen, nor ear has heard, nor has come to men’s minds: things that have been prepared by God for those he loves, for those who will do his will on earth.” Or the Ethiopic version of the Apocalypse of Ezra fol. 71v, in which we read that at the final judgment the righteous will receive their reward “prepared by God already before the creation of the world, that no eye has seen, nor ear has heard, nor has come to man’s mind; which has been prepared by God for his elect ones, who have loved him.” According to this Jewish-Christian tradition, the anticipated rewards for the righteous are things that surpass all human understanding. Paul does not, however, speak of these anticipated rewards for the righteous. It is God’s secret plan of salvation that he describes as being beyond human understanding, and now revealed by God to a select group of people. Paul seems to have been influenced in this by another Jewish and early-Christian tradition, namely the tradition about revelations by God to prophets and visionaries. In the Apocalyps of Abraham 29, for instance, we read that God said to Abraham, “See, Abraham, all that you have seen, and hear all that you have heard, and know all that you have come to know. Go now to my heritage.” Another example of this tradition is found in the Ascension of Isaiah 11:34, where an angel says to Isaiah, “these are great things, you have seen what no man of flesh and blood has seen.”88 In these texts, a prophet or a visionary sees and hears things that no man has ever seen or heard– God’s secret plan–and is assigned by God to reveal this plan to the people. Similarly, Paul argues that God’s secret plan of salvation has been hidden from humankind since ancient times, but has now been revealed by God to Paul and the other preachers of the Gospel. In order to “prove” all this, Paul quotes some sentences which, although not actually occurring in the OT, have a more or less permanent place in Jewish and early-Christian traditions. These sentences were originally used to describe the rewards prepared by God for the righteous–for those “who love God”–but which are now used by Paul to describe God’s plan of salvation and the revelation of it to a small group of Christians. The combination of these two traditional

 88

See already Ezek 40:4, “The man said to me, ‘O man, look with your eyes and hear with your ears and pay attention to all that I will show you; for this is why you have been brought here. Tell the Israelites all that you will see.”

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Jewish and early-Christian motifs makes Paul’s argument here a little obscure, moreover, the phrase “those who love God” usually refers to the righteous or believers in general. Here, however, Paul is thinking of the select group of people to whom God’s wisdom has been revealed and who have been ordered by God to proclaim his message about Jesus Christ. At the beginning of verse 10, Paul makes perfectly clear who the ones to whom God has revealed his secret plan are: “it is to us, that God has revealed these things.” It is to Paul and his colleagues that “the secret of God” has been revealed, a secret hidden from humankind since ancient times, and it has been revealed to them by God “through the Spirit.”89 Paul continues by telling his readers why it was “through the Spirit” that God’s plan became known to him and his colleagues, namely, because only the Holy Spirit “understands all things, even the deepest secrets of God” (v. 10b). For the human mind is not able to understand God, his mind and his plans.90 Once again, Paul invokes a Jewish-Hellenistic concept. Compare, for instance, Judith 8:13-14, where Judith says to the magistrates of Betulia, “You try to understand the Lord Almighty, but you will never know him. For you cannot gauge the depth of man’s heart nor comprehend the stirrings of his mind. How, then, can you grasp the one who has made all these things, God, and know his mind and understand his deliberations?” Or Testament of Job 37:6, where Bildad says to Job, “Who can ever comprehend the deepest secrets of the Lord and his wisdom?”91 In verse 11, Paul explains what he meant to say in the previous verse by means of the well-known philosophical principle of “like is known by like.” Only the human spirit within him92 knows what is going on in a man’s mind; by analogy, it is only the Spirit of God that knows what is going on in God’s mind. And as Paul continues in verse 12, “we have received … the Spirit that comes from God,” which is surely not a worldly, human spirit. For God has revealed his plan of salvation to Paul and his fellow missionaries, and therefore they have come to understand God’s wisdom (“to know all the

 89

Cf. Eph 3:3-5, “that the secret of God was made known to me by a revelation … the secret of Christ, which in former generations was not made known to human beings, as it has now been revealed to the holy apostles and prophets through the Spirit.” 90 Cf. Rom 11:33. 91 See further 2 Bar. 14:8-9, “Which one of those who have been born has ever discovered the beginning and the end of your wisdom?,” and cf. also Sir 1:1-10. 92 Cf. Zech 12:1.

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things that have been granted to us by God”), which includes salvation for those who believe in Jesus Christ.93 Paul and the other preachers of the Gospel do not proclaim this message about salvation “with words that human wisdom has taught us” (v. 13),94 for the wisdom of God cannot be understood by the human mind. It is the Holy Spirit of God that makes it possible for Paul and his companions to know God’s secrets, and as a consequence, God’s plan of salvation can only be told with words that they “have learnt from the Spirit.” In other words, they “link the things of the Spirit to the words of the Spirit (lit. “linking spiritual things to spiritual things,” ʌȞİȣȝĮIJȚțȠ૙Ȣ ʌȞİȣȝĮIJȚț੹ ıȣȖțȡȓȞȠȞIJİȢ),” that is, they proclaim the Gospel by means of words that match or are appropriate to the Gospel of Jesus Christ who died on the cross. This seems to be the most plausible interpretation of the Greek phrase. The verb (ıȣȖțȡȓȞİȚȞ), which is translated here as “to link,” has a number of different meanings: most of the time it means “to compare,”95 but “comparing spiritual things (or: matters, or gifts) with spiritual things (or: words, or gifts)” does not make much sense. Another meaning of the verb is “to explain,” usually in the context of explaining or interpreting dreams,96 but in the context of 1 Corinthians 2 it is a question of proclaiming the Gospel, not of explaining it. Moreover, if that were the case the word ʌȞİȣȝĮIJȚțȠ૙Ȣ should be interpreted as a masculine (“explaining spiritual things to spiritual people”), which is grammatically possible but not very likely here: the one “who is driven by the Spirit” (lit. “the spiritual man”), the one who has received the Spirit of God, is a phrase that does not occur until verse 15. The third meaning of ıȣȖțȡȓȞİȚȞ, namely “to link, to combine, to connect,”97 therefore seems the most appropriate. In verse 14, Paul goes on to tell the Corinthians that the one “who is driven by worldly matters” (lit. “the natural man,” ȥȣȤȚțઁȢ ਙȞșȡȦʌȠȢ), that is, the man who has not yet received the Spirit from God,98 “cannot accept99 the things that come from the Spirit of God.” For, as Paul asserts once more, God’s plan and his message will be seen as complete foolishness by such a

 93

Cf. v. 7, and Rom 8:32. 94 Cf. 1:17, 2:1, 4-5, and 6. 95 See, e.g., 2 Cor 10:12. 96 See, e.g., Gen 40:8 (LXX). 97 Cf. already Aristotle, Metaph. 1.4 (985a). 98 Cf. 15:44, and Jude 19. 99 For the meaning of the verb “to accept” (įȑȤİıșĮȚ) in such a context, see, e.g., 2 Cor 11:4, Acts 8:14, 11:1, and 17:11.

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man because “they can only be understood by means of the Spirit.” As opposed to the one “who is driven by worldly matters,” there is the one “who is driven by the Spirit” (lit. “the spiritual man,” ੒ ʌȞİȣȝĮIJȚțȩȢ)100 (v. 15). These “spiritual men” probably belong to a particular group of Christians; from the context we can conclude that Paul is referring to himself and his fellow missionaries here. They are the spiritual ones, those “who understand all these things,” because they have received the Spirit of God (cf. v. 10). On the other hand, because “like is known by like” (see v. 11), “spiritual” people cannot be understood by mere mortals. This means that nobody is permitted or qualified to pass judgment on these “spiritual” people–on Paul and his fellow workers in this context. In the next chapter, Paul will deal with this topic in more detail. Paul ends the paragraph with an abridged version of Isaiah 40:13 LXX; a rhetorical question designed to strengthen his argument further: “who will know the mind of the Lord and will give him advice?” (v. 16).101 The usual answer to this question is, of course, that nobody in this world is able to understand God’s mind and his wisdom. Paul, however, takes the word “Lord” to be a reference to Jesus Christ and has a different answer: “Well, we have the mind of Christ!” That is, Paul and his fellow preachers know and understand the mind of Jesus Christ because they themselves have, as it were, “the mind of Christ,” and because “like is known by like.”102 Just as they understand God’s mind and wisdom because they have God’s Spirit, they also know Christ’s mind because they have Christ’s mind; the mind of the Son of God. It is they, therefore, who have been commissioned by God to proclaim his message of salvation.

Divisions among the “immature” Christians in Corinth: 3:1-4 (1) Well, brothers and sisters, in the time that I was with you I could not speak to you as to people who are driven by the Spirit. I could only talk to you as to people who were occupied with earthly matters; to people who were infants in their belief in Christ. (2) I gave you milk, not solid food, for you could not tolerate that, and even now you cannot tolerate it, (3) for you are still people who are occupied with earthly matters. For as long as there is jealousy and strife among you, it is clear that you are still people who are occupied with earthly matters and that you behave on a purely human level. (4) For when one says, “I

 100

Cf. 3:1, 14:37, and Gal 6:1. 101 Cf. Rom 11:34. 102 See above, at v. 11.

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Paul reminds his readers once more of his former visit to the city of Corinth (see 2:1-5). During his stay there he found them to be “infants in their belief in Christ,” people who accepted Paul’s message without any understanding of the wisdom contained in God’s plan of salvation (vv. 1-2a). Paul wants his readers to accept that they are still “immature”; weak and sinful people (vv. 2b-4). He continues with the theme he began in 1:10-17. In the previous chapter, Paul argued that although his message is “wisdom,” not everyone–not even every Christian–understands this kind of wisdom. Only those “who are mature in faith” (2:6) or “who are driven by the Spirit” (2:15) are able to understand the wisdom contained in the Gospel. At the time Paul was with them in Corinth, the Corinthian Christians were far from “mature”; instead, they were “occupied with earthly matters” (lit. “fleshly people” or “people who are composed of flesh,” ıĮȡțȚȞȠȓ) (v. 1).103 When he refers to “infants,” “adults,” “immature” and “mature,” Paul is introducing a common Hellenistic metaphor used to characterise people who are either “grown up” or not in philosophy and ethics. By using this metaphor, he makes a clear-cut distinction between “mature” and “immature” Christians. Unlike the former group, the latter group cannot tolerate “solid food” but are still dependent on “milk,” as was the case with the Corinthians when Paul was visiting the city (v. 2). This metaphor of “milk” as opposed to “solid food” or “bread” was also traditional in the Hellenistic world; see, for example, Philo, De agricultura 9, “as milk is food for babies and wheaten bread is food for adults, there must also be nourishment for the soul, namely, the preliminary stages of education are the milk appropriate to the time of childhood and the instructions for leading a life of wisdom, temperance and virtue are the food appropriate to adults.”104 But, as Paul continues, it was not only when Paul was with them in Corinth that the Corinthian Christians were “immature” and “occupied with worldly matters,” “even now,” at the time of Paul’s writing to them, they cannot tolerate solid food (v. 2). They are still “infants in their belief in Christ” and people “occupied with worldly matters” (“fleshly people” or “people who

 103

For ıĮȡțȚȞȩȢ, see also 2 Cor 3:3. 104 Cf. Philo, Sobr. 9, Somn. 2.10, Prob. 160, Epictetus, Diss. 2.16.39, and see also Eph 4:13-14, and Heb 5:12-14.

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are associated with flesh,” ıĮȡțȚțȠȓ) (v. 3).105 Of course, Paul cannot deny that the Christians in Corinth have received the Holy Spirit (see 3:16), but being truly “spiritual” is something different. They still live and behave “on a purely human level,” and therefore they are “merely human,” that is, weak and sinful.106 The reason Paul refers to the Corinthian Christians as “immature” is that there is “jealousy and strife” among them, something Paul has obviously heard from “members of Chloe’s household” (see 1:11). These terms (“jealousy” and “strife”) are closely associated107 and are, in Paul’s eyes, characteristic of those who are “merely human.”108 When he talks about “jealousy and strife” among the Corinthian Christians, Paul is referring to the divisions within their community. This is a theme he has already mentioned in 1:11-12 and which he repeats here in verse 4: some support Paul, but there are also those who support Apollos. This time, he does not mention the other two “parties,” namely the Cephas faction and the Christ faction. This is probably because it is Apollos in particular that he sees as a serious threat to his own authority as an apostle and a strong rival in the proclamation of the Gospel. In the following paragraphs, Paul tries to repress the influence of members of the Apollos faction within the Christian community of Corinth and thus restore his own authority.

Preachers of the Gospel are simply servants: 3:5-8 (5) After all, who is Apollos? Who is Paul? We are simply servants; simply people through whom you came to believe. Each of us performed the task which the Lord assigned to him. (6) I planted, Apollos watered, but God made it grow. (7) Therefore, it is neither the one who plants nor the one who waters who counts, but the one who makes it grow, and that is God. (8) The one who plants and the one who waters work for the same cause, but each of us will receive wages according to the efforts he has made.

Paul wants the Christians in Corinth to acknowledge that all preachers of the Gospel, including Apollos and Paul himself, are merely “servants” of God, commissioned by him to proclaim his message of salvation. In this way, Paul tries to play down the role of those who preach the Gospel (vv. 5-7), but there is more. At the same time, Paul refers to God’s judgment at the end of time, when each individual preacher will be judged by God and

 105

For ıĮȡțȚțȩȢ, see also 2 Cor 1:12. 106 Cf. Rom 8:4, and 2 Cor 10:2. 107 See, e.g., Sir 40:4, 3 Bar. 8:5, 13:4, Rom 13:13, 2 Cor 12:20, Gal 5:20, 1 Clem. 3:2, 5:5, 6:4, and 9:1. 108 See Rom 13:13-14, and Gal 5:19-20.

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will be recompensed according to what he has done for the spread of the Gospel (v. 8). This implies that only God himself is in a position to judge God’s servants on earth, a theme that will be elaborated in detail by Paul in the paragraphs which follow. The preachers of the Gospel, who are highly regarded by the Corinthian Christians, one more than the other, are not that important. They are merely the “servants” of God.109 They must proclaim his message and try to convince others to believe in Jesus Christ (v. 5). This applies to all missionaries, including Paul, who was the founder of the Christian community in Corinth (“I planted”) as well as Apollos, who came to Corinth later and was responsible for the spiritual growth of the community (“Apollos watered”). Each had a different task, but their work is insignificant compared to God’s work, for the formation–the very existence and growth of the Christian community in Corinth–was in fact God’s work (“God made it grow”) (vv. 6-7). Finally, in verse 8, Paul first comments that “the one who plants (Paul) and the one who waters (Apollos) both work for the same cause” (lit. “are one”).110 But more importantly, Paul wants his readers to know that every preacher of the Gospel will be judged by God, one by one, at the end of time and “will receive wages according to the efforts he has made.” Here, Paul introduces the motif of “being rewarded according to one’s labour,” which is found in the OT,111 and which is often connected with God’s judgment at the end of time in Jewish and early-Christian writings.112 Paul uses the term “effort” (țȩʌȠȢ) instead of the more usual term “work” or “labour” (਩ȡȖȠȞ); these two Greek words are more or less synonymous and are often found together.113 As preachers of the Gospel, both Paul and Apollos, together with all other missionaries, will be judged individually by God, any judgment on the part of “ordinary” Christians is out of the question. This means that the Corinthian Christians have no right to judge missionaries like Paul and Apollos, and neither do some of their number have the right to

 109

Cf. 2 Cor 3:6, 6:4, and also Eph 3:7, Col 1:23, and 25. 110 Paul also uses the formulation of “being one” elsewhere in his letters when he wants to refer to the unity and the togetherness of different things or people: see Gal 3:28, and cf. Rom 12:5, 1 Cor 12:12, and 20, and see further Eph 2:14-15. 111 See, e.g., Ps 62:13 (61:13), Prov 24:12, Isa 40:10, 62:11, and Jer 17:10. 112 See, e.g., 1 En. 100:7, 2 En. 44:5, L.A.B. 3:10, Matt 16:27, Rom 2:6, 2 Cor 11:15, 2 Tim 4:14, 1 Pet 1:17, Rev 2:23, 20:12-13, 22:12, and 1 Clem. 34:3. 113 See, e.g., 1 Thess 1:3, Rev 2:2, and 14:13. In 1 Thess 3:5, Paul uses the term “effort” another time to describe his work as an apostle.

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despise and disrespect Paul and prefer Apollos as their spiritual leader. Of course, all preachers of the Gospel will be “saved” by God and will receive eternal life, but there will be differences in the way they are rewarded by God (cf. vv. 13-15 and 4:5).

Preachers of the Gospel will be judged by God: 3:9-15 (9) We are fellow workers in God’s service, and you are God’s garden. Or, to put it differently: you are God’s building. (10) According to the goodness God has shown to me I have laid the foundation like a skilled master builder. Others may build upon it, but each must take care how he builds. (11) For nobody can lay a foundation other than the one already laid; namely Jesus Christ. (12) Another may build on this foundation with materials like gold, silver and precious stones, or with materials like wood, hay and straw. (13) The work that each does will be brought to light, for the Day will disclose it. It will be revealed by fire, and the fire will test the worth of each person’s work. (14) If anyone’s work–that which he has built on the foundation–survives, he will be rewarded. (15) If anyone’s work burns down, he will be punished, that is, he himself may be saved, but he will escape, as it were, from the fire at the very last moment.

In this paragraph, Paul elaborates on verse 8b, in which he said that all preachers of the Gospel will be judged by God at the end of time, but first, he switches from the metaphor of the Christian community as a garden to the metaphor of the Christian Church as a building (v. 9). This time, the preachers of the Gospel are presented as the ones who lay the foundations (Paul, for instance) and to others as those who build on these foundations (Apollos, for instance). According to Paul in verses 10-15, what really matters is how these missionaries build on the foundation laid by Paul (and others). Almost in passing, he indicates that the foundation laid by him is no other than Jesus Christ (v. 11). In Paul’s opinion, there are two possibilities: the builders are either skilled preachers, or they are less capable of doing their job well (v. 12). Their works will be tested at the end of time, and God will judge each of them accordingly (v. 13). All those who work in God’s service will be rewarded, although the people who have not worked as well as they should have done will suffer punishment in some way or other (vv. 14-15). Once again, this means that it is God who will judge the preachers of the Gospel–including Paul and Apollos–and certainly not the members of the Christian communities. In verse 9, Paul switches from one metaphor (used in vv. 5-8) to another: “you are God’s garden. Or, to put differently: you are God’s building.” At the same time he underlines once more that all those who preach the Gospel

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(including Paul and Apollos) are “fellow workers in God’s service.”114 This time Paul compares the Christian community in Corinth with a building. Working in the fields, or planting, and building were two of the most important forms of work in biblical times,115 but in the OT and Hellenistic literature, this combination is also frequently presented in a figurative sense. For example, in Jeremiah 1:10, “Today I (God) give you (Jeremiah) authority over nations and kingdoms … to destroy and to demolish, to build and to plant.”116 In verses 10-11, Paul first writes about his own role. As “a skilled master builder,” he has laid the foundation, that is, he has founded the Christian community in Corinth, and that foundation is nothing else but Jesus Christ; that is, God’s plan of salvation through Jesus Christ who died on the cross (cf. 1:23, and 2:2). Paul warns his readers in Corinth that nobody may lay another foundation. Paul brought the Gospel to Corinth and has laid the foundation117 “according to the goodness God has shown to me.” With this he acknowledges that he was called to become an apostle by God’s grace or goodness, despite the fact that at the time he was busy persecuting members of the Christian community or “Jesus movement.”118 After Paul left Corinth, other preachers of the Gospel arrived in the city and built upon the foundation that Paul had laid. They deepened the Corinthian Christians’ understanding of faith and helped the community to grow. This metaphor of laying the foundation together with building on the foundation is not unusual in Hellenistic writings,119 but Paul’s application is completely original.120 In these verses, Paul refers to all those who are working as

 114

The phrase “fellow workers in God’s service” (lit. “God’s fellow workers,” șİȠ૨ ıȣȞİȡȖȠȓ) does not mean that the missionaries work together with God, but that they are each other’s colleagues who work together in God’s service. Cf., e.g., Rom 16:3, 9, 21, 2 Cor 8:23, Phil 2:25, and 1 Thess 3:2. 115 See, e.g., Deut 20:5-6, and Philo, Virt. 29. 116 See further Jer 18:9, 24:6, Sir 49:7, and Philo, Leg. 1.48. 117 In Rom 15:20, Paul tells his readers in Rome that “he always takes the Gospel to places where the name of Jesus Christ has not been heard, because he does not want to build on another man’s foundation.” 118 See also 15:10, Rom 12:3, 15:15, Gal 2:9, and cf. also Eph 3:7-8. 119 See, e.g., Philo, Cher. 101, where we read that talent and a good education are the foundations of the soul, the place where the invisible God lives, and on which one should build with virtues and good works. Cf. also Philo, Gig. 30, Conf. 5, 87, Mut. 211, and Epictetus, Diss. 2.15.8. 120 See Rom 15:20, and cf. further Eph 2:20.

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missionaries (including, of course, Apollos) and who are responsible for both the literal and spiritual growth of the Christian communities.121 But the issue for Paul here is how those missionaries build on the foundation laid by Paul (v. 10). He elaborates on this theme in verse 12: all depends on the materials used by the builders. He mentions six of them: “gold, silver, precious stones, wood, hay and straw.” At first sight, this seems to be a scale of descending value, but if that were the case Paul would certainly have mentioned materials like stone and clay as well. Instead, he mentions precisely these six materials because they fall neatly into two groups: materials that would barely be damaged by fire (gold, silver and precious stones) and materials that would be completely consumed by fire (wood, hay and straw). As to the first group, it was common knowledge that gold and silver cannot be consumed by fire and as such are imperishable; instead, these materials are purified or refined by fire.122 Precious stones react somewhat differently to fire, but Paul mentions them alongside gold and silver because all three were seen as very precious and valuable materials and were often mentioned in the same breath.123 As to the second group of materials (wood, hay and straw), they were materials known to be easily consumed by fire124 and were therefore regarded as perishable.125 All six materials are frequently mentioned in the form of a simile or metaphor in the literature of the time to illustrate perishability or imperishability. It does not seem wise to ask whether Paul meant anything in particular by the six materials mentioned in verse 12, nor whether they were actually in use as building materials; that seems to be irrelevant here. Paul simply wants to argue that there are excellent builders–missionaries who build up the Christian communities and work hard to promote the Gospel of Jesus Christ–and less qualified builders; less stimulating missionaries. But even more important, “ordinary” Christians are not capable of judging these missionaries; such judgment is reserved to the one and only qualified judge,

 121

Although all believers should contribute to the growth of the Christian Church (see, e.g., 12:7, 14:3-5, 12, 26), Paul has here only the preachers of the Gospel in mind. 122 See, e.g., Num 31:22-23, Job 22:25, Ps 12:7 (11:7), 66:10 (65:10), Prov 10:20, Ezek 22:18-22, Zech 13:9, Mal 3:2-3, Wis 3:4-6, Sir 2:5, Philo, Decal. 48, 1 Pet 1:7, 4:12, Rev 3:18, Did. 16:5, and Herm. Vis. 4.3.4. 123 See, e.g., 2 Chron 32:27, Prov 8:10-11, 19, and Rev 18:12. 124 See, e.g., Aristotle, Mete. 341b, Plutarch, Suav. viv. 14 (Mor. 1096C), Diodorus Siculus, Bibl. 3.29.2, 5.21.5, 16.41.5, 20.65.1, and Josephus, B.J. 6.153. 125 See, e.g., Exod 15:7, Job 41:19-21, Isa 5:24, Joel 2:5, Zech 12:6, Wis 3:7, 1 En. 48:9, and Matt 6:30.

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God himself. At the end of time, “the work that each does will be brought to light, for the Day will disclose it” (v. 13a). Here Paul introduces a traditional Jewish and early-Christian idea, namely that, at the end of time the (public and secret) deeds and thoughts of all human beings will be brought to light, after which God will judge each one of them. See, for instance, 2 Baruch 83:2-3. “And he (God) will surely judge those who are in his world. He will truly investigate everything with regard to all their shameful works. He will certainly investigate their secret thoughts … and he will show all this to everyone and will blame them severely.”126 Here, Paul applies this traditional motif to God’s future judgment of preachers of the Gospel according to the effort made by each one of them. This judgment will take place on “the Day”127 (“the Day will disclose it”), that is, “the Last Day,” “the Day of the Lord,” “the Day of Judgment,” or “the Day of our Lord Jesus Christ.”128 In verse 13, Paul indicates the ways by which God will know which of the missionaries worked hard and well, and whose works were inferior: “it (that is, each one’s work)129 will be revealed by fire,” or in other words, “the fire will test the worth of each person’s work.” Paul continues by saying that “if anyone’s work–that which he has built on the foundation–survives, he will be rewarded,” but “if anyone’s work burns down, he will be punished” (vv. 14-15a). Here, Paul introduces another Jewish and early-Christian tradition, namely, a trial by fire at the end of time. See, for instance, Sibylline Oracles 2:252-55: “Then (on the Day of Judgment) all will walk through the river of fire, through the unquenchable flames. All the righteous will be saved, but the unrighteous, those who have done wicked deeds in the past, will perish forever.”130 Paul combines this Jewish and early-Christian tradition–

 126

See further, e.g., 4 Ezra 7:35, 1 En. 45:3, 100:10, 2 En. 44:5, Rom 2:16, 2 Cor 5:10, 2 Clem. 16:3, and Herm. Sim. 4.3. 127 Cf. 1 Thess 5:4, and Heb 10:25. 128 See at 1:8. 129 The subject of this clause (“it”) is “(each one’s) work,” and not, as almost generally is accepted, “the Day.” Although the Last Day is often associated with fire (see, e.g., Dan 7:9, Joel 2:3, 30, Mal 4:1 [3:19], and 2 Thess 1:7), nowhere it is said that the Last Day “will be revealed.” Instead, the verb “to reveal” (ਕʌȠțĮȜȪʌIJİȚȞ, and cognates) does go well with “work” (਩ȡȖȠȞ): see, e.g., Sir 11:27, and cf. Sir 1:30, and Luke 12:2. Moreover, it fits the context where the disclosure of “works” is mentioned. And finally, some redundancy is not foreign to Paul’s style (see, e.g., Gal 2:16). 130 Cf. also Sib. Or. 8:411, T. Isaac 5:21-25, Vis. Ezra 3-10, Apoc. Pet. 6, and Lactantius, Inst. 7.21. An earlier stage in the development of this tradition is the

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the idea that all people will be tested by fire at the end of time–with the motif of “being rewarded according to one’s own labour” (see 3:8 above). The result of this combination of ideas is that it is no longer people who will be tested by fire at the end of time, but their works.131 Finally, he applies all this to the works of the missionaries in the service of God. The excellent “builders” will receive their reward, the inferior “builders” will be punished. In this context, Paul does not go into detail about the kinds of reward or punishment which await the preachers of the Gospel; he merely states that all missionaries, even the inferior ones, will be saved at the end of time (v. 15). But surely there should be a difference between the ultimate end of the excellent preachers and that of the inferior ones? The latter will be saved as well, but they “will escape, as it were, from the fire at the very last moment.”132 Paul is convinced that less capable missionaries will be punished, but only a little; they will not escape completely unscathed, but in the end, they too will be saved.

A warning to believers in Christ who destroy the Christian community: 3:16-17 (16) Don’t you know that you are God’s temple and that the Spirit of God dwells among you? (17) Anyone who destroys God’s temple will himself be destroyed by God; for God’s temple is holy, and it is you who are that temple.

These two verses are the transition from the previous paragraph to the next. Paul continues to speak in metaphors: this time, he compares the Christian community (in Corinth) with the holy temple of God. He now turns to all members of the Corinthian Church and warns them not to undermine the community in any way, for anyone who causes trouble and division and is responsible for the downfall of the Christian community will be condemned bitterly by God himself. In verse 16, Paul introduces a new metaphor to describe the Christian community (in Corinth): the Corinthian Christians are collectively “God’s temple.” When Paul says “Don’t you know …,”133 it is because he is sure

 motif that fire cannot touch pious and righteous people, since God stands by them: see Dan 3, and further L.A.B. 6:16-18, 38:3-4, Pss. Sol. 15:4, and Mart. Pol. 15-16. 131 Cf. T. Ab. 13. 132 Here, Paul does not refer to “purgatory,” as many interpreters used to think in former times. 133 Cf. 5:6, 6:2, 3, 9, 15, 16, 19, 9:13, 24, and 12:2.

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that his readers will be aware of the idea that the Christian community is God’s temple.134 The temple was traditionally seen as God’s dwelling place on earth,135 and in early-Christian tradition the community of Christians was regarded metaphorically as the temple of God, where God’s presence was experienced through the Holy Spirit.136 Another characteristic of God’s temple is that it is “holy,”137 and therefore, in Paul’s opinion, as the temple of God the Christian community should also be regarded as “holy,” that is, sacred; separated, as it were, from the world, and dedicated to God (v. 17).138 In verse 17a, Paul comes to the central issue of this paragraph: “Anyone who destroys God’s temple will himself be destroyed by God.” Undermining the Christian community–God’s holy temple–will have serious consequences. This time Paul is no longer talking about those who preach the Gospel, but about all Christians. It is an explicit warning that anybody who creates division within the Christian community (in Corinth) or supports one particular apostle or missionary (e.g., Apollos!) and has contempt for others (e.g., for Paul!), will be severely punished by God, for they are “destroying” the Christian community,139 and therefore they themselves will be “destroyed” by God140 at the end of time. Paul introduces this “eye for an eye” principle141 as a real possibility; he may have been thinking of the Jewish tradition that anyone who defiles or desecrates God’s temple will suffer a harsh punishment.142 Paul hopes to stop the quarrels between his readers in Corinth with this serious warning. He wants them to

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See further, e.g., 2 Cor 6:16, Eph 2:21-22, 1 Tim 3:15, 1 Pet 2:3-6, Ign. Eph. 15:3, and Barn. 4:11. Also the Qumran community saw itself as “God’s temple” (see 1QS VIII, 4-10, and IX, 3-6). 135 See, e.g., 2 Sam 7:5, 1 Chron 17:4, Ps 74:2 (73:2), Ezek 9:3, 43:5-9, Hab 2:20, 2 Macc 14:35, 2 Cor 6:16, Eph 2:21-22, Ign. Eph. 15:3, and Tatian, Orat. 15.2. 136 Here, Paul does not mean to say that the Holy Spirit lives in the hearts of the Christians (so, e.g., in Rom 8:9-11, and cf. also 2 Tim 1:14, and Jas 4:5), but that the Spirit is present in the Christian community as a whole. 137 See, e.g., Ps 5:7 (5:8), 79:1 (78:1), 138:2 (137:2), Jonah 2:4, 7, Hab 2:20, Sir 49:12, Philo, Somn. 2.246, and Eph 2:21. 138 See also at 1:2. 139 Cf. Rom 14:20, and 2 Clem. 14:3. 140 For this formulation, cf. Jer 13:9, 2 Pet 2:12, and Jude 10. 141 See, e.g., Gen 9:6, Exod 21:23-25, Lev 24:19-20, Deut 19:21, Matt 7:1, and esp. 1 Cor 14:38. 142 See, e.g., Pss. Sol. 2, 2 Macc 8:33, chs. 3, 9 and 15, 3 Macc. 1-2, and 4 Macc. 4:1-14.

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show respect for the founder of the Corinthian community–Paul himself– and to unite and align themselves with the only Saviour, Jesus Christ.

The aggrandisement of human beings is wrong: 3:18-23 (18) Stop lying to yourselves. If anyone among you claims to be wise by the standards of this age, he should become foolish so that he may become truly wise. (19) For the wisdom of this world is foolishness in God’s eyes. For it is written, “He catches the wise in their own cunning,” (20) and again, “The Lord knows that the thoughts of the wise are futile.” (21) Therefore, nobody should aggrandise human beings. For all things belong to you; (22) whether Paul or Apollos or Cephas, or the world, or life or death, or the present or the future: they all belong to you. (23) But you belong to Christ, and Christ belongs to God.

In the Corinthian community, inflating the reputation of Apollos (and other missionaries) at the expense of Paul, the founder of the Christian community, went hand in hand with a deep appreciation for worldly wisdom. In this paragraph, Paul brings all that he has written in the previous chapters to a preliminary conclusion and attempts to put an end to both practices. First, he states that human wisdom is foolishness in God’s eyes (vv. 18-20), and second, that the aggrandisement or glorification of human beings is wrong. For being Christian means that actually all the things and matters of this world are yours, but that the Christians themselves belong to Jesus Christ, and no one else (vv. 21-23). Being “supporters” of a particular missionary seems to have been the result of the Corinthians’ high appreciation of worldly wisdom. Of course, Paul is thinking here of Apollos in particular, for it is he who has made a deep impression on a number of Corinthian Christians with his eloquence and wisdom. Moreover, in their appreciation and admiration of Apollos, these Corinthians have started to think that they themselves are also wise, but that, according to Paul, is a serious mistake. He warns them to stop lying to themselves (v. 18a), for this “wisdom” that they admire so much is only wisdom “by the standards of this age,” and nothing but “foolishness in God’s eyes” (v. 19a). If they want to be truly wise, they must first of all become “foolish” (v. 18b; cf. 4:10). That is, they must realise that God’s plan is to save the world by means of something they consider foolishness, namely, Jesus Christ’s death on the cross. In God’s eyes, this so-called foolishness is wisdom, this so-called weakness is power and strength. For God has created a complete reversal of values.

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Here, Paul picks up his argument of 1:18-2:16 and, just as in 1:19, he refers once more to passages from the OT to get his point across. The first quotation comes from Job 5:13, “He catches the wise in their own cunning” (v. 19b). Although the formulation is somewhat different from the text in the LXX, the version normally used by Paul, its scope has not changed: people may think that they are intelligent and clever, but for God they are easy “prey”; that is, easy to catch out, to expose and to unmask. The second OT passage quoted by Paul is taken from Psalm 94:11 (93:11), “The Lord knows that the thoughts of the wise are futile” (v. 20). Strikingly, Paul has changed the original OT/LXX words “(the thoughts) of the people (IJ૵Ȟ ਕȞșȡȫʌȦȞ)” into “(the thoughts) of the wise (IJ૵Ȟ ıȠij૵Ȟ),” undoubtedly because of the context and the passage from Job 5:13. In verses 21-23, Paul once more reminds the Corinthians that aggrandising “human beings,” or, in this context, the praising of particular missionaries, is wrong (v. 21a). Preachers of the Gospel are nothing but “servants of God” (3:5-15), so the Corinthians should revere only God (cf. 1:31). Paul continues to argue that the aggrandisement of human beings is wrong by telling his readers that “all things belong to you,” or “everything is yours” (v. 21b). In verse 22, he elaborates on the word “everything.” On the one hand, he is thinking of missionaries like Apollos, Cephas (Peter) and himself (cf. 1:10-12, and 3:1-4), on the other hand, “everything” literally means everything in this world; that is, the entire world, life and death, present and future.143 According to Paul, all this–everything created by God–belongs to the Christians, including those in Corinth. It is not so much that if they consider themselves to be “supporters” of Paul, Apollos or Cephas they “belong” to that preacher (see 1:12), but rather that Paul, Apollos and Cephas belong to them; in fact, everything belongs to them. It is possible that Paul is alluding to the OT and Jewish idea that human beings have dominion over the whole of creation,144 but context and terminology suggest that it is rather the case that here Paul is embracing the philosophical–particularly Stoic–concept of the wise man, the philosopher, as “master of all things.” So, we read in Diogenes Laertius, Vitae Philosophorum 7.125, “Everything belongs to the wise; for the law has given full power to them.”145 The wise share this power, this dominion over everyone and everything, with the gods: “everything belongs to the gods; the wise are friends of the gods; friends share everything; so, everything

 143

For a somewhat similar series, see Rom 8:38. 144 Cf. already Gen 1:28, and Ps 8:5-8 (8:6-9). 145 See also Seneca, Ben. 7.2.5, Dial. 10.15.5, and Philo, Plant. 69.

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belongs to the wise” (Diogenes Laertius, Vit. phil. 6.37).146 To become a “friend of the gods” and, as a consequence, “master of everything,” one must become wise and strive to lead a life in accordance with the godly law of nature. Only a philosopher could reach that goal. For Paul, it is the believer in Jesus Christ, not the philosopher, who has dominion over everyone and everything. Not by virtue of his own wisdom or efforts, but because he is connected with Christ and has thus been sanctified and redeemed (cf. 1:9, and 30). All this implies that the Corinthian Christians should not be “supporters” of a particular missionary; they do not belong to a particular preacher of the Gospel, they belong to only one person, namely, Jesus Christ (v. 23b; cf. 1:13), and “Christ belongs to God.” With this last phrase, Paul wants the Corinthians to know that ultimately it is God himself who has given to the Christians the power over everything and everyone, but of course, only through Jesus Christ.

It is not people’s judgment that counts but God’s: 4:1-5 (1) We should be seen as the assistants of Christ and the stewards of the secrets of God. (2) Now, it is important that stewards are found to be trustworthy. (3) It does not matter at all to me if I am judged by you or by any human court. I do not even judge myself, (4) for as far as I know I have done nothing wrong, but does that prove me innocent? No, because it is the Lord who judges me. (5) So, don’t pass judgment on me. The proper time for judgment will be when the Lord comes: he will bring to light the things now hidden in darkness and will disclose what is going on in our hearts; that will be the time for each of us to receive commendation from God.

In these verses, Paul emphasises once more that he and the other missionaries are simply “assistants” and “stewards” who are accountable to their Lord, Jesus Christ, for their actions (vv. 1-2). It is he who, at the end of time, will judge Paul, which also implies that nobody else should pass judgment on him now (vv. 3-5). Once more, Paul wants the Corinthian Christians to realise that a negative judgment on Paul by any of the Corinthians is not appropriate. In the first verse of this chapter, Paul summarises the serving role of the preachers of the Gospel discussed in the previous chapter: they are “assistants of Christ and stewards of the secrets of God.” Being “assistants

 146

See also Ps.-Crates, Ep. 26, 27, Ps.-Diogenes, Ep. 10, and Philo, Mos. 1.156-57.

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of Christ”147 means that they have been commissioned to help Jesus Christ to take care of his affairs in this world. What this entails becomes clear in the next phrase; they are “stewards of the secrets of God.” In other words, they act as managers on behalf of someone to whom they are accountable.148 They are stewards of “the secrets of God” on earth, that is, they are appointed by God to proclaim his plan of salvation “which was secret and hidden, and which God decreed before the ages would serve to our glory” (2:7).149 In verse 2, Paul expands on what he has said in the previous verse:150 as stewards in God’s or Jesus Christ’s service, missionaries are required to show themselves to be trustworthy and honest.151 That is, they must manage Jesus Christ’s “affairs” in this world and remain true to the Gospel when telling people about Jesus Christ who died on the cross. Neither should they forget that, ultimately, they will be accountable to God or Jesus Christ for their activities. Paul continues in verses 3-4 by applying all this to himself: he does not care what people think of him; what really matters is God’s judgment. Neither the Corinthians’ judgment of him nor that of any human “court”152 impresses him whatsoever.153 Paul does not even judge himself for, he continues, although he is not aware of having failed in his proclamation of the Gospel, that does not mean that he is “innocent.” As far as he knows he has done nothing wrong (lit. “I am not aware of anything”),154 but he leaves

 147 In this verse, Paul uses the term “assistant,” ਫ਼ʌȘȡȑIJȘȢ (cf. also Acts 26:16) instead

of the more usual term “servant,” įȚȐțȠȞȠȢ (see, e.g., 3:5). It is especially used to characterise people who are appointed by someone to help him and to take care of his affairs. 148 Cf. Luke 16:1-8, and Tit 1:7. 149 These “secrets of God” refer to the complete contents of the Gospel (cf. 2:1, 7), not to specific revelations to people through the Holy Spirit (as in 13:2, and 14:2). 150 For the formulation ੰįİ ȜȠȚʌȩȞ, which is translated here by “Now” (lit. “So further”), cf. Epictetus, Diss. 2.12.24. 151 Cf. Luke 12:42. 152 Lit. “day,” ਲȝȑȡĮ, that is, a day of judgment, formulated here by Paul by analogy with the traditional phrase “the Day of the Lord,” on which God will judge all people at the end of time (cf. 1:8). 153 Cf. also 9:3. 154 For the formulation “not to be aware of anything,” that is, “not to be aware of anything wrong,” see also Horace, Ep. 1.1.61, nil conscire sibi, nulla pallescere culpa (“not to be aware of anything, not to be guilty of anything which one should be ashamed of”), and Polybius, Hist. 4.86.

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the final judgment to God (or Jesus Christ), who will judge him and all the other missionaries at the end of time. Finally, in verse 5, Paul warns the Corinthian Christians not to pass judgment on him (or other missionaries), for “the proper time for judgment will be when the Lord comes” (lit. “before the proper time [that is, before the Last Day],155 when the Lord comes”). Paul wants to impress once more upon the Corinthians that they should not pass judgment, but that judgment of him and the other missionaries will take place on the Day of the Lord,156 namely by God. At the end of time, Jesus Christ (“the Lord”) “will bring to light the things now hidden in darkness and will disclose what is going on in our hearts,” after which God will pass judgment on Paul and the other missionaries (v. 5). Over and above all human beings, God knows even their secret deeds and thoughts,157 and it is therefore God, and he alone, who can make a really sound judgment.158 Here in verse 5, it is Jesus Christ who will reveal the secret deeds and the inward motives of his “assistants”–Paul and his fellow preachers. These deeds and thoughts, invisible to human beings, are described by Paul as “the things now hidden in darkness” (lit. “what is hidden by darkness”), that is, the activities of the missionaries that take place in secret, and also “what is going on in our hearts” (lit. “the plans of our hearts”).159 In accordance with the activities (visible and invisible) and the inner stirrings of the heart, God will pass judgment on the “assistants of Christ” at the end of time: “that will be the time for each of us to receive commendation from God.”160 It is remarkable that in this verse, Paul speaks only of “commendation,” and neglects the possibility of a negative judgment or punishment (as in 3:15). The reason may be that he is thinking of himself and his nearest collaborators here. He always presents himself as

 155

Cf. Matt 8:29, Mark 13:33, Luke 21:8, etc. 156 Cf. 1:8, and 3:13. 157 The idea that God knows people’s thoughts and feelings is a well-known motif in the OT and in later Jewish and early-Christian circles: see, e.g., 1 Sam 16:7, 1 Kings 8:39, Ps 139:1-2 (138:1-2), Prov 15:11, Jer 17:10, Sir 1:30, Matt 6:4, 6, 18, Acts 1:24, 15:8, Rom 8:27, 1 Thess 2:4, and Heb 4:12-13. 158 See also at 3:13. 159 Cf. Prov 20:5, Sir 37:13, and Herm. Sim. 9.28.4. 160 In the letters of Paul, it is usually God who will judge human beings at the end of time, whereas it is Jesus Christ who will plead the believers’ case and “will deliver them from God’s coming wrath” (1 Thess 1:10). See also at 1 Cor 1:8-9.

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someone who does not seek human favour, but seeks only God’s approval.161 Many people, orators in particular, strive for recognition and admiration in this world.162 Paul, however, seeks only God’s praise and approval, and he is convinced that God, who knows the thoughts and deeds of all people, will commend him and his collaborators in due course for all that they have done as Jesus Christ’s “assistants.”163

Paul as “the scum of the earth,” for the sake of Christ: 4:6-13 (6) In the previous paragraphs, brothers and sisters, I have spoken about God’s judgment on his servants, and in that context, I have taken myself and Apollos as examples. For I want to teach you something for your benefit, which is, by the way, exactly the same as what I have told you before in this letter: no one among you should aggrandise one particular servant of God at the expense of another. (7) For what gives you the right to believe yourself so important as to judge God’s servants? What do you have that you did not receive? And since you received it, why do you boast of it as though you had not received it? (8) Maybe you think that you have all you want, that you have become rich and have become kings, and all that without us? Well, I wish that you had become kings, so that we might be kings with you, (9) but it is my opinion that God has given us, his apostles, the lowest position in society; sentenced to death, as it were, because we have become a spectacle to the world, to angels as well as to human beings. (10) We are fools for the sake of Christ, while you are sensible Christians. We are weak, while you are strong. You are held in honour, but we are in disrepute. (11) Until now we have gone hungry and thirsty and are still in rags; we are beaten and we are homeless (12) and we grow weary from working with our own hands. When reviled, we bless; when persecuted, we endure; (13) and when slandered, we speak kindly. To this very day, we have become the scum of the earth, as it were, the dregs of society.

Paul has mentioned himself and Apollos as examples in previous paragraphs, now he tells the Corinthian Christians that he has done so in order to give his opinion about their divisions and quarrels. The elevating of one particular preacher above another is absolutely wrong (v. 6). Moreover, such veneration goes hand in hand with a totally unwarranted arrogance and self-esteem (v. 7). In verses 8-13, Paul presents himself (and probably also his nearest collaborators) in sharp contrast to these

 161

See Gal 1:10, and 1 Thess 2:4, 6; cf. John 5:41, 44, 12:43, and T. Benj. 6:4. 162 See, e.g., Epictetus, Diss. 3.23.7, Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 67.3, 77/78.17, Plutarch, Adol. poet. aud. 11 (Mor. 32D), and Philo, Spec. 4.88. 163 For a somewhat similar argument, but in a different context, cf. Rom 2:29.

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complacent Corinthians. As Paul says with icy irony in verses 8 and 10, they think they have attained everything they wanted. He and his collaborators, however, must be content with the lowest position in society, and have to endure torments and humiliations (vv. 9, 11-13, and cf. v. 10). Paul hopes all this will serve to put an end to the Corinthians’ complacency and arrogance, but also that it will show them how much Paul has to endure in proclaiming the Gospel. He endures it all “for the sake of Christ,” so there is no reason whatsoever for the Corinthians to prefer another preacher (Apollos, for instance!). Although verse 6 is one of the most enigmatic verses in 1 Corinthians, its main objective seems clear: Paul warns his readers in Corinth not to venerate any particular missionary, that is, “no one among you should aggrandise one particular servant of God at the expense of another” (lit. “no one of you should be inflated [in pride] in support of one against another,” v. 6c).164 Paul is actually repeating what he said in 3:21: “Therefore, nobody should aggrandise human beings.” This time, however, Paul’s primary objective is to stress that supporting any one particular preacher goes hand in hand with disrespect for another, and that arrogance and disrespect do not reflect well on the Corinthian Christians. They think that they are wise, and capable of passing judgment on the preachers of the Gospel and choosing to support one at the expense of another, but that is nothing but arrogance. In this context, Paul is undoubtedly thinking in particular of the negative attitude of some Corinthians towards him as opposed to their respect for Apollos and their appreciation of Apollos’ eloquence and wisdom. Paul wants to teach his readers a lesson, namely that being arrogant and causing division in the Christian community by judging Christ’s “assistants” on earth must be avoided. He had already discussed this issue rather extensively by means of the examples of himself and Apollos in 3:115; now, in verse 6a, he refers to that passage, saying “in the previous paragraphs, brothers and sisters, I have spoken about God’s judgment on his servants, and in that context, I have taken myself and Apollos as examples” (lit. “I have had this [= what I have said before] take the form of myself and Apollos”). The verb that Paul uses here, ȝİIJĮıȤȘȝĮIJȓȗİıșĮȚ, means “to change (into something or someone),” “to take the form of (something or someone).”165 In other words, Paul was telling the Corinthians what he wanted to tell them, not in direct terms, but by using an example (that of

 164

For the expression “to be inflated (in pride),” cf. 4:18, 19, 5:2, 8:1, 13:4, and 2 Cor 12:20. 165 Cf., e.g., 2 Cor 11:13-14.

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Apollos and himself). With this example, he makes it clear that he (Paul) and Apollos are both Christ’s “servants”; both are human beings who contribute no more than a small amount to the growth of the Christian communities. As a consequence, there is no reason for the Corinthians to form separate factions or to prefer one missionary to another. All this is “exactly the same as what I have told you before in this letter” (lit. “ nothing beyond166 what is written”).167 In verse 7, Paul demonstrates yet again that there is no reason for the elevation of any one preacher. He does so via three rhetorical questions in the second person singular,168 which means that this time he addresses his words to each of the Corinthians personally: “For what gives you the right to believe yourself so important as to judge God’s servants? What do you have that you did not receive? And since you received it, why do you boast of it as though you had not received it?” The first question (lit. “Who makes you different from another?”) serves to show the Corinthians that no one among them has the right to regard himself as important, exceptional or clever. For, as Paul continues, everything they have has been received, so there is no reason whatsoever for arrogance or pride. In the last two rhetorical questions, Paul is not speaking about general matters, such as food, clothing, health, and so on, which they may have received from God. Instead, he is probably referring to the specifically Christian attributes that they have received from God; above all, the Holy Spirit169 and all kinds of spiritual gifts.170 Each of the Corinthian Christians should recognise that he has not acquired these things by himself, but that he has received them from God (cf. also 1:4-7). From verse 8 onwards, Paul once more speaks to his readers in Corinth in the second person plural. This time he contrasts their complacency with his life, full of difficulties and troubles. First, he scornfully tells them that they

 166

For the formulation “nothing beyond,” cf. 10:13. 167 The phrase “what is written” (ਘ ȖȑȖȡĮʌIJĮȚ) does not refer to any OT passage (cf. Rom 12:19, 14:11, 1 Cor 1:19, 3:19, etc.), for in the direct context, we do not find any OT quotation. Neither does Paul refer to the Scriptures as a whole. Instead, Paul seems to refer to what he himself has written in the previous paragraphs. For the phrase “these things are written” (IJĮ૨IJĮ ȖȑȖȡĮʌIJĮȚ) as a reference to what is written in the previous paragraphs, see, e.g., John 20:31. 168 See also 7:27-28, 8:9-10, 14:16-17, and 15:36. 169 Cf. Rom 8:9, 23; 1 Cor 6:19, 7:40, 2 Cor 4:13, 11:4, Gal 3:2, and 14. 170 Cf. Rom 12:6, 1 Cor 7:7, and 12:30.

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think they “have all they want”171 and that they “have become rich” as a result of having been given so many spiritual gifts. Paul acknowledges that all this is true,172 but reminds them that it does not imply that they have received God’s salvation in all its aspects nor entitle them to despise those who find themselves in a more difficult position.173 They even think of themselves as “kings,” not in a literal sense of course, but in the sense of people who are “masters,” people who are not burdened by care, but who feel free to do what they want. Here, Paul introduces a well-known Hellenistic idea–a Stoic-Cynic idea, in particular–that a wise man is a “king,” independent of others and truly “free.” See, for instance, Plutarch, De tranquillitate animi 12 (Mor. 472A), where we read that according to the Stoic philosophers, “a wise man is not only found to be sensible, righteous and courageous, but also an orator, a poet, a general, a rich man and a king.”174 The Corinthians would probably have been familiar with this Hellenistic idea, and felt themselves to be “kings” since they had become Christians and experienced the effects of the Holy Spirit. They felt wise, independent of others and free to do whatever they wanted. For Paul, however, this was going too far: of course many fine things had happened to them since they had become Christians, but real glory and salvation were still to come, namely at the end of time. A final sneer is found towards the end of verse 8: “and all that without us.” That is, if the Corinthians did indeed consider themselves to be privileged people or “kings,” they ought to realise that Paul did not share this high opinion of himself. If only that were true: “Well, I wish that you had become kings, so that we might be kings with you.” Paul points out once more that it is only at the end of time that Christians will become “kings,”175 and that time had not yet come. Consequently, there was no place for overenthusiasm or disrespect for missionaries like Paul (and his fellow preachers).

 171

For the–metaphorical–use of the verb “to be satisfied” (țȠȡȑȞȞȣıșĮȚ), cf., e.g., Philo, Post. 145, Conf. 7, and Abr. 228. 172 See also 1:5, 7, 2 Cor 8:7, 9:8, and 11. 173 Obviously, a number of the Corinthian Christians think “they have already arrived,” a view which reflects a kind of “realised eschatology.” Paul’s view is rather “already but not yet.” 174 Cf. also Epictetus, Diss. 3.22.63, 3.22.95, Plutarch, Adul. amic. 15 (Mor. 58E), Horace, Sat. 1.3.124-25, Diogenes Laertius, Vit. phil. 7.122, Ps.-Diogenes, Ep. 39, Philo, Post. 128, Abr. 261, and Prob. 20. 175 See Rom 5:17, and cf. 2 Tim 2:12, Rev 5:10, 20:4, 6, and 22:5.

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In verse 9, Paul goes on to describe the suffering he and his closest collaborators have to endure, first in more or less general terms: “it is my opinion that God has given us, his apostles,176 the lowest position in society” (lit. “that God has made us … the last”; that is, the last or the lowest in rank).177 Paul and his co-preachers are more or less equal to criminals, “sentenced to death, as it were,”178 and they “have become a spectacle to the world, to angels as well as to people.” The expression “to become (or “to make”) a spectacle to the world” was a traditional metaphor to describe a tragic life; see, for instance, Sallust, Bellum jugurthinum 14.23, at ego infelix, in tanta mala praecipitatus …, rerum humanarum spectaculum praebeo, “but I, unhappy man, have found myself in serious troubles … and I make a spectacle of human vicissitudes.”179 Paul describes his own tragic situation in similar terms: he has become “a spectacle to the world,” and that, “to angels as well as to people”; that is, to all rational living beings in heaven and on earth.180 In the next verse, Paul describes the painful contrast between his (tragic) situation and that of the Corinthians who feel themselves to be “rich,” and “kings.” Like his closest collaborators, he is “foolish,” “weak” and “in disrepute,”181 but all “for the sake of Christ.” Paul continues, not without irony, that the Corinthian Christians, however, are “sensible,” “strong” and “are held in honour” (cf. 4:8, 10:15, 2 Cor 11:19, and 13:9). If the Corinthians are indeed so pleased with the spiritual gifts they have received from God and are enjoying a rather pleasant life, they should not forget that Paul, who once proclaimed the Gospel in their city, has to lead a life full of troubles and sufferings. None of this, however, is a reason for them to regard him as an inferior apostle. It is true that as someone who takes Jesus Christ as an example (see, e.g., 11:1), Paul suffers much and may appear “weak,” and “foolish,” but that is all for the sake of the Gospel, in order to “win” as many people as possible for Christ (cf. 9:19-23).

 176

Here, Paul calls himself (and perhaps his collaborators, too) “apostles,” in order to show the Corinthian Christians the harshness of the situation: an apostle, someone who is sent by God to proclaim his Gospel, has become the lowest in society. 177 Cf. Matt 19:30, 20:16, Mark 9:35, 10:31, Diodorus Siculus, Bibl. 8.18.3, and Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 38.37. 178 Cf. 15:31, 2 Cor 4:10-12, 6:9, and 11:23. 179 Cf. also Tacitus, Ann. 6.4.1, Pliny the Younger, Pan. 33.3, and Heb 10:33. 180 Cf. 13:1, Gal 1:8, T. Naph. 8:4, 6, and T. Jos. 19:4. 181 Cf. 2 Cor 11:30, 12:5, 9, 10, 13:4, and 9.

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In verses 11-13, Paul describes his miserable situation in more detail. Such litanies or lamentations occur more than once in his letters.182 These socalled Peristasenkataloge, lists of dangerous and miserable circumstances, were a popular way of depicting the misery in which wise and virtuous people may find themselves. This kind of list is also very popular among Stoics and Cynics, but can also be found in Jewish-Hellenistic and other early-Christian writings. See, for instance, Philo, Quod deterius potiori insidiari soleat 34, “The so-called ‘lovers of virtue’ are almost all people who are despised, who are held in disrepute, who are insignificant, who are lacking the most necessary things, who are despised more than servants or even slaves, people who are dirty, pale and meagre like a skeleton, who are hungry due to a lack of food, who are victims of all kinds of disease, and who are prepared to die.”183 Here, Paul uses a rhetorical style to impress on his readers in Corinth how much he has to endure “for the sake of Christ.” The hardships described by Paul in these verses are for the most part stereotypes; nevertheless, we can be sure that Paul had to face much danger and opposition in his life. “Going hungry and thirsty” (v. 11)184 is one example of Paul’s suffering as an apostle, and describes his struggle to find just enough food to stay alive.185 Going “in rags”186 is another characterisation: Paul cannot afford to wear good, warm clothing and has to endure bitter cold, particularly at night.187 Moreover, the apostle has to face all kinds of maltreatment188 and leads a nomadic life:189 “we are beaten and we are homeless.” In verse 12a, Paul once more describes the trouble he must take to stay alive in order to proclaim God’s message: “we grow weary from working with our own hands.” This is a recurrent theme in Paul’s letters: nothing is too much for him to fulfil his task as an apostle in God’s service.190

 182

See also 2 Cor 4:8-9, 6:4-10, 11:23-30, 32-33, and 12:10. 183 Cf. also Epictetus, Diss. 1.30.2, 2.19.24, Plutarch, Adol. poet. aud. 14 (Mor. 36E), and Diogn. 5. 184 Cf. Rom 8:35, 2 Cor 11:27, and Phil 4:12. 185 Cf. Ps 107:5 (106:5), Isa 49:10, Xenophon, Mem. 2.1.17, 2.6.22, Philo, Post. 142, Ign. Smyrn. 6:2, Ps.-Clem. Hom. 11.4.3, and 12.32.7. 186 Cf. Rom 8:35, and 2 Cor 11:27. 187 Cf. Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 25.3, and Lucian, Cyn. 14. 188 Cf. 2 Cor 6:5, and 11:23-25. 189 Cf. 2 Cor 11:26, and see further Matt 8:20, and Luke 9:58. 190 Cf. 15:10, 2 Cor 6:5, 11:23, 27, Gal 4:11, Phil 2:16, 1 Thess 2:9, and 3:5. For the formulation “to work with our own hands,” see also 1 Thess 4:11, and cf. Eph 4:28;

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Next come three clauses (vv. 12b-13a) which describe Paul’s reactions to the provocations he has to face. His attitude is characterised by the general principle of “not paying back evil for evil,”191 and by the more specific principle of “loving one’s enemy.” The first was a rather well-known ethical principle in the Hellenistic culture of Paul’s day, but the second is a specific extension of the first, and is mainly found in Christian sources–above all in (early-)Christian sources. It may well have been Jesus himself who first voiced this principle of “loving one’s enemy”; the authors of the Gospels certainly describe Jesus expressing this rather remarkable principle (see Matt 5:44-47, and Luke 6:27-35). The idea of “blessing when reviled,” as found in the first clause, recurs rather often in early-Christian literature, although not in precisely those terms.192 The second clause, “when persecuted, we endure,” describes Paul’s reaction in the face of persecution, which is similar to the reaction of the prophets of former times.193 This reaction is characterised by patience and endurance.194 The third and last clause, “when slandered, we speak kindly,” describes Paul’s positive reaction when someone slanders him and tries to damage the good opinion held about him.195 In such a case, Paul “speaks kindly to him.”196 At the end of verse 13, Paul summarises everything he has said in the previous verses about his position (and that of his collaborators). Now it is all coming to a head: “To this very day, we have become the scum of the earth, as it were, the dregs of society.” Paul feels that the entire world looks down on him. The Greek words for “scum” and “dregs” mean literally “dirt,” “garbage” or “rubbish,” but the same words were also used to qualify

 it does not refer specifically to doing manual labour (such as the work of a carpenter, for instance), but to working for a living in general. In 1 Cor 9, Paul will discuss more extensively why he even prefers “to work with his own hands,” although it would be easier to receive food, clothes and lodging from the Christians in the city. 191 Cf. Rom 12:17, and 1 Thess 5:15. 192 See Rom 12:14, Matt 5:44, Luke 6:27-28, 1 Pet 2:23, 3:9, and Did. 1:3. 193 See also Rom 8:35, 2 Cor 4:9, 12:10, and cf. Rom 12:14, Mark 5:10-12, 44, 10:23, Matt 23:34, Luke 11:49, 21:12, Acts 7:52, Did. 1:3, and 1 Clem. 5:2. 194 Cf. 2 Thess 1:4, Diogn. 2:9, Epictetus, Diss. 1.9.12, 3.4.12, 3.12.10, and 4.1.18. 195 See also 2 Cor 6:8, and cf. Plutarch, Pel. 8.8 (Vit. par. 281F). 196 For this meaning of the verb ʌĮȡĮțĮȜİ૙Ȟ, which is usually translated by “to comfort,” “to encourage,” or “to exhort,” see also, e.g., Let. Aris. 235, Luke 15:28, Acts 16:39, and esp. Aristides, Ap. 15.5, “(the Christians) speak kindly to those who do them wrong and make friends with them, and they work hard to do good to their enemies.”

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certain groups of people, in particular, criminals or those sentenced to death.197 In a similar way, Paul regards himself and his collaborators as people who belong to the lowest ranks of society, and as people who are despised by everyone. But, in the first four chapters of the letter, Paul wants the Corinthians to understand that all this suffering should not be a reason for them to become supporters of other missionaries, such as Apollos. On the contrary, they should realise that Paul is enduring all this misery purely “for the sake of Christ.”

An appeal to follow Paul’s example: 4:14-21 (14) I am not writing all this to make you ashamed, but rather to put you back on the right track, for you are my beloved children. (15) There may be thousands of people who want to teach you about your belief in Christ, but you do not have many fathers; for as believers in Christ Jesus you are my offspring, through my preaching of the Gospel. (16) Therefore, I appeal to you to follow my example. (17) That is why I sent Timothy to you–who, as a believer in Christ, is a beloved and faithful child to me–to remind you of my way of life as a Christian; something I teach everywhere in every Christian community. (18) But some of you have become full of self-importance, thinking that I will not come to you. (19) Indeed, I will come to you, and that very soon, if it is the Lord’s will, and then I will not pay attention to what those arrogant people say, but to what they do. (20) For the kingdom of God is not a matter of words, but of power. (21) What would you prefer–should I come to you with a rod in my hand, or with love and a gentle spirit?

In verses 14-16, Paul calls on the Corinthian Christians to imitate him. As their spiritual “father” and their example, he wants them to renounce their arrogant attitude, their feelings of superiority and their aggrandisement of particular missionaries; instead they should remember what a truly Christian life is all about. Paul ends this first part of his letter (chs. 1-4) with a serious threat. First, he indicates that he has sent his closest collaborator, Timothy, to Corinth, most probably because he knew about the troubles in the Corinthian Christian community. Timothy’s visit was intended to show the Corinthians once more how they should behave like true Christians (v. 17). But after Timothy’s departure from Ephesus, Paul was informed–probably by some “members of Chloe’s household” (see 1:11)–that the situation within the community in Corinth had not improved, and he therefore felt it necessary to write this letter, which he anticipated would reach those in Corinth before Timothy arrived in the city. He understood that there were

 197

Cf. Epictetus, Diss. 3.22.78, and Philo, Virt. 174.

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some Christians in Corinth who regarded themselves as “wise” and selfimportant, and had started a smear campaign against him. That is why he warns the Corinthians that he will soon come to them himself to rebuke and correct them; he prefers to do so “with love,” but if necessary, “with a rod in his hand,” if they still refuse to listen to him (vv. 18-21). First of all, Paul wants the Corinthians to know that what he has written so far is not intended to make them “ashamed” (v. 14), rather, he wants “to put them back on the right track,” to admonish them like a “father.”198 For he regards the Corinthian Christians as his “children,”199 his “beloved children” even. This demonstrates the close relationship Paul feels with the Corinthian Christians. In verses 15-16, Paul elaborates on this relationship: as believers in Jesus Christ they may have “thousands of people who want to teach you about your belief in Christ,200 but you do not have many fathers; for as believers in Christ Jesus you are my offspring, through my preaching of the Gospel.” That is to say, there may have been more missionaries working in the Christian community in Corinth, but Paul was its founder, and he therefore remains their spiritual “father.”201 He was the first to bring the Gospel to Corinth and to “beget” children,202 that is, to convince people to believe in Jesus Christ (see also 3:6, and 10). Whereas Paul was the founder of the Christian community in Corinth, the other preachers, such as Apollos, for example, were just “tutors,” people who tell the Christians to lead a truly

 198

Cf. Acts 20:31. The verb “to admonish,” ȞȠȣșİIJİ૙Ȟ, is often used in the context of a father educating his children: see, e.g., Wis 11:10, Pss. Sol. 13:9, Josephus, B.J. 1.481, and A.J. 3.311. 199 Also elsewhere in his letters, Paul mentions those who have become believers in Christ through his proclamation of the Gospel, his “children”: 2 Cor 6:13, Gal 4:19, and 1 Thess 2:11. 200 Lit. “ten thousands of tutors.” The Greek word for “tutor,” ʌĮȚįĮȖȦȖȩȢ, refers to a person, usually a slave, who in Hellenistic times took care of the education of children (particularly, sons); on behalf of the father of the family, he should teach them norms and values and should correct them if necessary. “Teachers” were responsible for the primary and higher education, but since both “tutors” and “teachers” were involved in the education of children, in the literature of the time they are often mentioned together; even sometimes, the differences between the two have fallen away: see, e.g., Plato, Lys. 208C, Xenophon, Lac. 3.1, Plutarch, Galb. 17 (Vit. par. 1060C), and Philo, Legat. 53. 201 A similar metaphor is found in Apuleius, Metam. 11.25.7, where the priest Mithras is called Lucius’ “father.” 202 Cf. Philem 10.

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Christian life and teach them more about the Christian faith (cf. 3:10-15). These missionaries may be both important and numerous,203 but Paul remains the “father” of the Corinthians. Finally, in verse 16, Paul exhorts the Corinthians to follow his example and to live as he lives, that is, to be humble and subservient to others and to lead a life of self-sacrifice.204 Paul had already sent Timothy, 205 his closest fellow worker, to the Christian community in Corinth (v. 17) before he wrote his letter to the Corinthians. On behalf of Paul, Timothy was to remind the Corinthians how they should behave as true Christians.206 Timothy was not unknown to the Corinthian Christians; he had preached the Gospel in Corinth together with Paul and Silvanus (Silas) (see 2 Cor 1:19). Paul describes him as someone “who, as a believer in Christ, is a beloved and faithful child to me.” 207 This formulation makes it clear that once Timothy had become a believer in Jesus Christ after hearing Paul’s proclamation of the Gospel, Paul had become like a “father” to him.208 Timothy became Paul’s most important acolyte, accompanied him on his missions, and is mentioned in four of Paul’s letters as Paul’s co-sender.209 Paul’s description of Timothy is without doubt meant to underline the close bond between them: Timothy is going to Corinth in Paul’s place, and is therefore to be treated as if it were Paul himself who was present in Corinth. He has been sent to Corinth to tell the Corinthians

 203

“Ten thousands of.” For such an exaggeration, cf. 14:19, Philo, Legat. 54, and Epictetus, Diss. 4.13.21. 204 Cf. 10:31-11:1, Phil 3:17, and 1 Thess 1:6. 205 The Aorist used here, ਩ʌİȝȥĮ, is certainly not a so-called “epistolary Aorist,” to be translated as a Present and meant to point to Timothy as the bearer of the letter. On the contrary: Timothy had been sent by Paul to Corinth before he wrote his letter (see also at 16:10-11). Cf. also 1 Thess 3:2, 5. However, Paul expects his letter to have arrived with the community in Corinth before Timothy. So he had probably not sent Timothy directly or exclusively to Corinth, but perhaps via Macedonia (cf. Acts 19:22). 206 Lit. “to remind you of my ways as a Christian.” The formulation “the ways (of someone)” refers in the OT and Jewish-Christian writings to someone’s conduct, someone’s way of life: see, e.g., Ps 119:168 (118:168), 139:3 (138:3), Prov 1:19, 4:17, 19, Jer 3:21, Sir 11:26, 16:20, Pss. Sol. 6:2, 10:4, Acts 14:16, and Jas 1:8. 207 Cf. 2 Tim 1:2, and see also Phil 2:22. 208 Cf. 4:14-15, and Philem 10. On Timothy’s family and origin, cf. also Acts 16:13. 209 See 2 Cor 1:1, Phil 1:1, 1 Thess 1:1, and Philem 1. Cf. also Col 1:1, and 2 Thess 1:1.

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that they should lead a truly Christian life, “something I teach everywhere in every Christian community.” With this last phrase, Paul wants the Corinthians to remember that, as a local Christian community, they do not stand alone, but are part of the worldwide Christian Church.210 What Paul asks of them is nothing exceptional: such a way of life is fit for Christians all over the world. In verses 18-21, Paul talks about “some” Corinthians who “have become full of self-importance, thinking that I will not come to you” (v. 18). Paul is obviously thinking here of some of the Christians in Corinth who now regarded themselves as very important, and who had become “supporters” of other missionaries (see 1:12). Moreover, they despised him for his apparent refusal to return to the city, believing he would never come back to Corinth. This supposition of theirs was quite understandable, because Paul had made plans to go to Corinth (cf. 16:5-9) more than once, but had been forced to postpone this journey for one reason or another (cf. also 2 Cor 1:12-24). Nevertheless, Paul assures the Corinthians that he does indeed have plans to visit them “very soon,”211 “if it is the Lord’s will” (v. 19a).212 Paul continues by telling the Corinthians that when he does come, he “will not pay attention to what those arrogant people say, but to what they do” (v. 19b). Paul is not, and will not be, impressed by their words, by what they think or say of themselves or by all their pretentions. For him, it is much more important that they lead a truly Christian life, a life like Paul’s, a life that is not characterised by quarrels and division but by the Spirit of God (cf. 2:4-5, and 3:1-4). For “the kingdom of God,” visible for now only on a limited scale but to be revealed in all its glory at the end of time,213 “is not a matter of words, but of power” (v. 20). At the end of this first part of his letter, Paul turns to the entire Christian community in Corinth and offers them a choice: “What would you prefer–

 210

Cf. 1:2, 7:17, 11:16, 14:33b-34a, and 36. 211 See also 16:5-9, and cf. Phil 2:24. 212 This phrase, generally known as Deo volente, is found in more or less similar terms in Graeco-Roman literature (“if it is God’s will,” or “if it is the gods’ will,” see, e.g., Plato, Phaed. 80D), in Jewish-Hellenistic literature (see, e.g., Josephus, A.J. 7.373), and in early-Christian writings (see, e.g., Acts 18:21, and Jas 4:15). The general concept is, of course, that everything in the world is in God’s hands. It is not clear whom Paul refers to with the phrase “if it is the Lord’s will”: it may be God or Jesus Christ. In any case, Paul usually makes his travel plans with this reservation (see Rom 1:10, 15:32, and 1 Cor 16:7). 213 Cf. Rom 14:17, and 1 Cor 6:9-10, 15:50, Gal 5:21, and 1 Thess 2:12.

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should I come to you with a rod in my hand, or with love and a gentle spirit?” (v. 21). The “rod” is a metaphor for sharp reprimand,214 and Paul will use it if the Corinthians continue to refuse to listen to him; but if they are willing to obey him and determine to do better, he will come to them “with love and a gentle spirit,”215 that is, with the love of a “father” for his “children.”

 214

For the “rod” as a means of chastisement or corporal punishment, cf., e.g., Exod 21:20, 2 Sam 7:14, Prov 10:13, 22:15, Isa 10:24, and also Plato, Leg. 700C, Plutarch, Quaest. rom. 20 (Mor. 268DE), and Quaest. conv. 6.8.1 (Mor. 693F). 215 Cf. Gal 6:1. For such a spirit of gentleness or meekness, cf. Eph 4:2, Col 3:12, and 2 Tim 2:25.

PART TWO SEXUAL IMMORALITY AND LITIGATION IN THE CHRISTIAN COMMUNITY: 5:1-6:20

In the last paragraph of the previous chapter, we saw how Paul exhorted the Christians in Corinth to imitate him in leading a truly Christian life. He rebuked some of the Corinthians for their arrogant attitude, saying that he wanted them to do better and to know that he would come to them “with a rod in his hand” if necessary. In chapters 5-6, Paul continues by raising a number of issues illustrating the troubles within the Christian community in Corinth, as a result of which, its members have no cause for arrogance or pride; on the contrary, these problems put the sanctity or holiness of the Christian community in danger.

A case of sexual immorality in the Corinthian community: 5:1-5 (1) It has actually been reported to me that there is a case of sexual immorality among you, and of a kind that is not to be found even among pagans: a man has had an affair with his father’s wife. (2) Yet you are proud of yourselves! Should you not rather have mourned and made sure that the one who has done this was removed from your number? (3) For my part, I have already reached my judgment on the man who has done such a thing as if I were present. For although I am absent in body, I am present in spirit. (4) Thus, when you are all assembled and I am with you in spirit together with the power of our Lord Jesus, I would say to you in the name of our Lord Jesus: (5) Hand this man over to Satan for the destruction of his earthly existence, that his spirit may be saved on the Day of the Lord.

The first case mentioned by Paul is a case of sexual immorality: someone has had an affair with his stepmother. Yet instead of sorrowing and removing this man from their community, Paul has been told by some people from Corinth that the Corinthians seem to be proud of it (vv. 1-2). In the verses which follow, Paul tells the Corinthians what they must do: the man should be excommunicated, removed from their community and

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handed over to the realm of the devil. As a Christian, this man will, nevertheless, also be saved by God on the Last Day (vv. 3-5). From verse 1, Paul raises an issue that was a real thorn in his side. He has heard about a case of sexual immorality within the Christian community in Corinth. Some “members of Chloe’s household,” who we have already heard about, had probably told him about it.1 Paul is completely flabbergasted: “It has actually been reported to me…” Before even discussing details of the affair, he has qualified it as a case of immorality “of a kind that is not to be found even among pagans.” This is something of an exaggeration, since obviously such matters were not completely unknown among non-Jews (Gentiles), but Paul’s intention is to underline the gravity of the situation. His readers in Corinth are Christians and should behave accordingly. The Greek word translated here by “(a case of) sexual immorality,” ʌȠȡȞİȓĮ, can refer to many types of fornication or prostitution, which were more or less tolerated among the Gentiles but totally rejected by the Jews and earlyChristians. In their writings, the latter often launched attacks on the Gentiles because of their “loose morals.”2 Warnings against sexual immorality (in the sense of all forms of sexual intercourse except that of one man and one woman within marriage), together with warnings against idolatry, occur frequently in the OT and in Jewish and early-Christian literature.3 In Paul’s letters, we also find many such warnings, probably because almost all those who had become followers of Jesus Christ thanks to Paul’s proclamation of the Gospel had pagan origins.4 The case of immorality hinted at by Paul is described rather vaguely at the end of verse 1. He does not mention the name of the man in question, but without any doubt, the Corinthians would have known who Paul was talking about. In any case, it was about a man who “has had an affair with his father’s wife.” It is not possible to tell from this formulation precisely what the relationship between the man and “his father’s wife” (presumably his stepmother) was. The verb translated as “to have an affair with” (lit. “to have”) leaves open the question of whether they were married, lived together or only had a sexual relationship with each other. Nor is it clear

 1

See 1:11 and 11:18. 2 See Wis 14:12, 1 En. 10:9, Jub. 25:1, Rom 1:24-27, Col 3:5, etc. 3 See, e.g., Prov 5:3, 6:26, 29:3, Sir 23:23, 26:9, 41:17, and esp. T. Reu. 3:3, 4:6-6:4, T. Jud. 15, and 18:2. 4 See 1 Cor 5:9-11, 6:9, 13-18, 7:2, 10:8, 2 Cor 12:21, Gal 5:19, and 1 Thess 4:3.

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whether the father had died or had divorced his wife, or whether he was still married to her. The woman in question was probably not a member of the Christian community, but we simply do not know that either. All these things remain obscure to us, but the Corinthians would undoubtedly have known what Paul was talking about. To marry or have a sexual relationship with one’s stepmother was something strictly forbidden in Israel and in later Judaism. See, for instance, Leviticus 18:8: “You should not have intercourse with the wife of your father.”5 The punishment for such a deed was excommunication, removal from the Israelite or Jewish community, or even the death penalty. It was also punishable under Roman law.6 Nevertheless, affairs between men and their stepmothers were clearly not unknown among Jews and non-Jews alike,7 otherwise it would not have been necessary to make laws about such matters. It is probable that this affair and the Corinthians’ reaction to it arose from a feeling of being “free,” an attitude characteristic of a number of Corinthian Christians who felt “free” to do anything they wanted, also when it came to sexual matters.8 Paul, however, very much disapproved of such things. He accuses the Corinthians not only of tolerating this case of immorality but of even being proud of the fact that such things could happen in their community (v. 2). In Paul’s opinion, they “should have mourned 9 and made sure that the one who has done this was removed from your number.” In this, the Corinthian Christians had failed to act appropriately. In verses 3-5, Paul makes clear to the Corinthians what must happen in this case. Unlike the Corinthians, Paul has formed a clear opinion about the man in question, which he now passes on to them through this letter. The letter stands in for its author, who communicates his thoughts to the addressees by means of the letter. Although Paul is “absent in body” he is “present in spirit,”10 and as an apostle of the Lord he passes judgment on the man in

 5

See also Lev 20:11, Deut 22:30, (23:1), 27:20, Ps.-Phoc. 179-80, Jub. 33:10, Josephus, A.J. 3.274, Philo, Spec. 3.20-21, m. Sanh. 7:4, and m. Ker. 1:1. 6 See Gaius, Inst. 1.63. 7 See, e.g., Diodorus Siculus, Bibl. 20.33.5, Artemidorus Daldianus, Onir. 4.20, Cicero, Clu. 5.14-6.15, and Lucian, Syr. d. 17-18. 8 See esp. at 6:12. 9 For the attitude of “mourning” for one’s own mistakes or the wrongdoings of others, cf., e.g., Num 14:39-40, Ezra 10:6, 1 Esd 8:69, 9:2, T. Reu. 1:10, and 1 Clem. 2:6. 10 Cf. 2 Cor 10:1, 11, 13:2, 10, and see also Col 2:5.

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question and expounds it to them. This judgment is not, however, Paul’s personal opinion; it is a judgment “in the name of our Lord Jesus.”11 “Speaking in the name of God/the Lord” is normally characteristic of a prophet,12 but Paul and other missionaries or apostles can also speak “in the name of God/the Lord/Jesus Christ”. Paul’s verdict would have been heard by the Corinthians at the moment the letter was read out in front of the Christian community (“when you are all assembled and I am with you in spirit”). At that moment, Paul would have been present “in spirit,” namely, via his letter, but the Corinthians could also have been sure that “the power of our Lord Jesus” was not lacking during the meeting.13 It was not just Paul who was there “in spirit,” Jesus Christ would also have been present, namely via his “power,”14 experienced by all members of the Christian community. This will have sanctioned their meeting and the action to be taken against the man in question. Finally, in verse 5, Paul tells the Corinthians what he thinks the Corinthians should do with the man who has had an affair with his stepmother: they should hand him over to Satan. That is, they should drive that person out from their holy community (see 3:17)15 and send him back into the world, which is, as it were, governed by Satan.16 Thus, the man in question should

 11

It is not cristal clear to which part of the sentence (vv. 4-5) the phrase “in the name of our Lord Jesus” is to be connected. It may be connected with the words “when you are all assembled” (cf. Matt 18:20), or even with the words “Hand this man over to Satan.” However, it is more plausible that the phrase is to be connected with Paul’s judgment (“I would say to you”). Not only the position of the phrase in this long sentence, but also similar formulations such as “to speak, to order, to exhort in the name of …” (see, e.g., Acts 9:27-28, 16:18, 1 Cor 1:10, 2 Thess 3:6, and Jas 5:10) suggest that this is the correct interpretation. 12 See, e.g., Jer 20:9, Dan 9:6, and Jas 5:10. 13 It is also not directly clear to which part of the sentence the words “the power of our Lord Jesus” should be connected. One possibility is to connect it with the action of the handing over to Satan: in that case, the man should be handed over to Satan by the Corinthians “together with” (that is, “in cooperation with” or “with the help of”) “the power of our Lord Jesus.” 14 Cf. 2 Cor 12:9. 15 For “excommunication” as a punishment for serious crimes, see also Matt 18:17, and cf. 1QS II, 15-17 and VIII, 21-24. 16 Cf. 2 Cor 4:4. “Satan,” a Hebrew word, was originally used to refer to an opponent or enemy in general (see, e.g., 1 Sam 29:4 and 1 Kings 11:14). Later on, in Jewish and early-Christian writings, it became the name of God’s opponent, the devil. As such it is also used in the letters of Paul: see Rom 16:20, 1 Cor 5:5, 7:5, 2 Cor 2:11, 11:14, 12:7, and 1 Thess 2:18.

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be handed over to Satan,17 implying that he will fall into Satan’s power. Paul is convinced that Satan will ultimately be responsible for “the destruction of his earthly existence” (lit. “the destruction of his flesh”). Similar expressions18 make it clear that Paul is thinking in terms of the man’s physical death. In other words, Satan will punish the man to such an extent that he will lose his earthly existence, that is, his life on earth.19 Paul is also convinced, however, that although the man who has had an affair with his stepmother will be “destroyed” by Satan, he will nevertheless be “saved” by God on the Last Day (“that his spirit may be saved on the Day of the Lord”).20 As a believer in Jesus Christ, his “spirit,” that is, the man’s spiritual existence, his “inner nature” (as opposed to his “outer nature,” 2 Cor 4:16), will receive salvation from God at the end of time.

Wickedness is like yeast: 5:6-8 (6) Your pride is completely wrong. Don’t you know that only a little yeast is enough to leaven the whole batch of dough? (7) Get rid of the old yeast, so that you may become a new batch of unleavened dough. Indeed you already are, for our Passover lamb, Christ, has been sacrificed. (8) Therefore, let us celebrate the festival, not with the old yeast, the yeast of depravity and wickedness, but with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth.

In these verses, Paul offers another argument as to why the man who has had an affair with his stepmother should be removed from the Christian community. He compares the man to yeast: as only a little (old) yeast is enough to leaven and contaminate an entire batch of dough. So this one man is a threat to the sanctity of the entire Christian community (v. 6). He then makes an appeal to the Corinthians to get rid of the old yeast, that is, to remove the man from their community and become new, unleavened dough;

 17

Cf. 1 Tim 1:20, “Hymenaeus and Alexander, whom I have handed over to Satan,” Job 2:6, “The Lord said to Satan: ‘Very well, I hand him (Job) over to you’,” and T. Job 20:3, “Then the Lord handed me over to him to do with my body whatever he wanted to do.” 18 See, e.g., Sir 39:30, 2 Macc 13:6, Sib. Or. 3:327, and 1 Tim 6:9. 19 That Satan may be responsible for people’s diseases and deaths is a concept that we find rather often in Jewish and early-Christian writings: see, e.g., Wis 2:24, Luke 13:16, John 8:44, 2 Cor 12:7, Heb 2:14, and perhaps also 1 Tim 1:20. See also at 1 Cor 11:30. Sometimes, the expression of “the destruction of his flesh” is interpreted as a reference to the man’s giving up his (sexual) passions, but this interpretation can hardly be true, for why should Satan try to prevent someone from satisfying his passions? 20 On “the Day of the Lord,” see at 1:8.

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that is, to become a pure and spotless community of Christians. But Paul continues by saying that they are already new, unleavened dough, because the Passover Lamb has been sacrificed, and since then they have been living, as it were, in the time of the Feast of Unleavened Bread (v. 7). Finally, Paul calls on the Corinthians to celebrate this Feast of Unleavened Bread, that is, to be sincere and true and lead a genuinely Christian life (v. 8). In the previous paragraph, Paul told the Corinthians how he thought the man who had had an affair with his stepmother should be dealt with. In this context, he blamed them for being proud of themselves (see v. 2). He repeats this in verse 6a: “Your pride is completely wrong” (lit. “It is not a nice thing 21 that you are boasting of yourselves”). Next, Paul introduces a metaphor from daily life 22 to make it clear to the Corinthians that a case of sexual immorality represents a danger to the entire Christian community. He refers to the effects of “yeast.”23 Yeast comes from old, soured dough, which is added to fresh dough to make the bread lighter and tastier. A little bit of yeast is enough.24 But yeast not only has this positive effect: it also makes the new dough sour, and unless such dough is directly used to bake bread it will become spoiled and rotten.25 It is this polluting and contaminating effect of yeast that Paul is referring to in verses 6-8. According to the law of Moses, at the beginning of the Feast of Unleavened Bread, Israelites and Jews should clean their houses and remove all yeast. This is the festival that follows directly after Passover. During the Feast of Unleavened Bread, they should bake and eat only bread without any yeast (see Exod 12:1-20). Paul alludes to these customs to reiterate his point (v. 7). First, he exhorts the Corinthians to “get rid of the old yeast” (cf. Exod 12:15), that is, remove the man in question from the community. It is only in this way that the Corinthian Christians can become “a new batch of unleavened dough.” Having removed the sinner (the “old yeast”) they will

 21

For this formulation, cf. Gen 2:18, Prov 17:26, 18:5, 20:23, 24:23, 25:27, Jdt 10:19, Matt. 15:26, etc. 22 For the introductory formula “Don’t you know that,” see at 3:16. 23 Cf. Gal 5:9. 24 Cf. also Matt 13:33 and Luke 13:21. 25 For the effects of yeast, see esp. Plutarch, Quaest. rom. 109 (Mor. 289F), and Quaest. conv. 3.10.3 (Mor. 659B).

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once again become a holy community of people living according to God’s will, who are, as it were, “unleavened dough” or bread without any yeast. Paul hastens to tell the Corinthians that, in fact, they “already are” unleavened bread; bread that is eaten by the Jews on the Feast of Unleavened Bread directly after Passover. For, as he continues with a reference to the death of Jesus Christ, “our Passover lamb, Christ, has been sacrificed.” Just as lambs are sacrificed for the Jewish Passover to celebrate Israel’s liberation from Egypt at the Exodus,26 so a lamb has been sacrificed at the eschatological liberation, namely Jesus Christ. Paul introduces the image of Jesus Christ as a “Passover lamb”27 to show the Corinthians that, metaphorically, they are living in the time of the Feast of Unleavened Bread. Finally, in verse 8, Paul gives a new twist to the metaphor of the yeast and the unleavened bread. Now he connects these terms with some important vices and virtues: “Therefore, let us celebrate the festival, not with the old yeast, the yeast of depravity and wickedness, but with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth.” The “old yeast” is characteristic of the situation of non-Christian people, who are driven by “depravity and wickedness.”28 Whereas the “unleavened bread” is characteristic of the situation in which Christians find themselves; as people who are governed by virtues such as “sincerity and truth.”29 Paul ends this passage by exhorting the Corinthians to celebrate the Feast of Unleavened Bread,30 that is, to lead a truly Christian life, a life completely according to God’s will.

Root out the wicked man from among you!: 5:9-13 (9) In my letter, I wrote telling you not to associate with sexually immoral people. (10) I was not, of course, referring to sexually immoral people in general, or to swindlers, robbers or idolaters. To do that you would need to remove yourself from society altogether! (11) No, when I wrote to you, I meant that you should not associate with a so-called “believer in Christ” who is sexually immoral, who is a swindler, an idolater, a slanderer, a drunkard or a robber; you should not even eat with such a person. (12-13) For what have I to do with

 26

Cf. Exod 12:21, Deut 16:2, 5-6, 1 Esd 1:1, 7:12, Mark 14:12, and Luke 22:7. 27 The image of Jesus Christ as a “Passover lamb” is unique in the NT; it is introduced here by Paul because of the context and the metaphors of the yeast and the Feast of Unleavened Bread. 28 Cf. Rom 1:29. 29 Cf. Rom 6:6, 7:6, and see also Eph 4:22, Col 3:9, and esp. Ign. Magn. 10:2 and Justin, Dial. 14.2-3. 30 For “Let us celebrate the festival,” cf. Exod 12:14.

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judging those outside our community? It is God who will judge such people. But it is up to you to judge those within our community. Therefore, “Root out the wicked man from among you!”

In this paragraph, Paul is referring to an earlier letter that he wrote to the Christians in Corinth. In that letter, which apparently has not been preserved to us, he warned his readers not to associate with immoral people. Perhaps he did not express himself clearly enough. For whatever reason, Paul finds it necessary to repeat in more detail what he meant in the earlier letter (vv. 9-11). He had not been referring to or making a judgment about “sinners” in general (“those outside our community”), since God would ultimately be their judge; rather he was referring to “sinners” within the Christian community, and the Corinthians were the ones who could and should pass judgment on them; implying that they should remove the man who had been having an affair with his stepmother from their community (vv. 12-13). At the end of this chapter, Paul wants to reinforce his argument about the excommunication of the man who has had an affair with his stepmother. He refers to an earlier letter of his to the Corinthians, in which he had told them that they should not associate with “sexually immoral people” (v. 9). For “what you deal with you will become infected with.”31 Perhaps Paul did not express himself sufficiently clearly in that letter. Either way, the Corinthians seem to have dismissed Paul’s warning as impractical; how can you avoid any association with immoral and wicked people when you live in a city full of people who do not take such rules and laws seriously? As a consequence, they had neglected Paul’s warning and had not removed the immoral man who had been having an affair with his stepmother from their community. On the contrary, they seemed to be proud of themselves for being the sort of people who were “free” to do anything they wanted (see also at 6:12). Now, Paul finds it necessary to clarify what he really meant in his earlier letter to the Corinthians (v. 10). He knows very well that the Christians in Corinth cannot entirely avoid associating with people who are immoral in one way or another (“sexually immoral people in general [lit. “sexually immoral people of this world”]32 or swindlers, robbers or idolaters”). For in this world there are “sexually immoral people” as there are people who defraud others of their money (“swindlers”), as well as “robbers” and “idolaters.” According to Jews and Christians, all Gentiles were

 31

Cf. Hos 7:8, Sir 13:1, and Philo, Mos. 1.278. See also at 1 Cor 5:6-7, and 15:33. 32 For the meaning of “world” in this passage, see also 1:20, and 3:18-19.

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automatically “idolaters,” and many of them were also sexually immoral and greedy.33 Of course, Paul knows very well that if you wanted to avoid all such immoral persons “you would need to remove yourself from society altogether” (lit. “you would need to go out of this world”). With this, originally Jewish, figure of speech34 Paul is saying that if one wishes to avoid associating with wicked people, death is the only solution. As long as one lives in this world, meeting “sinners” is inevitable. But in verse 11, Paul makes it clear to the Corinthians what he really wanted to say in his earlier letter: “No, when I wrote to you, I meant” (lit. “But now,35 I wrote to you”).36 What Paul had meant to tell the Corinthians in his earlier letter was that they “should not associate with a so-called “believer in Christ who is sexually immoral,” or who is “a swindler, an idolater, a slanderer, a drunkard or a robber.” Paul has expanded on the list of “sinners” mentioned in verse 10, adding two other types of wicked people: “a slanderer”37 and “a drunkard.”38 It is unlikely that Paul thought of some types of sinner as typical of the Corinthian Christians in particular; rather he is introducing one of the many examples of lists of vices (or sins), so-called Lasterkataloge, found frequently in pagan, Jewish and early-Christian literature. They were meant

 33

See, e.g., 3 Bar. 8:5, Eph 5:5, Col 3:5, Did. 5:1, and Barn. 20:1. “Swindlers and robbers” was a more or less fixed combination in Graeco-Roman literature: see, e.g., Xenophon, Mem. 3.1.6, Cyr. 1.6.27, Plutarch, Galb. 6.2 (Vit. par. 1055C), Philo, Agr. 83, Decal. 171, Spec. 1.204, 3.158, Did. 2:6, 5:1, and Barn. 20:1. 34 See, e.g., 4 Bar. 4:10, and cf. further T. Ab. 1:7, 2 Clem. 5:1, 8:3, Acta Paul. Thecl. 6, and Apoc. Pet. 2.5. The Greeks used the analogous expression “to go out of life” or “to leave the body.” 35 The words “But now,” Ȟ૨Ȟ įȑ, are often used to correct or to specify something said before: see, e.g., Luke 19:42, John 8:40, 9:41, 18:36, 1 Cor 7:14, 12:18, 15:20, Heb 8:6, 9:26, 11:16, and Jas 4:16. In other words, in his earlier letter, Paul did not mean that the Corinthians should avoid associating with all wicked people in this world, although the Corinthians might have interpreted his words this way, perhaps due to the fact that Paul had not expressed himself clearly enough. 36 The Greek word ਩ȖȡĮȥĮ, “I wrote,” is not a so-called “epistolary Aorist,” as is the case in e.g., 9:15, Rom 15:15, Gal 6:11, and Philem 19, 21 (see also at 4:17). Thus, Paul does not want to say “I wrote something to you, but now I write something different.” No, Paul is now explaining to the Corinthians what he really meant to tell them in his earlier letter. 37 Cf., e.g., Prov 23:8, 25:24, 26:21, and 27:15. 38 Cf., e.g., Prov 23:21, 26:9, Sir 19:1, 26:8, 4 Macc. 2:7, and Herm. Sim. 6.5.5.

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to summarise and warn against all kinds of activity that people should avoid.39 So, Paul is warning the Corinthians not to associate with a fellow Christian who is immoral in one way or another. They “should not even eat with such a person”, meaning the Corinthians should avoid sharing meals with any fellow Christians not living according to God’s will.40 Eating together indicates a close relationship, fellowship or solidarity between the participants, so eating with sinners and wicked people should be avoided at all times.41 In verses 12-13, Paul reinforces his argument that one should not associate with fellow Christians who lead an immoral life. First, he points out that neither he himself nor any other believer in Jesus Christ may judge people “outside our community,” that is, those who do not believe in Christ 42–it is up to them how they want to live–, but Paul is convinced that they will not escape the punishment they deserve: “It is God who will judge those people.” The Corinthians, however, should judge their fellow Christians:43 “But it is up to you to judge those within our community.” That meant, in the case of the man who was having an affair with his stepmother, that they should remove the sinner from their community and avoid any form of association or eating with him: “Root out the wicked man from among you!” Paul ends this passage about a case of sexual immorality within the community of Corinth quite aptly, quoting a clause frequently found in similar contexts in the book of Deuteronomy: see 17:7, 19:19, 21:21, 22:24,

 39

See, e.g., Plutarch, Tranq. an. 7 (Mor. 468B), Epictetus, Diss. 2.16.45, 3.2.3, 3.2.14, Wis 14:25-26, 1 En. 91:6-7, 3 Bar. 8:5, Sib Or. 2:254-83, 3:36-45, As. Mos. 7, Philo, Sacr. 32, Conf. 47-48, Mark 7:21-22, Rom 1:29-31, 13:13, 1 Cor 6:9-10, 2 Cor 12:20-21, Gal 5:19-21, Eph 5:3-5, Col 3:5, 8, 1 Tim 1:9-10, 2 Tim 3:2-5, 1 Pet 4:3, Rev 21:8, and 22:15. 40 Paul is not referring to the eucharist in particular, but thinking of communal meals in general. 41 Cf. Gen 43:32, 2 Sam 12:17, Jos. Asen. 7:1, Luke 15:2, Acts 11:3, and Gal 2:12. See also at 5:6-7, 9. 42 Lit. “those outside”; cf. 1 Thess 4:12, Col 4:5, 1 Tim 3:7, and see also Sir, prologue, and 2 Macc 1:16. 43 Whereas Paul wants the Corinthians to judge one another, he explicitly forbids them to make a judgment on him and his fellow missionaries (see 4:5).

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and 24:7.44 He is sure that only in this way will the Christian community in Corinth remain pure and holy.

A case of litigation in the Corinthian community: 6:1-6 (1) When anyone among you has a dispute with another, how do you dare to take it before a court of unrighteous people instead of before saints? (2) Don’t you know that the saints will judge the world? And if the world is to be judged in your court, are you not competent to hold court and try the most trivial cases? (3) Don’t you know that we are to judge even the angels, so are we not then competent to make a judgment on matters that have to do with our life here on earth? (4) No, if you have disputes about such everyday matters, why do you ask people who count for nothing in the Christian community to act as judges? (5) I say this to make you ashamed. Can it really be that there is not a single person among you who is wise enough to rule on this dispute between one believer in Christ and another? (6) Why should a believer in Christ seek justice against another believer, and that before unbelievers?

In this paragraph, Paul is giving his opinion on a case of litigation within the Christian community in Corinth, something he has probably heard about from the people from Corinth who visited him at Ephesus (see 1:11). Apparently there was a Christian who had filed a lawsuit against another member of the Christian community and had asked “outsiders” (pagans) to act as judges. Again, the Corinthian Christians had refused to solve their problems by themselves. We do not know what the lawsuit was about, but probably one person felt himself financially disadvantaged by another. Obviously, Paul does not deal with the nature of the case itself; what is important to him is that Gentiles were asked to arbitrate between two fellow Christians (v. 1). Paul continues by telling the Corinthians that they themselves are competent to act as judges in such cases, because as Christians, they will judge even the world and the angels at the end of time (vv. 2-3). In verses 4-6, Paul wants the Corinthians to realise that it is really peculiar for them to ask Gentiles to pass judgment on them. In short: they should be ashamed to ask “outsiders” to act as judges. Right at the beginning of this paragraph, Paul mentions another case of reprehensible behaviour by one of the Corinthian Christians. Apparently, there is someone who “has a dispute (lit. “has a case”)45 with another,” that

 44

This time, the quotation from the OT is not introduced with the usual introductory formula “(as) it is written (in the Scriptures).” 45 For the expression “to have a case,” cf., e.g., Xenophon, Mem. 2.9.1.

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is, with another member of the Christian community.46 More importantly, this person, who felt disadvantaged in some way or other, took it into his head to ask Gentiles (“unrighteous people”)47 instead of fellow Christians (“saints”)48 to act as judges (v. 1). Paul would have preferred the man in question to have asked his fellow Christians to act as judges in this case, for the members of the Christian community in Corinth should solve such cases by themselves. In order to reinforce his argument, Paul points to two facts which the Corinthians should know (“Don’t you know that … Don’t you know that”, vv. 2-3).49 In the first place, they should realise that “the saints will judge the world.” Here, Paul introduces an idea well-known in Jewish and earlyChristian circles that the righteous and pious will judge all the people in the world at the end of time. See, for instance, Wisdom of Solomon 3:8, “(The righteous) will judge the peoples and will rule over the nations, and the Lord will be their king forever.”50 Of course, in the end it is God himself who will judge the world, but in Paul’s opinion, the Christians will play an important part in God’s judgment at the end of time: “(And if) the world will be judged in your court.”51 Second, Paul refers to the fact that the Christians “are to judge even the angels.” That the angels will be judged at the end of time is another traditional theme. See, for instance, Ignatius, To the Smyrnaeans 6:1, “things in heaven and the glory of the angels and the visible and invisible rulers of the world, even for them there will be a judgment, if they do not believe in the blood of Christ.”52 But here, Paul states explicitly that the Christians will play a part in judging the angels.

 46

For “another” in the sense of “another believer in Christ,” cf. 10:24 and 14:17. 47 Paul is referring here to Gentiles, since unrighteousness was regarded as something typical of pagans (see, e.g., Rom 1:18, 29, and 2:8). 48 See at 1:2. 49 For this formulation, see at 3:16. 50 See also Dan 7:22, 1QpHab V, 4, 1 En. 38:5, 48:9, 90:19, 91:12, 92:4, 95:3, 7, 96:1, 98:12, Matt 19:28, and Rev 20:4. 51 “In your court” (lit. “among you”) that is, “by you” or “in front of you.” 52 Paul may have been thinking about one group of angels in particular, the so-called “fallen angels.” In Jewish and early-Christian tradition, “the sons of God” who, according to Gen 6:1-4, had descended from heaven to earth in order to have intercourse with “the daughters of men,” were a group of evil angels, apostates from God. They were captured and locked up in dark dungeons to await God’s judgment

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But, as Paul continues, given that the Christians will judge the world and even the angels in heaven “are you not competent to hold court and try the most trivial cases?” or “to make a judgment on matters that have to do with our life here on earth?” The answer to these two rhetorical questions is of course clear: Christians can and are allowed to judge simple and down-toearth cases such as the one mentioned in verse 1. As a consequence, they should certainly not resort to asking Gentiles to arbitrate between members of the Christian community. In verses 4-6, Paul continues by telling the Corinthians that they themselves should act as judges in all such everyday cases: “Why do you ask people who count for nothing in the Christian community to act as judges?”53 Again, Paul wants the Corinthians to know that they should not ask Gentiles (“people who count for nothing in the Christian community”)54 to act as judges. Previously, when he had been writing about their negative attitude towards him and his apostleship, he did not want to make his addressees in Corinth “ashamed” (4:14), but now that someone who has a dispute with another Christian has taken it to a pagan court, Paul’s reaction is explicitly meant to make them “ashamed” (v. 5), because this time the entire community is in danger.55 Paul cannot imagine that there is nobody within the Christian community who “is wise enough to rule on this dispute between one believer in Christ and another.”56 Finally, in verse 6, Paul summarises what he has said before. How is it possible that a member of the Christian community in Corinth “seeks justice against another believer, and that before unbelievers?” If there is a dispute

 at the end of time. See, e.g., Jub. 5:1-6, 10:5, 7, 11, 1 En. 6-19, 21, 54:5-6, 64-69, 90:24, 2 En. 7, 2 Bar. 56:10-13, T. Reu. 5:6-7, T. Naph. 3:5, 2 Pet 2:4, and Jude 6. 53 For “asking people to act as judges,” that is, appointing someone to pronounce judgment (instead of going to an existing court), cf., e.g., Plato, Leg. 873E, “When an inanimate object kills someone …, the next of kin should ask his nearest neighbour to act as a judge”; see further Josephus, A.J. 13.75. 54 With this phrase, Paul is not referring to Christians who are despised for one reason or another by other members of the Christian community, but to the Gentiles, people who are despised and rejected by God and therefore count for nothing in the eyes of the believers in Christ (see, e.g., Ps 53:5 [52:6], 108:13 [107:14], Jdt 13:17, Philo, Mos. 2.241, and T. Levi 7:1). 55 Cf. 15:34. 56 Lit. “(is wise enough to rule on this dispute) between his brother,” which means, of course, “between one Christian and another.” Cf. Ezek 34:17, 20, and Gen 16:5, Num 35:24, Deut 1:16, 17:8, Judg 11:27, 1 Sam 24:16, Jer 7:5, etc.

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between Christians, they should not ask Gentiles57 to act as judges but should ask fellow Christians for a fair judgment.

Seeking one’s own justice or doing wrong is not appropriate for believers in Christ: 6:7-11 (7) The fact that you are going to law with one another in itself makes you losers, of course. Why don’t you prefer to be wronged? Why don’t you prefer to be defrauded? (8) Instead, it is you who are wronging and defrauding others, believers in Christ of all people. (9) Don’t you know that unrighteous people will not inherit the kingdom of God? Don’t be mistaken: no fornicators or idolaters, no adulterers, male prostitutes or sodomites, (10) no thieves, swindlers, drunkards, slanderers or robbers will inherit the kingdom of God. (11) And this is what some of you used to be. But you have been washed clean, you have been sanctified, you have been justified through the name of our Lord Jesus Christ and the Spirit of our God.

Having said in the previous paragraph that the Christians in Corinth should not ask Gentiles to act as judges, Paul continues by telling them that “going to law with one another” is absolutely wrong; it means that they are already “losers.” When they feel they are wronged by someone, they should instead let it pass (v. 7). On the other hand, those who wrong or defraud other members of the Christian community should refrain from doing so (v. 8). All this is followed by a serious threat: not a single wrongdoer will escape God’s judgment (vv. 9-10). But since the Corinthians have become believers in Christ and have been justified by God, they should behave properly and should avoid dishonest, evil and unlawful behaviour (v. 11). It is not just the fact that the Corinthians have asked Gentiles to act as judges which irritates Paul, but the very fact that they “are going to law with one another.” This, in Paul’s opinion, is already a setback for them (v. 7). By means of two parallel clauses he assures his readers in Corinth that it is not a shameful thing to “be wronged” or “be defrauded.” On the contrary, it is better to suffer injustice than to do an injustice to another. Such an attitude is characteristic of Paul’s own way of life, but it is also a specification of the general moral principle of “not returning evil for evil.”58 All this reminds us of Jesus’ words according to Matthew 5:39-40: “Do not resist those who wrong you … If anyone wants to sue you and takes your shirt, let him have

 57

For the use of the term “unbelievers” to refer to Gentiles, see, e.g., 7:12-15, 10:27, 14:22-24, 2 Cor 4:4, and 6:14-15. 58 See at 4:11-13.

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your cloak as well.” However, the words used by Paul to formulate this moral principle are completely different to those put into the mouth of Jesus by the author of the Gospel of Matthew. This means it is unlikely that in this instance Paul is referring to traditions about Jesus. It is more likely that he is reflecting a well-known moral attitude held by the people of his time and dating back to Plato’s teacher, Socrates: “If I had to do an injustice to somebody or had to suffer injustice, I would prefer to suffer injustice to doing an injustice” (Plato, Gorg. 469C).59 From verse 8 onwards, Paul turns to the people who “are wronging and defrauding others, believers in Christ of all people”: there are apparently Christians in Corinth who do wrong to other members of the Christian community. Paul warns these people that they will be punished harshly by God at the end of time. They should remember60 that “unrighteous people will not inherit the kingdom of God” (v. 9), that is, they will fall back into paganism and will lose salvation.61 Paul warns them once again not to “be mistaken”62 about this: all people, including Christians, who perpetrate injustice and exhibit wrong behaviour will be punished by God. Next, he gives some examples of bad, antisocial and criminal behaviour, mentioning a number of vices.63 All this is intended as a warning to the Corinthians: Paul is threatening them with the loss of salvation if they do not lead a truly Christian life. He is, however, convinced that they will repent if necessary

 59

See further, e.g., Plato, Gorg. 508B, 509C, Plutarch, Adol. poet. aud. 14 (Mor. 36B), Inst. lac. 26 (Mor. 239A), Phoc. 32.6 (Vit. par. 756C), Musonius Rufus, Diss. 3, Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 34.43-44, Seneca, Ep. 95.52, and Philo, Ios. 20, “for it is more shameful to do an injustice than to suffer injustice.” 60 For the expression “Don’t you know that,” cf. 6:2, 3, and see at 3:16. 61 The origin of the phrase “to inherit the kingdom of God” is found in God’s promise to Abraham that he and his offspring will inherit or possess the land of Canaan (see, e.g., Gen 15:7-8, 21:10, 22:17, 24:60, 28:4, Ps 25:13 [24:13], 37:9, 11, 22, 29 [36:9, 11, 22, 29], Isa 60:21). In Jewish and early-Christian writings, salvation for the elect is described in terms analogous to this promise to Abraham: they will inherit “the entire earth” (Jub. 22:14, 32:19, 1 En. 5:7, and cf. also Matt 5:5), or “eternal life” (Pss. Sol. 14:10, 1 En. 40:9, Matt 19:29, Mark 10:17, Luke 10:25, and 18:18), “salvation” (Heb 1:14), “the promise(s)” (Pss. Sol. 12:6, and Heb 6:12), or “the kingdom of God” (Matt 25:34, 1 Cor 6:9-10, 15:50, Gal 5:21, Eph 5:5, Jas 2:5, Ign. Eph. 16:1, and Phld. 3:3). 62 For the formulation “Don’t be mistaken,” ȝ੽ ʌȜĮȞ઼ıșİ, see also 15:33, Gal 6:7, and further, e.g., Epictetus, Diss. 4.6.23, Ign. Eph. 16:1, and Phld. 3:3. 63 A so-called Lasterkatalog. See at 5:9-11.

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and will be saved by God at the end; for even the man who has had an affair with his stepmother is said to be saved by God (see 5:5). First, in verse 9b, Paul refers to a number of vices that all have to do with idolatry and sexual immorality. The “fornicators” or “people who are sexually immoral” and the “idolaters” have already been mentioned by Paul in 5:9-11. This time he also mentions “adulterers,”64 “male prostitutes” and “sodomites.” The last two refer to the young men who offer sexual services and to those who make use of these services.65 Such homosexual behaviour provoked little criticism in the Graeco-Roman world in general, although there were certainly people who rejected such behaviour,66 but among Jews and Christians it was not tolerated at all. Paul reflects this traditional Jewish and early-Christian view.67 In verse 10, Paul adds another five vices or examples of bad behaviour, four of which, “swindlers, drunkards, slanderers or robbers,” he has already mentioned in 5:10-11. This time they are preceded by a reference to “thieves,” which has a more or less fixed place in such lists of vices.68 Finally, in verse 11, Paul reminds the Corinthians that some of them were wrongdoers or sinners before they became believers in Jesus Christ (“And this is what some of you used to be”). However, their previous sins were washed away at the time of their conversion, as it were (“But you have been washed clean”),69 and they have been “sanctified” and “justified” (cf. 1:30). This is all because of Jesus Christ, to whom they have entrusted themselves, and because of God’s Spirit, which they received at that time. In other words: Paul wants to stress once more that the Corinthians have become

 64

Committing adultery and leading a sexually immoral life were considered two sides of the same coin: see, e.g., Jer 13:27, Hos 2:1, 3 Bar. 4:17, 8:5, 13:4, Matt 15:19, Mark 7:21-22, Heb 13:4, Did. 3:3, 5:1, and Justin, 2 Apol. 2.16. 65 Cf. 1 Tim 1:10. 66 See, e.g., Musonius Rufus, Diss. 12, and Ps.-Heraclitus, Ep. 7.5. 67 See, e.g., Ps.-Phoc. 3 (“Do not commit adultery and let no sexual desire arise within you”), 214, Sib. Or. 2:73, 3:764, 5:430, Josephus, C. Ap. 2.199, Philo, Abr. 135-36, Spec. 3.37-39, Rom 1:27, Did. 2:2, Barn. 19:4, and see already Lev 18:22 and 20:13. 68 See, e.g., Wis 14:25-26, 3 Bar. 4:17, 8:5, Matt 15:19, Mark 7:22, Did. 5:1, and Justin, Dial. 12.3. 69 It is possible but not necessary that Paul is thinking in particular of their baptism. For the expression “to be washed clean,” see further, e.g., Sib Or. 8:315, Philo, Mut. 49, 229, Somn. 1.82, 1.148, 2.25, Acts 22:16, and Justin, Dial. 13.1.

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“righteous,” and he expects them to behave properly, according to God’s will.

Praise God with your body!: 6:12-20 (12) “I am free to do anything,” you say. Very well; but not everything does good! Again you say “I am free to do anything”. Very well; but I myself will not be dominated by anything! (13) “Food is meant for the belly and the belly is meant for food, and one day God will put an end to both,” you say. True, but the body is not meant for fornication, but for the Lord, and the Lord for the body. (14) And God not only raised the Lord from the dead, but he will also raise us from the dead by his power. (15) Don’t you know that your bodies belong to Christ? Should we then give our bodies, which belong to Christ, to a prostitute? Never! (16) Don’t you know that anyone who attaches himself to a prostitute becomes one with her by his physical connectedness? For, as Scripture says, “The two will be one body.” (17) But anyone who attaches himself to the Lord also becomes one with him by his spiritual connectedness. (18) Have nothing to do with fornication! Every other sin that one may commit occurs outside the body, but a fornicator sins against his own body. (19) Or do you not realise that your body is a temple of the Holy Spirit, which is within you and which you have received from God, and that you do not belong to yourselves? (20) For you were bought; a price was paid. Therefore, praise God with your body!

In this paragraph, Paul points to another threat to the “holiness” of the Christian community in Corinth. Apparently, as people who had been redeemed, some Christians considered themselves free to do whatever they wanted, perhaps even to commit fornication (v. 12). Paul opposes this idea strongly, undoubtedly not least due to his Jewish aversion to any kind of extramarital relations. His main argument is that “the body is meant for the Lord, and the Lord for the body” (v. 13); or, in other words: Jesus Christ and his followers are united in “a spiritual connectedness” and therefore intercourse with a prostitute, which means being united in a “physical connectedness,” is absolutely unacceptable (vv. 15-17). Moreover, the belly and the food will perish completely, but when they live in God’s kingdom the Christians will not be without bodies; they will receive “spiritual” bodies at the end of time (vv. 13-14). Finally, fornication is the most serious crime of all. It is a sin against one’s own body, which is, after all, a temple in which God lives, as it were, by means of his Holy Spirit (vv. 18-19). This means a Christian is no longer his own master, not even of his own body. He has a new master: Jesus Christ (vv. 19-20). In verse 20, Paul makes a final call to his readers in Corinth to praise God with their bodies instead of giving them to prostitutes.

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Right at the beginning of this paragraph, Paul twice quotes a slogan that was prevalent among the Corinthian Christians: “I am free to do anything” (v. 12).70 He may have heard about this Corinthian saying from “the members of Chloe’s household” (1:11), but it is also possible that he took this saying from the letter sent to him by the Corinthians.71 Apparently, since their conversion some of the Corinthian Christians felt themselves not only to be “wise”72 but also “free” to act at their own discretion and to do whatever they wanted in all areas of life.73 The background to this concept of “freedom” and “power” or “right” is to be found in the popular Hellenistic philosophy of the time, which was primarily focused on ethics. For many people living at the time, the ideal was someone who was wise, who behaved as independently and without influence as possible, who was not upset by troubles and setbacks, and who was “free” to say, do and live as they wanted. In the words of Cicero, freedom is “the power to live as you want” (potestas vivendi, ut velis).74 It is likely that a number of the Christians in Corinth thought that, as believers in Jesus Christ, they had achieved this ideal of freedom or liberty and could do anything they wanted. For instance, they felt free to eat the food that had been sacrificed to idols, because they “knew” that idols did not exist (see ch. 8 and 10:23-33). But in matters of sexuality too, including fornication, they felt that they were free to do as they pleased, and this was also the opinion of a number of Stoic and Cynic philosophers of the time.75 Paul found all this abominable and absolutely not in keeping with a true Christian life according to God’s will, although he agrees with the Corinthians that Christians are “free.” Therefore, in order to persuade his readers to avoid fornication (v. 18a), he had to choose his words rather carefully, and to us (and perhaps also to the Corinthians), his argument does not always sound very logical. Paul first attempts to set some limits on the Corinthians’ concept of freedom: “Very well; but not everything does good!” and “Very well; but I myself will not be dominated by anything!”

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Cf. also 10:23. 71 See at 7:1, and the Introduction. 72 See at 1:5. 73 Cf. also 7:37, 8:9, 9:4-6, 12, and 18. 74 Parad. 34. See further, e.g., Epictetus, Diss. 2.1.23, 2.16.37, 4.1.1, Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 14.13-18, Diogenes Laertius, Vit. phil. 7.125, and Philo, Prob. 59. 75 See, e.g., Diogenes Laertius, Vit. phil. 6.69, 7.131, over against Musonius Rufus, Diss. 12.

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(v. 12). With the first statement, Paul wants to make clear to his readers that not everything that is permitted is also good or of benefit to other people. This implies that, in Paul’s opinion, actions that are not good or beneficial to others should be avoided. Fornication is certainly one such action, for it is neither good nor beneficial to others and does nothing to “build up” the Christian community (cf. 10:23).76 With the second statement, Paul wants the Corinthians to recognise that being driven by passions and sexual desires is the exact opposite of being free.77 Paul himself is also “free” (see 9:1), but he is certainly not “dominated by anything”. In other words: if the Corinthians allow their lives to be dictated by their passions, they are misusing their Christian freedom.78 In verse 13, Paul seems to be quoting another motto in vogue among the Corinthians: “Food is meant for the belly and the belly is meant for food, and one day God will put an end to both.” That is, they argue that both the belly and food will perish and have no eternal value, so they feel free to eat whatever they want (see also chs. 8 and 10). Apparently, they appear to have concluded that a similar argument is true for matters related to the human body and fornication, so as free individuals, why on earth should they avoid fornication? Again, Paul agrees with them to a certain extent: belly and food belong together and depend upon each other, and both of them belong to the earthly existence of humankind.79 Moreover, food is value-free, neutral, neither positive or negative (cf. 8:8). Both are perishable, and at the end of time there will be no place for either, for “flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God” (15:50).80 In Paul’s opinion, however, the body of a

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For Paul and many of his contemporaries, one should always search for what is “good” and therefore “profitable”: see, e.g., Epictetus, Diss. 1.18.2, 1.22.1, Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 13.9, 14.16, Plutarch, Adul. amic. 11 (Mor. 55D), Marcus Aurelius, Med. 3.7.1, 5.16.3, Philo, Ios. 143, and Abr. 18. 77 Cf. Xenophon, Mem. 4.5.2-3, Epictetus, Diss. 4.1.1 (“He is free who lives as he wants, who is subject neither to compulsion, nor hindrance, nor force … whose desires reach their end”), and 4.1.23. 78 Cf. Gal 5:13-21. See also Clement of Alexandria, Strom. 2.23.144, who indicates that people should behave properly, also in sexual matters, for “being dominated by passions is an extreme sort of slavery, whereas being masters of passions is the only way of freedom”; cf. 3.4.30, and 3.5.40-44. 79 Cf. Philo, Opif. 119. 80 Cf. 13:8, 10, where it is said that knowledge, speaking in tongues and making prophecies will cease at the end of time, and Matt 15:50, where it is said that “in the resurrection, men and women do not marry.”

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Christian is something different: “the body is not meant for fornication, but for the Lord, and the Lord for the body.” In other words, unlike the belly and food, the body and fornication do not belong together and do not depend upon each other, rather, the Christian’s body and the Lord belong together. Moreover, God “will raise us from the dead” at the end of time, just as he once raised the Lord from the dead (v. 14). Paul is convinced that at the end of time the Christians will receive a spiritual body: “the dead will rise imperishable, and we will be changed” (see 15:44 and 51-52).81 In other words, he cannot imagine that Christians will enjoy eternal life without some kind of a body after the Last Day, although that body will be different to our earthly body. In this context, Paul draws a parallel between Jesus Christ’s resurrection in the past and the Christians’ resurrection in the future: “And God not only raised the Lord from the dead,82 but he will also raise us from the dead by his power” (v. 14, cf. Rom 6:5, 8:11, and 1 Cor 15:20-22). And since the Christians will have spiritual bodies in the future, they should care for their earthly bodies in the present and avoid fornication. In verses 15-17, Paul introduces another metaphor, namely that the bodies of Christians “belong to Christ” (lit. “are bodily parts of Christ”). It presents Jesus Christ (the person that is, not the Church) as a body, and the bodies of the Christians as parts of this body. Elsewhere in his letters, Paul compares the Church and the community of Christians to a body, namely, “the body of Christ,” to describe and elucidate the relationship of the Christians as parts of that body.83 Here, however, he wants to underline the close relationship of the Christians with Jesus Christ (“the bodily parts” with “the body”), not the connection of the Christians with each other. Since the Christians are closely connected with Jesus Christ (“our bodies, which belong to Christ”), any relationship with a prostitute is to be avoided: “Should we then give our bodies, which belong to Christ, to a prostitute?” (lit. “Shall I make the bodily parts of Christ to bodily parts of a prostitute?”). Paul’s answer to this rhetorical question is quite clear: “Never!”84

 81

Cf. 2 Cor 5:1-2, Phil 3:21, and 1 Thess 4:15-17. 82 Cf. Rom 4:24, 8:11, 10:9, 1 Cor 15:5, 2 Cor 4:14, Gal 1:1, 1 Thess 1:10, and also Acts 3:15, 4:10, 5:30, 10:40, 13:30, 37, Eph 1:20, Col 2:12, and 1 Pet 1:21. 83 See 1 Cor 12:12-27, Rom 12:4-5, and cf. also Eph 5:22-33. 84 In Greek: ȝ੽ ȖȑȞȠȚIJȠ. Cf. Rom 3:4, 31, 6:2, 15, 7:7, 13, 9:14, 11:1, 11, Gal 2:17, 3:21, and also, e.g., Luke 20:16, Epictetus, Diss. 1.1.13, 1.2.35, and 1.5.10.

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In verses 16-17, Paul explains once more why intercourse with a prostitute should be avoided. This time, he quotes a passage from the OT,85 namely Genesis 2:24 in the version of the LXX: “The two will be one body” (lit. “one flesh”). The OT passage deals with the engagement or marriage between man and wife (“a man will leave his father and mother and will attach himself to his wife”). Paul, however, applies these words to the sexual relationship between a man and a prostitute. He thinks that the Corinthians should already know from this OT passage that “anyone who attaches himself to a prostitute, 86 becomes one with her by his physical connectedness” (lit. “becomes one body”). Anyone who has a sexual relationship with a prostitute is, as it were, one with her, and since this relationship is physical, Paul formulates it as “becoming one body”. As opposed to the man who attaches himself to a prostitute and becomes one with her (by his physical connectedness), there is the true Christian, who “attaches himself to the Lord”87 and “becomes one with him by his spiritual connectedness” (lit. “becomes one spirit”) (v. 17). Whereas the fornicator becomes “one body” with the prostitute, the true Christian becomes “one spirit” with Jesus Christ. This time, the emphasis is on the spiritual connection between the Christians and their Lord. So Paul is convinced that any kind of (physical) relationship between a believer and a prostitute is intolerable, because a Christian belongs to Jesus Christ in body as well as in spirit. Paul continues his argument by warning the Corinthians yet again to avoid fornication: “Have nothing to do with fornication!” For, according to him, fornication is no ordinary sin. It is the most serious sin, for: “every other sin that one may commit occurs outside the body, but a fornicator sins against his own body” (v. 18). Apparently, Paul considers vices such as “drunkenness, carousing, and things like these” (Gal 5:21) to be sins which occur “outside the body,” and as such, they affect and defile the body far less than does fornication.

 85

The quotation is introduced by the words “as Scripture says” (lit. “it says,” ijȘıȓȞ), which is a well-known formula for introducing a quotation: see, e.g., Philo, Conf. 169, 1 Clem. 30:2, 2 Clem. 7:6, Barn. 7:7, and cf. also Epictetus, Diss. 1.4.28, 1.9.23, and 2.2.9, etc. 86 See (again) Gen 2:24, and cf. 1 Esd 4:20, Philo, Leg. 2.50, Matt 19:5, Eph 5:31, and see also Sir 19:2. 87 For this formulation, cf. Deut 6:13, 10:20, 2 Kings 18:6, Ps 73:28 (72:28), Sir 2:3, and Herm. Mand. 10.1.6. In 1 Cor 6:17, “the Lord” refers to Jesus Christ, as in vv. 13 and 14.

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Next, Paul argues once more that fornication is the most serious offence against one’s own body, referring to the idea that the body of a Christian is “a temple of the Holy Spirit, which is within you and which you have received from God” (v. 19). Whereas Paul compares the Christian community as a whole to “God’s temple” in 3:16, here he is telling the Corinthians that each of them is “a temple.” The idea can be found in Jewish literature that God lives, as it were, in a good and God-fearing person, that is, in his soul: see, for example, Philo, De somniis 1.149, “Soul, strive to be God’s house, a holy temple.”88 This idea has been taken over by earlyChristians in the sense that it is now God (or Jesus Christ) who lives within a Christian by means of his Holy Spirit, which the Christians received when they had converted to become believers in Christ.89 That means that any Christian is, as it were, “a temple of God.”90 Finally, the passage about fornication as a sin against one’s own body prompts Paul to present the body of a Christian as “God’s temple.”91 Thus, fornication is an offence against the house of God, against the place where God resides by means of his Holy Spirit. So, a Christian’s body is more than just a body, it is in fact the house of God and therefore God’s property. The bodies of believers in Christ “do not belong to”92 them; that is, the Christians in Corinth are no longer their own masters, rather, they belong to another, namely Jesus Christ,93 and have become his “slaves” (7:22). For “you were bought, a price was paid” (v. 20a and 7:23). It is God (or rather Jesus Christ) who has “bought,” the Christians,94 and the price paid was the death on the cross or the blood of Jesus Christ.95 Jesus Christ is also the one who has “redeemed” the Christians, who has “bought freedom for us” (Gal 3:13 and 4:5).96 But whether the Christians have been bought to become “slaves” or have been bought to become “freedmen,” they remain obligated to Jesus Christ. He is

 88

See further Philo, Sobr. 62-63, and Cher. 98-101. 89 Cf., e.g., Rom 8:9-11. 90 Cf. also, e.g., Barn. 6:15, and 16:7-10. 91 Cf. also 2 Clem. 9:3, and Ign. Phld. 7:2. 92 For the formulation “not belonging to oneself,” see also, e.g., Epictetus, Diss. 1.22.21, Plutarch, Apoph. lac. (unknown) 24 (Mor. 233D), and Ant. 37.6 (Vit. par. 933A). 93 Cf. 3:23, and Rom 7:4, and 14:7-8. 94 Cf. 2 Pet 2:1, Rev 5:9, and 14:4. For the use of the verb “to buy,” ਕȖȠȡȐȗİȚȞ, in the context of buying slaves, see also Plutarch, Apoph. lac. (unknown) 39 (Mor. 234C), and Lac. apoph. (unknown) 29 (Mor. 242C). 95 Cf. Rev 5:9. 96 See at 7:22.

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their Lord and master. The Christians do not, therefore, belong to themselves but to Jesus Christ, as a consequence of which they are not permitted to sin against their own body, which is now the house of God. Paul ends this paragraph about fornication with a direct exhortation in the second person plural: “Therefore, praise God with your body!” (v. 20b). To “praise God,” that is, “to honour and thank God,” is a traditional expression in the OT, Jewish and early-Christian literature.97 The main focus of this clause is, of course, on the words “with your body”: Paul is calling on his readers in Corinth to praise God with their bodies. This implies that they should keep their bodies pure and undefiled, and have nothing to do with fornication or other sexually immoral behaviour.

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See, e.g., Exod 15:2, Ps 22:23 (21:24), 86:9 (85:9), Isa 25:1, Sir 35:10 (7), Pss. Sol. 10:7, T. Job 14:3, 16:7, 4 Bar. 9:13, Matt 9:8, 15:31, Rom 15:6, 9, and Gal 1:24.

PART THREE MARRIAGE AND ASCETICISM: 7:1-40

After dealing with some abuses in the Christian community in Corinth, namely the cases of sexual immorality and litigation (in chs. 5-6), Paul turns to questions of marriage and sexuality (ch. 7). In fact, from this point on he is reacting to a letter sent to him by the Corinthians in which they had written about this particular subject and a number of other issues. This chapter can be divided into three parts; verses 1-16, 17-24 and 25-40. In the first part, Paul either addresses or speaks about people who are married, with only a few verses dealing with unmarried people. It is in the third part that Paul turns to unmarried men and women in particular. The central theme of both these sections is Paul’s call to hold to the condition in which one finds oneself at the moment one is called by God to become a believer in Jesus Christ. If you are married, you should not divorce, and if you are unmarried, you should not look for a partner (see verses 8, 10-11, 12-13, 26-27, 37, and 40). This theme is explored in detail in the central part, which serves as a kind of a hinge between the first and third sections. Apparently, a number of the Christians in Corinth felt under some pressure not to marry or, if already married, to divorce. As Christians they felt “free,” and “independent,” and as such they tended to despise all earthly and physical or material matters. This attitude had led to all kinds of sexually immoral behaviour among one group of Corinthians (see chs. 5-6), and to just the opposite–to complete asceticism–among another group of Corinthians. Since marriage and sexuality belong together, there were Christians in Corinth who had come to the conclusion that it was better not to marry or, if they were already married, to divorce. Paul’s reaction to all this is clear: the Corinthians should remain in whatever state they had been in when called by God. There can be no doubt that he preferred the unmarried state, but he underlines repeatedly that it is not a sin to marry, and he totally rejects divorce.

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Marriage as a protection against the perils of fornication: 7:1-7 (1) Now for the matters you wrote about. I agree that it is a good thing for a man not to have intercourse with a woman. (2) But in the face of so much sexual immorality, each man should have his own wife and each woman her own husband. (3) A man should give to his wife what is due to her, and equally a woman should give to her husband his due. (4) The wife’s body is not at her disposal, but at that of her husband, and equally, the husband’s body is not at his disposal, but at that of his wife. (5) Don’t refrain from having sex with one another, unless you agree to do so for a time in order to devote yourselves to prayer, but afterwards you should come together again; otherwise, you will be tempted by Satan and fall into immorality. (6) I say this by way of concession, it is not a command. (7) I wish all people to be as I myself am; but each one has his own particular gift from God, one this gift, and another that.

In this paragraph, Paul first says that he agrees with the Corinthian Christians that it is a good thing to avoid any sexual contact (v. 1). To be single (like Paul himself) is to be preferred, but to be single and not fall into sexual immorality is a gift from God, and not everyone is granted that gift (v. 7). It may therefore be better to look for a partner and to marry (v. 2). For a marriage between husband and wife is the only acceptable place for sexual intercourse, and both partners may claim the right to one another’s body (vv. 3-4). If both agree, they may abstain from sex, but only for a short time and for something important such as devoting themselves to prayer (v. 5). That is the only concession Paul is prepared to make to those Corinthians who are in favour of complete celibacy (v. 6). In verse 1, Paul refers for the first time to a letter written to him by the Corinthians.1 As to the content of that letter, we can assume that it was primarily about matters that had to do with the practice of leading a life according to God’s will, and with the agenda of the religious meetings of the Christian community. The phrase “it is a good thing for a man not to have intercourse with a woman” (lit. “… not to touch a woman”)2 is probably taken by Paul from this letter. Apparently, a number of Corinthians had serious objections to

 1

Cf. 7:25, 8:1, 12:1, 16:1, and 12. See also the Introduction. 2 The formulation of “touching (in Greek: ਚʌIJİıșĮȚ) a man/woman” stands for every form of sexual intercourse between a man and a woman: see, e.g., Gen 20:6, Prov 6:29, Josephus, A.J. 1.163, T. Reu. 3:15, but also, e.g., Plato, Leg. 840A, Plutarch, Alex. 21.9 (Vit. par. 676E), and Marcus Aurelius, Med. 1.17.13.

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any form of sexual intercourse, even with one’s own partner. This disdain for any kind of sexual activity led these Corinthians to prefer the unmarried state (that is, to remain unmarried if you were single, or even to divorce if you were already married), and even to see being married as something sinful.3 It seems odd that within the Christian community in Corinth examples of both sexually immoral behaviour and sexual asceticism were to be found. However, either could be the consequence of contempt or disdain for earthly or worldly matters. On the one hand, the Corinthians’ feelings of freedom led some of them to think that committing fornication and other kinds of sexual immorality was acceptable. They felt free to do whatever they wanted, and believed that since our physical, human body was perishable anyway (see 6:12-13) what they did with it was unimportant. On the other hand, these feelings of freedom and their great pride in their wisdom and their spiritual gifts had caused other Corinthians to believe that they were so far above all earthly and physical matters that they preferred complete celibacy. We have already seen that for the first attitude, that of feeling free to do whatever one wishes, including in sexual matters, analogies can be found in Hellenistic literature,4 but the opposing attitude, that of sexual asceticism, is also not unknown in the Hellenistic culture of the time: a wise man was “free,” not driven by any passion whatsoever, and was, as it were, “apathetic.”5 In certain circles, people were reserved about family matters and marriage: a wise man would do better not to marry, because a wife and children might easily distract him from reaching his goals in life, for example, giving service to God.6 Although Paul agrees with some of the Corinthian Christians that “it is a good thing for a man not to have intercourse with a woman,” he finds it necessary to give some nuance to this idea. A more distant approach to sexual passion was certainly to be preferred,7 but Paul is fully aware of the fact that “it is not good for a man to be alone” (Gen 2:18; cf. Tob 8:6) and

 3

Cf. vv. 10-11 and 27-28, and see also 1 Tim 4:3. 4 See at 6:12. 5 Cf. already Xenophon, Mem. 4.5, and Oec. 1.18-23. 6 Cf., e.g., Epictetus, Diss. 3.22.47, 3.22.67-76, 4.1.159, Diogenes Laertius, Vit. phil. 6.29, 10.118-19, Lucian, Demon. 55, and Philostratus, Vit. Apoll. 1.13. A different opinion is found in Musonius Rufus, Diss. 14. See further at 1 Cor 7:32-35. 7 See also Rom 8:2-14, and Gal 5:13-26.

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that marriage is a godly institution, where husband and wife love each other and have intercourse in order to beget children.8 That is why he continues by saying that “in the face of so much sexual immorality, each man should have his own wife and each woman her own husband” (v. 2);9 because of the ever-present dangers of fornication, being married was preferable in most cases.10 In verses 3-4, Paul explains what he said in verse 2: being married is a firm guarantee against all kinds of sexual immorality, because being married implies a sexual relationship to which both partners are committed and to which both have a right. Sexual intercourse is in fact an “obligation” to one another, and neither partner may withhold their body from the other. Husband and wife should have everything in common, including their bodies. Once again, Paul is expressing a popular Hellenistic idea; see, for instance, Musonius Rufus, Dissertationes 14, “Who else is seen as having everything in common, their bodies as well as their souls and all their property, but husband and wife?”11 As a consequence of all this, Paul tells his readers in Corinth that they should not refuse to have sex with one another (v. 5).12 However, a small “concession” (“not a command,” v. 6)13 on his part seems appropriate. He gives his permission for those Corinthians who are in favour of sexual abstinence to abstain from sexual intercourse when both partners agree to do so for a time and to devote themselves to prayer (v. 5). That is, sexual abstinence within a marriage is acceptable only when both husband and wife agree, when it is for a short time and when its purpose is to help them

 8

Cf. also, e.g., Josephus, C. Ap. 2.199. 9 For the formulation of “having” (in Greek: ਩ȤİȚȞ) a husband or a wife in the sense of “being married,” see also, e.g., Exod 2:1, Deut 28:30, 2 Chron 11:21, Isa 54:1, Tob 3:8, 1 Esd 9:12, 18, 1 Cor 7:12-13, 29, and Gal 4:27. 10 Cf. T. Reu. 4:1, “Don’t look at the beauty of women … until the Lord will give you a wife, whom he wants,” and T. Levi 9:9-10. 11 See further Musonius Rufus, Diss. 13A (“Husband and wife … should have everything in common, not considering something as belonging to only one of them, not even one’s body”), Plutarch, Conj. praec. 20 (Mor. 140F), and 34 (Mor. 142F143A). 12 For the use of the verb “to refuse” or “to refrain,” ਕʌȠıIJİȡİ૙Ȟ, cf. Exod 21:10. 13 Cf. 7:25, and 2 Cor 8:8.

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dedicate themselves to the service of God without distraction, for instance, to pray to God.14 Paul would, however, prefer the Corinthians not to abstain from sexual intercourse within marriage. He therefore hastens to add that after such a short period of sexual abstinence they “should come together again; otherwise, you will be tempted by Satan and fall into immorality” (lit. “… into intemperance” or “into immoderation”).15 His argument is that husband and wife should “come together”16 as soon as possible after a period of sexual abstinence because of the imminent dangers of fornication (see also v. 2). Satan, God’s opponent,17 is always trying to tempt people to commit all kinds of sins,18 including adultery and fornication. In all of this, Paul presents himself as a realist. He knows that people have sexual desires and that “each man should have his own wife and each woman her own husband” (v. 2). On the other hand, he agrees with a number of Corinthians that “it is a good thing for a man not to have intercourse with a woman,” including his own wife (v. 1b). But he realises that sexual abstinence is not easy for most people. He therefore ends this paragraph by saying that he would like everyone to be like him (v. 7a). Undoubtedly, he is referring to his own unmarried state here (cf. v. 8 and 9:5) and to the fact that he has his sexual desires completely under control (cf. 6:12b). He knows that this is a gift from God (v. 7b)19 not granted to everyone. There are many different spiritual gifts, and “each one has his own particular gift from God, one this gift, and another that” (v. 7). That is why Paul can handle

 14

See also 7:33-35. And cf. T. Naph. 8:8 (“For there is a time (for a man) to have intercourse with his wife, and a time to abstain therefrom for his prayer”), Eccles 3:5, and Clement of Alexandria, Strom. 3.12.79-80. The sentence is not to be interpreted as though Paul meant that sexual intercourse makes someone “unclean,” and that any religious activity like saying prayers should only be done when one is “clean” (cf., e.g., Exod 19:15, Lev 15:18, 1 Sam 21:5, Jub. 50:8, Josephus, C. Ap. 2.203, and also Ovid, Fast. 4.657, and Am. 3.10.1-2). 15 For “intemperance” or “immoderacy” in sexual matters, see also, e.g., Pss. Sol. 4:3, Josephus, A.J. 8.191, C. Ap. 2.244, Tatian, Orat. 33.4, and further Xenophon, Symp. 8.27, Diodorus Siculus, Bibl. 3.65.2, 19.33.2, and Musonius Rufus, Diss. 12. 16 For this formulation meaning “having sexual intercourse with one another”, cf. T. Iss. 2:1-3. 17 See at 5:5. 18 Cf. Matt 4:1, 3, Mar 1:13, Luke 4:2, 1 Thess 3:5, Rev 2:10, etc. 19 Cf. 1 Clem. 38:2 (“he who is pure in sexual matters should not boast but should realise that it is another who gives him the ability to control himself”), and also Wis 8:21, and Let. Aris. 237.

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his unmarried state, but he is fully aware of the fact that this is an exception: most Christians would do better to marry or to remain married.

Rules for widows and widowers, for Christian marriage partners and for partners in “mixed” marriages: 7:8-16 (8) To those who are widowed, I say this: It is a good thing for them if like me they stay as they are. (9) But if they do not have the self-control, they should marry; for it is better to marry than to burn with desire. (10) To those who are married I give this command, which is not mine but the Lord’s: a wife must not separate from her husband (11), and if she does separate, she should either remain unmarried or be reconciled with her husband, and a husband must not send away his wife. (12) To the others I say this, and these are my own words, not the Lord’s: if a believer in Christ is married to a wife who is not a believer, and she is willing to stay with him, he should not send her away. (13) And if a woman is married to a husband who is not a believer, and he is willing to stay with her, she should not send away her husband. (14) For the husband who is not a believer is sanctified through his connection to his wife, and the wife who is not a believer is sanctified through her connection to her Christian husband. Otherwise, your children would also be “unclean,” but as it is, they are holy. (15) If, however, the unbelieving partner wishes to separate, let it be so; in such cases the Christian husband or wife is not bound to their partner any longer. Don’t forget: God has called you to be at peace with everyone. (16) For who knows, you may save your husband or you may save your wife!

In the previous verses, Paul has argued that “it is a good thing for a man not to have intercourse with a woman,” but that not everybody has their sexual desires under control and that therefore being married and having a sexual relationship with a marriage partner is to be preferred for most people. In verses 8-16, he elaborates on this theme by giving advice, or even commands, to different groups of people within the Christian community in Corinth. His theme in these verses is that one should hold to the condition in which one finds oneself as much as possible; that is, one should preferably not change from being married to being unmarried, or vice versa. First, Paul advises the widowed of the Christian community in Corinth (vv. 8-9). Next, he turns to Christian marriage partners and gives them a command, which he presents as a “command of the Lord” (vv. 10-11). Finally, he gives some advice to partners who live together in a “mixed” marriage (vv. 12-16).

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In verses 8-9, Paul turns to “those who are widowed,” or more precisely, to “the widowers20 and the widows,” among the Corinthian Christians, telling them that “it is a good thing for them if like me they stay as they are,” that is, unmarried. A number of the Christians were probably of the opinion that it was better for people who had lost their partner not to remarry, because to be unmarried was always to be preferred. Paul agrees with them, and he points to his own single state (“like me”). Apparently, at the time of writing this letter, Paul was not married, but we simply do not know whether he was a widower, was divorced or had never been married. Paul is, however, a pragmatic person: “But if they do not have the self-control, they should marry; for it is better to marry than to burn with desire” (lit. “than to burn”).21 That is, it is only better for those who are widowed to remarry if they are not able to control their sexual desires and are likely to “fall into immorality” (v. 5). In verses 10-11, Paul goes on to talk about marriages between two Christian partners. This time, instead of giving his readers in Corinth good advice (as in vv. 8-9), he issues a “command,” or more precisely, a command of the Lord, Jesus Christ. Here, Paul is probably calling on the Corinthians to obey a command transmitted throughout early-Christian circles and attributed to (the earthly) Jesus.22 Reflections of these oral traditions about Jesus are found in some passages in the Gospels, in particular in Mark 10:9 and 11 (par. Matt 19:6b and 9) and in Matthew 5:32 (par. Luke 16:18). There, we read that Jesus agitated strongly against the Jewish marriage laws, according to which a man, over and above a woman, might take the initiative to “send

 20

Lit. “the unmarried,” IJȠ૙Ȣ ਕȖȐȝȠȚȢ. The context makes clear that by using this term Paul refers to the widowers within the community, and not to all “unmarried people” among the Christian Corinthians. For one thing, why would Paul have added the words “and the widows” if he had meant all the unmarried Christian men and women? And second, he turns to the Christians who are not yet married, but not before verse 25. Finally, although there is a specific word for “widower” in Greek, most of the time the term “unmarried” is used. 21 Cf. vv. 2 and 5. The term “to burn” does not refer to the fire of hell, the punishment on sinners at the end of times; rather, the term is used as a metaphor for “to be overwhelmed by sexual desires.” For this metaphor (burning with emotions in general and with sexual desires in particular), see also, e.g., Sir 23:16 (17), “A heart full of passion is like a burning fire; it does not go out, before it is completely burnt out. Someone who commits fornication, does not stop from doing so before the fire will have consumed him completely.” Cf. further Hos 7:4, Philo, Somn. 2.181, and 2 Cor 11:29. 22 See also 9:14, 11:23-25, and 1 Thess 4:15-17.

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away” his partner for any reason whatsoever.23 The authors of the Gospels related how Jesus forbade people to divorce in almost all cases or to remarry after a divorce: “Therefore what God has joined together, a man must not separate … Whoever sends away his wife and remarries, commits adultery” (Mark 10:9 and 11), and “Everybody who sends away his wife except for reasons of unchastity, he makes her to commit adultery (when she remarries), and whoever marries her, commits adultery” (Matt 5:32). The rules governing marriage and divorce were apparently important issues in the early-Christian Church. Paul is in accord with the views handed down by early-Christians and attributed to Jesus when it comes to marriage and divorce: “a wife must not separate from her husband … and a husband must not send away his wife” and “if she does separate, she should either remain unmarried or be reconciled with her husband.”24 It is striking that Paul first speaks about wives who may take the initiative to separate (vv. 10-11a) and only mentions husbands who may wish to divorce at the end of verse 11. It is also striking that he only forbids women to remarry (and advises them to go back to their former husbands), although we may be sure that Paul had a similar opinion about divorced men. The reason for all this is probably that it was the women in the Christian community in Corinth in particular who were thinking of separating from their husbands. Apparently some of their husbands found it “a good thing for a man not to have intercourse with a woman” (7:1), as a consequence of which their wives would not be able to have children. Anyway, Paul’s answer is clear: the Lord himself has said that one should not divorce and that one should certainly not marry again after a divorce. In other words, whenever possible, the Corinthian Christians should remain in their current marital state. In verses 12-16, Paul turns to “the others,” meaning “the Christians in Corinth who are married to non-Christian partners.” It is possible that a Christian had once married a non-Christian partner. It is also possible that

 23

Cf., e.g., Josephus, A.J. 15.259-60. 24 In the Graeco-Roman culture of the time, the Greek word translated here by “to separate,” ȤȦȡȓȗİıșĮȚ, is the usual term to describe the separation between husband and wife. Unlike Jewish culture, both partners, the husband as well as the wife, could take the initiative to divorce. The Greek word translated here by “to send away” (that is, “to divorce”), ਕijȓİȞĮȚ, is an action initiated by the husband (see, e.g., Herodotus, Hist. 5.39.2); usually, a woman left her husband and her house after a divorce and went (back) to her family. It is somewhat surprising that Paul also uses the verb with the wife as subject, namely in v. 13.

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both partners had been pagans when they married, and that afterwards only one of them had become a believer in Christ. Although someone who converted to Christianity generally did so together with his entire “household,” individual conversions also happened. It seems likely that Paul is referring here to a Christian partner who was thinking of divorcing his or her non-Christian partner. They may have been thinking that such a “mixed” marriage would be “defiled” by the non-Christian partner. Thus, the question arose as to whether it was permissible for a Christian to be married to a non-Christian partner, or whether it would be better to separate. First of all, Paul tells the Corinthians that he is giving them his own opinion on these “mixed” marriages, not a command from the Lord. He urges the Christian partner not to initiate a divorce (“he should not send her away … she should not send away her husband”). That is to say, as long as the nonChristian partner “is willing to stay with him/her” (vv. 12-13). Obviously, in Paul’s opinion, the initiative to separate lies only with the non-Christian partner: if he or she is willing to stay (lit. “to live with him/her”),25 there is no reason whatsoever for the Christian partner to divorce, quite the contrary. Next, in verse 14, Paul gives an important reason why the Christian partner should not initiate a divorce in such a “mixed” marriage: “For the husband who is not a believer is sanctified through his connection to his wife, and the wife who is not a believer is sanctified through her connection to her Christian husband.” That is, the non-Christian partner is “sanctified” or “holy” in a way because he or she lives with a partner who is a believer in Jesus Christ. Of course, Paul does not mean that the unbelieving partners are “sanctified” or “holy” in the same sense as the Christians (see at 1:2 and 6:11), but contrary to the view of those Corinthians who might have been afraid that the Christian partner and the marriage would be defiled by the unbelieving partner,26 Paul argues that it is the other way around, and states that the unbelieving partners will be “sanctified” because of their relationship with their Christian partners.27 The reason he thinks this is that he is hopeful that one day the unbelieving partners may be convinced by their Christian partners and become believers in Jesus Christ, and so become

 25

For this expression in connection with marriage, cf. already Sophocles, Oed. tyr. 990. 26 In the sense of “what you’re dealing with, you’re going to get infected with.” See at 5:9, and 15:33. 27 A somewhat similar argument is found in Rom 11:16.

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truly “holy” or “sanctified.” In this way, Christian partners might “save”28 their non-Christian partners: “For who knows, you may save your husband or you may save your wife!” (v. 16). In verse 14c, Paul gives another reason why he thinks that unbelieving partners in a “mixed” marriage are “sanctified”: “Otherwise, your children would also be ‘unclean,’ but as it is, they are holy.” In Paul’s opinion, nonbelievers who are “children,” that is, young people up to about fourteen years of age who do not take any responsibility and may not take important decisions in their own lives such as choosing to become believers in Christ, may seem to be “unclean”29 but are in fact “holy,” just like the unbelieving partner in a “mixed” marriage. Again, Paul is convinced that children are “sanctified” or “holy” in a way because one of their parents is a Christian. In verses 12-14, Paul called on the Corinthians in a “mixed” marriage not to separate as long as the unbelieving partner was willing to stay. If, however the unbelieving partner wishes to separate, Paul says “let it be so; in such cases30 the Christian husband or wife is not bound to their partner any longer” (v. 15ab). That is, if the non-Christian partner chooses not to remain with his or her Christian partner, the latter should accept the other’s decision, after which he or she is not “bound” to her or his former partner any longer. That is, Christians are no longer bound to marriage agreements or arrangements with their former partners after the separation, but are “free” and may live without any obligations whatsoever.31 The reason why the Christian partner should not oppose a partner’s choice to separate is that “God has called you to be at peace with everyone” (lit. “God has called you in peace”)32 (v. 15c). Christians are not called by God to initiate arguments, but “to be at peace with everyone.”33 In this case, the Christian partner should not take the initiative to separate if the unbelieving partner is happy to stay, nor should they go against his or her wish to

 28

For “to save” in the sense of “to convert someone to become a believer in Jesus Christ,” see also 9:22, Rom 11:14, and 1 Tim 4:16. 29 As people who did not believe in God or Jesus Christ, Gentiles were considered “unclean” by Israelites, Jews and Christians: see, e.g., Isa 52:1, Amos 7:17, Acts 10:28, and 2 Cor 6:17. 30 For the expression “in such cases,” ਥȞ IJȠ૙Ȣ IJȠȚȠȪIJȠȚȢ, cf. Xenophon, Cyr. 5.4.17. 31 Cf. v. 39, and Rom 7:2. 32 For the expression “God has called you in (ਥȞ) …,” cf. 1 Thess 4:7. 33 Cf., e.g., Matt 5:9, Mark 9:50, Rom 12:18, 14:19, 2 Cor 13:11, 1 Thess 5:13, 2 Tim 2:22, Heb 12:14, 1 Pet 3:11, and see also Ps 34:14 (33:15), and Pss. Sol. 12:5.

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separate. So for a “mixed’ marriage, it is best not to separate, but there is one exception.

“Staying as one was when called” as a guiding principle: 7:17-24 (17) Let each one of you hold to the life that the Lord has assigned you, the life that you led when God called you. That is the rule I give in all the Christian communities. (18) If someone was already circumcised when he was called, he should not try to restore his foreskin. If someone was uncircumcised when he was called, he should not have himself be circumcised. (19) It does not matter that a man is circumcised or uncircumcised, but that he keeps the commandments of God. (20) Everyone should remain in the condition in which he was called. (21) If you were a slave when you were called, it should not bother you. However, if there is an opportunity for you to become a freedman, by all means take it. (22) For anyone who is a slave when he is called to become a believer in Christ is a free man: namely, he is a freedman of the Lord. And, equally, anyone who is a free man when he is called, is also a slave; namely, a slave of Christ. (23) For you were bought; a price was paid. Do not become slaves of men! (24) So, brothers and sisters, everyone is to remain before God in the condition in which he was called.

In this paragraph, Paul indicates once more that it is best for Christians to remain in the condition they were in when they were called by God to become believers in Jesus Christ. He mentions this guiding principle no less than three times in these verses (vv. 17, 20, and 24), and he illustrates it with two examples. First, Paul argues that it is not important whether a man is circumcised or uncircumcised when called by God, and that as a consequence, a change of condition is neither necessary nor preferable (vv. 18-19). Second, Paul refers to the social position of the Christians; whether they were slaves or free people when called by God. These social conditions are also totally irrelevant. Moreover, a slave is at the same time also a free man, namely “a freedman of the Lord,” and a free man is at the same time also a slave, namely “a slave of Christ.” With only one exception, a change of condition should be avoided (vv. 21-22). Finally, once again Paul states that Christians belong to God and to Jesus Christ; they should not take the standards of men–the standards that apply to this world–into account but should be true to themselves and not think that a change of state would bring them nearer to God. Right at the beginning of this paragraph, Paul calls on the Corinthians not to change their social state, “the life that the Lord (= Jesus Christ) has assigned you, the life that you led when God called you” (v. 17). A person’s

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situation in society has no theological relevance at all: everybody is equal in the Christian community, and a change of state or condition is to be avoided in almost all circumstances because it was God or Jesus Christ who “assigned” people their specific way of being. Paul does not want the Corinthians to hold to their way of being in all circumstances, but he does want them to see that, in principle, their social status is theologically irrelevant, and they should generally stay as they were when called by God. At the end of verse 17, Paul states that this guiding principle is “the rule I give in all the Christian communities.”34 In other words, the Christians in Corinth are part of the Christian Church worldwide, and they should obey the same rules that apply in all the other local Christian communities.35 Paul gives a first example of this guiding principle in verses 18-19: “If someone was already circumcised when he was called, he should not try to restore his foreskin. If someone was uncircumcised when he was called, he should not have himself be circumcised” (v. 18). That is, a Christian who was a pagan before his conversion does not need to be circumcised, and a Christian who was a Jew before he came to believe in Jesus Christ “should not try to restore his foreskin.” Incidentally, permanent restoration of the foreskin is something that can only be achieved by surgery,36 although it can be effected temporarily by tying the frayed ends of the foreskin together, something occasionally done by Jews when they took part in some sports or games and did not wish to display their circumcised state in front of their Greek or Roman fellow athletes.37 Obviously, Paul rejects such a change of condition: “it does not matter that a man is circumcised or uncircumcised, but that he keeps the commandments of God” (v. 19). Or, as Paul states in his letter to the Galatians, “For in Christ Jesus it counts for nothing that someone is circumcised or uncircumcised, but what counts is faith expressing itself through love” and “it does not matter that someone is circumcised or uncircumcised, but what matters is that there is a new creation” (Gal 5:6 and 6:15). This implies that changing this condition is neither necessary nor preferable, since in the Christian community such differences between people are no longer relevant. According to Paul, in the Christian

 34

Cf. 11:34, and 16:1. 35 Cf. 1:2, 4:17, 11:16, 14:33b-34a, and 36. 36 Cf. As. Mos. 8:3. 37 Cf. 1 Macc 1:15, and Josephus, A.J. 12.241.

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community, “there is no such thing as Jew and Greek, slave and free man, male and female” (Gal 3:28).38 Paul’s idea that for God and in the Christian community all Christians are equal, and that their differences disappear and become irrelevant, seems to be a Pauline adaptation of the Hellenistic conception of an ideal society. In such a society, all good and righteous people are united in a close-knit community where all social and other differences have disappeared. See, for instance, Plutarch, De Alexandri Magni Fortuna aut Virtute 1.6 (Mor. 329B-D), “He (Alexander the Great) ordered that all of them should consider the whole world their fatherland … they should not differentiate between Greeks and non-Greeks.”39 Paul sees this ideal society in the worldwide Christian Church, where all differences between believers in Jesus Christ have become completely irrelevant. What really counts in the Christian community is “that one keeps the commandments of God,”40 that is, that one lives according to God’s will and keeps his (ethical) commandments, in particular his command to love one another.41 This concept also seems to be a Pauline adaptation of a general Hellenistic idea that a wise man may take a free stance in relation to human laws, but that he is capable of and feels obliged to obey the law of God; the law of nature: “I have become a free man thanks to God, I know his commands” (Epictetus, Diss. 4.7.17).42 In Paul’s view, the Christians have become wise and free through their connection with Jesus Christ (cf. 1:30 and Gal 5:1) and, as such, they are able to keep God’s commandments. After Paul has repeated his guiding principle that a Christian “should remain in the condition in which he was called,” v. 20), he gives a second example in verses 21-22. Since a free man does not generally feel the need to change his social position, the example deals first with the position of the slave. Moreover, most Corinthian Christians were slaves (see 1:26), so they would surely have felt that Paul’s injunctions were addressed to them, the more so because he switches to the use of the second person singular in verse 21: “If you were a slave when you were called, it should not bother you.” For God, and in the Christian community, being a slave is completely irrelevant

 38

See further 1 Cor 12:13, Rom 10:12, and cf. Col 3:11. 39 See also Musonius Rufus, Diss. 3, and Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 15.32. 40 For this formulation, cf. Sir 32:23, Wis 6:18, and also Sir 29:1, Matt 19:17, and 1 John 2:3. 41 See Rom 13:8-10, Gal 5:14, 6:2, and cf. also 1 Cor 13. 42 See also Epictetus, Diss. 1.19.9, Philo, Deus 48, Prob. 42, 45-47, and 62.

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theologically. Nevertheless, “if there is an opportunity for you to become a freedman, by all means take it.”43 That is, if a slave has the opportunity to become a freedman, he should seize it, for being a freedman is always to be preferred to being a slave in any society.44 This is an understandable exception to the rule that one should stay in the position in which one was called by God. Thus, according to Paul, staying in one’s condition is certainly not a “holy must.” Although it is best to stay as one was when called, there are exceptions.45 Next, Paul gives reasons why slaves should not be concerned about their position. First, “anyone who is a slave when he is called to become a believer in Christ is a free man: namely, he is a freedman of the Lord” (v. 22a). That is, a Christian slave is in fact “free” because he has been spiritually “released” by Jesus Christ.46 The formulation “a freedman of the Lord” does not, of course, imply that Jesus Christ was once the master of the Christian slave, it merely underlines that the slave has become “free” thanks to his new “master” Jesus Christ47 and as such, he is able to lead a life according to God’s commandments.48 The paradox of the “free slave” was well-known in the Hellenistic world. It was the Stoics and the Cynics of the time in particular who told their audience that a truly wise man was “free” even if he was a slave. In this context, they often referred to the famous Cynic Diogenes, who was a slave, but at the same time spiritually free.49 Similarly, Paul considers all members of the worldwide Christian Church to be “free” even if they are slaves in

 43

Sometimes, this sentence is interpreted and translated differently; see, e.g., the NRSV, “Even if you can gain your freedom, make use of your present condition now more than ever.” The first clause introduced by “if” or “even if” (in Greek: İੁ țĮȓ) can indeed be interpreted as a concessive clause, but here it is more likely that it is meant to introduce a new possibility (cf. Sophocles, Ant. 90, Herodotus, Hist. 5.78, and cf. also 1 Cor 11:7, and 2 Cor 4:3). 44 In the Graeco-Roman world of the time, slaves were sometimes released for humanitarian and economic reasons: slaves might be motivated to work harder if their masters promised them a future release; and moreover, freedmen also had to fulfill some obligations to their former masters. 45 Cf. 1 Cor 7:9, 11, 15, etc. 46 Cf. Ign. Rom. 4:3. 47 Cf. Gal 5:1. 48 See at 6:12, and 7:19. 49 See, e.g., Epictetus, Diss. 2.6.18, 3.24.67, 4.1.1-10, 4.5.22, 4.6.21, Musonius Rufus, Diss. 9, Diogenes Laertius, Vit. phil. 6.29-30, 6.74, Marcus Aurelius, Med. 3.7.3, Ps.-Crates, Ep. 34, and Philo, Prob. 123-24.

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terms of Graeco-Roman society, for they belong to Jesus Christ, their (spiritual) master. That is why a Christian slave should generally have no need to change his social position, since he is already “free.” On the other hand, “anyone who is a free man when he is called, is also a slave; namely, a slave of Christ” (v. 22b). Elsewhere in his letters, Paul primarily uses the term “a slave of Christ” to qualify himself and his coworkers,50 whereas here he uses it to qualify every Christian,51 and a Christian “free man” in particular. This is undoubtedly because he wants to present a suitable contrast with the term “a freedman of the Lord” in the previous sentence. Moreover, Paul is familiar with the common earlyChristian concept that every Christian should “serve God/Jesus Christ/the Lord,”52 an expression that has its roots in the OT.53 Since a free man is also a slave (“a slave of Christ”), this is one more reason why a slave need not change his social position in Graeco-Roman society. Finally, Paul continues by telling his addressees in Corinth: “For you were bought; a price was paid. Do not become slaves of men!” (v. 23). The first clause is a repetition of what Paul said in 6:20a: it is Jesus Christ who has “bought” the Christians, as it were, through his death on the cross. Whereas in verse 22 Paul argues that Jesus Christ has “released” the Christian slaves, here in verse 23a it is Christ who has “bought” all Christians and has paid for them with his death. In both instances Paul wants to underline the fact that the Christians now belong to Jesus Christ, their new “master.” He therefore, continues by calling on the Corinthians not to “become slaves of men” (v. 23b). As “slaves of Christ” the Christians are spiritually “free.” They should not live according to the opinions and values that are current among “ordinary” people, people who, for instance, find the social position of a free man more valuable than that of a slave. Therefore, they should not strive for a change in their condition or situation in society, but in principle stay as they were at the moment they were called by God: “So, brothers and sisters, everyone is to remain before God in the condition in which he was called” (v. 24; cf. vv. 17 and 20).

 50

See Rom 1:1, Gal 1:1, and Phil 1:1. 51 Cf. Eph 6:6. 52 See Rom 6:22, 12:11, 14:18, 1 Thess 1:9, Matt 6:24, Luke 16:13, etc. 53 See, e.g., Judg 2:7, and 1 Sam 7:4.

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Rules for single people and another rule for widows: 7:25-40 (25) Concerning young women who are still single, I have no command of the Lord, but I give my own opinion, as somebody who by the Lord’s mercy is fit to be trusted. (26) First of all, I think that it is a good thing for a man to remain as he is, and that because of the present period of tribulation. (27) If you have obligations to a woman, you should not try to evade them. But if you are not bound to a woman, you should not try to find a woman. (28) But if you do marry, you would not be committing a sin, nor would a young woman if she married. Yet those who marry will have hardships to endure, and I for my part would spare you these troubles. (29) What I want to say, brothers and sisters, is this: the time we live in will not last long. That means that married men should live as if they had no wives; (30) that people who mourn should live as if they did not mourn; that people who are happy should live as if they were not happy; that people who buy things should live as if they had no possessions; (31) and that people who make use of what the world has to offer should live as if they did not make use of it. For the world as it appears to us will pass away. (32) I want you to be free from care. For an unmarried man takes care of the things of the Lord, and his aim is to please the Lord. (33) But when he is married, he takes care of the things of the world and his aim is to please his wife (34) and his interests are divided. An unmarried woman or girl takes care of the things of the Lord, and her aim is to be dedicated to him in body as well as in spirit. But when she is married, she takes care of the things of the world and her aim is to please her husband. (35) I say all this for your own benefit: I do not want to impose any obligation on you, but I tell you what is appropriate for you, namely to be devoted to the Lord without any distraction. (36) If somebody who cannot control the passions of youth fears he might put his girlfriend in a difficult position if he does not marry her, that is, if the circumstances are such, he should carry out his intention by getting married: he would not be committing a sin. Let them marry. (37) But if somebody is able to control his passions, and there is nothing compelling him, that is, if he has the power to act at his own discretion and has decided to respect his girlfriend’s virginity, he will do well. (38) Thus, he who marries his girlfriend does well, but he who refrains from marriage does better. (39) A wife has obligations to her husband for as long as he lives. But if her husband dies, she is free to marry anyone she wishes, provided she will remain loyal to the Lord. (40) Nevertheless, she will be better off if she remains unmarried. That, at least, is my opinion, but I do believe that I have the Spirit of God.

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In this long passage, Paul gives some instructions for people who are not yet married. Again, it seems plausible that Paul is reacting to issues raised in a letter the Corinthians had sent him. It seems probable that, seeing marriage and sexuality as rather undesirable, a number of Corinthians had put pressure on young unmarried women not to get married. It is striking that Paul speaks about the group of young unmarried women, but that he turns in particular to young unmarried men, seeing the latter as the ones who should take the initiative to get married or not. Another striking phenomenon in this passage is that Paul repeatedly makes it explicitly known that he is not passing on an order from Jesus Christ, but rather that he is giving his own opinion on the matter (see vv. 25, 40, and cf. v. 35). He goes on, however, to make it clear that this advice is not “free and friendly” but is advice given by an apostle of the Lord. First, Paul tells the Corinthians once again that it is better to be and to remain unmarried (vv. 25-28, and cf. v. 37). But this is not because he favours celibacy, as a number of Corinthians did. No, Paul realised that to live in the end time, a time of distress and oppression for Christians, is not easy, and he is convinced that married people will have to face more difficulties than unmarried people. Moreover, the interests of married people are divided: they want to please God or Jesus Christ as well as their partners, consequently, they are easily distracted from the service of God (vv. 32-35). On the other hand, there are some circumstances in which getting married is to be preferred; namely, if a couple has obligations to one another (vv. 27-28), or when an individual cannot control his sexual desires (v. 36; cf. v. 9). Getting married is certainly not a sin (vv. 28 and 36). It is true that Christians should be indifferent to earthly, worldly matters, including their marriage partners, because everything in this world will perish and because service to God is more important (vv. 29-31). That is why, although getting married might be a good thing, it is even better not to get married (v. 38). Finally, in verses 39-40, Paul turns once again to the widows in the Christian community of Corinth, telling them that they are free to remarry, but that it would be better for them to remain unmarried. From verse 25 onwards, Paul again seems to be reacting to an issue raised by the Corinthians in their letter to him (see 7:1). A number of the group were probably in favour of celibacy, and were urging those who were single not to get married. As a consequence, the latter (and in particular, the group of “young women”) had become confused and were in doubt as to whether they should marry and have children.

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In this case, Paul has “no command of the Lord” (cf. vv. 10 and 12), but gives his “own opinion,” though he hastens to add that it is more than just an opinion: it is the advice of someone who has been appointed by God to be his apostle and is therefore to be trusted by the Corinthians (“as somebody who by the Lord’s mercy is fit to be trusted”).54 It seems likely that the introductory phrase “First of all, I think that it is a good thing for a man to remain as he is” that is, unmarried (v. 26) comes from the Corinthians’ letter to Paul (see at v. 1). Paul once again seems to agree with the Corinthians, but the reason why he prefers to remain unmarried is a different one. In the previous paragraphs, he has argued that in principle one should not alter one’s position or condition, but remain as one was when called by God. This time he gives another reason: it is better not to marry “because of the present period of tribulation.” Undoubtedly, Paul is referring to the trouble, oppression and persecution the Christians in Corinth and elsewhere had to endure, difficulties that are an integral part of the lives of the Christians living in the end time (see v. 28 and 10:13).55 And therefore, an additional “burden” such as marriage was best avoided. Nevertheless, there are exceptions to the rule. In some circumstances it is better to get married. An example: “If you have obligations to a woman, you should not try to evade them” (v. 27a).56 This advice is not directed at married men in general,57 but to bachelors–young men not yet married. The Greek terms used by Paul in this clause, “to have obligations to” (lit. “to be bound to,” įİ૙ıșĮȚ) and “to evade” (lit. “releasing,” ȜȪıȚȢ), are never used to denote “to be married” and “to divorce,” respectively. Thus, Paul is indicating that someone who has juridical or social obligations to a girl that mean he should marry her should not cancel them, but should get married to her. For according to the law of the time, such a preliminary agreement in which both parties had said “yes” to each other, the bride price was set and other arrangements had been made, was legally binding.58 Just as people who are married should not separate (vv. 10-11), people who have “obligations” to their betrothed or their family should not try to evade them.

 54 Paul underlines once and again that it is only “by God’s mercy” that he has become

an apostle: see, e.g., 1 Cor 15:10, 2 Cor 4:1, and see at 1 Cor 3:10. 55 See also Rom 5:3, 8:18, 12:12, 2 Cor 8:2, 1 Thess 1:6, 3:3, and further Matt 5:1112, 24:9, Luke 21:23, Acts 14:22, 2 Thess 1:4, Heb 10:33, 1 Pet 1:6, 4:13-14, and Rev 7:14. 56 Here again, Paul uses the second person singular; cf. 4:7, and 7:21. 57 Earlier in this chapter, Paul has given instructions to married men, and has said that these instructions are in fact commands of the Lord (see vv. 10-11, and 12-16). 58 Cf. Matt 1:18.

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On the other hand, “if you are not bound to a woman, you should not try to find a woman” (v. 27b). In Paul’s opinion, the unmarried state has great advantages. However, in contrast to a number of Corinthian Christians, Paul does not consider getting married to be something against the will of God; it is not a “sin.” “But if you do marry, you would not be committing a sin, nor would a young woman if she married” (v. 28a). But he continues by saying again that people who get married “will have hardships to endure” (lit. “will have hardships in the flesh”)59 (v. 28b; cf. v. 26), and as a good pastor he would prefer to “spare” the Corinthians “these troubles” (v. 28b).60 The fact that Paul is convinced that those who get married will have to face all kinds of hardships has to do with his view that the Last Day is at hand: “What I want to say, brothers and sisters, is this: the time we live in will not last long” (v. 29a). The Corinthian Christians need to understand that they are living in the end time, a time of distress, trouble, oppression and persecution, and that getting married would be an additional “burden.” At the same time, Paul’s statement that “the time we live in will not last long” is also meant to remind the Corinthians that the world will soon come to an end and that everything in this world is perishable. Paul repeats this in verse 31b: “For the world as it appears to us (lit. “the form of this world”)61 will pass away.”62 The notion that everything is perishable should lead to a degree of “indifference” towards everything worldly and to the conviction that there are more important things in life, such as the service of God and eternal life. This idea is behind the five clauses sandwiched between verses 29a and 31b. They are there to make clear to the Corinthians that even one’s marriage belongs to this world and is doomed to perish like everything else. Therefore, Christians who are about to get married should realise that they must keep all earthly matters, including their marriage and marriage partner, at a distance in some way or another: “That means that married men should live as if they had no wives” (v. 29b). Married Christians should not be too

 59

That is, “will have hardships in their lives on earth”; cf. 5:5, Rom 6:19, 2 Cor 4:11, 10:3, Gal 2:20, Phil 1:22, and 24. 60 Cf. 2 Cor 1:23. 61 Cf. Ps.-Clem. Hom. 19.17.3, Athenagoras, Leg. 4.2, and also Euripides, Bacch. 832, and Philostratus, Vit. Apoll. 8.7.7. 62 Lit. “… passes away”; the Present tense (ʌĮȡȐȖİȚ) expresses that something will surely happen in the future. Cf. 3:13, and T. Job 33:4, Mark 13:31, and 1 John 2:17.

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absorbed in their marriage; they should not let themselves be controlled by this worldly relationship.63 They should always keep a sort of “distance,” even to their marriage partner. The next three clauses express a similar distance from or indifference towards earthly or worldly matters: “that people who mourn should live as if they did not mourn; that people who are happy should live as if they were not happy; that people who buy things should live as if they had no possessions” (v. 30). All these feelings of sadness, happiness or joy at having many possessions belong to this life on earth and are unimportant compared to imperishable and heavenly matters. In the fifth clause, Paul summarises what he really means: “and that people who make use of what the world has to offer should live as if they did not make use of it” (v. 31a). This attitude towards all earthly and worldly matters reminds us of the Stoic and Cynic virtue of “indifference” towards, or “aloofness” from, external matters and events; the so-called ataraxia. A wise man “does not get absorbed by possessions … nor by his children or his wife … he does not care as to whether he has all this or not … and he regards the material things of life as nothing,” that is, he deals with all this but he does not get absorbed by it (Epictetus, Diss. 4.7.5). Paul espouses such an attitude, not in order to lead a life as calm and undisturbed as possible, but in the awareness that everything in this world will perish. In the next verses (vv. 32-35), Paul also demonstrates his familiarity with ideas that were in vogue in the Graeco-Roman world of his time. He introduces the motif that marriage, parenthood and housekeeping are accompanied by worry and anxiety, which distract people from the true service of God or the gods.64 Again, this passage is meant as a warning to those Corinthians who are about to get married. Paul does not forbid them to marry, but he wants them to be aware that being married involves additional worries. He wants them “to be free from care.” In other words, it is better for them not to get married. “For an unmarried man takes care of the things of the Lord, and his aim is to please the Lord.” A Christian who is not yet married organises his life in such a way that he always lives according to the will of God. Only by paying attention to God and his commandments can he be a true servant of the Lord. But as Paul continues in verses 33-34a, “when he is married, he takes care of the things of the

 63

Cf. Acts Paul Thecl. 5. 64 See, e.g., Epictetus, Diss. 3.22.69, 4.1.159, Diodorus Siculus, Bibl. 40.3.7, and cf. also Luke 10:38-42, and Herm. Sim. 4.5.

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world and his aim is to please his wife and his interests are divided.” That is, his attention is not only focused on the Lord, but naturally, also on his wife and children. The same goes for a woman: “An unmarried woman or girl takes care of the things of the Lord, and her aim is to be dedicated to him in body as well as in spirit.” A girl or a woman who is not yet married can give all her attention to the Lord, and can lead a life that is fully devoted to God “in body as well as in spirit.” Once again, “when she is married, she takes care of the things of the world and her aim is to please her husband.” It becomes even more clear that Paul prefers the unmarried state when he indicates that being married involves additional worries and anxieties, as well as divided interests. What he has said to his readers in Corinth in the previous verses is “for their own benefit” (v. 35).65 But he continues by saying that he does not “want to impose any obligation on you” (lit. “want to throw a noose around your necks”).66 Paul does not forbid the Corinthians to marry, he only wants to tell them “what is appropriate” for them; namely not to get married, but “to be devoted (lit. “constantly attending”) to the Lord without any distraction.” In verses 36-38, Paul deals once more with the situation of those Corinthian Christians who were about to get married, but who were asking themselves whether getting married might be a “sin.” Paul starts by mentioning a case where it is better to get married; namely, “if somebody … cannot control the passions of youth” (v. 36). It literally says: “if somebody … is in the prime of his (or: her) life,” or “if somebody … is beyond the prime of his (or: her) life.” Many commentators are in favour of the latter interpretation (and translation) and are of the opinion that it is not the young man but the girl who is the subject of the clause, which is grammatically possible. That is, the young man should marry his girlfriend “if she is beyond her youth” or, in other words, “if she is getting older.” But this interpretation should be rejected: the context, the parallel with verse 37, and the fact that the young man turns out to be the subject of all the verbs (singular) in verse 36, make it much more plausible that the first interpretation is correct: “if somebody … is in the prime of his life.” And since “the prime of one’s life” is one’s

 65

See at 6:12. 66 A metaphor from war and hunting: animals and people can be caught by throwing a rope or a noose around their necks, so that they cannot escape. See, e.g., Thucydides, Hist. 2.76.4, Plutarch, Pyrrh. 27.10 (Vit. par. 402A), but also Prov 6:5, 7:21, Josephus, B.J. 7.250, Philo, Mos. 2.252, and Spec. 3.160.

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youth, a time usually characterised by powerful sexual urges, crushes and the wish to get married, a translation such as “if somebody … cannot control the passions of youth” seems to be more appropriate. Paul continues by saying that if such a young man, unable to control his passions, “fears he might put his girlfriend in a difficult position if he does not marry her, that is, if the circumstances are such, he should carry out his intention by getting married: he would not be committing a sin.” That is, if he is afraid that he will deflower his girlfriend and make her pregnant, it is better for both of them to get married (“Let them marry”) for getting married is no “sin” (cf. v. 28). In verse 37, Paul mentions another case: “But if somebody is able to control his passions (lit. “is confident in his heart”), and there is nothing compelling him, that is, if he has the power to act at his own discretion and has decided to respect his girlfriend’s virginity (lit. “to keep his girlfriend [as she is]”), he will do well.” That is, if he is strong and has his passions completely under control, he will do well not to get married.67 In verse 38, Paul summarises what has been said in the previous verses. Once again, it is obvious that he has a preference for the situation described in verse 37: “Thus, he who marries his girlfriend does well, but he who refrains from marriage does better.” Although this statement in verse 38 seems to be perfectly clear, many commentators prefer a different interpretation. The problem lies in the way the verb “to marry” (ȖĮȝȓȗİȚȞ) is interpreted and translated. It is a very rare word, and one which does not even occur in Greek literature before the NT. It is found four times in the NT in the passive voice, meaning “to be married off” or “to be given in marriage.”68 Only once is it used in the active voice, namely in Matthew 24:38, where it is usually interpreted as “to give in marriage” and refers to a father giving his daughter. Subsequently, such a father–daughter interpretation has also been advocated in the case of 1 Corinthians 7:38: a father does well to give his daughter in marriage, but he does better when he does not give her in marriage. This interpretation would imply that in the entire passage of verses 25-38, the focus is on fathers and whether they should, or should not, give their daughters in marriage. There are, however, serious objections to this interpretation. First, the entire passage seems rather to be dealing with the relationship between unmarried young men and unmarried young women. Second, the Greek term for “a young unmarried

 67

That is, of course, when he “has no obligations to her,” v. 27. 68 See Matt 22:30, Mark 12:25, Luke 17:27, and 20:35.

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woman,” ʌĮȡșȑȞȠȢ, used frequently in this passage, always refers to “a girl of a marriageable age” and never to “a daughter.” Finally, the attribution of the meaning “to give in marriage” to the Greek word ȖĮȝȓȗİȚȞ is far from certain. It goes back to the second century grammarian Apollonius, who, probably from purism, wanted to make a distinction between ȖĮȝȓȗİȚȞ and the more common term for “to marry,” ȖĮȝİ૙Ȟ. But there is no cause whatsoever to assume that Paul made the same distinction more than a century earlier. Because of all this, it seems more plausible that Paul is calling on young unmarried men not to marry in these verses, although he does not forbid them from doing so. In the last two verses of this long paragraph, Paul applies this “principle” that it is good to marry but better to refrain from marriage (v. 38) to the widows of the Christian community in Corinth (vv. 39-40; cf. vv. 8-9). First, Paul states that “a wife has obligations to her husband as long as he lives.” That is, a married woman is “bound” to her husband, should not seek to separate, and has “obligations”69 which remain valid as long as her husband lives. But once her husband has died “she is free to marry anyone she wishes.” A widow may remarry (cf. v. 9)70 “provided she will remain loyal to the Lord” (lit. “only in the Lord”). This last phrase is usually interpreted as Paul meaning that a widow may remarry, but only if she marries another Christian. Although this interpretation is possible, another interpretation of the words “in the Lord” is, I think, to be preferred. Paul uses these words (ਥȞ țȣȡȓ૳) rather frequently in his letters, indicating the close relationship and unity between a Christian and his Lord, Jesus Christ.71 Thus, what Paul wants to say here is that a widow may remarry, but that her marriage should be “in the Lord,” that is, as befits a Christian woman, a believer in Jesus Christ.72 That means that she should realise that she is living in the end time and that there are more important things than pleasing her husband, namely her service to God (vv. 29-31). In other words, Paul is not speaking about her future husband; the only thing that matters is that she will remain a true believer in Christ.

 69

Cf. v. 27. 70 See also Rom 7:1-3, and Josephus, A.J. 4.256. 71 Cf. 4:17, 7:22, 9:1-2, 11:11, 16:19, Rom 16:12, Phil 2:29, 1 Thess 5:12, and Philem 16. 72 Cf. REB, “provided the marriage is within the Lord’s fellowship.”

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Although Paul does not forbid a Christian widow to remarry, he underlines once more that “she will be better off 73 if she remains unmarried” (lit. “if she remains as she is”) (v. 40). Once again, this is his view on the matter: “That, at least, is my opinion” (cf. vv. 6, 12, and 25); he has no “command of the Lord” to pass on to the Corinthians (cf. v. 10). Consequently, this advice has no binding character (cf. vv. 6 and 35) but neither is it just the advice of an ordinary fellow Christian. It is the opinion of someone who has “the Spirit of God”; someone who is appointed by God as an apostle of the Lord (cf. v. 25). All Christians have received the Holy Spirit, but the possession of the Holy Spirit characterises the apostles and missionaries in particular (see 2:12 and 16).

 73

Lit. “… more blessed,” used here without any religious connotation. Cf. Luke 23:29, Acts 26:2, Josephus, A.J. 16.108, 20.27, Herm. Vis. 1.1.2, Epictetus, Diss. 2.18.15, etc.

PART FOUR LIMITS TO THE CHRISTIAN’S FREEDOM AND PAUL’S APOSTOLIC FREEDOM: 8:1-11:1

In chapters 8:1-11:1, Paul appears to deal with another issue brought up by the Corinthian Christians in their letter to him. This time they question whether a Christian is free to eat food (meat in particular) previously sacrificed to idols in a pagan temple? It must be realised here that meat was not an everyday food: it was eaten at specific cultic meetings in temples and at official feasts in honour of a Roman emperor or a particular god. Meat was also eaten at private feasts to celebrate occasions such as births or weddings, at home or in a rented room in a temple complex. Meat was usually offered by priests to one of the Greek or Roman gods before it was consumed. This also applied to meat that was sold in the markets. Apparently, there had been some discussion among the Corinthian Christians on the question of whether they were allowed to eat food that had been sacrificed to “idols.” Almost all of them would have been Gentiles before they became believers in Jesus Christ, and they were accustomed to eating this sort of food, but since their conversion some of them had asked themselves whether they should continue to eat it. There were also Christians in Corinth who were proud of their “knowledge” of God and their “freedom” to do whatever they wanted,1 and who were not troubled by the idea of eating meat that had been sacrificed to idols. Although Paul agrees with this latter group of Christians to some extent, he nevertheless seeks to apply some nuance to their point of view. He wants them to realise that there are limits to their Christian freedom; something that goes far beyond this freedom, namely the love for one another.2 That is why he argues that eating food offered to idols is permitted in some

 1

See esp. chs. 1-4, 6:12, and 10:23-33. 2 Cf. Rom 14:13-15:6.

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circumstances, but that it should never be done at the expense of the feelings and sensitivities of fellow Christians. First of all, he points out that one should abstain from eating such food if there is a fellow Christian present who cannot easily let go of the past, and who may become confused and be in danger of falling back into paganism (ch. 8). One should also abstain from eating such food if a pagan dining companion was uncomfortable with a Christian eating food that had been offered to his gods (10:23-30). Finally, what should be avoided at any time is eating such food in the company of pagan worshippers during a cultic meeting, for that is nothing but idolatry and will be punished severely by God, as the Israelites were punished when they surrendered to idolatry during their trek through the desert (10:1-22). In chapter 9, Paul cites himself as an example, and shows his readers that there are limits to a Christian’s freedom, namely, the care of fellow Christians and their salvation. As an apostle of the Lord, Paul is “free” and independent of anybody. Nevertheless, he adapts to all the people he is dealing with, and he “has become everything to everyone” in order to win people for the Gospel (9:22). Paul therefore ends this part of the letter by calling on the Corinthians to follow his example and to do everything “for the glory of God” (10:31-11:1).3 Surprisingly, Paul’s rather nuanced position on the eating of food previously offered up to idols had a relatively limited influence on leading figures in the early-Christian Church. Most of them felt that eating such food should be avoided at any time. See, for instance, Acts 15:20, 29, written at the end of the first century, where we read that Christians should abstain from “food that has been sacrificed to idols.” Also in Revelation 2:14, 20 (written in about the year 100), the Christians are warned against eating the food offered to idols.4 This total prohibition on eating such food at the end of the first century or the beginning of the second century may have been related to the imperial cult, which was booming in certain parts of the Roman Empire at the time and which was closely connected with the worship of pagan gods. There may have been Christians who, out of fear of repercussions, took part in the imperial cult and ate the food offered to idols on special occasions. The leaders of the early-Christian Church, however,

 3

The first verse of ch. 11 belongs to the previous paragraphs; in 11:2, a new part of the letter starts which deals with the weekly meetings of the Christians in Corinth. 4 See also Did. 6:3, “keep strictly from that which is sacrificed to idols, for it is the worship of dead gods.” And further Justin, Dial. 34.8-35.2, Apos. Con. 7.21, etc.

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felt prompted to call these Christians to order and to confront them with a complete embargo on eating food offered to idols.

Love vs. knowledge: 8:1-3 (1) Now about food sacrificed to idols. We know that “all of us possess knowledge.” But knowledge makes arrogant, whereas love builds up. (2) Anyone who claims to know something, does not yet know in the true sense of knowing. (3) But anyone who loves God is known by him.

In these three verses, Paul introduces the main theme of this part of the letter (8:1-11:1). Here, the central issue is whether Christians are allowed to eat food that has been sacrificed or offered to idols. For Paul, this revolves around two things that are in tension with one another, namely, knowledge and love. Whereas a number of Christians boast of their knowledge, Paul chooses love as the more important of the two without any hesitation. According to him, love “builds up,” whereas knowledge “makes arrogant.” Paul introduces the issue with the words “Now about.” This suggests that he is referring to a subject brought up by the Corinthians in their letter to him.5 The senders of the letter were probably of the opinion that Christians were allowed to eat food that had previously been offered up to idols at all times. As a consequence, they found fellow Christians who were reluctant to do so rather “weak.” The main reason why they held this opinion was that they felt that they had “full knowledge,” that is, knowledge of God and his plan of salvation.6 Paul does not deny that Christians have this kind of knowledge: “We know that7 ‘all of us possess knowledge’.”8 But Paul hastens to add that the experience of having knowledge may have an unfortunate side effect: “it makes arrogant” (v. 1); that is, people feel themselves to be increasingly important and care less and less about others. In Paul’s view, this was clearly the case for some members of the Christian community in Corinth, as can be seen from the fact that elsewhere in this letter Paul accuses some of the Corinthians of arrogance and complacency (see, e.g., 4:6, 18-19, and 5:2).

 5

See at 7:1, and see also the Introduction. 6 See at 1:5. 7 By the introductory words “We know that” Paul indicates that Christians know that they possess some kind of “knowledge” about God and his plan of salvation. Cf. Rom 2:2, 3:19, 7:14, 8:22, 28, and 2 Cor 5:1. 8 The phrase “all of us possess knowledge” may be a quotation from the Corinthians’ letter to Paul.

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To balance this knowledge, there needs to be love, that is, love of one’s neighbour. This love “builds up,” and it helps the Christians to further develop their faith in Jesus Christ. “Building up,” in this figurative sense, is a core concept in Paul’s theological way of thinking.9 As opposed to knowledge, love focuses on and is directed at one’s neighbour or one’s fellow Christian. That is why love is much more important than knowledge in the life of a Christian (see esp. ch. 13, and further Rom 13:8-10, Gal 5:14, and 6:2). Before once again taking up the theme of eating food offered to idols in verse 4, Paul makes a few more remarks about knowledge and love. First, he states that “anyone who claims to know something, does not yet know in the true sense of knowing” (lit. “… does not yet know as one should know”)10 (v. 2). In other words, the knowledge of the Corinthian Christians is only limited and partial: their knowledge is earthly–something that belongs to this world and to this age–and together with the world it will vanish at the end of time. However, true knowledge, that is knowing and seeing God “face to face,” is of a completely different order (see 3:18, and 13:8-12). What really matters is not that one has (limited or partial) knowledge of God, but that one “loves God.”11 Only then is one “known by him” (v. 3), that is, only then is one accepted by God as one of his elect. What counts is that God knows them.12 Loving God and loving one another should be paramount in the lives of Christians, also when it comes to eating the food sacrificed to idols.

Responsibility for “weak” Christians: 8:4-13 (4) Well then, about eating food sacrificed to idols: we know that “all idols in the world are nothing” and that “there is no God but one.” (5) For although there may be so-called gods both in heaven and on earth–and indeed, there are many “gods” and many “lords”–, (6) yet for us there is one God, namely, the Father, from whom are all things and for whom we exist; and there is one Lord, namely, Jesus Christ, through whom are all things and through whom we are what we are. (7) However, not everyone has this knowledge. There are some who until

 9

See also Rom 14:19, 15:2, 1 Cor 8:10, 10:23, 14:3-5, 12, 17, 26, 2 Cor 10:8, 12:19, 13:10, and 1 Thess 5:11. 10 For such a formulation, cf. Rom 8:26. 11 In Judaism and early-Christianity, “loving God” is one of the characteristics of true believers: see, e.g., Pss. Sol. 4:25, Rom 8:28, 1 Cor 2:9, and Jas 1:12, and 2:5. 12 See also 13:12, and Gal 4:9, and cf. further 2 Tim 2:19, and John 10:14.

Limits to the Christian’s Freedom and Paul’s Apostolic Freedom: 8:1-11:1 105 now have been so accustomed to idolatry that they still regard the food they eat as food sacrificed to idols; and being weak, they feel guilty when they eat it. (8) But whether we eat such food or not has nothing to do with God’s opinion of us. Moreover, if we do not eat, we are not directly in need, and if we do eat, we do not have directly an abundance. (9) Nevertheless, you should be careful that this right of yours to eat food sacrificed to idols does not become a stumbling block to the weak. (10) For if one of these weak believers in Christ sees you sitting down and eating in a temple–you with all your knowledge–, might he not also be “encouraged” to eat food that has been sacrificed to idols? (11) Yes, and then it is by this knowledge of yours that the weak Christian will be lost, a fellow believer, someone for whom Christ has died. (12) Sinning against your brothers and sisters and attacking them through their weaknesses, you will sin against Christ. (13) Therefore, if eating food makes a fellow Christian lose faith, I will never eat meat again! For I do not want a fellow Christian of mine to lose his faith.

In this paragraph, Paul picks up the theme already mentioned in verse 1. He knows that many gods are worshipped in this world, but he also knows that these gods or lords are “idols” and are in fact “nothing” (vv. 4-5). In reality, there is only one God, the God of the Christians, and only one Lord, Jesus Christ (vv. 4 and 6). Therefore, Paul agrees with those Corinthians who had written to him that Christians are free to eat the food sacrificed to idols. But he wants the Corinthians to realise that not all believers in Jesus Christ possess this knowledge to the same degree: some of them may become confused if they are invited to eat such food (v. 7). In this context, Paul first of all assures the Corinthians that food is of minor importance in the lives of Christians: in itself it is not relevant, neither to God nor to people in general (vv. 8a and b). But he hastens to say that Christians who have the spiritual gift of knowledge should not “encourage” fellow Christians to eat food that has been offered to idols against their will and beliefs such as to make them lose their faith (vv. 9-12). Finally, Paul cites himself as an example for the Corinthians: he would abstain from eating meat in future if by his actions a fellow Christian might lose his faith (v. 13). In verse 4, Paul returns to the theme of food sacrificed to idols. He starts by saying that “we know”13 that “all idols in the world are nothing” and that “there is no God but one.” Again, he seems to be quoting from the Corinthians’ letter to him.14 Apparently, there were some Christians in

 13

See at 8:1. 14 Cf. 7:1, and 8:1.

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Corinth who, convinced as they were that idols are “nothing,”15 found it fully acceptable to eat the food sacrificed to idols. Again, Paul broadly agrees with them, for all Christians know or should know that “there is no God but one.”16 When the Corinthians became believers in Jesus Christ they were undoubtedly told that there is only one God (the God of Israel) and that all pagan gods are idols.17 Gentiles who became Christians should break with their religion and with their worship of all pagan gods and realise that there is only one God, who has created heaven and earth. However, Paul cannot deny that many “gods” are worshipped in this world; or, in his own words, “there may be so-called gods both in heaven and on earth–and indeed, there are many ‘gods’ and many ‘lords’.” (v. 5). Although a number of commentators argue that the terms “gods” and “lords” may refer to different types of heathen deities,18 it seems more probable that Paul’s use of these two terms is influenced by Jewish and early-Christian tradition: as a Jew and a Christian he is familiar with the terms “God” (= the God of Jews and Christians) and “Lord” (= God or Jesus Christ). In verse 6, Paul emphasises that, over and above all those heathen deities, for Christians there is only “one God” and only “one Lord.” Christians acknowledge only one as their God, namely “the Father,”19 a traditional epithet of God in Judaism and early-Christianity20 which expresses the idea that God is the creator of heaven and earth and the origin of everything and everyone. That is, God is the one “from whom are all things and for whom we exist,” a well-known Hellenistic formulation for describing God’s or

 15

For the formulation of “being nothing”, cf. 7:19, and 10:19. 16 Cf. 12:5-6, Rom 3:30, and see further Eph 4:5-6, and 1 Tim 2:5. 17 The early-Christians share this confession with the Jews: see, e.g., Wis 13-15, Ep Jer, Let. Aris. 134-39, Josephus, A.J. 3.91, 8.343, Philo, Opif. 170-72, Spec. 1.28-30, Conf. 170-71, Virt. 212-19, and Decal. 51-81. 18 According to them, the term “gods” may refer to the Greek or Roman gods (like, e.g., Zeus, Apollo or Demeter), whereas the term “lords” may refer to the gods of the mystery cults (like, e.g., Isis, Osiris, Mithras, and Dionysius); or they think that “gods” refer to the Greek and Roman gods in general, and “lords” to demigods or “heroes” (like, e.g., Heracles/Hercules). 19 Cf. also 1:3, 15:24, Rom 1:7, 8:15, 2 Cor 1:2, Gal 1:1, 3, 4, and 4:6. 20 See also, e.g., Wis 14:3, Josephus, A.J. 1.20, Philo, Spec. 1.96, 2.6, Conf. 170, Ebr. 30, 81, Virt. 214, Matt 5:16, 45, 48, 6:1, 4, 6, 8, 9, Mark 11:25, and Luke 6:36. We also find this epithet elsewhere in Graeco-Roman literature: see, e.g., Epictetus, Diss. 1.3.1, Diogenes Laertius, Vit. phil. 7.147, and cf. already Plato, Tim. 28C, and 37C.

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Nature’s position and power.21 However, by saying that “we” (the Christians) exist “for” God, Paul gives a new twist to this traditional formulation: God is not only the origin of everything and everyone, but the Christians are also focused on him and realise that one day they will live together with their God. What is typical of Christians is not that they believe in “one God”–Jews also believe in the same one God–, but that they also believe in “one Lord, namely, Jesus Christ.” And it is he “through whom are all things and through whom we are what we are.” That is, Jesus Christ is first of all God’s “mediator” or “instrument” when the world was created, a traditional motif in early-Christian literature.22 But he is much more than that: he has a special relationship with his followers, the Christians. For he is “our righteousness, our sanctification and our redemption” (1:30), and through him the Christians have become “new” people who will receive eternal life at the end of time. In verse 7, Paul returns to the theme of eating food sacrificed to idols. Having said that, for Christians, there is only one God and only one Lord, he now continues by saying that “not everyone has this knowledge.” Apparently, there were a number of Corinthian Christians who hesitated to eat such food because they lacked “this knowledge.” That is, although all Christians know that there is only “one God,” there were some Christians in Corinth who did not fully understand the impact of this knowledge. As former Gentiles they had been worshippers of heathen deities, and they found it difficult to fully comprehend that their conversion implied a radical break with paganism and with idolatry. Throughout their entire life they had been used to worshiping heathen gods and eating food that had been sacrificed to these deities. After their conversion to Christianity, they continued to regard this food as having been sacrificed to their former deities, whom they should now regard as idols (“they still regard the food they eat as food sacrificed to idols”). As a consequence, “being weak, they feel guilty when they eat it” (lit. “their conscience, being weak, is defiled”).23 These “weak” Corinthian Christians felt they were failing God

 21

Cf., e.g., Marcus Aurelius, Med. 4.23 (“from you are all things, in you are all things, and unto you are all things”), Plutarch, Def. orac. 48 (Mor. 436D), Quaest. plat. 2.2 (Mor. 1001C), Diogenes Laertius, Vit. phil. 7.147, Philo, Cher. 127, Rom 11:36, 1 Cor 11:12, and Heb 2:10. 22 Cf. John 1:3, Col 1:16-17, Heb 1:2, and Rev 3:14. 23 “Conscience” or “consciousness,” ıȣȞİȓįȘıȚȢ, refers to man’s ability to assess his actions, whether they are right or wrong. In this context, some Corinthians feel that

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by eating such food, since they wrongly attached a religious value to that food which it could no longer have for believers in Jesus Christ.24 In verses 8-13, Paul turns to those Christians in Corinth who felt free to eat the food sacrificed to idols without any conscientious objections. He warns them to take care of and be responsible for those fellow Christians who have a “weak conscience.” In verse 8, he speaks about food in general terms. He seems to concur with the view of those Corinthians who felt free to eat food offered to idols because they probably saw all food as value-free or neutral. Food is neither positive nor negative, it just belongs to the things of this world, is perishable, and is theologically irrelevant.25 Or in Paul’s words: “But whether we eat such food (that is, “food sacrificed to idols”) or not has nothing to do with God’s opinion of us” (v. 8a).26 God does not care what we eat. In verse 8b, Paul adds another phrase about the characteristics of food: “Moreover, if we do not eat, we are not directly in need, and if we do eat, we do not have directly an abundance.” It is generally accepted that the verbs “to be in need,” ਫ਼ıIJİȡİ૙ıșĮȚ, and “to have an abundance,” ʌİȡȚııİȪİȚȞ, are used by Paul in a figurative sense, as for instance in Romans 3:23, and 15:13: “since all have sinned and fall short (ਫ਼ıIJİȡȠ૨ȞIJĮȚ) of the glory of God,” and “so that you may overflow (ʌİȡȚııİȪİȚȞ) in hope.”27 But in 1 Corinthians 8:8b, both verbs are used in an absolute sense, and commentators and translators feel compelled to add something, such as “hope,” “glory,” “salvation” or the like, which people may lack or have in

 they are doing something wrong when they eat food sacrificed to idols; they lack some “knowledge,” and their “conscience” is weak, that is, they do not appreciate such food any longer, because it has been sacrificed to heathen deities whom they had previously worshipped. 24 Cf. Rom 14. 25 Cf. 6:13, and see also Rom 14:17. 26 “… has nothing to do with God’s opinion about us” is the translation of ਲȝ઼Ȣ Ƞ੝ ʌĮȡĮıIJȒıİȚ IJ૶ șİ૶. The future ʌĮȡĮıIJȒıİȚ shows that the phrase is a statement of a general truth, which in Greek can be expressed by a verb in the future instead of the present tense (cf. also, e.g., Rom 5:7). The verb itself, ʌĮȡȓıIJĮȞĮȚ, has a rather large semantic field: “to cause to stand,” “to set before the mind,” “to present,” “to offer,” “to prove,” etc. Paul probably wants to emphasize that God’s opinion about each one of us is not dependent on what we eat: what we eat “does not bring us closer” to God and is in no way a “recommendation” in God’s eyes (cf. the Latin Vulgate [commendat]). Other things, such as righteousness, peace and joy are much more important in God’s kingdom (Rom 14:17). 27 Cf. also 1 Cor 1:7, 14:12, 2 Cor 8:7, and 9:8.

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abundance. Or they think that Paul means that eating food sacrificed to idols or abstaining from it does not make someone a better or a less good Christian.28 It seems more likely, however, that both verbs in this verse (used in an absolute sense) should be taken literally. They are often used to describe people’s wealth and an abundance in terms of food, clothes, money and property or people’s poverty and lack of food, clothes, money and property. We also find examples in the NT of this use of these verbs. See, for instance, Philippians 4:12, “In any and all circumstances I have been initiated, into fullness and hunger, into having plenty (ʌİȡȚııİȪİȚȞ) and of being in need (ਫ਼ıIJİȡİ૙ıșĮȚ).”29 All this makes it most plausible that Paul wants to tell his readers in Corinth not only that food is theologically irrelevant (v. 8a), but also that, generally speaking, eating food is not that important in everyday life: if you abstain from eating for one day, you are not immediately going to go hungry, and if you do eat, it does not imply that you are a wealthy person (v. 8b). In short, eating food or abstaining from food is in all respects of minor importance. From verse 9 onwards, Paul turns to those Christians in Corinth who think that they are free to eat the food sacrificed to idols. At first sight, Paul seems to agree, but he now sets some limits on this freedom. For love, that is love for one another, is much more important than knowledge and freedom (see vv. 1-3). So in certain circumstances, love of their fellow Christians would prompt “strong” Christians to abstain from eating such food: “you should be careful that this right of yours to eat food sacrificed to idols does not become a stumbling block to the weak” (v. 9). So we can see that, for Paul, there is a clear limit to individual freedom, namely, consideration for fellow believers in Jesus Christ and their future salvation. For when “strong” Christians eat food that has been offered to idols, “weak” Christians may “stumble”–may be led astray and fall back into paganism–something that should be avoided at all costs.30 In verses 10-12, Paul tells these “strong” Corinthians what will happen if weaker Christians are “encouraged” in one way or another to eat food that

 28

Cf., e.g., REB, “if we do not eat, we are none the worse, and if we do eat, we are none the better.” 29 See further Luke 15:14, 2 Cor 11:9, Phil 4:18, and Heb 11:37. 30 Cf. also Rom 14:13, 20-21.

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has been sacrificed to idols because of their behaviour.31 First he offers an example: “if one of these weak believers in Christ sees you sitting down and eating in a temple–you with all your knowledge–, might he not also be ‘encouraged’ to eat food that has been sacrificed to idols?” (v. 10). In this verse, Paul is not describing an event during a cultic meeting in a pagan temple in honour of a heathen deity (as in 10:14-22), but rather a private meeting in a room in a temple complex, where pagans and Christians sometimes came together on special occasions.32 First Paul argues that at such a meeting, a “weak” Christian (a Christian with a weak “conscience”)33 might be “encouraged”34 to eat the food sacrificed to idols because he sees a “strong” fellow Christian doing so. As a consequence, this weak Christian may become confused, may lose his faith in the one true God, may fall back into paganism, and may ultimately lose salvation and eternal life; and all that through the actions of fellow Christians proud of their “knowledge” (v. 11). Paul brings his example to a dramatic climax by adding that these “weak” Christians are also people “for whom Christ died.”35 In verse 12, Paul continues by saying that not only are Christians who eat such food in the presence of these “weak” Christians sinning against their fellow believers and undermining them “through their weaknesses,” but also “against Christ,” because actually, what they do to their fellow Christians, they do to Jesus Christ through the close connection between the Christians and their Lord.36 Paul brings the issue of eating food sacrificed to idols to a close for the time being in verse 13. He will return to the subject in chapter 10, but before that, he presents himself as a role model for the Corinthians (8:13-9:27). First, he tells the Corinthians what he would do if, through his actions, a fellow Christian might lose his faith and fall back into paganism: “if eating food

 31

In vv. 10-11, Paul uses the second person singular, as in 4:7, 7:21, 27-28, 14:1617, and 15:36. Finally in v. 12, Paul uses the second person plural when he draws the dramatic conclusion of the actions of the “strong” Christians which lead to the downfall of their “weak” fellow Christians. 32 Excavations (also in Corinth) have brought to light that there were usually a number of rooms in temple complexes which could be rented for all kinds of activities. The term “pagan temple,” İੁįȦȜİ૙ȠȞ, is originally Jewish: see, e.g., 1 Esd 2:7 (9), Add Dan: Bel 10, 1 Macc 10:83, and T. Job 5:2. 33 Cf. vv. 7, and 9. 34 Lit. “may be built up.” Elsewhere in his letters, Paul always uses the verb “to build up,” ȠੁțȠįȠȝİ૙Ȟ, in a positive sense (see at 8:1). Here, however, he uses it ironically. 35 Cf. Rom 14:15. 36 Cf. Matt 10:40, 25:45, Mark 9:37, and Luke 10:16.

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makes a fellow Christian lose faith, I will never eat meat37 again! For I do not want a fellow Christian of mine to lose his faith.”38 In other words, the salvation of another comes first for Paul, and he would give up the freedom to eat whatever he wanted and would abstain from eating meat sacrificed to idols to avoid causing another to lose his faith.

Paul’s apostolic rights: 9:1-6 (1) Am I not free? Am I not an apostle? Have I not seen Jesus our Lord? Is your connection with the Lord not the result of my handiwork? (2) If others do not accept me as an apostle, at least you do so. For the fact that you are connected with the Lord confirms that I am an apostle. (3) To those who would call me to account, this is my defence: (4) Do we not have the right to eat and to drink? (5) Do we not have the right to travel and take a believing wife with us as those other apostles, the brothers of the Lord and Cephas do? (6) Or are I and Barnabas the only ones who have no right to refrain from working for a living?

At the end of the previous chapter, Paul presented himself as an example to be followed by his readers in Corinth. Now, he makes a start on elaborating on his own attitude and on the “freedom” and the “rights” he has as an apostle of the Lord. This turns out to be the main theme in chapter 9. At the same time he tries to vindicate his apostleship to those Corinthians who question his authority as an apostle. In order to show the Corinthians how they should use their rights and freedoms, Paul describes how he deals with his own rights and freedoms. Whereas in the previous chapters Paul used the term “power” or “right” (ਥȟȠȣıȓĮ) to describe the Christians’ freedom,39 he now includes the words “free” (ਥȜİȪșİȡȠȢ) or “freedom” (ਥȜİȣșİȡȓĮ) alongside the term “right.”40 For Paul (and for most Corinthian Christians), “freedom” is one of the characteristics of the Christian way of life: believers in Jesus Christ are “free” to do what they want; they are independent of people’s opinions,

 37

Here, Paul explicitly speaks about “meat,” undoubtedly because all meat was (almost) always sacrificed to heathen deities before it was sold at the market or eaten at special occasions. Therefore, it clearly had a more religious connotation than any other food. 38 Cf. also v. 9, and Rom 14:13, 20-21. 39 Cf. 8:9, and see at 6:12. 40 See further 9:19, and 10:29.

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customs, institutions and laws (including the Jewish law) and are subject only to God’s will and law.41 In chapter 9, Paul argues that he is without doubt a “free” man, but that in certain circumstances he prefers to give up his rights. He is not talking about the kind of freedom that characterised every Christian, but about the freedom and rights he has as an apostle of the Lord in particular. In order to convince the Corinthians of his opinion of freedom, he wants them to realise that he is truly free (“Am I not free?”) and that he is truly an apostle of Jesus Christ (“Am I not an apostle?”) (v. 1ab). He gives two reasons why the Corinthians cannot deny that he really is an apostle of the Lord: the first is that he “has seen Jesus our Lord” and the second is that the Christian community in Corinth owes its very existence to his missionary activities (v. 1cd). Elsewhere in this letter, Paul reminds the Corinthians that Jesus Christ “has appeared” to him (15:8), and in Galatians 1:15-16, he writes that “God decided … to reveal his Son in me.” We do not know exactly what had happened: Paul may have “seen” Jesus Christ in a vision or dream, or something like that.42 Anyway, he is convinced that during this meeting with Jesus Christ he received the order to proclaim the Gospel to the Gentiles.43 That he is the founder of the Christian community in Corinth proves once more that he has done his work well and that he really is an apostle of the Lord. Paul does realise, however, that there are people who “do not accept him as an apostle.” The direct context–verse 3 in particular–suggests that there were people either within or outside the Corinthian community who were critical of his work and questioned his apostolic authority. We know that other missionaries had visited the community and had made a favourable impression upon a number of Corinthians; a much more favourable impression than Paul himself had made, since Paul’s presentation was rather poor and weak.44 Moreover, he never had letters of introduction,45 he worked with his own hands for a living and did not expect the members of the Christian communities to support him as other missionaries did. Nevertheless, the very existence of the Christian community in Corinth “confirms,” or should confirm, that for most of the Corinthians at least, Paul

 41

Cf. Rom 8:2, 1 Cor 9:19, 10:29, 2 Cor 3:17, Gal 2:4, 4:22-31, 5:1, and 13. 42 Acts 9:1-29 (cf. 22:3-21, and 26:9-20) tells a romanticised story of what has happened. 43 Cf. 15:8-10, and Gal 1:15-16. 44 Cf. 1:12, 4:15, and 9:12. See also 2 Cor 10-12. 45 Cf. 2 Cor 3:1.

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truly was an apostle (v. 2).46 Again,47 Paul feels compelled to defend himself against people “who would call me to account,” that is, people who want to pass judgment on him and question his apostolic authority (v. 3; cf. 4:1-5). The rest of this chapter is indeed a long defence of the way Paul carries out his task as an apostle. At the same time, it is meant to demonstrate Paul’s way of using his apostolic freedom in connection with other people and their future salvation to the Corinthians. In verses 4-6, Paul mentions some of the “rights” that apostles have when they proclaim the Gospel of Jesus Christ. By means of three rhetorical questions, Paul wants to make clear to the Corinthians that he and his coworkers have the same rights. First, he mentions “the right to eat and to drink,” that is, the right of apostles to be supported by the members of the Christian communities in which they work as missionaries (v.4).48 Second, Paul mentions “the right to travel and take a believing wife with us” (v. 5a), and this “believing wife” should also be supported by the Christian communities. Although Paul himself was not married at the time (see at 7:8), he would have had the right to be accompanied by his wife had there been one. Apparently, other missionaries (“those other apostles, the brothers of the Lord and Cephas”)49 had decided to do so (v. 5b).50 Finally, Paul refers to the right of apostles “to refrain from working for a living” (v. 6). Missionaries should not have to find a job to earn a living, they should be supported by the Christian communities to whom they preached. Paul himself, however, practiced his profession51 and provided

 46

Cf. 3:6, 10, 4:15, 9:11, and 2 Cor 3:1-3. 47 See also chs. 1-4. 48 Cf. Luke 10:7-8 (“Stay in that house, eating and drinking whatever they provide … eat what is set before you”), Matt 10:10, and cf. also 1 Tim 5:17-18, Did. 11-13, and Ps.-Clem. Hom. 3.71. 49 By mentioning “those other apostles, the brothers of the Lord and Cephas,” Paul uses the term “apostles” to refer not only to “the twelve apostles” and himself, but to many others who proclaimed God’s message: see, e.g., Rom 16:7, 1 Cor 12:2829, 15:7, 9, 2 Cor 11:5, 13, and 12:11. One of “the brothers of the Lord,” that is, the sons of Joseph and Mary, was James, who, together with Cephas (= Peter; see at 1:12), was the leader of the Christian community in Jerusalem at the time (cf. Gal 1:19, and also Mark 3:31, 6:3, Matt 12:46, 13:55, Luke 8:19, John 2:12, 7:3, 5, 10, and Acts 1:14). 50 According to Diogenes Laertius, Vit. phil. 6.97, some itinerant philosophers, such as the Cynic Crates, were also accompanied by their wives. 51 According to Acts 18:3, Paul was a “tentmaker” by profession.

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for his livelihood in all the places where he worked as a missionary.52 But he wants to point out that all missionaries, including himself and Barnabas, have the right to be supported by others. It may seem surprising that Paul mentions the name of Barnabas in this context, but from Galatians 2 we know that they were the leaders of the Christian community in Antioch for a while, and that they were theologically like-minded until they separated due to a conflict over the role of the Jewish law. Nevertheless, Barnabas appears to have been a kind of confidant for Paul and an example to be followed. According to 1 Corinthians 9:6, Barnabas also took a job to earn a living, and was not supported by the members of Christian communities. Apparently, at the time he wrote this letter to the Corinthians, Paul still felt closely associated with Barnabas, his former friend and colleague.53

The right of the apostles “to get their living by the Gospel”: 9:7-14 (7) Who serves in an army at his own expense? Who plants a vineyard without eating its fruit? Or who tends a flock without enjoying any of its milk? (8) Are these things only in keeping with human standards and manners, or does the law not also say such things? (9) For it is written in the law of Moses: “You should not muzzle an ox while it is treading out the corn.” Is it for the oxen that God is concerned? (10) Or is it perhaps written for our sake? Of course it is written for our sake, in order to make clear that a ploughman should plough and a thresher should thresh in expectation of getting a share in the crop. (11) If we have sown spiritual things among you, is it not reasonable for us to reap material things from among you? (12) If others share this rightful claim on you, have not we a stronger claim? Nevertheless, we have not made use of this right; on the contrary, we prefer to endure anything rather than pose an obstacle to the Gospel of Christ. (13) Don’t you know that those who are appointed to serve in the temple eat what the temple has to offer, and that those who serve at the altar share in what is sacrificed on the altar? (14) In the same way, the Lord gave instructions that those who proclaim the Gospel should get their living by the Gospel.

In this paragraph, Paul deals rather extensively with the right of apostles to be supported by the members of the Christian communities in which they work as missionaries. He shows that this claim is just by mentioning some analogies from everyday life (v. 7) and from service in the temple (v. 13), referring to the laws in general and to the law of Moses in particular (vv. 8-

 52

See at 4:12, and cf. also 2 Thess 3:8-9. 53 In Acts, we find many stories about Barnabas and Paul: see, e.g., 4:36, 9:27, 11:22, 30, 12:25, and chs. 13-15.

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11), and finally by referring to a “saying” of the Lord himself (v. 14). In between, he tells his readers in Corinth that he himself has not exercised this right (v. 12). He goes on to clarify his point of view on this matter in verses 15-18. In verse 7, Paul argues that all missionaries have the right to be supported by the members of the Christian communities in which they proclaim the Gospel, giving some examples from everyday life. First he states that no one “serves in an army at his own expense.” That is, no soldier has to provide his own food, drink or clothing, since his commanding officer will of course take care of all this.54 Second, no one “plants a vineyard without eating its fruit.” That is, anyone who takes care of a vineyard will, of course, share in the crop.55 Finally, there is no one “who tends a flock (sheep or goats) without enjoying any of its milk.” These three examples are meant to show that missionaries also have the right to expect material support from the Christian communities. They are analogies from everyday life, “things” that “are in keeping with human standards and manners” (v. 8a).56 But Paul continues by pointing out that higher authorities or institutions than human custom also supported this right: “does the law not also say such things?” (v. 8b). That is, after the illustrations “on a human level” he gives another illustration on a higher level, namely, “the law,” and in the next verse, he gives a quotation from “the law of Moses.” Most scholars think that “the law” in verse 8 refers to the OT and that “the law of Moses” has the Pentateuch as its referent, or that both refer to the Pentateuch. However, it is much more likely that “the law” in verse 8 refers to the law in general,57 that is, to the written legal codes that prevailed in many nations and in many regions of the Roman Empire, and that as somebody who knows the Jewish law well, Paul is quoting from “the law of Moses” in verse 9 as an example of these laws. Laws or written codes held great authority for Paul and for many of his contemporaries, in particular, codes that had been written by famous lawgivers of the past. This was certainly true in the case of the law of Moses–the law of the Jewish people–but it also held true for the laws made by famous legislators like

 54

Cf. 2 Tim 2:4. 55 Cf. Prov. 27:18 (“He who plants a fig tree will eat its fruits”), Deut 20:6, and 2 Tim 2:6. 56 Lit. “(instances) on a human level.” For this expression, see esp. Gal 3:15. 57 For the use of “the law,” ੒ ȞȩȝȠȢ, as referring to “the law” or “the laws” in a general sense, see also, e.g., Aelius Aristides, Orat. 2.1.227, 2.1.271, Plato, Gorg. 482C-484B, Aristotle, Rhet. 1.15 (1375ab), and Libanius, Ep. 245.6.

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Solon (in Athens), Lycurgus (in Sparta), Numa (in Rome), and many others. Moreover, most of these legislators were regarded as having been inspired by God when they made their laws.58 In short: to follow his examples from everyday life (v. 7), Paul refers to a higher authority, namely to the laws in general and to “the law of Moses” as an example of these national and godgiven laws. The passage from “the law of Moses”59 quoted by Paul in verse 9 is taken from Deuteronomy 25:4.60 He explains this commandment (“You should not muzzle an ox while it is treading out the corn”) in the next clauses. First he remarks that God, who inspired Moses to write down this commandment, has not done so because he was “concerned for oxen.” No, Paul wants the Corinthian Christians to understand that this command is not about God’s concern for animals61 but rather about God’s concern for “us”–for human beings–that is, “it is written for our sake” (v. 10a).62 In the next part of verse 10, Paul gives his explanation of the OT passage. According to him, the passage means that people who plough or thresh may expect63 to get a share in the crop.64 Thus, what “the law” (vv. 9-10) prescribes is more or less the same as what is customary among human beings (vv. 7-8).

 58

See, e.g., Plutarch, Lyc. 5.3 (Vit. par. 42B), Num. 4.7 (Vit. par. 62D), Princ. iner. 3 (Mor. 780E), Strabo, Geogr. 10.4.19, 16.2.38, Aelius Aristides, Orat. 2.1.38-39, Diodorus Siculus, Bibl. 1.94.1-2, and Cicero, Tusc. 2.34. Even in non-Jewish literature, Moses is described as having been inspired by God when he wrote down the law of the Jews: see, e.g., Diodorus Siculus, Bibl. 1.94.2 (“among the Jewish people Moses referred his laws to the god who is invoked as Iao”), and Strabo, Geogr. 16.2.35-39. 59 The expression “the law of Moses” is unique in the letters of Paul. It is found in OT and Jewish literature, and is taken over by the early-Christians: see, e.g., Josh 8:31-32 (9:2 LXX), 2 Chron 23:18, Mal 4:4 (3:24 LXX), 1 Esd 8:3, Tob 6:13, 7:13, Josephus, A.J. 1.18, Philo, Leg. 3.145, Luke 2:22, 24:44, John 7:23, Acts 13:39, 15:5, 28:23, and Heb 10:28; see also Diodorus Siculus, Bibl. 40.3.6. 60 Cf. also 1 Tim. 5:18. 61 Although Paul may have known that God is also concerned for animals: cf., e.g., Exod 20:10, 23:12, Ps 104:14, 21, 27 (103:14, 21, 27), and Matt 6:26. 62 For the expression “it is written for our sake,” see also Rom 4:23-24, and cf. 1 Cor 10:11, and Rom 15:4. 63 In Greek: ਥʌ’ ਥȜʌȓįȚ, usually translated as “in hope (of).” However, the usual translation “hope” for the Greek ਥȜʌȓȢ is not quite appropriate, for ਥȜʌȓȢ stands for the feeling of certainty that something will happen in the future. 64 The sentence “a ploughman should plough and a thresher should thresh in expectation of getting a share in the crop” is certainly not a quotation from an

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In verse 11, Paul applies this custom and law to all preachers of the Gospel, and to himself and his nearest co-workers in particular. The latter have “sown spiritual things” among the Corinthians, proclaiming the Gospel of Jesus Christ in Corinth and having them share in future salvation. They therefore have the right to “reap material things,” that is to say, they have the right to material support from the members of the Christian community in Corinth.65 In verse 12a, Paul gives another reason why he and his co-workers can expect to be sustained by their labours: “If others share this rightful claim on you,66 have not we a stronger claim?” Apparently, the “others,” that is, the other missionaries (like Apollos) who visited Corinth after Paul had left the city,67 had enjoyed their apostolic right to get their living by the Gospel, but in Paul’s view, as the first to preach the Gospel in Corinth and the founders of the Corinthian Christian community, Paul (and his co-workers) had a much stronger claim on material support. In spite of this right to be supported by the Corinthian Christians, however, Paul and his co-workers “have not made use of this right” (v. 12b). They prefer to “endure anything rather than pose an obstacle to the Gospel of Christ.” Paul did not expect the members of the Christian communities to support him, but preferred to work with his own hands for a living. He made no charge for preaching the Gospel in order not to be a burden to them,68 preferring to “endure anything” in order to win as many people as possible for the Gospel of Jesus Christ (9:22).69 In verses 13-14, Paul offers two more arguments to back up the right of apostles to claim material support from the Christian communities. First, he supposes the Corinthians to know70 “that those who are appointed to serve in the temple eat what the temple has to offer, and that those who serve at the altar share in what is sacrificed on the altar” (v. 13). It was indeed customary that Israelite, Jewish and pagan priests ate some of the food

 unknown source, but is meant by Paul as two illustrations of what the OT command is all about. 65 For the contrast “spiritual things”–“material things,” cf. Rom 15:27. 66 For the formulation “this rightful claim on you,” IJોȢ ਫ਼ȝ૵Ȟ ਥȟȠȣıȓĮȢ, cf. Epictetus, Diss. 3.24.70. 67 See also at 9:3. 68 See also 2 Cor 11:7-9, 12:13, 1 Thess 2:9, and cf. Acts 20:34, and 2 Thess 3:7-9. 69 See at 4:6-13. 70 “Don’t you know”: see at 3:16.

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sacrificed to God or to heathen deities.71 Second, Paul refers to a “saying” of Jesus Christ himself, namely, “that those who proclaim the Gospel should get their living by the Gospel” (v. 14). Paul is probably referring to an order which was transmitted in early-Christian circles and which was attributed to (the earthly) Jesus. Reflections of it are found in some passages in the Gospels, in particular in Luke 10:7 (“For the worker deserves to be paid”) and in Matthew 10:10.72 Apparently, in early-Christian communities, a saying of Jesus was circulating about the right of apostles to material support, and Paul was familiar with it.

Paul does not exercise his apostolic rights: 9:15-18 (15) However, I myself have not made use of any of these rights, nor do I intend to claim them by writing this. I would rather die than … No one will deprive me of this reason for boasting! (16) The fact that I preach the Gospel is no cause for boasting, since it is my duty to do so. And woe betide me if I did not preach the Gospel! (17) But I do this wholeheartedly, and thus I have a reward. Moreover, if I were to do it reluctantly, I would in no way be relieved of my task. (18) What then is my reward? Well, my reward is that in my proclamation I present the Gospel free of charge, and do not make use of my rights as a preacher of the Gospel.

Having argued that missionaries are entitled to be supported by the local Christian community, Paul indicates that he himself does not exercise this apostolic right (see already v. 12b). The “reward” for all his efforts is not material support of any kind, but the fact that he may present the Gospel to everyone “free of charge” (vv. 17-18), and that makes him proud (vv. 1516). As in verse 12b, Paul again emphasises that he chooses not to claim his apostolic right to material support from the members of the Christian communities (v. 15a) to whom he preaches. He continues by saying that he is not writing this in the hope that the Corinthian Christians (or the members of other local Christian communities) will support him in the future (“nor do I intend to claim them by writing this”) (v. 15b). It was, and still is, his own choice: “I would rather die [namely, of hunger] than …” He does not finish the sentence, but he was undoubtedly thinking of something like “…

 71

See, e.g., Num 18, and cf. Heb 13:10. In OT and in Jewish and early-Christian tradition, the Greek word for “altar” in this verse, șȣıȚĮıIJȒȡȚȠȞ, usually refers to the altar in the temple in Jerusalem: see, e.g., Ezek 45:19, 2 Macc 1:18, and Philo, Conf. 160. 72 See also at 7:10, and 11:23-25.

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than to be supported by you (or other Christian communities).” On the contrary, he is proud that he does not derive his living from preaching the Gospel, and he assures the Corinthians that “no one will deprive me of this reason for boasting!” (v. 15cd). “Being proud” or “boasting,” țĮȣȤ઼ıșĮȚ (and cognates), is a term found rather frequently in Paul’s letters. He uses it mostly in a negative sense,73 but also quite a number of times in a positive sense: one should be proud of “God” (Rom 5:11) or “the Lord” (see at 1:31), of “the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ” (Gal 6:14), or of “our weaknesses” (2 Cor 11:30, and 12:9) or “our present sufferings” (Rom 5:3), but for Paul, one should not boast of one’s own wealth, power, honour, knowledge or other things held in high esteem among the people of this world. Instead, one can legitimately boast of God or Jesus Christ and of all those things not valued at all by “ordinary” people. Thus, Paul’s remarks about pride and boasting in verses 15-16 are to be understood in the context of this “reversal of values.” Paul’s “pride” is that he preaches the Gospel of Jesus Christ without receiving anything in return, and that he would prefer to “endure anything” rather than be supported by other people (see v. 12).74 Undoubtedly, most people would have found this attitude rather odd, and assumed that it was simply not possible for him to live from his work as a preacher, and that he therefore had to work with his own hands in order to earn a living. According to them, only a capable and successful preacher could support himself by preaching and would not need to have a “job.” As a consequence, Paul feels compelled to defend himself to all those who are calling him to account (v. 3). He thinks differently: it is his own free choice not to be supported by the Christian communities, and he will not change his way of life (“no one will deprive me of this reason for boasting!”).75 In verse 16, Paul writes that the fact that he preaches the Gospel is in itself “no cause for boasting,” for he has been appointed by God to proclaim the Gospel. He has to do it; there is no alternative: “it is my duty to do so.”76 For if he “did not preach the Gospel” God would punish him severely (lit. “woe …”).77 Elsewhere in his letters, Paul also tells his readers that it was

 73

See at 1:29, and 3:21. 74 Cf. also 4:9-13. 75 Cf. 2 Cor 11:10. 76 For this formulation, cf. Homer, Il. 6.458, Sib. Or. 3:572, and 14:357. 77 For the meaning of “woe …,” see also Hos 9:12, Matt 11:21, 18:7, 23:13-16, 23, 26:24, etc.

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God himself who called him to preach the Gospel,78 as the OT prophets before him were called by God to proclaim his message to the people of Israel whether they liked it or not.79 In verse 17a, Paul continues by saying that he preaches the Gospel “wholeheartedly” and that there is “a reward” for doing so.80 Having said that preaching the Gospel is his divine duty, there are two possible ways to carry out this task, either “wholeheartedly” or “reluctantly” (v. 17b). Here, Paul tells his readers that although he has been ordered by God to preach the Gospel, he fulfils this task with great pleasure. However, supposing this were not the case and he was doing it unwillingly, he “would in no way be relieved of my task” (lit. “the task would remain imposed on me”).81 In reality, Paul proclaims the Gospel “wholeheartedly,” and as a wise and “free” man (v. 1) he is obedient to God and carries out his commands with pleasure.82 Although Paul receives no support from the Christian communities, he nevertheless receives “a reward.” This is not in the form of money, food or other material things, but the very fact that he does not exercise his apostolic rights and “presents the Gospel free of charge” (v. 18).83 Again, there is a “reversal of values” in Paul’s mind: what is found ridiculous in the world and among people–namely to do something for nothing–is regarded by Paul as “a reward.” In other words, his reward is nothing less than the very fact that he is “wholeheartedly” carrying out his divine task of preaching the Gospel without gaining any material support from other people. Paul emphasises this message that he never accepts money, food or other material things as a reward for his proclamation of the Gospel elsewhere in his letters. See, for instance, 2 Corinthians 2:17, “We are not peddling the word of God like so many others.”84 Sometimes, when he was in desperate

 78

See 15:8-10, Rom 1:5, Gal 1:15-16, and 1 Thess 2:4. 79 Cf., e.g., Jer 1:4-10, 20:7-9, Amos 3:8, 7:14-15, and Jonah. See also at 15:8-10. 80 Unlike many scholars and translators of this verse I am of the opinion that v. 17a describes the real situation, Paul’s real position, whereas v. 17b describes a potential situation, but not one that was applicable to Paul’s position, either at the time or in the future. 81 Paul’s “task,” ȠੁțȠȞȠȝȓĮ, refers to his proclamation of the Gospel: cf. 4:1, and Col 1:25, Eph 3:2, and see also Gal 2:7, 1 Thess 2:4, 1 Tim 1:11, and Tit 1:3. 82 Cf. Epictetus, Diss. 4.3.9 (“for I am free and I am God’s friend, and therefore I am obedient to him with pleasure”), Seneca, Ep. 54.7, and Prov. 5.6. 83 Cf. also 2 Cor 11:7. 84 See also 2 Cor 11:9-10, 12:13, and 1 Thess 2:5-10.

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need, for example, when he was in prison, people did come to him and provide him with the things he needed,85 but these were people from other places, and Paul regarded it as a kind of favour rather than a reward for his work as a preacher of the Gospel. Paul prefers to work with his own hands and proclaim the Gospel for free rather than make use of his apostolic right to support. This attitude has to do with his “freedom” (vv. 1 and 19) and with the goal he seeks to achieve, namely, not “to pose an obstacle to the Gospel of Christ” (v. 12), or more positively, “to win more and more people over to the Gospel” (v. 19). With this attitude, Paul is part of a long tradition. Although most people in the Graeco-Roman world did have great respect for those teachers and philosophers who were paid a princely sum for their teachings, a minority of people considered teachers and philosophers who did not charge for their lessons to be the truly “wise,” “free” and “independent” ones. Socrates, who was undoubtedly the most famous among these, was called the most “free” man, because he did not accept presents or money.86 By not asking for money or other recompense one remained free and independent and could say everything that one wanted to say. See, for instance, Dio Chrysostom, Orationes 77/78.37, “he will never give up his freedom and frankness for money, power or riches.”87 In the same way, Paul chooses not to be paid in any way in order to remain free and independent so that he could say what he wanted to say and not what people wanted to hear.

Paul’s freedom and servitude for the sake of the Gospel: 9:19-23 (19) But being free and independent of anyone I have made myself everyone’s servant, in order to win more and more people over to the Gospel. (20) To the Jews I became as a Jew, in order to win Jews over to the Gospel; that is, to those who live under the law, I became as one who lives under the law–although I myself am not subject to the law–in order to win those who live under the law over to the Gospel. (21) To those outside the law I was as one who is outside the law–although I do not live without any law but meet my legal obligations towards God, since I live according to the law of Christ–in order to win those outside the law over to the

 85

See, e.g., 2 Cor 9, and Phil 4:16. 86 See Xenophon, Apol. 16, and Mem. 1.2.5-7. 87 See also Apollonius of Tyana, Ep. 42 (“he will never accept money for his teachings, even when he is badly in need”), Sir 51:25, Philostratus, Vit. Apoll. 8.7.3, 8.7.7, Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 13.33, 32.11, 35.1, Diogenes Laertius, Vit. phil. 2.123, Musonius Rufus, Diss. 11, and Cicero, Leg. 1.18.48.

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Gospel. (22) To the weak I became weak, in order to win the weak over to the Gospel. I have become everything to everyone in order to save people in one way or another. (23) I do it all for the sake of the Gospel, in expectation of receiving a share in its blessings.

In this paragraph, Paul explains to his readers in Corinth that, in reality, his freedom and independence amount to servitude to all people in order to “win more and more people over to the Gospel.” In this context, Paul wants the Corinthian Christians to realise that there are always limits to one’s freedom, since he is aware of the fact that a number of Corinthians think differently (see 8:9-12). For Paul, what limits one’s freedom is the other person and his salvation. Thus, Paul gives up his freedom when the salvation of others is at stake. He “makes himself everyone’s servant” (v. 19) and he “has become everything to everyone” (v. 22b), in order to “win people over to the Gospel” (vv. 19, 20, 21, and 22a), in order to “save people” (v. 22b). He is constantly adapting himself to other people; only in this way may different groups of people accept him and his message about Jesus Christ (vv. 20-22). In the previous paragraphs, Paul has argued that he does not claim his right to material support from the Christian communities, and that this makes him a “free” and “independent” person (vv. 1, and 19). Nevertheless, Paul realises that there are limits to his freedom, just as there are limits to the freedom of every Christian. He has, more than once, given up his freedom and made himself “everyone’s servant” in order to preach the Gospel and “win more and more people over to the Gospel” (v. 19).88 That is, he adapts himself to others in order to “save” people or to “win” people “over to the Gospel.”89 However, his message about Jesus Christ, the contents of the Gospel, remains the same in all circumstances. In verses 20-22a, Paul gives three instances of this kind of servitude. When he is with Jews, he behaves as a Jew; or in other words, when he is with people “who live under the [Jewish] law” he behaves as someone who also lives under the [Jewish] law (v. 20).90 In this case, Paul obeys Jewish rules and customs, such as observing the Sabbath and the dietary laws. He does so only to avoid irritating the Jews, which might “pose an obstacle to the

 88

Cf. 2 Cor 4:5. 89 For the meaning of the verb “to win,” țİȡįĮȓȞİȚȞ, in the sense of “to win over to the faith in Jesus Christ, to God, or to the Gospel,” which is more or less synonymous with the verb “to save” in this context (v. 22, and 7:16), cf. also Matt 18:15, and 1 Pet 3:1. 90 For the formulation “under the [Jewish] law,” see also Rom 6:14-15, and Gal 4:21.

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Gospel of Christ” (v. 12). However, he himself is “not subject to the [Jewish] law,” for Christians are “free” people and are not bound to the commandments of the law of Moses (observance of the Sabbath, dietary rules, circumcision, etc.), since these are the law of the Jews and not of the Christians.91 When he is with Gentiles, he also adapts himself: “To those outside the [Jewish] law I was as one who is outside the [Jewish] law” (v. 21).92 So when he is preaching to Gentiles, Paul behaves as a Gentile and eats, for instance, food that is unclean according to Jewish law. Since the word ਙȞȠȝȠȢ (“lawless,” or “without/outside the [Jewish] law”) is ambiguous,93 Paul hastens to say that he is not “lawless,” that “he does not live without any law.” He emphasises that he is committed to the service of God and should live “according to the law of Christ.” For Christians are not bound by the law of Moses–the law of the Jews–but they do have to obey another law, namely, the law of Christ,94 which has the command to love one another at its centre.95 The third example refers to Paul’s behaviour among the “weak”: “To the weak I became weak, in order to win the weak over to the Gospel” (v. 22a). Paul is probably not referring to physically “weak” or sick people here, nor is he referring to socially “weak” people; those at the bottom of the social ladder. He rather seems to be referring to people who are “weak” in faith– the Christians he referred to in 8:7-12–who feel confused when they are faced with eating food sacrificed to idols. Thus, when he is with these “weak” Christians, he adapts himself to them by refraining from eating such food. He does so in order to prevent them from losing their faith and from losing salvation and eternal life (8:11, and 13). Only in this way will they not fall back into paganism, but will be saved. They will also definitely be “won over to the Gospel.” At the end of verse 22, Paul summarises his attitude in the past and the present by saying that “I have become everything to everyone in order to save people in one way or another” (v. 22b). Paul’s goal as an apostle is to “save” people, to convert people and to have them share in the blessings of

 91

See Rom 14:17, 1 Cor 7:19, Gal 2:3, 4-5, 11-13, 5:2-4, and 6:15. 92 Here, the Greek word ਙȞȠȝȠȢ (lit. “lawless”) refers to someone who does not live under the Jewish law. Cf. Rom 2:12, and also Add Esth 4:17u. 93 See the previous note. 94 See Gal 6:2. 95 See at 7:19.

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the Gospel, which is salvation.96 He will not hesitate to give up his freedom and independence if necessary to realise this goal; he does so “for the sake of the Gospel.” At the same time, he hopes and expects that as an apostle of the Lord he himself will also receive a share in the blessings of the Gospel (v. 23).

Paul’s service and sacrifice: 9:24-27 (24) Don’t you know, that of all those who run a race, only one can win the prize? Thus, you should run as fast as you can so that you win the prize. (25) But any athlete must deny himself many things; they do so to win a wreath that is perishable, but we do so to win a wreath that is imperishable. (26) Well, I for my part do not run aimlessly; I am not a boxer who punches holes in the air. (27) No, I am hard on my body and exert strict control over it, for fear that after preaching the Gospel to others I might find myself disqualified.

In the final paragraph of this chapter, Paul once more tries to show his readers in Corinth that, as an apostle of the Lord and a Christian, he has given up his freedom where necessary and sacrifices himself for the salvation of all people, including himself. Paul wants the Corinthian Christians to realise that it will be far from easy for all Christians to receive God’s reward–namely, salvation and eternal life–at the end of times. He illustrates it with an example from the world of sport: “Don’t you know,97 that of all those who run a race, only one can win the prize?” (v. 24a). In other words, there are many runners in a race, but only the one who runs the hardest will be the winner. In the same way, the Corinthians should do their very best to deserve the reward of salvation one day: “Thus, you should run as fast as you can so that you win the prize” (v. 24b). For the life of a Christian can be compared to a competition and the struggle to win a prize, that is, to be saved at the end of time.98 This does not happen by itself; all Christians, including Paul himself, must work hard for it. In the next verse (v. 25), Paul elaborates on the image of the Christian’s life as a race: athletes try to win “a wreath that is perishable,” a wreath that will soon wither and die;99 but Christians try to win “a wreath that is

 96

See also 10:33, and Rom 11:14. 97 For the formulation “Don’t you know,” see at 3:16. 98 Cf. Phil 3:14, and see also 1 Tim 1:18, 6:12, 2 Tim 4:7-8, Heb 12:1, and Jude 3. 99 Cf. 2 Tim 2:5.

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imperishable,” that is, salvation, eternal life or God’s glory.100 In order to deserve the prize–this reward–one “must deny himself many things.” An athlete must train for the race and control himself when it comes to eating and drinking. Similarly, Christians must “struggle” in their lives in order to be saved.101 In verses 26-27, Paul applies an image from the world of sport to describe his own attitude as a preacher of the Gospel. First, he says that he knows exactly what he is doing and what he is struggling for: “Well, I for my part do not run aimlessly; I am not a boxer who punches holes in the air” (v. 26). He is like a runner who aims straight for the goal; he is like a boxer who never misses his target. And like every athlete, Paul “must deny himself many things” (v. 25), or, in other words, he must be “hard on his body and exert strict control over it” (lit. “… and enslave it”) (v. 27a). Paul is referring here to the troubles he has had and to the sufferings he must endure, but also to the effort he must make to earn a living.102 Paul ends this paragraph by saying once again that he endures all this in obedience to God to proclaim his message “in order to win more and more people over to the Gospel” (vv. 19, and 23). But he not only admonishes the Christians to do their best to win “a wreath that is imperishable” (v. 25); he also hopes that he will not find himself “disqualified”103 but will win the prize and share in the blessings of the Gospel (vv. 23, and 27).104 Paul wants to be a role model for the Corinthian Christians: sacrifice, suffering, and relinquishing one’s freedom and one’s rights are sometimes necessary, particularly when the future salvation of others is at stake.

The people of Israel in the wilderness as a warning example: 10:1-13 (1) Look, I want you to know, brothers and sisters, that our ancestors were all under the cloud and all passed through the sea; (2) all of them were baptised into union with Moses by means of the cloud and the sea; (3) they all ate the same

 100

Cf. 2 Tim 4:8, 1 Pet 5:4, Jas 1:12, Rev 2:10, and 3:11. 101 Cf. T. Job 4:10 (“You [= Job] will be like a boxer who suffers pain but will receive the wreath”), 27:3-4, Philo, Leg. 2.108, and Seneca, Ep. 78.16. 102 See also at v. 18, and at 4:9-13. 103 For this formulation, cf. 11:19, 2 Cor 10:18, 13:5, 7, and also 2 Tim 2:15, and Ign. Trall. 12:3. 104 Cf. Jas 1:12.

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In this chapter, Paul returns to the theme he began in 8:1, namely, whether or not Christians are allowed to eat food sacrificed to idols. This time, Paul does not discuss the possibility that eating such food may cause other Christians to fall back into paganism (ch. 8), but warns of the dangerous effects of eating this food on the eaters themselves. For eating such food may go hand in hand with overt forms of idolatry and will eventually lead to the loss of salvation. In order to illustrate all this, Paul refers to what happened to the people of Israel when they went through the wilderness on their way to the promised land: they were all chosen by God (vv. 1-4), but most of them were killed in the desert (v. 5). For they desired evil things, they fell prey to idolatry, they committed fornication, they put God to the test and they complained to God (vv. 6-10). Paul wants to warn the Corinthian Christians not to indulge in the same evil practices, but to resist all these temptations in the awareness that it is God who will always be with them in these difficult times (vv. 11-13). With the introductory words “Look,105 I want you to know” (v. 1),106 Paul is telling the Corinthians something they may not already know. The story of Israel’s journey through the desert may have been known to many of the

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Lit. “For,” ȖȐȡ. Cf. 9:10 (“Of course”), and 15:41 (“yes, even”). 106 See also Rom 1:13, 11:25, 1 Cor 12:1, 2 Cor 1:8, and 1 Thess 4:13.

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Corinthian Christians, but its real meaning–that is, Paul’s interpretation of the story–was, without doubt, new to them. It is striking that Paul calls the Israelites “our ancestors” (v. 1): in the same way that in Romans 4:1, 12-17 he calls Abraham “our father” or “our forefather” that is, the ancestor of all Christians, Gentiles as well as Jews. Paul considers the Israelites at the time of Moses to be the ancestors of all Christians, irrespective of their origin.107 This is because, in Paul’s view, the non-Jewish Christians were “grafted onto a cultivated olive tree,” Israel, 108 and the Scriptures, including the stories about God and the people of Israel, had become the holy book common to Jews and Christians. Paul focuses on four elements in the story of the Israelites’ passage through the desert. Apparently, he was not only familiar with the story as told in Exodus and Numbers, but also knew of later OT and early-Jewish traditions and interpretations of the story.109 First, Paul reminds his readers in Corinth that the Israelites “were all under the cloud” (v. 1). In the book of Exodus, we read that “a pillar of cloud” guided them on their journey and protected them against the Egyptian army (13:21, and 14:19-20). But in Numbers, it is told that “the cloud of the Lord was over them” (10:34), or “overshadowed them” (10:36 LXX).110 And in later OT and Jewish tradition, the “cloud” was mostly interpreted as a kind of covering or protection: see Psalm 105:39 (104:39), Wisdom of Solomon 10:17, and 19:7-8. This explains why Paul says that the Israelites were under the cloud. Next, Paul says that the Israelites “all passed through the sea” (v. 1). Here he is referring to that part of the story found in Exodus 14:21-22, and also mentioned in, for example, Nehemiah 9:11, Psalm 78:13 (77:13), 1 Maccabees 4:9, Judith 5:13, Wisdom of Solomon 10:18, 19:7-8, and Josephus, Antiquitates judaicae 3.86. In verse 3, Paul indicates that the Israelites “all ate the same spiritual food.” Undoubtedly, he is thinking of “the bread from heaven” or “manna” which the Israelites ate during their long journey through the desert: Exodus 16:4-

 107

Cf. 1 Clem. 4:8 (“our father Jacob”), and 60:4. 108 See Rom 11:17-24, and cf. Rom 2:26-29, Gal 3:6-9, 29, 6:16, and Phil 3:3. 109 See, e.g., Neh 9:9-21, Ps 78:12-37 (77:12-37), 105:39-41 (104:39-41), Wis 11:114, 19:1-12, L.A.B. 10-19, and Josephus, A.J. 3.86. 110 Cf. Num 14:14.

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35, Deuteronomy 8:3, 16, Nehemiah 9:20, Psalm 78:24-25 (77:24-25), 105:40 (104:40), and Josephus, Antiquitates judaicae 3.86. Paul calls this food “spiritual” because it did not have an earthly, but a heavenly or godly origin; for it was bread from heaven: Exodus 16:4, Deuteronomy 8:3, 16, Psalm 78:24-25 (77:24-25), 105:40 (104:40), and Philo, Quis rerum divinarum heres sit 191. Finally, Paul mentions that the Israelites “all drank the same spiritual drink,” which he explains by saying that “they drank from the spiritual rock that accompanied them.” He is referring to the story of Moses, who once struck the rock at Horeb with the result that water came out of it and the Israelites had enough to drink: Exodus 17:1-7, Numbers 20:2-13, Deuteronomy 8:15, Nehemiah 9:15, Psalm 78:15-16, 20 (77:15-16, 20), 105:41 (104:41), Isaiah 48:21, Wisdom of Solomon 11:4-14, Josephus, Antiquitates judaicae 3.86, and Philo, Vita Mosis 1.210. The idea that this rock “accompanied them” on their journey through the wilderness is a motif not found in the OT, it is taken by Paul from early-Jewish tradition. It was concluded from passages like Exodus 17:1-7 and Numbers 20:2-13 in combination with Numbers 21:16-18, that the rock was with the Israelites throughout their journey as a kind of water source. See, for instance, Pseudo-Philo, Liber antiquitatum biblicarum 10:7, “For forty years, God rained down bread from heaven for them, he sent them quails from out of the sea, and provided them with a water source which accompanied them.”111 Paul calls the drink they drank “spiritual” like the food they ate, since its origin was something supernatural; something godly. In verses 2 and 4, it becomes clear what Paul’s intentions are in referring to the story of the Israelites’ journey through the wilderness. First he remarks that the Israelites “were baptised into union with Moses by means of the cloud and the sea” (v. 2); next, he tells his readers in Corinth that “that rock was, as it were, Christ” (v. 4). These phrases show that Paul is interpreting the story from a Christian point of view: he considers the story of the cloud and the passage through the Red Sea (Exod 14:19-22) to be more or less similar to the Christian ceremony of baptism. In other words, he wants his readers to understand that the Israelites too were “baptised,” namely, when Moses led them through the Red Sea and they were completely surrounded by water. As Paul sees it, the Israelites were baptised “into union with Moses” or “in the name of Moses” in the same way that Christians are

 111

Cf. also L.A.B. 11:15.

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baptised “into union with Christ” or “in the name of Christ.”112 Of course, Paul does not consider Israel’s “baptism” identical to a Christian baptism, but it is, in a way, analogous to or comparable with the Christian ritual.113 As the Israelites were “baptised” in a way comparable to Christians baptism, so did they also participate in communal meals comparable with the communal meals of the Christians in honour of Jesus Christ. For “they all ate the same spiritual food and they all drank the same spiritual drink” and “that rock was, as it were, Christ” (lit. “and that rock was Christ”). Once again, Paul does not consider the rock at Horeb to be Jesus Christ or a manifestation of Jesus Christ; rather he regards these events as analogous with the communal meals at Christian meetings, when the Christians eat bread and drink wine in memory of Jesus Christ.114 In other words, Paul wants the Corinthian Christians to know that, like them, the Israelites were baptised, as it were, and participated, so to speak, in communal meals in honour of Jesus Christ. Both the Christians and the Israelites before them bear the marks of those who belong to the people of God. After Paul has said that all the Israelites without any exception115 belonged to the people of God, he continues by saying that “Nevertheless, God was not pleased with most of them” (v. 5). In spite of the fact that all of them were, as it were, baptised and participated in their communal meals, most of them “were struck down in the wilderness.” Here, Paul refers to the severe punishments that were imposed on them by God. See, in particular, Numbers 14:16: “and so he destroyed them in the wilderness,” and 14:2638: “Your dead bodies will lie here in the wilderness … Not one of you will enter the land … your dead bodies will fall in this wilderness … They will come to an end in this wilderness; here they will die.”116 Before going into detail about those transgressions of the Israelites in the wilderness which resulted in this harsh punishment by God, Paul holds up a mirror to his readers in Corinth: “These events happened as examples for us” (v. 6a; cf. v. 11). What happened to them should be a warning for “us,” that is, for all Christians but for the Corinthian Christians in particular. They

 112

See, e.g., 1 Cor 1:13, 15, Rom 6:3, Gal 3:27, and also Acts 2:38, 8:16, 10:48, and 19:5. 113 Cf. 1 Pet 3:20-21, where the water of the flood is said to prefigure (the water of) the Christian baptism. 114 See at 10:16-17, and 11:17-34. 115 The word “all,” ʌȐȞIJİȢ, occurs no less than five times in vv. 1-4. 116 Cf. Ps 78:31 (77:31), Sir 16:10, Heb 3:17, and Jude 5.

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should not behave as the Israelites in the desert, that is, generally speaking, they should not “desire evil things as the Israelites did” (v. 6b).117 That Paul mentions “desire,” ਥʌȚșȣȝȓĮ (and cognates), at the very start of a series of transgressions in verses 7-10, has to do with the role played by this vice in the philosophy of the Graeco-Roman period. Influenced by Stoic and Cynic thoughts in particular, many people found a desire or passion for evil and forbidden things to be something totally wrong. It could control people’s lives completely, and could make them incapable of functioning normally in human society.118 Desire, in particular desire for food, drink and sex, was also considered a source of misery among Jews and Christians. See, for instance, Sirach 23:4-6, “O Lord, … keep desire away from me, do not let gluttony and sexual desires gain control over me, and do not give me over to shameless inclinations.”119 Paul shares this view of desire: see also Romans 1:24, 7:7-8, 13:9, 14, Galatians 5:16-17, 24, and 1 Thessalonians 4:5. Thus, desire is to be regarded as the source of all immoral behaviour. That means, according to Paul, that only if the Corinthians are capable of resisting their desires for evil things will they escape falling into idolatry and other transgressions (“evil things”) and remain faithful to God and to Jesus Christ. In verse 7, Paul first exhorts his readers in Corinth not to become “idolaters” as some of the Israelites were (v. 7a). According to his quotation from Exodus 32:6 (“The people sat down to eat and to drink and they stood up to pass the time in dancing and feasting”), in verse 7b, Paul refers to the story of the worship of “the golden calf” as told in Exodus 32. Eating, drinking, dancing and sometimes also immoral sexual behaviour were regular features of pagan cultic feasts, not only at the time of the writing of the OT,120 but also in Paul’s own day.121 With this warning, Paul intends to prevent the Corinthian Christians from worshipping idols and

 117

Cf. Num 11:4, 34, and Ps 106:14 (105:14), “They felt a strong desire in the wilderness and they put God to the test in the desert.” 118 See, e.g., Epictetus, Diss. 4.1.175, “You cannot achieve freedom by satisfying your desires but by killing them.” 119 See further, e.g., Wis 4:12, 4 Macc. 1:22, 2:6, 3:2, Josephus, A.J. 4.143, Philo, Contempl. 74, Decal. 173, Spec. 4.93-94, and Matt 5:28, Col 3:5, 1 Tim 6:9, Jas 1:14-15, 1 Pet 4:2-3, and 2 Pet 1:4. 120 See, e.g., Exod 32:17-19, 34:15-16 (“Do not form an alliance with the inhabitants of the land … For when they … sacrifice to their gods, you may be invited to partake of their sacrifices”), and cf. 2 Sam 6:5, 21, 1 Chron 13:8, and 15:29. 121 See, e.g., Plutarch, Quaest. rom. 55 (Mor. 277F).

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participating in cultic feasts where people eat sacrificial food in honour of heathen deities (see 10:14-22). In verses 8-10, Paul goes on to give three examples of bad behaviour on the part of the Israelites as they journeyed through the wilderness. All three are closely related to the idolatry which the Israelites fell prey to. Because all three of these misdemeanours provoked God’s anger and punishment, they serve as an appropriate warning to Paul’s readers to avoid the dangers of worshiping heathen deities. First, Paul warns against fornication: “Let us not commit fornication, as some of them did, with the consequence that in one day twenty-three thousand of them died” (v. 8).122 Here, Paul is probably referring to the adulterous behaviour of a number of Israelites as related in Numbers 25:19.123 However, this story mentions the number of “twenty-four thousand” people who died (Num 25:9). This makes it more likely that Paul is “quoting” from memory: he has the story in Numbers 25 in mind, but uses a stereotypical OT/LXX formulation (“so and so many people died”).124 This does not, in fact, come from Numbers 25, but from the story about the worship of the golden calf (Exod 32:28). Finally, he goes on to mention the number “twenty-three thousand,” perhaps derived from Numbers 26:62 where this number is mentioned, although in a different context. The second example of bad behaviour refers to those times in the wilderness when the Israelites “put God to the test” (lit. “put to the test”) (v. 9): see Exodus 17:2, 7, and Numbers 14:22.125 “Testing God” is a form of lack of faith or doubt about God and his power.126 Similarly, the Christians should not “put Christ to the test,” but should hold to their belief in God and his Son, Jesus Christ. God’s punishment of the Israelites was harsh: “they were killed by snakes.” Here Paul is referring to the story of “the bronze serpent” in Numbers 21:4-9, where it is told that God punished the Israelites by sending venomous snakes among them, “and they bit the Israelites so that many of them died” (21:6).127

 122

Also elsewhere in this letter, we find warnings against fornication: see 5:1, 9-11, 6:9, 13-18, and 7:2. 123 Cf. Num 14:32-33. 124 See Exod 32:28, Judg 12:6, 20:44, 1 Sam 4:10, 1 Macc 3:24, etc. 125 See also Ps 78:18, 41 (77:18, 41), 95:9 (94:9), 106:14 (105:14), and Heb 3:9. 126 See Deut 6:16, Isa 7:12, Jdt 8:12, Sir 18:23, Wis 1:2, Matt 4:7, and Luke 4:12. 127 Cf. Wis 16:5.

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The third and last example of bad behaviour refers to the complaints of the Israelites and their defiant behaviour towards Moses and God (v. 10). Throughout their long journey through the wilderness, they were frequently angry with the God who had brought them into this dry and arid desert, and they often expressed their wish to return to Egypt.128 Paul probably has Numbers 14 or 16-17 in mind in particular: see 14:29 and 16:31-33, 41-50 (17:6-15).129 As to the punishment for this disobedience, Paul refers to an action initiated by “the destroying angel” (lit. “the destroyer”): “they were killed by the destroying angel” (v. 10). By this, Paul means the same “destroyer” who, according to Exodus 12:23,130 was commissioned by God to destroy all the firstborn in the land of Egypt but to spare the lives of the Israelites. However, in Wisdom of Solomon 18:20-25, this “destroyer” is said to have been the one who had punished the people of Israel in the name of God after the rebellion led by Korah, Dathan and Abiram (Num 16:4150 [17:6-15]). Paul demonstrates his obvious familiarity with this Jewish tradition when he refers to this “destroyer” as being responsible for the death of so many Israelites on their journey through the desert.131 All these examples from the time of the Israelites in the wilderness are used by Paul to warn the Corinthian Christians to remain faithful to God and not to succumb to any form of idolatry as the Israelites once did: “These things happened to them to serve as an example for us: they were written down to warn us” (v. 11).132 The Christians should behave properly, the more so as they “live at the end of the ages.”133 Idolatry and scandalous behaviour will be punished by God, and that very soon, “on the day of our Lord Jesus Christ” (1:8), with the consequence that those indulging in it will not “inherit the kingdom of God” (6:9-11). In verse 12, Paul makes clear what is at stake: “So, whoever thinks that he stands firm, should take care that he does not fall.” All of the Israelites had belonged to God’s chosen people, and all of them had been baptised and

 128

See, e.g., Exod 15:24, 16:2-12, 17:3, Num 14:1-38, chs. 16-17, Deut 1:27, and Ps 106:25 (105:25). 129 Cf. also Ps 106:25-26 (105:25-26), “They complained to God in their tents and would not obey the Lord. So … he swore to them that he would strike them down in the wilderness.” 130 Cf. Heb 11:28. 131 Cf. also 2 Sam 24:16, 1 Chron 21:15, and L.A.B. 15:5. 132 Cf. v. 6a, and also Heb 3:7-4:13. 133 See also 7:26-31, Rom 13:11-12, 2 Cor 5:17, Gal 6:15, and 1 Thess 4:13-5:11. For the expression “the end of the ages,” cf. Sib. Or. 8:311, Matt 13:39-40, 49, 24:3, 28:20, and Heb 9:26.

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participated in communal meals in honour of God (or Christ). But they became unbelievers and fell into idolatry, with the consequence that many of them died. Something similar might well happen to Christians. Although some of the Corinthian Christians might succumb to pride, and believe themselves to “stand firm”134 and have an unassailable place in the group of believers, they cannot be sure that they will be saved at the end of time. Christians need to take care at all times that they do not “fall” by unwittingly being unfaithful to God and behaving improperly.135 A misplaced sense of certainty is always a dangerous thing. See also Sirach 1:30: “Don’t be haughty, for you might fall and bring shame upon you.” In the same way, the Corinthian Christians should take care not to succumb to idolatry and other kinds of bad behaviour resulting from their “desire for evil things” (v. 6). At the end of this paragraph, in verse 13, Paul refers to the many temptations Christians will have to face in their lives. Just as the Israelites were frequently “tested” by God to prove their loyalty to him,136 so the Christians are also regularly “tested.” This time, Paul is thinking of the Christians’ continuous struggle with the temptations of sin and unbelief. But what is more important is something that is clear from elsewhere in his letters: Paul does not hold God responsible for these temptations, but rather the devil, or Satan.137 The devil preys upon people’s inner urge to sin, on their “desire for evil things,” and, fuelled by Satan, this “desire” becomes a “temptation” which must be resisted in order not to “fall.”138 Paul continues by speaking a few words of comfort, saying that these temptations are “common to everyone” and that they are not “superhuman.” For “God is faithful” and takes care of his own people,139 and “he will not let you be tested beyond your powers.” In other words, God will take care that all the temptations which manifest themselves as “desires for evil things” will not be beyond the capacity of the Christians to resist. Moreover, at the very moment the Corinthian Christians are “tested” God will “also

 134

Cf. Rom 11:20, 14:4, 1 Cor 15:1, 16:13, 2 Cor 1:24, Gal 5:1, Phil 1:27, 4:1, and 1 Thess 3:8. 135 For this meaning of “to fall,” cf. Rom 11:11, 22, 14:4, and also Rev 2:5, and 2 Clem. 2:6. 136 See, e.g., Exod 16:4, 20:20, Deut 13:3, and Wis 11:9. 137 See 7:5, Gal 6:1, and 1 Thess 3:5. 138 Cf. also 1 Tim 6:9, and Jas 1:12-15. 139 Cf. Deut 7:9, 32:4, Isa 49:7, Pss. Sol. 14:1, 17:10, 1 Cor 1:9, 1 Thess 5:24, 2 Thess 3:3, and Ign. Trall. 13:3.

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provide a way out so that you will be able to endure it.”140 In other words, “the temptation” comes from elsewhere (from Satan) but “the way out”141 comes from God.

The dangers of idolatry: 10:14-22 (14) So then, my dear friends, have nothing to do with the worship of idols. (15) I turn to you as sensible people; form, therefore, your own judgment on what I say here. (16) The cup with which we praise God and for which we give thanks; does it not express that we are partners in our belief in Christ and in the beneficial effects of his death? And the bread that we break; does it not express that we are partners in our belief in Christ and in the beneficial effects of his death? (17) Because there is one bread, we, though many, are one body; for on the basis of the fact that we share the same bread we are all partners. (18) Think about the people of Israel: when they ate their sacrificial meals, were they not united as participants in the worship of the God of Israel? (19) What do I imply by this? That the food sacrificed to idols is significant or that an idol is important? (20) No, what I want to say is that what pagans sacrifice, they sacrifice “to demons and not to God.” And I will not have you united with them as participants in the worship of demons. (21) You cannot drink from the cup of the Lord and from the cup of demons, you cannot participate in eating the food from the table of the Lord and in eating food from the table of demons. (22) Or do we want to make the Lord jealous? Are we stronger than he is?

In chapter 8, Paul argued that, in principle, Christians could eat food that had been sacrificed to idols. It was only when fellow Christians or “weak” Christians would be confused by seeing other Christians eating such food and might lose their faith as a consequence that Christians who were more sure of themselves should abstain from eating such food; for the other’s salvation is more important than the freedom to eat whatever one wants. This time, in verses 14-22, Paul speaks about those Christians who might be invited to participate in a pagan feast of sacrifice together with pagan

 140

Lit. “also provide a way out together with the temptation.” This formulation is not to be interpreted as though God would be responsible for both “the way out” and “the temptation.” That is, “together with,” ıȪȞ, is not to be connected with the verb “to provide,” and thus with the subject (God), but with the noun “the way out.” For such a use of “together with,” or “at the same time as,” cf. also Rom 8:32. 141 For this use of “the way out,” ਩țȕĮıȚȢ, cf. Plutarch, Pyrrh. 23.6 (Vit. par. 398E), “Like a sailor who is shipwrecked looks for a way out (to be saved, by reaching the coast, for instance).”

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worshippers, and about the dangers of such a practice to the participating Christians themselves. Paul completely rejects such a practice, clearly considering it a form of idolatry. In order to convince the readers in Corinth of his standpoint, he has already referred in the previous paragraph to the story of the Israelites in the wilderness and urged the Corinthians to “have nothing to do with the worship of idols” (v. 14; cf. v. 7). Implicit in this is that Christians are not permitted to participate in cultic meetings with pagan worshippers, for although neither the food sacrificed to idols nor the idols themselves have any significance–they are “nothing” (v. 19; cf. 8:4)–Christians who participate in such a meeting are essentially forming an alliance with those who worship idols or demons (v. 20) in the same way as Christians are partners when they eat and drink together in remembrance of Jesus Christ (vv. 16-17), and Jews form a similar alliance when they eat together in honour of the God of Israel (v. 18). All this leads to the conclusion that one cannot eat together in honour of Jesus Christ one day, and ally oneself with pagans eating together in honour of heathen deities the next (v. 21). If Christians do participate in pagan meals, they will “make God jealous (of the pagan deities)” and will be punished severely (v. 22). Paul is convinced that as “sensible” people, his readers in Corinth will listen to him and agree with him (v. 15). Right from the beginning of this paragraph, Paul appeals to the Christians in Corinth to “have nothing to do with (lit. “flee”) the worship of idols” (v. 14). He calls the Corinthians “my dear friends” in the hope that they will realise that he has their best interests at heart.142 What this warning against idolatry has to do with eating food sacrificed to idols, the central theme of 8:1-11:1, becomes clear in the verses which follow. Paul hopes that the Corinthians will listen to him, calling them “sensible” people in a complimentary way (v. 15).143 The central issue in this paragraph is that Christians, people who “drink from the cup of the Lord” and “participate in eating the food from the table of the Lord” on one day, should not “drink from the cup of demons” or participate in “eating food from the table of demons” on another occasion (v. 21). That is, sharing a sacrifice and a communal meal with pagans is to be condemned at all times. For people living in the Hellenistic culture, a communal meal expressed a close-knit community; a partnership between

 142

See also 4:14, 15:58, 2 Cor 7:1, 12:19, Phil 2:12, and 4:1. 143 Cf. 11:13, and 14:20.

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the participants. Christians should not be “partners” with the heathen worshippers of demons. Paul uses the terms “partnership” or “association,” țȠȚȞȦȞȓĮ, and “partner,” țȠȚȞȦȞȩȢ, in verses 16, 18, and 20 to express this kind of solidarity or togetherness. In Greek, these terms are used to describe all kinds of alliances, such as business partnerships, social and sexual relationships and joint enterprises,144 including the relationship between people sharing a communal meal.145 Such a relationship implies a partnership between two or more people who have a joint interest in something or someone, which in Greek is usually expressed by a genitive. See, for instance, Epictetus, Dissertationes 3.22.63, “He (a Cynic) must share with him (another Cynic) his sceptre and kingdom” (țȠȚȞȦȞઁȞ Į੝IJઁȞ İੇȞĮȚ įİ૙ IJȠ૨ ıțȒʌIJȡȠȣ țĮ੿ IJોȢ ȕĮıȚȜİȓĮȢ).146 In order to convince the Corinthian Christians of the dangers of participating in pagan cultic meals, Paul gives two examples of the strong cohesion between participants in communal meals. He starts by referring to the weekly communal meals of the Christians in remembrance of (the death of) Jesus Christ (vv. 16-17).147 Drinking from the cup, Christians are “partners” in or “share with one another” their belief in Christ “and in the beneficial effects of his death” (lit. “partners in the blood of Christ”), and in breaking the bread, they are likewise “partners” in or “share with one another” their belief in Christ “and in the beneficial effects of his death” (lit. “partners in the body of Christ”) (v. 16). He describes this meal as “the cup with which we praise God and for which we give thanks” and “the bread that we break.” This means that these meals revolved entirely around the “last supper” of Jesus and his disciples on the night of his arrest (11:23-26), but in this context, Paul focuses primarily on the unity and fellowship of the Christians when they eat together. That is why he also reverses the traditional order

 144

Cf., e.g., Gal 2:9, where it is told that “James, Cephas and John … gave the right hand of fellowship to me and Barnabas.” 145 Cf., e.g., Sir 6:10, Philo, Spec. 1.221, Plutarch, Quaest. conv. 2.10.1-2 (Mor. 642F-644D), “this division of meat into shares kills sociability (IJ੽Ȟ țȠȚȞȦȞȓĮȞ ਕȞĮȚȡȠ૨ıĮ),” 7.6.2-3 (Mor. 707C-708D), Sept. sap. conv. 4 (Mor. 149F), 15 (Mor. 158C), and Luc. 16.3 (Vit. par. 501E). 146 Cf. also Philem 6, and Sir 6:10, Philo, Spec. 1.221, Josephus, A.J. 4.204, Xenophon, Mem. 2.1.32, Thucydides, Hist. 7.63.4, Plutarch, Rect. rat. aud. 14 (Mor. 45E), Amat. 5 (Mor. 752A), Brut. 13.7 (Vit. par. 989F), Art. 18.6 (Vit. par. 1020C), and Diogenes Laertius, Vit. phil. 7.124. 147 Cf. Acts 2:42, 46, 20:7, Did. 14:1, and Ign. Eph. 20:2. See also at 11:17-34.

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bread–cup/wine,148 thus making a smooth transition to what he is going on to say in the next verse (v. 17). Wine and bread were important elements at the communal meals of the time. Such meetings (known as convivia or symposia) were social gatherings where food and wine were consecrated during the meal and offered to the gods in thanks, and where like-minded people ate and drank together. There was usually time after such meals for singing songs, playing music and discussion.149 When Jews or Christians came together to share a communal meal, they also took a moment to praise God as the Creator of heaven and earth and to give thanks for all the food he gives to humankind. Paul refers to this solemn moment when he talks about “the cup with which we praise God and for which we give thanks” (lit. “the cup of blessing, which we bless”) (v. 16). The Christians do not “bless” the cup or the wine themselves, nor do they ask God to “bless” the cup: “blessing” means nothing less than “giving thanks (to God).”150 The Greek terms for “blessing” (İ੝ȜȠȖİ૙Ȟ and cognates) and “giving thanks to” (İ੝ȤĮȡȚıIJİ૙Ȟ and cognates) are used more or less synonymously.151 Finally, Paul refers to the bread that Christians eat at their weekly meetings as “the bread that we break.” Both the references to the “cup’ and the “bread” at the Christians’ communal meals are intended as a reminder of Jesus’ last supper, of course. In short, drinking wine and eating bread together are an expression of the fellowship of the Christians with each other, sharing their belief in Jesus Christ and in “the beneficial effects of his death” (lit. “a fellowship in the blood of Christ … in the body of Christ”). Paul does not mean that at their meetings the Christians form a fellowship with Christ or with his “blood and body” but with each other. Nor do they literally or metaphorically “eat” his “blood and body.”152 Instead, the formulation used by Paul expresses the unity between the Christians as people who share a belief in Jesus Christ and his death on the cross. Moreover, in his letters, the words “blood” and

 148

See 1 Cor 11:23-25, Mark 14:22-25, Matt 26:26-29, and cf. Luke 22:14-20. 149 See, e.g., Plato, Symp. 176A, Xenophon, Symp. 2.1, Plutarch, Sept. sap. conv. 5 (Mor. 150D), and Lucian, Tox. 25. See also at 1 Cor 11-14. 150 Cf. Did. 9:2. 151 See, e.g., 14:16, Mark 14:22-23, Matt 26:26-27, Rev 7:12, Acts Thom. 29, and 49. 152 Moreover, the idea that worshippers (Jews, Gentiles or Christians) “eat” (parts of) their God or deities at their (cultic) meals in one way or another was completely unknown in Hellenistic times!

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“body” are used more than once to refer to Jesus’ death and its beneficial effects on believers.153 In verse 17, Paul adds two clauses intended to explain the close relationship of the Christians to one another, as mentioned in the previous verse. First he states that “because there is one bread, we, though many, are one body” (v. 17a). This time, the term “body,” ı૵ȝĮ, is used as a metaphor for the Christian Church, and is intended to remind the Corinthians that Christians are a community of like-minded people who feel solidarity with one another. Paul will go on to elaborate on this image in more detail in chapter 12.154 The fact that the Christians form a close-knit community is evident “because there is one bread.” Of course, Paul does not mean that there is literally only one piece of bread for all the participants. What he wants to say is that all participants eat the same bread–eat the same sort of food.155 Sitting at one and the same table and eating the same food express the unity and solidarity of the participants at a communal meal.156 Next, Paul adds a second explanation of his metaphor of the Christians as “one body.” “On the basis of the fact that we share the same bread (lit. “one bread”) we all are partners” (Ƞੂ Ȗ੹ȡ ʌȐȞIJİȢ ਥț IJȠ૨ ਦȞઁȢ ਙȡIJȠȣ ȝİIJȑȤȠȝİȞ, v. 17b). This phrase is usually translated as “for we all partake of the one bread” (NRSV) or “for it is one loaf of which we all partake” (REB), or something like that. However, this translation (and interpretation) is grammatically problematic. In Greek, the verb used here (ȝİIJȑȤİȚȞ) is to be preceded or followed by a noun in the accusative or genitive indicating the thing which is shared,157 but never by a prepositional phrase such as we find in this verse (ਥț IJȠ૨ ਦȞઁȢ ਙȡIJȠȣ). As ਥț IJȠ૨ ਦȞઁȢ ਙȡIJȠȣ in verse 17b

 153 See, e.g., Rom 5:9, “we have now been justified by his death (lit. “by his blood”),”

and 7:4, “through the death (lit. “through the body”) of Christ you died to the law.” See also Rom 3:25, and 1 Cor 11:24, 25, and 27. Besides, “the body of Christ” does not refer to the Church, as many scholars think, but to the death of Jesus Christ, parallel as it is with “the blood of Christ” in the same verse. 154 See at 12:12-27. See also 6:15, 11:29, Rom 12:5, and cf. Eph 1:23, 2:16, 4:4, 12, 16, 5:22-33, Col 1:18, and 3:15. In 1 Cor 10:17, the unity of the Christians is extra underlined by the addition of the word “one”: the Christians are “one body” (cf. also 12:13). 155 Cf. 10:3-4. 156 See, e.g., Dan 11:27 (“The two kings … will eat at one table”), Philo, Spec. 1.221, 3.96, Plutarch, Sept. sap. conv. 4 (Mor. 149F), Alex. fort. 1.7 (Mor. 329E), Quaest. conv. 9.1.1 (Mor. 736DE), Diogenes Laertius, Vit. phil. 8.35 (“For once friends used to meet over one bread”), and Ign. Eph. 20:2. 157 See, e.g., v. 21.

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corresponds with ੖IJȚ İੈȢ ਙȡIJȠȢ (“because there is one bread”) in verse 17a, and Ƞੂ ʌȐȞIJİȢ (“all”) in verse 17b refers back to Ƞੂ ʌȠȜȜȠȓ (“many”) in verse 17a, so ȝİIJȑȤȠȝİȞ in verse 17b is most likely to correspond with ਨȞ ı૵ȝĮ … ਥıȝİȞ (“we … are one body”) in verse 17a. That means that the verb ȝİIJȑȤİȚȞ in verse 17b is used in an absolute sense with the meaning “to be partners.”158 It belongs to the same “semantic field” as the words țȠȚȞȦȞȓĮ (“partnership”) and țȠȚȞȦȞȩȢ (“partner”) used by Paul in verses 16, 18 and 20. Interpreted in this way, verse 17b offers another explanation for the meaning of the “one body” in verse 17a, and underlines once more the solidarity and unity of the Christian community. This reference to what goes on at the Christian meetings makes it clear that communal meals were simply a sign of the unity between the participants. Paul gives another example in verse 18. This time, he refers to “the people of Israel.”159 In eating their sacrificial meals, the Israelites or the Jews “are united as participants in (or “share with one another”) the worship of the God of Israel” (lit. “are partners in the altar”160). The Israelites or the Jews, form a close-knit community when they participate in a cultic meal. On special occasions, they were allowed to eat some of the food that had been offered to God by the priests.161 In using these two examples (vv. 16-17 and v. 18), Paul wants to warn the Corinthian Christians not to participate in pagan cultic meals in their city. Eating the food sacrificed at such meals in honour of one or more pagan gods would imply an alliance with Gentiles and a joining in with their worship of heathen deities. Perhaps some of the Corinthians did not find such a thing problematic, being of the opinion that “food sacrificed to idols” is “nothing” and that “an idol” is “nothing” (v. 19; cf. 8:4). Paul seems to agree, but at the same time he wants them to realise that at the cultic pagan meals, such as would take place at a cultic feast in a temple in honour of a heathen deity, there is more at stake, for “what pagans sacrifice, they sacrifice ‘to demons and not to God’.” (v. 20a). Paul is probably alluding to

 158

Cf., e.g., Herodotus, Hist. 1.143.3, 8.132.2 (“one of those who were partners,” ਦȞઁȢ IJ૵Ȟ ȝİIJİȤȩȞIJȦȞ), Plutarch, Adul. amic. 23 (Mor. 64D), Galb. 19.7 (Vit. par. 1061E), and several inscriptions and papyri (see, e.g., Inscription from Magnesia no. 116, l. 16, and Papyrus Revenue Laws of Ptolemy II Philadelphus col. 14, ll. 9-11). 159 Lit. “the people of Israel according to the flesh” (IJઁȞ ’ǿıȡĮ੽Ȝ țĮIJ੹ ıȐȡțĮ); that is, all those who are Israelites or Jews of birth (cf. Rom 9:3-4). 160 Here, “the altar,” șȣıȚĮıIJȒȡȚȠȞ, stands for “the service at the altar,” that is, for “the cult or the worship of the God of Israel.” 161 See, e.g., Lev 7:11-15, and esp. Philo, Spec. 1.221, “all may eat parts of the food on the altar, all share the same table.”

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Deuteronomy 32:17, where it is told that the Israelites “sacrificed to demons, not God, to deities they had never known, to new ones.”162 Although heathen deities are “nothing,” Israelites, Jews and Christians could not deny that they “existed” in one way or another.163 Alongside the Graeco-Roman gods, there were also many “spirits” in the world, but these (evil) spirits were regarded by Israelites, Jews and Christians as “demons” or “idols” worshipped by the Gentiles.164 Idolatry and the worship of demons are two sides of the same coin. Paul continues by saying that he does not want the Corinthian Christians “to be united with” pagans “as participants in the worship of demons”165 (v. 20b). That is, Christians should not get involved in the worship of demons or share the worship of idols with the Gentiles, and they should therefore not participate in official cultic meals with pagans. In verse 21, Paul makes his intentions concrete with an urgent appeal to his readers in Corinth: “You cannot drink from the cup of the Lord and from the cup of demons, you cannot participate in eating the food from the table of the Lord and in eating food from the table of demons.” That is, Christians, who participate in a communal meal in remembrance of the death of Jesus Christ should not participate in a cultic meal in honour of a heathen deity.166 “The cup of the Lord” and “the cup of demons” refer to the wine that was consecrated and offered to God or Jesus Christ before being drunk at the Christian meeting,167 and to the wine that was similarly consecrated and offered to a heathen deity before being drunk at a pagan cultic meal. “The table” refers to the food on the table, offered to God or Jesus Christ and eaten by the Christians (“the table of the Lord”), and to the food that was offered to a heathen deity and eaten by Gentiles at their communal cultic

 162

Cf. Bar 4:7, “You have provoked your Creator by sacrificing to demons and not to God.” 163 See also at 8:5. 164 See, e.g., Ps 96:5 (95:5), “all the gods of the nations are demons, but the Lord made the heaven,” and also Deut 32:17, Ps 106:37 (105:37), Bar 4:7, 1 En. 19:1, 99:7, Jub. 1:11, T. Job 3:3, Philo, Mos. 1.276, Acts 17:18, Rev 9:20, Barn. 16:7, Acts Phil. 136, Justin, Dial. 30.3, 55.2, and 73.2. 165 Lit. “are partners in demons.” Here, the word “demons” stands for “the worship of demons,” as “the altar,” in v. 18 stands for “the service at the altar,” or “the worship of the God of Israel,” and “the blood and the body of Christ” in v. 16 stands for “our belief in Christ and in the beneficial effects of his death.” 166 Cf. 2 Cor 6:15-16. 167 Cf. 10:16, and 11:27.

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meals (“the table of demons”). Although the altars in temples were also called “tables,”168 here Paul uses the term to describe the actual tables at which participants sat or lay down to eat.169 That neither Jews nor Christians should take part in pagan cultic meals is a recurrent motif in Jewish and early-Christian circles. According to Joseph and Aseneth, Jews are people “who give thanks to God for the bread of life that they eat and for the cup of immortality that they drink” as opposed to Gentiles, who “give thanks to dumb idols and eat bread of strangulation from their table and drink a cup of insidiousness from their libation.” In order to be allowed to marry Joseph, Aseneth, the daughter of an Egyptian priest, first had to confess her former sins and abstain from taking part in pagan cultic meals.170 Paul concludes this passage by giving a serious warning to his readers in Corinth. If they take part in pagan cultic meals in honour of idols or demons, they will make “the Lord” (God or Jesus Christ) “jealous” (v. 22a). Paul reminds the Corinthians of the well-known OT motif that the God of Israel is a “jealous” God, who will not tolerate the worship of any other god beside himself.171 Paul also knew well the sanctions and penalties God visited on the Israelites when they made him jealous by committing idolatry.172 So if any of the Corinthian Christians choose to participate in pagan cultic meals, they should be prepared to deal with a power “stronger” than they are, or in other words, they will surely be punished (v. 22b). It is not immediately clear whether Paul has God or Jesus Christ in mind when he talks about the one who will be made “jealous” by the Corinthians if they take part in pagan cultic meals, or the one who is “stronger” than they are. God is traditionally considered to be “mighty” and “strong” and he is also

 168

See, e.g., Exod 25:23-30, Lev 24:5-9, 1 Kings 7:48, Ezek 44:16, Mal 1:7, 12, 1 Macc 1:22, 4:49, 51, T. Levi 8:16, T. Jud. 21:5, and 1 Clem. 43:2. 169 Cf. Herodotus, Hist. 1.181.5, 1.183.1, and Diodorus Siculus, Bibl. 5.46.7. The formulation “participate in eating the food on the table” (lit. “participate in the table”) is traditional: see, e.g., Philo, Ios. 196, Plutarch, Brut. 13.7 (Vit. par. 989F), Diodorus Siculus, Bibl. 4.74.2, Lucian, Cyn. 7, and cf. Sir 6:10, Plutarch, Sept. sap. conv. 4 (Mor. 149F), and Quaest. conv. 7.6.2 (Mor. 707C). 170 See esp. Jos. Asen. 8:5, 10-11, 12:1, and 5. Cf. also Philo, Mos. 1.298, Spec. 1.221, Josephus, C. Ap. 2.174, 2.196, and Ps.-Clem. Hom. 7.4.2, where the Christian readers are called to serve God and to stay away from “the table of demons” (cf. 7.8.1, 8.20.1, 8.23.2, and 9.15.1). 171 See, e.g., Exod 20:5, 34:14, Deut 4:24, 5:9, and 6:15. 172 See Deut 32:21, 1 Kings 14:22, and Ps 78:58-59 (77:58-59).

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the one who passes judgment on people and punishes them if necessary;173 nobody can escape his punishment, because nobody is as strong as God.174 But as the Son of God,175 Christ has many characteristics that originally belong to God. Either way, the Corinthian Christians must avoid any form of idolatry and not take part in pagan cultic meals in honour of heathen deities, otherwise they will provoke “the Lord” and make him jealous, and they will be punished severely.

A Christian’s responsibilities to others, including the Gentiles: 10:23-11:1 (23) “We are free to do anything,” you say. Very well, but not everything does good! Again, “We are free to do anything,” you say. Very well, but not everything is constructive. (24) Nobody should look after only his own interests, but should think of the interests of others. (25) You may eat any meat sold in the market without being concerned about its origins. (26) For “the earth is the Lord’s and all that is in it.” (27) If an unbeliever invites you to a meal and you are willing to go, you may eat whatever is set before you without being concerned about its origins. (28) But if somebody says to you, “This food has been offered in sacrifice,” you had better not eat it, out of consideration for the one who informed you and because of these feelings of concern; (29) not your own feelings of concern, I mean, but his. For why would I eat it and have my freedom be subject to the judgment of another and his feelings of concern? (30) Why would I eat it in gratitude to God and with thanksgiving, if it means I fall into disrepute? (31) Therefore, whether you eat or drink, or whatever you do, do it all for the glory of God. (32) Give no offence to Jews or Greeks, nor to the community of God. (33) The same way, I myself try to please everyone in everything, not looking after my own good, but considering what is good for all other people, so that they may be saved. (11:1) Follow my example as I follow Christ’s.

After arguing that participating in a pagan cultic meal in honour of a heathen deity is to be avoided, Paul now mentions a few circumstances when eating food sacrificed to idols is allowed. But again, he wants the Corinthian Christians to realise that even in these circumstances, there are limits to the Christian’s freedom to eat such food (cf. ch. 8).

 173

See, e.g., Deut 10:17, Neh 1:5, 9:31-32, Ps 7:11 (7:12), 147:5 (146:5), Jer 32:1718, 2 Macc 1:24, and Rev 18:8. 174 See 1:25, Eccles 6:10, Job 37:23 LXX (“For we cannot find anyone as strong as he [God] is”), and Ezek 22:14. 175 See 1:9.

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Paul starts this paragraph by once again citing the maxim that was current among the Corinthian Christians, namely that Christians “are free to do anything” (cf. 6:12). But for the second time, he seeks to restrict this “freedom”: it is not what is allowed that matters, but what is “good,” what is “constructive.” One’s own interests are not what count, but the interests of others (vv. 23-24). That means, on the one hand, that Christians may eat anything, also meat sold at the market and food set before them when invited by pagan friends (vv. 25-27). But if a pagan dinner partner expresses concern about a Christian eating food that has been sacrificed to his deities, the Christian should give up his “freedom,” and abstain from eating such food (vv. 28-30). Whatever they do, Christians should have “the glory of God” and the future salvation of all people in mind (vv. 31-32). Paul concludes this passage by calling on the Corinthian Christians to follow his example and to act in a way that is good for all other people (10:33-11:1). Right at the start of this paragraph, Paul repeats a maxim popular among some of the Corinthian Christians that they “are free to do anything” (v. 23, cf. 6:12). They not only felt free to do whatever they wanted with regard to sexual matters,176 but also when it came to eating food that had been sacrificed to idols. Paul agrees to a certain extent, but, not for the first time, he wants the Corinthians to see that there must be limits to their freedom. For “not everything does good,” “not everything is constructive.” What matters this time is not whether something is good for oneself or not,177 but whether or not it is good for others (vv. 23-24).178 So whether or not to eat sacrificial food depends on whether to do so would be good for other people–Christian or non-Christian–or not; whether or not it is constructive and strengthens others in one way or another. And being constructive to the faith of others is an expression of love for one another (8:1), something which is diametrically opposed to the unrestrained desire for freedom at the expense of other people. In other words: “Nobody should look after his own interests, but should consider the interests of others” (v. 24).179 On the basis of this criterion as to whether or not an action is “edifying” or “good for others,” Paul once again addresses the question of eating food that has been offered to idols. First of all, he states that “You may eat any meat

 176

See chs. 5-6. 177 Cf. 6:12. 178 See also v. 33, 12:7, and Rom 15:2. 179 See 13:5, and cf. Rom 15:1-3, and Phil 2:4-8.

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sold in the market without being concerned about its origins” (v. 25).180 In Paul’s day, all kinds of food–high quality food such as meat in particular– were sold in marketplaces in the centre of cities. Animals were not slaughtered at the market itself, and some of the meat would have come from priests who, having slaughtered the animals in the temple and sacrificed some of the meat to their gods, sold the remainder of the carcass to the market traders. Some of the meat on sale would have come from elsewhere, and would not have been sacrificial meat. In Paul’s opinion, Christians were allowed to buy and eat such food. They were free to eat anything and did not need to ask the market traders about the origin of the food, that is, whether it came from one of the pagan temples in the city or not. All kinds of food could be eaten by Christians, for “the earth is the Lord’s and all that is in it” (v. 26). By quoting a passage from the OT, namely, Psalm 24:1 (23:1),181 Paul wants to make clear to the Corinthian Christians that the whole world is “the Lord’s” and that, as a consequence, no food whatsoever needed to be considered forbidden or repugnant.182 Also, when a Christian was invited by an unbeliever to participate in a meal, for instance on the occasion of a feast at home or in one of the rooms of a temple,183 he “may eat whatever is set before him” (v. 27). Once again, he does not need to ask questions because of “concern about its origins.” Just as in chapter 8:4-6, and 8, Paul agrees with those Corinthians who felt free to eat anything they wanted, including sacrificial meat. But this time he mentions an exception to the rule, and gives an example of a situation where it is not acceptable to eat such food (see v. 28). This seems to be a continuation of the situation described in the previous verse (v. 27). For in verse 28, Paul continues by saying that “if somebody says to you, ‘This food has been offered in sacrifice,’ you had better not eat it.” At first sight it is

 180

Lit. “without raising questions on the ground of conscience.” The term “conscience,” ıȣȞİȓįȘıȚȢ, refers to man’s ability to assess his actions, whether they are right or wrong: see also vv. 27-29, and at 8:7, 10, and 12, and cf. Rom 2:15, and 13:5. According to Paul, Christians do not need to ask questions about the origin of the meat, because they are free to eat anything and should not worry about its origin, since food is theologically completely irrelevant (see at 8:8). 181 Cf. Ps 50:12 (49:12), 89:11 (88:12), and 1 Clem. 54:3. 182 Cf. also 1 Tim 4:3-5. It is striking that Paul does not speak about “clean” and “unclean” animals; this distinction, well-known among the Jews at the time, was probably unknown among the non-Jewish Christians in Corinth. 183 See at 8:10.

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not clear who is meant by “somebody.” Many scholars think it refers to a “weak” Christian present at the meal, who is warning his fellow Christian not to eat the food because it has been sacrificed to idols. But it is far more plausible that “somebody” refers to a pagan participant present; for the term “food offered in sacrifice” or “food sacrificed to (our) gods,” ੂİȡȩșȣIJȠȞ, that Paul puts into the mouth of this “somebody” is a term used by Gentiles,184 and not the term “food sacrificed to idols,” İੁįȦȜȩșȣIJȠȞ, that would have been used by Jews and Christians.185 So when a pagan diner explicitly indicates that the meat has been sacrificed to one of his deities, a Christian should refrain from eating such food. He should do this “out of consideration for the one who informed you186 and because of these feelings of concern; not your own feelings of concern, I mean, but his” (vv. 28-29a). In Paul’s view, Christians are indeed free to eat food that has been sacrificed to idols; but if a pagan fellow diner makes it clear that it is food that was offered to one of his deities, and obviously has problems with a Christian eating such food,187 one should abstain from eating it “out of consideration” for the pagan diner and his “feelings of concern.” In two parallel clauses in verses 29b-30, Paul explains why a Christian should avoid eating sacrificial food in such a case. He makes an example of himself,188 pointing to the consequences of a Christian eating such food even when a pagan fellow diner has expressed concerns about him doing so. In such a case, his Christian freedom to eat whatever he wants will “be subject to the judgment of another and his feelings of concern.” It is not the Christian himself who is judged by the pagan diner, but his “freedom,” and as a consequence his faith. The Christian faith itself is discredited when a Christian feels free to eat sacrificial food, even when a pagan fellow diner has explicitly pointed out the origin of the food. The credibility of the Christian faith is at stake, or, in other words, when a Christian does eat in

 184

See, e.g., Plutarch, Quaest. conv. 8.8.3 (Mor. 729C). 185 See 8:1, 4, 7, 10, and 10:19. Cf. also Acts 15:29, 21:25, Rev 2:14, and 20. 186 Lit. “who revealed it to you,” that is, “who told you something you were not aware of.” 187 In such a case, the pagan diner does not say this out of fear that the Christian may suffer mental distress due to eating sacrificial food, that is, out of sympathy for his fellow diner, but because he simply does not find it acceptable for a Christian, a believer in God and Jesus Christ, to eat food that has been sacrificed to one of his deities. 188 See the use of the first person singular; cf. Rom 3:7, 7:9, 16, 20, and Gal 2:18.

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such a situation, he will “fall into disrepute.”189 Through his behaviour, the Christian faith itself will be subject to slander and blasphemy among the pagan participants. That Paul believes this to be the case is also clear from the beginning of verse 30, where he speaks of eating “in gratitude to God190 and with thanksgiving.”191 In such a case, a Christian, as somebody who eats “in gratitude to God and with thanksgiving,” is disqualified by his pagan dinner partner. But, even worse, the Christian faith itself, including God and Jesus Christ, will “fall into disrepute.” Gentiles will think that Christians live like libertines and do not care about anything, with the result that they will not respect this new faith or its service to God and to Jesus Christ. Instead, Christians should take care that they do not discredit their belief in God and Jesus Christ when they “eat or drink”: whatever they do, they should do it all “for the glory of God” (v. 31). The ultimate goal of all their actions should be that the name of God is honoured and praised,192 so that more and more people will become believers in God and in his Son Jesus Christ. In other words, Christians should give “no offence to Jews or Greeks, nor to the community of God” (v. 32). Their actions should neither be an obstacle193 for “Jews or Greeks”194 to becoming Christians (cf. vv. 28-29a), nor grounds for fellow Christians (“the community of God”)195 to fall back into idolatry (see ch. 8). Concern for, or taking care of, other people is also central in Paul’s own life, for he tries to “please everyone in everything”196 and does not look out for himself, but considers “what is good for all other people,197 so that they may be saved” (v. 33).198 By behaving in this way, Paul is following Jesus

 189

Lit. “be blasphemed” or “be slandered”; cf. Acts 13:45, 18:6, Rom 3:8, 14:16, and 2 Pet 2:2. 190 Cf. Heb 12:28. 191 See at 10:16, and cf. also Rom 14:6, and 1 Tim 4:3-4. 192 Cf. Rom 15:7, 2 Cor 4:15, 8:19, Phil 1:11, and 2:11. 193 See at 8:9, 13, and see further Rom 14:13, 20-21, and 2 Cor 6:3. 194 For the formulation “Jews or/and Greeks,” that is, all non-Christians, see at 1:22, 24, and cf. Rom 1:16, 2:9-10, 3:9, 10:12, 1 Cor 12:13, Gal 3:28, and also Acts 14:1, 18:4, 19:10, 17, 20:21, and Col 3:11. 195 For this formulation, see at 1:2; cf. also 11:22. 196 For this formulation, cf. Rom 15:1-3, and Ign. Trall. 2:3. 197 Lit. “for the many,” IJ૵Ȟ ʌȠȜȜ૵Ȟ, that is, “the many” as opposed to “the one,” Paul himself; so it is to be interpreted as “for all (other) people,” cf. Rom 5:15, 19, and Josephus, A.J. 3.212. 198 Cf. vv. 23-24, and 9:20-22.

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Christ’s example, for he also “did not please himself” and “was rich, yet for (y)our sake became poor” and “humbled himself and was obedient to God, even to the point of death.”199 Finally, Paul calls on the Corinthians to follow his example, as he follows the example of Christ (11:1). That is, be humble, take care of one another, and give up your Christian freedom if necessary for the sake of others.200 Once again, taking care of, or loving, one another is what limits the Christians’ freedom to do as they please (cf. 8:1).

 199

See Rom 15:3, 2 Cor 8:9, and Phil 2:8, respectively. 200 Cf. 4:16, Phil 3:17, 4:9, and 1 Thess 1:6.

PART FIVE BAD BEHAVIOUR AT MEETINGS OF THE CHRISTIAN COMMUNITY: 11:2-34

This part of Paul’s letter starts with a long section addressing instances of bad behaviour and excesses during the weekly meetings of the Christian community in Corinth (11:2-14:40).1 First, he wants to raise two issues in particular, namely, that some women pray and prophesy “bareheaded” (11:2-16) and that some participants in the communal meal behave badly and have no consideration for other participants (11:17-34). Paul finds both utterly reprehensible: a woman should behave decently, for her chastity and her husband’s honour are at stake; and bad behaviour at the communal meal could jeopardise the unity and solidarity of the Christian community.

Indecent behaviour of women during Christian meetings: 11:2-16 (2) I commend you for always keeping my words in mind and for abiding by the rules I have handed on to you. (3) But I want you to know that Christ is the head of every man, that a man is the head of his wife and that God is the head of Christ. (4) A man who has his head covered when he prays or prophesies brings shame on his head. (5) But a woman brings shame on her head when she prays or prophesies bareheaded; for it is one and the same thing as a woman whose head has been shaved. (6) For if a woman does not cover her head she might as well have her hair cut off. But since it is shameful for a woman to have her hair cut off or to have her head be shaved, then she should cover her head. (7) A man must not cover his head, because he is the image and glory of God. But a woman is the glory of her husband. (8) For man is not made out of woman, but woman is made out of man, (9) and man is not created for the sake of woman, but woman for the sake of man. (10) Therefore, a woman should keep her head under control in view of the angels. (11) In short: for people connected with the Lord, it is

 1

In Paul’s days, the local Christians used to come together once a week, probably on Sunday evenings.

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unacceptable that women behave as if there were no men or that men behave as if there were no women. (12) For as woman is made out of man, man comes to be through woman, and in the end, everything exists thanks to God. (13) Judge for yourselves: is it fitting for a woman to pray to God bareheaded? (14) Does not nature itself show you that wearing long hair is shameful for a man (15) but that wearing long hair is a woman’s glory? For her hair has been given to her as a covering. (16) But if somebody thinks he knows better, he must realise that we do not have such a custom, nor does any other community of God.

From the letter the Corinthians had sent to him or, more likely, from what “members of Chloe’s household”2 had told him, Paul was given to understand that, during the Christian meetings, some women were praying and prophesying bareheaded. He finds this unacceptable, and tries to convince the Corinthians to put an end to this bad custom. From the context it is clear that the women in question were married women. In the Graeco-Roman world of Paul’s time, it was self-evident that a married woman should realise that her husband’s honour was at stake in everything she did. Honour and shame were important issues in society at the time, and everything women, children or slaves did, had consequences for the pater familias, “the master of the house.” Or, in Paul’s words, “a man is the head of his wife” (v. 3), and “a woman is the glory of her husband” (v. 7). So a married woman was expected to behave decently and modestly in public; if not, her husband’s dignity would be seriously compromised. This meant that a married woman should cover her head when praying or prophesying during a Christian meeting, in order not to cause her husband (her “head”) shame (v. 5a). She must not pray or prophesy with her long hair hanging loose in front of all those (men) present; indeed, she should never lose control of her head, even when she is in ecstasy and taken by the Holy Spirit (v. 10). Moreover, Paul reminds the Corinthians that there are two types of people in this world, as well as in the Christian community, namely, men and women, and that they are different “by nature” (vv. 11-12, and 14-15). That means that what is fitting for a man may not be fitting for a woman and vice versa (vv. 4-10). In verse 16, Paul makes a final argument against women praying or prophesying bareheaded by telling the Corinthians that such a habit conflicts with what is customary in all other Christian communities.

 2

See 1:11.

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Before speaking about the examples of bad behaviour at the Christian community’s meetings in Corinth, Paul tries to win over his readers, hoping that they will give serious consideration to his words. He therefore starts by saying that he is happy that they have always kept his words in mind (lit. “have always kept me in mind”) and that they have always lived according to the rules he handed on to them when he was with them in Corinth (v. 2). These “rules” (lit. “traditions”)3 refer to the guidelines for living as a Christian which Paul had given to the newly converted Christians when he founded the Christian community in Corinth. Nevertheless, in the next passage, Paul makes explicitly clear that he is not praising the Corinthian Christians for everything they are doing.4 The first issue Paul wants to raise is the bad and indecent behaviour of some (married) women at the meetings of the Christian community. He introduces it by making a theological statement about the relation between man and woman, which he thinks the Corinthian Christians may not realise:5 “a man is the head of his wife,” as “Christ is the head of every man” and “God is the head of Christ” (v. 3). The literal translation of the word used here is “head,” țİijĮȜȒ, and in this verse it has led to a variety of interpretations. It is often interpreted as “chief,” “master,” or “leader,” but (almost) nowhere in Greek literature is the term used in this way.6 It is also suggested that the term “head” is to be interpreted as “source,” but this interpretation is also problematic. For, in this case, the phrases “Christ being the source of man” or “God being the source of Christ” would be rather weird and incomprehensible. Moreover, in Greek literature, the term “head” in the sense of “source” is never used in relation to one individual person but always in relation to things, for instance as the “head” of a river, or to a group of people. In view of all this, it is unlikely that “head” in this verse means “master” or “source.” Paul is probably using the term “head” here, because he intends to deal with the issue of women who do not cover their “heads” when they

 3

Cf. 2 Thess 2:15, and 3:6. 4 See v. 17, “I cannot commend you,” and v. 22, “Can I commend you? … Certainly not!” 5 This can be concluded from the introductory words “I want you to know”; see at 10:1. 6 In LXX, we find the word “head” used in this sense a few times (see, e.g., Judg 11:11, 2 Sam 22:44, and Ps 18:43 [17:44]), but it is never used to describe a “master” of one individual person but always refers to a “master” or “leader” of a group of people.

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pray or prophesy during the Christian meetings. In other words, in this verse we are dealing with an example of wordplay: Paul formulates the relationship between man and woman (and between Christ and man, and God and Christ) by using a word which will play a crucial role in the verses which follow. But what does Paul actually mean, or what is he alluding to, when he says that “a man is the head of his wife” (or “Christ is the head of every man” and “God is the head of Christ”)? In the Hellenistic culture of Paul’s time, a person’s head was the part of the body that was visible for all to see, and so was ideally suited for honouring someone (by means of a crown) or for making someone ashamed (by cutting off his/her hair). In verse 3, Paul seems to be using the term “head” in this sense: a man is the symbolic “head” of his wife, because in everything that a woman does, her husband is present and visible. That is, all the public actions of a married woman will have consequences for the way in which people see her husband. If a woman behaves modestly and decently in public, her husband will be held in high esteem in society and will be honoured, but if a woman’s behaviour in public is unseemly, people will look down upon her husband. In short: in these verses, it is not a question of hierarchy (the man is his wife’s master), but of relationship (the woman is related to her husband). According to Paul, there is a similar relationship between Jesus Christ and a man,7 and between God and Jesus Christ. This means that a man’s actions and behaviour can have consequences for people’s view of Jesus Christ. Obviously, as in verses 4, 7, and 11, Paul has Christian men in mind: the Christian “master of the house” should behave impeccably; otherwise, people will despise the Christian faith and look down upon Jesus Christ. Likewise, God is “the head of Christ”: the attitude of Jesus Christ, who was obedient to God and who gave his life for the salvation of humankind,8 had consequences for people’s ideas about the Christian God. In short: just as God became “visible” in Christ’s life on earth, so Christ becomes “visible” in a man’s behaviour and a man and his position in society become “visible” in the public actions of his wife.

 7

The image of Jesus Christ as “the head of (every) man” has nothing to do with that of Christ as “the head of the body (= the Church),” which we find in the letters to the Ephesians and to the Colossians (see Eph 1:22, 4:15, 5:23, Col 1:18, 2:10, and 19). 8 Cf., e.g., Rom 15:3, 2 Cor 8:9, Phil 2:8, and see at 1 Cor 11:1.

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Before addressing the scandalous behaviour of some of the women during the Christian meetings, Paul first tells the Corinthians how men should behave when they pray or prophesy: “A man who has his head covered9 when he prays or prophesies brings shame on his head” (v. 4).10 In Paul’s day, men used not to wear anything on their heads, except when it was extremely cold or hot,11 or when they wished to hide their faces out of grief or shame.12 We can therefore conclude that it was common practice for the men to pray and prophesy bareheaded during Christian meetings. That explains why Paul argues that when a man prays or prophesies with his head covered, thus acting in a way that was not customary, he “brings shame on his head,” that is, he brings shame on Jesus Christ. If this is true–and Paul clearly expects the Corinthians to agree–, then the opposite may be true in the case of the other gender. From verse 5 onwards Paul argues that, unlike men, women should cover their heads when they pray or prophesy. For when a woman “prays or prophesies bareheaded” she “brings shame on her head,” that is, on her husband (v. 5a). In this case, people will look down on her husband and despise him for his wife’s behaviour. For she is not behaving modestly and decently in the way a married woman is supposed to. Many interpreters are of the opinion that Paul is not referring to some kind of “head covering” that women should wear when they pray or prophesy in this passage. Instead, they think that he is calling on these women to tie their hair up, and “cover” their heads in this way with their hair. They put forward two arguments for this interpretation. They refer to verse 15b, where Paul states that a woman’s hair has been given to her as “a covering,” but this does not necessarily imply that Paul is thinking of hair in all the places

 9

For this formulation, cf. Esth 6:12, Plutarch, Reg. imp. apophth. (Scipio the Younger) 13 (Mor. 200F), and Quaest. rom. 14 (Mor. 267C). 10 Both terms, “praying” and “prophesying,” occur here for the first time in this letter. They will play a major part in chs. 12-14. Obviously, praying (that is, praying out loud and giving thanks to God) and prophesying (that is, proclaiming divine messages concerning God’s command to lead a pious life, and concerning past, present and future events) were central elements during the Christian meetings. They were regarded as gifts from the Holy Spirit, and people who prayed or prophesied were often in an ecstatic state, beyond reason and self-control. All this makes it the more evident that we should interpret the theme of women praying and prophesying bareheaded in vv. 2-16 in relation to chs. 12-14. 11 See, e.g., Plutarch, Cat. Min. 5 (Vit. par. 762A), and Cicero, Sen. 10.34. 12 See, e.g., Esth 6:12, Herodotus, Hist. 6.67.3, Apuleius, Metam. 1.6.4-1.7.1, and Josephus, A.J. 7.254.

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where he mentions a “head covering.”.13 A few LXX passages (Lev 13:45, and Num 5:18) are also referred to, where in the Hebrew text somebody is told to allow his or her hair to be “untidy” or “dishevelled”; this word is translated in the Greek version of Leviticus 13:45 by the term ਕțĮIJĮțȐȜȣʌIJȠȢ (“uncovered” or “bareheaded”),14 the same term used by Paul in verses 5 and 13. But this does not imply that the Greek word used by the LXX translators, who quite often did not translate the Hebrew text literally, also has the meaning of “having his/her hair dishevelled.” They may have chosen this word because they found it more appropriate to the context or even to their cultural environment. Moreover, the Greek term and words of the same root are always used in Greek literature to refer to the wearing or not wearing of some kind of “head covering.”15 And finally, the Jewish writers Philo and Josephus interpret the phrase in Numbers 5:18 LXX unambiguously as the removal of a headscarf or head covering: see Philo, De specialibus legibus 3.56: “After the priest … has taken off the woman’s head covering, so that she will be judged bareheaded”16 and Josephus, Antiquitates judaicae 3.270, “After the priest has taken off her head covering.” On the basis of all this, we may conclude that, in these verses, Paul is arguing that women should wear some kind of head covering when they pray or prophesy during the Christian meetings. The function of such a head covering was, of course, to “hide” their hair. Although it was not obligatory for women to wear a head covering in the Graeco-Roman culture of the time, most women wore a headscarf, a headband or a veil in public. Such a head covering was regarded as “a symbol of decency.”17 Decent, modest women wore some kind of head covering in public,18 and it was humiliating for a woman to have her head covering removed.19 A woman’s hair was

 13

See also at 11:15b. 14 Cf. Num 5:18, “the priest will … dishevel the woman’s hair,” which is translated in LXX by “the priest will … uncover the woman’s head,” ਕʌȠțĮȜȪȥİȚ IJ੽Ȟ țİijĮȜ੽Ȟ IJોȢ ȖȣȞĮȚțȩȢ. 15 See, e.g., Isa 47:2, Add Dan: Sus 32, 3 Macc. 4:6, Jos. Asen. 3:11, 14:17, Josephus, A.J. 7.254, Polybius, Hist. 15.27.2, Plutarch, Conj. praec. 2 (Mor. 138D), Apoph. lac. (Charillus) 2 (Mor. 232C), Quaest. rom. 10-14 (Mor. 266C-267C), and Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 33.49. 16 See also 3.60. 17 Philo, Spec. 3.56. 18 See, e.g., Acts Thom. 56, Plutarch, Apoph. lac. (Charillus) 2 (Mor. 232C), Quaest. rom. 14 (Mor. 267AB), and Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 33.48-49. 19 See, e.g., 3 Macc. 4:6, Add Dan: Sus 32, and Polybius, Hist. 15.27.2.

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considered sexually attractive,20 so a decent married woman would always cover her hair in public in order not to give any offense or cause embarrassment to her husband. So we can assume that married women in Corinth would have worn some kind of head covering in public, and this would include Christian women taking part in a Christian meeting because such meetings were considered to be public events.21 It is important to note that Paul does not say that Christian women should wear something on their heads in public or during the Christian meetings, but that they should wear a head covering when they pray or prophesy. That means that these married women were accustomed to wearing a head covering in public, but that they had taken to uncovering their heads when they prayed or prophesied. The reason for this probably lies in the fact that at these moments they were in a state beyond self-control, moving their heads back and forth, with the result that their head coverings fell from their heads. Images from the time show that women did not always wear head coverings at pagan cultic feasts, but let their hair hang loose, and texts from that time also describe such scenes. See, for instance, Dio Chrysostom, Orationes 1.56, “After that she (the old prophetess) began to prophesy. But she did not prophesy like most men and women do, who are said to be inspired: she did not pant, she did not move her head back and forth22 … but was in full control of herself.” All this makes it clear that Paul wants the Corinthian women to wear a head covering when they pray or prophesy during the Christian meetings. If they do not, they will not be behaving decently and will bring their husbands into disrepute. For if a married woman prays or prophesies bareheaded “it is one and the same thing as a woman whose head has been shaved” (v. 5b), and in that case, “she might as well have her hair cut off” (v. 6a). Having her hair cut off or her head shaved23 would have brought shame on a married woman and on her husband as well, and she should therefore remain in control of herself and should keep her head covered when she prayed or prophesied (v. 6b). Once again, Paul is expressing a feeling general at the time: that a woman loses her honour when she has her hair cut off.24 A woman’s hair was often cut off as punishment for certain improper and

 20

Cf. Apuleius, Metam. 2.8-9. 21 Cf. also 14:35, where “at home” is the opposite of “at the meeting.” 22 Cf. Dan 4:19 LXX. 23 Both verbs, “having her hair cut off” and “having her head be shaved” (țİȓȡİıșĮȚ and ȟȣȡ઼ıșĮȚ) are more or less synonymous: see, e.g., Acts 18:18, and 21:24. 24 Cf. T. Job 24:10.

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objectionable behaviours, such as adultery.25 In all cases, such a woman was considered to be a shame unto herself, but also to her husband. In verse 7, Paul repeats that “a man must not cover his head,” something which implies, in his view, that the opposite sex should wear a head covering. Once again he makes a theological statement: for the man “is the image and glory of God.” Here, Paul is referring to Genesis 1:27, where it is told that God created man “in his image.” However, Paul uses the wellknown creation story about Adam and Eve told in Genesis 2 to interpret this verse in Genesis 1. He concludes that it was only Adam (man) who was created in God’s image, an interpretation that is at odds with the text of Genesis 1:27,26 which describes the creation of “human beings” (male and female) in God’s image. He does so, because he wants to emphasise once more the difference between man and woman. That is why he also adds the word “glory” or “pride,” which is not found in the creation stories: a man is not only “the image of God” but also “the glory of God.” Since, in Paul’s view, a man is “the glory of God,” he should not cover his head. But he does not explain why being “the glory of God” implies no head covering. He just continues by saying that “a woman is the glory (or: “pride”) of her husband,” which, according to him, implies that she should wear a head covering, also when she is praying or prophesying during a Christian meeting. For when a woman behaves decently, people will hold her husband in high esteem, and so she will be her husband’s “pride.” In verses 8-9, Paul puts forward another two arguments as to why a woman is “the glory of her husband” and why her behaviour will have repercussions for her husband’s position in society. Both arguments are derived from the story in Genesis 2 about the creation of man (Adam) and woman (Eve), specifically Genesis 2:21-23, where it is told that Eve was created by God from one of Adam’s ribs. Paul concludes that “man is not made out of woman, but woman out of man” (v. 8), and from Genesis 2:18 and 20, where Eve is called “a helper” for Adam, Paul concludes that “man is not created for the sake of woman, but woman for the sake of man” (v. 9). Here, Paul is not arguing that women are inferior to men, but pointing out that a married woman does not live for herself.

 25

See, e.g., Sib. Or. 3.359, Aristophanes, Thesm. 838, Tacitus, Germ. 19, and Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 64.3. There were also women who cut off their hair themselves in order to look manly: see, e.g., Apuleius, Metam. 7.6.3, Lucian, Fug. 27, and Dial. meretr. 5.3. 26 Cf. also Gen 5:1-2, Wis 2:23, and Sir 17:3.

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On the basis of all the previous arguments, Paul draws the conclusion in verse 10 that: “Therefore, a woman should keep her head under control in view of the angels.” Since this clause serves as a conclusion,27 one must assume that this rather surprising formulation is meant to indicate that women should have their heads covered when they pray and prophesy during the Christian meetings. The word “power,” ਥȟȠȣıȓĮ, in the phrase “(a woman) should have power over her head,”28 here translated as “(a woman) should keep her head under control,” is often explained as a kind of metaphor for covering the head as a symbol of a husband’s authority and power over his wife. However, this explanation does not seem to be correct. First, nowhere in the entire passage does Paul refer to the power and the authority of a man over his wife; he talks about relationship, not about hierarchy. Second, in Greek literature, the word “power” in the formulation of “having power over” is never used in a passive sense to refer to an (external) authority other than the subject of the phrase. On the contrary, “having power over” is always used in an active sense; that is, when you “have power over” someone (or something), it means that it is you yourself who has authority over someone (or something).29 From all this, we can conclude that Paul wants to underline the idea that married women should have authority over their own heads, or, in other words, should keep their heads under control when they pray or prophesy. During a Christian meeting, everything should be done “decently and in order” (14:40), and therefore, married women should behave modestly and decently in order not to bring shame on their husbands. They should keep their heads covered while praying or prophesying, they should not have their long hair hanging loose in front of those present, and they should not move their heads back and forth like a mad person (cf. 14:23). Instead, they should control their heads and keep their head coverings in place.30 At the end of verse 10, Paul refers to “the angels” as another argument for women to control their heads: “a woman should keep her head under control

 27

See the introductory words įȚ੹ IJȠ૨IJȠ, “Therefore”: cf., e.g., Rom 1:26, 4:16, 5:12, 1 Cor 4:17, and 2 Cor 4:1. 28 Cf. NRSV (“a woman ought to have a symbol of authority on her head”), and REB (“a woman must have the sign of her authority on her head”). 29 Cf., e.g., Rev 14:18 (“the angel who has authority over fire”), and 20:6 (“the second death has no authority over them”). 30 See also at 11:5-6.

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in view of the angels.” Apparently, Paul supposes angels to be present in one way or another at the Christian meetings. When Christians came together, they experienced the presence of God, Jesus Christ and the divine heavenly atmosphere in general.31 Likewise, Jews and pagans believed their God or gods to be present when they came together in their temples to sacrifice and to give thanks. But “angels” were also considered to be present at Jewish religious meetings: see, for instance, 1QSa II, 3-8, where it is forbidden for physically handicapped people to attend religious meetings, because “the holy angels are present at the meeting.”32 That is to say, only people who were physically “perfect” were allowed to make contact with the heavenly world.33 Since angels are supposedly present at the Christian meetings, Paul seems to find it obvious that women should behave decently during these meetings; they should certainly not behave shamefully by praying or prophesying bareheaded and so offend God, Jesus Christ and all the other heavenly beings.34 A fine parallel is found in Diogenes Laertius, Vitae philosophorum 6.37, “one day he (the Cynic Diogenes) saw a woman bend down in worship before the gods in a rather shameless posture … He went to her and said, ‘Woman, are you not afraid that there is a god standing behind you … and that you put yourself to shame?’” In verses 11-12, Paul recapitulates35 the main arguments for his standpoint that a woman should behave decently during the Christian meetings in order not to bring shame on her husband. In these two verses, Paul does not refer to the equality between men and women as a kind of concession to his readers in Corinth, an interpretation drawn by quite a number of scholars, but just the opposite: he wants to emphasise the difference between the

 31

See at 3:16, and at 5:4; cf. also Matt 18:20, and Eph 3:10. 32 See also CD XV, 15-17, and cf. 1QM VII, 3-7; see further Ps 137:1 LXX (“I sing your praise before the angels”), Deut 32:43 LXX and its interpretation by Philo in Virt. 73-74, and Apoc. Sedr. 14:10-12. 33 Similarly in our time and cultures, people are expected to behave respectfully and be clean and well-dressed when they attend a religious meeting. 34 There is no indication that Paul is afraid of a repetition of what happened with a specific group of angels (the so-called “fallen angels”) who once came down to earth to have intercourse with “the daughters of men” (see at 6:3). Here, Paul just wants to underline that everybody should behave properly in front of the heavenly world. 35 See the word ʌȜȒȞ (“in short”) at the beginning of v. 11; see, e.g., Phil 3:16, 4:14, and cf. Eph 5:33, and Rev 2:25.

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sexes and the interrelation between men and women, both of which have existed since creation and are completely in line with the will of God. In verse 12, intended to support what was said in verse 11,36 Paul points to the natural order of things in the world: “woman is made out of man” (cf. v. 8, and Gen 2:21-23), and “man comes to be through woman.” All this according to the will of God the Creator, “from whom are all things and for whom we exist” (8:6). Both men and women exist thanks to God, but, also according to God’s will, men and women are two different sexes, related to each other and unable to live without each other. This is true for Christians as well as for people in general. In Paul’s view this means that “for people connected with the Lord,37 it is unacceptable that women behave as if there were no men or that men behave as if there were no women” (lit. “… as if there is no woman without man and no man without woman”) (v. 11). There are two different sexes in the world, neither of which can exist without the other. Also in the Christian community, men and women are strongly committed to each other. That implies, for instance, that a married woman should not pray or prophesy bareheaded, because she has a husband whose position in society will be affected by her behaviour. But it is not only the God-given order in this world that dictates that women should behave decently, it is also not “fitting for a woman to pray to God bareheaded” (v. 13). This time, Paul appeals to the common sense of his readers in Corinth (“Judge for yourselves”).38 Surely they must admit that it is not “fitting” and not natural or ordinary for a woman to pray or prophesy bareheaded? By using the terms “fitting” (v. 13) and “shameful” (v. 6),39 Paul is referring to things that are considered decent and respectable norms in society.40 From verses 14-15, we can conclude that Paul regards what is “fitting” as something that is in line with “nature.”41 Referring to “nature” or to “the natural order of things in this world” in verses 14-15, Paul presents another argument to back up his claim that women should pray and prophesy with their heads covered: “Does not

 36

See the word “For,” ȖȐȡ, at the beginning of v. 12. 37 For this formulation, see also at 7:39. 38 Cf. 10:15. 39 See the terms “shame(ful)” and “glory” in vv. 14-15, and cf. Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 36.17, “This practice is shameful and does not fit men at all.” 40 Cf., e.g., 1 Macc 12:11, 3 Macc. 7:13, Matt 3:15, and Epictetus, Diss. 4.6.26. 41 Cf. also Plutarch, Cons. Apoll. 3 (Mor. 102D), “too much grief … is against nature … and does not fit sensible men at all.”

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nature itself show you that wearing long hair is shameful for a man but that wearing long hair is a woman’s glory?” (vv. 14-15a). In Paul’s day, it was indeed customary for men to have short hair and for women to wear their hair long,42 and for Paul, as for most people of his time, customs were not regarded as “cultural” but as “natural” phenomena; unwritten laws, things that have ever been so, and therefore characterised as “natural.”43 Moreover, only what was “honourable” was considered to be in line with “nature.”44 In other words, it seemed “natural” to Paul that “wearing long hair is shameful for a man but that wearing long hair is a woman’s glory.” To convince the Corinthian Christians that women should wear a head covering when they were praying or prophesying, Paul makes clear what he means by his reference to “nature” in verses 14-15a: “For her hair has been given (that is, by “nature” or by God)45 to her as a covering” (v. 15b). As the Creator of heaven and earth God has given long hair to women, and that “as a covering.”46 As far as Paul is concerned, it was obviously God himself who wanted a woman to have some kind of head covering, and because God (or nature) has given a head covering to women, namely their long hair, Paul concludes that this indicates to us that women should also wear some piece of clothing as a head covering when they pray or prophesy; for human beings should follow nature or the will of God at all times! In verse 16, Paul makes a final argument to convince the Corinthian Christians that women should have their heads covered when they pray or prophesy: “But if somebody thinks he knows better, he must realise that we do not have such a custom, nor does any other community of God.” Perhaps

 42

See, e.g., Plutarch, Quaest. rom. 14 (Mor. 267B), “it is a custom that men cut their hair short and that women wear long hair.” Men wearing long hair were considered feminine (see, e.g., Ps.-Phoc. 210-12, Philo, Spec. 3.37, Contempl. 50-51, Plutarch, Mulier. virt. 26 (Mor. 261F), Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 2.12, Musonius Rufus, Diss. 21, and Philostratus, Vit. Apoll. 1.13), or, as in the case of philosophers, they were regarded as outsiders (see, e.g., Seneca, Ep. 5.2, Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 35.10-12, and 36.17). Besides, lesbian women often wore their hair short (see, e.g., Lucian, Fug. 27, and Dial. meretr. 5.3; see also at v. 6). 43 Cf. Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 76, and 80, esp. 76.1, and 80.5-6. See also at 1 Cor 9:7-8. 44 Cf. Cicero, Leg. 1.16.44-45. 45 For such a use of the verb “to give” in the passive tense, cf., e.g., Job 3:20 LXX, Matt. 7:7, and Luke 11:9. 46 The word “as (a covering),” ਕȞIJ੿ (ʌİȡȚȕȠȜĮȓȠȣ), should not be interpreted as “instead of,” but as “by way of” (cf., e.g., Homer, Od. 8.546, and Herodotus, Hist. 4.75.2).

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there are still Corinthians who think they know better?47 In that case, Paul wants them to realise that neither he48 nor any of the other Christian communities all over the world would sanction the deplorable “custom”49 of women praying and prophesying bareheaded. Surely the Christian community in Corinth would not want to stand apart from all other Christian communities?50

Lack of solidarity during the Christian communal meals: 11:17-34 (17) In giving this instruction I come to something I cannot commend you: your meetings do more harm than good. (18) For, to begin with, I am told that there are divisions among you when you come together as a community, and, to some extent, I am willing to believe it. (19) For there have to be disputes between you, for only in this way will it become clear which one of you is managing to adhere to the Christian faith. (20) But the problem is that when you come together somewhere, it is not the Lord’s supper you eat. (21) For there are those among you who make sure that they have enough to eat and to drink and who leave hardly anything for the others, so that as one goes hungry another becomes drunk. (22) Don’t you have homes to eat and drink in? Or are you so contemptuous of the community of God that you do not feel guilty to embarrass those who may have nothing to eat? What should I say to you? Should I commend you? On this matter, certainly not! (23) For the Lord has told me a story which I have handed on to you, namely, the story that on the night of his arrest, the Lord Jesus took bread, (24) gave thanks to God, broke it, and said: ‘This is my body for you. Do this in remembrance of me.’ (25) In the same way, he took the cup after supper, and said: ‘This cup is the new covenant implemented by my blood. Every time you drink it, do this in remembrance of me.’ (26) In other words: every time you eat this bread and drink the cup, you are making a direct reference to the death of the Lord, until he comes. (27) Therefore, whoever eats the bread of the Lord and drinks his cup in an unworthy manner, sins against the body and the blood of the Lord. (28) Thus, everyone should first examine himself before eating the bread and drinking from

 47

For the notion of “knowing better,” or “pigheadedness,” cf., e.g., Ezek 3:7, Philo, Leg. 3.131, Migr. 75, Josephus, C. Ap. 1.160, Justin, Dial. 117.2, Plutarch, Virt. prof. 9 (Mor. 80B), and Vit. X orat. 1. Antiphon (Mor. 832C). 48 That is, Paul, his co-workers and the whole Christian community in Ephesus. 49 For the word “custom,” ıȣȞȒșİȚĮ, cf., e.g., John 18:39, Josephus, A.J. 10.72, and Plutarch, Nic. 6.6 (Vit. par. 527A). 50 Cf. also 1:2, 4:17, 7:17, 14:33b-34a, and 36.

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the cup. (29) For everyone who eats and drinks, imposes God’s judgment on himself if he eats and drinks without considering what the body is all about. (30 That is why many of you are sick and weak, and a number have died. (31) But if we examined ourselves carefully, we would not be judged. (32) But when we are judged by the Lord, he is disciplining us so that we may not be condemned along with the world. (33) Therefore, my brothers and sisters, when you come together to eat, wait for one another. (34) If someone is hungry and cannot wait, he would do better to eat at home. Otherwise, you will bring God’s judgment on yourselves when you come together. I will settle all the other matters when I come to you.

In this long section, Paul deals with another instance of bad behaviour during the Christian meetings in Corinth. All the Christians came together once a week to eat a communal meal and to pray, prophesy, sing and speak about their belief in Jesus Christ. Food and drinks were usually brought according to each person’s means to be shared among the participants at a communal meal. In this passage, Paul chides his Corinthian readers for their lack of solidarity at their weekly meals. A meal in remembrance of the Lord should be a time for unity and solidarity between the members of the Christian community.51 Of course, there may be differences of opinion among them, but when they come together to share a communal meal in remembrance of Jesus Christ, they should be united by community (vv. 17-20), so it is wrong for some of the Christians in Corinth to “make sure they have enough to eat and to drink and leave hardly anything for the others” (vv. 21-22, and 33-34). These communal meals are meals in remembrance of the death of Jesus Christ, and the participants are all people who believe in Christ and who live in the expectation of receiving salvation at the end of time (vv. 23-26). That means that Christians who demonstrate contempt for the community of God are sinning against Jesus Christ himself, and invite God’s judgment upon themselves. This punishment is not comparable to the final condemnation of the world by God, but it can be rather harsh, witness the fact that many Christians in Corinth have become sick, and a number have even died. Therefore, they should behave properly and take part in the communal meals in a civilised way (vv. 17, 22, 27-32, and 34).

 51

See also 10:16-17.

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Having given instructions about head coverings for women,52 Paul points to a second instance of bad behaviour at the Christian meetings in Corinth. Again, he has to criticise them (“I cannot commend you”),53 for he has realised that their meetings “do more harm than good” (v. 17). What he means by these words becomes clear in verses 29-32: the Corinthian Christians eat and drink in an unworthy manner during their communal meals, and if they do this, they will be punished by God. Paul starts his argument by saying that he has been told “that there are divisions among you when you come together as a community, and, to some extent, I am willing to believe it” (v. 18). “The members of Chloe’s household” were probably the source of this information.54 Paul tends to believe it “to some extent,” for he realises that “disputes” are normal among people, and should not always be viewed negatively. In Paul’s view, “there have to be disputes between you, for only in this way will it become clear which of you is managing to adhere to the Christian faith” (lit. “… which one of you has passed the test successfully”) (v. 19).55 Such “divisions” or “disputes” could have been about a variety of aspects of the Christian faith, and people “tested” in this way might be found either to be wrong or to be “approved” and “genuine.”56 Paul does, however, see the division among the members of the Christian community in Corinth during their meetings as negative, because it devalues their communal meal; it “is not the Lord’s supper you eat” (v. 20). Undoubtedly, Paul is referring to the weekly Christian meetings, when the Corinthian Christians came together as a group of like-minded people. It is likely that there were a number of “house churches” in Corinth, where groups of forty or fifty Christians would come together, or they would have met in a rented room of a public building. Like the meetings of pagan and Jewish associations, clubs and guilds, the meetings of the Christian communities consisted of two different types of activity: a communal meal, where food and drinks were brought according to each person’s means, followed by a social gathering, where people would drink wine, have animated discussions, make music, sing songs, and dance. It was common

 52

In the phrase “In giving this instruction,” IJȠ૨IJȠ … ʌĮȡĮȖȖȑȜȜȦȞ, the word IJȠ૨IJȠ (“this”) refers to the previous passage; cf. also, e.g., 7:6, and 7:35. 53 Cf. 11:22, and see also at 11:2. 54 See at 1:11, and cf. 5:1. 55 The terms “divisions” (v. 18) and “disputes” (v. 19) are more or less synonymous; see 1:10, 12:25, Gal 5:20, and cf. Justin, Dial. 35.3. 56 See also at 9:27.

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to dedicate food and drinks to your god(s) before eating and drinking, and in the case of the Christian meetings, to refer to Jesus Christ and his death.57 In this passage, Paul chides some of his readers in Corinth for their bad behaviour during the communal evening meal (įİ૙ʌȞȠȞ), the most important meal of the day, which started at about four o’clock in the afternoon.58 In Paul’s view, “it is not the Lord’s supper” they eat when they come together (v. 20).59 Their communal meal should be dedicated to the Lord and shared with one another in remembrance of the death of Jesus Christ, but apparently it is not. For, as Paul continues in verse 21, “there are those among you who make sure they have enough to eat and to drink and who leave hardly anything for the others”60 with the result “that as one goes hungry another becomes drunk.” Apparently, there were some Corinthian Christians who did not want to wait until all the members of the Christian community were present, and who started to eat as soon as they arrived, taking all they wanted61 instead of waiting for the others and sharing the food and drink with them. Detailed descriptions of how to behave oneself at communal meals can be found in the literature of the time, see, for instance, Sirach 31:12-31, “Eat what is set before you as a decent person and do not be greedy … It is well mannered to be the first to stop eating … When you are sitting together with many dinner partners, do not be the first to stretch out your hand to the food … When wine is drunk at the right time and in the right quantity, it gives you a feeling of joy, but much wine gives you a feeling of bitterness and leads to disputes and misery.” Plutarch, Quaestiones convivales 2.10.2 (Mor. 643F-644A), also gives us a fine description of what can happen during a communal meal when some people eat and drink as much as they can without any consideration for other participants: “Those who eat too much of the food in front of everyone, manage to alienate those who stay behind … I do not think that robbery,

 57

For such meetings (so-called symposia or convivia), see also at 11:23-26, and at 10:16-17. 58 Cf., e.g., Luke 14:12, 17, John 13:4, 21:20, and Plutarch, Quaest. conv. 8.6.4 (Mor. 726D). 59 The formulation “the Lord’s supper,” țȣȡȚĮțઁȞ įİ૙ʌȞȠȞ, is unique in NT. It is therefore likely that Paul is not referring to a particular meal, a kind of “Eucharist,” as a separate part of the Christians’ communal meal. In Paul’s view, the communal meal shared by the Christians at their weekly meetings is and should be “the Lord’s supper,” that is, a meal celebrated in remembrance of (the death of) Jesus Christ. 60 The phrase “and who leave hardly anything for the others” is added to make it clear what Paul wants to say. 61 Lit. “their own supper,” IJઁ ੅įȚȠȞ įİ૙ʌȞȠȞ, that is, that part of the common food that somebody takes for himself; cf. Plutarch, Quaest. conv. 2.10.2 (Mor. 644C).

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plundering and rubbing elbows is a friendly and appropriate beginning of a communal meal; such a thing is completely wrong and often leads to namecalling and rage.” Evidently, Paul wants the Corinthian Christians to avoid such scenes and to display self-control at the communal meals that form part of their meetings.62 Next, Paul asks a couple of rhetorical questions to make his readers in Corinth reconsider their behaviour at the communal meals. Of course, these are directed at those who exhibit this bad behaviour in particular, and he tells them once again that he does not praise them when it comes to this matter:63 “Don’t you have homes to eat and drink in? Or are you so contemptuous of the community of God that you do not feel guilty to embarrass those who may have nothing to eat?” (v. 22). In other words: if they are hungry, they would do better to eat and drink at home where they will not need to wait for other people.64 Otherwise, they risk showing a total disregard for “the community of God,”65 and for all those who come together to eat in remembrance of Jesus Christ and his death, and they will embarrass those fellow Christians who may “have nothing to eat.”66 In order to reinforce his argument, Paul wants his readers in Corinth to realise that their communal meals should be all about the death of their Lord Jesus Christ (vv. 23-26). He reminds them of the story of Jesus’ last supper with his disciples (vv. 23-25), indicating that it is a story that “the Lord has told me” (lit. “I received from the Lord”) and “which I have handed on to you,” namely, when he was with them in Corinth and founded the local Christian community (v. 23). The use of the Greek terms for “to receive” and “to hand on” (ʌĮȡĮȜȐȝȕĮȞİȚȞ and ʌĮȡĮįȓįȠȞĮȚ) makes it clear that Paul

 62

Cf. Philo, Plant. 160, Contempl. 43-44, Plutarch, Tu. san. 4-5 (Mor. 123D-124C), 11 (Mor. 127E), and Musonius Rufus, Diss. 18AB. 63 Cf. 11:17. 64 Cf. also 11:34a. 65 See at 1:2. 66 The formulation “those who (in that case) have nothing to eat,” IJȠઃȢ ȝ੽ ਩ȤȠȞIJĮȢ (lit. “those who have not”), may be interpreted as a reference to “poor people” in general (see, e.g., Matt 25:29, Luke 19:26, and Xenophon, Anab. 7.3.28). In that case, there would be a conflict between rich and poor Christians within the community in Corinth, an interpretation made by a number of NT scholars. Although this interpretation cannot be completely ruled out, the formulation “those who have not” could also be used to describe people “who (at a given time) have nothing to eat”: see, e.g., Neh 8:10, 1 Esd 9:51, and 54. In other words: over against the people who were “drunk,” there were those who went “hungry.”

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is referring to oral traditions; stories told in the early-Christian Church.67 When Paul refers to the words of Jesus elsewhere in his letters, it is evident that he is talking about oral traditions about Jesus which circulated within the early-Christian Church.68 It is therefore likely that Paul does not mean that he heard the story about the last supper personally and directly from Jesus, for example, in the form of a revelation, but rather from earlyChristian traditions about the earthly Jesus. But for Paul it makes no difference: in the end, Jesus Christ is the source of the tradition. Paul introduces the story of Jesus’ last supper with the words “that on the night of his arrest” (lit. “that on the night he was betrayed”) (v. 23). That Jesus was “betrayed” to the authorities one “night” was a traditional phrase and well-known in the early Church.69 But what exactly happened during that evening meal is told, or rather summarised, in different terms by Paul and the authors of the four Gospels. Obviously, a uniform tradition about Jesus’ last supper did not exist in the first century. Broadly speaking, we can distinguish two versions of the story about the last supper with the disciples, namely, the accounts in Mark and Matthew on the one hand, and those in 1 Corinthians and Luke on the other. All four have in common first that bread was broken and eaten, and that after that, the contents of the cup (wine) was drunk. Moreover, they all relate that when Jesus passed the bread and the cup on to his disciples, he alluded to his imminent death by giving an interpretation to the bread and the cup (the wine). Finally, “body” and “blood” refer to Jesus’ death70 and are “represented,” as it were, by the bread and the wine (or the cup of wine).71 In verses 23-24, Paul continues by saying that “the Lord Jesus took bread, gave thanks to God, broke it, and said: ‘This is my body for you. Do this in remembrance of me’.”72 The words “my body for you” refer to the death of Jesus Christ, who died as an innocent martyr for others, that is, for “us” and for “our sins,” and whose death was an expression of atonement and

 67

See also at 11:2. 68 See 7:10, and 9:14; cf. 15:3-7. 69 See esp. Matt 26, Mark 14, Luke 22, John 18, and Acts 3:13. 70 See also at 10:16. 71 The verb “is,” ਥıIJȚȞ, in the phrase “This is my body … This cup is the new covenant implemented by my blood” means “stands for” or “symbolizes”; cf., e.g., Gal 4:25, “Hagar is Mount Sinai.” 72 The words “for you. Do this in remembrance of me” are missing in the versions of Mark and Matthew but are found in the version of Luke.

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substitution.73 The phrase “Do this in remembrance of me” means that the communal meals at the Christian meetings should be all about the death of Jesus Christ and its beneficial effect on his followers. Next, Paul and the author of the Gospel according to Luke relate that Jesus “took the cup after supper” (v. 25). This formulation reflects the usual order at communal meals during so-called symposia or convivia.74 The first words spoken by Jesus, which are found in 1 Corinthians and in the Gospel according to Luke, refer to his imminent death and to “the new covenant implemented by my blood” (v. 25). That is, after the “old” covenant between God and the people of Israel (Exod 24), a “new” covenant has come, namely, that between God and the people of a “new” Israel, the believers in Jesus Christ. According to the early-Christians, this covenant was implemented by the death of Christ and was predicted by some of the OT prophets: see, e.g., Jeremiah 31:31, “The days are coming, says the Lord, that I will make a new covenant.”75 The clause “Every time you drink it, do this in remembrance of me,” which we do not find in the versions of Mark, Matthew or Luke, is meant to underline once more that the communal Christian meals should be all about Jesus Christ and the beneficial effect of his death on the Christians. Having reminded the Corinthian Christians of what Jesus did and said at the last supper he took with his disciples, Paul wants them to realise that “every time you eat this bread and drink the cup, you are making a direct reference to (lit. “you are proclaiming”)76 the death of the Lord, until he comes” (v. 26). That is, their communal meals should make visible that they are a community of like-minded people who eat and drink together “in remembrance of the death of Jesus Christ.” And all Christians should do so

 73

See also, e.g., 8:11, 15:3, Rom 5:6-8, 8:32, 14:15, 2 Cor 5:15, Gal 2:20, 1 Thess 5:10, and cf. Eph 5:2, and 25. 74 Cf., e.g., Plato, Symp. 176A (“After Socrates had sat down and had eaten together with the others, they poured out drink-offerings and sang songs in honour of God and performed all the other religious rituals, after which they started to drink”), Xenophon, Symp. 2.1, Plutarch, Sept. sap. conv. 5 (Mor. 150D), and Lucian, Tox. 25. See also at 11:20. 75 See also 2 Cor 3:6, and cf. Gal 4:24, Heb 7:22, chs. 8-9, 10:16, 12:24, and 13:20. 76 The verb “to proclaim,” țĮIJĮȖȖȑȜȜİȚȞ, is not used in a strictly literal sense, as though the Corinthian Christian should “proclaim” the Gospel to each other during the communal meals; rather, they should “visualise” or “remember” the Gospel about the death of Christ, when they are eating together. For such a meaning of the Greek verb, cf., e.g., Philo, Ios. 92, Migr. 189, and Opif. 106.

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as long as the world exists, or in other words, “until he (Jesus Christ) comes.”77 Finally, in verses 27-34, we find some threatening words predicting harm and punishment if the Corinthians refuse to give up their bad behaviour at the communal meals which formed part of their meetings. First, Paul states that “whoever eats the bread of the Lord and drinks his cup in an unworthy manner, sins against the body and the blood of the Lord” (v. 27). Taking part in a communal Christian meal should be done respectfully, because it is a meal dedicated to Jesus Christ: one “eats the bread of the Lord and (lit. “or”)78 drinks his cup.”79 By verses 17-22, it has become clear exactly what Paul means by the words “in an unworthy manner” (v. 27). The point is not that Christians must be free of debt or sin before they participate in a communal meal in remembrance of Jesus Christ,80 but that they should behave properly during these meals. If they eat and drink as much as possible and as fast as they can and leave hardly anything for the other diners, they are participating in these communal meals “in an unworthy manner,” and whoever does so “sins against (lit. “will be guilty of”)81 the body and the blood of the Lord”: he will sin against Jesus Christ and his death, against God’s plan of salvation, and thus, against the central tenet of the Gospel. Therefore, “everyone should first examine himself before eating the bread and drinking from the cup” (v. 28). Christians should ask themselves whether they are serious about their community meals and are able to control themselves before taking part in these meals in remembrance of their Lord. In verse 29, Paul continues by saying that everyone who “eats and drinks, imposes God’s judgment on himself if he eats and drinks without considering what the body is all about.” Before and during the communal meals, Christians should “consider what the body is all about”82; that is, they

 77

Cf. 1:7, 16:22, Phil 3:20, 1 Thess 1:10, and 4:15-17. 78 For this use of “or,” ਵ, in the sense of “and,” see also, e.g., Matt 5:17, John 8:14, Acts 1:7, and 11:8. 79 See also at 10:16 and 21. 80 Cf. Did. 14. 81 For this formulation, see also Jas 2:10. 82 Lit. “discern the body,” įȚĮțȡȓȞȦȞ IJઁ ı૵ȝĮ. For the meaning of the verb “to discern” (įȚĮțȡȓȞİȚȞ), see also, e.g., Matt 16:3, Ps.-Clem. Hom. 10.16.1, and cf. 1 Cor 11:31, 12:10, and 14:29. “The body” (IJઁ ı૵ȝĮ) used without further indication, refers to the community of believers and expresses the unity and solidarity between its members: see at 10:17, and 12:12-27.

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should realise that when they eat and drink together, they form a community of believers in Jesus Christ. If not–if they are “contemptuous of the community of God” (v. 22)–, they will be punished by God in one way or another. Paul is not referring to God’s judgment at the end of times here, but as a Jewish Christian, he is familiar with the idea that sinners can be punished by God during their lives on earth.83 In the next verse, it becomes clear what kind of punishment Paul has in mind: “That is why many of you are sick and weak, and a number have died” (v. 30). Apparently, Paul has heard about the number of sick people among the Corinthian Christians, some of whom have even died. Now he ascribes this fact to the blameworthy situation during the communal meals at the meetings of the Christian community in Corinth.84 Since there are Christians in Corinth who do not have respect for the community of Jesus Christ, they have invoked God’s punishment.85 After the threatening words in verses 29-30, Paul finds it appropriate to add some words of comfort in verses 31-32. This time, he uses the first person plural, which implies that what he says in these verses holds true for all Christians, not only for those in Corinth. First he states that “if we examined ourselves carefully, we would not be judged” (v. 31). The formulation (in Greek) makes it clear that Paul is speaking about an unlikely reality. All Christians should “examine themselves,” that is, they should know exactly what they are doing and should try to avoid committing sins, but sometimes they “forget” to do so, and then they will be judged and punished by God for their sins and their bad behaviour. Although it is hardly possible for Christians to escape God’s punishment during their lives on earth, one should not forget that his punishment also has a positive side: “But when we are judged by the Lord, he is disciplining us so that we may not be condemned along with the world” (v. 32). Such a judgment or punishment by God (“the Lord”) is to be regarded as a form of

 83

See, e.g., Exod. 5:21, Ps 5:10 (5:11), Job 10:2, Ezek 5:8, 10, 15, Hos 5:1, 6:5, Zeph 3:8, Wis 12:12, 1 Macc 7:42, Pss. Sol. 2:13, 17, 32, and 8:26. See also at 1 Cor 5:1-5. 84 The fact that eating and drinking too much was considered harmful to health, may have helped Paul to come to this conclusion; see, e.g., Sir 31:20, 22, 37:29-31, Xenophon, Mem. 3.13.2, Plutarch, Tu. san. 5 (Mor. 124C), 15 (Mor. 129F), Alex. 75 (Vit. par. 706C), and Musonius Rufus, Diss. 18AB. 85 Paul does not say that it is only those Christians who do not behave properly during the communal meals who have or will be punished by God; the entire Christian community suffers punishment for the bad behaviour of some of its members.

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discipline or reprimand. Again, Paul introduces a well-known OT and Jewish idea; see, for instance, Proverbs 3:12, “those whom the Lord loves he reproves.”86 In Paul’s view, punishments imposed by God on the Corinthian Christians are to be regarded as fatherly reprimands to remind them to do the right thing, so that they “may not be condemned along with the world.” Whereas all non-Christians (“the world”) will be judged and condemned by God at the end of times, the Christians will be saved and will enjoy eternal life. Even though they have sinned and been punished in one way or another during their lives, at the end they will “inherit the kingdom of God” (6:9-10). Finally, Paul once again calls on the Corinthian Christians to “wait for one another” when they come together to eat and drink (v. 33).87 In other words, they should not eat and drink as much and as fast as they can, but should share all the food with their fellow Christians. Therefore, they should “wait for one another” and give all their fellow Christians the opportunity to participate in the communal meal in remembrance of Jesus Christ; acting as a true community. That implies that “if someone is hungry and cannot wait, he would do better to eat at home” (v. 34a; cf. v. 22a). However, at the weekly meetings of the local Christian community, participants should take care of each other and should share all their food. If they do not, they will impose God’s judgment on themselves (v. 34b; cf. vv. 29-30). At the end of the passage, Paul tells the Corinthians that he “will settle all the other matters when I come to you” (v. 34c; cf. 4:19, and 16:5-9). Obviously, Paul is reminding his readers that there are many more things to “settle”88 when he is with them in Corinth, but that for the moment, he will leave the question open as to which things he wants to settle.

 86

See also, e.g., Ps 94:10, 12 (93:10, 12), 118:18 (117:18), Isa 28:26, Jer 10:24, 46:28 (26:28), Hos 7:12, Wis 11:9-10, Pss. Sol. 8:26, and cf. Heb 12:5-11, and 1 Pet 4:17-18. 87 For the meaning of the Greek verb ਥțįȑȤİıșĮȚ, in the sense of “to wait,” see also, e.g., 16:11, Acts 17:16, Herm. Sim. 9.10.5, 9.11.2, Polybius, Hist. 3.45.6, Epictetus, Diss. 1.9.16, and 2.16.44. 88 Cf. 7:17, and 16:1.

PART SIX THE GIFTS OF THE HOLY SPIRIT VERSUS THE LOVE FOR ONE ANOTHER: 12:1-14:40

Having dealt with some instances of bad behaviour during the weekly meetings of the Christians in Corinth (ch. 11), Paul turns to another phenomenon causing chaos at the assemblies, namely, the role of “the gifts of the Holy Spirit” (chs. 12-14).There were, apparently, a number of Christians in Corinth who were inordinately proud of having these spiritual gifts and who found the gift of “glossolalia” or “speaking in tongues” to be the most valuable. But this way of speaking in incomprehensible, distorted sounds or noises meant that the meetings often became very disorderly. Paul was concerned about this, and wanted the Corinthian Christians to know that “all should be done decently and in order” (14:40), and that the spiritual gifts were only useful if they were employed to “build up” the Christian community. In chapter 12, Paul first points out that there are a variety of spiritual gifts, all of which originate from one Spirit, the Holy Spirit (vv. 1-11). Next, he compares these many gifts to the many different parts of the human body, and concludes that all spiritual gifts are in fact of equal importance (vv. 12-31). Despite the fact that, viewed in isolation, all spiritual gifts are equal, at the end of the chapter Paul calls on the Corinthians “to focus with heart and soul on the most important gifts” (v. 31a), that is, on those gifts that are most beneficial for the spiritual health of the entire Christian community. From chapter 13 it becomes clearer that Paul’s message is all about the effects of the spiritual gifts on members of the Christian community, but in this chapter, Paul describes a way of life that transcends everything, including the spiritual gifts (12:31b). Such a way of life is characterised by the love of one’s neighbour, and is of a much higher order than a way of

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life which revolves mainly around one’s possession of any spiritual gift, however valuable. Finally in chapter 14, Paul makes it clear that the gifts of the Spirit should be measured by the yardstick of love for one another. According to this bench mark, those spiritual gifts that play a crucial role in the building up of the Christian community are the most important. In this context, he compares the gift of “prophecy” with that of “glossolalia”: whereas “glossolalia” is in itself completely incomprehensible and therefore useless to other members of the community, “prophecy” can be very useful for the spiritual growth of the community of believers in Jesus Christ (vv.1-25). In chapter 14:26-40, Paul ends his argument about the gifts of the Spirit with a call to take care that “all should be done decently and in order” at the Christian meetings. He formulates some rules about “prophesying” and “speaking in tongues” and about the role of women, particularly married women. Once again, it becomes clear that for Paul, the building up of the Christian community must be central in this connection.

Many spiritual gifts but only one Holy Spirit: 12:1-11 (1) About the gifts of the Spirit, my brothers and sisters, I want there to be no misunderstanding among you. (2) You certainly remember that when you were still pagans, you used to be carried away, as it were, by idols that cannot even speak. (3) Therefore, I want you to know that no one who lives by the Spirit will ever say: “Let Jesus be cursed!” and that no one will ever say: “Jesus is Lord!” unless he lives by the Spirit. (4) There are various gifts, but only one Spirit. (5) There are many ways in which to serve the community, but serving only one Lord. (6) There are various miraculous powers, but there is only one God, who activates all this in everyone. (7) These gifts are given to everybody to show the powers of the Spirit for the common good: (8) To one it is given through the Spirit to speak words of wisdom, and to another, by the same Spirit, to speak words of knowledge; (9) to another, by the same Spirit, a powerful belief; to another, by one and the same Spirit, the gift of healing the sick; (10) to another to perform miracles; to another to prophesy; to another to interpret the utterances of the Spirit; to another to speak in tongues; and to another to interpret these tongues. (11) But all these gifts are activated by one and the same Spirit, and distributed to each individual at will.

Right at the beginning, Paul introduces the theme of the next chapters, namely, “the gifts of the Spirit” (v. 1). These gifts were apparently regarded as being most important in the lives of the Christians in Corinth

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(see 1:7), who even went as far as ranking some spiritual gifts above others, and they found “glossolalia”, or “speaking in tongues”, in particular to be one of the most valuable. Paul, however, wants the Corinthians to realise that there are much more important things in life and that in fact, because it contributes hardly anything to the spiritual growth of the Christian community, “glossolalia” is one of the least important gifts. He opens his argument by saying that all believers in Jesus Christ have received the Holy Spirit (vv. 2-3) and that this one Spirit is active in and through people in a variety of ways (vv. 4-6 and v. 11). In verses 7-10, he lists a number of different spiritual gifts Christians may have received as people living in the Spirit. In verse 1, Paul introduces the theme of chapters 12-14: “About the gifts of the Spirit”. This formulation (“About …”) makes it clear that Paul is referring to an issue brought up by the Corinthians in their earlier letter to him.1 It seems reasonable to assume that the Corinthians indicated in their letter that they set great store by these spiritual gifts. As people who were redeemed by Jesus Christ, they experienced the presence of the Holy Spirit in their lives. Of course, Paul cannot deny that these gifts all come from the Holy Spirit, but he wants to dampen their enthusiasm for these gifts somewhat. He wants them to understand that what matters is whether or not these gifts build up the Christian community. Moreover, there may be something else that is more valuable for the spiritual growth of the community than these gifts.2 The words: “I want there to be no misunderstanding among you” (v. 1) make it clear that Paul wants to tell the Corinthians something new; something they did not yet know.3 They know much about the gifts of the Spirit, but they do not realise that these gifts play (or should play) no more than a small part in the lives of the Christians. Paul reminds his readers in Corinth of the time before their conversion: “You certainly remember (lit. “You know”)4 that when you were still pagans, you used to be carried away, as it were,5 by idols that cannot even speak” (v. 2). This refers to the time in the past when most of the Corinthians were pagans, and were the playthings of the dumb heathen

 1

See at 7:1, and the Introduction. 2 In ch. 13, Paul will refer to the love for one another which is, in his view, much more valuable than all these spiritual gifts put together. 3 See also Rom 1:13, 11:25, 1 Cor 10:1, 2 Cor 1:8, and 1 Thess 4:13. 4 For this formulation, see at 3:16. 5 For this translation (in Greek: ੪Ȣ ਙȞ), cf. 2 Cor 10:9.

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deities.6 Here, Paul introduces a well-known argument from the Jewish and early-Christian attacks on idolatry: see, for instance, 3 Maccabees 4:16, “The king … praised the deaf and dumb idols, which could neither speak with them nor help them”.7 In the next verse (v. 3), Paul explains what he means by this reference to the Corinthians’ past. As recently converted Christians, they have all received the Holy Spirit, and as people who are living by the Spirit,8 they confess Jesus to be their “Lord”.9 Otherwise, they would still have been Gentiles and they would have cursed Jesus Christ (“Let Jesus be cursed”). Paul is rather outspoken:10 either you confess Jesus to be “Lord” – namely, you are a Christian and live by the Holy Spirit – or you utter a curse on Jesus – namely, you are a pagan and have not received the Holy Spirit. In Paul’s view, it is essential that the Corinthians realise that as believers in Jesus Christ they all have received the Holy Spirit, and that the one and only Holy Spirit is the same for all Christians. In verses 4-6, Paul continues by saying that all spiritual gifts come from the one and only Holy Spirit, which all Christians have received. First he states that “there are various11 gifts,12 but only one Spirit” (v. 4). The Holy Spirit, which is the same for all Christians, works in them in many different ways. The next two clauses (vv. 5 and 6) meant to underline once more what was said in the first clause of verse 4. As there is only one Holy Spirit, so is there also only one Lord, Jesus Christ, and one God.13 And as there are “various gifts”, there are “many ways in which to serve the community” and “various miraculous powers”. The “many ways to serve the community” refers to all kinds of function and duty within the Christian

 6

Cf. Gal 4:8. 7 Cf. further Ps 115:4-7 (113:12-15), Hab 2:18-19, Ep Jer 7, Jub. 12:3, Jos. Asen. 8:5, 12:5, 13:11, Sib. Or. 3:31, 4:7, 9, 28, 5:84, and Aristides, Ap. 13.1. 8 Cf. Rom 8:9. 9 See also Rom 10:9, 2 Cor 4:5, and Phil 2:11. 10 Cf. Rom 9:3, 1 Cor 16:22, and Gal 1:8-9. 11 For the translation “varieties (of)” of the Greek įȚĮȚȡȑıİȚȢ, cf., e.g., 1 Chron 26:1, Philo, Sacr. 85, and Fug. 186. 12 In Greek: ȤĮȡȓıȝĮIJĮ, specific powers or properties given by God to Christians (cf. 1:7, 7:7, 12:9, 28, 30, 31, Rom 12:6; and further 1 Tim 4:14, 2 Tim 1:6, and 1 Pet 4:10). It is more or less synonymous with the Greek term ʌȞİȣȝȐIJȚțĮ, “spiritual gifts,” used in v. 1 (cf. 12:31 and 14:1). 13 See also 8:6, and cf. Eph 4:4-6.

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community, such as those of apostle, prophet and teacher.14 And the “various miraculous powers” refers to the performance of miracles, such as healing. Paul will go on to give more details of these “ways to serve” and these “miraculous powers” in verses 8-10. At the end of verse 6, Paul stresses that it is God himself who “activates all this in everyone”; the fact that Christians have received spiritual gifts and specific powers is thanks to the Holy Spirit (v. 11), and ultimately thanks to God. After pointing out that the Christians have received a variety of spiritual gifts, Paul wants the Corinthians to understand that each Christian can and must use the gift or the power granted to them for the benefit of the entire Christian community: “It is given to everybody to show the powers of the Spirit for the common good” (v. 7). Literally it says: “(It is given to everybody) the manifestation of the Spirit …”. At first sight, it is not clear whether “of the Spirit” (IJȠ૨ ʌȞİȪȝĮIJȠȢ) is to be interpreted as the subject (genitivus subjectivus) or the object (genitivus objectivus) of “the manifestation” (ijĮȞȑȡȦıȚȢ). The latter seems to be the most likely interpretation, since Paul uses the same word ijĮȞȑȡȦıȚȢ in 2 Corinthians 4:2, where he speaks about missionaries who are “declaring the truth” (IJૌ ijĮȞİȡȫıİȚ IJોȢ ਕȜȘșİȓĮȢ). Christians should make manifest or use their spiritual gifts “for the common good”, that is, for the spiritual building up of the Christian community.15 In verses 8-10, Paul sums up a number of these gifts of the Spirit,16 and emphasises that it is the Holy Spirit which activates all these gifts in men: “through the Spirit … by the same Spirit … by the same Spirit … by one and the same Spirit”. The first two spiritual gifts mentioned by Paul (“to speak words of wisdom” and “to speak words of knowledge”) are barely distinguishable (v. 8). Both refer to the skill and ability of apostles and teachers to speak about and explain God’s plan of salvation, and to teach Christians how to live according to God’s will. Whereas “knowledge” (ȖȞ૵ıȚȢ) was a favourite term among the Corinthians and was regarded as one of the greatest gifts of the Holy Spirit, Paul prefers to use the term “wisdom” (ıȠijȓĮ), which is more or less synonymous with “knowledge”.17

 14

Cf., e.g., Rom 11:13, 12:7, 2 Cor 4:1, 6:3, 1 Tim 1:12, and Acts 20:24. 15 Cf. 14:26, and see also at 6:12, and 10:23. 16 Cf. Rom 12:6-8, and Acts John 106. 17 See esp. at chs. 1-4, and also 13:2, 8, 14:6, and 2 Cor 8:7.

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The next three gifts mentioned by Paul in verses 9-10a refer to the ability of some Christians to perform “miracles”, actions or events that appear inexplicable to others. Paul mentions “a powerful belief”, “the gift to heal the sick” and “to perform miracles”, respectively. The gift of “a powerful belief” (lit. “a belief”, ʌȓıIJȚȢ) does not refer to the belief common to every Christian (the belief in Jesus Christ); rather it refers to a particularly powerful faith that only some Christians received as a gift of the Holy Spirit; a gift which enabled them to perform all sorts of “miracles”. In other words: a faith that “can move mountains” (13:2).18 The gift “to heal the sick” refers to the ability of some Christians to cure sick people in an unexpected and inexplicable way.19 The term “to perform miracles”20 refer to acts of exorcism and to all manner of other events that could not be explained by rational means and were considered “supernatural”.21 Paul mentions more than once in his own letters that he himself has also performed “miracles”.22 The last four spiritual gifts mentioned by Paul in verse 10b-e have to do with the ability of some Christians to transmit and to interpret all sorts of divine messages to the members of the Christian community. Paul will return to these spiritual gifts in more detail, above all to the gifts of prophecy and glossolalia, later on in chapter 14. The gift of “prophesy” (v. 10b), that is, the ability to transmit all kinds of divine messages, played an important part in the early-Christian Church, and above all in the Christian community in Corinth.23 It also features prominently in Paul’s argument in chapters 12-14, where it is not only a main theme in chapter 14, but is also mentioned in chapters 12 and 13.24

 18

Cf. Matt 17:20, 21:21, Mark 11:23, and Acts John 106, where “examples of belief” refer to a particular powerful belief that enables people to perform miraculous deeds. 19 See also vv. 28 and 30, and see further, e.g., Acts 3:1-10, 5:12-16, 8:4-8, 9:3235, and 14:8-10. 20 See also vv. 28-29, and Gal 3:5. 21 See, e.g., Acts 8:13, 9:36-41, 16:16-18, 19:11-12, and 28:3-6. 22 See Rom 15:19, 2 Cor 12:12, and 1 Thess 1:5. 23 See also Rom 12:6, 1 Thess 5:20, Eph 2:20, 3:5, 4:11, and cf. Acts 11:27-28, 13:1, 19:6, and 21:9-11. 24 See 12:28-29, 13:2, 8-9, and cf. also 11:4-5.

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The next gift mentioned by Paul is the ability “to interpret these utterances of the Spirit” (įȚĮțȡȓıİȚȢ ʌȞİȣȝȐIJȦȞ) (v. 10c). It is usually translated as “the discernment of spirits” (NRSV), and interpreted as the gift of being able to distinguish between God-given prophecies and prophecies from evil spirits, or as the gift to discriminate or evaluate whether the prophecies are truly inspired.25 However, these interpretations do not seem to make sense, because in chapters 12-14, Paul is dealing with the gifts of the Holy Spirit, including the gift of prophecy, and there is no indication whatsoever that Paul is assuming that some prophetic utterances may be false. It is therefore much more likely that įȚĮțȡȓıİȚȢ ʌȞİȣȝȐIJȦȞ refers to the divine gift of explaining or interpreting the prophetic utterances of the Spirit.26 The Greek noun įȚȐțȡȚıȚȢ and the related verb įȚĮțȡȓȞİȚȞ used in 14:29 have a wide range of meanings, and “explaining” or “interpreting” (visions, dreams and divine portents) is certainly one of them. See, for instance, Philo, De Iosepho 93, “The chief baker welcomed Joseph’s interpretation (of the chief cupbearer’s dream)”.27 Also, for Paul, prophetic utterances required some interpretation or explanation as they were often rather ambiguous or left room for multiple interpretations. In the words of Quintus, Cicero’s brother: “dreams, … oracles and prophecies have their interpreters, as also poets cannot do without them” (Cicero, Div. 1.116; cf. 1.4). This was also true for many OT, Jewish and early-Christian prophecies, as they too were often accompanied by one or more interpretations.28 All this makes it most likely that Paul is referring to the ability of some Christians to interpret prophecies made by other Christians and to apply them to the current or future situation of the Christian community here. The last two gifts of the Spirit mentioned by Paul are the ability “to speak in tongues” and “to interpret these tongues” (v. 10de).29 Exactly what Paul is referring to is not clear. Obviously, “speaking in tongues” or

 25

See, e.g., REB, “the ability to distinguish true spirits from false.” Cf. 1 John 4:13, and Did. 11:3-12. 26 The Greek word ʌȞİȪȝĮIJĮ (lit. “spirits”) is used here in the sense of “utterances of the Spirit”; see also 14:12. 27 See also, e.g., T. Ab. 4, Philo, Ios. 90, 104, 110, 125, 143, 269, Somn. 2.7, Josephus, A.J. 8.148, C. Ap. 1.114, Diodorus Siculus, Bibl. 17.10.5, Artemidorus Daldianus, Onir. 4.1, and Stobaeus, Ecl. 4.50.95. 28 See many Qumran manuscripts, and esp. 1QpHab VII, 1-4, Josephus, B.J. 6.31215, Matt 1:21-23, 2:5-6, 13-15, 16-18, 3:1-3, etc., and cf. Luke 24:27, Acts 8:35, 21:10-14, and 28:23. 29 See also 12:28-30, 13:1, 8, 14:2-28, and cf. Acts 10:46, and 19:6.

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“glossolalia” does not refer to the ability to speak another, foreign language, as is the case in the story of Acts 2:4-13. It is more likely that somebody who “spoke in tongues” uttered a string of unfamiliar sounds or a series of non-existent words in a state of complete ecstasy, and that these utterances could not be understood by others without some explanation. In this way, one could pray, sing or give thanks to God with words or sounds that were totally incomprehensible to other members of the Christian community.30 Certainly, “speaking in tongues” might include a divine message, but the exact content of the message would remain obscure unless it was explained by someone, whereupon it might be of some benefit to the Christian community.31 Paul will return to the spiritual gifts of “speaking in tongues” and “interpreting these tongues” in chapter 14, where he presents a sharp contrast between “prophecy” and “glossolalia”. At the end of this paragraph, Paul reminds his readers in Corinth once again that “all these gifts are activated by one and the same Spirit and distributed to each individual at will” (v. 11). Of course, it is God himself “who activates all this in everyone” (v. 6), but he does so by means of the Holy Spirit.32 The gift somebody receives is not their own choice, but depends on the Holy Spirit, which distributes the gifts “to each individual at will”.

The Christian community united in diversity: 12:12-31 (12) For just as the human body is a unity of many parts, and together all the parts of the body, many though they are, make up one body; so it is with Christ. (13) For all of us, whether Jews or Greeks, slaves or free, have been baptised with the one Spirit to become one body; that one Spirit has been poured out on all of us. (14) The human body does not consist of a single part but of many. (15) Suppose the foot were to say: “I am not a hand, so I do not belong to the body”, would it cease to be part of the body for that reason? (16) And suppose the ear were to say: “I am not an eye, so I do not belong to the body”, would it cease to be part of the body for that reason? (17) If the whole body consisted of nothing but an eye, how would it hear? If it consisted of nothing but an ear, how could it smell? (18) But, in fact, God has given each of the parts its place in the body, just as he wanted. (19) If all the parts were the same, how could there be a body? (20) Instead, there are many different parts which are united

 30

See 14:14-16. 31 See 14:2-28. 32 Cf. Rom 12:3-8, and Eph 4:7-12.

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Part Six in one body. (21) The eye cannot say to the hand: “I do not need you”, or the head to the feet: “I do not need you”. (22) Quite the contrary: those parts of the body which seem to be insignificant, turn out to be indispensable; (23) and those parts of the body which we regard as less honourable, are treated by us with special honour; our less respectable parts are treated with greater respect, (24) whereas our respectable parts need no special treatment. But God has composed the body in such a way that he has given special honour to those parts that are in need of special treatment; (25) for there should not be division in the body, but all parts should feel the same concern for one another. (26) If one part suffers, all parts share together in the suffering; if one part is praised, all parts share together in the joy. (27) Now you are together the body of Christ, and each of you is a part of it. (28) And God has given us our place in the community: first, apostles, second, prophets, thirdly, teachers; then people who have the gift to perform miracles, then people who have the gift to heal the sick or the ability to help others, or the ability to assist others, or the ability to speak in tongues. (29) Are all of us apostles? Are all of us prophets? Are all of us teachers? Do all of us possess the gift of performing miracles? (30) Do all of us have the gift to heal the sick? Do all of us have the ability to speak in tongues? Do all of us have the ability to interpret these tongues? (31) Focus with heart and soul on the most important gifts! And besides, I will show you a far better way of life.

Having argued that there are many spiritual gifts, all of which come from one and the same Holy Spirit, Paul compares all this with the various parts of the human body. The Christian community is also a kind of “body”, namely “the body of Christ”, and both consist of many members or parts which together form a unity (vv. 12-13 and 27). No part can argue its way out (vv. 15-16) or exclude another (v. 21), for God has given each part its specific place and function in the body (vv. 14 and 17-20). According to God’s will, parts that at first sight seem less important or less respectable are nonetheless indispensible or are treated by us with special honour (vv. 22-24a). For God does not want any jealousy or division between the parts of the body; instead he wants all parts to take care of each other in sickness or in health (vv. 24b-26). Finally, Paul applies the image of the human body with all its different parts to the situation of his readers in Corinth, who are people with many different abilities and gifts, but who are all part of the one “body of Christ” (vv. 28-30). In the last verse of this chapter, Paul first calls on the Corinthians to “focus on the most important gifts” (v. 31a),33 and then he

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In chapter 14, Paul will show the Corinthians which gifts are “the most important”.

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promises to show them “a far better way of life” than one that is completely focused on the gifts of the Spirit (v. 31b). This “better way of life” will be extensively depicted by Paul in the next chapter. In this paragraph, Paul wants his readers in Corinth to understand each Christian’s role and place within the community. He does so by comparing the Christian community to a human body with its different parts: “For just as the human body is a unity of many parts, and together all the parts of the body, many though they are, make up one body, so it is with Christ”, that is, “the body of Christ”, or the Christian community (v.12).34 Here, Paul is making use of an image which was very popular at the time to illustrate instances of “unity in diversity”. For instance, the cosmos or universe, the parts of which – including human beings – are considered to be related to and connected with each other, was often compared to the human body: “All that you see … is a unity (unum est): we are parts of a large body (membra sumus corporis magni)”.35 Nations and cities where people lived together were also often compared to the human body: “It is sinful to cause harm to your fatherland, and also to cause harm to one of your fellow citizens, since he is a part of your fatherland … What will happen, if the hands will do harm to the feet, or the eyes to the hands? Just as all parts of the body agree that, for the benefit of the whole, not a single part should be hurt, so all people take care of each individual, since they are born to be a unity”.36 A well-known fable circulated in Paul’s day, and was probably also known to Paul himself. It concerned the rebellion of a number of parts of the human body against the stomach, which was considered to be rather lazy and unnecessary. The fable was attributed to Menenius Agrippa, who would have told it in Rome in 494 B.C.E. in order to prevent a revolt against the authorities. The Roman author Livy gives a vivid description of its contents: “In the time that the parts of the human body did not agree with one another … some of them were indignant about the fact that they had to work hard and to do their best to provide the stomach with so many things, whereas in their midst the stomach itself took its rest and enjoyed

 34

See v. 27, and see also at 6:15, 10:17, and 11:29. 35 Seneca, Ep. 95.52. See also Philo, Migr. 178, Seneca, Ep. 92.30, Cicero, Div. 2.33-34, Epictetus, Diss. 1.14.2, 1.14.5, Sextus Empiricus, Math. 5.43-44, 9.79-80, Plotinus, Enn. 4.4.36, 4.5.3, etc. 36 Seneca, Ira 2.31.7. See also Plato, Resp. 462CD, 556E, and Aristotle, Pol. 5.3 (1302b-1303a).

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the food they gave to it. Therefore, they agreed that the hands would not bring the food to the mouth any longer, that the mouth would not accept the food any longer and that the teeth would not chew the food any longer. So, in their anger, they wanted the stomach to starve and to bring it down, but the parts of the body themselves and, as a consequence, the entire body fell into in a deep state of dissolution. Thus, it became clear that even the stomach was not a useless part of the body, and that just as it was fed itself, it also fed the other parts of the body”.37 In short, how people should behave in a community such as the world, the fatherland or the city was often illustrated by an image of the human body with all its different parts.38 In his (later) letter to the Romans, Paul once again referred to this image to describe the role of the various spiritual gifts and functions within the Christian community, namely, in Romans 12:4-8.39 We also read something similar in the writings of the so-called “Apostolic Fathers”: “The leaders of the community cannot exist without the common people, and the common people cannot exist without their leaders … Let us take our body: the head is nothing without the feet, and the feet are nothing without the head, and the smallest parts of our body are necessary and valuable to the whole body. All parts work together and are united in service for the benefit of each other to preserve the whole body. Let, therefore, our whole body be preserved as parts of Christ Jesus, and let each one be subservient to his neighbour”.40 From all this we can conclude that Paul was the first to compare the Christian community to the human body. It is a good analogy to support his argument in chapters 12-14, where he attempts to dampen the Corinthians’ enthusiasm for the gifts of the Spirit, that of “speaking in tongues” in particular. In verse 13, Paul emphasises once again (see 10:17) that Christians are united in one “body”; one community. When they converted, became

 37

Urb. 2.32.9-11. Cf. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Ant. rom. 6.86. 38 See further, e.g., Xenophon, Mem. 2.3.18, Plutarch, Sol. 18.6 (Vit. par. 88C), Marcus Aurelius, Med. 2.1, 7.13, Epictetus, Diss. 2.10.3-4, and Cicero, Off. 3.5.22. 39 In the deutero-Pauline letters to the Colossians and the Ephesians, we find the same image of the body used to describe the Christian community. But this time, it is introduced to emphasize that the Christians as parts of “the body of Christ” should be obedient to the head of the body, that is, to Jesus Christ: see Col 1:18, 24, 2:19, 3:15, Eph 1:22-23, 4:4, 12, 16, 5:23, and 29-30. 40 1 Clem. 37:4-38:1. Cf. 1 Clem. 46:7, Ign. Smyrn. 1:2, Herm. Sim. 9.13.5, 9.13.7, 9.17.5, 9.18.3-4, and see also Justin, Dial. 42.3.

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believers in Jesus Christ and were baptised, all of them received that same Holy Spirit;41 they were “baptised with (or “in”)42 the one Spirit”, and “that one Spirit has been poured out on all of us” (lit. “we were all given that one Spirit to drink”).43 As such “all of us” have become “one body”, “whether Jews or Greeks, slaves or free”. Within the Christian community, all members are equal, no matter what their position or place in society, no matter what their birth or gender.44 In verses 14-26, Paul elaborates on the image of the human body in more detail. He starts by saying that “the human body does not consist of a single part, but of many” (v. 14).45 The human body is composed of many different parts and is indivisible; there is no single part that can get away from it. Paul continues with two examples: “Suppose the foot were to say: ‘I am not a hand, so I do not belong to the body,’ would it cease to be part of the body for that reason? And suppose the ear were to say: ‘I am not an eye, so I do not belong to the body,’ would it cease to be part of the body for that reason?” (vv. 15-16). That is, if some body parts, namely, the foot and the ear, were to find themselves, as it were, inferior to other parts such as the hand and the eye46 and were afraid that they had no right to be part of the body, they would nevertheless remain parts of the body. All the parts of the body belong to the body, no single part is dispensable. As Paul continues in verse 17, if the body were to consist of only one part, that is, for instance, “If the whole body consisted of nothing but an eye, how would it hear (lit. “where would the sense of hearing be”)? If it consisted of nothing but an ear, how would it smell (lit. “where would the sense of smell be”)?”47 Every part of the human body has its place and function, or, in the words of verse 18: “But, in fact,48 God has given the parts, each one of them its place in the body, just as he wanted”. The

 41

Cf. also Gal 3:2. 42 Cf. Mark 1:8, John 1:33, Acts 1:5, and 11:16. 43 For this formulation, cf. Isa 29:10 LXX, Sir 15:3, Philo, Post. 132, and 151. 44 See also at 7:19. 45 Cf. vv. 12 and 20. 46 In the Graeco-Roman world, the eyes were considered more important than the ears: see, e.g., Plato, Tim. 45B, Maximus Tyrius, Diss. 40.2, Diogenes Laertius, Vit. phil. 4.51, and Philo, Spec. 3.192, “The eyes … hold the first and highest rank.” Most probably, something similar was true for the hands compared with the feet. 47 For this rhetorical style (“where … where …?”), see at 1:20. 48 The words “But, in fact” (lit. “But now”), ȞȣȞ੿ įȑ, are meant to introduce the real situation: cf. 12:20, 15:20, Heb 8:6, and 9:26; and see also 1 Cor 13:13.

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reality is that the human body consists of many different parts, and that it is God himself who wanted it to be so and who gave each part its appointed place. He is the Creator of everything in heaven and on earth, and everything exists thanks to the sovereign will of God.49 In the verses which follow, Paul argues that all these parts which are united in one body are different to one another, and that they must be different: for “if all parts were the same, how could there be a body (lit. “where is the body”50)?” (v. 19). The body is composed of a number of different parts: “But, in fact,51 there are many different parts which are united in one body” (v. 20). Paul wants to emphasise once again that all these parts, which are united in one body, are different. Paul continues his argument by raising the question of a potential ranking of all these different parts of the body. He introduces this subject by giving two examples: “The eye cannot say to the hand: ‘I do not need you’, or the head to the feet: ‘I do not need you’ (v. 21). It was not just the eyes that were considered to be more important parts of the body,52 the same was true for the head or the face, and Plato referred to the head as to “the most divine part of our body”.53 Even those parts of the body regarded by people as being more important cannot do without other parts of the body like the hands or the feet, and just as a feeling of inferiority would be misplaced for some of the less glamorous parts of the body (see vv. 1516), the same would be true in the case of a feeling of superiority by some other parts. All parts of the human body have a function, and no single part can do without the others. Once again, in verses 22-24a, Paul emphasises that all the parts of the body are equal in rank; no single part ranks above another. According to Paul, those parts of the body that are less valued than others, are “compensated” in some way or another in the practice of everyday life, and thus become equal in rank to the other parts.

 49

Cf. Rom 9:20-21, Rev 4:11, and see also 1 Cor 15:38. 50 For this formulation (“where …?”), see at v. 17 and at 1:20. 51 For the introductory words “But, in fact,” see at v. 18. 52 See at v. 16. 53 Tim. 44D. See also, e.g., Aristotle, Part. an. 4.5 (681b), Diodorus Siculus, Bibl. 20.63.3, Ps.-Socrates (Speusippus), Ep. 31, Ps.-Socrates (Xenocrates), Ep. 32.1, Cicero, Off. 1.35.126, Philo, Fug. 182, Spec. 4.123, and Plotinus, Enn. 3.2.8.

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In the first place, “those parts of the body which seem to be insignificant (lit. “which seem to be weaker”54), turn out to be indispensable” (v. 22). Paul does not elaborate on which parts of the body he is thinking of, but he may have been thinking of the teeth, or the fingers and toes. These are parts which may seem to be of minor importance compared to more “vital” parts, such as the head, the heart or the lungs, but we cannot do without them. In the second place, there are parts of the body that may not be highly prized, but which are well taken care of in the practice of everyday life, so that in the end, they receive as much honour and respect as other parts. As a consequence, they are equal to those parts which are highly valued by their very nature. In other words, “those parts of the body which we regard as less honourable are treated by us with special honour; our less respectable parts are treated with greater respect, whereas our respectable parts need no special treatment” (vv. 23-24a). The parts of the body “which we regard as less honourable” refers to those parts of the body that have to do with digestion, defecation and urination, or which, in the words of Cicero “are given to us for the needs of nature (partes corporis ad naturae necessitatem datae)”.55 Paul states that these parts “are treated by us with special honour”,56 probably referring to the fact that people frequently wash and clean these parts and cover them with all kinds of clothes. The “less respectable parts” (lit. “the parts we are ashamed of”)57 refer to the genitals.58 These too “are treated with greater respect”; Paul is probably thinking of the variety of clothes used to cover them, which can be regarded as a kind of respect or honour. In contrast to these “less respectable parts” the “respectable parts” “need no special treatment”.

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For “weak,” ਕıșİȞȒȢ, in the sense of “small” or “insignificant,” see also Herodotus, Hist. 2.25.4, 3.23.3, Plutarch. Amic. mult. 2 (Mor. 93F), Brut. an. 7 (Mor. 990D), Epictetus, Diss. 1.1.19, and Plotinus, Enn. 4.4.13. 55 Off. 1.35.126. See also Aristotle, Part. an. 3.10 (672b), and Xenophon, Mem. 1.4.6. 56 For this formulation, see also Prov. 12:9, Esth 1:20, and cf. Thucydides, Hist. 6.89.2. 57 In Greek: IJ੹ ਕıȤȒȝȠȞĮ. This word and words of the same root are often used in the context of sexual activities: see, e.g., Gen 34:7 LXX, Exod 20:26, Lev 18:6-20, Deut 24:1, Rom 1:27, Rev 16:15, Philo, Decal. 169, Plutarch, Apoph. lac. (unknown) 65 (Mor. 236B), Lac. Apoph. (unknown) 26 (Mor. 242C), Amat. 5 (Mor. 751E), and Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 40.29. 58 Cf. Ps.-Longinus, Subl. 43.5.

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In other words, all the parts of the body ultimately receive the same honour and respect one way or another, either by nature or by some extra care from their owners. This very fact makes all parts of the body equal in rank. Besides, as Paul continues in verse 24b, all this is according to God’s plan, for “God has composed the body in such a way that he has given special honour to those parts that are in need of special treatment”.59 When people provide extra care for these parts, they are complying with God’s intentions. For it is God himself who has put all parts together into one body, and who wanted those parts less valued in nature to receive some extra care. He has done this in order to make all parts of the body equal in rank: not a single part can be dispensed with and each part is equally important. For it was God’s will that there should be equality between the different parts of the body because, only this way will there be no room for jealousy, hate or “division” among the parts of the body (v. 25a). On the contrary: there will be a shared feeling of solidarity between them, and “all parts should feel the same concern for one another” (v. 25b). Thus, this discourse on the human body and its various parts results in some phrases about fellowship and solidarity in verse 26. It was God’s plan when he created the human body that all parts should feel connected to one another in a positive way: “If one part suffers, all parts share together in the suffering; if one part is praised, all parts share together in the joy”. These two examples are meant as illustrations of the connection between all parts of the body, a connection referred to by the Stoics with the term “sympathy”: as in the cosmos and in society, in the human body all parts are connected with each other and show serious attention to each other. A fine illustration of all this already existed in Plato’s Respublica 462CD, “When somebody is injured in his finger … the whole body and soul feels the pain … and it is true as to each other part of man: it feels pain when a part feels pain and it feels joy when a part gets better again”.60 The entire passage about the human body and the variety of its parts is used by Paul to stress the equality in rank of the different parts and the unity and solidarity between all these parts. In verses 27-30, Paul applies the idea of the human body and its different parts to the situation in the Christian community (in Corinth): “Now you are together the body of Christ, and each of you is a part of it” (v. 27). All Christians “have been baptised with the one Spirit to become one body”

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Cf. also v. 18. 60 Cf. Sextus Empiricus, Math. 9.80.

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(v. 13), and that “one body” is “the body of Christ”.61 That is, the Christians in Corinth are (or should be) a community, a fellowship or a “body” of like-minded people, of people who all believe in Jesus Christ and who are connected with each other and with Jesus Christ.62 Each individual Christian is, as it were, a part of “the body of Christ”, a part of the Christian community. At this point in his argument, Paul finds it appropriate to apply all that he has said about the human body and its different parts to the Christian community and its members, with their variety of spiritual gifts, the main theme of chapters 12-14. First, Paul mentions a number of spiritual gifts without commenting on any ranking.63 He partly reverts to the gifts he mentioned previously in verses 8-10: “God has given us our place in the community: … apostles … prophets … teachers … people who have the gift to perform miracles … people who have the gift to heal the sick … or the ability to help others … or the ability to assist others … or the ability to speak in tongues” (v. 28). This time, Paul mentions not only the gift or function of “prophets”, but also those of “apostles” and “teachers”. In the early Christian Church, all three belonged closely together,64 and one and the same person could even perform more than one of these three functions.65 Nevertheless, there were slight differences between these functions. An “apostle” was someone sent by a Christian community to proclaim the Gospel elsewhere;66 a “prophet” was someone who transmitted all kinds of divine messages;67 and a “teacher” was someone who instructed people in the Christian faith and its moral consequences.68 In addition to the gifts “to perform miracles”, “to heal sick people” and “to speak in tongues”, already mentioned in verses 9-10, Paul includes “to

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This formulation to describe the (local) Christian community is unique in the letters of Paul. It is found another time in the deutero-Pauline letter to the Ephesians (Eph 4:12). See also at 1 Cor 12:12. 62 Cf. Rom 12:5. 63 For other lists of things without any ranking introduced by words like “first … second … thirdly … then … then,” etc., see also, e.g., Plato, Resp. 358C, Herodotus, Hist. 3.22.1-3, Plutarch, Reg. imp. apophth. (Caesar Augustus) 3 (Mor. 207B), Did. 16:6, Justin, 1 Apol. 24.1, 25.1, and 26.1. 64 See, e.g., Acts 13:1, Eph 4:11, Did. 13:2, 15:1-2, Herm. Vis. 3.5.1, Sim. 9.15.4, 9.16.5, and 9.25.2. 65 See, e.g., 2 Tim 1:11. 66 See also at 9:5. 67 See also at 11:4. 68 See also 14:6, 26, and Rom 12:7.

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help others” and “to assist others” in his list of spiritual gifts. The first, that of “helping (others)”, refers to Christians who give practical support to people (Christians) in need, such as the poor or the sick or widows.69 It is the same as the gift of ministry, generosity or charity as mentioned in Romans 12:7-8.70 The second gift, that of “assisting (others)”, refers to Christians who have the ability to guide or counsel fellow Christians or to address them if their behaviour is out of line.71 It is the same gift as that of exhortation, counselling or guiding mentioned in Romans 12:8. Also in 1 Thessalonians 5:12, Paul refers to Christians who are working hard to guide and admonish the members of the local Christian community. Just as there are many different parts of the human body, so there are many people within the Christian community with a variety of spiritual gifts. There is more than one spiritual gift, and not all believers in Christ will have the same spiritual gift, nor will some of them have all these gifts at the same time. That is, not all Christians are apostles, prophets, or teachers; not all of them perform miracles or can heal sick people, and not all of them can speak in tongues or have the ability to interpret these tongues (vv. 29-30). This time, Paul does not mention the gifts of “helping” and “assisting” fellow Christians. Instead, he adds the gift of “interpreting these tongues”,72 which will play an important role in chapter 14. For the moment, Paul wants the Corinthian Christians to realise that all the spiritual gifts are necessary and that they are equal in rank. All of them find their origin in one and the same Spirit, therefore it is wrong to value some gifts more than others, which a number of the Corinthians seem to do. Although, according to Paul, all spiritual gifts are equal in rank, he calls on the Corinthians to “focus with heart and soul on the most important gifts” (v. 31a). At first sight, this seems paradoxical, but this time Paul has the effect of the spiritual gifts on the welfare of the Christian community in

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For the meaning of the Greek term translated by “helping (others),” ਕȞIJȚȜȒȝȥİȚȢ, see also Ps 22:19 (21:20), 83:8 (82:9), 89:18 (88:19), 108:8 (107:9), Sir 11:12, 51:7, 2 Macc 8:19, 15:7, 3 Macc. 3:10, 5:50, Pss. Sol. 7:10, Acts 20:35, and Herm. Vis. 3.9.2. 70 See also at 1 Cor 13:3. 71 Cf. Acts John 106. For the meaning of the Greek term translated by “assisting (others),” țȣȕİȡȞȒıİȚȢ, see also, e.g., Prov 11:14, 24:6, Plutarch, Adol. poet. aud. 14 (Mor. 37B), Quaest. conv. 9.14.7 (Mor. 746B), and Amat. 16 (Mor. 758D). 72 Cf. v. 10.

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mind, not the gifts as such. Some gifts will have a beneficial effect on the members of the Christian community, or even on outsiders, whereas other gifts will not have such an effect. For Paul, the first group of gifts is the more important, and so he admonishes his readers in Corinth to “focus with heart and soul on73 the most important gifts”. They should take care that these more important gifts are given more attention within the Corinthian community.74 Paul will go on to deal with these gifts in detail in chapter 14, and he will make it clear to the Corinthian Christians which gifts are the more important and why, but for now75 Paul wants to show them “a far better way of life” (v. 31b). In the next chapter, Paul will make clear what he means by this “way of life”, namely, the love for one another, which, in particular, builds up the Christian community.76 This “way of life” is more important than any spiritual gift, and is therefore “far better”.77

The love of one another as the “far better way of life”: 13:1-13 (1) I may speak in the tongues of human beings and of angels, but if I do not have love, I am nothing but a resounding brass or a clanging cymbal. (2) I may have the gift of prophecy, I may know all the divine secrets, I may have faith enough to move mountains, but if I have no love, I am nothing. (3) I may give away all my possessions, I may give my body to be burnt, but if I have no love, it will not benefit me. (4) Love is patient and kind. Love is not envious, boastful or arrogant; (5) it is not rude, selfish, irritable, or resentful. (6) It does not rejoice in doing wrong but does rejoice in leading a virtuous life. (7) It bears all things, and keeps believing, hoping and enduring, whatever happens.

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For this meaning of the Greek verb ȗȘȜȠ૨Ȟ, translated by “to focus with heart and soul on,” see, e.g., Josephus, A.J. 6.343, 20.41, 20.47, Philo, Spec. 4.50, Virt. 194, Plutarch, Alex. 2.9 (Vit. par. 665D), Diodorus Siculus, Bibl. 1.81.4, 4.71.1, Ps.-Diogenes, Ep. 31.4; and cf. also Sir 51:18, Gal 1:14, Acts 21:20, and 1 Pet 3:13. 74 Cf. 14:1, 12, and 39. 75 Or “And besides,” țĮ੿ ਩IJȚ (lit. “and yet”); cf., e.g., Tob 5:16, Heb 11:32, 2 Clem. 14:2, Epictetus, Frg. 1. 76 See also 8:1. 77 In Greek: țĮș’ ਫ਼ʌİȡȕȠȜȒȞ, lit. “exceedingly,” that is, “exceedingly important.” Cf. Rom 7:13, 2 Cor 1:8, 4:17, Gal 1:13, and 4 Macc. 3:18.

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Part Six (8) Love will never come to an end. Prophecies will cease, speaking in tongues will fade away, and knowledge will cease. (9) For our knowledge is limited and our prophecies are limited, (10) and when what is complete comes, what is limited will disappear. (11) When I was a child, I talked like a child, I thought like a child, and I reasoned like a child. But when I became a man, I left my childish ways behind me. (12) Now, we look into a mirror and see only images, but then we will see face to face; now, our knowledge is limited, but then I shall know as I am known by God. (13) But faith, hope and love will last forever, but the greatest of these is love.

In this chapter, Paul gives a detailed description of “the far better way of life” announced by him in the last verse of the previous chapter (12:31b). This way of life turns out to be characterised by the love of one another. First, Paul asserts that the gifts of the Spirit are of no value at all compared to this love of one’s neighbour (vv. 1-3). Next, he mentions a number of qualities of this love, among which patience, kindness and perseverance are central (vv. 4-7). Finally, he points to the imperishable nature of people’s love for one another as over and above the spiritual gifts, which are all limited or incomplete and which will disappear at the end of times (vv. 8-12). At the end of this “ode to the love of one another”, he mentions faith, hope and love as the main characteristics of a truly Christian life, and he emphasises once more that, of these, the love of one’s neighbour is the greatest (v. 13). In the first three verses of this chapter, Paul wants the Corinthian Christians to realise that the spiritual gifts valued so highly by a number of them are in fact nothing compared to “love”, that is, their love for one another. Loving one another78 is the main characteristic of Christians living according to the will of God.79 This is illustrated by means of three parallel sentences in verses 1-3. First, in contrast to the opinion of some Corinthians, Paul tells them that “speaking in tongues” or “glossolalia”80 has little or no value. For “I81 may speak in the tongues of human beings and of angels, but if I do not have love, I am nothing but a resounding brass or a clanging cymbal” (v. 1). In speaking of “the tongues of men”, Paul is referring to the many different languages that are spoken by people

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“Having love” (vv. 1, 2, and 3) refers to an activity, namely, to loving other people and living in the service of all. See also, e.g., 9:19, 2 Cor 2:4, Phil 2:2, and cf. John 13:35, 15:13, Col 1:4, and 1 Pet 4:8. 79 Cf. Rom 13:8-10, and Gal 5:13-14. 80 See at 12:10 and 12:28, 30. 81 The first person singular (“I”) is used generically: it stands for “anyone,” or “all people (Christians).” Cf. also, e.g., 14:14-15.

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all over the world.82 “The tongues of angels” refers to the language spoken in heaven, for it was thought that there a kind of celestial language existed which was spoken by the angels in heaven. See, for instance, Testament of Job 48:3 (“the language of angels”), and 49:2 (“the language of the [heavenly] powers”).83 Paul assures the Corinthians that even if he could speak all the languages spoken on earth and in heaven, including that of glossolalia,84 it would all be meaningless if his life were not guided by the love of his neighbour. For then he would be “nothing but a resounding brass or a clanging cymbal”. Both “brass” (or “bronze”) and “cymbal” refer to pairs of round plates which could be struck together to make a resonant ringing sound.85 The context (see vv. 2 and 3) makes it clear that Paul means something negative by this images of “a resounding brass” and “a clanging cymbal”. This is in line with other Graeco-Roman authors, who used these metaphors to dismiss other people whom they regarded as foolish or empty headed. Plato, for instance, compares philosophers who answer simple questions with long and meaningless speeches to “bronze objects that when struck resound for a long time” (Prot. 329A), and it was popular among Stoic philosophers to dismiss people by comparing them with all kinds of musical instrument. The Cynic Diogenes, for instance, compared some people who spoke nicely but did not live accordingly to a harp: “like the harp they neither see nor hear”.86 Similarly, Paul regards the ability to speak “the tongues of human beings and of angels”, including glossolalia, as nothing more than producing hollow sounds, and thus completely

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Cf. also 14:10. 83 See also 50:1-2, 52:7, Apoc. Zeph. 8:4 (13:3), and the Bk. Bart. fol. 6b (“God’s language”), and 11b (“the celestial language”). Also pagan authors were of the opinion that human beings and gods spoke different languages: see, e.g., Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 10.23, “Do you think that Apollo speaks Attic or Doric? Or that human beings and gods speak the same language?” 84 Paul does not consider glossolalia a celestial language, as some of the Corinthians might have done; he just includes it in the “tongues of human beings and of angels,” and regards it as one of the many different languages there are in this world. 85 Cf. 1 Chron 15:19, and Josephus, A.J. 7.306. See further, e.g., Herodotus, Hist. 4.200.3, Plato, Prot. 329A, Theocritus, Id. 2.36, Plotinus, Enn. 4.5.5.16, and Sib. Or. 8:114. 86 According to Diogenes Laertius, Vit. phil. 6.64; see further 7.173, and Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 8.2.

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senseless unless accompanied by leading a life guided by the love of one’s neighbour.87 In verse 2, Paul gives a second example of the poor value of the gifts of the Spirit: “I may have the gift of prophecy, I may know all the divine secrets, I may have faith enough to move mountains, but if I have no love, I am nothing”. If a Christian possesses numerous spiritual gifts but does not lead a life guided by the love of one another, his life will be “nothing” and of no significance.88 The three spiritual gifts mentioned by Paul in this verse, namely, those of prophecy, knowledge of the divine secrets (that is of parts of God’s plan of salvation),89 and powerful belief, have already been mentioned in 12:8-10 (cf. 12:28-29). The gift of “a powerful belief” refers to a particular sort of faith received by some Christians which enabled them to perform “miracles”.90 It is a faith “to move mountains”, and this expression reminds us of a number of passages in the Gospels. See, for instance, Mark 11:23, “Truly I (Jesus) tell you: if anyone says to this mountain, ‘Rise from your place and throw yourself into the sea,’ and … believes that what he says will happen, it will be done for you”.91 It is not very plausible, however, that Paul is referring to a saying of Jesus that was transmitted in the early Church. For one thing, the terminology and grammatical construction used by Paul are completely different to those in the Gospels: the latter speak about a mountain that should “rise” and “throw itself into the sea” (Mark 11:23, and Matt 21:21) or should “move from here to there” (ȝİIJĮȕĮȓȞİȚȞ, Matt 17:20), whereas Paul uses the formulation “to move (ȝİșȚıIJȐȞĮȚ) mountains”. It is therefore much more likely that Paul is introducing a phrase traditional in Jewish and early Christian circles and used to describe supernatural powers – usually God’s or a demon’s. In the Testament of Solomon 23:1, for instance, the demon Ephippas says that he can “move (ȝİIJĮıIJોȞĮȚ) mountains, transport houses and throw down kings”, and in Shepherd of Hermas, Visions 1.3.4, we read about God, who, “by his mighty power … changes (ȝİșȚıIJȐȞİȚ) the heavens, the mountains, the hills and the seas … for his chosen ones”.92 Paul introduces this phrase in order to underline the idea that Christians who have a

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Cf. also 14:6. 88 For this formulation, cf. 7:19, and 8:4. 89 For these “divine secrets,” see also at 2:1, 7, 4:1, 14:2, and 15:51. 90 See also at 12:9. 91 Cf. Matt 17:20, 21:21, and see also Gos. Thom. 48, and 106. 92 See also Isa 54:10, “the mountains may move (ȝİIJĮıIJȒıİıșĮȚ).”

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powerful belief and are, as it were, able to “move mountains”, are “nothing” if their lives are not guided by love of their neighbour. In order to stress once more the superlative quality of love for one another, Paul gives a third and more extreme example: “I may give away all my possessions, I may give my body to be burnt, but if I have no love, it will not benefit me” (v. 3). Giving away or selling all one’s possessions or even sacrificing oneself “will not benefit”93 a person if their life is not guided by love for their neighbour. Even these actions will be of no benefit if the actor lacks love for his fellow man. The act of “giving away” (lit. “feeding”, by putting little bits of food into someone’s mouth) one’s possessions refers to a practice well-known in the early Church but also in pagan circles: rich people would sometimes sell some of their possessions and distribute the money among their fellow Christians or fellow citizens.94 Even the act of “giving one’s body to be burnt” would be of no benefit, if it were done without love for others. There is a text-critical problem in this verse: some Greek manuscripts read “… that I may be burnt”, ੆ȞĮ țĮȣșȒıȠȝĮȚ, whereas some others read “that I may boast”, ੆ȞĮ țĮȣȤȒıȦȝĮȚ. The first reading is more likely to be the original one. For one thing, it is the grammatically more difficult reading (lectio difficilior), since a subjunctive can be expected after ੆ȞĮ, rather than a future indicative;95 second, a scribe may have changed țĮȣșȒıȠȝĮȚ into țĮȣȤȒıȦȝĮȚ, either accidentally or deliberately, since the verb țĮȣȤ઼ıșĮȚ plays such an important role in the letters of Paul. A third alternative is that a conclusive argument for the reading țĮȣșȒıȠȝĮȚ is the construction of the entire phrase: “I may give (or “surrender”) my body to be burnt”. There does not seem to be a single instance in the whole of Greek literature of the construction of “giving one’s body” (ʌĮȡĮįȓįȠȞĮȚ IJઁ ı૵ȝĮ) in an absolute sense, that is, without the adding of information as to what the body is given or surrendered. So we read in the Greek text of Daniel 3:28 (3:95 LXX), that Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego “have given their bodies to the fire (ʌĮȡȑįȦțĮȞ IJ੹ ıȫȝĮIJĮ Į੝IJ૵Ȟ İੁȢ ਥȝʌȣȡȚıȝȩȞ)”. Similarly, in Josephus, Bellum judaicum 7.355, it is told how some people “give their bodies to the fire” and in Plutarch, Brutus

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For this formulation, cf., e.g., Mark 8:36, and Herm. Sim. 9.13.2. 94 See, e.g., Acts 2:45, 4:32-37, Matt 19:21, Luke 12:33, 14:33, Ps.-Clem. Hom. 12.32.3, and cf. 1 Clem. 55:2, Diogenes Laertius, Vit. phil. 6.87, Ps.-Diogenes, Ep. 9, and 38.5. 95 But see, e.g., 9:18, and Gal 2:4.

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17.6 (Vit. par. 991F), Caesar is said to “have given his body to the strokes (of the swords)”.96 All this makes it highly likely that, after the words “I may give my body” in 1 Corinthians 13:3, something is said to expresses what will happen to that body, that is, something that has to do with the death of the person in question. In this context, a phrase like “to be burnt” makes more sense than a phrase like “to boast”. But to what is Paul referring when he uses the phrase “giving one’s body to be burnt”? Although Christians were sometimes persecuted in Paul’s day, martyrdom by burning did not yet exist as a punishment for their perceived crimes. Neither is it likely that Paul was thinking of selfimmolation, or suicide by burning, instances of which did occur from time to time in his lifetime.97 It therefore seems more likely that Paul was referring to the widespread ideal and reality of the virtuous and righteous man prepared to suffer and even to die (by burning) for his beliefs and convictions. So we read, for instance, in Seneca, Epistulae morales 66.21, that a good and virtuous man runs after everything beautiful, “even if there is a hangman, a torturer, or a fire; he will persist and will think about what he must do, not what he must suffer”. And in Philostratus, Vita Apollonii 7.14, we read that the truly wise man is prepared to die for his ideals: “when someone wants to undermine these ideals, nothing can take him down, neither fire nor axe”.98 Thus, the phenomenon of people prepared to die (by burning) for their convictions and beliefs was not unknown at the time, but for Paul it is crystal clear: even though someone may be prepared to “give his body to be burnt”, it will not benefit him if his action does not go hand in hand with love of his neighbour. In verses 4-7, Paul mentions a number of features of this love of one’s neighbour.99 First of all, such a love is “patient and kind” (v. 4). That is, Christians who are guided by love for one another are people who are full of patience and kindness. Patience and kindness are characteristics that

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See further Maximus Tyrius, Diss. 1.9 (“giving his body to the volcano Etna”), and Corp. herm. 1.22 (“giving their bodies to the death”). 97 See, e.g., Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 8.34-35, Strabo, Geogr. 15.1.65, and Lucian, Peregr. 98 See further, e.g., Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 4.32, 8.16, 10.26, Cicero, Fin. 2.27.88, Tusc. 2.7.17, 2.22.52, 5.26.73, Seneca, Ep. 14.2, 24.3, 24.5, 37.1, 67.3, 67.6, and 67.16. But see also Dan 3:19-23, 2 Macc 7:5, 4 Macc. 6:24-26, 7:12, L.A.B. 6, Josephus, A.J. 17.167, and B.J. 1.655. 99 A somewhat similar list is found in 1 Clem. 49:5.

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belong together and have to do with forgiveness, gentleness and longsuffering.100 Paul continues by saying that “love is not envious, boastful or arrogant” (v. 4). Christians who are full of love for one another, are not “envious, boastful or arrogant”; neither are they “rude, selfish, irritable, or resentful”. All seven vices mentioned in these verses have to do with behaviour towards other people. Jealousy or envy leads to discord and quarrel. Boastfulness and arrogance also cause damage to other people; arrogant people despise, criticise and make fun of others.101 Earlier in this letter, Paul accused some of the Corinthian Christians of jealousy, boastfulness and arrogance,102 so it is no coincidence that in these verses he mentions these three vices in contrast to love for one another. Moreover, Christians who love their neighbour are not “rude, selfish, irritable, or resentful” (v. 5). Their behaviour towards other people is not “rude”; that is, they associate with others in a respectful way, and do not get angry and interrupt their partners or interlocutors shamelessly.103 Nor are they “selfish”; in other words, they “do not look after their own interests, but after the interests of others”, an attitude characteristic of Paul himself as a missionary.104 They are not “irritable”; that is, they are not short-tempered, nor do they get angry when they are treated badly.105 Quite the contrary: they are not “resentful”, that is, they do not reckon the evil of others or “pay back evil for evil”.106 In verse 6, Paul goes on to describe the love of one another by saying that “It does not rejoice in doing wrong (lit. “in injustice”) but does rejoice in

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See, e.g., Prov 19:11, Wis 15:1, Rom 2:4, 2 Cor 6:6, Gal 5:22, Eph 4:2, Col 3:12, 1 Thess 5:14-15, 1 Clem. 13:1-2, 14:3, and 49:5. 101 Cf., e.g., Polybius, Hist. 32.2.5, 39.1.2, Epictetus, Diss. 2.1.34, 3.2.14, and Marcus Aurelius, Med. 5.5.4. 102 See 3:3, 4:6, 18-19, 5:2, 8:1, and cf. 2 Cor 12:20. 103 Cf, e.g., Plutarch, Rect. rat. aud. 4 (Mor. 39C), 14 (Mor. 45E), and Herodotus, Hist. 7.160.1. See also at 1 Cor 14:40. 104 See at 10:24, and 33. 105 Cf., e.g., Epictetus, Diss. 2.12.14 (“Socrates never got angry at a dispute; he never used offensive or foul language, but took the insults of others and made an end to any conflict”), and Josephus, A.J. 7.33. 106 Cf., e.g., 2 Sam 19:19, Prov 20:22, 24:29, Sir 28:1-7, Jos. Asen. 23:9, 28:4, 14, 29:3, 1QS X, 17, T. Zeb. 8:5, Rom 12:17, 1 Thess 5:15, and 1 Pet 3:9. Also God himself is not “resentful,” according to, e.g., Ps 32:2 (31:2), T. Zeb. 9:7, T. Benj. 3:6, Rom 4:8, 2 Cor 5:19, and 1 Clem. 60:2.

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leading a virtuous life (lit. “in the truth”)”. In other words: Christians who love their neighbour will shy away from doing harm to other people, and will strive to do as many good things as possible for them.107 In biblical and related literature, “injustice” (ਕįȚțȓĮ) and “truth” (ਕȜȒșİȚĮ) are often used as opposites to each other and refer to activities, not to abstract notions; that is, “truth” often means “being righteous, virtuous, good”, or “leading a virtuous life”, whereas “injustice” means “doing evil things, doing wrong”. So, for instance, Psalm 119:29-30 (118:29-30), “Put the way of falsehood (੒įઁȞ ਕįȚțȓĮȢ) far from me … I have chosen the way of faithfulness (੒įઁȞ ਕȜȘșİȓĮȢ)”.108 In this context, “truth” and “righteousness” are more or less synonymous109 and both can be “done”.110 Finally in verse 7, Paul states that love for one another “bears all things”. That is, a Christian who loves his neighbour is prepared to bear pain and suffering, even when he is badly-done to.111 He is steadfast in his commitment to do good, and he never gives up, not even when he is mocked, persecuted or oppressed. He “keeps believing, hoping and enduring, whatever happens” (lit. “he believes all things, he hopes all things, he endures all things”).112 When he meets with difficulties in his life, he will persevere and remain true to his faith in Jesus Christ and his belief in salvation and eternal life at the end of time.113

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The verbs ȤĮȓȡİȚȞ and ıȣȖȤĮȓȡİȚȞ, both translated by “to rejoice,” are synonyms (cf., e.g., also Josephus, A.J. 15.210); they do not refer to a happy feeling about something that is going on outside of you, but to an activity in which you yourself take part and in which you indulge with great enthusiasm. Cf. also, e.g., Philo, Spec. 4.91 (“desire … makes people greedy and insatiable … and makes them rejoice in drunkenness and gluttony”), Prov 2:14, Philo, Spec. 2.48, Opif. 161, Agr. 73, Ebr. 211, Justin, 1 Apol. 14.2, 28.4, Xenophon, Mem. 2.1.15, and Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 3.2. 108 See also Mal 2:6, 1 Esd 4:37, 1 En. 10:16, Rom 1:18, 2:8, 2 Thess 2:12, and 1 Clem. 35:5. 109 See, e.g., Isa 26:10 LXX (lit. “he does not learn righteousness … he does not do the truth”), 26:2, Tob 1:3, T. Benj. 10:3, Eph 4:24, 5:9, 6:14, and 1 Clem. 31:2. 110 See, e.g., Gen 47:29, Josh 2:14, 2 Sam 2:6, Isa 26:10, Tob 4:6, Pss. Sol. 17:15, T. Reu. 6:9, John 3:21, 1 John 1:6, and 1 Clem. 31:2. 111 Cf. 9:12, Philo, Flacc. 64, and Ps.-Clem. Hom. 12.32.2. 112 In this context, “all things,” ʌȐȞIJĮ, means “in all circumstances” or “whatever happens”; cf., e.g., 9:25, 10:33, and 11:2. See also 2 Tim 2:10, Ign. Smyrn. 4:2, 9:2, Pol. 3:1, and Pol. Phil. 8:1. 113 Cf. Rom 5:3-4, 8:25, 12:12, 15:4, 2 Cor 6:4, and 1 Thess 1:3. And see also at 1 Cor 13:13.

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In verse 8, Paul once more compares love for one another with the gifts of the Spirit, this time pointing to the imperishable nature of love: “Love will never come to an end”, whereas “prophecies will cease, speaking in tongues will fade away, and knowledge will cease”. All the spiritual gifts, such as prophecy, speaking in tongues, or the knowledge or wisdom,114 will cease to exist at the end of time. They are only for the present, that is, for as long as this world exists, whereas love for one another is something of an entirely different order: it has eternal value and “will never come to an end” (lit. “will never fall”).115 Next, in verses 9-12, Paul explains to his readers in Corinth why one day the gifts of the Spirit will become meaningless and will cease to exist. In his view, they are all limited, partial, and incomplete, since they are part of this temporal world, in which everything is limited, partial and incomplete: “For our knowledge is limited and our prophecies are limited” (v. 9),116 although some Corinthian Christians may have thought differently (cf. 8:2). For at the end of time, when the world as we know it will come to an end, all the gifts of the Spirit would also cease: “when what is complete comes, what is limited will disappear” (v. 10). As opposed to everything of this world, which is partial and incomplete and will end one day, there will be perfection and completion after Jesus Christ’s Parousia.117 The change will be radical: the “old” world will come to an end and a “new creation”118 will appear, in which everything will be perfect and complete. In order to illustrate what he has said in the previous verse, Paul gives an example from everyday life: “When I was a child, I talked like a child, I thought like a child, and I reasoned like a child. But when I became a man, I left my childish ways behind me” (v. 11). The contrast between this world – with all its imperfections – and the future, perfect world can be compared with the contrast between the world of a child and that of an adult. When somebody becomes a man, he leaves “his childish ways behind him”; that is, his way of speaking will be that of an adult, his

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See 12:8-10, 28-30, and 13:1-3. 115 For this meaning of the verb “to fall,” ʌȓʌIJİȚȞ, see also, e.g., Luke 16:17, and Acts Phil. 103. 116 For the Greek expression ਥț ȝȑȡȠȣȢ, in the sense of “limited,” or “partial,” in verses 9, 10, and 12, see also Let. Aris. 102, Philo, Mos. 2.1, and Leg. 1.78. 117 For the contrast “incompleteness”–“completeness,” see also, e.g, Philo, Det. 7, and Plutarch, Comm. not. 30 (Mor. 1074BC). 118 Gal 6:15.

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opinions and ideas (“his way of thinking”)119 will be those of an adult, and his intellectual faculties or cognitive abilities (“his way of reasoning”)120 will no longer be those of a child. In the Graeco-Roman world, it was popular to refer to the contrast between a child and an adult in order to elucidate something,121 and Paul whole-heartedly embraces this custom to make his point. In verse 12, Paul introduces another image to elucidate what he has said already, namely, the image of a “mirror”: “Now, we look into a mirror and see only images, but then we will see face to face; now, our knowledge is limited, but then I shall know as I am known by God”. In Paul’s view, seeing or knowing God122 cannot be achieved by people on earth; not before the end of time. Only then will Christians see and know God as he really is.123 Obviously, Paul shared with many of his Jewish and pagan contemporaries the idea that no one on earth can ever acquire true knowledge of God or the divine world,124 but he was convinced that one day our knowledge of God will be perfect and complete, namely, at the end of time – at Christ’s Parousia – when “the world as it appears to us will pass away”.125 This time, Paul uses the metaphor of a mirror to emphasise the present and incomplete character of our knowledge or vision of God. Without any doubt, the mirror imagery refers to the indirect nature of looking into a mirror, and not, for instance, to the quality of seeing in the sense that our image of God is somewhat obscure or distorted. When we look into a mirror, we see the images of something or

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For this meaning of “to think,” ijȡȠȞȠ૨Ȟ, cf., e.g., Acts 28:22, Gal 5:10, and Phil 1:7. 120 For this meaning of “to reason,” ȜȠȖȓȗİıșĮȚ, cf., e.g., Wis 2:1, John 11:50, 2 Cor 10:2, 7, 11, and Heb 11:19. 121 See Seneca, Ep. 4.2, where we read that somebody will be very happy when he “has finished with his childish soul (puerilem animum),” and “by philosophy, is counted among men (in viros).” See further, e.g., Ep. 27.2, Xenophon, Cyr. 8.7.6, Epictetus, Diss. 3.24.8, 3.24.53, Ench. 51.1, Philo, Ebr. 193, and Origen, Cels. 3.59. See also at 1 Cor 2:6, and 3:1-2. 122 In vv. 8, 9, and 12, “knowing” and “seeing” are more or less synonymous, and both verbs have God (or the divine) as their implicit object. Cf. Philo, Somn. 1.66, Mut. 15, and Post. 15-16. 123 Cf. 2 Cor 5:7, and Rom 8:24-25. See also at 1 Cor 8:2. 124 See Josephus, C. Ap. 2.167, “Moses presented God as the one who … is known to us through his power but who is unknown as to his true being,” and see further, e.g., Philo, Mut. 15, Post. 15-16, 169, Spec. 1.46-47, Somn. 1.66, Praem. 40, Leg. 3.100-1, Det. 89, Cicero, Tusc. 1.47, and Seneca, Ep. 102.28. 125 1 Cor 7:31.

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someone, not the thing itself or the person himself.126 By introducing this image, Paul wants to stress that people’s knowledge or vision of God is indirect: for the moment, we do not see God’s true nature and his true being, but only the image of God. Again, Paul introduces a popular metaphor of the time, one which was often used to illustrate how the invisible God or the invisible deities show themselves to human beings by means of “images”, “signs” or “tracks” in nature. In the Wisdom of Solomon 7:26, for instance, it is told that “wisdom” is “the reflection of the eternal light”, “the spotless mirror of the working power of God” and “the image of his goodness”. In other words: the invisible God shows himself to human beings by means of his “wisdom”, the personified image of God. Another illustration is found in Plutarch, De Iside et Osiride 76 (Mor. 382AB): here, it is said that one can see “the riddle of the divine” in lifeless things and that living beings are “clearer mirrors of the divine”, but that it is the divine itself that should be worshipped, not those beings that are no more than reflections or images of the divine.127 In Paul’s view, our present knowledge or vision of God is limited and incomplete: “we look into a mirror” and “see only images (ȕȜȑʌȠȝİȞ … ਥȞ ĮੁȞȓȖȝĮIJȚ)”,128 but our future vision of God will be “face to face (ʌȡȩıȦʌȠȞ ʌȡઁȢ ʌȡȩıȦʌȠȞ)”. Here, Paul is influenced by OT usage: both the expressions “images” and “face to face” are taken from the Pentateuch. The first expression seems to come from Numbers 12:8 (LXX), where it is told that God speaks to his prophets by means of visions and dreams; that is, “indirectly”, but that he speaks to his servant Moses “mouth to mouth” (ıIJȩȝĮ țĮIJ੹ ıIJȩȝĮ),129 clearly “not in images” (Ƞ੝ įȚ’ ĮੁȞȚȖȝȐIJȦȞ)”, and that Moses has seen God “in his glory”.130 The second expression is probably taken from Deuteronomy 34:10, where it is told that Moses was a unique prophet “whom the Lord knew face to face (ʌȡȩıȦʌȠȞ țĮIJ੹

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Cf., e.g., Plato, Tim. 71B, Plutarch, Adul. amic. 8 (Mor. 53A), Conj. praec. 14 (Mor. 139F), Quaest. conv. 8.2.1 (Mor. 718E), Ps.-Clem. Hom. 5.26.1, and Acts John 28. 127 See further, e.g., Philo, Fug. 213, Decal. 105, Plant. 27, Leg. 3.101, and Plutarch, Princ. iner. 5 (Mor. 781F). 128 It is usually translated by “we see in a riddle,” but the word Į੅ȞȚȖȝĮ means “illustration” or “image” rather than “riddle” in our sense of the word. 129 Cf. L.A.B. 11:14, Ques. Ezra A 39, and see also Philo, Leg. 3.103, and Ps.Clem. Hom. 17.18.6. 130 Cf. Exod 33:18-23, and Kebra Nagast (or the Book of the Glory of the Kings) 96.

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ʌȡȩıȦʌȠȞ)”.131 It is plausible to assume that the expression “face to face” in Deuteronomy 34:10 can be considered a form of substitution for the words “mouth to mouth” in Numbers 12:8; that is, Paul has combined these passages and mixed phrases from Numbers 12 and Deuteronomy 34.132 In Paul’s view, our present limited and incomplete knowledge or vision of God can be compared with the indirect relationship between God and the former Israelite prophets. Our future knowledge of God, however, will be complete and will be in line with the direct communication between God and his great servant Moses. At the end of verse 12, Paul asserts once more that our present knowledge of God is still incomplete: “now, our knowledge is limited, but then I shall know as I am known by God”.133 The spiritual gift of knowledge or wisdom and all the other gifts of the Spirit are imperfect, because they are part of the present world. But at the end of time, when this world will pass away, this human knowledge will also cease; in its place there will be a perfect and complete knowledge, a knowledge of an entirely different order, a knowledge that is, for now, reserved only to God.134 Paul ends this passage with a reference to three things that he finds much more important than all the spiritual gifts put together, and which have eternal value for him: “But135 faith hope and love will last forever, but the greatest of these is love” (v. 13). Love for one’s neighbour “will last forever”,136 and the same is true of “faith” and “hope”. Paul’s use of the Greek verb ȝȑȞİȚȞ (“to remain”, “to last [forever]”) makes it clear that, for him, faith, hope and love have an “imperishable” or “everlasting” value that exceeds everything else in this world.137 According to Paul, faith in Jesus Christ, the hope or expectation of salvation, and love for one’s neighbour are the three most important things

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The expression “face to face” (ʌȡȩıȦʌȠȞ ʌȡઁȢ ʌȡȩıȦʌȠȞ or ʌȡȩıȦʌȠȞ țĮIJ੹ ʌȡȩıȦʌȠȞ) occurs in the OT/LXX five times: besides in Deut 34:10, it is found in Gen 32:30, Deut 5:4, Judg 6:22, and Ezek 20:35. 132 Philo also combines both OT passages when he describes Moses’ unique prophetic gifts (see Her. 262). 133 In this verse, the verbs ȖȚȞȫıțİȚȞ and ਥʌȚȖȚȞȫıțİȚȞ, “to know,” are more or less synonymous: cf., e.g., Isa 63:16, Herm. Sim. 9.18.1, and Plato, Euthyd. 301E. 134 See also at 8:2-3. 135 In Greek: ȃȣȞ੿ įȑ. See at 12:18. 136 See v. 8. 137 For this meaning of the verb, see also, e.g., Ps 112:9 (111:9), 1 Esd 4:38, 2 Cor 3:11, 9:9, and Acts Thom. 88. Cf. Sir 40:12, and Mark 13:31.

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in a Christian life.138 These three are much more important than the combined gifts of the Spirit, which are so highly valued by a number of the Corinthian Christians. However, “the greatest of these [three] is love”; that is, love for one another is “the far better way of life” (12:31b). For Paul, love is the most important characteristic of a true Christian, for its aim is each other’s welfare and the strengthening of the Christian community, and it is in fact the fulfilment of the law of God.139

The gifts of the Spirit, prophecy and glossolalia in particular, and the building up of the community: 14:1-5 (1) Practise showing love, and also focus with heart and soul on the spiritual gifts, above all on the gift of prophecy. (2) For someone who speaks in tongues is talking to God, not to human beings; for no one will understand him, when, taken by the Spirit, he speaks divine secrets. (3) But someone who prophesies is talking to human beings, and what he says, builds them up, encourages them and consoles them. (4) Someone who speaks in tongues builds up only himself, but someone who prophesies builds up the whole community. (5) I wish all of you to speak in tongues, but even more, I wish you to prophesy. For someone who prophesies is more important than someone who speaks in tongues, unless he also interprets what he says, so that the community is likewise built up.

In chapter 14, Paul resumes the argument about the gifts of the Spirit that he began in chapter 12, and in which he argued that there are many different spiritual gifts, but that all these gifts come from one and the same Spirit and are equal in rank. In chapter 13, he pointed to a way of life that transcended everything, including all of these spiritual gifts, namely, a life characterised by the love of one another. Just before his ode to the love of one’s neighbour in chapter 13, Paul called on the Corinthian Christians to “focus with heart and soul on the most important gifts” (12:31). Although all the gifts of the Spirit are equal in rank, some are nevertheless “more important” than others, not as such, but because of their effect on the welfare of the Christian community. Paul illustrates this by means of a comparison between the gift of prophecy and that of speaking in tongues. He expresses a decided preference for the gift of prophecy (v. 1), for prophesying builds up the community, whereas glossolalia is unintelligible and builds up only the speaker himself (vv. 25).

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See also Gal 5:5-6, 1 Thess 1:3, 5:8, and cf. Col 1:4-5, and Heb 10:22-24. 139 Cf. Rom 13:8-10, Gal 5:13-14, 22-23. See also at 1 Cor 8:1.

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After praising love for one another in chapter 13, Paul urges his Corinthian readers to “practise showing love” (14:1a); love of one’s neighbour should be central to the character of every Christian. The Greek verb įȚȫțİȚȞ is usually translated as “to pursue”, or “to strive for”, but in this text it expresses much more than just an attempt or an aspiration. It is therefore better translated has as “to put [love] into practice” or “to practise showing [love]”.140 But immediately after this exhortation, Paul also calls on the Corinthian Christians to “focus with heart and soul on141 the spiritual gifts, above all on the gift of prophecy” (v. 1b). Although the love of one’s neighbour should be the guiding principle of their lives, the Christians in Corinth must nevertheless also allow room for the gifts of the Holy Spirit at their community meetings. Paul hastens to say that the Corinthian Christians should, in particular, focus on the gift of prophecy.142 For, as Paul will argue in the paragraphs which follow, the gift of prophecy “builds up” the Christians and is consequently much more important than other spiritual gifts which have no such beneficial effect on the welfare of members of the Christian community. From verse 2 onwards, Paul tries to convince the Corinthian Christians that the gift of prophecy is to be preferred to that of speaking in tongues, because, in contrast to the latter, the former has a beneficial and positive effect on the morale of the entire Christian community. First, he states that “someone who speaks in tongues, is talking to God, not to men” (v. 2a), but that “someone who prophesies, is talking to men” (v. 3a). That is, someone delivering a divine message by speaking in tongues is not communicating his message to other people, because “no one will understand143 him” (v. 2); the message can only be understood by God. For this way of speaking in distorted sounds or noises is completely incomprehensible to “ordinary” people, and can only have a positive effect on the hearers if somebody is present who can “decipher the code” and

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For this meaning of the verb įȚȫțİȚȞ, see also Rom 12:13, 14:19, 1 Thess 5:15, and further, e.g., Ps 34:14 (33:15), Prov 15:9, Josephus, A.J. 6.263, Philo, Somn. 1.199, 1 Tim 6:11, 2 Tim 2:22, Heb 12:14, Epictetus, Diss. 4.5.30, Plutarch, Adol. poet. aud. 13 (Mor. 35A), Adul. amic. 1 (Mor. 48F), and Ps.-Crates, Ep. 15. 141 For the meaning of the Greek verb ȗȘȜȠ૨Ȟ, see at 12:31a. 142 For the gift of prophecy, see also at 11:4-5, and 12:10. 143 For this sense of the verb ਕțȠȪİȚȞ, usually translated as “to hear” or “to listen,” see also, e.g., Gen 11:7, Matt 13:13, Mark 4:33, Gal 4:21, Philo, Leg. 2.35, and Sextus Empiricus, Math. 1.37 (“Greeks do not understand barbarians, and barbarians do not understand Greeks”).

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translate the message into plain, comprehensible language.144 In contrast, prophecies are divine messages uttered in a language that those listening can understand, although the content of the message will frequently need some explanation.145 Paul cannot deny that those who speak in tongues may transmit divine messages and reveal “divine secrets”, that is, part of God’s plans for the future of humankind,146 to those present. Nor does he deny that speaking in tongues is a gift of the Holy Spirit, for people who speak in tongues are “taken by the Spirit” (v. 2b). But because they are speaking in distorted sounds and noises, they appear to be in a state of complete ecstasy. Although those transmitting prophetic messages were usually thought to have been seized by a divine Spirit and transported into a state of ecstasy, they nevertheless retained the mental capacity or intellectual faculty to deliver the message in words their audience could understand.147 In Paul’s view, people who spoke in tongues were in a state of complete ecstasy, and in this state they lost control of all their mental faculties, surrendered completely to the power of the Spirit, and were no longer able to speak in an intelligible language.148 In contrast to the divine messages transmitted by those speaking in tongues, which could not contribute to the spiritual welfare of the members of the Christian community, someone prophesying “builds them up, encourages them and consoles them” (v. 3). For Paul, the value of the gifts of the Spirit was based on the extent to which the Christian community was “built up”,149 and he was convinced that Christians would, in particular, be “built up” by prophecies. He reinforces this positive effect of the gift of prophecy on other Christians by adding two related terms, namely “encouragement” and “consolation”.150 In short: “Someone who

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See also at 12:10, 30, 14:5, 13, and 26-28. Cf. also Origen, Cels. 7.9. 145 See also at 12:10, and 14:29. 146 See also at 13:2. 147 Cf., e.g., Num 24:2, Ezek 2:2, 3:24, 11:24, 37:1, Josephus, A.J. 4.118-19, Philo, Mos. 1.175, 1.277, Decal. 175, Mut. 139, Matt 22:43, Mark 12:36, Acts 11:28, 21:11, 28:25, 2 Pet 1:21, Rev 1:10, 4:2, 1 Clem. 8:1, and see also Plutarch, Def. orac. (Mor. 409E-438E), Pyth. orac. (Mor. 394D-409D), and Cicero, Div. 148 See also vv. 13-19. 149 See also vv. 4, 5, 12, 17, and 26. See also at 8:1. 150 Cf. v. 31. For the combination of “building up” and “encouraging,” see, e.g., 1 Thess 5:11, and Acts 9:31, and for the close connection between “encouraging” and “consoling,” see also, e.g., Phil 2:1, 1 Thess 2:12, 2 Macc 15:8-9, T. Sol. 4:11 D, and Ps.-Clem. Hom. 12.32.2.

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speaks in tongues, builds up only himself, but someone who prophesies, builds up the whole community” (v. 4). Paul ends this paragraph by saying that although he wishes all Corinthians “to speak in tongues” he wishes even more for them “to prophesy” (v. 5). In Paul’s view, as a gift of the Holy Spirit, speaking in tongues is a good thing, but prophesying is even better, because it builds up the community of God. The gift of glossolalia is only useful for the Christian community if someone is present to explain the distorted noises and sounds. This could be the speaker of tongues themselves (see vv. 5 and 13), or someone else (see vv. 26-28; and cf. 12:10, and 30). Only then might speaking in tongues contribute to the building up of the community.

Speaking in tongues cannot be understood by anyone: 14:6-12 (6) Now, brothers and sisters, suppose I myself was with you and speaking in tongues: how would it benefit you unless I were to transmit to you some revelation, some knowledge, some prophecies or some words of instruction? (7) Even in the case of inanimate things that produce sounds, such as a flute or a harp, if they are played without any distinction in the notes, how can we know what tune is being played? (8) Or suppose the trumpet does not sound a clear call, who will prepare for battle? (9) So it is also with you: if you utter a series of incomprehensible sounds, how will we know what you are saying? You will be speaking for nothing! (10) There are who knows how many languages in the world, languages are spoken everywhere. (11) Thus, unless I know the speaker’s language, I will be a foreigner to the speaker and he will be a foreigner to me. (12) So it is with you. When you focus with heart and soul on the spiritual gifts, try to excel in those gifts that build up the community!

In this passage, Paul wants the Corinthian Christians to realise that speaking in tongues is not, as such, very useful for the members of the Christian community. He therefore offers a number of examples to convince his readers as to the limited value of glossolalia. First, he says that even if he himself were to speak in tongues in the midst of their assembly, they would not benefit from it (v. 6). Next, he gives two examples of other “unintelligible” or “incomprehensible” sounds: musical instruments played “without any distinction in the notes” and a trumpet that “does not sound a clear call” (vv. 7-8). In verse 9, he applies these examples to the Corinthian Christians: nobody will understand them when they speak in tongues, that is, if they “utter a series of incomprehensible sounds”; just as nobody can understand a foreign language unless they already know that language (vv. 10-11). Finally, Paul calls on the

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Corinthians to “try to excel in those gifts that build up the community” (v. 12), and in Paul’s view, speaking in tongues is certainly not one of those gifts. Right from the beginning of this paragraph, Paul wants to make clear that speaking in tongues is, in itself, useless and contributes nothing to the spiritual welfare of the Christian community: “Now, brothers and sisters, suppose I myself was with you speaking in tongues: how would it benefit you …?” (v. 6). Even Paul’s speaking in tongues would not benefit them, because nobody would understand his words. He goes on to argue this in the verses which follow. What would be of benefit would be if Paul were to “transmit to you some revelations, some knowledge, some prophecies or some words of instruction”, all messages in comprehensible and intelligible language. The term “revelations” refers to the divine revelation of the “secrets of God”, parts of God’s plan for the world and the whole of humankind (cf. vv. 2, 26, and 30). “Knowledge” refers to the transference of knowledge of God’s plan of salvation and the Gospel of Jesus Christ (see esp. at 1:5, and 8:1). The term “prophecies” refers to the transmission of all kinds of divine message (cf. 12:10, 13:2, and 8) and “words of instruction” refers to the gift given to a teacher who instructs fellow Christians in what they should believe and how they should behave as true believers in Christ (cf. v. 26, and 12:28-29). All four terms are more or less interchangeable, with the one hardly differing in terms of content from the other, but all of them are useful to members of the Christian community because they are uttered in understandable language. According to Paul, however, speaking in tongues is nothing but the utterance of a series of incoherent words or useless sounds (cf. v. 9). In order to convince his readers in Corinth of his standpoint, he offers some examples in verses 7-9 by means of an argumentum a fortiori: if something is true in the case of lifeless things, it is certainly true in the case of human beings.151 The first example concerns “inanimate things that produce sounds,152 such as a flute or a harp” (v. 7). Both were popular musical instruments in Paul’s day, and they are often mentioned together in the literature of the time.153 But, as Paul continues, “suppose they are

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The first word in v. 7, ੖ȝȦȢ (“Even”) corresponds with Ƞ੢IJȦȢ (“So”) at the beginning of v. 9. Cf. Gal 3:15, Apoc. Sedr. 15:5, and Tatian, Orat. 12.3. 152 For the description of musical instruments as “inanimate things,” see also, e.g., Euripides, Ion 883, and Plutarch, Lib. ed. 13 (Mor. 9C). 153 See, e.g., Isa 30:32, Philo, Sobr. 36, Leg. 2.75, 3.221, Xenophon, Mem. 1.2.27, 4.2.6, Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 2.55, 33.35, 69.3, Plutarch, Rect. rat. aud. 15 (Mor.

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played without any distinction in the notes, how will we know what tune is being played?” If we cannot tell whether the notes are high or low, that is, if we can hear only one “tone”,154 the music will make no sense to us, as there is no discernible melody or form to it. The second example of an “inanimate thing that produces sounds” is that of a trumpet as used in warfare: “Or suppose the trumpet does not sound a clear call, who will prepare for battle?” (v.8). All soldiers recognised the sound of the trumpet as a sign to go into battle and attack the enemy.155 It told them exactly when to “prepare for the battle”.156 But if the trumpet’s call was not clear, the soldiers would not know what to do; its call will make no sense and the soldiers will not respond to its sound. After these two examples of “inanimate things”, Paul goes on to give another two examples, this time from the human world (vv. 9-11). The first example concerns people who use incoherent language: “So it is also with you: if you utter a series of incomprehensible words, how will we know what you are saying? You will just be speaking for nothing!” (v. 9). Paul does not refer to glossolalia, but to incoherent speech in general. Nobody can understand people who utter “a series of incomprehensible words” (lit. “do not give [or “tell”] a clear story with the tongue”)157 as is the case when young children babble in the early stages of speech

 46C), Sept. sap. conv. 13 (Mor. 156C), Suav. viv. 13 (Mor. 1096A), Per. 13.11 (Vit. par. 160B), Ant. 26.1 (Vit. par. 927B), and Mus. (Mor. 1131B-1147A). 154 For the Greek ijșȩȖȖȠȚ in the sense of “sounds”, “notes” or “tones”, cf. also, e.g., Wis 19:18, Philo, Sacr. 74, Plant. 167, Sobr. 36, Plato, Leg. 812D, Plutarch, An. procr. 27 (Mor. 1026A), 33 (Mor. 1030B), and Plotinus, Enn. 1.3.1, 2.3.13, and 3.2.17. 155 See Num 10:9, 31:6, Josh 6:5, 8, 13, 20, 2 Sam 2:28, Ezek 7:14, 1 Macc 3:54, 5:33, 2 Macc 15:25, Pss. Sol. 8:1, Philo, Spec. 2.190, Josephus, B.J. 3.89-92, Xenophon, Eq. mag. 3.11-12, Re eq. 9.11, Thucydides, Hist. 6.69.2, Polybius, Hist. 4.13.1, Plutarch, Mus. 26 (Mor. 1140C), Cam. 23.6 (Vit. par. 141B), and Tim. 27.10 (Vit. par. 249E). 156 For this expression, see also Jer 6:4, 50:42 (27:42), Jdt 5:1, Thucydides, Hist. 1.58.2, 2.13.2, 2.20.2, and Diodorus Siculus, Bibl. 18.2.4. 157 For the meaning of “with the tongue,” įȚ੹ IJોȢ ȖȜȫııȘȢ, as “speaking,” see also Isa 28:11, and cf. Ps 15:3 (14:3), 39:3 (38:4), 78:36 (77:36), 109:2 (108:2), Sir 5:14, and Justin, 1 Apol. 16.8.

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development.158 Such people speak “for nothing” (lit. “into the air”): their words make no sense at all and disappear, as it were, into the wind.159 Next, Paul points to the fact that there are so many languages in this world: “There are who knows how many languages in the world, languages are spoken everywhere” (v. 10). With the formulation “who knows how many (languages)”,160 Paul wants to underline that there are indeed countless languages spoken all over the world, and that nobody knows exactly how many. They are of such great number that there is no single place in the world “without language”. As a consequence, it is true that “unless I know the speaker’s language, I will be a foreigner to the speaker and he will be a foreigner to me” (v. 11). That is, if somebody does not know the language being spoken (lit. “the power/the meaning of the language”),161 he cannot understand what is being said, and both will be “foreigners” or “strangers” to each other. A fine parallel is found in Ovid, Tristia 5.10.37, where we read that “I must make myself understood by means of signs. I am a foreigner here, who is not understood by anyone (barbarus hic ego sum, qui non intellegor ulli)”.162 This example is also meant to underline the idea that it is desirable for all those divinely inspired and speaking in the Christian assembly to be intelligible and comprehensible; only then can what they say contribute to the spiritual welfare of the members of the Christian community. Speaking in tongues does not meet this criterion, and can just lead to mutual alienation. At the end of this paragraph, Paul urges the Corinthian Christians to primarily use those spiritual gifts that will most benefit their community: “So it is with you. When you focus with heart and soul on the spiritual

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Cf. Herodotus, Hist. 2.2.3, and see further, e.g., Philo, Mos. 2.164, Herodotus, Hist. 1.86.4, Epictetus, Diss. 2.17.6, Artemidorus Daldianus, Onir. 2.44, Plutarch, Sera 23 (Mor. 564B), Gen. Socr. 18 (Mor. 587C), Quaest. conv. 8.3.1 (Mor. 720D), Brut. 41.3 (Vit. par. 1003B), and Porphyry, Abst. 3.4.4. 159 For this expression, cf., e.g., Euripides, Tro. 418-19, Apollonius of Rhodes, Argon. 1.1334-35, Lucretius, Nat. 4.931, Catullus, Carm. 30.9-10, 64.142, 65.1718, Ovid, Am. 1.6.42, Virgil, Aen. 9.312-13, and 11.794-95. 160 (IJȠıĮ૨IJĮ) İੁ IJȪȤȠȚ (ȖȑȞȘ ijȦȞ૵Ȟ). For this formulation, cf. e.g., Philo, Leg. 3.86, Fug. 107, Plutarch, Curios. 9 (Mor. 519E), Stoic. abs. 4 (Mor. 1058A), Epictetus, Diss. 3.2.18, 4.11.23, Plotinus, Enn. 3.2.18, and Justin, 1 Apol. 27.3. 161 For this formulation, cf., e.g., Plato, Crat. 394BC, Polybius, Hist. 20.9.11, Plutarchus, Adol. poet. aud. 6 (Mor. 22F), Cons. Apoll. 28 (Mor. 116D), Philo, Congr. 125, and Justin, Dial. 125.1. 162 Cf. also Herodotus, Hist. 2.158.5.

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gifts,163 try to excel164 in those gifts that build up the community!” (v. 12). Everything done in the assembly should have a beneficial effect on the spiritual welfare of the members of the community. So, speaking in tongues should play only a very limited role at the meetings of the Corinthian Christians: it was only acceptable when this “language” could be interpreted and “translated” into intelligible words (vv. 4-5, 13, 26-28, and 39).

Speaking in tongues without interpretation does not build up the Christian community: 14:13-19 (13) Anyone who speaks in tongues, should ask God for the ability to interpret what he says. (14) If I use such language in prayer, it is my spirit that prays, but my mind is inoperative. (15) Therefore, I will pray not only with my spirit but also with my mind; I will sing hymns not only with my spirit but also with my mind. (16) For if you give thanks to God only with your spirit, how can somebody who does not know what you are saying and so finds himself an outsider at that moment, say “amen” to your thanksgiving? (17) For your prayer of thanksgiving may be splendid, but the other person is not spiritually built up. (18) I am thankful to God that I am more gifted to speak in tongues than any of you. (19) Nevertheless, in order to give instruction to others in the assembly, I would rather speak five words with my mind than utter thousands of words that no one can understand.

In these verses, Paul once more underlines that speaking in tongues occurs in a state of complete ecstasy, when the speaker’s mind is totally disengaged. As a consequence, it is not intelligible or comprehensible, and as such it is of no benefit to anybody (vv. 14-17). A speaker in tongues should therefore pray to God for the gift to explain or “translate” what he is saying into intelligible words (v. 13), for it is clear that speaking in tongues without any explanation is completely pointless (vv. 18-19). Paul cannot totally reject “speaking in tongues” – it is, after all, a gift of the holy Spirit – but here he states once more that it is only useful if it is explained or “translated” into words that can be understood by all the other members of the Christian community.165 The spiritual gift does not in itself benefit anybody (see vv. 6-12). Therefore, “Anyone who speaks in

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Cf. 12:31, 14:1, and 39. 164 Cf. 15:58, 2 Cor 8:7, 9:8, 1 Thess 4:1, 10, and Col 2:7. 165 See also 12:10, 30, 14:5, and 26-28.

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tongues, should ask God for the ability to interpret what he says” (v. 13, and cf. v. 5). In verses 14-17, Paul elaborates on the phenomenon of the gift of speaking in tongues. The speaker in tongues utters distorted sounds or noises because his mind or his brain is completely disengaged and not contributing: “If I use such language in prayer, it is my spirit that prays, but my mind is inoperative (lit. “unfruitful”, “unproductive”)” (v. 14). That is because the speaker in tongues166 is in a state of complete ecstasy; in a trance. His spirit is still functioning, but his mind is inactive. He is a powerless instrument in the hands of the Holy Spirit; he has lost the power of speech and is unable to speak in “normal” language (cf. also v. 2). As a consequence he produces only strange and incomprehensible sounds when praying, singing hymns, or giving thanks to God.167 Ecstasy or trance was a well-known phenomenon in the ancient world, but there was disagreement as to whether or not prophets and other inspired people were the completely powerless instruments of their God(s). Some though their powers of speech remained sufficiently intact to transmit divine messages in “normal” language, but others believed that divine inspiration also implied that God or his Spirit (or deities and their spirits) took possession of the spirit of such inspired people, with the result that their minds made way for the divine and “disappeared” for a time. In Plato, Ion 534B-E, for instance, we read that poets and visionaries “lose their minds”, and that it is God himself who works and speaks through them. Philo describes prophecy in similar terms: “when the divine Spirit comes, the human mind moves away … and it leads to trance and inspired ecstasy” (Her. 258-66, esp. 265).168 This paradox makes it possible for Paul to make a clear-cut distinction between the gift of prophecy and other spiritual gifts on the one hand, and the gift of speaking in tongues on the other, and to more or less dismiss the latter. He concludes that all those inspired by God are able to speak in intelligible language and maintain control of their minds and their intellectual faculties (“with the mind”), and that speaking in tongues is the only exception. Anyone who speaks in tongues and utters distorted and incomprehensible sounds has lost his mind and entered into a trance; a state of complete ecstasy.

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In vv. 14-15, Paul uses the first person singular in the sense of “anyone”; see also at 13:1-3. 167 In contrast to prophesying, which is done “not only with the spirit but also with the mind,” that is, in words that are understandable to all (cf. vv. 1-5). 168 See also Philo, Spec. 1.65, 4.49, Cicero, Div. 1.4, and 1.34.

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Obviously, Christians should not lose their minds at those moments of inspiration when they pray, sing hymns or thank God, for it is important that they are understood by all their fellow Christians: “Therefore,169 I will pray not only with my spirit but also with my mind; I will sing hymns not only with my spirit but also with my mind” (v. 15). Only in this way would the members of the Christian community be built up and edified. That is why people should pray and sing hymns not only with their own spirits, as inspired people, “but also” – that is, particularly170 – with their minds, and consequently with words that are intelligible to all.171 The same is true in the case of those, whether inspired or not, giving thanks to God: “For if you give thanks to God only with your spirit, how can somebody who does not know what you are saying and so finds himself an outsider at that moment, say ‘amen’ to your thanksgiving? For your prayer of thanksgiving may be splendid, but the other person is not spiritually built up” (vv. 16-17). Here, Paul switches to the use of the second person singular and turns to each individual Corinthian Christian who may at some point feel the need to utter prayers of thanksgiving in the assembly.172 These words should also be uttered in a language understood by all.173 Only when people understand what is being said can they voice their approval and say “amen”, that is, “yes, I agree that is true”.174 A fellow Christian who cannot understand what is being said will certainly

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Lit. “What then is it?” (IJȓ Ƞ੣Ȟ ਥıIJȚȞ). For the meaning of this formulation (“Therefore,” “Consequently”), see also, e.g., 14:26, Rom 11:7, Diodorus Siculus, Bibl. 13.26.1, and cf. further Rom 3:9, 6:15, Xenophon, Mem. 4.2.17, Josephus, B.J. 2.364, Plutarch, Vit. aere al. 8 (Mor. 831E), Epictetus, Diss. 1.18.22, 3.13.17, etc. 170 Cf. 15:15, Matt 10:30, 18:17, Luke 11:18, etc. 171 After the common meal at the meetings of the Christian community, it was customary that those who were inspired would stand up to pray and to sing hymns (and to give thanks to God, v. 16). For singing hymns in honour of God, cf. also v. 26, and further, e.g. 2 Sam 22:50, Ps 7:17 (7:18), 9:2 (9:3), 9:11 (9:12), 13:6 (12:6), Pss. Sol. 3:1-2, T. Job 14:2, 4, Eph 5:19, and Col 3:16. 172 For the use of the second person singular, see at 8:10-11. 173 For the act of praising God or giving thanks to God, cf., e.g., Ps 16:7 (15:7), 26:12 (25:12), Jdt 8:25, Pss. Sol. 3:1, Rom 1:21, Eph 5:20, Col 3:17, 1 Thess 5:18, and Acts 28:15. 174 “Amen” is an originally Hebrew word, which usually concluded (and still concludes) a prayer or a doxology: see, e.g., 1 Chron 16:36, Neh 8:7, Tob 8:8, Rev 5:14, Acts Phil. 118, Justin, 1 Apol. 65.3-4, and 67.5.

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not say “amen”, but will find himself “an outsider175 at that moment”. He will feel like a stranger, as it were, if he hears a series of distorted sounds and noises he is unable to understand, and will certainly not be edified. The formulation “somebody who finds himself an outsider” (lit. “somebody who fills the place of the outsider”, ੒ ਕȞĮʌȜȘȡ૵Ȟ IJઁȞ IJȩʌȠȞ IJȠ૨ ੁįȚȫIJȠȣ) is somewhat problematic. Some interpreters think that it is being used in a literal sense,176 as though there were special places in the assembly reserved for “outsiders” in the sense of non-believers or catechumens, but there is no factual evidence for that.177 It is therefore much more likely that the expression is to be taken figuratively: Paul refers to a Christian who “takes up the position of an outsider”, or who “plays the role of an outsider”; in this case a Christian who “finds himself to be an outsider, a stranger”, or who feels like an outsider at that moment. So we read, for instance, in 1 Clement 63:1, “It is therefore right that we should respect these famous men and bow our neck and take up the position of obedience (that is, “and be [nothing else but] obedient”).178 At the end of this paragraph, Paul emphasises once more that speaking in tongues (without interpretation) edifies nobody, and once again he refers to himself: “I am thankful to God179 that I am more gifted to speak in tongues than any of you. Nevertheless, in order to give instruction to others in the assembly, I would rather speak five words with my mind than uttering thousands of words that no one can understand” (vv. 18-19; cf. v. 6). Paul is saying that, although the ability to speak in tongues is even more pronounced in him than in any of the Corinthian Christians, he prefers his words at the Christian meetings to instruct “other people”180 in matters of faith,181 so he avoids speaking in tongues and entering into a complete trance. He does not want to lose control of his faculties, and

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In this context, the term “outsider” (ੁįȚȫIJȘȢ), that is, “an ordinary person,” refers to somebody who does not belong to the Christian community. 176 For the use of this formulation in a literal sense, see, e.g., Diodorus Siculus, Bibl. 19.22.2, and cf. Plato, Tim. 79B. 177 See also at vv. 23-24. 178 In Greek: IJઁȞ IJોȢ ਫ਼ʌĮțȠોȢ IJȩʌȠȞ ਕȞĮʌȜȘȡ૵ıĮȚ. Cf. further, e.g., Ps.-Clem. Hom. 3.60.1, Josephus, B.J. 5.88, Philo, Somn. 1.238, Epictetus, Diss. 2.4.5, and Plutarch, Lac. apoph. (unknown) 20 (Mor. 242A). 179 See at 1:4, and 1:14. 180 In Greek: ੆ȞĮ țĮ੿ ਙȜȜȠȣȢ țĮIJȘȤȒıȦ. The word țĮȓ (“and,” “also”) is used pleonastically and serves to put some extra emphasis on the next word ਙȜȜȠȣȢ (“other people”); Cf. 4:8, 11:19, 16:16, and further 1 Tim 5:20, 2 Tim 2:10, and 1 John 1:3. 181 Cf. Gal 6:6, Luke 1:4, and Acts 18:25.

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prefers to speak “five words” that can be understood by all than “thousands (lit. “ten thousand”)182 of words” that no one will understand. For only when people understand what is being said can they be built up and edified.

The effect of speaking in tongues on unbelievers: 14:20-25 (20) Brothers and sisters, stop thinking like children. Be infants in evil, but adults in your way of thinking. (21) In the Law it is written: “Through strange tongues and through the lips of foreigners I will speak to this people, but even then they will not listen to me, says the Lord”. (22) This means that people do not become believers when somebody is speaking in tongues, but that they do become believers when somebody is prophesying. (23) Well, imagine that the whole community comes together and everyone is speaking in tongues; and suppose some people come in who are outsiders or unbelievers: will they not say that you are mad? (24) But instead, imagine that everyone is prophesying, and somebody comes in who is an unbeliever or an outsider: then, while listening to them all, he will consult deep inside himself, will examine himself, (25) and will discover the secrets of his heart. Finally, he will kneel down and worship God, exclaiming: “God is really among you!”

After a call to the Corinthian Christians to use their minds well (v. 20), Paul tells them that, in sharp contrast to speaking in tongues, prophesying can bring people to repent and become believers in Jesus Christ (v. 22). In order to convince his readers in Corinth, he first quotes an OT passage (v. 21), and then goes on to give two examples of what might happen to an outsider or an unbeliever if he visited a Christian meeting where all the people were either speaking in tongues or were uttering prophecies (vv. 23 and 24-25). Paul starts this paragraph by calling on his readers to “stop thinking like children”, and to be “adults in their way of thinking” (v. 20).183 They can be “infants”, but only when it comes to doing evil things.184 In other words, he wants them to reflect seriously about what he is writing in the hope that they will agree. Next, Paul launches a renewed attack on

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See at 4:15. 183 Cf. 10:15. For the popular image of adults in contrast to children or babies, see at 2:6, 3:1-2, and 13:11. 184 Cf. Rom 16:19. Young children were (and are) usually regarded as innocent human beings who have not learnt to do evil things: see, e.g., Artemidorus Daldianus, Onir. 2.69 (“children speak the truth, because they cannot yet lie or deceive”), Matt 18:3, and Herm. Sim. 9.29.3.

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speaking in tongues by quoting freely a passage from “the Law”,185 namely Isaiah 28:11-12: “Through strange tongues and through the lips of foreigners I will speak to this people, but even then they will not listen to me, says the Lord” (v. 21). The differences between the versions in 1 Corinthians and Isaiah (both the Hebrew text and the LXX version) are striking. It is likely that Paul has adapted the OT passage for his own purposes, a procedure not unusual in ancient times.186 To start with, he has shortened the OT text considerably, and has chosen to quote only the beginning of the OT passage (“through strange tongues and through the lips of foreigners”) and the conclusion (“they will not listen”). Paul has also changed the third person singular (“he” in the Hebrew text) or the third person plural (“they” in the LXX version) into the first person singular (“I” and “me”), and has added the words “says the Lord” at the end of the quotation.187 Finally, Paul has changed the clause “yet they would not listen” into “but even then they will not listen to me”, which stresses once more the (future) outright refusal to listen to God.188 All this makes it clear that Paul is not much interested in the original context of the OT passage, but has given it his own slant.189 In particular, he wants to connect the OT phrases “through strange tongues” and “through the lips of foreigners” with the phenomenon of speaking in tongues, and he also wants to highlight the negative response of people to these “strange tongues”.

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That is, the Scriptures or the Old Testament; cf. Rom 3:19, John 10:34, 12:34, and 15:25. 186 See also 1:31, and 3:19-20. 187 See also Rom 12:19, and 2 Cor 6:17-18, where Paul also adds the words “says the Lord” to an OT quotation; cf. also Barn. 3:1, 6:14, and 16:2. The phrase “says the Lord” occurs frequently in the OT prophetic writings: see Isa 1:11, 18, 33:10, 48:22, 49:18, 54:17, Jer 1:8, 15, 2:12, Zech 7:13, etc. 188 For the meaning of the words “but even then,” cf., e.g., 1 Sam 3:13, Ezek 16:28, and Mark 14:59. 189 In the Isaiah passage, an invasion of the Assyrians (speakers of a foreign language) is predicted, as a punishment for the fact that the Israelites and their leaders did not want to listen to the Lord. By using the future tense, Paul has changed the order of events; it is no longer about a refusal to listen to God followed by an invasion of “strange tongues,” but the other way around: “strange tongues” (or speaking in tongues) are followed by a negative attitude among people who do not understand what is being said.

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In verse 22, Paul concludes from the previously quoted OT passage that “this means190 that people do not become believers when somebody is speaking in tongues, but that they do become believers when somebody is prophesying”. It says literally: “That means that speaking in tongues is a sign not for believers but for unbelievers, but that prophesying (is a sign) not for unbelievers but for believers”. Paul’s formulation is somewhat problematic, but his intentions are clear: unbelievers will continue to be unbelievers when they hear Christians speaking in tongues (“not for believers but for unbelievers”), whereas they might convert and become believers in Christ if they hear Christians uttering prophecies (“not for unbelievers but for believers”). Speaking in tongues and prophesying are opposing “signs” or “indications” in terms of the effect each of them will have on outsiders or unbelievers visiting the Christian meetings. The message of verse 22, the central verse in this paragraph, is illustrated by means of two examples (v. 23, and vv. 24-25). The first example describes the effect of speaking in tongues on outsiders191 or unbelievers who happen to be visiting a meeting of the Christian community: “Well, imagine that the whole community comes together and everyone is speaking in tongues; and suppose some people come in who are outsiders or unbelievers: will they not say that you are mad?” (v. 23). Such outsiders or unbelievers will certainly not become interested in the Christian faith; they are much more likely to react negatively and think the Christians are completely out of their minds, or “mad”.192 The second example deals with the effect of prophecies on outsiders or unbelievers who attend a Christian meeting: “But instead, imagine that everyone is prophesying, and somebody comes in who is an unbeliever or an outsider: then, while listening to them all, he will consult deep inside himself, will examine himself, and will discover the secrets of his heart. Finally, he will kneel down and worship God, exclaiming: ‘God is really among you!’” (vv. 24-25). Because prophecies or divine messages

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In Greek: ੮ıIJİ (“thus,” “so”). For the use and meaning of ੮ıIJİ after a quotation, see also 3:21, and Gal 3:9. 191 That is, people who are not familiar with the Christian faith and with what is happening at the Christian meetings. “Outsiders” and “unbelievers” refer to the same group of people, i.e. non-Christians. See also at v.16. 192 A similar reaction is found in the story about Pentecost in Acts 2:1-13, and in Origen, Cels. 7.9, where it is told that the pagan philosopher Celsus describes some wandering Christian prophets as people who sometimes “utter strange, crazy and completely incomprehensible sounds, which are senseless in the eyes of sensible persons.”

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concerning God’s command to lead a pious life in the context of his coming judgment at the end of times are uttered in comprehensible language, an outsider or unbeliever will also be perfectly able to understand what is being said, and will observe that it is actually God himself who is speaking. The effect of hearing these prophecies will be that the outsider will first “consult deep inside himself, will examine himself, and will discover the secrets of his heart”. That is, the outsider will ask himself whether he has lived as he should have lived, whether his former deeds have been noble or not (“will consult deep inside himself”).193 In other words, the outsider or unbeliever “will examine himself”,194 and consider whether his deeds have always complied with what is expected of someone who is willing to lead a righteous life. As a result of this self-examination or self-reflection, he will gain an insight not only into all that he has done in the past, but even into all his former feelings and thoughts (“the secrets of his heart”).195 Hearing the prophecies of the Christians will trigger a kind of selfexamination in the outsider or unbeliever, because he will be able to understand what is being said. He will recognise these prophecies as divine messages uttered by people inspired by the Spirit of God, that is, he will perceive the voice of God in these prophecies. He will realise that he has been a sinner, and will feel obliged to show repentance for all his former deeds and thoughts. “Finally196, he will kneel down and worship God,197 exclaiming: ‘God is really among you!’” (v. 25). Thus, the

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Lit. “will be questioned by all,” not in the sense that all prophesying Christians will ask him questions (or will even “reprove” him, NRSV), but that their prophecies will cause him to ask himself questions. For the use and meaning of the verb ਥȜȑȖȤİȚȞ, in such a context, cf. also, e.g., Sir 19:13-15, Thucydides, Hist. 1.131.2, Lysias, Orat. 6.14, 20.22, 31.3, Plutarch, Adul. amic. 2 (Mor. 49E), 25 (Mor. 66A), Philo, Ios. 215, and T. Abr. 13:3. 194 Lit. “will be examined by all,” again not in the sense that all prophesying Christians will examine him (or will even “call him to account,” NRSV), but that their divine messages will cause him to examine himself. 195 For this expression, cf. also, e.g., Add Dan: Sus 42, T. Reu. 1:4, 1 Pet 3:4, Ign. Eph. 15:3, and Pol. Phil. 4:3. According to Paul, it is God himself who, by means of these prophecies, discloses to the outsider all his former feelings and thoughts; cf. Sir 1:30, and see at 1 Cor 3:13, and 4:5. 196 In Greek: țĮ੿ Ƞ੢IJȦȢ (“and so,” “and thus”). Cf. also 11:28, Rom 11:26, and 1 Thess 4:17. 197 For the traditional OT, Jewish and early-Christian formulation of “to kneel down (lit. “to fall down on one’s face”) and worship God,” cf. also, e.g., 2 Chron

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outsider will show reverence for (the Christian) God and will declare that God is really present in the Christian community.198 In short: as opposed to what will happen when Christians speak in tongues, the effect of prophecies on outsiders or unbelievers will be that they show repentance and start to worship God.

Guidelines for people who prophecy, for people who speak in tongues and for women in the Christian assembly: 14:26-36 (26) Therefore, brothers and sisters, when you come together, each of you may be granted a say, that is, one may sing a hymn, another may transmit some words of instruction, another may transmit a revelation, another may speak in tongues, and yet another may interpret these tongues. But everything should be done to build up the community. (27) If anyone speaks in tongues, let it happen in groups of two or at the most three people, and each in turn, and one should interpret. (28) But if there is no one to interpret what is said, the speaker in tongues should remain silent in the assembly; let him speak in tongues at a place where he is alone with God. (29) And let two or three people prophesy at a time, and let others interpret these utterances of the Spirit; (30) but if somebody is prophesying, and another sitting there receives a revelation, the first person should be silent. (31) For you may all prophesy, but one by one, so that all of you may receive instruction and encouragement, (32) since those who prophesy are in full control of their spirits. (33) For God is a God not of disorder but of peace, as is evidenced by all the communities of the saints. (34) Let women remain silent at the meetings of the community. They should not talk but should show themselves to be submissive, as the law also says. (35) If they want to know something, they should ask their own husbands at home. For it is disgraceful for a woman to talk at the meeting of the community. (36) Or did the message of God originate with you? Or are you the only ones it has reached?

After his rather violent polemic against glossolalia (without interpretation) in the previous paragraphs, Paul’s final argument is a plea for order in the Christian assembly. He is aware of the fact that some Corinthian Christians are very proud of their gift of speaking in tongues, but ultimately, he wants them to realise that there should be order at the

 7:3, Ruth 2:10, 1 Sam 20:41, 2 Sam 9:6, 14:22, 33, Dan 2:46, Jdt 10:23, Sir 50:17, 1 Macc 4:55, Jos. Asen. 28:2, Rev 7:11, and 11:16. 198 Paul seems to have derived the words “God is … among you” from Isa 45:14, or from Zech 8:23.

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meetings of their community. Only then will the members of the community be edified (v. 26). That means, on the one hand, that people who speak in tongues should do so only in small groups, one by one, and always in the company of someone able to interpret their strange sounds and noises (vv. 27-28). On the other hand, those who are prophesying may do so in front of the whole community, but also one by one and in full control of their spirits, so that they transmit their divine messages in comprehensible language (vv. 29-32). Finally, women should behave properly at the meetings of the community and should remain silent (vv. 34-35). There should be order in the Corinthian assembly, as there was in other Christian communities all over the world, for it is God himself who hates any kind of disorder (vv. 33 and 36). In verse 26, Paul first repeats what he has said before, namely, that in the Christian assembly there must be room for all the different spiritual gifts, even for the gift of speaking in tongues:199 “each of you200 may be granted a say”. Immediately after mentioning the gift of speaking in tongues, he refers to the gift of interpreting these tongues, for glossolalia without interpretation is ineffective and senseless, and in his view: “everything should be done to build up the community”.201 That also implies that there should be order during the meetings of the Christian communities. In verses 27-28, Paul continues with some guidelines for speaking in tongues at the assembly, intended to guarantee order during the Christian gathering. He starts by saying that “If anyone speaks in tongues, let it happen in groups of two or at the most three people”. The phrase țĮIJ੹ įȪȠ ਲ਼ IJઁ ʌȜİ૙ıIJȠȞ IJȡİ૙Ȣ (“in groups of two or at the most three people”) is usually interpreted and translated as though Paul wrote įȪȠ ਲ਼ IJઁ ʌȜİ૙ıIJȠȞ IJȡİ૙Ȣ (without the word țĮIJȐ), and intended to limit the number of those speaking in tongues.202 These interpreters and translators overlook the distributive use of țĮIJȐ, which, followed by a numeral, expresses the groups or parts into which an entity is divided.203 This means that Paul

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See also 12:7-11, 30, and see also at 14:5, 15. For the translation “Therefore” (lit. “What then is it?” [IJȓ Ƞ੣Ȟ ਥıIJȚȞ]) in v. 26, see at v. 15. 200 In Greek: ਪțĮıIJȠȢ. See also at 1:12. 201 See also vv. 3, 4, 5, 12, and 17. See at 8:1. 202 See, e.g., “let there be only two or at most three” (NRSV); “only two should speak, or at most three” (REB). 203 See, e.g., Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 30.42 (“They [temperate and reasonable people] … debate man to man, or in groups of two or three like-minded persons [İੈȢ ਦȞ੿ įȚĮȜİȖȩȝİȞȠȚ țĮ੿ țĮIJ੹ įȪȠ țĮ੿ IJȡİ૙Ȣ ੖ȝȠȚȠȚ]”), 13.31, Herodotus, Hist.

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does not want the Corinthian Christians to speak in tongues in front of the whole assembly, but says that they should speak in small, separate groups of “two or at the most three people”. Ecstatic utterances in front of the whole assembly would cause complete disorder at the meetings, but if it were done in small groups, other Christians sitting at some distance from those speaking in tongues would remain unaware of their “performances”. Moreover, the speakers in tongues should speak one at a time, “each in turn”, waiting until another has finished,204 and there should always be someone there to “interpret” or explain what is being said by those speaking in tongues.205 It is only when someone present is able to explain what is being said by someone speaking in tongues that the members of the Christian community are edified, so “if there is no one to interpret what is said, the speaker in tongues should remain silent in the assembly”, even if he finds himself in a small, separate group of two or three people (v. 28). Paul does not forbid speaking in tongues, since he is well aware that it is a gift of the Holy Spirit, but when there is no one to explain what is being said by the speaker, they should remain silent. Alternatively, they could go somewhere else: “let him speak in tongues at a place where he is alone with God (lit. “for himself and for God”)”. There, he will not disturb the Christian community, and nobody will hear the strange sounds and noises except the speaker himself and God (cf. vv. 2 and 4). Those who are prophesying in the Christian assembly should also do so in an orderly manner (vv. 29-32). Paul starts by saying that “two or three people may prophesy at a time”,206 and that “some others should interpret207 these utterances of the Spirit” (v. 29). That is, out of all those who have the gift of prophesy, (cf. vv. 24 and 31) two or three may prophesy at a time in front of the whole community. Moreover, their prophecies should be followed by interpretations or explanations by those Christians with the ability to interpret these utterances of the Holy Spirit

 2.124.3, Plutarch, Quaest. conv. 5.5.2 (Mor. 679AB), Josephus, A.J. 3.142, 5.172, and Mark 6:40. 204 Cf. Josephus, B.J. 2.132, “They (the Essenes) … speak in turn, giving one another the opportunity to speak.” 205 Cf. 12:10, 30, 14:5, 13, and 26. 206 Lit. “Two or three prophets should speak.” The noun “prophets” is to be interpreted as functional language; that is, Paul is not referring to a group of more or less “professional” prophets, but to “those who are prophesying.” 207 In Greek: įȚĮțȡȚȞȑIJȦıĮȞ. For the gift of “interpreting” prophetic messages, see at 12:10.

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and apply them to the situation of the Christians in the present and the future. Finally, like those who speak in tongues, Christians who are prophesying should do so “one by one” (v. 31). That is, they should speak in turn: “if somebody is prophesying, and another sitting there receives a revelation, the first person should be silent” (v. 30). In other words, when “somebody is prophesying” and somebody else “receives a revelation”208 and feels obliged to transmit this divine message to all present, the first should stop prophesying. Finally, in verse 32, Paul reminds the Corinthian Christians that those who are prophesying “are in full control of their spirits” (lit. “the spirits of the prophets are subject to the prophets”): they are inspired and “possessed” by the Holy Spirit, but they have not lost their minds, and thus they speak “not only with their spirits but also with their minds”.209 Only in this way does their power of speech remain sufficiently intact to transmit divine messages in “normal” and comprehensible language.210 This is what makes it possible, in contrast to divine messages transmitted “in tongues”, for prophecies to “instruct”211 and “encourage”212 all the members of the community (v. 31). In verse 33, Paul puts forward another two arguments intended to underline his call for order at the meetings of the Christian community in Corinth. First, he offers a theological argument, saying that “God is a God not of disorder but of peace”. As both a Jew and a believer in Jesus Christ, Paul is familiar with the traditional idea that God is a God “of peace”,213 an idea which is often connected with a call for people to behave properly. So we read, for instance, in Clement of Alexandria, Quis dives salvetur 22, that “the God of peace … exhorts us even to love our enemies, and does not want us to hate or to part from our dearest ones”.214 But if God is a “God of peace”, he is, in Paul’s opinion, not a “God of disorder”, since “disorder” is closely related to “war”,215 which is the opposite of “peace”.

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Cf. vv. 6 and 26. 209 See v. 15. 210 See also at vv. 1-5, and 14-17, and cf. 11:10. 211 Cf. vv. 6, 26, and 12:28-29. 212 Cf. v. 3. 213 See, e.g., Philo, Ebr. 76, Rom 15:33, 16:20, 2 Cor 13:11, Phil 4:9, 1 Thess 5:23, 2 Thess 3:16, Heb 13:20, T. Dan 5:2, and Clement of Alexandria, Quis div. 22. 214 See further, e.g., Philo, Ebr. 76, 2 Cor 13:11, Phil 4:9, and T. Dan 5:2. 215 See, e.g., Sib. Or. 12:113-14, 13:107, 14:231-33, Luke 21:9, and 1 Clem. 3:2,

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Paul’s second justification for order during the Christian meetings in Corinth is a reference to what is customary in “all the communities of the saints”.216 There is harmony and order during the meetings of all the other Christian communities around the world, and the Corinthian community should not be an exception.217 Once again, Paul wants his readers in Corinth to realise that they are part of a single world-wide community of God.218 In verses 34-35, Paul addresses the role of married women at the meetings of the Christian communities. Since what he says here seems to contradict his earlier thoughts in 11:2-16, many scholars are of the opinion that these two verses are later interpolations, probably added under the influence of a text like 1 Timothy 2:11-12. But no Greek manuscript exists which gives any indication that these verses were originally omitted, and the passage about the role of women in verses 34-35 does fit very well into the direct context, which deals with order in the assembly. Moreover, the situations described in 11:2-16 and 14:34-35 are different. In the first passage, Paul forbids married women to pray or to prophesy in the assembly with their heads uncovered, whereas in the latter passage, he forbids married women to chatter in the assembly, or to interfere with what is going on. In addition, the vocabulary and style in verses 34-35 are completely consistent with Paul’s usual vocabulary and style, so it is does not seem very likely that these verses were interpolated later by some scribe or “redactor”. Paul considers it self-evident that, unless they are possessed by the Holy Spirit to pray or prophesy, married women “should remain silent at the meetings of the community” and “should not talk”. This rule is entirely consistent with what would have been customary at the time: married women were expected to behave decently in public, remain quiet, and not disgrace their husbands by attracting the attention of others present. See,

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For the term “saints” referring to the members of the Christian communities, see at 1:2, and cf. also 6:1, 2, 16:1, and 15. 217 The clause “as is evidenced by all the communities of the saints” should probably not be taken to be part of the section which follows (vv. 34-35), but rather, connected with the preceding sentences. In the first place, a formulation like “… by all the communities … at the meetings of the community” (ਥȞ ʌȐıĮȚȢ IJĮ૙Ȣ ਥțțȜȘıȓĮȚȢ ... ਥȞ IJĮ૙Ȣ ਥțțȜȘıȓĮȚȢ) in one sentence is unlike Paul’s usual style; and second, we also find similar phrases used to close certain passages elsewhere in 1 Corinthians (see, e.g., 4:17, 7:17, 11:16, and 14:36; cf. also 9:5, Rom 9:25, and 1 Thess 5:6). 218 See also 1:2, 4:17, 7:17, 11:16, and 14:36.

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for instance, Plutarch, Conjugalia praecepta 31-32 (Mor. 142CD), “A decent woman should not speak in public … in light of those present”.219 Next, Paul gives other reasons why women should be silent during the public meetings of the Christian community. First, he states that women “should show themselves to be submissive (ਫ਼ʌȠIJĮııȑıșȦıĮȞ), as the law also says (țĮșઅȢ țĮ੿ ੒ ȞȩȝȠȢ ȜȑȖİȚ)”. The idea that women should be “submissive” or subordinate to their husbands, also reflects Hellenistic ideas concerning the role of married women in the household and in society.220 In Plutarch’s Conjugalia praecepta 33 (Mor. 142E), for example, we read that: “women are praised if they subordinate themselves (ਫ਼ʌȠIJȐIJIJȠȣıĮȚ) to their husbands”, and that “a man should have control over his wife”.221 And since married women should be submissive to their husbands, this also means they should remain silent during the meetings of the community. That women “should show themselves to be submissive (to their husbands)” is also in accordance with the law (“as the law also says”). Having referred to what is customary in Hellenistic society, namely that women should be submissive to their husbands, Paul goes on to say that “the law” says the same.222 Most scholars are of the opinion that Paul is referring here to the law of Moses, and to Genesis 3:16 (“he will rule over you, Į੝IJȩȢ ıȠȣ țȣȡȚİȪıİȚ)” in particular. However, the words Paul uses are completely different to the wording in Genesis, which means it is not very likely that Paul had this particular passage in mind when he wrote about the role of women at the Christian meetings. It is, therefore, much more likely that he is not referring to one particular law, but to the law in general; that is, to the laws that were current among so many people in the Hellenistic world.223 For although these laws did not state explicitly that women “should show themselves to be submissive”, they contained many rules about marriage, divorce, inheritance, household and business, all of which reflected the popular notion of the inferiority of women. According

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See also Plutarch, Num. 25.9-10 (Vit. par. 77AB). 220 See also at 11:2-16, esp. at 11:3. 221 Cf. further, e.g., Vita Alexandri 1.22.5, Josephus, C. Ap. 2.201, Philo, Opif. 167, Eph 5:22, 24, Col 3:18, 1 Tim 2:11, Tit 2:5, 1 Pet 3:1, and 5. 222 For a similar form of argument, see 9:7-8. 223 Cf. also at 9:8. For a similar use of “the law,” referring to common practices or feelings reflected in laws, cf. also, e.g., Ps.-Socrates, Ep. 6 (“the law commands … that parents raise their children until adulthood”), Plato, Resp. 604B, and Lucian, Patr. laud. 4.

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to Paul, the laws of his time, including Jewish law, command in some way or other that married women should be subordinate to their husbands, and in this context that means that they should remain silent in public. If, however, women “want to know something, they should ask their own husbands at home” (v. 35a). So it is only in public, that is, at the meetings of the Christian community, that married women should remain silent; at home and in private, it is perfectly proper for them to speak and they may ask their husbands about anything they have heard at the meeting.224 “For”, as Paul continues, “it is disgraceful for a woman to talk at the meeting of the community” (v. 35b), that is, she should not bring disgrace upon her husband by speaking in public and attracting the attention of those present, and of males in particular.225 In order to convince his readers in Corinth that women should be silent at the meetings, Paul once again stresses that the Corinthian Christians should behave like all other Christians throughout the world: “Or did the message of God originate with you? Or are you the only ones it has reached?” (v. 36).226 Both these questions are meant to remind the Corinthians that they are neither the first, nor the only ones who have learnt about the Gospel. They should therefore adapt themselves to what is customary in other Christian communities.227

It is the Lord’s command: 14:37-40 (37) Anyone who claims to have the gift of prophecy or another spiritual gift should realise that what I write to you is a command of the Lord. (38) Anyone who forgets this will become forgotten. (39) Therefore, my brothers and sisters, focus with heart and soul on prophesying, and don’t stop speaking in tongues. (40) But all should be done decently and in order.

This paragraph concludes Paul’s instructions regarding order at the Christian assembly. He first tells the Corinthians that everything he has said so far should be regarded not as his own opinion, but as “a command of the Lord”, and that violation will have serious consequences (vv. 3738). Finally, he underlines once more the importance of the gifts of

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For the contrast “in public”–“at home,” cf. 11:33-34, and see also, e.g., Epictetus, Diss. 3.4.11. 225 See also at 11:6, 13. 226 Two rhetorical questions introduced by the word ਵ (“Or”). Cf. 6:2, 9, 16, 19; 9:6, 10, 10:22, and 11:22. 227 See also 1:2, 4:17, 7:17, 11:16, and 14:33b.

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prophecy and speaking in tongues, but reminds them that, at the meetings of the Christian community, everything “should be done decently and in order” (vv. 39-40). Paul ends this chapter about the role of the gifts of the Spirit in the meetings of the community with a serious warning. He directs this at everyone “who claims to have the gift of prophecy or another spiritual gift” (lit. “who claims228 to be a prophet or a spiritual person”).229 The term “a spiritual person” refers to anyone who has a gift of the Spirit, but in this context it refers in particular to a Christian who has the gift of speaking in tongues. All of them must realise that what Paul has said about order at the assembly is not his own personal opinion, but is in fact “a command of the Lord”, a command of Jesus Christ (v. 37). Paul is probably referring to a command which was orally transmitted in earlyChristian circles and which was attributed to (the earthly) Jesus.230 Whether or not this is the case, there is no doubt that Paul wants to reinforce his call for order by telling the Corinthians that it is in fact a command of the Lord himself. This also means that if they violate this command, the consequences will be serious: “Anyone who forgets this, will become forgotten (lit. “Anyone who does not recognise this is not recognised”)” (v. 38).231 That is, if they do not obey the Lord’s command, they “will become forgotten”, viz. by God. They will not be accepted by him as one of his elect – those who will be saved at the end of time.232 Finally, Paul calls on the Corinthian Christians to “focus with heart and soul on prophesying” and not to “stop speaking in tongues” (v. 39). This is an attempt to acknowledge the feelings of a number of Corinthians who were extremely proud of having all kinds of spiritual gifts, and the gift of speaking in tongues in particular. That is why he urges them first to “focus with heart and soul on prophesying”,233 because prophecy edifies the members of the Christian community, as he has argued before. But since glossolalia can be beneficial for Christians, namely when there is somebody present to interpret these strange sounds and noises, Paul cannot

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In Greek: İ੅ IJȚȢ įȠțİ૙. Cf. 3:18, 8:2, 11:16, Gal 6:3, Phil 3:4, and Jas 1:26. 229 For the term ʌȞİȣȝĮIJȚțȩȢ ( “a spiritual person,” that is, a person driven by the Spirit), see also 2:15, and 3:1. 230 See also 7:10, and 9:14. 231 Cf. 8:3, 13:12, and also Gal 4:9. 232 Cf. also 3:17. 233 For the use and meaning of the verb ȗȘȜȠ૨Ȟ (“to focus with heart and soul on”), see also 12:31a, and 14:1.

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categorically forbid speaking in tongues. He therefore also urges his readers in Corinth not to “stop speaking in tongues”, but reminds them that he expects them to ensure that these “tongues” will be interpreted and explained to all those present, as he has instructed. Paul ends this passage by saying once more that “all should be done decently234 and in order” (v. 40). Any kind of disorder at the meetings of the Christian community in Corinth should be avoided.235 Only in this way will the members of the Christian community be “built up” (v. 26).

 234

Cf. Rom 13:13, and 1 Thess 4:12. 235 Cf. Dittenberger’s Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum, no. 736, 10. For the combination “decently”–“orderly,” see further Plutarch, Lyc. 30.5 (Vit. par. 58F), and Plotinus, Enn. 2.9.5.12.

PART SEVEN THE RESURRECTION OF BELIEVERS AT THE END OF TIME: 15:1-58

In this chapter, Paul deals with an issue which, at first sight, seems to be somewhat isolated in this letter to the Corinthians. On second thoughts, however, the subject matches the profile of some of the Corinthian Christians quite well, those who were proud of their “knowledge” in particular.1 There were, apparently, members of the Corinthian community who were of the opinion that “there is no resurrection of the dead” (v. 12). They probably ridiculed the belief held by their fellow Christians that, one day in the future, the dead would be raised from their graves and would receive a new human body. They supported the idea that when someone died their “soul” descended into the realm of the power of death or the “Underworld” (or “vanished” into the air) and their body decayed back into the earth. They did not believe that the dead somehow “survived” in the Underworld and would be bodily “resurrected” at the end of time. They were already experiencing God’s salvation now, in their lives, because they felt “wise” and “free” to do what they wanted, and were proud of their gifts of the Spirit. As a result, they did not concern themselves too much about the future or the end of time, and they certainly didn’t accept such an “absurd” idea as physical resurrection. Paul does not agree with them, and he warns all his readers in Corinth about the danger of false opinions concerning the resurrection of the dead. In this context, Paul does not deal with the fate of dead people in general, but speaks exclusively about the future resurrection of dead Christians. In the first part of this chapter (vv. 1-34), he refers to the fact that Jesus Christ died and rose from the dead, and that this message is proclaimed by him as well as by all the other missionaries (vv. 1-11). Next, he states that it is not very logical to accept the message that Jesus Christ was raised from the dead, but at the same time reject the future resurrection of dead

 1

See esp. chs. 1-4.

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Christians (vv. 12-19). For Christ was the first of the dead to be raised to life; all the others will follow at the end of time, when the power of death will be defeated by Jesus Christ himself (vv. 20-28). Finally, Paul gives some examples from the lives of Christians and Gospel preachers to show the Corinthian Christians that it is absurd not to believe that dead Christians will be raised from the dead at the end of time (vv. 29-34). In the second part of this chapter (vv. 35-58), Paul deals with a possible objection raised by those people who found a bodily resurrection from the dead in particular to be an absurd idea. He first gives a number of examples to show that there are a variety of “bodies” in this world, and that the bodies of resurrected Christians will be different to their former physical bodies: the latter were “earthly”, whereas the former will be “spiritual”. Moreover, he refers to an OT passage to make it clear that, through their connection to Adam, all human beings are “earthly” and are made of dust, whereas through their connection to Jesus Christ, resurrected Christians will be “heavenly” or “spiritual” beings (vv. 35-49). Paul continues in verses 50-58 to explain that those Christians who are still alive at Jesus Christ’s Parousia will also receive another “body”, for only in this way will they be able to enter the kingdom of God. Each of the two main parts of the chapter ends with a direct exhortation (vv. 33-34, and v. 58). Paul is obviously very concerned with the situation of the Christian community in Corinth. He therefore calls on his readers not to listen to those fellow Christians who reject the idea of a physical resurrection of the dead; those who are content with their lives in this world and who furthermore lead a life not in accordance with the will of God. Paul’s readers must avoid such people. Instead, they should listen to the message of God as proclaimed by Paul and behave like true Christians in expectation of soon being united forever with their Lord Jesus Christ.

Jesus Christ died and was raised from the dead: 15:1-11 (1) Now I remind you, brothers and sisters, of the Gospel that I proclaimed to you; the Gospel that you have heard from me, in which you have anchored your lives, (2) and through which you are saved if you hold firmly to the message that I proclaimed to you. Otherwise, you have come to believe in vain. (3) For first and foremost I handed on to you a tradition that I in turn had heard, namely, that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the Scriptures, (4) and that he was buried; that he was raised to life on the third day in accordance with the Scriptures (5) and that he appeared to Cephas and afterwards to the Twelve. (6) Then he appeared to more than five hundred

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brothers and sisters at the same time, most of whom are still alive, although some have died. (7) Then he appeared to James, and afterwards to all the apostles. (8) Last of all, he appeared to me, as to a stillborn child. (9) For I am the least of the apostles, in fact unfit to be called an apostle, because I have persecuted the community of God. (10) But by God’s grace I am what I am, and his grace toward me has not been in vain. I have worked harder than all the others – that is, not I, but God who is working through me by his grace. (11) But no matter whether it is I or the others, this is the message we proclaim and in which you have come to believe.

In order to convince his readers in Corinth that those Christians who have died before the end of time will be raised to life, Paul wants them to remember the central theme of the Gospel, namely, that Jesus Christ died and was brought back to life (vv. 3b-4). The many appearances of Jesus Christ after his death prove that he really was raised from the dead (vv. 57). He even appeared to Paul himself, although Paul was not fit to become an apostle of the Lord (vv. 8-10). Besides, it is this Gospel of Jesus Christ that is proclaimed not only by Paul, but by all missionaries (vv. 1-3a, and v. 11). Before repeating the kernel of the Gospel of Jesus Christ in verses 3b-7, Paul wants the Corinthian Christians to realise that, together with all the other missionaries, he proclaims exactly the same message; a message that is not unique to Paul (and his nearest fellow workers), but which has been proclaimed by all preachers since the birth of the Christian Church. Moreover, Paul reminds his readers in Corinth that they “have heard” this message from him2 and that they “have anchored their lives”3 in this message of salvation (v. 1). And they “are saved”4 through this message at the end of time, but only if they “hold firmly to the message” that Paul has proclaimed to them (v. 2). If not, that is, if, for instance, they deny the future resurrection of dead Christians and consequently also the resurrection of Jesus Christ himself, they “have come to believe in vain”,5 and will lose salvation. In the next verses, Paul repeats what he told the Corinthians when he was with them in Corinth. He introduces this kernel of the Gospel with the

 2

Cf. Gal 1:9, Phil 4:9, and 1 Thess 2:13. 3 Lit. “stand (firm),” ਦıIJȒțĮIJİ. Cf. 16:13, Phil 1:27, and also Rom 5:2, and John 8:44. 4 The present tense used here by Paul (ı૴ȗİıșİ, “you are saved”) expresses the certainty that something will happen in the future. See also at 7:31b. 5 For the use of the word İੁțૌ (“in vain”), see also Rom 13:4, Gal 3:4, and 4:11.

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words “For first and foremost6 I handed on to you a tradition that I in turn had heard” (v. 3a). That is, in the following verses, Paul is handing down an (oral) tradition which was transmitted in the early Church and which Paul himself came to know after his “conversion”, or better, his call to become an apostle of the Lord.7 But it is obvious that Paul has given his own twist to the traditional wording of the kernel of the Gospel. From other passages in Paul’s letters and in other NT writings, it appears that for all Christians of the time, the words “Jesus Christ died and was raised to life” were at the centre of the Gospel.8 A variety of clauses were frequently added to this short, summarising “confession of faith”, as is also the case in 1 Corinthians 15. First, it is said that “Christ died for our sins” (v. 3). That Jesus Christ died “for us” or “for our sins” is a traditional early-Christian idea. In the early Church, Jesus’ death expressed atonement and substitution; through his death as that of an innocent martyr, the sins of those who believe in him and are connected to him are forgiven by God.9 Moreover, Jesus’ death “for our sins” was “in accordance with the Scriptures” (v. 3), not in the sense that there is a particular passage in the OT that predicts the future death (and resurrection) of the Messiah. Rather, according to the Christians of the time, the whole of the OT, with its many hymns, stories and prophecies, bears witness to the life and death of Jesus Christ; in fact, everything that happened in Jesus’ life was predicted by God and written down in the Scriptures.10 In order to emphasise that the death of Jesus was real, Paul adds that Jesus “was buried” (v. 4); the stories about Jesus’ funeral in the Gospels and Acts are well-known. But the fact that Paul uses the verb șȐʌIJİȚȞ (ਥIJȐijȘ, “was buried”), which was not used in connection with Jesus’ death and funeral elsewhere in early-Christian literature until the middle of the

 6

In Greek: ਥȞ ʌȡȫIJȠȚȢ. Cf., e.g., Plato, Resp. 522C, and Epictetus, Ench. 20. 7 Cf. also at 11:2, 23. 8 See, e.g., Rom 4:25, 8:34, 14:9, 2 Cor 5:15, Gal 1:1, 4, 1 Thess 4:14, and Acts 3:15. 9 Cf. 1:30, and cf. Rom 4:25, Gal 1:4, and see also at 1 Cor 11:24-25. 10 See, e.g., Rom 1:2-4, 15:3-4, Matt 21:42, 26:55-56, Mark 14:49, Luke 24:25-27, 44-46, Acts 17:2-3, 18:28, and 28:23.

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second century, makes it very probable that it was Paul himself who introduced it here.11 Paul next mentions the second element of the kernel of the Gospel, namely that “on the third day” Jesus “was raised to life” (v. 4). Again, Paul is allying himself with traditional early-Christian ideas.12 The fact that Jesus was resurrected “on the third day” or “after three days” implies that God had mercy on him and raised him from the dead almost immediately after his death.13 In the opinion of Paul and other early-Christians, not only was Jesus’ death “in accordance with the Scriptures” but so too was his resurrection (v. 4, cf. v. 3). Because Paul wanted to emphasise that Jesus really did die by adding the phrase that he “was buried”, he finds it appropriate to offer some convincing “proofs” that Jesus really was raised from the dead and became alive again. He mentions a number of people who met Jesus Christ after his death and resurrection (vv. 5-8). It seems likely that Paul himself was responsible for the insertion of these witnesses into the text, but he has undoubtedly drawn from early-Christian (oral) traditions about these “appearances” of Jesus to his followers after his death and resurrection. First, Paul mentions Cephas (Peter)14 as having witnessed an appearance of Jesus: “that he appeared to Cephas” (v. 5). A story about Jesus appearing to Cephas went the rounds in the early Church shortly after Jesus’ death and resurrection, and apparently such a story was also known to Paul.15 The formulation ੭ijșȘ (“he appeared [to]”) in verses 5-816 is frequently found in OT and Jewish-Christian stories about heavenly beings coming down from heaven, who “appear” to, or “are seen” by people on earth. Quite often it is God himself who “appears” to people, but also angels or human beings (like Moses and Elijah), who are supposed to be in

 11

The formulation “died and buried” is frequently found in the OT/LXX: see Gen 35:19, Deut 10:6, Judg 8:32, 10:2, 5, 12:7, 10, 15, 2 Sam 17:23, 2 Chron 12:16, and 35:24. 12 See Matt 16:21, 17:23, 20:19, 27:63, Mark 8:31, 9:31, 10:34, Luke 9:22, 18:33, 24:7, 46, and Acts 10:40. 13 Cf. 2 Kings 20:5, 8, and esp. Hos 6:2, where it is told that God “will revive us after two days” and “will raise us to life on the third day.” 14 See at 1:12. 15 See Luke 24:34. 16 And in Luke 24:34.

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heaven, also “appear” to people on earth.17 Most of the time they appear in the shape of a man,18 but they may also appear as a phenomenon of nature, like a fire or a cloud.19 And finally, they are “seen” by people on earth in many ways, but usually in dreams or visions.20 It is perfectly reasonable to interpret the NT stories about the appearance of Jesus in the light of these Jewish-Christian accounts of appearances. After Jesus’ death and resurrection, a number of his followers had dreams or visions in which Jesus “appeared” to them, and stories about these appearances are found in the Gospels and in Acts, and are generally related as though such appearances were real events.21 It is not clear whether Paul was familiar with some of these stories, including the stories about the empty tomb22 and Jesus’ assumption,23 but he certainly knew that some followers of Jesus had “seen” him after his death and resurrection. In Paul’s view, and in the view of many Christians of the time, Jesus was taken up by God into heaven soon after his death, and had come back down to earth a number of times to appear to some of his followers. From these stories about Jesus appearing to his followers, Paul concludes that Jesus is really alive, that he is in heaven, and that he really has been raised from the dead. After Jesus had appeared to Cephas, he appeared to “the Twelve” (v. 5), that is, to the permanent group of disciples who had accompanied him during his public activities,24 and who are said to have “seen” Jesus Christ after his death and resurrection.25 It is not clear whether Paul knew the stories about Jude, who had left the group of the Twelve,26 but for him,

 17

See Gen 12:7, 17:1, 18:1, 31:13, 35:1, 9, 13, Exod 3:2, Num 14:10, 16:19, 42, Deut 33:16, Judg 6:12, 1 Kings 3:5, 9:2, 11:9, 3 Bar. 3:6, Matt 17:3, Mark 9:4, Luke 1:11, 9:31, 22:43, Acts 7:2, 30, 35, etc. 18 See, e.g., Gen 18:1-2, Judg 6:11-12, Mark 9:4, and Luke 1:11. 19 See, e.g., Exod 3:2, 16:10, Lev 16:2, and Acts 7:30. 20 See, e.g., Gen 26:24, 31:10-13, Exod 3:2, 1 Kings 3:5, 9:2, Matt 17:3, Mark 9:4, Luke 1:11, and 9:31. 21 See Matt 28:9-10, 16-20, Luke 24:13-53, John 20:14-21:23, Acts 1:1-11, and cf. also Acts 13:31. 22 See Matt 28:6, Mark 16:6, Luke 24:3, 6, and John 20:1-10. 23 See Luke 24:50-51, and Acts 1:9. 24 See Matt 10:1-5, 26:14, 47, Mark 3:14-16, 4:10, 6:7, Luke 8:1, 9:1, 12, John 6:67, 70-71, etc. 25 See Matt 28:16-20, Luke 24:36-52, John 20:19-29, 21:1-14, and Acts 1:3-9. 26 Therefore, Matt 28:16 speaks of “the Eleven.”

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“the Twelve” refers to the most intimate group of disciples, regardless of their exact number.27 In verse 6, Paul mentions another group to whom Jesus appeared after his death and resurrection: “Then he appeared to more than five hundred brothers and sisters28 at the same time, most of whom are still alive, although some have died”. Paul probably also knew this story from earlyChristian (oral) traditions, but it does not occur in the written Gospels. In Paul’s view, this appearance to more than five hundred followers of Jesus also makes it clear that Jesus Christ was raised from the dead; moreover, the Corinthian Christians would have been able to ask those involved about this appearance, for many of them were still alive. Paul mentions another two appearances of Jesus in verse 7, namely to “James” and to “all the apostles”. Again, Paul may have known of these appearances from early-Christian traditions, but neither of them is mentioned in the Gospels. James was one of “the brothers of the Lord”29 and became a leader of the Christian community in Jerusalem after Jesus’ death. According to Josephus, James was stoned to death for law-breaking by order of the high priest.30 “All the apostles” refers to all those missionaries who had “seen” Jesus after his death and resurrection and who were engaged in proclaiming the Gospel of Jesus Christ.31 But in addition to all the appearances of Jesus to his followers known to Paul from early-Christian traditions, there was another, final, appearance, namely, the appearance of Jesus Christ to Paul himself: “Last of all, he appeared to me, as to a stillborn child” (v. 8). Paul has himself “seen” Jesus Christ, when he was travelling to Damascus and was called by Jesus to proclaim the Gospel among the Gentiles.32 He gives no details about this “encounter” with Jesus after his death and resurrection, not here or anywhere else in his letters. He probably “saw” and “heard” Jesus in a

 27

Similarly, Xenophon, Hell. 2.4.23, still speaks of “the Thirty,” whereas from the previous passages it has become clear that two persons of this fixed group of thirty have died. 28 For the translation “brothers and sisters,” see at 1:10. 29 See 9:5. 30 See Josephus, A.J. 20.200. On James, see further Matt 13:55, Mark 6:3, Acts 12:17, 15:13, 21:18, Gal 1:19, 2:9, and 12. 31 For Paul, the term “apostle” is not limited to one of “the twelve apostles” (and himself). See also at 9:5. 32 See also 9:1, Gal 1:15-16, and cf. Acts 9:1-19a, 22:3-16, and 26:9-18.

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dream or in a vision, but for Paul, this event is one more proof that Jesus really was raised from the dead and continued to live in heaven. It is striking that Paul refers to himself as “a stillborn child” or “a miscarriage”. The Greek word ਩țIJȡȦȝĮ refers, in a literal sense, to a child that is born dead due to a premature birth, and as such ਩țIJȡȦȝĮ and cognates occur a number of times in Classical and Hellenistic literature. The figurative use of the word, however, is wholly in line with its use in the OT/LXX, where people who are in a desolate position and who feel miserable, are more than once called, or compared with, “a miscarriage”. In Numbers 12:12, for example, Aaron compares his sister Miriam, who had sinned against God and been punished with leprosy, to “a stillborn child”: “Do not let her be like a miscarriage (੪ıİ੿ ਩țIJȡȦȝĮ)”.33 All this makes it very likely that Paul adopted the term ਩țIJȡȦȝĮ from Jewish tradition, and in particular from its (figurative) use in some OT/LXX passages. The reason Paul employed this particular term in this context, thereby depicting himself as a miserable and worthless person, becomes clear in verse 9b: “because I have persecuted the community of God”. The fact that he once persecuted members of the Christian communities and opposed God and his Son Jesus Christ, caused him to see himself as a miserable wretch for his entire life.34 So although he became an apostle by order of Jesus Christ, he refers to himself as “the least of the apostles, in fact unfit to be called an apostle”.35 Paul also states that he is not fit or competent to work as an apostle in 2 Corinthians 3:5-6.36 In both passages, he underlines that it was God who “made us competent to be ministers of a new covenant” (2 Cor 3:6) and who, by his grace, has appointed him to be the apostle he has become: “But by God’s grace I am what I am” (v. 10). By referring to his own incompetence to be an apostle of the Lord and to God’s decision to nevertheless appoint him as such, Paul ranks himself among many other divine men who have been appointed by God to proclaim his message or

 33

See further Job 3:16, Ps 58:8 (57:9 A, S, and T), Isa 14:19 S, and cf. Philo, Leg. 1.76, and Ign. Rom. 9:2. 34 See also Gal 1:13, 23, Phil 3:6, and cf. Acts 8:3, 9:1-2, 4-5, 13-14, 21, 22:4-5, 78, 19; 26:9-11, and 14-15. 35 For the formulation “I am the least of …” as an expression of one’s modesty, see also 1 Sam 9:21, T. Jos. 17:8, and Eph 3:8. 36 Cf. 2 Cor 2:16.

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to fulfil some other godly task in spite of their “insufficiencies”. There are many stories in the OT and in Jewish-Christian literature about prophets and other divine men who, when called by God to perform a certain task, point to their own insufficiency, arguing that they are unworthy, unfit or inadequate to such a task; an objection always instantly dismissed by God. See, for instance, Exodus 3:11, where Moses says to God: “Who am I that I should go to Pharaoh and should bring the Israelites out of Egypt? … O my Lord, I have never been eloquent (Ƞ੝Ȥ ੂțĮȞȩȢ İੁȝȚ) … Please send someone else” (Exod 3:11, 4:10, 13). Or Judges 6:15, where Gideon says to God: “But, my Lord, how can I deliver Israel? My clan is the weakest in Manasseh, and I am the least (ਥȖȫ İੁȝȚ ȝȚțȡȩȢ) in my family”. Or Jeremiah 1:6, where the prophet says to God: “Ah, Lord God! Truly I do not know how to speak, for I am only a boy”.37 In all these instances, people point out their insufficiency and incompetence to fulfil some godly task. Such “obstacles” are not removed, but are overcome by God in some way or other by the promise of his assistance or by an act of his grace. Similarly, Paul found himself – in retrospect, and perhaps also at the moment he was called to become an apostle – incompetent and inadequate to the task of proclaiming the Gospel because he had persecuted the followers of Jesus, but God disregarded his insufficiency, and, by his grace, appointed him as an apostle of the Lord.38 Thanks to God’s grace, Paul has become an apostle, and his work “has not been in vain” (v. 10); that is, it was not without result,39 to say the least. Paul has been successful in all the places where he has proclaimed the message about Jesus Christ, but this did not happen automatically; Paul had to work hard for this result, even “harder than all the others”.40 Because he feels himself to be “the least of the apostles”, and even “unfit to be called an apostle”, he feels it is his duty to “work harder than all the others”. But in all modesty he hastens to say that it is all “by God’s grace” that he is able to work hard and be successful (v. 10). He knows very well that he and the other missionaries are “simply servants”, and that it is God who “makes it grow” (3:5-8). Finally, Paul reminds the Corinthian Christians once more that the Gospel he proclaims is no different to the one proclaimed by all the other apostles:

 37

See further 1 Sam 9:21, Isa 6:5, As. Mos. 12:6-7, 2 Bar. 54:9, Eph 3:8, 1 Tim 1:15-16, and Ign. Rom. 9:2. 38 Cf. Gal 1:15, and see also at 1 Cor 3:10. 39 In Greek: Ƞ੝ țİȞȒ. Cf. Gal 2:2, Phil 2:16, 1 Thess 2:1, and 3:5. 40 Cf. 2 Cor 11:23, and see also at 1 Cor 4:12.

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“But no matter whether it is I or the others, this is the message we proclaim and in which you have come to believe” (v. 11). They accepted God’s message about the death and the resurrection of their Lord when they became believers in Jesus Christ (see also vv. 1-2).

As Christ was raised from the dead, the dead Christians will be raised from the dead: 15:12-19 (12) If our message is that Christ has risen from the dead, how can some of you say that there is no resurrection of the dead? (13) If there is no resurrection of the dead, then Christ cannot have risen from the dead either; (14) and if Christ has not risen from the dead, then our message is empty talk and your faith is worthless. (15) That would mean we have given false evidence about God, because we have testified that God raised Christ from the dead, whereas he could not have done so if it is true that the dead are not raised. (16) For if the dead are not raised, then Christ is not risen from the dead either. (17) But if Christ has not risen from the dead, then your faith is senseless and you are still in a state of sin, (18) and all the followers of Christ who have died are lost forever. (19) If what we expect from Christ has to do with this life only, then we are the most pitiable people on earth.

In this paragraph, Paul tries to convince his readers in Corinth of the absurdity of thinking that Christians who have died before the end of time will not be raised from the dead if they have accepted God’s message about Jesus’ resurrection after his death (vv. 1-11 and v. 12). In the verses which follow, Paul delivers a more or less “logical” discourse to convince the Corinthian Christians of his standpoint. First, he states that people who deny a future resurrection of the dead cannot at the same time believe that Jesus Christ was raised from the dead (v. 13; cf. v. 16). Furthermore, people who deny the resurrection of Jesus render God’s message worthless and their belief in Christ senseless (vv. 14 and 17ab), in which case the Gospel proclaimed by Paul and the other missionaries would be a false message (vv. 15-16) and all Christians would still be “in a state of sin” and lost forever, together with all those Christians who have already died (vv. 17c-18). Finally, Paul points out that if the dead will not be raised, Christians can no longer cherish any hope of salvation and eternal life, and of all human beings on earth are therefore the most to be pitied (v. 19). The reason Paul asserted in the previous passage (vv. 1-11) that the Gospel centres on the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ immediately becomes clear in verse 12. First, he repeats that the common message of all missionaries is that “Christ has risen from the dead”. This refers back to

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verse 4 in particular, in which Paul stated that Jesus Christ “was raised to life” (ਥȖȒȖİȡIJĮȚ). This time, he adds the words “from the dead” (ਥț Ȟİțȡ૵Ȟ) to the verb ਥȖȒȖİȡIJĮȚ. This formulation (“Jesus Christ has risen from the dead”) is also traditional and is often found in early-Christian literature.41 Paul finds it absurd to believe that Jesus Christ was raised from the dead and at the same time to support the idea that “there is no resurrection of the dead”, apparently an opinion held by some of the Christians in Corinth.42 At first sight, Paul’s argument appears to be very logical, but one wonders whether his readers in Corinth, and those who denied a future resurrection of the dead in particular, found his argument truly convincing, because Paul is combining two kinds of “resurrection” in this paragraph; namely, that of Jesus Christ in the past and that of the dead (Christians) at the end of time. These were originally and traditionally unconnected, and were probably also seen as such by a number of Christians in Corinth. There was a belief in the Graeco-Roman world, however, that extremely pious, wise and good people would be rewarded by God or the deities after their death, and that their souls were taken up to heaven or to the place of the gods. See, for instance, Pseudo-Heraclitus, Epistula 5.2, “my soul will not sink but, since it is immortal, it will fly up to heaven … I will not live among human beings but among gods”.43 In Judaism, the belief was that, as well as renowned prophets like Enoch, Moses and Elijah, ordinary people might be taken up to heaven to receive a new and better life. Martyrs in particular – innocent people who had been executed by the (pagan) authorities for their beliefs – having died for God, his law and his people, were thought to be rewarded by God. See, for instance, 2 Maccabees 7:9, where one of the seven brothers tortured and killed by king Antiochus says to the king just before his death: “You … may take our lives now, but the king of the world will raise (ਕȞĮıIJȒıİȚ) us, who have died for his laws, to a new and eternal life”.44 These pious people who were taken up to heaven after their death were believed to take the form of heavenly beings, and were able to “appear” to people on earth by order of God, just like the angels in heaven.45 It therefore seems plausible to assume that the first Christians, including Paul and the Corinthians,

 41

See Matt 17:9, John 2:22, Acts 3:15, Rom 4:24, Gal 1:11, 1 Thess 1:10, etc. 42 Cf. 6:14. 43 See also Ps.-Socrates (Phaedrus), Ep. 25.1, and Epictetus, Ench. 15. 44 See further 2 Macc 7:14, 23, 36, 4 Macc. 7:19, 9:8, 13:17, 16:25, 18:23, and Wis 3:1-5. 45 For such “appearances,” see at v. 5.

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regarded Jesus’ death as the death of a martyr who “was raised from the dead” soon after his death46 by God, taken up to heaven, received a new life and a new “heavenly” existence, and as such could “appear” to his followers on earth. Many of Paul’s pagan, Jewish and Christian contemporaries would have been familiar with the idea of the individual “resurrection” or “assumption into heaven” of a pious man soon after his death, but that is not the same as the idea of a “resurrection” of the dead at the end of time. People usually assumed that when someone died, their body would decay back into the earth and their soul would descend into the realm of death, or would “vanish” into the air in some way or other. Most people had no more than a vague idea about the destiny of dead people. They were afraid of “the power of death”, and hoped for the best; that is, they held to the idea of a happy survival in the other world, so they paid a lot of attention to funeral rites, took great care of the tombs of their relatives and friends, and put all kinds of things near the graves to “help” them have a good journey and a pleasant stay in the next world. More literate or better educated people, however, looked down on these people with their “absurd” ideas. On the one hand, they found that there was no need to be afraid of death, and on the other hand, they considered the idea of survival in another world to be completely ridiculous. A fine illustration of this attitude is found in Lucian’s writing De luctu 2: “The large majority of people … slavishly follow Homer, Hesiod and other writers of fables and believe what they write in their poems. They assume that there is a place deep underground, called Hades, which is large, spacious, dark and shady”. All this was considered completely absurd and foolish by the better educated.47 In Paul’s day, most people were not at all familiar with the idea that the dead would one day be brought back to life. Certain groups of Jews,48 however, believed that there would be “a resurrection of the dead”. They were convinced that all the dead would be raised from the realm of death at the end of time, to either be punished or rewarded by God, or at the very least, the righteous ones would be raised from the dead to receive eternal

 46

“On the third day.” See at v. 4. 47 See Pliny the Elder, Nat. 7.188-90, Plutarch, Cons. Apoll. 15 (Mor. 109E-110C), Suav. viv. 25-31 (Mor. 1104B-1107C), Diogenes Laertius, Vit. phil. 10.124-26, and Seneca, Marc. 19.4-5; and cf. Acts 17:32. 48 Not all Jews: see, e.g., Matt 22:23, Mark 12:18, Luke 20:27, Acts 4:2, 23:6, and 8.

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salvation.49 They also believed that all those raised from the dead would take the form of heavenly beings in one way or another. Paul and a number of other formerly-Jewish Christians adopted these resurrectionist ideas, and in proclaiming the Gospel about Jesus Christ, Paul pointed to the future salvation which all Christians, including those who had died previously, would receive at the end of time. In Corinth, all (or almost all) Christians were of pagan birth, and some of them could not, or did not want to, believe that those who had died would be raised to life one day in the future.50 This small group of Corinthian Christians (IJȚȞİȢ, v. 12) was probably the same group referred to in verses 34 and 4:18 (also IJȚȞİȢ). They belonged to the upper classes of Corinthian society51 and tended to look down on the other Christians. They were proud of their noble birth and of their knowledge,52 and they found the idea that the dead would be raised to life at the end of time absurd and ridiculous. They were happy with their lives here on earth and felt completely free to do whatever they wanted.53 Paul, however, was convinced that in the near future, at Christ’s Parousia, dead Christians would be raised to life and would “be with the Lord forever”,54 and since he was of the opinion that Jesus’ death and resurrection marked the beginning of the end of times, he regarded Jesus Christ as the first of those who were to be raised to eternal life on the “Last Day”.55 In this way, Paul could use Jesus’ resurrection from the dead as a kind of “proof” that all dead Christians would one day be raised to life, and he found it rather odd for someone to believe that Jesus Christ had died and risen from the dead (the kernel of the Gospel) but at the same time deny the future resurrection of all dead Christians at Christ’s Parousia. In verses 13-19, Paul elaborates on the “logical” consequences of such a denial. He first wants the Corinthians to realise that such a denial implies the denial of Jesus Christ’s resurrection from the dead (v. 13, cf. v. 16). He continues in verse 14 (and cf. v. 17ab), “If Christ has not risen from the dead, then our message is empty talk and your faith is worthless”. Paul

 49

See, e.g., Dan 12:2-3, 4 Ezra 7:32-38, 2 Bar. 42:8, and 50:2-4. 50 Cf. 2 Clem. 9:1-6, and Justin, Dial. 80.4. 51 See also at 1:26. 52 See esp. chs. 1-4. 53 See at 4:8, and 6:12. 54 1 Thess 4:17. 55 See the next paragraph (vv. 20-28).

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uses the term țİȞȩȢ (“empty [talk]” and “worthless”)56 twice in this verse in an attempt to emphasise that God’s message and the Christian faith are nothing but lies if Jesus Christ was not raised from the dead, and also implies that “we have given false evidence about God, because we have testified that God57 raised Christ from the dead, whereas he could not have done so, if it is true that the dead are not raised” (v. 15). Paul repeats his statement of verse 13: “For if the dead are not raised, then Christ is not risen from the dead either” (v. 16). In other words: if the Christians in Corinth who believe that there is no resurrection of the dead at the end of time are right, then God cannot have raised Jesus from the dead either, and his Gospel is proved to be false. Consequently, the faith of the Christians would be completely “worthless” (v. 14c), or in the words of verse 17: “if Christ has not risen from the dead, then your faith is senseless and you are still in a state of sin”. This time, Paul uses the term ȝȐIJĮȚȠȢ (“futile”, “useless”, “senseless”, “fruitless”), which is more or less synonymous with țİȞȩȢ in verse 14.58 Furthermore, if Jesus Christ has not risen from the dead and, as a consequence, God’s promise of salvation at the end of time is nothing but a lie, then all people, including all Christians, are still sinners and doomed to be lost forever. In Paul’s view, Jesus’ death and resurrection belong together;59 that means that if Jesus Christ was not raised to eternal life as a reward for his self-sacrifice as a martyr, his death has not had any beneficial effect on those who believe in him and who are closely connected with him either, in which case, Jesus Christ has not died “for us” or “for our sins”, and he has not become “our righteousness, our sanctification and our redemption” (1:30, and cf. 6:11). Moreover, if Christians have not been “redeemed” by the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ and have not been “saved” by God (see v. 2), all those “followers of Christ”60 who have died in the meantime cannot receive salvation either; they too “are lost forever” (v. 18). For Paul, this is

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See also v. 10, and cf., e.g., Deut 32:47, Wis 3:11, Sir 34:1, Eph 5:6, Col 2:8, Diogn. 8:2, and Plutarch, Adv. Col. 17 (Mor. 1117A). 57 Lit. “we have testified against God” (ਥȝĮȡIJȣȡȒıĮȝİȞ țĮIJ੹ IJȠ૨ șİȠ૨). For ȝĮȡIJȣȡİ૙Ȟ țĮIJȐ, see also Exod 20:16, Deut 5:20, Mark 14:55-57, and Plato, Gorg. 472B. 58 Cf., e.g., Job 20:18, Hos 12:2, Let. Aris. 205, 1 Clem. 7:2, and Plutarch, Adv. Col. 17 (Mor. 1117A). 59 Cf. also vv. 3-4, and, e.g., Rom 4:25. 60 In Greek: ਥȞ ȋȡȚıIJ૶. Cf. 1:2, 4, 30; 3:1, 4:10, 15, 17, 15:22, 31, and 16:24.

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a completely absurd idea; he is convinced that all Christians who have died before the end of time will be raised to life and will be with Jesus Christ forever, together with all those Christians who are still alive at Jesus’ Parousia (see 1 Thess 4:13-17). At the end of this paragraph, Paul makes clear the ultimate consequence of such a denial of the future resurrection of the dead: “If what we expect from Christ has to do with this life only, then we are the most pitiable people on earth” (v. 19). That is, if Christians believe that there is nothing beyond this life on earth they are more to be pitied than all other people, for they believe that a new age has begun with Jesus Christ’s death and resurrection and they feel “free” and “happy” with all the gifts of the Spirit, but they do not realise that salvation will only be fully achieved at the end of time, also for those Christians who have already died.

Christ has risen from the dead as the first of those who have fallen asleep: 15:20-28 (20) But the truth is that Christ has risen from the dead, as the first of those who have fallen asleep. (21) For since death came through a human being, the resurrection of the dead has also come through a human being: (22) as all people die through their connection with Adam, so all people will return to life through their connection with Christ. (23) But each in proper order: Christ first, and next, at his coming, those who belong to Christ. (24) Then comes the end, when he has destroyed all principalities, authorities and powers and delivers his kingship up to God the Father. (25) For he will reign as a king until he has put all enemies under his feet; (26) death is the last enemy that will be destroyed. (27) For the Scriptures say that “God has submitted all things to him and has put them under his feet”. But in saying “all things” (have been submitted to him), the one who made all things submitted to him is excluded, of course. (28) And when all things will be submitted to him, then the Son will submit himself to the one who has caused all things to be submitted to him, and thus God’s power will be all pervading.

In the preceding paragraph, Paul explained the consequences of a denial of the future resurrection of the dead, namely, a denial of Jesus Christ’s resurrection and a negation of the Christian faith as a blatant lie. Now, he reverses this line of argument: Jesus Christ was raised from the dead (cf. v. 4) as the first of many who will be raised to life (v. 20), and in fact all Christians who have died before the end of time will be raised from the dead (vv. 21-22). Jesus was the first, and the others will follow one day (v. 23), namely, at the end of time, when as king in heaven Jesus Christ will

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have defeated all his enemies, including the power of death, and will hand over his kingship to God the Father (vv. 24-28). First of all, Paul reminds the Corinthian Christians once more of the kernel of the Gospel: “But the truth is61 that Christ has risen from the dead” (v. 20). He knows that all Corinthian Christians will fully agree about that. In his view, this also means that dead Christians will be raised from the dead one day; for Jesus Christ was raised to life “as the first of those who have fallen asleep”.62 The word translated in this verse (and in v. 23) by “(the) first”, ਕʌĮȡȤȒ, was originally a cultic term meaning “the first fruits” of the harvest or the flock; that is, a representative portion usually dedicated to God (and eaten by the priests) before the rest of the harvest or other parts of the flock become available to all.63 But the term can also be used in a figurative sense, referring to people who are the “first fruits”, that is, the first of a group of like-minded people.64 In this way, Paul is referring to Jesus Christ as the representative of all Christians and as the “first” of all those raised from the dead.65 Paul will elaborate on this issue in more detail in the verses which follow. In verses 21-22, Paul argues once again that dead Christians “will return to life66 one day through their connection with Christ”, or, in other words, “through a human being”, namely Jesus Christ, who has died for us. That is, in Paul’s view, the plain truth, since it is also true that it was a man, namely Adam, who was the first human to die, and who was therefore responsible for the death of all people after him who shared in his humanity and sinfulness.67 Here Paul is referencing a well-known Jewish tradition, according to which, on the basis of Genesis 3, Adam was regarded as being responsible for bringing death into the world and, as a consequence, for the mortality of all people after him. See, for instance, 4 Ezra 3:7, “You (God) gave only one commandment to him (Adam), but he

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In Greek: ȃȣȞ੿ įȑ. See at 12:18. 62 Cf. Col 1:18, and Acts 26:23. From the context in 1 Cor 15, it is clear that Paul is referring to dead Christians, not to all dead people. 63 See Num 15:20-21, 18:12, Deut 18:4, 26:2, 2 Chron 31:5, Rom 11:16, Did. 13:3, etc. 64 See, e.g., 16:15, Rom 16:5, 2 Thess 2:13, Jas 1:18, and Rev 14:4. 65 Cf. also 1 Clem. 24:1. 66 In Greek: ȗ૳ȠʌȠȚȘșȒıȠȞIJĮȚ. It is more or less synonymous with the phrase “will be raised from the dead.” Cf. also Rom 8:11, and John 5:21. 67 This is the first instance of the so-called “Adam–Christ analogy” in the letters of Paul; see further vv. 45-49, and Rom 5:12-21.

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broke it; and therefore, you have introduced death for him and his offspring”.68 But the dead Christians will have to wait until the end of time to be raised from the dead, for “each” returns to life “in proper order”.69 For Paul, the “resurrection of the dead” has two moments: the first is the resurrection of Jesus Christ in the past (“Christ first”);70 the second is the resurrection of all those “who belong to Christ”71 and who will return to life in the (near) future, “at Christ’s coming”.72 In verses 24-28, Paul explains to the Corinthian Christians why the dead followers of Christ will be not be raised from the dead before the end of time: only then will the cosmic power of death be definitively defeated by Jesus Christ. Paul starts by saying that after the resurrection of the dead Christians “comes the end”, that is, the end of this world.73 (v. 24). Then Jesus Christ will “deliver his kingship up to God the Father”, but before that he must destroy “all principalities, authorities and powers”. Apparently, in Paul’s view, Jesus Christ has become “king” since his resurrection. He probably came to this conclusion on the basis of an idea, widely spread among early-Christians, that Jesus was taken up into heaven after his resurrection and since then has been “sitting at God’s right hand”. This last phrase is a quotation from Psalm 110:1a (109:1a), a passage about the unique position of the king of Israel, but frequently cited in the early Church to characterise Jesus Christ’s elevated position after his resurrection.74 For Paul, this place of honour near God in heaven means he shares in God’s kingly power and makes him a king in his own right: Jesus

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See also, e.g., 2 Bar. 17:2-3, Philo, Opif. 152, and QG 1.51. 69 Lit. “in his own group,” ਥȞ IJ૶ ੁįȓ૳ IJȐȖȝĮIJȚ. For this formulation, cf. 1 Clem. 37:3, 41:1, and Herm. Sim. 8.5.1-6. 70 See also at v. 20. 71 For this formulation, see also 3:23, and Gal 5:24. 72 In Greek: ਥȞ IJૌ ʌĮȡȠȣıȓ઺ Į੝IJȠ૨. In Greek literature, the term ʌĮȡȠȣıȓĮ often refers to the arrival of an important person, such as an emperor or a king, at a city or a region (see, e.g., 3 Macc. 3:17, and Polybius, Hist. 18.48.4). In the early Church, it became one of the terms to describe Jesus Christ’s coming at the end of time: see, e.g., 1 Thess 2:19, 3:13, 4:15, 5:23, Matt 24:3, 27, 37, 39, 2 Thess 2:1, 8, Jas 5:7-8, 2 Pet 1:16, 3:4, and 1 John 2:28. 73 Cf. Gk. Apoc. Ezra 3:13, Matt 24:6, 14, Mark 13:7, Luke 21:9, and see also at 1 Cor 10:11. 74 See, e.g., Acts 2:33-35, 5:31, Rom 8:34, Eph 1:20, Col 3:1, Heb 1:3, 13, 8:1, 10:12-13, and 12:2.

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Christ is not only “Lord”, and “Son of God”,75 but also “king in heaven”. That Paul has come to this conclusion on the basis of the early-Christian interpretation of Psalm 110 (109), is the more likely explanation, because he alludes to Psalm 110:1b (109:1b) in verse 25.76 In Paul’s view, Jesus Christ became king in heaven after his resurrection, and as such he has to fight against the cosmic powers of this world (“all principalities, authorities and powers”, and “death”), which he will “destroy” in the foreseeable future (vv. 24c-26). These cosmic powers, which among other things include all kinds of spiritual powers, the four elements of the cosmos (earth, water, air and fire)77 and birth and death,78 were regarded by Paul and many of his contemporaries as the forces that controlled all processes in this world.79 There were Christians in the early Church who believed that these cosmic forces had already been defeated by Jesus Christ at and after his resurrection,80 But Paul believed that Christ was still fighting against them, and would not destroy them completely before the end of time. In the meantime, Jesus Christ “will reign as a king” (v. 25)81 and after he has defeated all the cosmic powers, including the power of death, he will “deliver his kingship up to God the Father”.82 The end of Christ’s fight against the cosmic powers is formulated by Paul in verse 25b with words reminiscent of Psalm 110:1b (109:1b). The text of the Psalm runs as follows: “until I will make your enemies your footstool” (ਪȦȢ ਗȞ ș૵ IJȠઃȢ ਥȤșȡȠȪȢ ıȠȣ ਫ਼ʌȠʌȩįȚȠȞ IJ૵Ȟ ʌȠį૵Ȟ ıȠȣ), whereas Paul writes “until he

 75

See Rom 1:4, 10:9, 14:9, and Phil 2:9-11. 76 A similar connection between Jesus Christ’s position at God’s right hand in heaven and his kingship is found in Justin, Dial. 36.5. 77 See, e.g., Philo, Decal. 53, Her. 281, Aet. 108, Post. 5, Plutarch, Quaest. rom. 1 (Mor. 263E), Fac. 12 (Mor. 926F), Prim. frig. 7 (Mor. 947E), and cf. also Apuleius, Metam. 11.5.1, and 11.25.3. 78 See, e.g., Plutarch, Gen. Socr. 22 (Mor. 591B). 79 See, e.g., 2 Macc 3:24, 3 Bar. 1:8, 2:6, 12:3, 1 En. 61:10, T. Sol. 20:15, T. Adam 4:4-8, and Rom 8:38. 80 See, e.g., some passages in the deutero-Pauline letters to the Ephesians and the Colossians (Eph 1:21, Col 1:13, 16, 2:10, and 15), and in 1 Pet 3:22. 81 In Greek: įİ૙ Į੝IJઁȞ ȕĮıȚȜİȪİȚȞ. The verb įİ૙ (usually translated as “must”) expresses that something is necessary, unavoidable, and according to God’s plan: cf. e.g., v. 53, 2 Cor 5:10, Matt 17:10, and 24:6. 82 For the formulation “to deliver (ʌĮȡĮįȓįȠȞĮȚ) one’s kingship/power up to,” cf., e.g., Herodotus, Hist. 2.159.3, 6.38.1, Plutarch, Agis 11.9 (Vit. par. 800C), and Diodorus Siculus, Bibl. 1.43.6.

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will put all enemies under his feet”(ਙȤȡȚ Ƞ੤ șૌ ʌȐȞIJĮȢ IJȠઃȢ ਥȤșȡȠઃȢ ਫ਼ʌઁ IJȠઃȢ ʌȩįĮȢ Į੝IJȠ૨). The differences, however, are obvious: the change of the subject of the verb, the change of “your enemies” to “all enemies” and the change of “(make) … your footstool” to “(put) … under his feet” in particular.83 As Paul makes no more than a vague allusion to Psalm 110 (109), the subject of the verb “he will put” (șૌ) is probably not God (as in the Psalm), but still the same subject as in verse 24, namely, Jesus Christ: he is the one who will destroy all cosmic forces (v. 24) and who “will put all enemies under his feet” (v. 25) before “delivering his kingship to his Father” (v. 24). The “last enemy” to be destroyed by Christ will be the cosmic power of “death” (v. 26). Only then, at the end of time, will the dead Christians be raised to life to live forever (see also vv. 50-57).84 In verse 27a (“God has submitted all things to him and has put them under his feet”), by explicitly quoting an OT passage, namely, Psalm 8:6b (8:7b), “You have put all things under his feet”.85 Paul is arguing that God will cause Jesus Christ to defeat all cosmic powers in the near future. Paul and other early-Christians interpreted the text of this Psalm, originally meant as a phrase about man’s superior position in God’s creation, as a reference to Jesus Christ.86 For Paul, it is ultimately God himself who will cause his Son Jesus Christ to defeat all his enemies. Since his resurrection, Christ is “king” in heaven and is fighting against all the cosmic powers, but at the

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Paul may have changed the words ਫ਼ʌȠʌȩįȚȠȞ IJ૵Ȟ ʌȠį૵Ȟ ıȠȣ (Ps 110:1b [109:1b]) to ਫ਼ʌઁ IJȠઃȢ ʌȩįĮȢ Į੝IJȠ૨ (1 Cor 15:25) under the influence of Ps 8:6 (8:7), 18:9, 38 (17:10, 39), and 47:3 (46:4). See also 1 Cor 15:27, and cf. Rom 16:20. 84 It was believed in some Jewish and Christian circles that the power of death would come to an end in the near future: see, e.g., 4 Ezra 8:53-54, L.A.B. 3:10, Rev 20:14, and 21:4 (“death will be no more”). 85 There are a few differences of minor importance between Paul’s quotation and the Psalm text. First, Paul has changed the second person singular to the third person singular, but in both passages, the subject remains the same, namely, God (see the phrase “the one who made all things submitted to him” in the same verse); and second, he has changed the preposition ਫ਼ʌȠțȐIJȦ (“under”) to ਫ਼ʌȩ, probably under the influence of OT passages, such as Ps 18:9, 38 (17:10, 39), and 47:3 (46:4). 86 See Eph 1:22 and Heb 2:6-8 (both also in connection with a reference to Ps 110:1a [109:1a]; see Eph 1:20 and Heb 1:3, 13); cf. also 1 Pet 3:22. That Paul explicitly quotes Ps 8:6b (8:7b) in v. 27 (in the translation introduced by the words “For the Scriptures say that”, which are absent in the Greek text), becomes clear in the following “in saying,” ੖IJĮȞ į੻ İ੅ʌૉ (lit. “when it says”). Cf. Philo, Her. 262, Justin, Dial. 129.1, 135.1, 138.2, and see also at 1 Cor 6:16, and 9:10.

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end he must deliver his kingship to the ultimate authority, namely, God the Father; for “all things” will be submitted to Jesus Christ, except, of course, “the one who made all things submitted to him” (v. 27bc). Then, “the Son87 will submit himself to the one who has caused all things to be submitted to him, and thus God’s power will be all pervading” (v. 28). That is, once Jesus Christ has handed over his kingship to God his Father and submitted himself to him, “God’s power will be all pervading” (lit. “God will be all in all”). At the end, God will control everything and everyone, and nothing and no one will be able to escape his power.88

Ad hominem arguments for the resurrection of the dead: 15:29-34 (29) Apparently, there are people who have themselves baptised a second time, this time for those who have died. Why do they do this for them, if the dead will not be raised? (30) And why do we put our lives in danger again and again? (31) Yes, every day I face death–I swear it to you, brothers and sisters, by my feelings of pride, which I, as a servant of Christ Jesus our Lord, take in you. (32) Suppose I fought with wild beasts here in Ephesus as somebody without hope, what would I have gained by it? If the dead are not to be raised to life, “let us eat and drink, for tomorrow we die”. (33) Don’t be mistaken: bad company ruins good manners. (34) Once and for all, come to your senses and stop sinning, for–I say it to your shame–some of you lack any knowledge of God (vv. 33-34).

In this paragraph, Paul gives some ad hominem examples to convince his readers in Corinth that it is absurd to think that dead Christians will not be raised to eternal life. First, there are Christians who have themselves been baptised on behalf of somebody who had already died. Second, Paul himself and his fellow missionaries put their lives in danger almost every day. All this would be senseless if the dead were not to be raised (vv. 2932). Paul ends the first main part of this chapter with a warning to all his readers to avoid the company of people who think differently and do not have the slightest knowledge of God. Paul reinforces his argument that the dead will be raised by giving some ad hominem examples in verses 29-32. Fist, he refers to Christians (in Corinth?) who are baptised vicariously on behalf of relatives or other people who have recently died: “there are people who have themselves

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See at 1:9. 88 For the use and meaning of “being all in all (ʌȐȞIJĮ ਥȞ ʌ઼ıȚȞ),” see also Eph 1:23, 4:6, Col 3:11, Athenagoras, Leg. 16.2-3, and Corp. herm. 13.2.

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baptised a second time, this time for those who have died” (v. 29). They did so in the belief that those recently deceased relatives and friends who for one reason or another had not become followers of Jesus Christ during their lives, could as yet be included in the Christian community and would receive salvation and resurrection at the end of time. In Paul’s opinion, this “custom” would be completely senseless if “the dead will not be raised”. We simply do not know whether this “custom” was practiced on a large scale in the early Church,89 however, there were heretical groups somewhat later, like the followers of Marcion, in which this “custom” was not unusual. Paul does not make a judgment about this practice, instead, he mentions it in order to show his readers in Corinth that those who are baptised a second time on behalf of others are convinced that the dead will be raised to eternal life one day. Paul’s own attitude as a missionary is also offered as living proof that death is not the final end: “And why do we put our lives in danger again and again?” (v. 30) (lit. “Every hour”).90 Paul asserts that he and his coworkers find themselves in life-threatening situations “again and again”.91 Paul also refers to the dangers he has to face and the hardship he has to suffer elsewhere in his letters (see at 4:9-13), but here, he wants to emphasize that these are only worthwhile because there is a resurrection from the dead at the end of time.92 In verses 31-32, Paul “swears” to the Corinthian Christians that it is true that he is “facing death” every day (lit. “I die every day”).93 Of course he is exaggerating somewhat, but his point is crystal clear: in order to win as many people as possible for the Gospel, he has to bear hardship and to be confronted with physical punishments and death threats from both Jews

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A somewhat similar practice is mentioned in 2 Macc 12:39-45, where it is told that Jude the Maccabee prays to God and makes an offering for the Jews who had been killed in the war while wearing amulets of idols. He does so assuming that they would be raised to life one day and that their sins would be forgiven by God. Cf. also Plato, Resp. 364E-365A, where followers of Musaeus and Orpheus are told to make sacrifices for those, alive or dead, who have been initiated into their community, on the assumption that their sins would be forgiven and they would escape punishment. 90 In Greek: ʌ઼ıĮȞ ੮ȡĮȞ. Cf. also, e.g., Exod 18:22, Lev 16:2, and Jos. Asen. 15:7. 91 In Greek: țȚȞįȣȞİȪȠȝİȞ. For țȚȞįȣȞİȪİȚȞ in the sense of “to risk one’s life,” see also 1 Clem. 55:6, and Epictetus, Diss. 2.7.3. 92 Cf. 2 Cor 4:17. 93 Cf. also 4:9, and Rom 8:36.

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and Gentiles.94 Paul “swears” that he risks his life every day, “by my feelings of pride which I, as a servant of Christ Jesus our Lord, take in you”. The fact that he is proud of all the Christian communities that he has founded and of all those Christians who have held on to the Christian faith is something else that Paul mentions more than once elsewhere in his letters,95 and he expresses his warm feelings of friendship towards the members of all these communities by means of such phrases. Similarly, he wants the Corinthian Christians to know that he is also proud of them. His feelings towards them are beyond any doubt; they are so sincere that Paul does not shy away from swearing by these feelings of pride. Next, in verse 32a, Paul gives an example of the dangers he has to face. In his opinion, these would be completely senseless if there was no resurrection of the dead: “Suppose I fought with wild beasts here in Ephesus96 as somebody without hope, what would I have gained by it?” A similar argument is found in Ignatius’ Letter to the Trallians 10: “Why am I a prisoner, and why do I want to fight with the beasts? In that case I am dying in vain”. Some scholars suppose Paul is referring here to a kind of “spiritual” fight, a fight he has actually started with his passions or with personal adversaries whom he describes as “wild beasts”,97 but the direct context (death threats) together with the grammatical construction98 make it much more plausible that, as with bishop Ignatius in his Letter to the Trallians, Paul is referring to actually being forced to fight with wild beasts. This is something that has not happened yet, but which might happen in the near future. In Paul’s day, a fight with wild animals, which of course always ended in certain death, was a well-known punishment for troublemakers and rebels. Such fights usually took place at public feasts and festivals.99 In verse 32a, Paul is not talking about a fight with wild beasts as something that has already taken place, because if that were the case he would no longer be alive; he is referring to the possibility that in the near future he will be

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Cf. also 2 Cor 1:8-10, and 11:23. 95 See, e.g., Rom 15:17, 2 Cor 1:14, 7:4, 14, 8:24, 9:2-3, Phil 2:16, and 1 Thess 2:19. 96 See 16:8. 97 Cf., e.g., Ign. Rom. 5:1, and Appian, Bel. civ. 2.61. 98 See below. 99 See, e.g., Diodorus Siculus, Bibl. 36.10.2-3, Apuleius, Metam. 10.23.2, 10.24.2, Josephus, B.J. 7.38, Ign. Eph. 1:2, Trall. 10 (see above), Rom. 4:1-2, 5:2-3, Smyrn. 4:2, Mart. Pol. 2:4, 3:1, 11:1-2, Diogn. 7:7, Herm. Vis. 3.2.1, and Acts Paul Thecl. 27-34.

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condemned to fight with wild animals.100 Such a fight would be senseless101 if he were “as a man without hope”102 and did not believe that the dead Christians will be raised to eternal life at the end of time.103 Only people convinced that there is another life after this life on earth would risk their lives for the greater good. Or, in the words of Cicero, “Nobody would ever sacrifice himself for his fatherland, if he had not a spark of hope of immortality” (Tusc. 1.15.32). Paul himself is prepared to die for the Gospel, because he is so sure that dead Christians will be raised one day. As he continues in verse 32b, “if the dead are not raised to life, ‘let us eat and drink, for tomorrow we die.’” If the dead are not to be raised to eternal life, suffering and dying for the greater good would be completely senseless, and in that case, it would be preferable to live well and happily! The formulation “let us eat and drink, for tomorrow we die” has been derived by Paul from Isaiah 22:13, where it describes the frivolity and madness of the citizens of Jerusalem. Such an attitude of “eating and drinking” and having fun for as long as one lives was not unknown in Classical and Hellenistic times. It was sometimes criticized, but most of the time it was regarded as a more or less acceptable philosophy of life. So we read, for instance, in Herodotus, Historiae 2.78, that during a meal, a wooden statue in a coffin was carried around under the slogan: “Take a good look! Drink and have fun, for when you are dead, you will look the same”.104 For Paul, and for Jews and Christians in ancient times, however, such an attitude was mostly considered to be characteristic of a fool; someone who thinks life is short and death is the definitive end of one’s life. See, for instance, Wisdom of Solomon 2:1-9, 21-23, where godless people are told to enjoy life as much as they can saying, “Let us enjoy all the good things we have … Let us treat ourselves to tasty and expensive wines … for that is the reason we are living”. The Jewish author of the Wisdom of Solomon, however, finds such an attitude to be impious and foolish, and

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For a similar grammatical construction, cf., e.g., Heb 7:11. 101 In Greek: IJȓ ȝȠȚ IJઁ ੕ijİȜȠȢ; cf. Jas 2:14, 16, 2 Clem. 6:2, Philo, Migr. 55, Xenophon, Mem. 1.4.5, and Epictetus, Diss. 1.6.3-4. 102 In Greek: țĮIJ੹ ਙȞșȡȦʌȠȞ, “on a purely human level.” Cf. 3:3-4, and Rom 3:5. 103 Cf. 1 Thess 4:13. 104 See further Euripides, Alc. 780-89, Thucydides, Hist. 2.53, Strabo, Geogr. 14.5.9, Plutarch, Alex. fort. 2.3 (Mor. 336C), Diogenes Laertius, Vit. phil. 8.63, Horace, Carm. 2.3, Petronius, Sat. 34, etc. Cf. also Eccles 2:24, 3:12, 5:18, 8:15, and 9:7.

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he continues by saying, “They are wrong, they have been blinded by their wickedness. They do not know anything about the secrets of God … and do not believe that people who lead a blameless life will be rewarded by God. For God has created men and women in order to give them immortal life”.105 Paul expresses the same criticism, and he is prepared to suffer and to risk his life for the Gospel, convinced that the dead will be raised at the end of time. Finally, in verses 33-34, Paul warns his readers in Corinth not to associate with fellow Christians who hold different opinions and do not live according to the will of God. They should not “be mistaken”,106 but should realise that “bad company ruins good manners”. Here, Paul is referring to a popular saying of the time which expressed the profound influence bad (or good) people could have on one’s behaviour or way of life.107 See, for instance, Pseudo-Crates, Epistula 12, “neither a country nor a city makes people good or bad; no, the interactions with good or bad people make them good or bad”.108 The Corinthian Christians should therefore not deal with fellow Christians who deny that the dead will be raised to eternal life one day and who are in favour of “eating and drinking, for tomorrow we die”. Instead, they should “once and for all,109 come to their senses and stop sinning”, that is, they should realise that God’s plan of salvation provides for the resurrection of the dead, meaning that also those Christians who have died before the end of time will be raised and will receive salvation and eternal life. At the same time, they should lead a life according to God’s will, for lack of knowledge and sinning go hand in hand, because “sinners refuse to be sensible and sober and refuse to acknowledge God as king of everything and everyone”,110 whereas “a sober and sensible person acknowledges God as the creator and father of everything”.111

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Cf. Isa 56:12, Sir 11:19, 1 En. 97:8-10, 102, and Luke 12:19-20. 106 For this formulation, see at 6:9. 107 The saying itself may go back to the tragedian Euripides (5th century B.C.E.) or to the comedy writer Menander (about 300 B.C.E.). 108 See also Diodorus Siculus, Bibl. 12.12.3, 16.54.4, Epictetus, Ench. 33.6, Diogenes Laertius, Vit. phil. 4.51, Sir 13:1, Let. Aris. 130, Philo, Det. 38. See also at 1 Cor 5:6-7, 9-11, and 7:14. 109 In Greek: įȚțĮȓȦȢ (“really”). Cf. Ign. Eph. 15:3, and Barn. 10:12. 110 Sib. Or. frg. 3:41-42. 111 Philo, Post. 175.

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Although Paul expects the majority of the Corinthian Christians to agree with him and believe that dead Christians will all be raised to eternal life one day, he knows that there are “some of them” who think differently.112 He therefore concludes this passage by saying that these people, who deny that there will be a resurrection of the dead, in fact “lack any knowledge of God” (v. 34b); that is, they are no better than the Gentiles, who also have no knowledge of God.113 Paul is not happy about that, and feels he has to say it “to their shame”.114 Of course, he hopes all the Christians in Corinth will be convinced that at the end of time, those Christians who have died before the Last Day will also be raised to eternal life.

A resurrection with a spiritual body: 15:35-49 (35) But someone may ask: “How will the dead be raised? With what kind of body will they rise?” (36) What foolish questions! The seed you sow does not come to life unless it has first died, (37) and the seed you sow has not yet the form or the “body” that is to be: it is no more than a simple seed, perhaps of wheat or something else, (38) but God gives it a body as he sees fit, and to each kind of seed its own body. (39) Not all living beings have the same body: people have one kind of body, land-living animals have another, birds another and fish another. (40) There are also heavenly bodies and earthly bodies, but the brilliance of the heavenly bodies is different from that of the earthly bodies; (41) moreover, the sun has one kind of brilliance, the moon another and the stars another; yes, even the brilliance of one star is different from that of another. (42) So it will be when the dead are raised to life: something perishable is sown, something imperishable is raised, (43) something dishonourable is sown, something glorious is raised, something weak is sown, something strong is raised, (44) a physical body is sown, a spiritual body is raised. If there is a physical body, there is also a spiritual body. (45) So it is written: “The first man, Adam, became a living being”, but the last Adam became a life-giving spirit. (46) All that is spiritual does not come first but all that is physical, and after that all that is spiritual. (47) The first man had an earthly body and was made of dust, the second man has received a heavenly body. (48) All people made of dust are like the first man made of dust, and all heavenly people are like the man who has received a heavenly body. (49) And as we have worn the

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See also at v. 12. 113 Cf. Ps 79:6 (78:6), Jer 10:25, Wis 13:1, 14:22, Gal 4:8, 1 Thess 4:5, 2 Thess 1:8, 1 Pet 2:15, 1 Clem. 59:2, and Corp. herm. 1.27. 114 Cf. 6:5.

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In the second main part of Paul’s argument about the future resurrection of the dead (vv. 35-58), he deals with a potential objection those in Corinth who considered a bodily resurrection from the dead completely absurd might raise (v. 35). To refute it, he gives a variety of examples to illustrate that there are many different kinds of body. First, he argues that all seeds have to die in the soil before they can grow and become plants, and that each of them will have a different form or “body” (vv. 36-38). Next, he refers to all the different “bodies”, those of people, land-living animals, birds, fishes, and to earthly “bodies” as opposed to heavenly “bodies” (vv. 39-41). From all this, Paul concludes that the bodies of those who will be raised from the dead will be “spiritual” and different to the “physical” bodies they once had on earth (vv. 42-44). Finally, he quotes a passage from the OT and compares the first man (Adam) with the second man (Jesus Christ): the first was made of dust and had a “physical” body, the second had received a “spiritual” or “heavenly” body. This implies, according to Paul, that like Adam, all people are earthly and made of dust, but that one day all Christians will receive a “heavenly” body like that of Jesus Christ (vv. 45-49). Right at the beginning of the second main part of this chapter, Paul introduces a fictitious opponent to ask questions meant to ridicule Paul’s opinions about a (bodily) resurrection of the dead: “But someone may ask: ‘How will the dead be raised? With what kind of body will they rise?’” (v. 35).115 Apparently, Paul thinks that Corinthians who deny that dead Christians will be raised to life find the idea that dead people will one day have some kind of bodily existence particularly absurd. In Paul’s view, such questions make no sense and could only arise in the mind of a fool: “What foolish questions!” (lit. “You fool!”).116 In the verses which follow he tries to tackle the fictitious opponent’s idea that there is no such thing as a future bodily resurrection of the dead.

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In Antiquity, the introducion of a fictitious opponents to ask questions or make critical remarks about somebody’s ideas was a popular rheorical device to further elucidate one’s own ideas: see, e.g., Rom 9:19, 11:19, Jas 2:18, Ps.-Clem. Hom. 9.16.2, 9.16.4, Xenophon, Cyr. 4.3.10, Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 31.47, and Diodorus Siculus, Bibl. 13.21.5. 116 In Greek: ਙijȡȦȞ. Cf. Luke 11:40, and 12:20.

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First, Paul mentions the example of a seed planted in the ground: “The seed you sow does not come to life unless it has first died” (v. 36). That is, a seed must “die”, as it were, and be “buried” before it can germinate and become a plant.117 Speaking of “coming to life”118 Paul makes a clear connection between a seed that dies before it can become a plant, and the future resurrection of dead Christians. Paul continues by saying that “the seed you sow has not yet the form or the ‘body’ that is to be” (v. 37). There is no continuity whatsoever between a seed and the plant that it will become, but both are completely different in “form” or “body”119: a seed is no more than “a simple seed” (lit. “a naked seed”), “perhaps120 of wheat or something else”, whereas a plant has a completely different “body” with all its stems, leaves and fruits. All this is thanks to God, who “gives it a body as he sees fit, and to each kind of seed its own body” (v. 38). God makes all kinds of different plants out of the different sorts of seed according to his will.121 In Paul’s day, it was not unusual to speak of the “bodies” (ıȫȝĮIJĮ) of plants, that is, their bodily or physical mass.122 Similarly, one spoke about “the heavenly bodies”, the sun, the moon, the stars and the planets, and “the earthly bodies”, everything on earth with a distinct physical or bodily mass.123 This popular use of the word “body” made it easy for Paul to draw analogies between the two different “bodies” of people (Christians), on the one hand, and all the different “bodies” of plants, animals, and celestial and earthly objects on the other, in verses 36-49. Not only do plants have different bodies, each of which also differs from the seed from which they have grown, but also all “living beings” have different bodies: “people have one kind of body (lit. “one kind of flesh”),

 117

The same image is found in John 12:24, and in 1 Clem. 24:5 (also in connection with the resurrection of the dead). 118 In Greek: ȗ૳ȠʌȠȚİ૙IJĮȚ. Cf. v. 22. 119 In Greek: ı૵ȝĮ. 120 Or “for instance” (İੁ IJȪȤȠȚ). Cf. Philo, Ebr. 17, Epictetus, Diss. 3.1.3, Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 33.53, and Plotinus, Enn. 6.7.2, etc. 121 Cf. 12:18. Here, Paul may have been influenced by Gen 1:11-12. 122 See, e.g., Maximus Tyrius, Diss. 40.6, and Plotinus, Enn. 6.3.9. 123 See, e.g., Philo, Opif. 144, Maximus Tyrius, Diss. 11.10, 21.8, 40.4, Plutarch, Lys. 12.3-5, (Vit. par. 439DE), Plotinus, Enn. 4.3.15, and 6.3.9.

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land-living animals have another, birds another and fish another” (v. 39).124 In addition to these and other earthly bodies, there are “heavenly bodies”, which are different from earthly bodies but also from one another: “There are also heavenly bodies and earthly bodies, but the brilliance of the heavenly bodies is different from that of the earthly bodies; moreover, the sun has one kind of brilliance, the moon another and the stars another” (vv. 40-41).125 This time, Paul focuses on the differences in the shine and “brilliance”126 of the earthly and heavenly bodies. The brilliance of the heavenly bodies (the sun, the moon and the stars) is far beyond that of the earthly bodies.127 Moreover, the brilliance of the sun, the moon and the stars also differ from one another, “yes, even128 the brilliance of one star is different from that of another”. In verses 42-44, Paul comes to the conclusion that this is the same in the case of the resurrection from the dead: “So it will be when the dead are raised to life”. That means, something “perishable, dishonourable and weak” is sown, but something “imperishable, glorious and strong” is raised. Or in other words: “a physical body is sown”, but “a spiritual body is raised”. Unlike its use in verses 36-37, here the verb “to sow” (ıʌİȓȡİȚȞ) does not refer to people’s death and burial, an interpretation supported by a number of scholars, but to people’s earthly life before death. The formulation “something perishable, dishonourable and weak is sown” refers to human beings’ earthly or “physical” bodies, which will perish one day,129 whereas the words “something imperishable, glorious and strong is

 124

In this verse, Paul uses the word “flesh” (ıȐȡȟ) instead of the word “body” (ı૵ȝĮ); ıȐȡȟ refers to the soft substance that covers the bones of the different living beings, and is more or less synonymous with what we are used to calling “body” in this context. This time, Paul may have been influenced by Gen 1:20-26, and he may have derived the wording of ʌ઼ıĮ ıȐȡȟ (“all flesh”) from Gen 8:17. See also Philo, Opif. 62-68. 125 Cf. Plotinus, who distinguishes between “organic” bodies (such as plants and animals) and “material” or “non-organic” bodies (such as earth, water, air and fire), and between “earthly” bodies and “heavenly,” “spiritual,” or “godly” bodies: see Enn. 4.3.15, and 6.3.9. 126 In Greek: įȩȟĮ (“glory” or “splendour”). 127 Cf. Sir 43:1-12, esp. v. 9. 128 Lit. “for,” ȖȐȡ. Cf. also 9:10 (“Of course”), and 10:1 (“Look”). 129 Human beings are not only “perishable,” but also “dishonourable” or “insignificant” and “weak”: see, e.g., Phil 3:21, Rom 8:26, 2 Cor 13:4, Heb 7:28, and already Plato, Leg. 854A, and Diodorus Siculus, Bibl. 1.2.3.

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raised” refer to the imperishable bodies of Christians who will be raised to eternal life at the end of time. For at Jesus Christ’s Parousia, death will be definitively defeated, so that all Christians will receive “spiritual” bodies, will be “glorious and strong”130 and will enjoy eternal life.131 In verse 44b, Paul sums up his argument by saying that “If there is a physical body (ı૵ȝĮ ȥȣȤȚțȩȞ), there is also a spiritual body (ı૵ȝĮ ʌȞİȣȝĮIJȚțȩȞ)”. Elsewhere in his letters, Paul also uses the terms “earthly” and “spiritual”.132 In this passage, he wants to make clear to his readers in Corinth that the bodily existence of Christians who will be raised from the dead at the end of time will be completely different from that of the people in this world. He is not saying that the actual dead bodies of Christians will be raised to life one day, which would be an absurd idea, not only in the eyes of all his contemporaries, but certainly also in his eyes; nor does he say that each dead Christian will receive his own unique spiritual body at the end of time; nor does he comment on the question of how such a spiritual body would look like. He is just saying that the future body of the Christians after Jesus Christ’s Parousia will be completely different to the physical bodies of people living on earth. Paul illustrates his statement that there is “a spiritual body” because there is also “a physical body” (v. 44b), by quoting an OT passage, namely Genesis 2:7: “So it is written: ‘The first man, Adam, became a living being (İੁȢ ȥȣȤ੽Ȟ ȗ૵ıĮȞ)’” (v. 45). In the Genesis passage, we read that God formed man from dust and breathed the breath of life into his nostrils, after which “the man became a living being”. The name “Adam” in 1 Corinthians 15:45 may have been added by Paul himself,133 and he may have been responsible for the addition of the word “first” as well.134 In any case, both the name “Adam” and the formulation “the first man” enabled Paul to go on and speak of “the last Adam”: “but the last Adam became a life-giving spirit (İੁȢ ʌȞİ૨ȝĮ ȗ૳ȠʌȠȚȠ૨Ȟ)”.

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Cf. Rom 2:7, 8:21, Phil 3:21, and Col 3:4. “Glory” and “strength” in particular are characteristics of godly or heavenly beings: see Ps 63:2 (62:3), Job 40:10, Wis 7:25, Mark 13:26, Rev 4:11, 5:12, Did. 8:2, and 9:4. 131 Cf. Rom 2:7, 8:21, and 1 Cor 9:25. And see also at 1 Cor 15:50-58. 132 See 2:13-15, 3:1-3, 9:11, and Rom 15:27. 133 Of course, it is also possible that Paul took this from an old Greek version of the Hebrew text that was different to that of the LXX, the text he normally used when quoting the OT. 134 According to Jews and Christians, Adam was indeed “the first man”: see, e.g., Philo, Opif. 136-51, Abr. 56, Josephus, A.J. 1.67, 8.62, T. Sol. 1:13 D, Mart. Bart. 4-5. Cf. also the formulation “the first Adam” in 4 Ezra 3:21, and 3 Bar. 9:7.

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Paul introduced the Adam–Christ analogy earlier in this chapter (vv. 2122): in his view, Adam is the representative of all people on earth, whereas Jesus Christ is the representative of all the Christians, who will live in a new world and in a new age after this world has come to an end. As Adam was “the first man”, so Jesus Christ is “the second man” (v. 47) or “the last Adam”,135 and as Adam became an earthly “living being” (ਥȖȑȞİIJȠ İੁȢ ȥȣȤ੽Ȟ ȗ૵ıĮȞ), so Jesus Christ has become “a spirit”, or more precisely, “a life-giving spirit” (İੁȢ ʌȞİ૨ȝĮ ȗ૳ȠʌȠȚȠ૨Ȟ). Adam was an earthly and perishable human being, whereas at his resurrection from the dead Christ was taken up by God into heaven and has received a spiritual existence.136 Moreover, Jesus Christ has become “a life-giving spirit”: at the end of time, all Christians will receive eternal life “through their connection with Christ”, even those Christians who died long before and who “will return to life” at the Last Day.137 From all this, Paul draws the conclusion that “all that is spiritual (IJઁ ʌȞİȣȝĮIJȚțȩȞ) does not come first but all that is physical (IJઁ ȥȣȤȚțȩȞ), and after that all that is spiritual (IJઁ ʌȞİȣȝĮIJȚțȩȞ)” (v. 46). In this world, here on earth, everything is earthly and perishable, and all people will die one day. But soon there will be another world, a new creation, where all Christians will live forever as “spiritual” or “heavenly” beings (see vv. 47-49). In verse 47, Paul refers once again to Genesis 2:7, but this time to the first clause (v. 7a), not to the last (v. 7b), where it is told that “God formed man from the dust of the ground” (਩ʌȜĮıİȞ ੒ șİઁȢ IJઁȞ ਙȞșȡȦʌȠȞ ȤȠ૨Ȟ ਕʌઁ IJોȢ ȖોȢ). From this passage in Genesis, Paul concludes that “the first man had an earthly body and was made of dust (ਥț ȖોȢ ȤȠȧțȩȢ)”. That Adam was made from the dust of the earth138 made him an earthly and thus perishable being in Paul’s eyes. But that means that Adam’s counterpart, namely “the second man”, Jesus Christ, is or has become a “heavenly” being: “the second man has received a heavenly body (ਥȟ Ƞ੝ȡĮȞȠ૨)”. Here, Paul is not arguing that Jesus Christ originated from heaven or that he came down from heaven to earth at his incarnation,139 but rather that he became a heavenly being at his resurrection from the dead. That is, the words “from

 135

Cf. Mart. Bart. 4-5, and Irenaeus, Haer. 3.21.10. For the use of the term “the last” (਩ıȤĮIJȠȢ) in the sense of “the second,” that is, “the last of two,” see, e.g., Deut 24:3, Hag 2:10, Matt 27:64, and Barn. 6:13. 136 Cf. vv. 24-28. 137 See v. 22, and cf. also Rom 8:11, and 2 Cor 3:6. 138 Cf. also Sir 17:1, 33:10, Sib. Or. 8:444-45, Josephus, A.J. 1.67, Philo, Plant. 34, and Mart. Bart. 5. 139 So, e.g., John 3:13, and 31.

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heaven” (ਥȟ Ƞ੝ȡĮȞȠ૨) express the same thing as the words “the man who has received a heavenly body” (੒ ਥʌȠȣȡȐȞȚȠȢ) in verses 48-49, and describe Jesus Christ after his resurrection, not Jesus Christ during his life on earth.140 Finally, in verses 48-49, Paul draws his conclusion regarding the future of all Christians, including all those who will have died before Jesus Christ’s Parousia. First, he states that “all people made of dust (Ƞੂ ȤȠȧțȠȓ) are like the first man made of dust (੒ ȤȠȧțȩȢ)” (v. 48a). That is, all people, Christians and non-Christians, have a “physical” or earthly body and are perishable like Adam, “the first man made of dust”.141 But if this is the case, then it is also true that “all heavenly people (Ƞੂ ਥʌȠȣȡȐȞȚȠȚ) will be like the man who has received a heavenly body (੒ ਥʌȠȣȡȐȞȚȠȢ)” (v. 48b). “All heavenly people” refers to all Christians, who will have a “heavenly”, imperishable existence in the future just as Jesus Christ, “the man who has received a heavenly body”, which he has had since his resurrection from the dead.142 This means that for now the Christians are like Adam (“wear the likeness of the man made of dust”) and are earthly and perishable, but in the future they will be like Jesus Christ (“wear the likeness of the man who has received a heavenly body”),143 that is, they will be “heavenly”, imperishable, and they will have a spiritual body (v. 49).144

The victory over death and the transformation of the Christians at the end of time: 15:50-58 (50) What I want to say, brothers and sisters, is this: flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God, nor does the perishable share in the imperishable. (51) Listen, I will tell you a secret: not all of us shall fall asleep, but we shall all be transformed (52) in a split second, in the twinkling of an eye, at the blowing of the last trumpet. For when the trumpet will sound, the dead will rise imperishable, and we will be transformed. (53) For that which is perishable will put on imperishability, and that which is mortal will put on immortality. (54) And when that which is perishable will put on imperishability, and that which is mortal will put on immortality, then the saying that is written will come true: “Death has been swallowed up, a victory has been achieved! (55) Death, where is your victory? Death, where is your sting?” (56) The sting of

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Cf. Rom 1:3-4. 141 Cf. v. 22a. 142 Cf. v. 22b. 143 For the formulation “to wear the image of” (ijȠȡİ૙Ȟ IJ੽Ȟ İੁțȩȞĮ), in the sense of “to look like,” see, e.g., Ps.-Clem. Hom. 10.7.3, 11.4.1, and Acts Phil. 141. 144 Cf. Rom 8:29, Phil 3:21, and also 2 Cor 3:18.

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In this final passage of chapter 15, Paul wants to make it clear to his readers in Corinth that the future world or “the kingdom of God” will be completely different to our present world. In this future world, all Christians will have an imperishable existence, an imperishable body, which will be totally different from our present, earthly body (vv. 50 and 53). In order to convince the Corinthians, Paul tells them “a secret” that has been revealed to him: at the end of time, those Christians who have already died will “rise imperishable”, and those Christians who are still alive at that moment “will be transformed” (vv. 50-51). Then death will have been defeated, and an OT passage referring to the victory over death will have come true (vv. 54-57). Paul ends his argument about the resurrection of the dead by calling on the Corinthians to remain faithful to their belief in Jesus Christ and to do all they can for the sake of the Gospel (v. 58; cf. vv. 33-34). Paul wants the Corinthians to realise once and for all that those Christians who have died before the end of time will be raised to life and will receive a new kind of body different to the one they had during their lives on earth. Of course they will not be raised from the dead with their earthly bodies, nor will their dead bodies return to life; that would be absurd, also in Paul’s opinion. “What I want to say, brothers and sisters,145 is this: flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God, nor does the perishable share in the imperishable” (v. 50). People of “flesh and blood”146 are perishable, and as such they cannot live in the future world, which is heavenly and godly and will last forever. Everything earthly and perishable will perish at the end of time,147 which means that the Christians must be “transformed” so that they can “inherit the kingdom of God”.148 In verses 51-52, Paul tries to explain how this “transformation” will take place. He does so by transmitting a “secret” to them, that is, something

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For this formulation, see also 7:29. 146 Cf. also, e.g., Sir 17:31, Matt 16:17, Gal 1:16, Eph 6:12, and Justin, Dial. 135.6. 147 See also 6:13. 148 For this formulation, see at 6:9-10.

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that has been revealed to him by God.149 It seems likely that the very content of this “secret” is to be found in verse 52b (“For when the trumpet will sound, the dead will rise imperishable, and we will be transformed”), and verses 51-52a are to be interpreted as Paul’s introduction to the content of this “secret”.150 Here, Paul tells his readers that “not all of us shall fall asleep,151 but we shall all be transformed in a split second, in the twinkling of an eye, at the last trumpet”. That is, those Christians who are still alive at the time of Jesus Christ’s Parousia, probably including Paul himself and many of his contemporaries (“us”),152 will be “transformed” at that time. Paul is endorsing the Jewish and early-Christian idea that the entire universe will be transformed at the end of time,153 but in his view, this transformation will also concern the Christians who are living at that time: they too will be transformed154 and will become “heavenly” people with a “spiritual” body (cf. vv. 44, and 48-49). This transformation will take place “in a split second,155 in the twinkling of an eye”,156 and “at the blowing of the last trumpet” (v. 52a). Jews and Christians believed that a trumpet-call would herald the coming of God or Jesus Christ at the end of time.157 After Paul’s introductory words in verses 51-52a, he succinctly mentions the contents of the “secret” revealed to him by God: “For when the trumpet will sound,158 the dead will rise imperishable, and we will be

 149

Cf. also 2:1, 7, 4:1, 13:2, 14:2, and Rom 11:25. 150 A similar structure is found in 1 Thess 4:15-17, where the contents of “the word of the Lord” is formulated in vv. 16-17a, and Paul’s introduction to it is found in v. 15. 151 Lit. “all of us shall not fall asleep,” ʌȐȞIJİȢ Ƞ੝ țȠȚȝȘșȘıȩȝİșĮ. For this somewhat uncommon sequence of words (“all … not” in the sense of “not all”), see also, e.g., Herm. Sim. 8.6.2, Herodotus, Hist. 7.208.2, and Xenophon, Anab. 2.5.35. 152 Also in 1 Thess 4:15-17, Paul speaks about the end of time and assumes that he and most of his contemporaries will still be alive on the Last Day. 153 See, e.g., Sib. Or. 5:273, As. Mos. 10:5, Rom 8:21, Rev 21:1, Barn. 15:5, Ps.Clem. Hom. 11.6.1. 154 Cf. Mark 12:25 (“For when they rise from the dead … they are like angels in heaven”), 2 Bar. 51, 1 En. 62:16, 104:4. 155 In Greek: ਥȞ ਕIJȩȝ૳. See also Aristotle, Phys. 6.5 (236a). 156 In Greek: ਥȞ ૧Țʌૌ ੑijșĮȜȝȠ૨. See also T. Ab. 4:5. 157 See Zech 9:14, 4 Ezra 6:23, Sib. Or. 4:174, 8:239, 1 Thess 4:16, Matt 24:31, Rev 8-9, 10:7, 11:15, Did. 16:6, etc. 158 Lit. “he (or “one”) will blow the trumpet (ıĮȜʌȓıİȚ)”; cf. Xenophon, Anab. 1.2.17.

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transformed” (v. 52b). At the sound of the trumpet, dead Christians will return to life with a “spiritual” and “imperishable” body, and “we”, that is, all those of Paul’s Christian contemporaries still alive at the time of Christ’s coming, will be “transformed” into beings with a similar “spiritual” and “imperishable” body. In verse 53, Paul elaborates on what he has said in the previous verses: “For that which is perishable will159 put on imperishability, and that which is mortal will put on immortality”. Speaking about “that which is perishable” and “that which is mortal” he is, in particular, referring to the earthly bodies of the Christians,160 which will be transformed into something imperishable and immortal. Here, Paul uses the image of “putting on clothes” to describe this transformation: at Christ’s coming, the perishable and mortal bodies of the Christians will “be clothed with” imperishability and immortality.161 Finally in verses 54-57, Paul refers to the victory over the power of death at the end of time. That is, when all Christians have received imperishable and immortal bodies and live with Jesus Christ forever, “then the saying that is written will come true: “Death has been swallowed up, a victory has been achieved (lit. “Death has been swallowed up to victory”, țĮIJİʌȩșȘ ੒ șȐȞĮIJȠȢ İੁȢ Ȟ૙țȠȢ)” (v. 54). Here, Paul refers to an OT passage, namely, Isaiah 25:8. The Hebrew text reads: “He (God) will swallow death forever”, whereas the LXX reads: “Death has overpowered and swallowed (everything)”. Although Paul mostly used the Greek LXX text, when he quotes or refers to the OT this time, he seems to have used another old Greek version, a version that was closer to the original Hebrew text. This explains why Paul introduced, or rather, adopted this Greek version containing the formula İੁȢ Ȟ૙țȠȢ, which was a more or less common Greek translation of the Hebrew “forever” (lane‫܈‬a‫)ۊ‬,162 but which literally means “to victory”. And by choosing to take İੁȢ Ȟ૙țȠȢ literally, Paul could interpret the phrase as a prophecy about Jesus Christ’s future victory over death. In Paul’s opinion, Isaiah’s prophecy about the future victory over

 159

In Greek: įİ૙. See at v. 25. 160 Cf. the expressions “mortal body” and “perishable body” in Rom 6:12, 8:11, Wis 9:15, Philo, Opif. 119, Mut. 36, Josephus, B.J. 7.344, and cf. Plutarch, Soll. an. 2 (Mor. 960B). 161 Cf. 2 Cor 5:4, and Odes Sol. 15:8. For other applications of this image, see, e.g., Rom 13:14, Gal 3:27, Eph 4:24, and Col 3:10. 162 See, e.g., the LXX translations of 2 Sam 2:26, Job 36:7, Jer 3:5, Lam 5:20, and Amos 8:7.

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the power of death will come true when Jesus Christ has definitively defeated death. Next, Paul refers to a second OT passage, namely, Hosea 13:14, which he understood to be another reference to the future victory over the power of death: “Death, where is your victory? Death, where is your sting?” (v. 55). This time, he quotes the LXX version of the text with a few changes, the most important of which are the double vocative șȐȞĮIJİ (“Death”) instead of șȐȞĮIJİ and ઌįȘ (“Realm of death”, or “Sheol”) in the LXX, and the formulation IJઁ Ȟ૙țȠȢ (“victory”) instead of įȓțȘ (“punishment”). Paul himself was probably responsible for adapting the LXX text, and in doing so he brought the Hosea text more or less into verbal agreement with the Isaiah text referred to in verse 54. For Paul, both texts refer to the victory over, and the end of the power of, death.163 In verse 56, Paul elaborates on the Hosea text he quoted in the previous verse. First, he tries to make clear what is meant by the “sting of death” mentioned in Hosea 13:14: “The sting of death is sin” (v. 56a). In other words, the power of death makes use of “sin” as its “sting” to inject, as it were, its deadly poison into all the people in this world. Thanks to the power of “sin”, death exercises its sway over all human beings. Paul obviously has a rather pessimistic view of humanity, which he shared with a number of contemporaries – the Stoic and Cynic philosophers in particular – who considered human beings incapable of always doing the right thing because they are driven by passions and evil desires. See, for instance, Aelius Aristides, Orationes 2.2.340, “People’s nature is such that there will never be anyone who is completely good and without any sin”.164 In Paul’s view, there is a close connection between death and sin, both being active powers in the life of human beings. Although death entered the world through the sin of one human being (Adam)165 and thus “pervaded the whole human race”, Paul was also convinced that death was God’s punishment on each individual person for his or her own sins.166 In

 163

Whereas the original Hebrew text of Hos 13:14 is to be interpreted as a call to death to punish the unrighteous people in Israel (Ephraim), the LXX translator(s) understood and translated the text as a promise of salvation and a prediction about the future victory over death. On the rhetorical use of ȆȠ૨ (“Where?”) meant to ridicule certain persons or things, see at 1:20. 164 See further, e.g., Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 13.13, 17.3-6, 40.32, 74.1, 74.9, Ps.Heraclitus, Ep. 2, Sextus Empiricus, Math. 9.90, Seneca, Ira 3.26.4, Ben. 1.10.2-3, Philo, Virt. 10, Opif. 152, and Rom 3:9-20, 23. 165 See vv. 21-22. 166 See Rom 5:12.

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other words, since Adam’s first sin all human beings have become mortal, a kind of punishment which is imposed upon all of them because they all commit sins. In this way, Paul regards sin as the “sting of death”. Paul continues with his description of the miserable state of humanity by saying that “the power of sin is the law” (v. 56b). The term “law” (ȞȩȝȠȢ) in this verse is usually interpreted as a reference to the Jewish law,167 but since the Jewish law is not an issue anywhere in this letter, it is more likely that Paul is using the word “law” to refer to the law in general, or to laws found all over the world and in all nations. In Paul’s view, the power of sin uses the law to make people sin, or, in other words, the laws are the instruments of the power of sin, and cause all people to make mistakes. Paul shared this rather negative view of the role of laws in general with some of his contemporaries, particularly those who favoured the thinking of the Cynics. They were extremely critical of the importance or function of laws168 and even favoured the idea that laws regularly incite people to do the wrong thing. See, for instance, Cicero, Pro Tullio 9, “For he thought that if anyone enacted a law … for matters which were not usual, he seemed not so much to forbid them as to promote them”.169 For Paul, laws usually incited people to commit sins and all human beings are born sinners. Laws are part of this world, which will pass away in the near future (cf. 7:31), and as the power of sin is an instrument of the power of death, so the law is an instrument of the power of sin. Paul ends this passage about the coming victory over death with an expression of gratitude to God: “But thanks be to God, who gives us the victory through our Lord Jesus Christ” (v. 57). Here, Paul expresses his thanks to God,170 who will raise dead Christians to life at the end of time

 167

Those who avocate this interpretation point to several passages in Gal and Rom; but to use these letters to explain passages in 1 Cor is a hazardous exercise. The issues at stake in Gal and Rom are completely different to those in 1 Cor. Moreover, it seems better to explain Paul’s views on the Jewish law (in Gal and Rom) on the basis of his ideas about the role and function of “the law” in general. See also at 9:8, and 14:34. 168 See, e.g., Lucian, Demon. 59, Diogenes Laertius, Vit. phil. 6.63, 6.71-72, Maximus Tyrius, Diss. 6.5, Epictetus, Diss. 1.13.5, 4.1.158, 4.7.17, Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 76.4, 80.4, Plutarch, Sol. 5.3-6 (Vit. par. 81AB), Ps.-Heraclitus, Ep. 7, and Ps.-Diogenes, Ep. 28. 169 See also Cicero, Dom. 49, 127, and Seneca, Clem. 3.21.1 (1.23). 170 For the expression “Thanks be to God,” IJ૶ (į੻) șİ૶ ȤȐȡȚȢ, see also, e.g., Rom 6:17, 7:25, 2 Cor 2:14, 8:16, and 9:15.

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and who will give eternal life to all Christians. The victory over death171 will be achieved by his Son Jesus Christ who will definitively defeat the power of death in the near future (cf. vv. 24-28). Finally, at the end of this chapter about the resurrection of the dead, Paul calls on the Corinthians, his “dear brothers and sisters”,172 to hold on to their belief in Jesus Christ and to do all they can for the sake of the Gospel. He first tells them to be “steadfast and firm” (v. 58),173 that is, to keep believing in the Gospel as proclaimed by Paul and all the other missionaries, including the promise of salvation and the future resurrection of dead Christians.174 Next, he exhorts his readers in Corinth “in all circumstances” to “try to excel in doing everything in the interest of the Gospel, in the knowledge that through your connection with the Lord your efforts will not be in vain”. They should do their best to “excel in doing everything in the interest of the Gospel (lit. “in the work of the Lord”)”175; that is, they should contribute as much as possible to the spiritual growth of all members of the local Christian community. And they may be sure that “their efforts will not be in vain”. for they are connected to their Lord Jesus Christ176 and they will certainly be rewarded by God for all their efforts.

 171

For the formulation “to give the victory to somebody,” see also, e.g., 2 Macc 10:38, 1 Esd 3:9, Josephus, A.J. 6.145, and Acts Phil. 144. 172 Cf. 4:14, 10:14, and see further, e.g., 2 Cor 7:1, 12:19, Phil 2:12, and 4:1. 173 For this sense of “steadfastness” or “firmness,” cf. also, e.g., Col 1:23, Josephus, A.J. 1.8, C. Ap. 2.169, 2.254, and Ign. Pol. 3:1. 174 See also vv. 1-2. 175 Cf. Phil 2:30 (“the work of Christ”). 176 Lit. “in the Lord,” ਥȞ țȣȡȓ૳. Cf. 4:17, 7:22, 39, 9:1, 2, 11:11, 15:31, and 16:19.

PART EIGHT CONCLUDING MATTERS AND FINAL GREETINGS: 16:1-24

In the final part of his letter to the Corinthians, Paul deals with a number of issues brought up by the Corinthians in their letter to him, and with other matters that he wants to settle at the end of the letter. First, he raises the issue of the collection for poor Christians in Jerusalem, and asks his readers in Corinth to put some money aside for these brothers and sisters (vv. 1-4). Next, he gives some information about his travel plans: after his stay in Ephesus, he will travel through Macedonia and visit Corinth another time (vv. 5-9). In verses 10-12, he speaks about his co-worker Timothy, whom he has sent to Corinth instead of Apollos, who refused to go, and he asks the Corinthians to treat him well. He calls on the Corinthians once more to hold on to the Gospel and to love one another (vv. 13-14). Hereafter, he urges the Corinthians to pay respect to Stephanas and the people belonging to his household (vv.15-18). Paul ends the letter with some final greetings and blessings (vv. 19-24).

The collection and Paul’s plans to visit Corinth: 16:1-9 (1) Now about the collection for the saints: do what I told the communities in Galatia to do. (2) That is, on the first day of the week, each one of you should put aside some money according to his means and keep it with him, so that there will be no need to start collecting money when I come. (3) When I arrive, you must appoint some reliable people to bring your gift to Jerusalem. I will write a letter of recommendation and send them on their way. (4) But if there is a good reason for me to go also, they can accompany me to Jerusalem. (5) I will come to you after passing through Macedonia. For I intend to go through Macedonia first, (6) and then I may stay some time with you or even spend the whole winter with you. Then you can help me on my way wherever I

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will go next. (7) For when I come to you, I do not want this to be a flying visit; on the contrary, I hope to stay with you for some longer time, if the Lord permits. (8) But for now, I will stay on here at Ephesus until Pentecost, (9) for here, although there is much opposition, there is also a great opportunity for me to work effectively as an apostle of the Lord.

At the end of his letter, Paul calls on the Corinthian Christians to start saving money for their poor brothers and sisters in Jerusalem, and not to just start doing it when he comes to them in the (near) future (vv. 1-4). At the moment of writing the letter, Paul is still in Ephesus, but he intends to visit them and stay with them for some time after crossing Macedonia (vv. 5-9). Apparently, Paul also wants to deal with some other issues brought up by the Corinthians in their letter to Paul.1 The first issue is about “the collection for the saints” (v. 1),2 that is the collection for the Christians in Jerusalem. Paul had made an arrangement with the Christian communities he had founded to save money for the brothers and sisters in Jerusalem, who lived in miserable circumstances and had to face much opposition.3 On the one hand, Paul wanted to make a positive gesture to the first Christian community, as the place from where the Gospel had spread throughout the Graeco-Roman world; on the other hand, he was hoping that the leaders of the community in Jerusalem, Peter and James in particular, would support him and would acknowledge the communities founded by him as true Christian communities.4 Paul refers to this collection elsewhere in his letters with terms such as “ministry”, “aid”, “contribution”, and “gift”, (įȚĮțȠȞȓĮ, ȜİȚIJȠȣȡȖȓĮ, İ੝ȜȠȖȓĮ, țȠȚȞȦȞȓĮ, ȤȐȡȚȢ), which shows that for Paul, the collection was first and foremost a positive gesture; a way of supporting the Christians in Jerusalem and a statement of brotherhood. However, here in 1 Corinthians 16:1, he uses the technical term for “collection”, namely, ȜȠȖİȓĮ, meaning that he probably took this term from the letter the Corinthians had written to him.

 1

See the introductory words “Now about …” (Ȇİȡ੿ įȑ) in vv. 1 and 12. See at 7:1. 2 For the term “the saints” as referring to the Christians, see at 1:2. Cf. further 6:12, 14:33, and 16:15. 3 On this collection, see also 2 Cor 8-9, and Rom 15:25-32. Cf. also Gal 2:10. 4 From 2 Cor 8-9, it can be concluded that the Christians in Corinth had to be encouraged by Paul more than once to put money aside for the benefit of the poor Christians in Jerusalem; he even sent Titus and a number of other Christians to Corinth to breathe new life into the collection of money for the brothers and sisters in Jerusalem. In the end, the collection was a success, even in Corinth (see Rom 15:26-27).

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Exactly what the Corinthians had written about the collection, we simply do not know, but Paul found it necessary to urge them to be serious about it. They should “do what I told the communities in Galatia to do” (v. 1). That is, “on the first day of the week, each one of you should put aside some money according to his means and keep it by him” (v. 2a). Paul wants them to save or set aside money5 once a week for the benefit of the Christians in Jerusalem. Each of them should do so “according to his means”,6 and “keep it by him”.7 Finally, Paul asks them to put aside this amount of money once a week “on the first day of the week” (lit. “every first [day] after the Sabbath”).8 Paul apparently uses the Jewish calendar, according to which Sunday was “the first day after the Sabbath”. It is not clear why Paul asks them to put aside money on this particular day, but it might have to do with the fact that in Paul’s day, the local Christians habitually came together for their celebration of worship once a week, probably on Sunday evenings.9 Paul calls on the Corinthians to start collecting the money now and to have it ready when he arrives in Corinth “so that there will be no need to start collecting money when I come” (v. 2b).10 He intends to visit them in the near future,11 and at that point it would be convenient to “appoint some reliable people” (lit. “some people of whom you approve”) to bring12 their “gift” (ȤȐȡȚȢ),13 that is, the money set aside by them, to the brothers and sisters in Jerusalem (v. 3). Moreover, Paul promises to write “a letter of

 5

On the theme of “saving or putting aside money,” expressed by the verbs IJȚșȑȞĮȚ and șȘıĮȣȡȓȗİȚȞ, cf., e.g., Zech 9:3, Tob 12:8, Bar 3:17, Matt 6:19, Luke 19:21-22, Philo, Ios. 258, Herodotus, Hist. 3.96.2, and Plutarch, Vit. aere al. 4 (Mor. 829B). 6 In Greek: ਥ੹Ȟ İ੝Ƞį૵IJĮȚ. For this expression, cf. also, e.g., Josh 1:8, Prov 28:13, 2 Chron 18:11, 2 Macc 10:23, and 3 John 2. See also 2 Cor 8:11-15. 7 In Greek: ʌĮȡ’ ਦĮȣIJ૶, “by himself,” that is, at home. Cf., e.g., Philo, Legat. 271, Cher. 48, and Xenophon, Mem. 3.13.3. 8 For this formulation, cf. Ps 24:1 (23:1), Matt 28:1, Mark 16:2, Luke 24:1, John 20:1, 19, Acts 20:7, Justin, Dial. 27.5, and 41.4. 9 Cf. esp. chs. 12-14. 10 Cf. 2 Cor 9:3-5. 11 See also 4:18-21, 11:34, and 16:5-9. 12 Or “to hand over” (ਕʌİȞİȖțİ૙Ȟ). For this meaning of the Greek verb used here, see also, e.g., 1 Esd 8:13, Herodotus, Hist. 4.35.2, 4.64.1, Xenophon, Cyr. 7.5.34, and Thucydides, Hist. 5.31.2. 13 See above, at v. 1.

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recommendation”14 and to give it to them when they depart for Jerusalem. Carrying such a letter of recommendation, they would certainly be welcomed warmly by the Christians in Jerusalem and could rely on receiving warm hospitality. However, “if there is a good reason15 for me to go also, they can accompany me to Jerusalem” (v. 4). That is, if for some reason Paul needed to go to Jerusalem, they will not need such a letter of recommendation but can travel with him to hand over the money to the poor Christians in Jerusalem.16 In verses 5-9, Paul promises the Corinthians that he will visit them another time, but before that, he will go to Macedonia, probably to visit the Christian communities in Philippi and Thessalonica (v. 5). This was a journey that would have taken about six months.17 From there, Paul wants to travel to Corinth and “then, if possible,18 to stay some time with you or even spend the whole winter with you” (v. 6). For he does not want to see them “just in passing”,19 his visit should not be “a flying visit” (v. 7), on the contrary, he hopes to stay with them “for some longer time,20 if the Lord permits”.21 The Corinthians can then help him on his way wherever he goes next (v. 6). Paul is assuming that the Corinthian Christians will provide him with food, clothing and money for the road when he leaves Corinth to go elsewhere.22

 14

Lit. “letters (of recommendation),” but, most probably, the plural stands for the singular, as also in, e.g., 1 Macc 10:3, 7, Josephus, A.J. 10.15-16, Thucydides, Hist. 1.132.5, and 4.50.2. 15 In Greek: ਥ੹Ȟ į੻ ਙȟȚȠȞ ઝ. Cf. 2 Thess 1:3, 4 Macc. 17:8, Let. Aris. 4, 282, Epictetus, Diss. 2.1.6, 2.11.20, 2.11.22, 3.7.1, Plutarch, Lib. ed. 6 (Mor. 3F), Adul. amic. 28 (Mor. 69CD), and Tu. san. 27 (Mor. 137C). 16 According to 2 Cor 1:16 (cf. Rom 15:25), this was what really happened somewhat later. 17 See v. 6 (“to spend the whole winter with you”) and v. 8 (“I will stay on here at Ephesus until Pentecost”). 18 In Greek: IJȣȤȩȞ. Cf. Xenophon, Anab. 6.1.20, Epictetus, Diss. 1.11.11, 2.1.1, and 3.21.18. 19 In Greek: ਥȞ ʌĮȡȩį૳. Cf., e.g., Josephus, A.J. 14.38, Thucydides, Hist. 1.126.11, 5.4.6, and 7.2.3. 20 Lit. “for some time.” Cf. Herm. Sim. 7.2. 21 In Greek: ਥ੹Ȟ ੒ țȪȡȚȠȢ ਥʌȚIJȡȑȥૉ. Cf. Heb 6:3, and Josephus, A.J. 20.267. See also at 4:19. 22 For the formulation “to help somebody on his way” (ʌȡȠʌȑȝʌİȚȞ), see also v. 11, and further, e.g., Rom 15:24, 2 Cor 1:16, Acts 15:3, Tit 3:13, 3 John 6, 1 Esd 4:47, 1 Macc 12:4, and Let. Aris. 172.

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From 2 Corinthians, we may conclude that Paul did indeed go to Corinth, but also that this visit was far from successful. He got into a dispute with a member of the Christian community, left the city, and wrote a letter to them “with many tears” (2 Cor 1:15-2:11, and 7:8, 12). He had planned to go to Corinth again sometime after this incident, but he refrained from doing so. Instead, he wrote them another letter; the letter (or a great part of the letter) that we now know as Paul’s second letter to the Corinthians. At the time of writing his first letter to the Corinthians, Paul intended to stay in Ephesus “until Pentecost” (v. 8).23 He wanted to stay longer “for here, although there is much opposition, there is also a great opportunity for me to work effectively as an apostle of the Lord” (v. 9). In spite of the Jews and the Gentiles who opposed him vigorously, there were excellent opportunities for him to spread God’s message,24 and since Paul’s work as a missionary was very successful in Ephesus, he decided to stay there for a while before travelling to Corinth via Macedonia.

Timothy, Apollos and Stephanas: 16:10-18 (10) When Timothy arrives, take care that he has nothing to fear while he is with you, for he is doing everything in the interest of the Gospel, just as I am. (11) No one, then, should underrate him. Be at peace with him and help him on his way to travel back to me; for I am expecting him along with the other believers in Christ. (12) Now about our brother Apollos: I strongly urged him to go with the other believers in Christ to visit you, but he was quite unwilling to go at this time. He will come to you when the time is right for him to go. (13) Be on the alert, keep your lives anchored in the Gospel, be brave and strong! (14) Let all that you do be done in love. (15) One more thing, brothers and sisters: you know that Stephanas and the people of his household were the first in Achaia who came to believe in Jesus

 23

Paul refers to the day of the Jewish Pentecost, which took place fifty days after Passover, at some point in the spring: see Exod 34:22, Lev 23:10-22, Deut 16:9-12, Tob 2:1, 2 Macc 12:32, Philo, Decal. 160, Josephus, A.J. 3.252, 13.252, Acts 2:1, 20:16, etc. 24 Lit. “For a door has opened to me, great and effective.” See also 2 Cor 2:12, and cf. Col 4:3. This metaphor is popular in Graeco-Roman literature of the time, and although its applications are various, it always refers to one’s freedom or opportunity to do something. See, e.g., Acts 14:27, Epictetus, Diss. 1.9.20, 1.24.20, 1.25.18, 2.1.19-20, 3.8.6, 3.13.14, Lucian, Sol. 8, and Cicero, Fam. 13.10.4.

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Christ and who have devoted themselves to the service of the saints. Therefore, I urge you (16) to respect the authority of such people and of anyone who joins in working hard and sparing no effort in the interest of the Gospel. (17) I am glad that Stephanas, Fortunatus and Achaicus have come to me, since these people have supplied you with all you need. (18) For they have refreshed my spirit as well as yours. Therefore, such people deserve respect and recognition!

In this paragraph, Paul first calls on the Corinthians to treat his co-worker Timothy with respect when he is with them in Corinth (vv. 10-11). Actually, Paul wanted Apollos to go to Corinth, but he was unwilling to go at that time (v. 12). He admonishes his readers once more to hold on to the Gospel and to love one another (vv. 13-14). Finally, he exhorts them to respect the authority of Stephanas and of those others who work hard in the interest of the Gospel, and to give them the recognition which they deserve (vv. 15-18). Paul has already said a few words about his co-worker Timothy earlier in this letter. Apparently, he had sent Timothy to Corinth before he wrote his first letter to the Corinthians, but he did not expect him to arrive until after the Corinthians had received the letter.25 Now, he calls on them to “take care that he (Timothy) has nothing to fear while he is with you” (v. 10). Since Timothy was one of his dearest co-workers and had been sent to Corinth by Paul in his place, he wanted him to be treated with respect, so that he could say whatever he wanted to say without any fear. For “he is doing everything in the interest of the Gospel (lit. “he is doing the work of the Lord”),26 just as I am”. As a missionary, like Paul he should be free to proclaim the Gospel without any opposition from any of the Corinthians. Paul is obviously not sure that Timothy will be welcomed with open arms by all the Corinthian Christians. He realises, first of all, that they expected Apollos to visit them (see v. 12), and second, that his (and Timothy’s) ideas about the Christian faith and the way of life according to the will of God were not shared by all of the Corinthian Christians. Paul therefore urges that “no one should underrate him (Timothy)” (v. 11). Although Timothy was relatively young, he should be respected by them27 as Paul himself would have been respected.28 Finally, the Corinthians are urged “to be at peace with him and help him on his way to travel back to me”. In other words, they should provide him with food, clothing and money for

 25

See at 4:17. 26 See also Phil 2:30, and cf. 1 Cor 15:58. 27 Cf. 1 Tim 4:12. 28 See 2 Cor 10:10, and Gal 4:14.

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the road29 when it is time for him to return to Paul in Ephesus, and they should be “at peace with him”, that is, they should say goodbye in a friendly and harmonious way, without any disagreement or quarrel.30 Paul looks forward eagerly to seeing Timothy again and to hearing from him about the situation in Corinth: he is “expecting him (Timothy) along with31 the other believers in Christ” (v. 11). The “other believers in Christ” probably, refers to a small group of Christians who accompanied Timothy on his way to Corinth.32 Apparently, Paul found it appropriate not to send his colleague alone to Corinth, but to have him accompanied by other Christians. Now he is looking forward to welcoming Timothy and his companions back to Ephesus. In the next verse, Paul adds a couple of words about another preacher of the Gospel, namely, Apollos: “Now about our brother Apollos” (v. 12). This was apparently another issue mentioned by the Corinthians in their letter to Paul.33 The Corinthians had probably asked for Apollos to come to them in Corinth, because they had been impressed by the “wisdom” and eloquence he had shown when he was with them before. Paul tells them that he had “strongly urged him (Apollos) to go with the other believers in Christ to visit you”, but that “he was quite unwilling to go at this time”. In other words, it was not Paul’s fault, he had done his best and urged34

 29

For the formulation “to help somebody on his way,” see at v. 6. 30 For this sense of the expression “in peace,” ਥȞ İੁȡȒȞૉ, see also, e.g., 7:15, 14:33, Gen 26:29, Jdt 7:15, Heb 11:31, 12:14, T. Gad 6:3, Hist. Rech. 18.1-5, and 1 Clem. 20:10-11. The words ਥȞ İੁȡȒȞૉ should not be interpreted as “safe,” in the sense that the Corinthians should help Timothy to return to Paul “safe and unharmed” (cf., e.g., 2 Chron 18:26, Jer 43:12, 1 Macc 5:54, 7:35, 12:4, and Luke 11:21); nor should the words be understood as a kind of formal farewell greeting, in the sense of “go in peace” (cf., e.g., Judg 18:6, 1 Sam 1:17, Jdt 8:35, Mark 5:34, Luke 2:29, Acts 16:36, and Jas 2:16). 31 That is, “and” (ȝİIJȐ). For this construction, cf. also 2 Cor 8:18, Matt 2:11, and 22:16. 32 That means that “the other believers in Christ” do not refer to some (or all) Christians who were with Paul in Ephesus at the time, as though they, too, were waiting for Timothy’s return. Nor do they refer to Stephanas, Fortunatus and Achaicus; instead, it was more likely that these three men would have been sent to Corinth with Paul’s letter to the Corinthians and would have arrived in the city even before Timothy (cf. v. 17). See also the previous note. 33 See the introductory words “Now about” (Ȇİȡ੿ įȑ). See at v. 1, and at 7:1. On Apollos, see also chs. 1-4, and esp. at 1:12, 3:4-6, 22, and 4:6. 34 In Greek: ʌȠȜȜ੹ ʌĮȡİțȐȜİsa. See also, e.g., 4 Macc. 10:1, Mark 5:10, 23, and cf. 3 Bar. 4:14, Herm. Vis. 2.2.1, and Sim. 5.4.1.

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Apollos to go “with the other believers in Christ”,35 but Apollos had refused for some reason or other. Since Paul does not give more detail, we simply do not know why Apollos did not want to visit the Christian community in Corinth at that point; nor do we know where Apollos was when Paul, in person or by means of one or more letters, urged him to go. Nor do we know where he was when Paul wrote his first letter to the Corinthians. Paul realises that the Corinthians will be disappointed to hear that Apollos was not coming to them, so he adds that Apollos “will come to you when the time is right for him to go”.36 That is, he will surely visit them in Corinth, just not now! In verses 13-14, Paul once more exhorts his readers in Corinth to hold on to the Gospel as proclaimed by him and his co-workers.37 They should not be deceived by fellow Christians who have different opinions and lead a life that is not in line with the message of God.38 They should “be on the alert”,39 and “keep their lives anchored in the Gospel” (lit. “stand firm in their belief”).40 Moreover, they should be “brave and strong”, that is, they should remain faithful to God in the expectation that one day they will be rewarded by God and receive eternal life.41 Finally, they should take care that everything they do in their community is done “in love”,42 that is, in love for one another. In the Christian community in Corinth, the love of one’s neighbour must be central in all circumstances.43 In verses 15-18, Paul adds some phrases about “Stephanas and the people of his household”, who were with him in Ephesus when the letter was

 35

The same (small) group of Christians as referred to in the previous verse. That is, Paul wanted Apollos to go to Corinth with some companions from Ephesus, but after his refusal Paul had decided to send Timothy instead. 36 For the formulation “when the time is right for someone,” see also, e.g., Mark 6:31, Acts 17:21, Plutarch, Apoph. lac. (Cleomedes) 9 (Mor. 223D), and Polybius, Hist. 20.9.4. 37 Cf. 15:1-2, 58. 38 Cf. also 15:33-34. 39 For the use of this verb (ȖȡȘȖȠȡİ૙Ȟ) in the context of apostasy, cf. esp. Acts 20:31, and 1 Pet 5:8. 40 See at 10:12, and 15:1. 41 The exhortation to “be brave and strong” derives from the OT/LXX: see 2 Sam 10:12, Ps 27:14 (26:14), 31:24 (30:25), and cf. also Deut 31:6, 7, 23, Josh 1:6, 7, 9, 18, 10:25, 1 Chron 22:13, 28:20, 2 Chron 32:7, Dan 10:19, and 1 Macc 2:64. 42 In Greek: ਥȞ ਕȖȐʌૉ. Cf. 4:21, 2 Cor 6:6, Eph 5:2, 1 Clem. 49:6, 62:2, Ign. Trall. 12:3, etc. 43 See esp. ch. 13.

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written. First of all, he reminds44 the Corinthians of the fact that Stephanas and the people around him “were the first (ਕʌĮȡȤȒ)45 in Achaia46 who came to believe in Jesus Christ” (v. 15). They were baptised by Paul (1:16) and were well-known to the Christians in Corinth. Moreover, the Corinthians were well aware that they “had devoted themselves (਩IJĮȟĮȞ ਦĮȣIJȠȪȢ)47 to the service of the saints”.48 Apparently, being active as prophets, teachers and preachers of the Gospel, Stephanas and his people had become important personages in the Christian community in Corinth. Now Paul urges his readers in Corinth “to respect the authority of these people, and of anyone who joins in working hard and sparing no effort in the interest of the Gospel” (v. 16). The Corinthian Christians should listen, and be obedient to Stephanas and his people, and to all those who are committed to the spread of the Gospel and the edification of the Christian community.49 We frequently find calls to respect the authority of Christian leaders elsewhere in the early-Christian literature: see, e.g., Hebrews 13:17, “Be obedient to your leaders and submit to their authority”.50 At the time of writing, Stephanas, Fortunatus and Achaicus were clearly with Paul in Ephesus: “I am glad that Stephanas, Fortunatus and Achaicus have come to me” (v. 17a). Fortunatus and Achaicus probably belonged to the household of Stephanas. In any case, Paul was very glad to see all three, and it is plausible to assume that it was they who were asked by Paul to hand his letter to the Christian community in Corinth on their return home.

 44

In Greek: Ƞ੅įĮIJİ (“You know”). See at 3:16. 45 On the meaning of ਕʌĮȡȤȒ, see at 15:20. Here, it means that Stephanas and the people of his household were the “first fruits”, that is, the first of the group of people in Achaia to become believers in Jesus Christ. Cf. also Rom 16:5. 46 At the time, the city of Corinth was the capital of the Roman province of Achaia in the southern part of Greece. 47 For the formulation “to devote oneself”, see, e.g., Plato, Resp. 371C, Xenophon, Mem. 2.1.11, Plutarch, Frat. amor. 15 (Mor. 486A), Praec. ger. rei publ. 13 (Mor. 808C), 15 (Mor. 812F), and Adv. Col. 2 (Mor. 1107F). 48 For the Christians as “the saints”, see at 1:2, and also 16:1. 49 Cf. 3:9, 4:12, 15:10, Rom 16:3, 6, 12, 2 Cor 6:1, 1 Thess 5:12, and 1 Tim 5:17. 50 See also 1 Tim 5:17, 1 Pet 5:5, 1 Clem. 1:3, 57:1, Ign. Eph. 2:2, Magn. 2:1, and 13:2.

Concluding Matters and Final Greetings: 16:1-24

269

Paul praises Stephanas and his people, saying that they “have supplied you with all you need (IJઁ ਫ਼ȝȑIJİȡȠȞ ਫ਼ıIJȑȡȘȝĮ Ƞ੤IJȠȚ ਕȞİʌȜȒȡȦıĮȞ)” (v. 17b).51 That is, Paul has heard from them that they have all done their best to edify the Corinthian Christians and to help them to lead a truly Christian life. In other words, whenever the Corinthians were in spiritual need and were failing in their belief in Jesus Christ, Stephanas and his people helped them to hold on to the Gospel and to live accordingly. That Stephanas, Fortunatus and Achaicus were not always successful becomes obvious when one reads Paul’s first letter to the Corinthians, but they certainly all did their best. Paul therefore urges the Corinthian Christians to “respect their authority” (v. 16) and to realise once more that “such people deserve respect and recognition” (v. 18b). What they have told Paul about their efforts for the sake of the Gospel and what they have done in Corinth have brought joy to Paul as well as to the Corinthians (v. 18a),52 and for this reason, the Corinthians should “recognise”53 these people as authorities and listen to them.

Final greetings: 16:19-24 (19) The communities in Asia send you their regards. As people connected with the Lord, Aquila and Prisca as well as the community that comes together in their house, send you their warmest regards. (20) All the brothers and sisters here send you their regards. Give one another your regards with a holy kiss. (21) I, Paul, send you my regards written by my own hand. (22) Let anyone who does not love the Lord, be cursed! Marana tha, Come, O Lord! (23) The grace of the Lord Jesus be with you. (24) Connected with Christ Jesus, I send my love to all of you.

 51

ਫ਼ȝȑIJİȡȠȞ (“your”) is to be interpreted as a subjective, not an objective (in the sense that Paul missed the Corinthians and that Stephanas and his people have made up for their absense) as is clear from similar phrases in the letters of Paul and in other literature of the time: see 2 Cor 8:14, 9:12, 11:9, Phil 2:30, T. Benj. 11:5, 1 Clem. 38:2, Corp. herm. 13.1, and esp. 1 Thess 3:10, “to restore whatever is lacking in your faith.” The people’s “needs” which are restored may be material needs, but also spiritual needs, as is the case in 1 Cor 16:17, 1 Thess 3:10, T. Benj. 11:5, and Corp. herm. 13.1. 52 Lit. “they have refreshed my spirit as well as yours.” For the formulation “to refresh someone/someone’s spirit,” see also, e.g., Prov 29:17, Sir 3:6, 2 Cor 7:13, Philem 7, 20, Ign. Eph. 2:1, Magn. 15:1, and Acts Phil. 57. 53 For this meaning of “to recognise,” cf. also Hos 2:19, 5:4, Barn. 10:3, T. Naph. 4:3, and Epictetus, Diss. 1.6.42.

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After sending greetings from the Christians in Asia to their fellow Christians in Corinth (vv. 19-20), Paul adds a few phrases written in his own hand: first, a personal greeting, next, a curse on all those who do not love Jesus Christ, and finally a blessing on his readers in Corinth and a promise that his love will accompany them forever (vv. 21-24). At the end of the letter, we find some final greetings, as was usual in letters of the time. Because Paul was in Ephesus, an important city in Asia, he first sends greetings from “the communities in Asia” (v. 19a), that is, from the members of the Christian communities throughout the Roman province of Asia. Next, Paul sends greetings from “Aquila and Prisca” and from all the members of “the community that comes together in their house” (v. 19b). According to Acts 18, Aquila was a Jew, a native of Pontus who had fled from Rome to Corinth together with his wife Priscilla (called “Prisca” by Paul). There, they met Paul and became his co-workers in the service of the Gospel. They later went with Paul to Ephesus.54 Apparently, they were not without means, for they could open their home to a group of (forty or fifty) Christians who came together once a week to celebrate their faith in Jesus Christ.55 Paul himself was probably one of the members of this “house church”. As “people connected with the Lord” (lit. “in the Lord”)56 they all sent their fellow Christians in Corinth their warmest regards. Finally, Paul lets the Corinthian Christians know that “all the brothers and sisters here send you their regards” (v. 20a), that is all the brothers and sisters who are with him in Ephesus.57 Hereafter, Paul calls on his readers to “give one another your regards with a holy kiss” (v. 20b). When Christians in Corinth come together and greet each other “with a kiss”, it should not be a “normal” kiss, such as a kiss between relatives and friends; no, it should be a “holy” kiss, that is, a kiss that expresses their close connection as a fellowship of like-minded people living in honour of their Lord.58 It is “a loving kiss” (1 Pet 5:14), a kiss with which Christians greet one another as a symbol of their love and affection.

 54

See esp. Acts 18:2-3, 18, and 26; cf. also Rom 16:3-5, and 2 Tim 4:19. 55 On such “house churches,” see also Philem 2, and Col 4:15. 56 Cf. 4:17, 7:22, 39, 11:11, etc. 57 Cf., e.g., 2 Cor 13:12, and Phil 4:22. 58 Cf. Rom 16:16, 2 Cor 13:12, 1 Thess 5:26, Ps.-Ignatius, Tars. 10.3, and Ant. 13.2.

Concluding Matters and Final Greetings: 16:1-24

271

After these greetings, Paul adds a few phrases written in his own hand, which indicates that the rest of the letter (1:1-16:20) had been dictated by him and written down by a scribe or professional secretary. People frequently wrote some words in their own hand at the end of a letter to show that it was not a forgery,59 and Paul sometimes did the same.60 Paul sends the Corinthian Christians his regards (v. 21),61 then he utters a curse62 on all those who do not love63 the Lord (v. 22).64 We find a similar curse in Galatians 1:8-9, this time on Paul’s Jewish-Christian opponents who “are trying to distort the Gospel of Christ” (Gal 1:7). It is therefore unlikely that Paul is referring to non-Christians in general in 1 Corinthians 16:22; rather, he is thinking of those Christians in Corinth who are proud of their “wisdom” and “knowledge” and who do not contribute to the edification of the Christian community but “destroy the temple of God” by their ideas and their behaviour (3:17).65 What matters, is that people “love God”, not that they “possess knowledge” (8:1-3). The purpose of this harsh statement is, of course, to warn the Corinthian Christians to hold on to the Gospel as proclaimed by Paul and to do their best to “build up” the Christian community. Paul follows this curse on his opponents in Corinth by writing the word “Marana tha”, which is Aramaic for “Come, O Lord”. Just as the Greekspeaking early Christians took over some Hebrew or Aramaic terms, such as “amen”, “abba”, and “hosanna”, from the Aramaic speaking communities, the same seems to be true for the term “marana tha”,66 which was in use as an early-Christian prayer for Jesus Christ to come soon.67 By

 59

See also Josephus, A.J. 14.52. 60 See also Gal 6:11-18, and Philem 19. 61 Cf. Col 4:18, and 2 Thess 3:17. 62 In Greek: ਕȞȐșİȝĮ. See at 12:3. 63 Here, Paul uses the verb ijȚȜİ૙Ȟ (“to love”) instead of ਕȖĮʌ઼Ȟ (“to love”), which is usually found in such a context (see, e.g., 2:9, and 8:3). Both Greek verbs are more or less synonymous (see, e.g., Prov 8:17, John 21:15-17, Plutarch, Virt. prof. 14 (Mor. 84E), and cf. Aristides, Ap. 15.4), and also elsewhere in Greek literature, we find the verb ijȚȜİ૙Ȟ used to express the love for God (see, e.g., Homer, Il. 8.309, and Sib. Or. 8:482). 64 Cf. Gal 6:12-13. 65 Cf. 14:38, Rom 8:9, Gal 1:9, cf. also 2 Thess 3:14-15. 66 See also at 14:16. 67 The term itself does not occur elsewhere in the NT (but see Did. 10:6, and Apos. Con. 7.26.5), but prayers for, or references to, Jesus’ coming are frequent: see, e.g.,

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repeating this prayer, Paul wants to reinforce his warning: those Christians who prefer “wisdom” and “knowledge” to “love for God and for one another” will perish and will certainly not receive salvation and eternal life when Jesus Christ comes and God’s judgement takes place. In other words, there is not much time for them to improve or alter their life! Next, Paul repeats the benediction he pronounced over his readers in Corinth at the beginning of the letter: “The grace of the Lord Jesus be with you” (v. 23; cf. 1:3). It was common for Paul and other Christian writers to end a letter with such a benediction.68 As an apostle of the Lord, Paul can and may transmit once again “the grace of Jesus Christ”, that is, the salvation which the Corinthians will receive at the end of time.69 Strikingly, Paul adds another and final phrase after the usual benediction at the end of the letter: “Connected with Christ Jesus, I send my love to all of you” (v. 24). Right at the end of his letter, Paul once again underlines his love for the Corinthian Christians and his deep concern for them, in spite of the fact that there are Christians in Corinth who are critical of his work as an apostle of Jesus Christ. He sends his love to them as a person who is “connected with Christ Jesus”: his love for them is a love that arises from his belief in the Lord Jesus Christ.



 1 Cor 1:7, 11:26, 15:24-28, Phil 4:5, 1 Thess 4:13-18, and Rev 22:20 (“Amen, Come, Lord Jesus!”). 68 See Rom 16:20, 1 Thess 5:28, and cf. also 2 Cor 13:13, Gal 6:18, Eph 6:24, Phil 4:23, Col 4:18, etc. 69 See also at 1:3.



SHORT LIST OF COMMENTARIES

Bachmann, Ph., Der erste Brief des Paulus an die Korinther. 3. Aufl. Leipzig/Erlangen: A. Deichertsche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1921 Barrett, C. K., A Commentary on the First Epistle to the Corinthians. London: Black, 1968 Conzelmann, H., Der erste Brief an die Korinther. 12. Aufl. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1981 Fee, G. D., The First Epistle to the Corinthians. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1987 Findlay, G. G., “St. Paul’s First Epistle to the Corinthians.” In The Expositor’s Greek Testament, edited by W. Robertson Nicoll. Vol. 2, 727-953. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1979 Fitzmyer, J. A., First Corinthians. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2008 Gardner, P. D., 1 Corinthians. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan, 2018 Garland, D. E., 1 Corinthians. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Academic, 2003 Grosheide, F. W., Commentary on the First Epistle to the Corinthians. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1953 Hays, R. B., First Corinthians. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox, 1997 Héring, J., The First Epistle of St Paul to the Corinthians. Translated by A. W. Heathcote and P. J. Allcock. London: Epworth Press, 1962 Kremer, J., Der Erste Brief an die Korinther. Regensburg: Pustet, 1997 Lang, F., Die Briefe an die Korinther. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1986 Lietzmann, H., and W. G. Kümmel, An die Korinther I/II. 5. Aufl. Tübingen: Mohr [Siebeck], 1969 Lindemann, A., Der Erste Korintherbrief. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2000 Murphy-O’Connor, J., 1 Corinthians. Wilmington, Del.: Glazier, 1979 Oropeza, B. J., 1 Corinthians. Eugene, Oreg.: Cascade Books/Wipf & Stock, 2017 Robertson, A., and A. Plummer, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the First Epistle of St Paul to the Corinthians. 2nd ed. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1914



274

Short List of Commentaries

Schrage, W., Der Erste Brief an die Korinther (1 Kor 1,1-6,11). Zürich/Braunschweig: Benziger; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1991 Schrage, W., Der erste Brief an die Korinther. 2. Teilband 1 Kor 6,12-11,16. Düsseldorf: Benziger; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1995 Schrage, W., Der erste Brief an die Korinther. 3. Teilband 1 Kor 11,1714,40. Zürich/Düsseldorf: Benziger; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1999 Senft, C., La Première Épître de Saint-Paul aux Corinthiens. Neuchâtel: Delachaux & Niestlé, 1979 St John Parry, R., The First Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Corinthians. Cambridge: University Press, 1916 Strobel, A., Der erste Brief an die Korinther. Zürich: Theologischer Verlag, 1989 Thiselton, A. C., The First Epistle to the Corinthians. Grand Rapids/Cambridge: Eerdmans; Carlisle: Paternoster, 2000 Weiss, J., Der Erste Korintherbrief. 9. Aufl. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1910



INDEX OF ANCIENT SOURCES

Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Genesis 1 1:11-12 1:20-26 1:27 1:28 2 2:7 2:7a 2:7b 2:18 2:20 2:21-23 2:24 3 3:16 4:26 5:1-2 6:1-4 8:17 9:6 11:7 12:7 15:7-8 16:5 17:1 18:1 18:1-2 20:6 21:10 22:17 24:60 26:24 26:29 28:4 31:10-13 31:13

155 249 250 155 38 155 251, 252 252 252 59, 79, 155 155 155, 158 74 238 219 4 155 65 250 36 200 228 68 66 228 228 228 78 68 68 68 228 266 68 228 228

32:30 34:7 35:1 35:9 35:13 35:19 40:8 43:32 47:29

198 183 228 228 228 227 26 63 194

Exodus 2:1 3:2 3:11 4:10 4:13 5:21 12:1-20 12:14 12:15 12:21 12:23 13:21 14:19-20 14:19-22 14:21-22 15:2 15:7 15:24 16:2-12 16:4 16:4-35 16:10 17:1-7 17:2 17:3 17:7

80 228 231 231 231 168 59 60 59 60 132 127 127 128 127 76 33 132 132 128, 133 127, 128 228 128 131 132 131

Index of Ancient Sources

276 18:22 19:15 20:5 20:10 20:16 20:20 20:26 21:10 21:20 21:23-25 23:12 24 25:23-30 32 32:6 32:17-19 32:28 33:18-23 34:14 34:15-16 34:22

243 81 141 116 236 133 183 80 53 36 116 166 141 130 130 130 131 197 141 130 264

Leviticus 7:11-15 13:45 15:18 16:2 18:6-20 18:8 18:22 20:11 20:13 23:10-22 24:5-9 24:19-20

139 153 81 228, 243 183 56 69 56 69 264 141 36

Numbers 5:18 10:9 10:34 10:36 11:4 11:34 12 12:8 12:12

153 204 127 127 130 130 198 197, 198 230

14 14:1-38 14:10 14:14 14:16 14:22 14:26-38 14:29 14:32-33 14:39-40 15:20-21 16-17 16:19 16:31-33 16:41-50 (17:6-15) 16:42 18 18:12 20:2-13 21:4-9 21:6 21:16-18 24:2 25 25:1-9 25:9 26:62 31:6 31:22-23 35:24

132 132 228 127 129 16, 131 129 132 131 56 238 132 228 132 132 228 118 238 128 131 131 128 201 131 131 131 131 204 33 66

Deuteronomy 1:16 1:27 4:24 4:34 5:4 5:9 5:20 6:13 6:15 6:16 6:22 7:9 7:19 8:3

66 132 141 16 198 141 236 74 141 131 16 133 16 128

A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians 8:15 8:16 10:6 10:17 10:20 13:3 16:2 16:5-6 16:9-12 17:7 17:8 18:4 19:19 19:21 20:5-6 20:6 21:21 22:24 22:30 23:1 24:1 24:3 24:7 25:4 26:2 27:20 28:30 31:6 31:7 31:23 32:4 32:6 32:17 32:21 32:43 32:47 33:16 34 34:10

128 128 227 142 74 133 60 60 264 63 66 238 63 36 32 115 63 63 56 56 183 252 64 116 238 56 80 267 267 267 6, 133 14 140 141 157 236 228 198 197, 198

2:14 6:5 6:8 6:13 6:20 8:31-32 (9:2) 10:25

194 204 204 204 204 116 267

Judges 2:7 6:11-12 6:12 6:15 6:22 8:32 10:2 10:5 11:11 11:27 12:6 12:7 12:10 12:15 18:6 20:44

91 228 228 231 198 227 227 227 150 66 131 227 227 227 266 131

Ruth 2:10

214

1 Samuel 1:17 3:13 4:10 7:4 9:21 16:7 20:41 21:5 24:16 29:4

266 211 131 91 230, 231 41 214 81 66 57

Joshua 1:6 1:7 1:8 1:9 1:18

267 267 262 267 267

2 Samuel 2:6 2:26 2:28 6:5

194 256 204 130

277

Index of Ancient Sources

278 6:21 7:5 7:14 9:6 10:12 12:17 14:22 14:33 17:23 19:19 22:44 22:50 24:16

130 36 53 214 267 63 214 214 227 193 150 208 132

1 Kings 2:10 3:5 7:48 8:39 9:2 11:9 11:14 14:22

14 228 141 41 228 228 57 141

2 Kings 18:6 20:5 20:8

74 227 227

1 Chronicles 13:8 15:19 15:29 16:36 17:4 21:15 22:13 26:1 28:20

130 189 130 208 36 132 267 173 267

2 Chronicles 7:3 11:21 12:16 18:11 18:26

213, 214 80 227 262 266

23:18 31:5 32:7 32:27 35:24

116 238 267 33 227

Ezra 10:6

56

Nehemiah 1:5 8:7 8:10 9:9-21 9:11 9:15 9:20 9:31-32

142 208 164 127 127 128 128 142

Esther 1:20 6:12

183 152

Job 2:6 3:16 3:20 5:11-13 5:13 10:2 20:18 22:25 36:7 37:23 40:10 41:19-21

58 230 159 19 38 168 236 33 256 142 251 33

Psalms 5:7 (5:8) 5:10 (5:11) 6:10 (6:11) 7:11 (7:12) 7:17 (7:18) 8:5-8 (8:6-9) 8:6 (8:7) 8:6b (8:7b)

36 168 18 142 208 38 241 241

A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians 9:2 (9:3) 208 9:11 (9:12) 208 12:7 (11:7) 33 13:6 (12:6) 208 15:3 (14:3) 204 16:7 (15:7) 208 18:9 (17:10) 241 18:38 (17:39) 241 18:43 (17:44) 150 22:19 (21:20) 186 22:23 (21:24) 76 24:1 (23:1) 144, 262 24:7 (23:7) 23 25:13 (24:13) 68 26:12 (25:12) 208 27:14 (26:14) 267 29:3 (28:3) 23 31:24 (30:25) 267 32:2 (31:2) 193 33:10 (32:10) 15 34:14 (33:15) 86, 200 35:4 (34:4) 18 37:9 (36:9) 68 37:11 (36:11) 68 37:22 (36:22) 68 37:29 (36:29) 68 37:34-40 (36:34-40) 19 39:3 (38:4) 204 47:3 (46:4) 241 50:12 (49:12) 144 53:5 (52:6) 66 58:8 (57:9 A, S, T) 230 62:13 (61:13) 30 63:2 (62:3) 251 66:10 (65:10) 33 73:28 (72:28) 74 74:2 (73:2) 36 78:12-37 (77:12-37) 127 78:13 (77:13) 127 78:15-16 (77:15-16) 128 78:18 (77:18) 131 78:20 (77:20) 128 78:24-25 (77:24-25) 128 78:31 (77:31) 129 78:36 (77:36) 204 78:41 (77:41) 131

78:58-59 (77:58-59) 141 79:1 (78:1) 36 79:6 (78:6) 247 83:8 (82:9) 186 86:9 (85:9) 76 89:11 (88:12) 144 89:18 (88:19) 186 94:10 (93:10) 169 94:11 (93:11) 38 94:12 (93:12) 169 95:9 (94:9) 131 96:5 (95:5) 140 104:14 (103:14) 116 104:21 (103:21) 116 104:27 (103:27) 116 105:1 (104:1) 4 105:39 (104:39) 127 105:39-41 (104:39-41) 127 105:40 (104:40) 128 105:41 (104:41) 128 106:14 (105:14) 130, 131 106:25 (105:25) 132 106:25-26 (105:25-26) 132 106:37 (105:37) 140 107:5 (106:5) 47 108:8 (107:9) 186 108:13 (107:14) 66 109:2 (108:2) 204 110 (109) 240, 241 110:1a (109:1a) 239, 241 110:1b (109:1b) 240, 241 112:9 (111:9) 198 115:4-7 (113:12-15) 173 118:18 (117:18) 169 119:29-30 (118:29-30) 194 119:168 (118:168) 51 138:1 (137:1) 157 138:2 (137:2) 36 139:1-2 (138:1-2) 41 139:3 (138:3) 51 147:5 (146:5) 142 Proverbs 1:19 2:6 2:14

51 2 194

279

Index of Ancient Sources

280 3:12 3:34 4:17 4:19 5:3 6:5 6:26 6:29 7:21 8:10-11 8:12-14 8:17 8:19 10:13 10:20 11:14 12:9 15:9 15:11 17:26 18:5 19:11 20:5 20:22 20:23 22:15 23:8 23:21 24:6 24:12 24:23 24:29 25:24 25:27 26:9 26:21 27:15 27:18 28:13 29:3 29:17 30:3

169 19 51 51 55 97 55 78 97 33 14 271 33 53 33 186 183 200 41 59 59 193 41 193 59 53 62 62 186 30 59 193 62 59 62 62 62 115 262 55 269 2

Ecclesiastes 1:16-18 2:21

2 2

2:24 2:26 3:5 3:12 5:18 6:10 8:15 9:7 9:10

245 2 81 245 245 142 245 245 2

Isaiah 1:11 1:18 5:24 6:5 7:11 7:12 10:24 11:2 14:19 S 19:11-12 19:12 22:13 25:1 25:8 26:2 26:10 28:11 28:11-12 28:26 29:10 29:14 30:32 33:10 33:18 36:19 37:13 40:10 40:13 45:14 47:2 48:21 48:22 49:7 49:10 49:18

211 211 33 231 16 131 53 2 230 14, 15 15 245 76 256 194 194 204 211 169 181 15 203 211 15 15 15 30 27 214 153 128 211 133 47 211

A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians 52:1 54:1 54:10 54:17 56:12 60:21 62:11 63:16 64:4 (3) 65:16

86 80 190 211 246 68 30 198 23 23

Jeremiah 1:4-10 1:6 1:8 1:10 1:15 2:12 2:28 3:5 3:21 6:4 7:5 9:23 (9:22) 9:23-24 (9:22-23) 10:14 10:24 10:25 13:9 13:27 17:10 18:9 20:7-9 20:9 24:6 31:31 32:17-18 43:12 46:28 (26:28) 50:42 (27:42) 51:17

120 231 211 32 211 211 15 256 51 204 66 19 14 18 169 247 36 69 30, 41 32 120 57 32 166 142 266 169 204 18

Lamentations 5:20

256

Ezekiel 2:2 3:7 3:24 5:8 5:10 5:15 7:14 9:3 11:24 16:28 20:35 22:14 22:18-22 34:17 34:20 37:1 40:4 43:5-9 44:16 45:19

201 160 201 168 168 168 204 36 201 211 198 142 33 66 66 201 24 36 141 118

Daniel 2:46 3 3:19-23 3:28 (3:95) 4:19 7:9 7:22 9:6 10:19 11:27 12:2-3

214 35 192 191 154 34 65 57 267 138 235

Hosea 2:1 2:19 5:1 5:4 6:2 6:5 7:4 7:8 7:12 9:12

69 269 168 269 227 168 83 61 169 119

281

Index of Ancient Sources

282 12:2 13:10 13:14

236 15 15, 257

Joel 2:3 2:5 2:30 2:31 2:32 3:3

34 33 34 6 4 16

Amos 3:8 5:18 7:14-15 7:17 8:7

120 6 120 86 256

Jonah 1-4 2:4 2:7

120 36 36

Habakkuk 2:18-19 2:20

173 36

Zephaniah 3:8 3:9

168 4

Haggai 2:10

252

Zechariah 7:13 8:23 9:3 9:14 12:1 12:6 13:9

211 214 262 255 25 33 4, 33

Malachi 1:7

141

1:11 1:12 2:6 3:2-3 4:1 (3:19) 4:4 (3:24)

4 141 194 33 34 116

New Testament Matthew 1:18 1:21-23 2:5-6 2:11 2:13-15 2:16-18 3:1-3 3:15 4:1 4:3 4:7 5:5 5:9 5:11-12 5:16 5:17 5:28 5:32 5:39-40 5:44 5:44-47 5:45 5:48 6:1 6:4 6:6 6:8 6:9 6:18 6:19 6:24 6:26 6:30 7:1 7:7 8:20

94 176 176 266 176 176 176 158 81 81 131 68 86 94 106 167 130 83, 84 67 48 48 106 106 106 41, 106 41, 106 106 106 41 262 91 116 33 36 159 47

A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians 8:29 9:8 10:1-5 10:10 10:30 10:40 11:21 12:38 12:46 13:13 13:33 13:39-40 13:49 13:55 15:19 15:26 15:31 15:50 16:3 16:4 16:17 16:21 16:27 17:3 17:9 17:10 17:20 17:23 18:3 18:7 18:15 18:17 18:20 19:5 19:6b 19:9 19:17 19:21 19:28 19:29 19:30 20:16 20:19 21:21 21:42 22:16

41 76 228 113, 118 208 110 119 16 113 200 59 132 132 113, 229 69 59 76 72 167 16 254 227 30 228 233 240 175, 190 227 210 119 122 57, 208 57, 157 74 83 83 89 191 65 68 46 46 227 175, 190 226 266

22:23 22:30 22:43 23:12 23:13-16 23:23 23:34 24:3 24:6 24:9 24:14 24:27 24:31 24:37 24:38 24:39 25:29 25:34 25:45 26 26:14 26:24 26:26-27 26:26-29 26:47 26:55-56 27:63 27:64 28:1 28:6 28:9-10 28:16 28:16-20 28:20

234 98 201 19 119 119 48 132, 239 239, 240 94 239 239 255 239 98 239 164 68 110 165 228 119 137 137 228 226 227 252 262 228 228 228 228 132

Mark 1:8 1:13 3:14-16 3:31 4:10 4:33 5:10 5:10-12 5:23 5:34

181 81 228 113 228 200 266 48 266 266

283

Index of Ancient Sources

284 5:44 6:3 6:7 6:31 6:40 7:21-22 7:22 8:11-12 8:31 8:36 9:4 9:31 9:35 9:37 9:50 10:9 10:11 10:17 10:23 10:31 10:34 11:23 11:25 12:18 12:25 12:36 13:7 13:26 13:31 13:33 14 14:12 14:22-23 14:22-25 14:49 14:55-57 14:59 16:2 16:6

48 113, 229 228 267 216 63, 69 69 16 227 191 228 227 46 110 86 83, 84 83, 84 68 48 46 227 175, 190 106 234 98, 255 201 239 251 95, 198 41 165 60 137 137 226 236 211 262 228

Luke 1:4 1:11 1:51-53 2:22 2:29

209 228 19 116 266

4:2 4:12 6:27-28 6:27-35 6:36 8:1 8:19 9:1 9:12 9:22 9:31 9:58 10:7 10:7-8 10:16 10:25 10:38-42 11:9 11:16 11:18 11:21 11:40 11:49 12:2 12:19-20 12:20 12:33 12:42 13:16 13:21 14:11 14:12 14:17 14:33 15:2 15:14 15:28 16:1-8 16:13 16:17 16:18 17:27 18:14 18:18 18:33 19:21-22

81 131 48 48 106 228 113 228 228 227 228 47 118 113 110 68 96 159 16 208 266 248 48 34 246 248 191 40 58 59 19 163 163 191 63 109 48 40 91 195 83 98 19 68 227 262

A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians 19:26 19:42 20:16 20:27 20:35 21:8 21:9 21:12 21:23 22 22:7 22:14-20 22:43 23:29 23:34 24:1 24:3 24:6 24:7 24:13-53 24:25-27 24:27 24:34 24:36-52 24:44 24:46 24:50-51

164 62 73 234 98 41 217, 239 48 94 165 60 137 228 100 23 262 228 228 227 228 226 176 227 228 116 227 228

7:23 8:14 8:40 8:44 9:41 10:14 10:34 11:50 12:24 12:34 12:43 13:4 13:35 15:13 15:25 18 18:36 18:39 20:1 20:1-10 20:14-21:23 20:19 20:19-29 20:31 21:1-14 21:15-17 21:20

116 167 62 58, 225 62 104 211 196 249 211 42 163 188 188 211 165 62 160 262 228 228 262 228 44 228 271 163

John 1:3 1:33 1:42 2:12 2:22 3:13 3:21 3:31 4:48 5:21 5:41 5:44 6:67 6:70-71 7:3 7:5 7:10

107 181 10 113 233 252 194 252 16 238 42 42 228 228 113 113 113

Acts 1:1-11 1:3-9 1:5 1:7 1:9 1:14 1:24 2:1 2:1-13 2:4-13 2:33-35 2:38 2:42 2:45 2:46 3:1-10 3:13

228 228 181 167 228 113 41 264 212 177 239 11, 129 136 191 136 175 165

285

286 3:15 3:17 4:2 4:5 4:8 4:10 4:26 4:32-37 4:36 5:12-16 5:30 5:31 7:2 7:30 7:35 7:52 8:3 8:4-8 8:13 8:14 8:16 8:35 9:1 9:1-2 9:1-19a 9:1-29 9:4-5 9:13-14 9:14 9:21 9:27 9:27-28 9:31 9:32-35 9:36-41 10:28 10:40 10:46 10:48 11:1 11:3 11:8 11:14 11:16 11:22 11:25-26

Index of Ancient Sources 73, 226, 233 22, 23 234 22 22 73 22 191 114 175 73 239 23, 228 228 228 48 iix, 230 175 175 26 11, 129 176 iix 230 iix, 229 112 230 230 4 4, 230 114 57 201 175 175 86 73, 227 176 11, 12, 129 26 63 167 12 181 114 iix

11:27-28 11:28 11:30 12:17 12:25 13-15 13:1 13:27 13:30 13:31 13:37 13:39 13:45 14:1 14:8-10 14:16 14:22 14:27 15:3 15:5 15:8 15:13 15:20 15:29 15:36-40 16:1-3 16:15 16:16-18 16:18 16:32 16:34 16:36 16:39 17:2-3 17:11 17:16 17:18 17:21 17:32 18 18:1-18 18:2-3 18:3 18:4 18:6 18:8

175 201 114 229 114 114 175, 185 23 73 228 73 116 146 146 175 51 94 264 263 116 41 229 102 102, 145 ix 51 12 175 57 12 12 266 48 226 26 169 140 267 234 9, 270 ix, 20 270 113 146 146 11, 12

A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians 18:17 18:18 18:21 18:24-19:1 18:25 18:26 18:28 19 19:5 19:6 19:10 19:11-12 19:17 19:22 20:7 20:16 20:21 20:24 20:28 20:31 20:34 20:35 21:9-11 21:10-14 21:11 21:18 21:20 21:24 21:25 22:3-16 22:3-21 22:4-5 22:7-8 22:16 22:19 22:21 23:6 23:8 26:2 26:9-11 26:9-18 26:9-20 26:14-15 26:16 26:17 26:23

3 154, 270 52 9 209 270 226 ix 11, 129 175, 176 146 175 146 51 136 264 146 174 3 50, 267 117 186 175 176 201 229 187 154 145 iix, 229 112 230 230 69 230 12 iix, 234 234 100 230 iix, 229 112 230 40 12 238

287

28:3-6 28:15 28:22 28:23 28:25

175 208 196 116, 176, 226 201

Romans 1:1 1:2-4 1:3-4 1:4 1:5 1:7 1:8-10 1:10 1:12 1:13 1:15 1:16 1:18 1:20 1:21 1:24 1:24-27 1:26 1:27 1:29 1:29-31 2:2 2:4 2:6 2:7 2:8 2:9-10 2:12 2:15 2:16 2:26-29 2:29 3:4 3:5 3:7 3:8 3:9 3:9-20 3:19

3, 91 226 253 240 120 3, 106 5 52 4 126, 172 12 14, 16, 146 65, 194 16 208 130 55 156 69, 183 60, 65 63 103 193 30 251 65, 194 146 123 144 34 127 42 73 245 145 146 146, 208 257 103, 211

Index of Ancient Sources

288 3:23 3:24 3:25 3:27 3:30 3:31 4:1 4:8 4:12-17 4:16 4:17 4:23-24 4:24 4:25 5:2 5:3 5:3-4 5:6-8 5:7 5:9 5:11 5:12 5:12-21 5:15 5:17 5:19 6:2 6:3 6:5 6:6 6:12 6:14-15 6:15 6:17 6:19 6:22 7:1-3 7:2 7:4 7:6 7:7 7:7-8 7:9 7:13 7:14 7:16

108, 257 20 138 15 106 73 127 193 127 156 19 116 73, 233 226, 236 225 94, 119 194 11, 166 14, 108 138 19, 119 156, 257 238 146 45 146 73 129 73 60 255 122 73, 208 258 95 91 99 86 75, 138 60 73 130 145 73, 187 103 145

7:20 7:25 8:2 8:2-14 8:4 8:9 8:9-11 8:11 8:15 8:17 8:18 8:19-30 8:21 8:22 8:23 8:24-25 8:25 8:26 8:27 8:28 8:29 8:32 8:34 8:35 8:36 8:38 9:3 9:3-4 9:14 9:19 9:20-21 9:25 9:33 10:9 10:12 11:1 11:7 11:11 11:13 11:14 11:16 11:17-24 11:19 11:20 11:22

145 258 112 79 29 44, 173, 271 36, 75 73, 238, 252, 256 106 23 94 6 251, 255 103 44 196 194 104, 250 41 103, 104 253 26, 136, 166 226, 239 47, 48 243 38, 240 173 139 73 248 182 218 17 73, 173, 240 89, 146 73 208 73, 133 3, 174 86, 124 85, 238 127 248 133 133

A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians 11:25 11:26 11:33 11:34 11:36 12:3 12:3-8 12:4-5 12:4-8 12:5 12:6 12:6-8 12:7 12:7-8 12:8 12:11 12:12 12:13 12:14 12:17 12:18 12:19 13:3 13:4 13:5 13:8-10 13:9 13:11-12 13:13 13:13-14 13:14 14 14:4 14:6 14:7-8 14:9 14:11 14:13 14:13-15:6 14:15 14:16 14:17 14:18 14:19 14:20

126, 172, 255 213 16, 25 27 107 32 177 73 180 30, 138, 185 44, 173, 175 174 174, 185 186 186 91 94, 194 200 48 48, 193 86 44, 211 22 225 144 89, 104, 188, 199 130 132 29, 63, 222 29 130, 256 108 133 146 75 226, 240 44 109, 111, 146 101 110, 166 146 52, 108, 123 91 86, 104, 200 36

14:20-21 15:1-3 15:2 15:3 15:3-4 15:4 15:6 15:7 15:9 15:13 15:15 15:17 15:19 15:20 15:24 15:25 15:25-32 15:26-27 15:27 15:30 15:32 15:33 16:3 16:3-5 16:5 16:6 16:7 16:9 16:12 16:13 16:16 16:19 16:20 16:21 16:23 16:25 1 Corinthians 1-4

1:1 1:1-3 1:1-9 1:1-4:21

289

109, 111, 146 143, 146 104, 143 147, 151 226 116, 194 76 146 76 108 32, 62 244 21, 175 12, 32 263 263 261 261 117, 251 8 52 217 32, 268 270 12, 238, 268 268 113 32 99, 268 4 270 210 57, 217, 241, 272 32 12 20, 23

xii, 2, 49, 101, 113, 174, 223, 235, 266 iix, 2 2 4 1-53

290 1:1-16:20 1:2

1:3 1:4 1:4-7 1:4-7a 1:4-9 1:5 1:5-7 1:6-7a 1:7 1:7b 1:7b-9 1:8 1:8-9 1:9 1:10 1:10-12 1:10-17 1:11 1:11-12 1:12

1:13 1:13a 1:13b 1:14 1:14-16 1:15 1:16 1:17 1:17a 1:17b 1:18

Index of Ancient Sources 271 2, 20, 36, 52, 65, 85, 88, 146, 160, 164, 218, 220, 236, 261, 268 2, 4, 106, 272 2, 209, 236 44 5 4-5 45, 71, 103, 203 21 6 45, 108, 167, 172, 173, 272 6 5 6, 34, 40, 41, 58, 132 41 6, 39, 133, 142, 242 7, 8, 57, 162, 229 38 7, 28 xi, 8, 29, 49, 55, 64, 71, 149, 162 7, 29 9, 10, 38, 52, 112, 113, 215, 227, 266 7, 10, 11, 39, 129 11 11 18, 209 7, 11 129 268 3, 6, 12, 13, 20, 26 7, 12 8 13, 14, 17

1:18-25 1:18-27 1:18-31 1:18-2:16 1:19 1:19-20 1:19-21 1:19-22 1:20 1:21 1:21a 1:21b 1:22 1:22-24 1:23 1:24 1:25 1:25-27 1:26 1:26-31 1:27-28 1:28 1:29 1:30

1:31 2 2:1 2:1-2 2:1-5 2:2 2:3 2:4 2:4-5 2:4-7 2:5 2:6 2:6-9 2:6-16

13, 21 14 8, 12 38 15, 38, 44 18 14 6 15, 23, 61, 181, 182, 257 23 16 16 16, 17, 146 14 13, 16, 17, 21, 32 6, 17, 22, 23, 146 14, 17, 142 6 x, 18, 89, 235 17 18 23 18, 19, 119 6, 18, 19, 23, 39, 69, 89, 107, 226, 236 18, 19, 38, 119, 211 26 6, 20, 26, 40, 190, 255 21 12, 20, 28 13, 20, 32 20, 21 21 20, 26, 52 6 xiii, 21 19, 22, 23, 26, 28, 196, 210 22 21-22

A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians 2:7 2:8 2:9 2:10 2:10-16 2:10b 2:11 2:12 2:13 2:13-15 2:14 2:15 2:16 3:1 3:1-2 3:1-2a 3:1-3 3:1-4 3:1-15 3:2 3:2b-4 3:3 3:3-4 3:4 3:4-6 3:5 3:5-7 3:5-8 3:5-15 3:6 3:6-7 3:8 3:8b 3:9 3:9-15 3:10 3:10-11 3:10-15 3:11 3:12 3:13 3:13-15

16, 20, 23, 26, 40, 190, 255 6, 22, 23 23, 104, 271 25, 27 22 25 6, 25, 27 25, 100 6, 26 251 6, 14, 26 26, 27, 28, 221 6, 27 22, 27, 28, 221, 236 196, 210 28 251 27-28, 38, 52 43 28 28 29, 193 245 9, 29 266 30, 40 29 29, 31 38 50, 113 30 30, 35 31 31, 268 31 6, 33, 50, 94, 113, 231 32 31, 51 31 31, 33 31, 34, 41, 95, 213 31

3:13a 3:14-15 3:14-15a 3:15 3:16

3:16-17 3:17 3:17a 3:18 3:18-19 3:18-20 3:18-23 3:18a 3:18b 3:19 3:19-20 3:19a 3:19b 3:20 3:21 3:21-23 3:21a 3:21b 3:22 3:23 3:23b 4:1 4:1-2 4:1-5 4:2 4:3-4 4:3-5 4:5 4:6 4:6-13 4:6a 4:6c 4:7 4:8 4:8-13

291

34 31 34 35, 41 29, 35, 59, 65, 68, 75, 117, 123, 157, 172, 268 35 36, 57, 221, 271 36 104, 221 14, 16, 61 6, 37 37 37 37 6, 44 211 37 38 38 43, 119, 212 37, 38 38 38 10, 38, 266 10, 75, 239 39 20, 120, 190, 255 39 39, 113 40 40 39 31, 41, 63, 213 42, 43, 103, 193, 266 42, 117 43 43 42, 44, 94, 110 44, 45, 46, 209, 235 42

292 4:9 4:9-13 4:10 4:11 4:11-13 4:12 4:12a 4:12b-13a 4:13 4:14 4:14-15 4:14-16 4:14-21 4:15 4:15-16 4:16 4:17

4:18 4:18-19 4:18-21 4:19 4:19a 4:19b 4:20 4:21 5-6 5:1 5:1-2 5:1-5 5:1-6:20 5:2 5:3-5 5:4 5:4-5 5:5 5:6 5:6-7 5:6-8 5:6a 5:7

Index of Ancient Sources 43, 46 119, 125, 243 14, 37, 43, 236 47 43, 47, 67 114, 231, 268 47 48 48 50, 66, 135, 259 51 49 49 112, 113, 210, 236 50 51, 147 xi, 4, 49, 51, 62, 88, 99, 156, 160, 218, 220, 236, 259, 265, 270 43, 52, 235 103, 193 50, 52, 262 6, 43, 169, 263 52 52 21, 52 53, 267 xiii, 54, 77, 143 55, 131, 162 54 54, 168 54-76 43, 56, 59, 103, 193 55, 56 157 57 57, 69, 81, 95 35, 58 61, 63, 246 58, 59 59 59

5:8 5:9 5:9-11 5:9-13 5:10 5:10-11 5:11 5:12-13 6:1 6:1-2 6:1-6 6:2 6:2-3 6:3 6:4-6 6:5 6:6 6:7 6:7-11 6:8 6:9 6:9-10 6:9-11 6:9b 6:10 6:11 6:12

6:12-13 6:12-20 6:12b 6:13 6:13-14 6:13-18 6:14 6:15 6:15-17 6:16 6:16-17

59, 60 xi, 61, 63, 85 55, 61, 68, 69, 131, 246 60-61 61, 62 69 62 61, 63 64, 65, 66, 218 261 64 35, 68, 218, 220 64, 65 35, 68, 157 64, 66 6, 66, 247 66 67 67 67, 68 35, 55, 68, 131, 220, 246 52, 63, 67, 68, 169, 254 132 69 69 20, 67, 69, 85, 236 xiii, 56, 61, 70, 71, 72, 79, 90, 97, 101, 111, 143, 174, 235 79 70 81 19, 70, 72, 74, 108, 254 70 55, 131 73, 74, 233 35, 138, 179 70, 73 35, 220, 241 74

A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians 6:17 6:18 6:18-19 6:18a 6:19 6:19-20 6:20 6:20a 6:20b 7 7:1

7:1-7 7:1-16 7:1-40 7:1b 7:2 7:3-4 7:5 7:6 7:7 7:7a 7:7b 7:8 7:8-9 7:8-16 7:9 7:10 7:10-11 7:10-11a 7:11 7:12 7:12-13 7:12-14 7:12-15 7:12-16 7:13 7:14 7:14c 7:15

74 74 70 71 35, 44, 75, 220 70 70 75, 91 76 xiii, 77 xi, 71, 78, 84, 93, 94, 103, 105, 172, 261, 266 78 77 77-100 81 55, 78, 80, 81, 83, 131 78, 80 57, 78, 80, 83, 133 78, 80, 100, 162 44, 78, 81, 173 81 81 77, 81, 113 82, 83, 99 82 90, 93, 99 94, 100, 118, 165, 221 77, 79, 82, 83, 94 84 84, 90 xiii, 94, 100 77, 80, 85 86 67 82, 84, 94 84 62, 85, 246 86 90, 266

7:15ab 7:15c 7:16 7:17

7:17-24 7:18 7:18-19 7:19 7:20 7:21 7:21-22 7:22 7:22a 7:22b 7:23 7:23a 7:23b 7:24 7:25 7:25-28 7:25-38 7:25-40 7:26 7:26-27 7:26-31 7:27 7:27-28 7:27a 7:27b 7:28 7:28a 7:28b 7:29 7:29-31 7:29a 7:29b 7:30 7:31 7:31a 7:31b 7:32-35

293

86 86 86, 100, 122 4, 52, 87, 88, 91, 160, 169, 218, 220 77, 87 88 87, 88 88, 90, 106, 123, 181, 190 87, 89, 91 89, 94, 110 87, 89 75, 91, 99, 259, 270 90 91 75, 91 91 91 87, 91 xi, 78, 80, 83,93, 100 93 98 77, 92 94, 95 77 132 98, 99 44, 79, 93, 110 94 95 93, 94, 98 95 95 80, 254 93, 99 95 95 96 196, 258 96 95, 225 79, 93, 96

294 7:33-34a 7:33-35 7:35 7:36 7:36-38 7:37 7:38 7:39 7:39-40 7:40 8

8:1

8:1-3 8:1-11:1 8:2 8:2-3 8:3 8:4 8:4-5 8:4-6 8:4-13 8:5 8:6 8:7 8:7-12 8:8 8:8-13 8:8a 8:8b 8:9 8:9-10 8:9-12

Index of Ancient Sources 96 81 93, 97, 100, 162 93, 97 97 71, 77, 93, 97, 98 93, 98, 99 86, 158, 259, 270 93, 99 44, 77, 93, 100 xiii, 71, 72, 102, 126, 134, 142, 146 xi, 6, 43, 78, 103, 105, 110, 126, 143, 145, 147, 187, 193, 199, 201, 203, 215 103, 109, 271 101-147 104, 195, 196, 221 6, 198 104, 221, 271 105, 135, 139, 145, 190 105 144 104-105 106, 140 105, 106, 158, 173 6, 105, 107, 110, 144, 145 123 72, 108, 144 108 105, 108, 109 105, 108, 109 71, 109, 110, 111, 146 44 105, 122

8:10 8:10-11 8:10-12 8:11 8:12 8:13 8:13-9:27 9 9:1

9:1-2 9:1-6 9:1ab 9:1cd 9:2 9:3 9:4 9:4-6 9:5 9:5a 9:5b 9:6 9:7 9:7-8 9:7-14 9:8 9:8-11 9:8a 9:8b 9:9 9:9-10 9:10 9:10a 9:11 9:12

9:12a 9:12b

104, 110, 144, 145 6, 208 109, 110 110, 123, 166 110, 144 105, 110, 123, 146 110 xiii, 48, 102, 109, 112 iix, 72, 120, 121, 122, 229, 259 3, 99 111 112 112 113, 259 40, 112, 113, 117, 119 113 71, 113 10, 81, 185, 218, 229 113 113 113, 114, 220 114, 115, 116 116, 159, 219 114 115, 219, 258 114, 115 115 115 115, 116 116 116, 126, 220, 241, 250 116 113, 117, 251 71, 112, 115, 119, 121, 123, 194 117 117, 118

A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians 9:13 9:13-14 9:14 9:15 9:15-16 9:15-18 9:15a 9:15b 9:15cd 9:16 9:17-18 9:17a 9:17b 9:18 9:19 9:19-23 9:20 9:20-22 9:20-22a 9:21 9:22 9:22a 9:22b 9:23 9:24 9:24-27 9:24a 9:24b 9:25 9:26 9:26-27 9:27 9:27a 10 10:1 10:1-4 10:1-13 10:1-22 10:2 10:3 10:3-4

35, 114, 117 117 83, 115, 118, 165, 221 62 118, 119 115, 118 118 118 119 12, 119 118 120 120 12, 71, 120, 191 111, 112, 121, 122, 125, 188 46, 121-122 122 122, 146 122 122, 123 86, 102, 117, 122, 123 122, 123 122, 123 124, 125 35 124 124 124 124, 125, 194, 251 125 125 125, 162 125 xiii, 72, 110 126, 127, 150, 172, 250 126, 129 125-126 102 128 127 138

10:4 10:5 10:6 10:6-10 10:6a 10:6b 10:7 10:7-10 10:7a 10:7b 10:8 10:8-10 10:9 10:10 10:11 10:11-13 10:12 10:13 10:14 10:14-22 10:15 10:16

10:16-17 10:17 10:17a 10:17b 10:18 10:19 10:20 10:20a 10:20b 10:21 10:22 10:22a 10:22b 10:23

295

128 126, 129 133 126 129, 132 130 130, 135 130 130 130 55, 131 131 131 132 116, 129, 132, 239 126 132, 267 44, 94, 132 135, 259 7, 110, 131, 134 46, 135, 158, 210 136, 137, 139, 140, 146, 165, 167 129, 135, 136, 139, 160, 163 137, 138, 167, 179, 180 138, 139 138, 139 125, 135, 136, 139, 140 106, 135, 139, 145 135, 136, 139 139 140 135, 138, 140, 167 135, 220 141 141 xiii, 71, 72, 104, 143, 174

296 10:23-24 10:23-30 10:23-33 10:23-11:1 10:24 10:25 10:25-27 10:26 10:27 10:27-29 10:28 10:28-29a 10:28-30 10:29 10:29b-30 10:30 10:31 10:31-32 10:31-11:1 10:32 10:33 10:33-11:1 11 11-14 11:1 11:2 11:2-16 11:2-34 11:2-14:40 11:3 11:4 11:4-5 11:4-10 11:5 11:5-6 11:5a 11:5b 11:6 11:6a 11:6b

Index of Ancient Sources 143, 146 102 71, 101 142 65, 143, 193 144 143 144 67, 144 144 144 145, 146 143 111, 112 145 146 146 143 51, 102, 143 3, 146 124, 143, 146, 193, 194 143 xiii, 170 137 46, 102, 147, 151 102, 150, 162, 165, 194, 226 148, 148-149, 152, 218, 219 148-169 148 149, 150, 151, 219 151, 152, 185 175, 200 149 152 156 149, 152, 153 154 158, 159, 220 154 154

11:7 11:8 11:8-9 11:9 11:10 11:11 11:11-12 11:12 11:13 11:14-15 11:14-15a 11:15b 11:16

11:17 11:17-20 11:17-22 11:17-34 11:18 11:18-22 11:19 11:20 11:21 11:21-22 11:22

11:22a 11:23 11:23-24 11:23-25 11:23-26 11:24 11:24-25 11:25 11:26 11:27 11:27-32 11:27-34

90, 149, 151, 155 155, 158 155 155 149, 156, 217 99, 151, 157, 158, 259, 270 149, 157 107, 158 135, 153, 158, 220 149, 158 159 152, 153, 159 3, 4, 52, 88, 159, 218, 220, 221 150, 161, 162, 164 161 167 129, 136, 148, 160-161 55, 162 8 125, 162, 209 163, 166 163 161 3, 146, 150, 161, 162, 164, 168, 220 169 164, 165, 226 165 83, 118, 137 136, 161, 163, 164 138 164, 226 138, 166 166, 272 138, 140, 167 161 167

A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians 11:28 11:29 11:29-30 11:29-32 11:30 11:31 11:31-32 11:32 11:33 11:33-34 11:34 11:34a 11:34b 11:34c 12 12-14

12:1 12:1-11 12:1-14:40 12:2 12:2-3 12:3 12:4 12:4-6 12:5 12:5-6 12:6 12:7 12:7-10 12:7-11 12:8 12:8-10 12:9 12:9-10 12:9-10a 12:10

12:10b 12:10b-e 12:10c

167, 213 138, 167, 179 168, 169 162 58, 168 167, 168 168 168 169 161, 220 88, 161, 262 164, 169 169 169 xiii, 138, 170, 175, 199 5, 6, 152, 170, 172, 175, 176, 180, 185, 262 xi, 78, 126, 171, 172 170, 171 170-222 x, 35, 172 172 173, 271 173 172, 173 173 106 173, 174, 177 33, 143, 174 172 215 6, 174 174, 185, 190, 195 173, 190 185 175 167, 186, 188, 200, 201, 202, 203, 206, 216 175 175 176

12:10de 12:11 12:12 12:12-13 12:12-27 12:12-31 12:13 12:14 12:14-26 12:15-16 12:16 12:17 12:17-20 12:18

12:19 12:20 12:21 12:22 12:22-24a 12:23-24a 12:24b 12:24b-26 12:25 12:25a 12:25b 12:26 12:27 12:27-30 12:28 12:28-29 12:28-30 12:29-30 12:30

12:31 12:31a 12:31b

297

176 172, 174, 177 30, 179, 181, 185 178 73, 138, 167 170, 177-178 89, 138, 146, 180, 185 178, 181 181 178, 181, 182 182 181, 182 178 62, 181, 182, 184, 198, 238, 249 182 30, 181, 182 178, 182 183 178, 182 183 184 178 8, 162 184 184 184 178, 179, 184 184 173, 175, 185, 188 113, 175, 190, 203, 217 176, 178, 195 186 44, 173, 175, 188, 201, 202, 206, 215, 216 173, 199, 206 170, 178, 186, 200, 221 170, 179, 187, 188, 199

298 13

13:1 13:1-3 13:1-13 13:2

13:3 13:4 13:4-7 13:5 13:6 13:7 13:8

13:8-9 13:8-12 13:9 13:9-12 13:10 13:11 13:12 13:13 14

14:1 14:1-5 14:1-25 14:1a 14:1b 14:2

14:2-5 14:2-28 14:2a 14:2b 14:3

Index of Ancient Sources xiii, 89, 104, 170, 172, 175, 199, 200, 267 46, 176, 188 188, 195, 207 187-188 6, 40, 174, 175, 188, 189, 190, 201, 203, 255 186, 188, 189, 191, 192 43, 192, 193 188, 192 143, 193 193 194 6, 19, 72, 174, 176, 196, 198, 203 175 104, 188 6, 195, 196 195 19, 72, 195 195, 210 6, 104, 195, 196, 198, 221 181, 188, 194, 198 xiii, 171, 175, 177, 178, 186, 187, 199 173, 187, 199, 206, 221 199, 207, 217 171 200 200 40, 190, 200, 203, 207, 216, 255 199 176, 177 200 201 201, 215, 217

14:3-5 14:3a 14:4 14:4-5 14:5 14:6

14:6-12 14:7 14:7-8 14:7-9 14:8 14:9 14:9-11 14:10 14:10-11 14:11 14:12

14:13 14:13-19 14:14 14:14-15 14:14-16 14:14-17 14:15 14:16 14:16-17 14:17 14:18-19 14:19 14:20 14:20-25 14:21 14:22 14:22-24 14:23 14:23-24 14:24

33, 104 200 201, 202, 215, 216 206 201, 202, 206, 207, 215, 216 6, 174, 185, 190, 202, 203, 209, 217 202, 206 6, 203 202 203 204 6, 202, 203, 204 204 189, 205 202 205 33, 104, 108, 176, 187, 201, 203, 206, 215 201, 202, 206, 207, 216 201, 206 207 188, 207 177 206, 207, 217 208, 215, 217 137, 208, 212, 271 44, 110, 208 65, 104, 201, 215 206, 209 51 135, 210 210 210, 211 210, 212 67 155, 210, 212 209 216

A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians 14:24-25 14:25 14:26

14:26-28 14:26-36 14:26-40 14:27-28 14:28 14:29 14:29-32 14:30 14:31 14:32 14:33 14:33b 14:33b-34a 14:34 14:34-35 14:35 14:35a 14:35b 14:36 14:37 14:37-38 14:37-40 14:38 14:39 14:39-40 14:40 15 15:1 15:1-2 15:1-3a 15:1-11 15:1-34 15:1-58 15:2

210, 212 213 33, 104, 174, 185, 201, 203, 208, 215, 216, 217, 222 201, 202, 206 214 171 215 216 167, 176, 201, 216 215, 216 203, 217 201, 216, 217 217 215, 217, 261, 266 4, 220 52, 88, 160 258 215, 218 154 220 220 4, 52, 88, 160, 215, 218, 220 27, 221 220 220 36, 221, 271 187, 206, 221 221 156, 170, 193, 222 xiii, 226, 238, 254 133, 225, 267 232, 259, 267 225 12, 223, 224225, 232 223 223-259 225, 236

15:3 15:3-4 15:3-7 15:3a 15:3b-4 15:3b-7 15:4 15:5 15:5-7 15:5-8 15:6 15:7 15:8 15:8-10 15:9 15:9-10 15:9b 15:10 15:11 15:12 15:12-19 15:13 15:13-19 15:14 15:14c 15:15 15:15-16 15:16 15:17 15:17ab 15:17c-18 15:18 15:19 15:20 15:20-22 15:20-28 15:21-22 15:22 15:22a 15:22b

299

166, 226, 227 236 165 226 225 225 226, 227, 233, 234, 237 10, 73, 227, 228, 233 225 227, 231 229 113, 229 iix, 112, 229 112, 120, 225 iix, 3, 113 3 230 32, 47, 94, 230, 231, 236, 268 225, 232 223, 232, 235, 247 224, 232 232, 235, 236 235 232, 235, 236 236 208, 236 232 232, 235, 236 236 232, 235 232 236 232, 237 62, 181, 237, 238, 239, 268 73 224, 235, 237 237, 238, 252, 257 236, 249, 252 253 253

300 15:23 15:24 15:24-28 15:24c-26 15:25 15:25b 15:26 15:27 15:27a 15:27bc 15:28 15:29 15:29-32 15:29-34 15:30 15:31 15:31-32 15:32a 15:32b 15:33 15:33-34 15:34 15:34b 15:35 15:35-49 15:35-58 15:36 15:36-37 15:36-38 15:36-49 15:37 15:38 15:39 15:39-41 15:40-41 15:41 15:42-44 15:43 15:44 15:44b 15:45 15:45-49 15:46

Index of Ancient Sources 237, 238 19, 106, 239, 241 238, 239, 252, 259, 272 240 240, 241, 256 240 19, 241 241 241 242 242 243 242 224, 242 243 46, 236, 259 243 244 245 61, 68, 85 224, 246, 254, 267 66, 235 247 248 224, 247-248 224, 248 44, 110, 249 250 248 249 249 182, 249 250 248 250 126 248, 250 23 26, 73, 255 251 251 238, 248 252

15:47 15:47-49 15:48-49 15:48a 15:48b 15:49 15:50 15:50-51 15:50-57 15:50-58 15:51 15:51-52 15:51-52a 15:52a 15:52b 15:53 15:54 15:54-57 15:55 15:56 15:56a 15:56b 15:57 15:58

16:1

16:1-4 16:1-9 16:1-24 16:2a 16:2b 16:3 16:4 16:5 16:5-9 16:6 16:7 16:8 16:9 16:10 16:10-11

252 252 253, 255 253 253 253 52, 68, 72, 254 254 241 224, 251, 253254 190 73, 254 255 255 255, 256 240, 254, 256 256, 257 254, 256 15, 257 257 257 258 258 135, 206, 224, 254, 259, 265, 267 xi, 78, 88, 169, 218, 261, 262, 266, 268 260, 261 260-261 260-272 262 262 262 263 263 52, 169, 260, 261, 262 263, 266 52, 263 ix, 244, 263, 264 264 265 xii, 51, 265

A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians

16:15-17 16:15-18 16:16 16:17 16:17a 16:17b 16:18a 16:18b 16:19 16:19-20 16:19-24 16:19a 16:19b 16:20a 16:20b 16:21 16:21-24 16:22 16:23 16:24

260 264 169, 263, 265, 266 xi, 78, 261, 265, 266 133, 225 260, 265, 267 218, 238, 261, 268 12 260, 265, 267 209, 268, 269 ix, 9, 266, 269 268 269 269 269 99, 259 270 260, 269 270 270 270 270 271 270 167, 173, 271 272 236, 272

2 Corinthians 1:1 1:2 1:8 1:8-10 1:12 1:12-24 1:14 1:15-2:11 1:16 1:19 1:23 1:24 2:4 2:5

3, 51 106 126, 172, 187 244 29 52 6, 244 264 263 51 95 133 188 xiii

16:10-12 16:10-18 16:11 16:12 16:13 16:13-14 16:15

2:11 2:12 2:14 2:16 2:17 3:1 3:1-3 3:3 3:5 3:5-6 3:6 3:11 3:13 3:17 3:18 4:1 4:2 4:3 4:4 4:5 4:7 4:8-9 4:9 4:10-12 4:11 4:13 4:14 4:15 4:16 4:17 5:1 5:1-2 5:4 5:7 5:10 5:15 5:17 5:18 5:19 6:1 6:3 6:4 6:4-10 6:5 6:6

301

57 264 4, 258 230 120 112 113 28 19 230 30, 166, 230, 252 23, 198 23 112 253 94, 156, 174 174 90 57, 67 122, 173 14 47 48, 243 46 95 44 73 146 58 23, 187, 243 103 73 256 196 34, 240 11, 166, 226 132 19 193 268 146, 174 30, 194 47 47 193, 267

302 6:7 6:8 6:9 6:13 6:14-15 6:15-16 6:16 6:17 6:17-18 7:1 7:4 7:8 7:12 7:13 7:14 7:15 8-9 8:2 8:7 8:7-9 8:8 8:9 8:11-15 8:14 8:16 8:18 8:19 8:23 8:24 9 9:2-3 9:3-5 9:8 9:9 9:11 9:12 9:15 10-12 10:1 10:2 10:3 10:7 10:8 10:9 10:10

Index of Ancient Sources 14 48 46 50 67 140 36 86 211 135, 259 244 264 264 269 244 21 261 94 45, 108, 174, 206 5 80 147, 151 262 269 258 266 146 32 244 121 244 262 45, 108, 206 198 45 269 258 112 8, 56 29, 196 95 196 104 172 265

10:11 10:12 10:16 10:17 10:18 11:4 11:5 11:7 11:7-9 11:9 11:9-10 11:10 11:13 11:13-14 11:14 11:15 11:19 11:23 11:23-25 11:23-30 11:26 11:27 11:29 11:30 11:32-33 12:5 12:7 12:9 12:10 12:11 12:12 12:13 12:19 12:20 12:20-21 12:21 13:2 13:3-4 13:4 13:5 13:7 13:9 13:10 13:11 13:12 13:13

56, 196 26 12 19 125 26, 44 113 120 117 109, 269 120 119 113 43 57 30 46 46, 47, 231, 244 47 47 47 47 83 46, 119 47 46 57, 58 46, 57, 119 46, 47, 48 113 3, 175 117, 120 104, 135, 259 29, 43, 193 63 55 56 14 13, 46, 250 125 125 46 56, 104 86, 217 270 272

A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians Galatians 1:1 1:3 1:4 1:7 1:8 1:8-9 1:9 1:10 1:11 1:13 1:13-14 1:14 1:15 1:15-16 1:16 1:17-24 1:18 1:19 1:23 1:24 2 2:2 2:3 2:4 2:4-5 2:7 2:7-8 2:9 2:10 2:11 2:11-13 2:11-14 2:12 2:14 2:16 2:17 2:18 2:20 3:1 3:2 3:4 3:5 3:6-9

3, 73, 91, 106, 226 106 106, 226 271 46 173, 271 225, 271 42 233 iix, 3, 187, 230 iix 187 231 iix, 3, 112, 120, 229 254 iix 10 113, 229 230 76 114 231 123 112, 191 123 120 10 10, 32, 136, 229 261 10 123 ix 63, 229 10 34 73 145 95, 166 13 44, 181 225 175 127

3:9 3:13 3:14 3:15 3:21 3:27 3:28 3:29 4:5 4:6 4:8 4:8-9 4:9 4:11 4:14 4:19 4:21 4:22-31 4:24 4:25 4:27 5:1 5:2-4 5:5-6 5:6 5:9 5:10 5:11 5:13 5:13-14 5:13-21 5:13-26 5:14 5:16-17 5:19 5:19-20 5:19-21 5:20 5:21 5:22 5:22-23 5:24 6:1 6:2 6:3 6:6

303

212 75 44 115, 203 73 129, 256 30, 89, 146 127 75 106 173, 247 16 104, 221 47, 225 265 50 122, 200 112 166 165 80 89, 90, 112, 133 123 199 88 59 196 12, 13, 17 112 188, 199 72 79 89, 104 130 55 29 63 29, 162 52, 68, 74 193 199 130, 239 27, 53, 133 ix, 89, 104, 123 221 209

304

Index of Ancient Sources

6:16 6:18

68 62 271 13 271 13, 119 88, 123, 132, 195 127 272

Ephesians 1:1 1:7 1:17 1:20 1:21 1:22 1:22-23 1:23 2:14-15 2:16 2:20 2:21 2:21-22 3:2 3:3-5 3:3-12 3:5 3:7 3:7-8 3:8 3:9 3:10 4:2 4:4 4:4-6 4:5-6 4:6 4:7-12 4:11 4:12 4:13-14 4:15 4:16 4:22

3 20 23 73, 239, 241 240 151, 241 180 138, 242 30 138 32, 175 36 36 120 25 23 175 30 32 230, 231 23 16, 157 53, 193 138, 180 173 106 242 177 175, 185 138, 180, 185 28 151 138, 180 60

6:7 6:11 6:11-18 6:12 6:12-13 6:14 6:15

4:24 4:28 5:2 5:3-5 5:5 5:6 5:9 5:19 5:20 5:22 5:22-33 5:23 5:24 5:25 5:29-30 5:31 5:33 6:5 6:6 6:12 6:14 6:24

194, 256 47 166, 267 63 62, 68 236 194 208 208 219 73, 138 151, 180 219 166 180 74 157 21 91 254 194 272

Philippians 1:1 1:3-4 1:6 1:7 1:10 1:11 1:22 1:24 1:27 2:1 2:2 2:4-8 2:8 2:9-11 2:11 2:12 2:16 2:22 2:24 2:25 2:29 2:30

51, 91 5 6 196 6 146 95 95 133, 225 201 188 143 13, 147, 151 240 146, 173 21, 135, 259 6, 47, 231, 244 51 52 32 99 259, 265, 269

A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians 3:3 3:4 3:5 3:6 3:14 3:16 3:17 3:18 3:20 3:21 4:1 4:5 4:9 4:12 4:14 4:16 4:18 4:22 4:23 Colossians 1:1 1:4 1:4-5 1:13 1:16 1:16-17 1:18 1:23 1:24 1:25 1:26 2:5 2:7 2:8 2:10 2:12 2:15 2:19 3:1 3:4 3:5 3:8 3:9

127 221 iix iix, 230 124 157 51, 147 13 6, 167 6, 73, 250, 251, 253 133, 135, 259 272 147, 217, 225 47, 109 157 121 109 270 272

3, 51 188 199 240 240 107 138, 151, 180, 238 30, 259 180 30, 120 23 56 206 236 151, 240 73 240 151, 180 239 251 55, 62, 63, 130 63 60

3:10 3:11 3:12 3:15 3:16 3:17 3:18 4:3 4:5 4:15 4:18 1 Thessalonians 1:1 1:2 1:3 1:5 1:6 1:8 1:9 1:10 2:1 2:4 2:5-10 2:6 2:9 2:11 2:12 2:13 2:14 2:18 2:19 3:2 3:3 3:5 3:8 3:10 3:13 4:1 4:3 4:5 4:7 4:10 4:11 4:12

305

256 89, 146, 242 53, 193 138, 180 208 208 219 264 63 270 271, 272

51 5 30, 194, 199 175 51, 94, 147 4 91 41, 73, 167, 233 231 41, 42, 120 120 3 47, 117 50 52, 201 225 3 57 239, 244 32, 51 94 30, 47, 51, 81, 133, 231 133 269 6, 239 206 55 16, 130, 247 86 206 47 63, 222

Index of Ancient Sources

306 4:13 4:13-17 4:13-18 4:13-5:11 4:14 4:15 4:15-17 4:16 4:16-17a 4:17 5:4 5:6 5:8 5:10 5:11 5:12 5:13 5:14-15 5:15 5:18 5:20 5:23 5:24 5:26 5:28

126, 172, 245 237 272 132 226 239, 255 73, 83, 167, 255 255 255 213, 235 34 218 199 11, 166 104, 201 99, 186, 268 86 193 48, 193, 200 208 175 217, 239 133 270 272

2 Thessalonians 1:1 1:3 1:4 1:7 1:8 2:1 2:8 2:12 2:13 2:15 3:3 3:6 3:7-9 3:8-9 3:14-15 3:16 3:17

51 263 3, 48, 94 34 16, 247 239 19, 239 194 238 150 133 57, 150 117 114 271 217 271

1 Timothy 1:9-10 1:10 1:11 1:12 1:15-16 1:18 1:20 2:5 2:8 2:11 2:11-12 3:5 3:7 3:15 4:3 4:3-4 4:3-5 4:12 4:14 4:16 5:17 5:17-18 5:18 5:20 6:9 6:11 6:12

63 69 120 174 231 124 58 106 4 219 218 3 63 3, 36 79 146 144 265 173 86 268 113 116 209 58, 130, 133 200 124

2 Timothy 1:1 1:2 1:6 1:8 1:10 1:11 1:14 2:4 2:5 2:6 2:10 2:12 2:15 2:19 2:22 2:25

3 51 173 6 19 185 36 115 124 115 194, 209 45 125 104 86, 200 53

A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians 3:2-5 4:7-8 4:8 4:14 4:19

63 124 125 30 270

Titus 1:3 1:7 2:5 3:13

120 40 219 263

Philemon 1 2 6 7 10 16 19 20 21

51 270 136 269 50, 51 99 62, 271 269 62

Hebrews 1:2 1:3 1:13 1:14 2:6-8 2:10 2:14 3:7-4:13 3:9 3:17 4:12-13 5:12-14 6:3 6:12 7:11 7:22 7:28 8-9 8:1 8:6 9:26 10:12-13

107 239, 241 239, 241 68 241 107 19, 58 132 131 129 41 28 263 68 245 166 250 166 239 62, 181 62, 132, 181 239

10:16 10:22-24 10:25 10:28 10:33 11:16 11:19 11:28 11:31 11:32 11:37 12:1 12:2 12:5-11 12:14 12:24 12:28 13:4 13:10 13:17 13:20

166 199 34 116 46, 94 62 196 132 266 187 109 124 239 169 86, 200, 266 166 146 69 118 268 166, 217

James 1:8 1:12 1:12-15 1:14-15 1:18 1:26 2:1 2:5 2:10 2:14 2:16 2:18 4:5 4:6 4:15 4:16 5:7-8 5:10

51 104, 125 133 130 238 221 23 68, 104 167 245 245, 266 248 36 19 52 62 239 57

1 Peter 1:6 1:7 1:17

94 33 30

307

Index of Ancient Sources

308 1:21 2:3-6 2:15 2:23 3:1 3:4 3:5 3:9 3:11 3:13 3:20-21 3:22 4:2-3 4:3 4:8 4:10 4:12 4:13-14 4:17-18 5:4 5:5 5:8 5:14

73 36 247 48 122, 219 213 219 48, 193 86 187 129 240, 241 130 63 188 173 33 94 169 125 19, 268 267 270

2 Peter 1:4 1:16 1:21 2:1 2:2 2:4 2:12 3:4

130 239 201 75 146 66 36 239

1 John 1:3 1:6 2:3 2:17 2:28 4:1-3

209 194 89 95 239 176

3 John 2 6

262 263

Jude 3 5 6 10 19

124 129 66 36 26

Revelation 1:10 2:2 2:5 2:10 2:14 2:20 2:23 2:25 3:11 3:14 3:18 4:2 4:11 5:9 5:10 5:12 5:14 7:11 7:12 7:14 8-9 9:20 10:7 11:15 11:16 14:4 14:13 14:18 16:15 17:13 17:17 18:8 18:12 20:4 20:6 20:12-13 20:14 21:1

201 30 133 81, 125 102, 145 102, 145 30 157 125 107 33 201 182, 251 75 45 251 208 214 137 94 255 140 255 255 214 75, 238 30 156 183 8 8 142 33 45, 65 45, 156 30 241 255

A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians 21:4 21:8 22:5

241 63 45

22:12 22:15 22:20

30 63 272

Apocrypha and Septuagint Additions to Daniel Bel and the Dragon 10 110 Susanna 32 153 42 213 Additions to Esther 4:17u 123 Baruch 3:17 4:7

262 140

Epistle of Jeremiah 1-72 106 7 173 1 Esdras (3 Ezra) 1:1 2:7 (9) 3:9 4:20 4:37 4:38 4:47 7:12 8:3 8:13 8:69 9:2 9:12 9:18 9:51 9:54

60 110 259 74 194 198 263 60 116 262 56 56 80 80 164 164

Judith 5:1 5:13 7:15

204 127 266

8:12 8:13-14 8:25 8:35 10:19 10:23 13:17

131 25 208 266 59 214 66

1 Maccabees 1:15 1:22 2:64 3:24 3:54 4:9 4:49 4:51 4:55 5:33 5:54 7:35 7:42 10:3 10:7 10:83 12:4 12:11

88 141 267 131 204 127 141 141 214 204 266 266 168 263 263 110 263, 266 158

2 Maccabees 1:16 1:18 1:24 3 3:24 7:5 7:9 7:14 7:23 7:28 7:36

63 118 142 36 240 192 233 233 233 19 233

309

Index of Ancient Sources

310 8:19 8:33 9 10:23 10:38 12:32 12:39-45 13:6 14:35 15 15:7 15:8-9 15:25

186 36 36 262 259 264 243 58 36 36 186 201 204

Sirach (Ecclesiasticus) prologue 63 1:1-10 25 1:30 34, 41, 133, 213 2:3 74 2:5 33 3:6 269 5:14 204 6:10 136, 141 11:12 186 11:19 246 11:26 51 11:27 34 13:1 61, 246 15:3 181 16:10 129 16:20 51 17:1 252 17:3 155 17:31 254 18:23 131 19:1 62 19:2 74 19:13-15 213 20-21 14 21:18 2 23:4-6 130 23:16 (17) 83 23:23 55 26:8 62 26:9 55 28:1-7 193

29:1 31:12-31 31:20 31:22 32:23 33:10 34:1 35:10 (7) 37:13 37:29-31 39:30 40:4 40:12 41:17 43:1-12 43:9 49:7 49:12 50:17 51:7 51:18 51:25

89 163 168 168 89 252 236 76 41 168 58 29 198 55 250 250 32 36 214 186 187 121

Tobit 1:3 2:1 3:8 4:6 5:16 6:13 7:13 8:6 8:8 12:8

194 264 80 194 187 116 116 79 208 262

Wisdom of Solomon 1:2 131 2:1 196 2:1-9 245 2:21-23 245 2:23 155 2:24 58 3:1-5 233 3:4-6 33 3:7 33 3:8 65

A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians 3:11 4:12 6:18 7:25 7:26 8:21 9:15 10:17 10:18 11:1-14 11:4-14 11:9 11:9-10 11:10

236 130 89 251 197 81 256 127 127 127 128 133 169 50

12:12 13-15 13:1 14:3 14:12 14:22 14:25-26 15:1 16:5 18:20-25 19:1-12 19:7-8 19:18

311

168 106 247 106 55 247 63, 69 193 131 132 127 127 204

Old Testament Pseudepigrapha Apocalypse of Abraham 29 24 Apocalypse of Sedrach 14:10-12 157 15:5 203 Apocalypse of Zephaniah 8:4 (13:3) 189 Assumption of Moses 7 63 8:3 88 10:5 255 12:6-7 231 2 Baruch 14:8-9 17:2-3 21:4 42:8 48:8 50:2-4 51 54:9 56:10-13 78:2 83:2-3

25 239 19 235 19 235 255 231 66 4 34

3 Baruch 1:8 2:6 3:6 4:14 4:17 8:5 9:7 12:3 13:4

240 240 228 266 69 29, 62, 63, 69 251 240 29, 69

4 Baruch (Paraleipomena Jeremiou) 4:10 62 9:13 76 1 Enoch 5:7 6-19 10:9 10:16 19:1 21 22:14 25:7 38:5 40:9 45:3 48:9

4, 68 66 55 194 140 66 23 23 65 68 34 33, 65

Index of Ancient Sources

312 54:5-6 61:10 62:16 64-69 90:19 90:24 91:6-7 91:12 92:4 95:3 95:7 96:1 97:8-10 98:12 99:7 100:7 100:10 102 104:4

66 240 255 66 65 66 63 65 65 65 65 65 246 65 140 30 34 246 255

14:17 15:7 23:9 28:2 28:4 28:14 29:3

153 243 193 214 193 193 193

Jubilees 1:11 5:1-6 10:5 10:7 10:11 12:3 22:14 25:1 32:19 33:10 50:8

140 66 66 66 66 173 68 55 68 56 81

2 Enoch 7 44:5

66 30, 34

Letter of Aristeas 4 102 130 134-39 172 205 235 237 263 282

263 195 246 106 263 236 48 81 19 263

Ethiopic Apocalypse of Ezra fol. 71v 24 4 Ezra 3:7 3:21 6:23 7:32-38 7:35 8:53-54

238 251 255 235 34 241

Greek Apocalypse of Ezra 3:13 239 Joseph and Aseneth 3:11 153 7:1 63 8:5 141, 173 8:10-11 141 12:1 141 12:5 141, 173 13:11 173

Liber antiquitatum biblicarum (Pseudo-Philo) 3:10 30, 241 6 192 6:16-18 35 10-19 127 10:7 128 11:14 197 11:15 128 15:5 132 38:3-4 35

A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians 3 Maccabees 1-2 3:10 3:17 4:6 4:16 5:50 7:13

36 186 239 153 173 186 158

4 Maccabees 1:16 1:22 2:6 2:7 3:2 3:18 4:1-14 6:24-26 7:12 7:19 9:8 10:1 13:17 16:25 17:8 18:23

2 130 130 62 130 187 36 192 192 233 233 266 233 233 263 233

Mart. Ascen. Isa. 9:14 23 11:19 23 11:34 24 Odes of Solomon 15:8 256 Psalms of Solomon 2 36 2:13 168 2:17 168 2:32 168 3:1 208 3:1-2 208 4:3 81 4:25 104 6:2 51 7:10 186

8:1 8:26 10:4 10:7 12:5 12:6 13:9 14:1 14:10 15:4 17:10 17:15

204 168, 169 51 76 86 68 50 133 68 35 6, 133 194

Pseudo-Phocylides 3 69 179-80 56 210-12 159 214 69 Questions of Ezra A 39 197 Sibylline Oracles 2:73 2:252-55 2:254-83 3:31 3:36-45 frg. 3:41-42 3:327 3:359 3:572 3:764 4:7 4:9 4:28 4:174 5:84 5:273 5:430 8:114 8:239 8:311 8:315 8:411 8:444-45

69 34 63 173 63 246 58 155 119 69 173 173 173 255 173 255 69 189 255 132 69 34 252

313

Index of Ancient Sources

314 8:482 12:113-14 13:107 14:231-33 14:357

271 217 217 217 119

Testament of Adam 4:4-8 240 Testament of Job 3:3 4:10 5:2 14:2 14:3 14:4 16:7 20:3 24:10 27:3-4 33:4 37:6 48:3 49:2 50:1-2 52:7

140 125 110 208 76 208 76 58 154 125 95 25 189 189 189 189

Testament of Solomon 1:13 D 251 4:11 D 201 20:15 240 23:1 190 Testaments of the Three Patriarchs Testament of Abraham 1:7 62 4 176 4:5 255 13 35 13:3 213 Testament of Isaac 5:21-25 34 Testament of Jacob 5 24

Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Testament of Benjamin 3:6 193 6:4 42 10:3 194 11:15 269 Testament of Dan 5:2 217 Testament of Gad 6:3 266 Testament of Issachar 2:1-3 81 Testament of Joseph 230 17:8 19:4 46 Testament of Judah 15 55 18:2 55 21:5 141 Testament of Levi 7:1 66 8:16 141 9:9-10 80 Testament of Naphtali 3:5 66 4:3 269 8:4 46 8:6 46 8:8 81 Testament of Reuben 1:4 213 1:10 56 3:3 55 3:15 78 4:1 80 4:6-6:4 55 5:6-7 66 6:9 194 Testament of Zebulun 8:5 193 9:7 193

A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians Vision of Ezra 3-10

34

Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Texts CD XV, 15-17

157

1QM VII, 3-7

157

1QpHab V, 4 VII, 1-4

65 176

1QS II, 15-17 VIII, 4-10 VIII, 21-24 IX, 3-6 X, 17

57 36 57 36 193

1QSa II, 3-8

157

170 170-71

106 106

Philo De Abrahamo 18 56 135-36 228 261

72 251 69 45 45

De aeternitate mundi 108 240 De agricultura 9 73 83

28 194 62

De cherubim 48 98-101 101 127

262 75 32 107

De confusione linguarum 5 32 7 45 47-48 63 87 32 160 118 169 74

De congressu eruditionis gratia 125 205 De decalogo 48 51-81 53 105 160 169 171 173 175

33 106 240 197 264 183 62 130 201

De ebrietate 17 30 76 81 193 211

249 106 217 106 196 194

De fuga et inventione 107 205 182 182

315

Index of Ancient Sources

316 186 213

173 197

De gigantibus 30

32

De Iosepho 20 90 92 93 104 110 125 143 196 215 258 269

68 176 166 176 176 176 176 72, 176 141 213 262 176

De migratione Abrahami 55 245 75 160 178 179 189 166 De mutatione nominum 15 196 36 256 49 69 139 201 211 32 229 69 De opificio mundo 62-68 106 119 136-51 144 152 161 167 170-72

250 166 72, 256 251 249 239, 257 194 219 106

De plantatione 27 34 69 160 167

197 252 38 164 204

De posteritate Caini 5 240 15-16 196 45 128 132 181 142 47 145 45 151 181 169 196 175 246 De praemiis et poenis 40 196 De sacrificiis Abelis et Caini 32 63 74 204 85 173 De sobrietate 9 36 62-63

28 203, 204 75

De somniis 1.66 1.82 1.148 1.149 1.199 1.238 2.7 2.10 2.25 2.181 2.246

196 69 69 75 200 209 176 28 69 83 36

De specialibus legibus 1.28-30 106

A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians

2.6 2.48 2.190 3.20-21 3.37 3:37-39 3.56 3.60 3.96 3.158 3.160 3.192 4.49 4.50 4.88 4.91 4.93-94 4.123 4.187

196 207 106 62 136, 138, 139, 141 106 194 204 56 159 69 153 153 138 62 97 181 207 187 42 194 130 182 19

De virtutibus 10 29 73-74 174 194 212-19 214

257 32 157 49 187 106 106

1.46-47 1.65 1.96 1.204 1.221

De vita contemplativa 43-44 164 50-51 159 74 130 De vita Mosis 1.156-57 1.175 1.210 1.276 1.277

39 201 128 140 201

1.278 1.298 2.1 2.164 2.241 2.252

61 141 195 205 66 97

Legatio ad Gaium 53 50 54 51 271 262 Legum allegoriae 1.48 1.76 1.78 2.35 2.50 2.75 2.108 3.86 3.100-1 3.101 3.103 3.131 3.145 3.221

32 230 195 200 74 203 125 205 196 197 197 160 116 203

In Flaccum 64

194

Quaestiones et solutiones in Genesin 1.51 239 Quis rerum divinarum heres sit 191 128 258-66 207 262 198, 241 265 207 281 240 Quod deterius potiori insidari soleat 7 195 34 47

317

Index of Ancient Sources

318 38 89

246 196

Quod Deus sit immutabilis 48 89 Quod omnis probus liber sit 20 45 42 89 45-47 89 59 71 62 89 123-24 90 160 28 Josephus Antiquitates judaicae 1.8 259 1.18 116 1.20 106 1.67 251, 252 1.163 78 3.86 127, 128 3.91 106 3.142 216 3.212 146 3.252 264 3.270 153 3.274 56 3.311 50 4.118-19 201 4.143 130 4.204 136 4.256 99 5.172 216 6.145 259 6.263 200 6.343 187 7.33 193 7.60 8 7.254 152, 153 7.306 189 7.373 52 8.62 251 8.148 176 8.191 81

8.343 10.15-16 10.72 12.241 13.75 13.252 14.38 14.52 15.210 15.259-60 16.108 17.167 18.378 20.27 20.41 20.47 20.200 20.267

106 263 160 88 66 264 263 271 194 84 100 192 8 100 187 187 229 263

Bellum judaicum 1.481 1.655 2.132 2.364 3.89-92 5.88 6.153 6.312-15 7.38 7.250 7.344 7.355

50 192 216 208 204 209 33 176 244 97 256 191

Contra Apionem 1.114 1.160 2.167 2.169 2.174 2.196 2.199 2.201 2.203 2.244 2.254

176 160 196 259 141 141 69, 80 219 81 81 259

A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians

Mishnah, Talmud, and Related Literature m. Ker. 1:1

56

m. Sanh. 7:4

56

Apostolic Fathers Barnabas 3:1 4:11 6:13 6:14 6:15 7:7 10:3 10:12 15:5 16:2 16:7 16:7-10 19:4 20:1

211 36 252 211 75 74 269 246 255 211 140 75 69 62

1 Clement 1:3 2:6 3:2 4:8 5:2 5:5 6:4 7:2 8:1 9:1 13:1 13:1-2 14:3 20:10-11 24:1 24:5 30:2 31:2 34:3 35:5 37:3

268 56, 133 29, 217 127 48 29 29 236 201 29 19 193 193 266 238 249 74 194 30 194 239

37:4-38:1 38:2 41:1 43:2 46:7 49:5 49:6 54:3 55:2 55:6 57:1 59:2 60:2 60:4 62:2 63:1

180 81, 269 239 141 180 192, 193 267 144 191 243 268 247 193 127 267 209

2 Clement 1:8 2:6 5:1 6:2 7:6 8:3 9:1-6 9:3 14:2 14:3 16:3

19 133 62 245 74 62 235 75 187 36 34

Didache 1:3 2:2 2:6 3:3 5:1 6:3 8:2

48 69 62 69 62, 69 102 251

319

Index of Ancient Sources

320 9:2 9:4 10:6 11-13 11:3-12 13:2 13:3 14 14:1 15:1-2 16:5 16:6 Diognetus 2:9 5 7:7 8:2

137 251 271 113 176 185 238 167 136 185 33 185, 255

48 47 244 236

Ignatius To the Ephesians 1:2 244 2:1 269 2:2 268 15:3 36, 213, 246 16:1 68 18:1 17 20:2 136, 138 To the Magnesians 2:1 268 7:1 8 10:2 60 13:2 268 15:1 269 To the Philadelphians 3:3 68 7:2 75 To Polycarp 3:1 194, 259 To the Romans 4:1-2 244 4:3 90 5:1 244 5:2-3 244 9:2 230, 231

To the Smyrnaeans 1:2 180 4:2 194, 244 6:1 65 6:2 47 9:2 194 To the Trallians 2:3 146 10 244 12:3 125, 267 13:3 133 Martyrdom of Polycarp 2:4 244 3:1 244 11:1-2 244 15-16 35 Polycarp To the Philippians 4:3 213 8:1 194 Shepherd of Hermas Mandate 10.1.6 74 Similitude 4.3 34 4.5 96 5.4.1 266 6.5.5 62 7.2 263 8.5.1-6 239 8.6.2 255 9.10.5 169 9.11.2 169 9.13.2 191 9.13.5 180 9.13.7 180 9.15.4 185 9.16.5 185 9.17.5 180 9.18.1 198 9.18.3-4 180 9.25.2 185 9.28.4 41

A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians 9.29.3

210

Visions 1.1.2 1.1.6 1.3.4

100 19 190

2.2.1 3.2.1 3.5.1 3.9.2 4.3.4

321

266 244 185 186 33

New Testament Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha Acts of John 28 106

197 174, 175, 186

Acts of Paul and Thecla 5 96 6 62 27-34 244 Acts of Philip 57 103 118 136 141 144

269 195 208 140 253 259

Acts of Thomas 29 49 56 88

137 137 153 198

Apocalypse of Peter 2.5 62 6 34 Apostolic Constitutions 7.21 102 7.26.5 271

Book of the Resurrection of Jesus Christ by Bartholomew the Apostle fol. 6b 189 fol. 11b 189 Gospel of Thomas 48 190 106 190 Martyrdom of Bartholomew 4-5 251, 252 5 252 Pseudo-Clementine Homilies 3.60.1 209 3.71 113 5.26.1 197 7.4.2 141 7.8.1 141 8.20.1 141 8.23.2 141 9.15.1 141 9.16.2 248 9.16.4 248 10.7.3 253 10.16.1 167 11.4.1 253 11.4.3 47 11.6.1 255 12.32.2 194, 201 12.32.3 191 12.32.7 47 17.18.6 197 19.17.3 95

Index of Ancient Sources

322

Classical and Ancient Christian Writings Aelius Aristides Orationes 2.1.38-39 2.1.227 2.1.271 2.2.340

116 115 115 257

Apollonius of Rhodes Argonautica 1.1334-35 205 Apollonius of Tyana Epistula 42 121 Appian Bella civilia 2.61 Apuleius Metamorphoses 1.6.4-1.7.1 2.8-9 7.6.3 10.23.2 10.24.2 11.5.1 11.25.3 11.25.7 Aristides Apologia 13.1 15.4 15.5

Metaphysica 1.4 (985a) Meteorologica 1.4 (341b) Physica 6.5 (236a) Politica 5.3 (1302b-1303a) Rhetorica 1.15 (1375ab)

26 33 255 179 115

Artemidorus Daldianus Onirocritica 2.44 205 2.69 210 4.1 176 4.20 56

244

152 154 155 244 244 240 240 50

173 271 48

Aristophanes Thesmophoriazusae 838 155 Aristotle De partibus animalium 3.10 (672b) 183 4.5 (681b) 182

Athenagoras Legatio pro Christianis 4.2 95 16.2-3 242 Catullus Carmina 30.9-10 64.142 65.17-18 Cicero De divinatione 1.4 1.34 1.116 2.33-34 De domo suo 49 127 De finibus 2.27.88 De legibus 1.16.44-45 1.18.48

205 205 205

176, 207 207 176 179 258 258 192 159 121

A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians De officiis 1.35.126 182, 183 3.5.22 180 De senectute 10.34 152 Epistulae ad familiares 13.10.4 264 Paradoxa Stoicorum 34 71 Pro Cluentio 5.14-6.15 56 Pro Tullio 9 258 Tusculanae disputationes 1.15.32 245 1.47 196 2.7.17 192 2.22.52 192 2.34 116 5.26.73 192 Clement of Alexandria Quis dives salvetur 22 217 Stromata 2.23.144 72 3.4.30 72 3.5.40-44 72 3.12.79-80 81 Corpus hermeticum 1.22 192 1.27 247 13.1 269 13.2 242 Dio Chrysostom Orationes 1.56 2.12 2.55 3.2 4.32 8.2 8.16 8.34-35

154 159 203 194 192 189 192 192

10.23 10.26 13.9 13.13 13.31 13.33 14.13-18 14.16 15.32 17.3-6 25.3 30.42 31.47 32.11 33.35 33.48-49 33.49 33.53 34.43-44 35.1 35.10-12 36.17 38.9 38.37 40.29 40.32 64.3 67.3 69.3 74.1 74.9 76 76.1 76.4 77/78.17 77/78.37 80 80.4 80.5-6

189 192 72 257 215 121 71 72 89 257 47 215 248 121 203 153 153 249 68 121 159 158, 159 4 46 183 257 155 42 203 257 257 159 159 258 42 121 159 258 159

Diodorus Siculus Bibliotheca historica 1.2.3 250 1.43.6 240 1.81.4 187 1.94.1-2 116

323

Index of Ancient Sources

324 1.94.2 3.29.2 3.65.2 4.71.1 4.74.2 5.21.5 5.46.7 8.18.3 12.12.3 13.21.5 13.26.1 16.41.5 16.54.4 17.10.5 18.2.4 19.22.2 19.33.2 20.33.5 20.63.3 20.65.1 36.10.2-3 40.3.6 40.3.7

116 33 81 187 141 33 141 46 246 248 208 33 246 176 204 209 81 56 182 33 244 116 96

Diogenes Laertius Vitae philosophorum 2.123 121 4.51 181, 246 6.29 79 6.29-30 90 6.37 39, 157 6.63 258 6.64 189 6.69 71 6.71-72 258 6.74 90 6.82 9 6.87 191 6.97 113 7.122 45 7.124 136 7.125 38, 71 7.131 71 7.147 106, 107 7.173 189 8.35 138

8.63 10.118-19 10.124-26

245 79 234

Dionysius of Halicarnassus Antiquitates romanae 6.86 180 Epictetus Dissertationes 1.1.13 1.1.19 1.2.35 1.3.1 1.4.28 1.5.10 1.6.3-4 1.6.42 1.9.12 1.9.16 1.9.20 1.9.23 1.11.11 1.13.5 1.14.2 1.14.5 1.18.2 1.18.22 1.19.9 1.22.1 1.22.21 1.24.20 1.25.18 1.30.2 2.1.1 2.1.6 2.1.19-20 2.1.23 2.1.34 2.2.9 2.4.5 2.6.18 2.7.3 2.10.3-4 2.11.20 2.11.22

73 183 73 106 74 73 245 269 48 169 264 74 263 258 179 179 72 208 89 72 75 264 264 47 263 263 264 71 193 74 209 90 243 180 263 263

A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians 2.12.14 2.12.24 2.15.8 2.16.37 2.16.39 2.16.44 2.16.45 2.17.6 2.18.15 2.19.24 3.1.3 3.2.3 3.2.14 3.2.18 3.4.11 3.4.12 3.7.1 3.8.6 3.9.14 3.12.10 3.13.14 3.13.17 3.21.18 3.22.47 3.22.63 3.22.67-76 3.22.69 3.22.78 3.22.95 3.23.7 3.24.8 3.24.53 3.24.67 3.24.70 4.1.1 4.1.1-10 4.1.18 4.1.23 4.1.158 4.1.159 4.1.175 4.3.9 4.5.22 4.5.30 4.6.21 4.6.23

193 40 32 71 28 169 63 205 100 47 249 63 63, 193 205 220 48 263 264 19 48 264 208 263 79 45, 136 79 96 49 45 42 196 196 90 117 71, 72 90 48 72 258 79, 96 130 120 90 200 90 68

4.6.26 4.7.5 4.7.17 4.11.23 4.13.21 Enchiridion 15 20 33.6 51.1 Fragment 1 Euripides Alcestis 780-89 Bacchae 832 Ion 883 Troades 418-19

158 96 89, 258 205 51 233 226 246 196 187

245 95 203 205

Gaius Institutiones 1.63

56

Herodotus Historiae 1.86.4 1.143.3 1.181.5 1.183.1 2.2.3 2.25.4 2.78 2.124.3 2.158.5 2.159.3 3.22.1-3 3.23.3 3.96.2 4.35.2 4.64.1 4.75.2 4.200.3

205 139 141 141 205 183 245 215, 216 205 240 185 183 262 262 262 159 189

325

Index of Ancient Sources

326 5.39.2 5.78 6.38.1 6.67.3 7.160.1 7.208.2 8.132.2

84 90 240 152 193 255 139

History of the Rechabites 18.1-5 266 Homer Ilias 6.458 8.309 Odyssea 8.546 Horace Carmina 2.3 Epistulae 1.1.61 Satirae 1.3.124-25

119 271 159

245

Dialogus cum Tryphone 12.3 69 13.1 69 14.2-3 60 27.5 262 30.3 140 32.1 17 34.8-35.2 102 35.3 162 36.5 240 41.4 262 42.3 180 55.2 140 73.2 140 80.4 235 89.2 17 117.2 160 125.1 205 129.1 241 135.1 241 135.6 254 138.2 241

40 45

Kebra Nagast 96

197

Irenaeus Adversus haereses 3.21.10 252

Lactantius Divinarum institutionum libri VII 7.21 34

Justin Apologia i 13.4 14.2 16.8 24.1 25.1 26.1 27.3 28.4 60.11 65.3-4 67.5 Apologia ii 2.16

Libanius Epistulae 245.6

115

Livy Ab urbe condita 2.32.9-11

180

17 194 204 185 185 185 205 194 14 208 208 69

Lucian Cynicus 7 14 De luctu 2 Demonax 55

141 47 234 79

A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians 59 De morte Perigrini 1-45 13 De syria dea 17-18 Dialogi meretricii 5.3 Fugitivi 27 Patriae laudatio 4 Soloecista 8 Toxaris 25 Lucretius De rerum natura 4.931 Lysias Orationes 6.14 20.22 31.3

258

40.6

249

192 17

Musonius Rufus Dissertationes 3 9 11 12 13A 14 18AB 21

68, 89 90 121 69, 71, 81 80 79, 80 164, 168 159

Origen Contra Celsum 3.59 6.34 7.9

196 17 201, 212

56 155, 159 155, 159 219 264 137, 166

205

213 213 213

Marcus Aurelius Meditationes 1.17.13 2.1 3.7.1 3.7.3 4.23 5.5.4 5.16.3 7.13

78 180 72 90 107 193 72 180

Maximus Tyrius Dissertationes 1.9 6.5 11.10 21.8 40.2 40.4

192 258 249 249 181 249

Ovid Amores 1.6.42 3.10.1-2 Fasti 4.657 Tristia 5.10.37

205 81 81 205

Petronius Satyricon 34

245

Philostratus Vita Apollonii 1.13 7.14 8.7.3 8.7.7

79, 159 192 121 95, 121

Plato Cratylus 394BC Euthydemus 301E Gorgias 469C

205 198 68

327

Index of Ancient Sources

328 472B 482C-484B 508B 509C Ion 534B-E Leges 700C 812D 840A 854A 873E Lysis 208C Phaedo 80D Protagoras 329A Respublica 358C 364E-365A 371C 462CD 522C 556E 604B Symposium 176A Timaeus 28C 37C 44D 45B 71B 79B

236 115 68 68 207 53 204 78 250 66 50

Plotinus Enneades 1.3.1 2.3.13 2.9.5.12 3.2.8 3.2.17 3.2.18 4.3.15 4.4.13 4.4.36 4.5.3 4.5.5.16 6.3.9 6.7.2

204 204 222 182 204 205 249, 250 183 179 179 189 249, 250 249

52 189 185 243 268 179, 184 226 179 219 137, 166 106 106 182 181 197 209

Pliny the Elder Naturalis historia 7.188-90 234 Pliny the Younger Epistulae 10.96.8 17 Panegyricus 33.3 46

Plutarch Ad principem ineruditum 3 (Mor. 780E) 5 (Mor. 781F) Adversus Colotem 2 (Mor. 1107F) 17 (Mor. 1117A) Agis 11.9 (Vit. par. 800C) Alexander 2.9 (Vit. par. 665D) 21.9 (Vit. par. 676E) 75 (Vit. par. 706C) Amatorius 5 (Mor. 751E) 5 (Mor. 752A) 16 (Mor. 758D) Antonius 26.1 (Vit. par. 927B) 37.6 (Vit. par. 933A) Apophthegmata laconica Charillus 2 (Mor. 232C) Cleomedes 9 (Mor. 223D) unknown 24 (Mor. 233D) unknown 39 (Mor. 234C) unknown 65 (Mor. 236B) Artaxerxes 18.6 (Vit. par. 1020C) Bruta animalia ratione uti 7 (Mor. 990D)

116 197 268 236 240 187 78 168 183 136 186 204 75 153 267 75 75 183 136 183

A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians Brutus 13.7 (Vit. par. 989F) 136, 141 17.6 (Vit. par. 991F) 191, 192 41.3 (Vit. par. 1003B) 205 Camillus 23.6 (Vit. par. 141B) 204 40.2 (Vit. par. 150CD) 8 Cato Minor 5 (Vit. par. 762A) 152 Conjugalia praecepta 2 (Mor. 138D) 153 14 (Mor. 139F) 197 20 (Mor. 140F) 80 31-32 (Mor. 142CD) 219 33 (Mor. 142E) 219 34 (Mor. 142F-143A) 80 Consolatio ad Apollonium 3 (Mor. 102D) 158 15 (Mor. 109E-110C) 234 28 (Mor. 116D) 205 De Alexandri magni fortuna aut virtute 1.6 (Mor. 329B-D) 89 1.7 (Mor. 329E) 138 2.3 (Mor. 336C) 245 De amicorum multitudine 2 (Mor. 93F) 183 De animae procreatione in Timaeo 27 (Mor. 1026A) 204 33 (Mor. 1030B) 204 De communibus notitiis contra stoicos 195 30 (Mor. 1074BC) De curiositate 9 (Mor. 519E) 205 De defectu oraculorum (Mor. 409E-438E) 201 48 (Mor. 436D) 107 De facie in orbe lunae 12 (Mor. 926F) 240 De fraterno amore 15 (Mor. 486A) 268 De genio Socratis 18 (Mor. 587C) 205 22 (Mor. 591B) 240

329

De Iside et Osiride 76 (Mor. 382AB) 197 De liberis educandis 6 (Mor. 3F) 263 13 (Mor. 9C) 203 De musica (Mor. 1131B-1147A) 204 26 (Mor. 1140C) 204 De primo frígido 7 (Mor. 947E) 240 De Pythiae oraculis (Mor. 394D-409D) 201 De recta ratione audiendi 4 (Mor. 39C) 193 14 (Mor. 45E) 136, 193 15 (Mor. 46C) 203, 204 De sera numinis vindicta 23 (Mor. 564B) 205 De sollertia animalium 2 (Mor. 960B) 256 De tranquillitate animi 7 (Mor. 468B) 63 12 (Mor. 472A) 45 De tuenda sanitate praecepta 4-5 (Mor. 123D-124C) 164 5 (Mor. 124C) 168 11 (Mor. 127E) 164 15 (Mor. 129F) 168 27 (Mor. 137C) 263 De vitando aere alieno 4 (Mor. 829B) 262 8 (Mor. 831E) 208 Galba 6.2 (Vit. par. 1055C) 62 17 (Vit. par. 1060C) 50 19.7 (Vit. par. 1061E) 139 Instituta laconica 26 (Mor. 239A) 68 Lacaenarum apophthegmata unknown 20 (Mor. 242A) 209 unknown 26 (Mor. 242C) 183 unknown 29 (Mor. 242C) 75 Lucullus 16.3 (Vit. par. 501E) 136 Lycurgus 5.3 (Vit. par. 42B) 116

330

Index of Ancient Sources

30.5 (Vit. par. 58F) 222 Lysander 12.3-5 (Vit. par. 439DE) 249 Mulierum virtutes 26 (Mor. 261F) 159 Nicias 6.6 (Vit. par. 527A) 160 Non posse suaviter vivi secundum Epicurum 13 (Mor. 1096A) 204 14 (Mor. 1096C) 33 25-31 (Mor. 1104B-1107C) 234 Numa 4.7 (Vit. par. 62D) 116 17.3 (Vit. par. 71E) 9 25.9-10 (Vit. par. 77AB) 219 Pelopidas 8.8 (Vit. par. 281F) 48 Pericles 13.11 (Vit. par. 160B) 204 Phocion 32.6 (Vit. par. 756C) 68 Praecepta gerendae rei publicae 13 (Mor. 808C) 268 15 (Mor. 812F) 268 Pyrrhus 23.6 (Vit. par. 398E) 136 27.10 (Vit. par. 402A) 97 Quaestiones platonicae 2.2 (Mor. 1001C) 107 Quaestiones romanae et graecae 1 (Mor. 263E) 240 10-14 (Mor. 266C-267C) 153 14 (Mor. 267AB) 153 159 14 (Mor. 267B) 14 (Mor. 267C) 152 20 (Mor. 268DE) 53 55 (Mor. 277F) 130 109 (Mor. 289F) 59 Quaestionum convivalium libri IX 2.10.1-2 (Mor. 642F-644D) 136 2.10.2 (Mor. 643F-644A) 163 2.10.2 (Mor. 644C) 163 3.10.3 (Mor. 659B) 59 5.5.2 (Mor. 679AB) 216 6.8.1 (Mor. 693F) 53

7.6.2 (Mor. 707C) 141 7.6.2-3 (Mor. 707C-708D) 136 8.2.1 (Mor. 718E) 197 8.3.1 (Mor. 720D) 205 8.6.4 (Mor. 726D) 163 8.8.3 (Mor. 729C) 145 9.1.1 (Mor. 736DE) 138 9.14.7 (Mor. 746B) 186 Quomodo adolescens poetas audire debeat 6 (Mor. 22F) 205 11 (Mor. 32D) 42 13 (Mor. 35A) 200 14 (Mor. 36B) 68 14 (Mor. 36E) 47 14 (Mor. 37B) 186 Quomodo adulator ab amico internoscatur 1 (Mor. 48F) 200 2 (Mor. 49E) 213 8 (Mor. 53A) 197 11 (Mor. 55D) 72 15 (Mor. 58E) 45 23 (Mor. 64D) 139 25 (Mor. 66A) 213 28 (Mor. 69CD) 263 Quomodo quis suos in virtute sentiat profectus 9 (Mor. 80B) 160 14 (Mor. 84E) 271 Regum et imperatorum apophthegmata Caesar Augustus 3 (Mor. 207B) 185 Scipio the Younger 13 (Mor. 200F) 152 Septem sapientium convivium 4 (Mor. 149F) 136, 138, 141 5 (Mor. 150D) 137,166 13 (Mor. 156C) 204 15 (Mor. 158C) 136 Solon 5.3-6 (Vit. par. 81AB) 258 18.6 (Vit. par. 88C) 180 Stoicos absurdiora poetis dicere 4 (Mor. 1058A) 205

A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians Timoleon 27.10 (Vit. par. 249E) Vitae decem oratorum 1. Antiphon (Mor. 832C) Polybius Historiae 3.45.6 4.13.1 4.86 15.27.2 18.48.4 20.9.4 20.9.11 32.2.5 39.1.2

169 204 40 153 239 267 205 193 193

Porphyry De abstinentia 3.4.4

205

Pseudo-Crates Epistulae 12 15 26 27 34

246 200 39 39 90

Pseudo-Diogenes Epistulae 9 10 28 31.4 38.5 39

191 39 258 187 191 45

Pseudo-Heraclitus Epistulae 2 257 5.2 233 7 258 7.5 69

204 160

Pseudo-Ignatius To the Antiochians 13.2 270 To the Tarsians 10.3 270 Pseudo-Longinus De sublimitate 43.5 183 Pseudo-Socrates Epistulae 6

219

Pseudo-Socrates (Phaedrus) Epistulae 25.1 233 Pseudo-Socrates (Speusippus) Epistulae 31 182 Pseudo-Socrates (Xenocrates) Epistulae 32.1 182 Sallust Bellum jugurthinum 14.23 46 Seneca Ad Marciam de consolatione 19.4-5 234 De beneficiis 1.10.2-3 257 7.2.5 38 De clementia 3.21.1 (1.23) 258 De ira 2.31.7 179 3.26.4 257 De providentia 5.6 120 Dialogi 10.15.5 38

331

Index of Ancient Sources

332 Epistulae morales 4.2 5.2 14.2 24.3 24.5 27.2 37.1 54.7 66.21 67.3 67.6 67.16 78.16 92.30 95.52 102.28

196 159 192 192 192 196 192 120 192 192 192 192 125 179 68, 179 196

Sextus Empiricus Adversus mathematicos 1.37 200 5.43-44 179 9.79-80 179 9.80 184 9.90 257 Sophocles Ajax 1094-97 19 Antigone 90 90 Oedipus tyrannus 990 85 Stobaeus Eclogae 4.50.95

176

Strabo Geographica 10.4.19 14.5.9 15.1.65 16.2.35-39 16.2.38

116 245 192 116 116

Tacitus Annales 6.4.1 Germania 19

46 155

Tatian Oratio ad Graecos 12.3 203 15.2 36 33.4 81 Theocritus Idylls 2.36

189

Thucydides Historiae 1.58.2 1.126.11 1.131.2 1.132.5 2.13.2 2.20.2 2.53 2.76.4 4.50.2 5.4.6 5.31.2 6.69.2 6.89.2 7.2.3 7.63.4

204 263 213 263 204 204 245 97 263 263 262 204 183 263 136

Virgil Aeneid 9.312-13 11.794-95

205 205

Vita Alexandri 1.22.5

219

Xenophon Anabasis 1.2.17 2.5.35

255 255

A Commentary on Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians 6.1.20 263 7.3.28 164 Apologia Socratis 16 121 Cyropaedia 1.6.27 62 4.3.10 248 5.4.17 86 7.5.34 262 8.7.6 196 De equitum magistro 3.11-12 204 De re equestri 9.11 204 Hellenica 2.4.23 229 Memorabilia 1.2.5-7 121 1.2.27 203 1.4.5 245 1.4.6 183

2.1.11 268 2.1.15 194 2.1.17 47 2.1.32 136 2.3.18 180 2.6.22 47 2.9.1 64 3.1.6 62 3.13.2 168 3.13.3 262 4.2.6 203 4.2.17 208 4.5 79 4.5.2-3 72 Oeconomicus 1.18-23 79 Respublica Lacedaemoniorum 3.1 50 Symposium 2.1 137, 166 8.27 81

Papyri and Inscriptions Inscription from Magnesia (ed. Kern) no. 116, l. 16 139 Papyrus Revenue Laws of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (eds. Grenfell and Mahaffy) col. 14, ll. 9-11 139 Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum (ed. Dittenberger) no. 736, 10 222

333