A Brief History of Image Science and Technology in China 9813369213, 9789813369214

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Congyao Han

A Brief History of Image Science and Technology in China

A Brief History of Image Science and Technology in China

Congyao Han

A Brief History of Image Science and Technology in China

Congyao Han School of Journalism and Communication Nanjing University Nanjing, China

ISBN 978-981-33-6921-4 ISBN 978-981-33-6922-1 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-6922-1 Jointly published with Science Press The print edition is not for sale in China Mainland. Customers from China Mainland please order the print book from: Science Press. © Science Press 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publishers, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publishers nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publishers remain neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Preface

“A Brief History of Image Science and Technology in China” is expounded by Chinese scientists of ancient, modern and contemporary times in an attempt to sort out the image science and technology in the perspective of iconology and historic research. It endeavours to tap and protect the rich heritage of Chinese image science and culture, inherit image science and culture of Chinese nation, analyze the social background resulting in image science and culture, conditions of material society, history and culture as well as explore the possibility of establishing theoretical methods and academic systems of Chinese iconology, hence seeking after a research channel for writing and building up the history of Chinese image science and technology. “History comes first before extensive knowledge is acquired”. I have remarked repeatedly on many occasions: There are mainly two ways for the mankind to record history, characterize the world and spread civilization, i.e. one is marked by the linear, historic and logic account and dissemination with language as the main carrier (speeches, languages, texts and abstract symbols, etc.); the other is featured by uni-dimensional, synchronic and perceptual description and dissemination with the image as the main carrier (graphs, pictures, images and structural codes). Text account and ways of text dissemination have gradually become the main means of human beings in recording, characterizing and publicizing civilization for nearly 5000 years, having made full development and won absolute respect from human society. However, image characterization and forms of disseminationoriented technology with a history of tens of thousands of years and even hundreds of thousands of years as well as lots of cultural information have not received due attention and scientific interpretation to the full. The logical and causal relationship between the forms of image dissemination technology and forms of language dissemination technology has not been effectively linked as yet. Worse still, technical forms of characterizing history by images have not been systematically sorted out and demonstrated. However, the uniqueness of Chinese culture lies exactly in the history of technical civilization marked by “Visual writing” with the same origin of calligraphy and paintings and image-text inter-construction. Such historic inheritance and forms of civilization related to technology, vision and image are entirely different from the phonographic culture of Europe, USA and other Western countries, since v

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they have transcended the mode and logic of visual cognition of the language and uninterruptedly constructed forms of civilization unique to Chinese culture. Image is the means for human cognition, the text of information dissemination, the map of social records and the authentic fact of visual history. So many scenes of human anxiety are reflected by naked vision, images, scenes, illusion and netscape. The development of image science and technology itself is a spectacular history marked by the evolution of civilization. Image science and technology are the most direct, the most concrete and the most trustworthy forms of manifestation concerning the image of national culture. Against the historic background of economic integration and cultural multilateralism in the world as well as the economic and social development of China into a new era, “Cultural development in China must tackle such important issues concerning what kind of perspective we should take in understanding culture, what kind of attitude we should take to deal with culture and what kind of ideas we should have to promote cultural prosperity and growth”.1 It is of great significance to unfold research into image science and technology in China, both in theories and practice. We should even elevate our cognition to the extent of “rescue-based” research. In the world, the fields of humanities and public culture are undergoing an “Image change”. Image and iconology are new fields of interdisciplinary research of international academic circle in this change. As the pre-condition of further research into image-oriented civilization, the collection, arrangement, categorization and indexes of iconology and image data have first aroused great attention from experts and scholars concerned. In foreign countries, based on Western culture of iconology through a period of over 60 years, Dutch scholars have put forward a set of systems of ICONCLASS classification which are rooted in Western history of ancient Greece and Rome as well as Christian culture. Paying attention to the system-establishment, they have broken down existing Western art-image into ten categories, i.e. religion, nature, human figures, society, history, the Bible, literature, abstract concepts, myths and history of ancient Greece and Rome as well as non-reproducible images. In recent 20 years, the Netherlands has digitalized and popularized them in the world. So, they are mainly applied in several institutions in the Netherlands and Germany. In the past over 40 years since the eighteenth century, Japanese scholars have collected information on ancient Chinese paintings scattered abroad, having edited and compiled main texts and continuous texts of “The Comprehensive Atlas of Chinese Paintings”, with focus on data collection. Based on the classification-oriented system of “Xuanhe Painting Copybook”, they have divided it into ten parts, i.e. Taoism, Buddhism, human figures, royal courts, minority nationalities, fish, landscape, animals, flowers, birds, assorted paintings and calligraphy, including paintings and calligraphic works of noted artists in the past Chinese dynasties from all over the world before the early period of the eighteenth century, excluding those collected by Chinese institutions and individuals 1 Yunshan:

“Cultural Self-Consciousness, Cultural Self-Confidence and Cultural SelfImprovement—Thoughts on Prospering and Developing Socialist Culture with Chinese Features”. Theoretical Network of Seeking the Truth—“Red Flag Articles”. The Fifteenth Issue of 2010.

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concerned. In 2004, for this purpose, University of Tokyo set up a search website which can search for works included in the antique catalogue based on the names of artists and works concerned. However, it only provides basic information on works instead of image data and concrete text data. Some basic antique catalogues have been published in China. Those of relative authenticities published in mainland China include “The Catalogue of Ancient Chinese Calligraphy and Paintings”, “A Complete Collection of Chinese Fine-Arts”, “A Complete Collection of Paintings in the Song Dynasty”, “A Complete Collection of Paintings in the Yuan Dynasty” and “The History of Image Culture in China”, in addition to “A Comprehensive Collection of Calligraphy and Paintings from the Palace Museum” and “The Catalogue of Calligraphy and Paintings from the Palace Museum” in Taiwan, etc. It is obvious that there is still a lack of integrated data on Chinese image science and culture to be fully demonstrated, to say nothing of the existence of a comprehensive and authentic image database, the writing of the history of image science and technology in China, the establishment of a scientific system of Chinese image classification and the database of Chinese iconology. What deserves particular attention is that such European countries as the Netherlands and Germany jointly set up catalogues of Chinese image system in the ICONCLASS image system in 2006, sparing no efforts to comprehensively collect and sort out images and data of iconology of various kinds related to past Chinese dynasties. Forty years ago, Japan made greater endeavours to have classified and sorted out various Chinese images and image data collected since ancient times as its direct purpose. Its catalogue was perfected even directly based on the classification system of “Xuanhe Painting Copybook” of the Song dynasty, making it more suitable for Chinese to enter the database conscientiously in conformity with their habits of use. In view of this, along with rapid development of computer technology and sharp competition of science and culture among different countries, it will not take long for “Chinese images” to repeat the historic tragedy of “Dunhuang in China whereas the study of Dunhaung is outside China”. What worries people more is that foreign databases, in years to come, concerning their research into Chinese image science and culture, will be able to collect Chinese image data of 2000 years. By then, they will surely take technical measures to foster their authorities and establish specificity of data, which will lead to the awkwardness similar to present situation of “China has the biggest number of Internet users, but without a root-server at home”. The system of Chinese image science and technology is being cloned by others. Valuable historic resources of Chinese image science and technology are being drained away. The thinking mode of visual science of Chinese culture is being coded at random. The spirit-field of the Chinese nation is being smeared unscrupulously. If the culture of a nation is drained, its spirit has to roam around. Therefore, starting research into the ideological system of Chinese image science and technology is a matter of immediate urgency while unfolding research into the history of Chinese image science and technology is inevitable. In the eyes of some people in the world, all technologies and concepts publicized by contemporary images are unanimously imprinted by Western ideology, culture

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and technology, ranging from the invention of photography to the popularization of photos, from the application of video-cameras to TV as the overlord in modern society, to the extent of making many people believe that image technology and image dissemination originate from the West. However, it can be discovered by an investigation into the system of image science and technology that the application of the technology of image dissemination and the establishment of the ideology of iconology in China were historically much earlier than those of other countries in the world. China is even regarded as the country that applied the technology of image dissemination at the earliest time in the world. As remarked by Mr. Lu Xun on this point: “Wood-carving and printing on plain paper spread far and wide to numerous people both started from China”. In his “Dreamy Records of the Past”, Mr. Xu Kang also recounted the era in which image and writings both appeared in ancient China: “Image along with writings termed by ancient people refer to the fact that there must be images in writings. In two volumes of ‘Pictures of Confucius’s disciples’ in ‘The Han Book · On Art and Culture · On Linguists’, portraits of Confucius’s disciples can be seen. Stone-carved portraits of 72 disciples in Wuliang Ancestral Temple were mostly copies of the past images. Various arts of war recorded in ‘General Introduction to the Book on the Arts of War’ are all attached with images……According to a poem by Tao Qian in the Jin dynasty: ‘A Panoramic View of Mountain-Sea Pictures’ is full of pictures as an ancient book”. As revealed by lots of historic literature and data, China is not only a country that initiated the technology of image dissemination at a quite early time. The exposition by scientists in ancient China on image science and technology as well as image dissemination was both strict and systematic. The tradition of paying attention to the technology of image dissemination in ancient China outrode the technology of written language dissemination. The phenomena of science and culture are attributed to the entire creation of a country, as well as the results of vibration of multi-elements like historic accumulation, inter-cultural exchange and economic reality. It is even more the case with image science and technology that rely on the development level of material technology. In the long history of human civilization, most of the civilized countries of splendor in ancient world failed to sustain themselves. Some came to a break-down and some turned to other regions along with the change of their cultural focus. It is only Chinese civilization that has been extending continuously, getting rid of the stale and taking in the fresh, sustainably emitting the glory of life and keeping its refreshing and youthful colour. The assertion by Mrs. Thatcher represents the view of most of Westerners in modern times as follows: “It is impossible for China to become a strong power in the world since it does not have an ideological system that is good enough to influence the world”. In the eyes of politicians of developed countries in the West, China cannot be regarded as a strong power in the present world. However, who says that China does not have an ideological system that can influence the world if a close look is taken at Chinese history, a history of civilization extending continuously for 7000 years? The ideological system of Chinese culture is extensive and profound even a period of only over 2000 years from Confucius to Dr. Sun Yat-sen is taken into consideration. For instance, “A Series of Books on Chinese Ideologists” with 200 books compiled

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in 2006 by the Research Centre of Chinese Ideologists of Nanjing University through 30-year work, a series related to the period from Confucius to Dr. Sun Yat-sen, has as many as nearly 300 publishers. These were ideologists having been influencing China and mankind in a period of more than 2000 years. This huge ideological system is not only influential in China, but also good enough to exert an impact on the world for several thousand years. The author once organized more than 200 scholars and experts with research into the image and iconology from all over the country on a large scale, having written “The History of Chinese Image Culture” of 100 volumes (40 volumes have been published so far). The book narrates from the image characterization of primitive society, comprehensively sorting out and demonstrating to the world the evolution of Chinese image science and culture. Anyone with a little common sense of human civilization and historic vision would recognize today that the ideological system of Chinese science and culture will influence the future world which will surely be marked by a social concept, an ideal of life and a set of values, with the participation of Chinese science and culture and China as a country. This civilized and harmonious concept of science and culture is the pressure tested by history and culture 300 years in the wake of industrial civilization of mankind. Is there any other kind of culture with such splendid great work? Chinese culture is the gem of human civilization and the crown of the history of civilization in the world. There are several exceptionally shining pearls inlaid on the crown of Chinese culture: poetic essays of the Han dynasty, poems of the Tang dynasty, poetry of the Song dynasty, poetic verses of the Yuan dynasty, novels of the Ming dynasty and the Qing dynasty as well as “Chinese images”. Poetic essays of the Han dynasty are marked by proper charm, beauty, richness and grand magnificence, attracting admiration to the extent of being “Expensive paper in Luoyang”. Poems of the Tang dynasty and poetry of the Song dynasty featured by appeal of various kinds, make themselves very popular among people of different social strata, playing a role of unconsciously influencing the cultural temperament of Chinese people. Therefore, there is such a saying as this: “Reading 300 Tang poems over and over again, you will be able to chant them at least”. Poetic verses of the Yuan dynasty are characterized by charm of different kinds, or by lucid melody or by straightforwardness and pungency, making themselves popular among common folks. Novels of the Ming dynasty and the Qing dynasty are characterized by complex and detailed plots, concise narration which is passed on from mouth to mouth, copied and commented by people with pleasure. Chinese images can be as grand as “The vast universe” and as detailed as “Hunting, books and feasts, etc”.2 Details in daily life bring people with a world featured by “The vast universe and tiny flies” with “some reality”.3 By “Chinese images”, I refer to the visual image recorded in the history of development of Chinese culture, remaining customs of Chinese culture in Greater China and spiritual graphs. The ideology of Chinese image science denotes scientific comments and evaluation by image-centred scientists in ancient China on image 2 Refer

to pp. 453–349 in the 20th Volume of “A Complete Collection of Lu Xun’s Works”. from p. 69 of “The Selected Pictorial of Dianshi Study”. Guizhou Educational Press, Guiyang, the October Version of 2000.

3 Quoted

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technology, image dissemination and image-oriented culture formed in the course of image creation, image production, image experiment and practice. The history of Chinese image science and technology serves as strong evidence for enriching and supplementing Chinese history and Chinese history of science-oriented ideology with the written language as carriers, as well as for the establishment of Chinese culture of various kinds and its simple ideology. The text-oriented writing civilization tells us, in the wake of graphic texts, texts tore images apart, having formed a hegemonic state to control this society. There has appeared the colonial mentality marked by “Texts above visual images” on the part of text-controllers. Of course, it can all be viewed as despising and struggling against such lop-sided and narrow-minded colonial mentality, ranging from the “eyes” of Socrates, a Western philosopher, associated with transparency of “eyesight” and “vision”, to the perspicuity of “Eight Theories on Optics” by Mozi as a sage in the Orient, and from scientific enlightenment of the perspective in the Renaissance to the extensive application of the movable-type printing by Bi Sheng. Particularly in China, image technology, iconology and image culture are always deeply rooted in the daily life, production, labour and spiritual creation. Despite their rise and fall sometimes, they have been developing all the time along with gradual perfection of their ideological system, hence having led to the establishment of the ideological system for human cognition with influence on the growth of science and technology in the world. For instance, with regard to the build-up of the ideological system of iconology by scientists in ancient China, no scientists in any other country or region in the world have such consistent and extremely scientific ideology as yet. For example, the exposition by Mozi’s work “On Mo” in the period of Warring States about optical imaging is just like “Theoretical iconology”, having laid the theoretical foundation for optics and digital imaging today. Just like “Experimental iconology”, the exposition on the imaging of ice convex lens in “Huainan Encyclopaedia” by Liu An, the vassal of Huainan in the Western Han dynasty, perfectly demonstrates the technical form and the process of experiment at the image production venue. Just like “Social iconology”, “Dream-Brook Sketchbook” by Shen Kuo, a scientist in the Song dynasty offered understanding and exposition of image and imaging in a larger social framework. Just like “Applied iconology”, the exposition in “General Introduction to the Atlas · Seeking for Image” by Zheng Qiao is clear and transparent in reasoning and that its explanation about practical application brings readers to broad daylight. “Mirrored Infatuation” by Zheng Fuguang in the Qing dynasty has more practical value. Just like present-day “Technical iconology”, it is an exemplary work of engineering technology. In the world, there is no country that can be compared with China regarding such profound ideological foundation of image science and technology. Thanks to a long and uninterrupted history of several thousand years, China has formed an ideological system of image science and technology unique to its own. However, “No matter how extensive and profound the culture of a nation has, the key lies in how much is still left behind and how much you can understand your own

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culture.”4 So far, there are lots of results of research into poetic essays of the Han dynasty, poems of the Tang dynasty and poetry of the Song dynasty, not to speak of research results of poetic verses of the Yuan dynasty as well as novels of the Ming dynasty and the Qing dynasty. However, as a bright pearl, “Chinese image” is still covered with dust, failing to show the glow it deserves. Though Chinese nation has a long-term ideological system of iconology as well as extensive and profound representational culture of image technology, what it can contribute to the world and to itself today is not much. What is known to the world is not much known to China. In particular, historic research into the ideology of Chinese image science and technology is even more inactive. Therefore, we should have cultural self-awareness, i.e. awakening, mission and responsibility. We should have awareness of responsibility, i.e. ideal, action and courage. Research into the history of image science and technology is unique since it is different from research into cultural history chiefly based on texts. It cannot be preserved only through description and recording. It should be presented by “the original form” and analyzed by the original “image”. With regard to the history of image science and technology, there should be further technical analysis of ideological systems of images concerning scientists of past dynasties. There should be separate confirmatory experiment with and unified analysis of technology of image experiment put forward by those scientists. The following elements should be fixed on the visual interface for concentrated exposition, i.e. the technical nature of image material production fields, the constitutional nature of self-fields of image forms and the fields of social nature for disseminating effects. Valuing and sorting out such valuable science and technology of Chinese nation as “cultural heritage” will build up ideological highlands for people of following generation to admire the mien of their predecessors and strengthen the forces of cohesion and influence with regard to Chinese science and culture. This will not only contribute to perfecting the system and enriching documents in compiling and writing a complete and real history of Chinese civilization, but also directly supplementing and verifying research into the history of Chinese science, ideology and culture. The ideology of Chinese iconology is an important part of the history of ideology of Chinese nation as well as an inseparable content of the history of Chinese civilization. Unfolding research into the history of Chinese image science and technology and ideology of iconology of scientists of past dynasties will make practical contributions to enhancing the forces of cohesion and influence of Chinese nation, strengthening the soft power of Chinese culture, safeguarding the national safety of culture, providing sustainable strong support for the development of cultural innovation and economic society, offering cultural force to China’s national revitalization in a new era and adding fresh contents in writing the history of human civilization. It is gratifying that along with extensive application of image science and technology in recent years, some research has been conducted into image science and culture. Research into visual culture is proceeding in full swing. The interest in 4 Feng Jicai: “Chinese Culture is Becoming Vulgarized”. December 7, 2017

a/208982125_334468.

http://www.sohu.com/

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image-text reading is gradually taking shape. Many scholars have put the focus of their research on “Chinese image” and image-based scientists of ancient China as their major subjects. In fact, the history of development in studying Chinese image science and technology is exactly like piecing a diachronic visual facial make-up of Chinese, building up the form of social life of several years in China and displaying a long ideological scroll of image-centred scientists of past dynasties. Therefore, it is of great academic value regarding the history of ideology, the history of culture and anthropology. People of insight should take action, trying as early as possible to conduct detailed and comprehensive investigation into expositions on Chinese image science and technology, setting up a “First Registration Book”, obtaining most of the information and data as well as “rescuing” this “cultural heritage” of science through protection and research. They should, as early as possible, unfold research into invention and creation as well as the ideology of image science and technology of scientists of past dynasties in China, enabling this bright pearl to emit glory of Chinese culture as a crown together with several other bright pearls. This pamphlet entitled “A Brief History of Chinese Image Science and Technology”, together with “Image and Iconology” as the appendix, is a “simple image” of technical paths as a result of thinking over historic books on Chinese image science and technology and the collection of research documents. These immature ideas through meditation, which were all publicized before, have been brought together, streamlined and published all alone. “The author may find it difficult to use this book, but it is easy for readers to make a success of it”. My sincerity will be rewarded if this rough and simple pamphlet can be of a little help to researchers. Nanjing, China December 2017

Congyao Han

A Brief Introduction to the Author

As professor of School of Journalism & Communication School of History, tutor of doctoral students and director of the Research Institute of Chinese Image Culture at Nanjing University, Han Congyao aims his research at the study of visual communication, study of image history and history of communication technology as the chief expert of important projects of national foundation of social science. He has independently presided over six national projects of scientific research, ten provincial and ministerial projects of scientific research, three important national projects of publication foundation and two international projects of scientific research. His achievements of academic research have won the second prize of the Award of Excellent Achievements in Scientific Research of Chinese Institutions of Higher Learning twice (Humanities and Social Science). His academic works have won the Award of Excellent Chinese Books. In addition, he has won the national second prize of teaching achievements. He has won the Academy Award of Chinese Photography twice. He has published more than 120 academic papers and 42 academic works at home and abroad. His 22 academic works have been translated by foreign publishing houses into Japanese and Korean. His representative works include “The Science of Image Communication”, “History of Chinese Image Science” (Ten volumes), “History of Image-Oriented News of China in Modern Times: 1840–1919” (Six volumes) and “History of Image-Oriented News of Contemporary China: 1919–1949” (Ten xiii

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A Brief Introduction to the Author

volumes). As the chief editor, he has compiled “History of Chinese Image Culture” in the nature of general history (Thirty-eight volumes). He has been to France, Germany, Italy, Britain, USA, the Netherlands, Switzerland, South Africa, Israel, the Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Japan and Taiwan for academic visits and lectures at invitation.

About This Book

Image is not only a cultural characterization, but also a product of science and technology. The development of image and image culture depends on the development of image science and technology, which determines people’s ability to observe, recognize and express the world. Without the development of image science and technology, there would be no application of image media, let alone various kinds of characterization and meaning-transmission of images in the social field. In the scientific research and social practice of images, Chinese and foreign scientists have made a lot of painstaking efforts since ancient times, especially the working people of all nationalities in all countries. They have created the glory of image science and technology with diligence and wisdom. In the process of human exploration into image science and technology, Chinese scientists started earlier and went further in the exploration into image theories. Great achievements have been made in the theoretical exploration and technical practice of applied image science, while Western scientists have made fruitful achievements in the philosophical speculation of images and the construction of modern image theories. They are all marked by valuable wealth for human beings in exploring image theories and practice of image technology. Based on the perspective of practical iconology and theoretical iconology, this paper has made a quick review of the major events of Chinese image science and technology as well as the exploration and practice of Chinese scientists with regard to image science and technology, and briefly introduced the development process and related research results of Chinese image science and technology.

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Contents

1 The Embryonic Stage of Image Science and Technology . . . . . . . . . . . .

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2 The Formation Stage of Image Science and Technology . . . . . . . . . . . .

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3 The Rising Stage of Image Science and Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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4 The Prime Stage of Image Science and Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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5 The Integration Stage of Image Science and Technology . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Appendix: Image and Iconology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 The Postscript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

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Chapter 1

The Embryonic Stage of Image Science and Technology

From ancient times to the Western Zhou Dynasty (ancient times ~ 771 B.C.), Fuxi drew divination, Cangjie(仓颉) made Chinese characters, with divination based on clear numbers and Chinese characters on pictography, as the beginning of civilization. Image science and technology in China also gradually sprouted during this period. During this period, China experienced two stages of social development: primitive society and slave society. After a long Paleolithic period, China entered the Neolithic period. On the vast land centering on the Yellow River and Yangtze River basins, the ancestors of the Chinese nation created colorful material and spiritual culture. The period from ancient times to the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties was the foundation period and formation period of traditional Chinese culture. The thoughts of benevolent governance and rules of virtue, people-oriented ideas, harmony between man and nature and the etiquette system of traditional Chinese culture all started here. The establishment of the state power marked by “Family-based world” in the Xia Dynasty laid a foundation for the state-ruling system. The Western Zhou Dynasty was the heyday of classical Chinese culture. People of the Western Zhou Dynasty created a brand-new system-oriented culture and accelerated the transition from deity-based culture to human-based culture. The material and spiritual civilization of the Western Zhou Dynasty exerted a profound impact on the development of Chinese history in later generations. In remote ancient times, the observation and thinking of the phenomenon of light were not recorded in words, but the buildings, pottery, stone tools, bone tools and jade articles of this period excavated by archaeologists have reflected that people at that time already had some understanding of light, such as light source, vision, image formation, reflection, etc. Although this knowledge is purely perceptual, extremely scattered and superficial, it is, after all, the germination of later optical knowledge and the research basis of future shadow-based theories and image-based theories.

© Science Press 2021 C. Han, A Brief History of Image Science and Technology in China, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-6922-1_1

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1 The Embryonic Stage of Image Science and Technology

Fig. 1.1 Painted pottery with sun patterns

The sun was the most concerned thing among people in this period and became one of the main painting contents of primitive pottery, which can be said to be the earliest description of light by our ancestors. Figure 1.1 is a painted piece of pottery with a sun-pattern unearthed from Yangshao Culture Site in Dahe Village, Zhengzhou, Henan Province. In the Xia and Shang Dynasties (from about the twenty-second century to the eleventh century, BC), bronze ware gradually replaced stone tools. Some ancient documents record the theory of “Casting tripod images”. It is said that Xia Yu once collected the gold-cast tripod with images of nine parts of China on it at the foot of Jingshan Mountain to symbolize China, and engraved the figures of various demons on it to alert people and prevent them from being hurt. Since the legend of Yu on casting this tripod, the tripod has developed from an ordinary cooking utensil into an important national symbol. From the Shang Dynasty to the Zhou Dynasty, the establishment of the capital or the dynasty was called “The settlement of the tripod”. When the country perished, the tripod would be moved away accordingly. This is the origin of “Getting the power” or “Winning the hearts of people". It is also said that the gluttonous and other animal-face decorations on tripods and other bronze wares of later generations originated from the “Image objects” of Yu’s tripod, as earlier application of image-engraving in our country. There are quite many bronze mirrors among bronze wares of the Shang Dynasty excavated so far, and some image decorations were also engraved on the back of the bronze mirrors (Fig. 1.2). Some of these bronze mirrors are plane mirrors, while others are bronze mirrors with slightly convex lens. It can be seen that people at that time already began to think about visual and optical phenomena such as “Judging people by mirrors”.1,2 The Western Zhou Dynasty (about 1027 ~ 771 years ago) was the heyday of the slave system in our country. People accumulated some optical experience in their 1 “Zuozhuan ·The Third Year under Xuangong “: “Therefore, when entering mountain forests, people

will not meet things which are harmful to them and that they will neither be afraid of anything nor encounter evils, hence enjoying harmony between man and nature with blessings from the heaven.” 2 “Zuozhuan ·The Third Year under Xuangong”: “The virtue rendered to people is restricted by time-limit. King Cheng set nine tripods at Jia’an, indicating the inheritage of 30 generation of 700year prosperity as the result of practicing divination. This is the order from the heaven. Despite the declining virtue of the Zhou Dynasty, its fate remained unchanged. The weight of tripods cannot be questioned.”

1 The Embryonic Stage of Image Science and Technology

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Fig. 1.2 A bronze mirror of the Shang Dynasty with multi-circle convex string patterns unearthed from Fu Hao’s Tomb

Fig. 1.3 The bronze mirror unearthed in Zhejiang Province and Henan Province

daily-life and made active use of it. During the Western Zhou Dynasty, Chinese people were the first in the world to have created the “Yangsui” (Fig. 1.3), that is, bronze mirrors with concave lens, and used them to make fire under the sun. Yangsui is not only a great achievement in bronze industry, but also an immense success in the concrete application of optical knowledge. It is a milestone in the process of “Taking fire naturally, preserving the tinder and making fire”. Under the irradiation of light, shadows and shapes always accompany each other. The movement of the position of the light source causes changes in the projection of objects, which can be easily observed in daily-life. It was this knowledge about

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Fig. 1.4 The sundial sketch-map

light and shadow that was used by the ancients Chinese people for the timing and setting the direction, leading to the invention of the oldest optical instrument named as Sundial (Fig. 1.4), which used its projected position and length on the ground to measure the azimuth and time. The method of measuring and orienting images with the sundial may have existed as far back as the Neolithic Age, already becoming precise in the Zhou Dynasty. “Rites of the Zhou Dynasty · On the Examination of Handi-craftsmanship” has detailed records on this.3 As a material closely related to optics, the production of glass has always been under close attention. Some people believe that ancient glass in our country was imported from abroad, which has been completely denied by materials of archaeological excavation. The glass beads found in some tombs of the Western Zhou Dynasty were made of a kind of lead-barium glass, which is fundamentally different from the sodium-lime glass in ancient Egypt and can be concluded to have been made by our country. Among small funerary objects unearthed in the tombs of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty are also glass products made by our country. The period from ancient times to the Western Zhou Dynasty had been the embryonic period of image technology and optical development in China. Many ancient books and records contain descriptions and expositions of knowledge on image science and technology, such as “The Book of Poetry”, “Rites of the Zhou Dynasty”, “The Book of Documents”, “The Book of Rites”, etc. As the first collection of poems in our country, “The Book of Poetry” has a prominent position in the history of literature development. It reflects the life of Chinese society from the early Western Zhou Dynasty to the middle of the Spring and Autumn Period. There are many poems about rainbows, fireflies, sundials and torches, which are full of people’s concern, doubts and conjectures about light, shadows and images. “Rites of the Zhou Dynasty” is reputed as “The Treasure House of the History of Ancient Chinese Culture” which is extremely rich in content, recording bronze mirrors, beacon-fire communication, earthen sundials, etc. It is a precious recording of early knowledge on image optics. 3 “Rites of the Zhou Dynasty · On the Examination of Handi-craftsmanship”: “The earthen sundial,

about 50 cm, is used to measure the sun-shadow and land”.

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From these ancient books and records, we know that in the period from ancient times to the Western Zhou Dynasty, China’s optical achievements mainly included the invention of artificial light sources, the invention of sundials and the invention of reflectors. These three inventions are of great significance, providing necessary conditions and strong support for people to reveal the nature, imaging rules and wide application of light in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Period of Warring States and beyond, having laid a solid foundation for the development of image science and technology in China.

Chapter 2

The Formation Stage of Image Science and Technology

The period from the Eastern Zhou Dynasty to the Qin Dynasty (770~206 BC) had been the period of gradual formation of Chinese image science and technology. The period from the Eastern Zhou Dynasty to the Qin Dynasty had been an era of great social changes in China. The Eastern Zhou Dynasty was divided into two stages: the Spring and Autumn Period and the Period of Warring States. During this period, China was transited from a slave society to a feudal society. People’s thoughts were extremely active, and a situation of letting a hundred flowers blossom and a hundred schools of thought contend emerged. Some representative schools, such as Confucianism, Taoism, Mohism, Legalism and noted experts came into being. At that time, great thinkers included Li Er, Kong Qiu, Mo Zhai, Yang Zhu, Zhuang Zhou, Xun Kuang, Han Fei (Fig. 2.1), etc. They were called “Pre-Qin philosophers” in history. Various schools of thoughts criticized one another, learned from one another, by way of absorption and infiltration, making the Spring and Autumn Period the most active period of thoughts and the most brilliant period of culture in Chinese history. The academic thoughts of various schools of thoughts have had a profound impact on traditional Chinese culture, thus having formed the basic framework of traditional Chinese culture. The period from the Eastern Zhou Dynasty to the Qin Dynasty was also an era of transition from bronze ware to iron ware. The widespread use of ironware promoted the rapid development of productive forces, showing a vibrant situation of reform of production technology. The relations of production underwent great changes. Science and technology also reached an unprecedented peak of development. The use of hard iron tools extended the carriers of images from oracle bones and bronze to more solid and durable stones in the Spring and Autumn Period. Archaeological findings show that there were stone drums and carvings in the Qin during the Spring and Autumn Period. When the Qin unified China, the emperor made a tour and carved stones at important places seven times. The contents of stone carvings are mostly Chinese characers which are also a kind of images in

© Science Press 2021 C. Han, A Brief History of Image Science and Technology in China, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-6922-1_2

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Fig. 2.1 Han Feizi drawn by Cheng Nailian

their forms, with Chinese hieroglyphs especially coming from images. The images engraved at that time played a role of displaying authorities, spreading fame and issuing government decrees.1 1 “Records

of History · Qin Shihuang’s Biography” by Sima Qian, records that the first emperor of the Qin Dynsaty made five tours after unifying six states in 221 BC. During these five tours, he erected huge tablets with inscriptions at seven places four times to record his achievements. There seven places are respectively called “Yishan Stone-Carving” (219 BC), “Taishan Stone-Carving” (219 BC), “Langye Stone-Carving” (219 BC), “Zhifu Stone-Carving” (218 BC), “Dongguan StoneCarving” (218 BC), “Jieshi Stone-Carving” (215 BC) and “Huiji Stone-Carving” (210 BC). Most of these original stone-carvings at seven places were damaged without existence. According to textual research, there are only remains of “Taishan Stone-Carving” and “Langxie Stone-Carving” belonging to original stone-carvings of the Qin Dynasty. Among them, “Mount Tai Stone-Carving” has only 10 Chinese characters as the imperial edict of the second generation, also known as “Mount Tai Cross”, which is now preserved in Dai Temple at the foot of Mount Tai. “Langxie Carving Stone” has also been mostly peeled off, with only 12 and a half lines consisting of 84 Chinese characters, the stone-carving which is now preserved in the History Museum of China. Six of the seven stone carvings in the Qin Dynasty are recorded in the full text of “Records of History ·Qin Shihuang’s Biography”. Yishan Stone-Carving is the only with fame but without inscription. Most of the existing Yishan Stone-Carvings in the following generation are based on the copies of Xu Xaun in the Southern Tang Dynasty. Most of the seven stone carvings in the Qin Dynasty have copied rubbings handed down from ancient times, but the content of inscription on these seven stone-carvings is slightly different from what is recorded in “Records of the History”. It is said that

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Fig. 2.2 The transmitting mirror (the lower right is the pattern-outline similar to the back-pattern appearing on the wall)

On the basis of the perceptual experience of the previous period, people began to take the light phenomenon as a special research object in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, with experimental methods and theoretical generalization appearing. The long-term application of sundials made it possible to explore the theory of shadow-forming formation. The maturity of metal smelting technology greatly improved the manufacturing level of mirrors. During this period, there were not only plane mirrors and spherical mirrors with good performance, but also mirrors with different curvatures. Transparent materials were used. All these provided a material basis for the study of light reflection and refraction. In addition, the achievements obtained by the Institute of Astronomy enriched people’s optical knowledge, and the progress of dyeing technology promoted the research on color. In particular, great progress was made in the manufacture of glass and plane mirrors related to optics during this period. A large number of material beads and glass beads were unearthed in the tomb of Zeng Hou Yi in the Period of Warring States, showing that the glass manufacturing technology was relatively mature at that time. During the Period of Warring States, people also made a special bronze mirror called “Magic mirror”. The patterns and inscription on the back of the mirror are convex. This bronze mirror was then used to reflect sunlight, and the pattern-outline similar to the pattern on the back appeard on the wall, as if light would pass through the mirror, so it is also called “Transmitting mirror” (Fig. 2.2). In 221 BC, Qin Shihuang unified China and centralized power replaced the separatist regime of vassals. The Qin Dynasty began reforms such as the unified writing, unified weights and measures. During the Qin Dynasty as well as its previous ancient times and its three generations, China’s image culture was purely natural without

all of them were written by Lli Si, the prime minister of the Qing Dynasty. They are representative works in seal characters of the Qin Dynasty as standards and historical witness to the unified writing in the Qin Dynasty.

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influence from foreign culture. The Qin Dynasty unified China and expanded its territory. Exchanges with foreign countries became more and more extensive. Foreign image styles, science and technology and culture were gradually introduced. The Qin Dynasty was short-lived, and many changes began but did not fade away. After the Qin Dynasty, Chinese society and its science, technology and culture took on a new look. During the period from the Eastern Zhou Dynasty to the Qin Dynasty, many ancient books and records handed down from ancient times appeared, including many contents about image science and technology. During the Period of Warring States, Han Fei (about 280~233 years ago) recorded in his book “Han Feizi” that some people drew meticulous pictures on the inner membrane of pods and then placed them on the sunlit wallboard holes, so that dragons, snakes, chariots and horses could be clearly seen on the walls. “Examination of Handi-craftsmanship”, written by people of the Qi State in the late Spring and Autumn Period, recorded many optical technologies and knowledge, such as “Examination of Handi-craftsmanship”.2 “Li Shi”records the proportion of alloy used to make bronze ware. According to the practice of dyeing and embroidering to select color lines, the “Examination of Handi-craftsmanship · On Paintings” realizes the principle of color and its phasetime. “Examination of Handicraftsmanship · Craftsmen” and “Examination of Handicraftsmanship · Jade Man” also respectively describe the methods of measuring the sun’s shadow and setting the direction with benchmarks and earthen sundials. Mozi, the leader of Mohist School, was the most outstanding figure regarding iconology and optical technology in this period. Mohist “On Mo” was the most outstanding ancient book in iconology and optical technology in this period.3,4 Mozi and “On Mo” Mozi (about 468~376, Fig. 2.3), styled as Zhai, was a native of the Song Dynasty in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Period of Warring States. He was a famous thinker, 2 “Han

Feizi On Top Left”: “It took a guest three years to have painted bamboo slips for Mr. Zhou. Coming to see it, Zhou was furious since these slips looked painted by oil-paints. The painter said: ‘Build a high wall, chisel a window of eight feet, put bamboo slips on the window-sill and look at them when the sun starts to rise.’ Mr. Zhou did accordingly. He saw that all shapes painted on bamboo slips had turned into forms of dragons, snakes, birds, chariots and horses, with all things shown. Mr. Zhou was very delighted. The painting was not subtle and difficult, but its use and patterns were completely identical to bamboo slips decorated by oil paints.” 3 “Rites of Zhou Dynasty·Examination of Handi-craftsmanship”: “Painting is marked by five colors. Green stands for east, red denotes south, white refers to west and black symbolizes north. Dark-black stands for the sky and yellow denotes the earth. Green and white proceed in order and the same is truth with red and black as well as dark-black with yellow. The combination of green with red is called Wen (text). The integration of red with white is termed Zhang (article). The combination of white with black is called Pu. The integration of black with green is termed Ba. The presence of five colors is called Xiu (embroidery). 4 “Rites of the Zhou Dynasty · Examination of Handi-craftsmanship”: “When building the capitalcity, craftsman would hang a mesuring-rope to ensure the level of land and observe shadows to ensure the uprightness of pillars, i.e. use a sundial to observe their shadows to be certain of shadows at sunrise and sunset while getting reference from noon-time shadows and the location of the Polaris at night, so as to set the time of a day.”

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Fig. 2.3 Mozi drawn by Cheng Nailian

scientist, social activist and founder of Mohist School in the Period of Warring States. Mozi and most of the people in Mohist School took part in productive labor directly. They had the spirit of assiduous study and was keen on the study of natural science. Mozi himself was a craftsman proficient in carpentry. Many creations and inventions by Mohism have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in later generations. Mohist pinhole cassette experiment was the first pinhole imaging experiment in the world. Small hole imaging is one of the most basic principles in optics as the basis of photography. People found that after small hole imaging, they could take photos in principle as long as the negative is placed on the screen in the cassette. Further, it was then possible to make the first pinhole camera in the world. Mozi and his disciples compiled their thoughts, remarks, activities as well as scientific and technological knowledge into a book which is named “Mozi”, the representative work of scientific and technological knowledge in the Spring and Autumn and the Period of Warring States. “On Mo” is the main component of “Mozi”. It is generally believed that “On Mo” has four chapters, i.e. “The First Sutra”, “The Second Sutra”, “On the First Sutra” and “On the Second Sutra”, of which “On Sutra” is an explanation of or supplement to “Sutra". “On Mo” records the problem of optical imaging in eight consecutive words, reflecting the great achievements of

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Fig. 2.4 “On Mo”’s study of small hole imaging

China’s optics in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Period of Warring States. They are as follows in order: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

The Definition of the Shadow and the Reason of Shadow Generation; The Relationship between Light and the Shadow; The Straight-line Travel Property of Light, with such Property Proved by the Experiment of Pinhole Imaging (Fig. 2.4); Characteristics of Light Reflection; Determining the Size of the Shadow from the Relative Position of the Object and the Light Source; Plane mirror reflection imaging; The Imaging through Reflection of the Concave Mirror; The Imaging through Reflection of the Convex Mirror.

These Eight Principles of Optics have only a few hundred words, from basic and simple phenomena to more complicated phenomena, from image analysis to imaging analysis, with clear organization and rigorous logic. It is a faithful record of Mohism’s optical experiments and precise observation. It was also the earliest written record of human optical knowledge. The “Eight Principles of Optics” is the cornerstone of geometric optics, the ancestor of photographic optics and the theoretical pioneer of iconology. It can be called the greatest optical work of more than 2,000 years ago in the world. It is over 100 years earlier than Euclid’s “Optics”, the internationally recognized and earliest optical work. Mohism’s research work in the field of optics laid a theoretical foundation for today’s optics and digital imaging with indelible contributions to the development of ancient science and technology in our country. The breadth and depth of their research were rare in the world at that time.

Chapter 3

The Rising Stage of Image Science and Technology

The period from the Han Dynasty to the Five Dynasties (206 years ago to 960 A.D.) was a period of rapid development of image science and technology in China. The Han Dynasty inherited the Qin system and established an ideological and cultural pattern with Confucianism as the core. The Han Dynasty was a period of unification of traditional Chinese culture, in which productive forces as well as science and technology developed unprecedentedly in China. During the period of more than 1,000 years from the Eastern Han Dynasty and the Western Han Dynasty to the Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties, ancient China had not only undergone a period of separation of political power marked by wars, but also a period of relative stability in which the country was unified in peace. Among them, the Western Han Dynasty followed the Qin Dynasty to have unified China and governed it for more than 400 years, which was extremely prosperous for a period. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, social production, life, science and technology were in the forefront of the world. At the same time, foreign exchanges increased and Buddhism gradually spread to the Orient. Relying on the prosperous national strength at this time, Buddhist portraits, statues and other statues also flourished. Following the “Three-Kingdom” period of the Han Dynasty, although the political power was divided, science and technology continued to develop steadily on the basis of the Han Dynasty.Three Kingdoms were unified in the Jin Dynasty. China was once divided for more than 100 years after the Jin Dynasty perished. Only when the Sui Dynasty (581–618 A.D.) was established did China regain its unification. The Tang Dynasty (618–907 A.D.) followed the Sui Dynasty and unified China with its prosperity across the country and prestige reaching most of Asia. The Tang Dynasty had frequent exchanges with foreign countries with its open and inclusive thoughts, hence having opened up a new generation of civilization. China’s culture, art, science and technology developed rapidly with outstanding achievements. Cultural celebrities who could be called great masters emerged one after another. At that time, emissaries, scholars and businessmen from eastern and Western countries came to Xi’an and other places of China for study and exchange of ideas, thus having created a circle of Chinese culture and changed the cultural outlook © Science Press 2021 C. Han, A Brief History of Image Science and Technology in China, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-6922-1_3

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of East Asia. Paper-making, alchemy, mathematics and porcelain of China were introduced into the West, and its traditional science and technology advanced into the world, which had a considerable impact on India, Arabia, Europe and Africa and effectively promoted the development of science and technology in the world. Although there were frequent wars and regime changes in the late Tang and Five Dynasties, the development of image culture and image science and technology continued to spread until the Song Dynasty. During this period, China experienced several cycles of unified and divided social and political development. The feudal system became more and more perfect and science and technology continued to progress. The ancient image science and technology in China also developed steadily step by step. Printing, dyeing and rubbings, as image production and dissemination technologies, were developed unprecedentedly and widely used in this period. In 1972, two pieces of printed yarn printed with convex pattern plates by using printing and dyeing technology were unearthed in Han Tomb No.1, Mawangdui, Changsha, Hunan Province (around 165 BC). Printing and dyeing are a technology in which patterns are carved on wood boards and then printed on cloth with dyes. Experts have verified that this technology may be earlier than Qin and Han Dynasties and can be traced back to the Period of Warring States. It can be said to be an earlier image reproduction technology. The following rubbings can be regarded as the development branch of printing and dyeing. In the Han Dynasty, seven stone-tablets of Confucian classics were set up in front of the Imperial College, including the “The Book of Poetry”, “The Book of Rites”, “The Book of Changes”, “ Rites”, “Spring and Autumn”, “Gongyang Biography” and “Analects of Confucius”. Many people rushed to copy them, but the copying was too laborious and prone to mistakes and omissions. In the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties after Cai Lun invented paper-making in the Eastern Han Dynasty, some people rubbed down the scriptures with paper. This method was simpler and more reliable than manual copying. Products of printing, dyeing and rubbings are images, which can be said to have been copied by earlier machines and tools. In this way, images were then divided into two major ways to obtain. On the one hand, the development process of hand-drawn images and reproduction of images by machines parallel to hand-drawn images was unfolded, and on the other hand, the development process of image optical science and technology was initiated. They had been moving in their own directions and along their own unique roads, continuously advancing and expanding, jointly constituting the overall course of image development. During this period, many outstanding thinkers, scientists and excellent cultural and historical books also appeared. Many books recorded or detailed the empirical observation of image science and technology and image optical phenomena. 1 There is the earliest record of mirage in the famous Chinese historical work named “Records of History:Tianguan Book”. “Records of History” and another historical 1 “Records of the History · Tianguan Book” by Sima Qian: Therefore, atmospheric environments of

northern barbarians are like flocks of livestock and human yurts, while atmospheric environments of southern barbarians are like boats and flags. In the flooded areas, on the battle-field of the defeated army, atmospheric environments cover the ruins of a conquered country as well as money and gold buried underground, which deserve careful observation, in addition to weather-towers beside the

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Fig. 3.1 Li Shaoweng reproduces the appearance of Emperor Wu’s Wife Li with the “Movable Film”

book entitled “The Han Book” both record the story of Emperor Liu Che of the Western Han Dynasty who, in missing his deceased wife Li, invited Shaoweng, an alchemist of the Qi State, to “evoke her soul” with light and shadow. Shaoweng hung draperies, set up lamps and candles as well as made images at night. With “moving films” (Fig. 3.1), Emperor Wu seemed to have seen the appearance of his deceased wife again. Emperor Wu also wrote a verse: “Is it evil, or not evil? I am standing up and looking around, wondering about her late arrival.” This interesting account shows that slide-show and movie art really originated in China. Europeans did not make a success of designing the first slide-projector to project pictures until the seventeenth century.2 Wang Fu of the Eastern Han Dynasty (Fig. 3.2) put forward the idea in “On Potential People” that human eyes could see objects because the objects were irradiated by light. The book “Explaining Difficulties” also describes the superpositional phenomenon of light for the first time. Ge Hong of the Eastern Jin Dynasty (Fig. 3.3), in his book “Baopuzi”, describes many times the situation of multiple shadows seen in the combined plane mirror, sea and palaces on the vast land. In general, atmospheric environments like those at their respective places are the same as those accumulated by people across mountains and rivers." 2 (The Han) “Documents of the Han Dynasty · Biography of Consorts” by Ban Gu: “The emperor missed his deceased wife very much. An alchemist named Shaoweng from the Qi State claimed to be able to bring back her soul. So, at night, he lit candles, set up draperies, arranged wine and meat while asking the emperor to sit in another tent, looking in the distance at the appearance of a nice woman like his wife. The emperor couuuld see her walk slowly but could not approach her. He felt sadder and sadder, thus writing a poem for her: “Is it evil, not evil? why are you coming late?” He

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Fig. 3.2 Wang Fu drawn by Cheng Nailian

specifically involving the “Sun- moon mirror” composed of two plane mirrors and the “Four-gauge mirror” composed of four plane mirrors. Ge Hong called this as “The mirror way” and the shadowing technology of this combined plane mirror as “Fractal”. At the beginning of the Tang Dynasty, Wang Du described in “The Story of Ancient Mirrors” a transparent mirror that “bears the sunshine, and then the ink on the back of the painting goes into the shadow, with no loss at all”. “Xuanzhenzi”, written by Zhang Zhihe (Fig. 3.4), a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty, contains rich knowledge of natural science and technology. In this book, the study of atmospheric light images is excellent. He made quite scientific analysis of the essence and causes of thunder, electricity, rainbow, neon and other phenomena. The book “Spraying water on the back of the sun into the shape of rainbow” describes the famous experiment of “artificial rainbow” that studied the phenomenon of rainbow in ancient China. It is a very precious historical record concerning science and technology. It confirmed even in the eighth century A.D. that rainbow was formed by sunlight irradiating water droplets with a correct explanation about the essence of rainbow. However, the artificial simulation experiment of the rainbow in Europe only ordered all his musicians to sing this poem with their stringed musical instruments.” Then, he wrote a prose to express his sad feelings to mourn his wife.

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Fig. 3.3 Ge Hong drawn by Cheng Nailian

began in the thirteenth century, more than 500 years later than that by Zhang Zhihe. In addition to the records and analysis of atmospheric light images, “Xuanzhenzi” also makes vivid records of light and shadow, visual stop-over and visual illusion. “Xuanzhenzi” was a great academic work in ancient China. “Youyang Zazu”, written by Duan Chengshi (Fig. 3.5) in the late Tang Dynasty, not only records data of political, historical, cultural and social life from the Southern and Northern Dynasties to the Tang Dynasty, but also includes a large number of scientific and technological historical data and natural phenomena. Among them, there are written descriptions of optical phenomena, expounding the causes of shadows on the moon, phosphorescent substances used in painting Buddha, cold light phenomena and tower-shadows hung upside down, etc. The book is not only well-known in our country with its circulation through the past dynasties, but also highly valued by foreign scholars. During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, Emperor Kan of the Liang Dynasty’s opinion on color in “Rites: Tamamo” was an important optical achievement in this period. In the book, the phenomenon of the third color produced by the mixing of two colors in the process of weaving and dyeing colors is described more accurately, namely: green and yellow into green (green and yellow), dark-red and white into red (red and white), white and green into blue (green and white), black and yellow into

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Fig. 3.4 Zhang Zhihe drawn by Cheng Nailian

yellow (yellow and black). Among these five colors (cyan, red, yellow, white and black) proposed by Emperor Kan, the order of the first three colors is the same as the essence of the subtraction method (cyan, magenta and yellow) in modern colorology. Of course, in this period, the most outstanding classics which is the most closely related to the thoughts of image science and optical technology with a far-reaching influence on the development of image science and technology in China are as follows: “A Collection of all Technological Skills in Huainan” written by Liu An in the Western Han Dynasty, “On Balance” by Wang Chong in the Eastern Han Dynasty, “Encyclopedia” by Zhang Hua in the Western Jin Dynasty and “On Alchemy” by Tan Qiao of the Southern Tang Dynasty in the Five Dynasties. Liu An and “A Collection of all Technological Skills in Huainan” Liu An (179–122 years ago, Fig. 3.6) was born in Fengjun, the Western Han Dynasty (present-day Fengxian County, Jiangsu Province). He was the king of Huainan, the grandson of Liu Bang, the first emperor of the Western Han Dynasty. He was a thinker and writer in the Western Han Dynasty. Liu An enjoyed reading, drum-beating and harp-plucking, while being good at writing articles and quick in thinking. He once recruited guests and alchemists to collectively write “Huainan Zi” and “A Collection of all Technological Skills in Huainan”.

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Fig. 3.5 Duan Chengshi drawn by Cheng Nailian

There are many important records of optical imaging in “A Collection of all Technological Skills in Huainan” which was written in 139 BC. As a book with very valuable data, it reflects the main achievements of image science and technology in China during the Western Han Dynasty. The book illustrates some optical phenomena with vivid and interesting examples, showing rich knowledge of optical imaging and superb scientific thinking of images. The book mentions the hazy concept of bronze mirrors and its focus many times, and records the “Ice lens” and its method of taking fire (Fig. 3.7). The description of “shadow” in the recorded experiment is the earliest record of focus found so far. This book also records the experiment of producing an open-tube periscope (Fig. 3.8) in the form of a combined plane mirror: “If hanging a large mirror high and placing the water basin under it, you will see things around.” This is the principle of using the plane mirror for the imaging twice. It can be said to be the earliest periscope in the world. Judging from the optical knowledge recorded in “A Collection of all Technological Skills in Huainan”, Liu An and his friends not only had considerable knowledge of natural science, but also could do experiments. Although some experimental records in the book are not detailed enough, their creative ideas on physical phenomena and laws are valuable. Some ideas of image science, such as the understanding of optics, were at the advanced level in the world at that time.

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Fig. 3.6 Liu An drawn by Cheng Nailian

Wang Chong and his “On Balance” Wang Chong (about 27–97, Fig. 3.9), styled as Zhong Ren, was a great thinker in the Eastern Han Dynasty. Wang Chong was smart and eager to learn in his early age. He read extensively with great ambition for his future. When he was young, he traveled thousands of miles to study in Luoyang, Henan Province. In Luoyang, Wang Chong entered the Imperial College, observed great rites, read books of over one hundred schools, increased knowledge, opened his eyes, visited famous Confucians, and took Ban Biao, a noted scholar, as his teacher, having initially formed a broad and realistic academic style. Wang Chong was not a successful official in his whole life. Having only served as subordinates of counties for several terms, he was full of frustrations and obstacles. However, he worked hard in acquiring knowledge and thoughts and had a very independent spirit. He verified his remarks with facts and wrote an immortal philosophical and atheistic work of ancient materialism in Chinese history, entitled “On Balance”. “On Balance” is not only an epoch-making masterpiece in the history of ancient scientific thoughts in our country, but also an extremely important ancient book in the history of ancient science and technology in China. The title of “Lun Heng” means “Lun Zhi Ping Ye”. The original meaning of the word “Heng” is the balance, and “On Balance” denotes the balance to evaluate the value of speeches at that time. Its

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Fig. 3.7 Taking fire with ice lens

purpose is to “straighten out confusion and make people tell the difference between the void and the substantial” (On Balance · Dui Zuo). On the basis of materialist views of nature and knowledge of natural science, Wang Chong integrated the achievements of his predecessors’ atheism and demonstrated the bio-chemistry of all things with the theory of primordial nature. He broke through the shackles of orthodox ideas and made great efforts to master contemporary scientific and technological knowledge as strong evidence for expounding his own system of thoughts. He put forward his own incisive opinions on a series of scientific and technological issues. “On Balance” involves a large amount of natural knowledge, physical knowledge, thoughts of image science and optical imaging knowledge. There are mainly some problems such as focusing by igniting fire with the bronze mirror on smooth concave metal objects, causes of solar eclipse and lunar eclipse, glass manufacture, focusing by igniting fire with glass lens, having expounded the light intensity and the linear

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Fig. 3.8 The open tube periscope in the Han Dynasty Fig. 3.9 Wang Chong drawn by Cheng Nailian

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Fig. 3.10 Zhang Hua drwan by Cheng Nailian

transmission of light. Some of these accounts are not seen in other books as very precious historical materials of science and technology. Wang Chong’s thoughts of image science not only surpass those of predecessors, but also those of many later scholars. His mastery and narration of natural phenomena are concise and profound to the point, and his scientific thoughts have a profound impact on later generations. Zhang Hua and “Encyclopedia” Zhang Hua of the Western Jin Dynasty (232–300 years, Fig. 3.10), styled as Mao Xian, was a native of Fanyangfangcheng ( present-day Gu’an County in Hebei Province). As a man of letters and statesman in theWestern Jin Dynasty, he was the 16th grandson of Zhang Liang, a high official in the Han Dynasty. He lost his father when he was young and his family was poor. He studied very hard. According to “The Jin Book: Biography of Zhang Hua”, he was excellent in his studies, reading extensively. He once wrote “Jiaoliao Prose” to describe himself. During the reign of Emperor Hui, when the Eight-Vassal Rebellion broke out, he was killed by Sima Lun, the vassal of the Zhao State and Sun Xiu. “Encyclopedia” by Zhang Hua is a book that records strange places and things as well as ancient trivia and fairy magics in classification. The articles in the book are short, concise, comprehensive, vivid and interesting, with strong knowledge and appeal. It is a well-known work handed down from ancient times. The book provides

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Fig. 3.11 Tan Qiao drawn by Cheng Nailian

precious data for studying the development of ancient Chinese culture and natural science, including many optical phenomena and other knowledge of natural science and technology, such as diffraction phenomenon of insect and bird feathers, phosphorescence phenomenon, and optical stories of “Children’s debate on the sun". Besides, in the wake of “A Collection of all Technological Skills”, “Encyclopedia” once again describes the production of ice lens and its optical experiment of taking fire from the sun. Tan Qiao and “On Alchemy” Tan Qiao (860 or 873~968 or 976, Fig. 3.11), styled Jingsheng, a native of Quanzhou, Fujian Province, was a famous Taoist priest and theorist in the Southern Tang Dynasty of the Five Dynasties. In his childhood, he was intelligent and knowledgeable. When becoming an adult, he left home to travel all over China. He was obsessed with Huang Lao’s skills and followed Taoist priests in Songshan Mountain to study Taoism for more than ten years, having learnt the skill of Bigu for Qi cultivation. Later, he entered Hengshan Mountain for further cultivation of alchemy and lived a seclusive life in Qingcheng Mountain. Tan Qiao upheld thoughts of Lao Zi and Zhuang Zi that Tao is the spiritual realm of “The connection between the void and the substaintial”. If cultivators often maintain this realm, they can achieve deification “In disregard of life and death”.

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Fig. 3.12 Tan Qiao’s “Four Mirrors” (Sundials, beads, grind-stones and containers)

“On Alchemy” written by Tan Qiao is an important Taoist ideological work with an important position in the history of Chinese thoughts. “On Alchemy” consists of six volumes, namely, “The Aspect of Taoism”, “The Aspect of Alchemy”, “The Aspect of Morality”, “The Aspect of Benovolence”, “The Aspect of Diet” and “The Aspect of Thrift”, with a total of 110 articles. In the late Tang Dynasty of the Five Dynasties, when the society was in turmoil, Tan Qiao hid himself while studying Taoism, but he was very concerned about the governance of chaos and the sufferings of people’s livelihood in China. He wrote “On Alchemy” and proposed that the rulers could use the these “six aspects” to solve social problems and realize peace across the country. “On Alchemy” involves multi-disciplinary knowledge, each of which uses a certain phenomenon to describe philosophy with unique views on philosophy, physics, chemistry, biology, psychology, medicine and other sciences. “On Alchemy” often takes the optical imaging of mirrors as the basis for discussing “Tao”. Among them, the discussion on optical imaging mainly includes “Four Mirrors” (Fig. 3.12), “Shadows”, “Eyes and Ears” and other articles.3 It can be seen from the “Four Mirrors” that Tan Qiao reached a considerable scientific level in his understanding of the laws of refraction and reflection of light in various lens imaging situations.

3 “On

Alchemy · Forms and Shadows: “ I often use four objects as mirrors: a piece of jade, a bead, a grinding-stone and a jar. The jade is quite big, the bead looks quite small, the grinding-stone is protruding and the jar is hollow and inverted.” “On Alchemy · Ears and Eyes”: “The mirror enables me to see and the jar enables me to hear.”

Chapter 4

The Prime Stage of Image Science and Technology

The Song and Yuan Dynasties (960–1368) were the prime stage of the development of image science and technology in China. During 400 years from the Song Dynasty in the 10th century to the Mongolian and Yuan Empire in the 14th century, China’s natural science had been in a prosperous stage with abundant talents and fruitful results, while Europe was in a dark period in the Middle Ages. During this period, China’s numerous scientists and skillful craftsmen, as well as many scientific discoveries and technological inventions, jointly wrote a brilliant chapter in the history of science and technology in China and the world. During 300 years of the Song Dynasty, its military power was weak, resulting in its repeated subjection to foreign aggression, trouble in state governance, cronies and academic competition. However, as a result, the ideological circle showed a lively state, just like the free prosperity of the Spring and Autumn Period. Thanks to the development of science and technology, there had been fruitful achievements from the Tang Dynasty to the Song Dynasty. In this period, image science and technology also experienced unprecedented development with a quite systematic summary. For example, Shen Kuo and his encyclopedic-like great work of science and technology. “Mengxi Records from Conversation”, Zhao Youqin and his “New Book on Reformed Images”, recorded the largest and most perfect optical experiment in the Middle Ages. In addition to the development of optical image science and technology, people in the Song and Yuan Dynasties noticed the relations between “Image” and “Text”. For example, Zheng Qiao specifically discussed the importance of linking “Image” with “Book” in “A Brief History · A Brief Atlas” and expounded the role of image in understanding things, etc. “Shadow Drama” (Fig. 4.1) was especially popular in the Song Dynasty. “Shadow Drama” can be attributed to applied optics. It originated in the Qin and Han Dynasties, took shape in the Tang Dynasty, and was further developed and popularized in the Song Dynasty. The “Records of Prosperous Capital” of the Song Dynasty introduces

© Science Press 2021 C. Han, A Brief History of Image Science and Technology in China, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-6922-1_4

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Fig. 4.1 Shadow-Play: Liu Jinding wishing to have the groom move into his family after the marriage, collected by the art museum of China

the evolution of shadow-drama production materials and the content of performance. There is a detailed description of the shadow-drama play in Volume 9 of “Records of Things” written by Gao Cheng in the Song Dynasty, i.e. “Game Play · Shadow-Drama Play”. At that time, both in Bianliang and Lin’an, shadow-drama performances were extensively loved by people, such as stories and legends of “Three Kingdoms”. In recalling the past of Lin’an as the capital of the Southern Song Dynasty,“The Past of Martial-Art Circle” written by Zhou Mi records people and organizations specializing in the shadow-drama. Among them, 22 were famous. Besides men, such women as “Wang Runqing” and others who were also engaged in the shadowdrama. This shows the prosperity of shadow- drama in the Song Dynasty. Therefore, some people in the world believe that the source of audio movies has to be traced to Chinese shadow- drama as the founder. In the Song Dynasty, painting with fluorescent substances was a fashion. Zhou Chao’s “Qingbo Magazine” and Shi Wenying’s “Xiang Shan Informal Records” all vividly describe fluorescent painting. Xu Zhie in the south of the Yangtze River got a cow-painting, i.e. during the day, the cow grazed outside the pen and would go back to the pen to sleep at night. Xu Zhie presented the painting to Li Yu, the latter emperor of the Southern Tang Dynasty. Li Yu presented it to the emperor of the Song Dynasty, with the latter showing it to all his ministers. No one could understand the secret of the painting. What we are talking about here is the painting with fluorescent substances. Painting with different fluorescent substances presents different scenes on the picture day and night. Consequently, fluorescent substances produce peculiar effects on works of art, called “Art paintings”. There were many other optical discoveries during this period. For example, thanks to the prosperity of glass manufacturing industry, people made a variety of lenses

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Fig. 4.2 Su Dongpo drawn by Cheng Nailian

(crystal or glass texture) with considerable understanding of lens-imaging knowledge. The phenomenon of crystal beam-splitting and the phenomenon of gem colorchange were all discovered by people in this period. In the Yuan Dynasty, Guo Shoujing also invented the pitch instrument and the scene symbol by using the principle of pinhole imaging.1 Many books in this period, especially novel-notes and herb-oriented works, contain a lot of contents describing knowledge of image science and technology. Su Shi of the Song Dynasty (Fig. 4.2) was not only a man of letters, but also a writer of miscellaneous things. There are records concerning photo-sensitivity chemistry in his book named “Records of Phase Sensation of Things”. Photosensitive chemistry is the basic principle of photography and one of the foundations of image science and technology.

1 “Jingfu

is made of a piece of copper, two inches of thinness and two inches of width, with a small orifice in the middle. One end of the copper, set as the machine shaft, is linked with a base, enabling it to move freely like a box-cover for the convenience of adjusting its inclination.When the sun-shadow is mesured, Jingfu is placed above the surface in vertical direction of the sun-light. Then, move Jingfu slightly forward and backword to set the sun and the horizontal beam on top of the sundial at the same straight line. As a result, the sun shown on the sundial will become as tiny as a rice-grain, with the shadow of the fine horizontal beam seen in the middle.

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Fig. 4.3 Kou Zongshi drwan by Cheng Nailian

In 1116 A.D., Kou Zongshi (Fig. 4.3), a pharmacologist of the Northern Song Dynasty, mentioned in his book “Materia Medica”: “Bodhisattva Stone reflects the sun-radiation with five kinds of round-light colors.” The content is associated with the crystal morphology of the crystal and its spectroscopic phenomenon. Cheng Dachang (Fig. 4.4) in the Southern Song Dynasty wrote “Yan Fan Lu” which contains a lot of optical knowledge. “The Bodhisattva Stone” in Volume 9 of “Performance of Fanlu” reads: “According to ‘Yang Wengong on Gardens’: In Mount Emeri in Jiazhou, there are Bodhisattva stones taken by many people. Their color is as white as jade, such as Shangrao Crystal. Under sun-light, there would be five kinds of round-light colors like those on top of Buddha.” This shows that the observation and discovery of dispersion-oriented phenomenon already took place in ancient China. There is an account of holes and shadows in “The History of Yuan · On Astronomy” in the Yuan Dynasty: “The view is high and the scene is empty, but the image is not true”, which means that the light-hole is far away from the shadow-bearing board, and the images seen are void. On the contrary, if the light-hole is close to the shadow-bearing plate, the image will be realistic and clear. During the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the most prominent feature was the emergence of many important technological inventions and a large number of classic books and records on natural science and technology, which reflected people’s concern

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Fig. 4.4 Cheng Dachang drawn by Cheng Nailian

about, exploration into and achievements of image science and technology during this period. This period was a golden age in the history of ancient Chinese science and technology. China’s observation of and research on optics, as the basis of image science and technology, reached its peak. Compared with Europe in the same period, China’s observation and research were in the forefront of the world with its early age, wide scope, deep research and great achievements. In particular, Shen Kuo, a great ancient Chinese scientist, and his scientific and technological work named “Mengxi Records from Conversation”, the theoretical system of atlas established by Zheng Qiao and his “A Brief History · A Brief Atlas”, Zhao Youqin and his “A New Book on Reformed Images” which recorded many of his experimental designs and methods in detail, are respectively representative figures and works marking the peak in Chinese history and world history at that time as ancient science and technology in our country. Shen Kuo and “Mengxi Records of Conversation” Shen Kuo (1031–1095, Fig. 4.5), styled as Cunzhong, a native of Qiantang, Zhejiang Province (now Hangzhou), was an outstanding scientist in the Northern Song Dynasty. As a political activist, Shen Kuo, born in an official family, loved reading in his childhood. Under the guidance of his mother, he finished reading all the books at home at the age of 14 and went to many places with his father, having greatly

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Fig. 4.5 Shen Kuo drawn by Cheng Nailian

expanded his vision. Shen Kuo was knowledgeable and versatile. His research activities were various. His achievements were not limited to a certain category of science and technology. He was proficient in astronomy, calendar, meteorology, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, geography, architecture, agronomy, engineering, medicine, divination and so on. He made achievements in almost all fields of natural science, showing outstanding talents. Shen Kuo is a rare generalist of science and technology in China and even in the world. Joseph Needham, a famous historian of science and technology at Cambridge University in England, marveled at the subtlety and agility of Shen Kuo’s thinking. He once asserted in “History of Science and Technology in China” that “Shen Kuo’s ‘Mengxi Records from Conversation’ is the representative work of this kind of (note-taking) literature, and he is probably the most outstanding figure in the whole history of science and technology in China”. In 1979, a new star was named after Shen Kuo internationally. Shen Kuo has been recorded in the annals of world science and technology for his outstanding contribution.2 “Mengxi Records from Conversation” is a note-taking work written by Shen Kuo, The book was written in the period from 1086 to 1093. It is an encyclopedic work, 2 Joseph

Needham (Britain) “History of Science, Technology and Technology in China”, p. 140, Volume 1, Shanghai Publishing House of Science and Technology, Shanghai Publishing House of Ancient Books, 1990.

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Fig. 4.6 The schematic diagram of the small hole imaging

rich in content and reliable in data, including astronomy, mathematics, geology, geography, meteorology, physics, chemistry, biology, agronomy, medicine, printing, machinery, water conservancy, architecture, mining and metallurgy, etc. It is featured by penetrating judgment in many academic fields, concentratedly reflecting brilliant achievements made in the development of ancient natural science and technology in China until the Northern Song Dynasty. It is of great academic and historical value. Many scientific and technological achievements recorded in this book reached the highest level in the world at that time. They enjoy a very high reputation both in China and in the history of science and technology in the world, having been praised as “Milestones in the history of science and technology in China”. Shen Kuo’s optical knowledge expounded in “Mengxi Records from Conversation” is very rich. His understanding and exposition of images and imaging were in a larger social scope. His insights were comprehensive, profound and unique. Many of his observations, expositions and experiments took the lead in the world at that time. Shen Kuo was not only good at summarizing the scientific and technological achievements of his predecessors, but also put forward his own opinions on the linear propagation of light, concave mirror imaging, enlargement and reduction of the convex mirror, exporation into the transparent mirror, research on the rainbow, display and concealment of fluorescent substances, etc., based on his personal observation and experiments. Shen Kuo carried out an experiment of “The kite-shadow is bundled by the window gap” to illustrate the nature of light propagation along a straight line: a small hole was made in the paper-window so that birds outside the window or the shadow of the tower could be imaged on the paper screen indoors. “The kite-shadow is bundled by the window gap” is a phenomenon of pinhol- imaging (Fig. 4.6). Shen Kuo explained the principle of pinhole- imaging with the so-called “Lattice technique” by the calculator, explained the imaging of pinhole and concave mirror, and opened up a new optical field of “Lattice optics”. In this experiment, the kite is an object, while the shadow is an image of the object.

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Fig. 4.7 Rainbow

The light emitted from the object moves along a straight line and passes through the small holes, so the object looks like moving to the west despite actually moving to the east, and the object looks like moving to the east despite moving to the west. The light looks like an oar, while the small hole is like the pillar of the oar, with the fulcrum staying unmoved. The head and tail move in the opposite direction. According to the experiment, he accurately pointed out the linear relationship among objects, holes and images. In the wake of “On Mo”, “Mengxi Records from Conversation” once again brilliantly elaborates the phenomenon of “Tower-shadow inversion”. Shen Kuo explained the basic principle of optical imaging, believing that “Tower-shadow inversion” was the result of the aforementioned pinhole-imaging.3 The discussion on the focus of the bronze mirror in “Mengxi Records from Conversation”, the explanation of the imaging of the plane mirror and convex mirror through the optical path of the light rays in the focus, the account of the mechanism and technology of “the transparent mirror”, the description of rainbow-dispersion, the interference and diffraction color of oil film as well as the cold light, etc., are all extremely valuable documents in the history of science and technology, having played an important role in inheriting and promoting the development of optical science. In terms of atmospheric optics, Shen Kuo recorded in detail his on-the-spot observation of the rainbow (Fig. 4.7), recorded the conditions under which the rainbow appeared “after rain passes through sunny days”, the orientation of the rainbow appeared “in opposition to the sun”, observed the direction of the rainbow “against the sun”, and explained the cause of the “rainbow as the shadow of the sun in the rain”. This was more than 200 years earlier than Bacon’s explanation of rainbow (1214–1294 A.D.) in England.4 3 (Song)

Shen Kuo: “Mengxi Records from Conversation”, Shanghai: Shanghai Bookstore Publishing House, 2003, p. 16. 4 (Song) Shen Kuo: “Meng Xi Bi Tan” Shanghai: Shanghai Bookstore Publishing House, 2003, p. 177.

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Fig. 4.8 Mirage

Shen Kuo also recorded the phenomenon of mirage (Fig. 4.8) in “Mengxi Records from Conversation”. Mirage is an interesting atmospheric optical phenomenon that can be seen quite easily at sea or in deserts. Shen Kuo visited local elderly and made records in line with the facts. Science and technology explained the legendary phenomenon that “Sounds of horses, chariots, people and animals can be distinguished one by one”, instead of “Ghosts and gods pass through the air at night”. This shows that as a rigorous scientist, Shen Kuo paid attention to the on-the-spot investigation and did not believe rumors due to his scientific spirit of seeking truth from facts.5 Shen Kuo recorded movable type printing in detail in his “Mengxi Records from Conversation”, as an important historical material for the invention and development of printing in our country and also an important historical material for the development of image science and technology. During the Sui and Tang Dynasties (around the 7th century), engraved printing appeared in China, but it was only used to print Buddha statues, sutras, almanacs, etc. At present, the earliest engraved printed book with definite date found in the world was6 “The Diamond Sutra”, printed on a carved plate in a collection discovered in the Ten-Thousand Buddha Cave in Dunhuang county, Gansu Province in 1900, which is inscribed with such words as “Wang Jie made it for his two relatives on April 15, the 9th year of Xiantong”. “The 9th year of Xiantong” was 868 A.D., in the Tang Dynasty in China. On the front part of the scroll is a title- painting, depicting Sakyamuni’s exposition of Buhhdist sutras to Lonely Garden under a tree, while the rest is printed with the full text of the 5 (Song) Shen Kuo: “Mengxi Bitan”, Shanghai: Shanghai Bookstore Publishing House, 2003, p. 181. 6 Carter

(USA): “The Invention of Chinese Printing and its Spread to West”, translated by Wu Zeyan, the 1st Edition in 1957, the 4th Printing in 1991, Chap. 8 of “The Earliest Engraved BookThe Diamond Sutra in the Ninth year of Xiantong”. The Diamond Sutra is now preserved in the British Museum.

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Diamond Sutra. “Mengxi Records from Conversation” records that “Board-printed books were not popular in the Tang Dynasty. After Feng Yingwang began to print the Five Buhhdist Classics, all the ancient books and records were written on boards. In the Qingli calendar, there was a common-folk named Bi Sheng who invented the letterpress.” Engraved printing was then a new development in the reproduction of image machines and tools. Engraved printing books existed in the Tang Dynasty but were not popular. Engraved printing developed to its peak in the Northern Song Dynasty, in Shen Kuo’s time. Bi Sheng, “a common-folk”, invented the printing of movable type printing at this time. Printing was a leap forward in the technology of copying images by machines and tools, as a great contribution of China to world culture. With printing introduced into Europe, it strongly promoted the Renaissance and religious reform. Printing has a far-reaching influence on the cultural development of China, Europe and even the world. It is one of the greatest inventions in human history.7 Zheng Qiao and “A Brief History · A Brief Atlas” As a historian and bibliographer in the Southern Song Dynasty, Zheng Qiao (1104– 1162, Fig. 4.9), styled as Yu Zhong, was a native of Xinghuajuntian (present-day Putian, Fujian Province). Coming from a scholarly family, he was well influenced and educated by his family at an early age. Instead of attending the imperial examination in his whole life, he was determined to read all the ancient and modern books, working hard at study for 30 years and devoting his whole life to academic research. He made quite high achievements in his research of Confucian classics, etiquettes, music, linguistics, natural science, philology and historiography,etc. Zheng Qiao’s representative work “General History” is a great work involving many fields of knowledge, with a total of 200 volumes in three parts: biography, spectrum and outline. Among them, “Twenty Outlines” has 52 volumes, as the essence of the whole book. The first draft of this book completed in 1152, can be called as the earliest encyclopedia in the world. Since ancient times in China, there has been a saying of “drawing scriptures and writing latitudes”, believing that books and pictures are complementary to each other. But people of following generations often focus on books instead of pictures. In “A Brief History · A Brief Atlas”, Zheng Qiao elaborated in detail the role of iconology in understanding things, discussed the necessity and importance of “image” and “text” in learning, cognition, recording, explanation and interpretation, and proposed that the “essence” of scholarly research was to read pictures and books together. Among them, “Cable Image”, “Original Study” and “Overt Use” as three special topics illustrate the picture- book relationship and use “Record” to describe the remaining maps at that time. “Record Nothing” was used to record lost maps, while “Remember” and “Remember Nothing” contain 381 patterns and pedigrees of various kinds.

7 (Shen

Kuo: “Mengxi Records from Conversation”, Shanghai: Shanghai Bookstore Publishing House, 2003, p. 153.

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Fig. 4.9 Zheng Qiao drawn by Cheng Nailian

With his strict logic and vivid strokes, Zheng Qiao discussed the function, value and significance of maps in a simple and in-depth way, and established the theoretical system of atlases. This was the first comprehensive summary of the cognitive function of ancient Chinese atlases, and also the earliest systematic theory of atlas- research in the world. Zheng Qiao’s graphic thoughts laid an ideological foundation for the emergence of a large number of scientific and technological works with atlases in later generations, while having also established the historical position of atlas-study. Three articles of “Cable Image”, “Original Study” and “Overt Use” are quoted along with a brief explanation to express respect for this world-class scientist and entertain readers. Note: The following writing form of ancient Chinese on the “Cable Image” has been turned into the writing form of modern Chinese together with translation. 河出图,天地有自然之象;洛出书,天地有自然之理。天地出此二物以示圣人,使 百代宪章必本于此而不可偏废者也。图,经也;书,纬也。一经一纬,相错而成文 。图,植物也;书,动物也。一动一植,相须而成变化。见书不见图,闻其声而不见 其形;见图不见书,见其人不闻其语。图,至约也;书,至博也。即图而求易,即书 而求难。学者为学有要,置图于左,置书于右,索象于图,索理于书。故人亦易为 学,学亦易为功,举而措之,如执左契。后之学者离图即书,尚辞务说,故人亦难为

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学,学亦难为功,虽平日胸中有千章万卷,及真之行事之间,则茫然不知所向。秦 人虽弃儒学,亦未尝弃图书,诚以为国之具,不可一日无也。萧何知取天下易,守 天下难,当众人争取之时,何则入咸阳,先取秦图书以为守计。一旦干戈既定,文 物悉张,故萧何定律令而刑罚清。韩信申军法而号令明,张苍定章程而典故有 伦,叔孙通制礼仪而名分有别。且髙祖以马上得之,一时间武夫役徒知诗书为 何物?而此数公又非老师宿儒博通古今者,若非图书有在指掌可明见,则一代之 典未易举也。然是时挟书之律未除,屋壁之藏不启,所谓书者有,无非按图之效 也。后世书籍既多,儒生接武,及乎议一典礼,有如聚讼,玩岁愒日,纷纷纭纭。纵 有所获,披一斛而得一粒,所得不偿劳矣。何为其然?歆向之罪,上通扵天。汉 初典籍无纪,刘氏创意总括羣书,分为七略,只收书不收图,艺文之目,逓相因习。 故天禄兰台三馆四库内外之藏,但闻有书而已,萧何之图自此委地。后之人将 慕刘班之不暇,故图消而书日盛。惟任宏校兵书一类,分为四种,有书五十三家, 有图四十三卷,载在七略,独异于他。宋齐之间,群书失次,王俭于是作七志以为 之纪,六志收书,一志专收图谱,谓之图谱志。不意末学而有此作也,且有专门之 书,则有专门之学。有专门之学,则其学必传,而书亦 不失。任宏之略,刘歆不能 广之;王俭之志,阮孝绪不能续之。孝绪作七录,散图而归部录,杂谱而归记注。 盖积书犹调兵也,聚则易固,散则易亡。积书犹赋粟也,聚则易赢,散则易乏。按 任宏之图与书相等,王俭之志自当七之一。孝绪之录,虽不専收犹有总记,内 篇有图七百七十卷,外篇有图百卷,未知谱之如何耳。隋家藏书,富于古今,然图 谱无所系,自此以来,荡然无纪。 至今虞夏商周秦汉上代之书具在,而图无传焉 。图既无传,书复日多,兹学者之难成也。天下之事不务行而务说,不用图谱可 也,若欲成天下之事业,未有无图谱而可行于世者。作图谱略。 [Explanation] In the article “Cable Image”, the author expounded why he made a brief atlas. The so-called “Cable Image” refers to the research and exploration of physical atlas, which is supported by literature. This article “Debate on the Academic Chapter” serves to trace its origin. First of all, it is pointed out that “The river comes out of the atlas, while heaven and earth have the image of nature. Luo published ‘The Book’, while heaven and earth have the principle of nature. heaven and earth originate from these two things to show saints, so that the charter of a hundred generations must be based on this and cannot be neglected.” Zheng Qiao attributed the source of the atlas to “The River-Map”. According to relevant historical records, “The River-Map” was obtained by Fuxi 5,000 years ago with Eight Diagrams drawn accordingly. The “Luo Book” was obtained by Dayu. Although historical records at that time were not so conclusive, they were generally consistent with the situation of which came first, pictures or words. The atlas long emerged as a means for people to transmit information. Then he expounded and discussed the importance of “Atlas” from different angles and levels. He said: “Ancient scholars have important requirements for learning: to put pictures on the left and books on the right. The cable image is in the picture, with principles in the book. Therefore, it is easy for people to learn, and learning can also be successful easily. There will be books if there are no pictures. Therefore, it is

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difficult to learn, and learning is difficult.” He added: “The picture is the same as the agreement. Books are the most abundant. That is to say, it is easy to seek pictures, but difficult to seek books.” Zheng Qiao explained the important significance and function of atlas in “learning for learning” from both positive and negative aspects, and also explained the reason why “seeking changes from atlas”. Zheng Qiao stressed in particular: “Although the Qin people abandoned Confucianism, they did not abandon books. They sincerely believed that they were the tools of the country and could not live without them for a day.” He added: “What is going on in the world is not to be done but to be said. There is no need to figure out what to do. If you want to make a success of your cause in the world, no one can realize it in the world without a map.” This shows that the map of “ruling the country and governing the country” is also essential. This is also confirmed by historical facts. During the Chu-Han strife, when Xiao He entered Xianyang, he “took Qin books first.” Had it not been for the presence of pictures and books to be seen clearly, the canon of a generation would not have been easy to be mentioned. However, the law of carrying books has not been removed, and the hidden walls of the house cannot be opened. How many readers are there? It is nothing more than the effect of following the map. As he said in the “Preface to the Chronicle”: Those with great ambition won’t do without books, and those who read books won’t do without maps. The maps contain images while books contain systems. Because of pictures, we know far and near. Because of books, we have insight into ancient and modern times. At the same time, it shows that he realized that pictures, like words, are also a kind of “language”. That is, according to the viewpoint of modern information theories, all patterns are the carriers of information, i.e. graphic information. In the development of human society and science and technology, pictures have played a huge role which cannot be replaced by languages and texts. Pictures are more intuitive than words. Zheng Qiao also used a series of vivid and appropriate metaphors to illustrate the relationship between “pictures” and “books”, i.e. seeing books but not pictures, such as “Hearing their sounds but not their shapes” and “Seeing pictures but not books”, it is like seeing the person but not his speech. This vividly reveals the inseparable relationship between the two. This is exactly Zheng Qiao’s penetrating judgment. He added: “The picture is the longitude. The book is the latitude. A longitude and a latitude lead to the text.” “Pictures” and “Books” complement each other and cannot be neglected. He added, “The picture is the plant. The book is the animal. Statics and dynamics result in changes.” The complementary relationship between the two was pointed out. Zheng Qiao made a comprehensive and systematic summary of the role and importance of maps with irrefutable philosophy, having broken the academic atmosphere of “Knowing books but not knowing pictures” before the Song Dynasty and laid an ideological foundation for the emergence of a large number of graphic monographs in later generations.

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Zheng Qiao demonstrated the relationship between pictures and books, with his demonstration called “Pictures on the left and books on the right” and well as “Seeking images from maps and seeking principles from books” in history. It is an important method for ancient and modern scholars to do scholarly research and read history. However, ancient people, when compiling bibliographies, emphasized books and gave up maps. Zheng Qiao also commented on how predecessors treated the atlas in “A Brief History · A Brief Atlas”. Most of his comments are appropriate and objective. For example, he praised Wang Jian’s “Seven Records” which included “On Atlases” with exclusive collection of atlases. Although Ruan Xiaoxu’s “Seven Records” includes “Books” and “Maps” simultaneously, Wang Jian had critical remarks on the “atlas” scattered in various sections. However, some of them are demanding on their predecessors with radical comments, such as “Do military men and servants know what poems and books are?” However, his achievements and contributions can not be negated. Note: The following writing form of ancient Chinese on the “Original Study” has been turned into the writing form of modern Chinese together with translation. 何为三代之前学术如彼,三代之后学术如此?汉微有遗风,魏晋以降日以陵夷。 非后人之用心不及前人之用心,实后人之学术不及前人之学术也。后人学术难 及,大槩有二:一者义理之学,二者辞章之学。义理之学尚攻击,辞章之学务雕捜 。耽义理者,则以辞章之士为不达渊源;玩辞章者,则以义理之士为无文彩。要 之,辞章虽富如朝霞晚照,徒焜耀人耳目;义理虽深如空谷寻声,靡所底止。二者 殊涂而同归,是皆从事于语言之末而非为实学也。所以学术不及三代,又不及 汉者,抑有由也。以图谱之学不传,则实学尽化为虚文矣。其间有屹然特立风 雨不移者,一代得一二人,实一代典章文物法度纪纲之盟主也。然物希则价难 平,人希则人罕识,世无图谱,人亦不识图谱之学。张华晋人也,汉之宫室,千门万 户,其应如响,时人服其博物。张华固博物矣,此非博物之效也,见汉宫室图焉。 武平一唐人也,问以鲁三桓郑七穆春秋族系,无有遗者,时人服其明春秋。平一 固熟扵春秋矣,此非明春秋之效也,见春秋世族谱焉。使华不见图,虽读尽汉人 之书,亦莫知前代宫室之出处;使平一不见谱,虽诵春秋如建瓴水,亦莫知古人氏 族之始终。当时作者,后世史臣,皆不知其学之所自,况他人乎!臣旧亦不之知, 及见杨佺期洛京图,方省张华之由;见杜预公子谱,方觉平一之故,由是益知图谱 之学,学术之大者。且萧何刀笔吏也,知炎汉一代宪章之所自,歆向大儒也,父子 纷争扵言句之末,以计较毫厘得失而失其学术之大体。何秦人之典萧何能收扵 草昧之初,萧何之典歆向不能纪于承平之后?是所见有异也。逐鹿之人意在扵 鹿,而不知有山;求鱼之人意在于鱼,而不知有水。刘氏之学,意在章句,故知有书 而不知有图。呜呼,图谱之学絶纽,是谁之过与! [Explanation] In this article, the author analyzes the reasons why present-day academic research is not as good as it used to be. First of all, Zheng Qiao believed that the academic research after the third generation was not as good as that before the third generation,

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and that it was not as good as that of the third generation in the Han Dynasty. In the wake of the Wei and Jin Dynasties, it had been declining day by day. He pointed out in response to the style of study at that time, the reason why the academic performance of later generations was not as good as that of the predecessors was that the two were paranoid with attack against each other. “Those who indulge in righteousness and reasoning take those that use righteousness and reason as their origin, while those that play with righteousness and reasoning take those that use righteousness and reasoning as the lack of literary color”, all of which are “engaged in the end of language rather than practical learning”. In addition to the reasons for the style of study at that time, there was another important reason: “If the study of atlas is not passed on, the real study will turn into empty text!” Zheng Qiao also listed people and events in history for his illustration. He took Zhang Hua, an architect of the Jin Dynasty, as an example when explaining the importance of maps. He believed that Zhang Hua knew all about the offices and thousands of households in the Han Dynasty, and answered Emperor Wu’s question: “He can answer like a flow, the listener forgets to be tired, draws a picture, and belongs to the left and right”. The key lies in his memorization of the “Han-Palace Map”. Another example is that Wu Pingyi of the Tang Dynasty “asked Lu Sanhuan, Zheng Qimu, the Spring and Autumn clan, and there was no legacy” because Wu saw the Spring and Autumn Genealogy. If “Chinese haven’t seen the atlas, despite reading all the Han books, they don’t know the whereabout of the royal palace of previous generation. If you haven’t seen the atlas, despite reciting the Spring and Autumn Annals, you don’t know the whole history of the ancient clan.” This is also the reason why Zheng Qiao learned only after seeing Yang Quanqi’s “Luojing Map” and Du Yu’s “Childe Spectrum”. “ It is beneficial to know the atlas, as a very important academic thing.” Since ancient scholars long formed the reading tradition of “Pictures on the left and books on the right”, why was there the disadvantage of “seeing books but not pictures” in the Song Dynasty? If tracing the source, we can find that books were included instead of maps when Liu Xiang and Liu Xin compiled the “Seven Briefings” in the Eastern Han Dynasty. Although Liu Xiang and his son were great scholars in the Han Dynasty, they attached importance to books and neglected pictures. “Disputes take place in words and sentences in consideration of the gain and loss, but with the importance of the academic study lost”. It is just like “Hunters only chase after deer, but do not know about mountains and fishermen only think about getting fish but do not know about water”, which vividly illustrates the bias of “Liu’s study is only centered around words and sentences, i..e. books but not pictures”. Note: The following writing form of ancient Chinese on the “Overt Use” has been turned into the writing form of modern Chinese together with translation.

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善为学者，如持军治狱。若无部伍之法，何以得书之纪?若无核实之法,何以 得书之情?今总天下之书,古今之学术,而条其所以为图谱之用者十有六:一曰天 文,二曰地理,三曰宫室,四曰器用,五曰车旗,六曰衣裳,七曰坛兆,八曰都邑,九曰 城筑,十曰田里,十一曰会计,十二曰法制,十三曰班爵,十四曰古今,十五曰名物, 十六曰书,凡此十六类。有书无图,不可用也。人生覆载之间,而不知天文地理, 此学者之大患也。在天成象,在地成形,星辰之次舍,日月之往来,非图无以见天 之象;山川之纪,夷夏之分,非图无以见地之形。天官有书,书不可以仰观;地理 有志,志不可以俯察,故曰天文地理无图有书不可用也。稽之人事,有宫室之制, 有宗庙之制,有明堂辟雍之制,有居庐琧室之制,有台省府寺之制,有庭溜户牗之 制。凡宫室之属,非图无以作室。有尊彛爵斝之制,有簠簋爼豆之制,有弓矢 钺 之制,有圭璋壁琮之制,有玺节之制,有金鼓之制,有棺椁之制,有重主之制,有明 器祭器之制,有钩盾之制。凡器用之属,非图无以制器。为车旗者,则有车舆之 制,有骖服之制,有 旐之制,有仪卫卤簿之制,非图何以明章程?为衣服者,则有弁 冕之制,有衣裳之制,有屦舄之制,有笄总之制,有襚含之制,有杖绖之制,非图何 以明制度?为坛域者,则有坛之制,有邱泽之制,有社稷之制,有兆域之制,大小高 深之形非图不能辨。为都邑者,则有京辅之制,有郡国之制,有闾井之制,有市朝 之制,有蕃服之制,内外重轻之势,非图不能纪。为城筑者,则有郛郭之制,有苑囿 之制,有台门魏阙之制,有营垒斥(候)之制,非图无以眀关要。为田里者,则有夫 家之制,有沟洫之制,有原隰之制,非图无以别经界。为会计者,则有货泉之制,有 贡赋之制,有户口之制,非图无以知本末。法有制,非图无以定其制。爵有班,非 图无以正其班。有五刑,有五服,五刑之属有适轻适重,五服之别有大宗小宗。 权量所以同,四海规矩所以正,百工五声八音十二律有节,三歌六舞有序,昭夏肆 夏宫陈轩陈,皆法制之目也,非图不能举。内而公卿大夫,外而州牧侯伯,贵而妃 嫔,贱而妾媵,官有品,命有数,禄秩有多 寡,考课有殿最,缫籍有数,玉帛有等,上下 异仪,尊卑异事,皆班爵之序也,非图不能举要。通古今者,不可以不识三统五运, 而三统之数、五运之纪,非图无以通要。别名物者,不可以不识虫鱼草木,而虫 鱼之形、草木之状,非图无以别要。明书者,不可以不识文字音韵,而音韵之清 浊、文字之子母,非图无以明。凡此十六种,可以类举。为学者而不知此,则章 句无所用,为治者而不知此,则纲纪文物无所施。 [Explanation] From the theoretical perspective, “Cable Image” and “Original Study” have made indepth exploration into the generation, circulation, important significance and value of “Atlas”, while “Overt Use” has expounded its functions and roles in the application of “Atlas” in practice. On the basis of abundant data and previous achievements, the author has systematically summarized the application of maps in various fields through his own careful research and screening, including 16 aspects such as astronomy, geography, royal palace, utensils, domain construction, accounting, legal system, etc. However, “These 16 categories are only written in books without maps.” Then, he has explained the reasons one by one: “Life goes on and on, but ignorance of astronomy and geography is a great disaster for a scholar. Images are formed in the sky and on the earth. Stars, the sun and the moon as astronomical phenomena cannot be seen without pictures. Mountains and rivers as well as the location of foreign countries and China cannot be differentiated without pictures. The books of heavenly, earthly and water deities

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cannot be admired. Geography has ambition that cannot be overlooked. Therefore, it is said: Astronomy and geography cannot be used if they are only written in books without pictures.” Another example is: “All rooms in royal palaces cannot be regarded as rooms without pictures”, “All utensils cannot be made without pictures”, “The size and shape of altars cannot be distinguished without pictures.” Zheng Qiao’s exposition was the first comprehensive summary of the cognitive function of ancient Chinese graphics. Reasons should be stated for each of the 16 types of applications in the Atlas. Some are distinguished in specifications and styles of structure, some are described regarding different uses of various utensils, some are distinguished regarding the ancient laws and systems, and some are distinguished regarding internal and external differences and the trends of weight. Regarding the tax system, some are distinguished regarding the social hierarchy, some are distinguished regarding different melodies, some require understanding of clear and turbid phonology and the sequence of words, and some need to be understood regarding “the difference between the upper and lower levels as well as the difference between the superior and the inferior” Some need to know the names and species of plants, insects and fish. At the end of the article, the author also stressed in particular: “If scholars do not know these, the chapters and sentences are useless. If the ruler does not know these, laws and cultural relics will be helpless.” All these can be dealt with by pictures. Without pictures, people will be at a loss or even have no idea at all. Zhao Youqin and “The New Book on Reformed Images” As a scholar in the late Song Dynasty and the early Yuan Dynasty (from the middle of the 13th century to the middle of the 14th century, Fig. 4.10), Zhao Youqin, respectively styled as Qin, Zi Gong and Yuandu, was a native of Poyang (presentday Poyang, Jiangxi Province). In the late Southern Song Dynasty, in order to avoid disaster, he escaped from home, became a Taoist and later settled down in Jiming Mountain, Longyou (present-day Longyou, Quxian County, Zhejiang Province), and built an observatory (also known as the Star Observatory) on the mountain to observe astronomical phenomena. He had extensive knowledge with deep research into astronomy, mathematics and optics. He was the first person in our country in carrying out large-scale experiments on the straight light, small-hole imaging and illumination. His “The New Book on Reformed Images” mainly deals with optics and mathematics with many incisive opinions. The book records many of his observations, experimental process and research results in detail. He attached great importance to exploring natural laws from objective reality. When studying physics problems, he applied reasoning while making experiments, and conducted experiments while making analysis. The section of “Small Crevices” (Fig. 4.11) as he called, records the largest and most comprehensive small-hole imaging experiment designed by him in the Middle Ages. The experimental arrangement was very reasonable and orderly in depth step by step. Through this experiment, he made profound and detailed observation and research on direct light penetration, pinhole imaging and illumination. His experimental design was the first in the history of world physics. The turn of the 13th

44 Fig. 4.10 Zhao Youqin drawn by Cheng Nailian

Fig. 4.11 The schematic diagram of Zhao Youqin’s experiments

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to the 14th centuries can be regarded a period of the largest and most comprehensive optical experiment in the Middle Ages in terms of the laboratory scale, the number of candles, detailed experimental procedures and correct conclusions of qualitative experiments.

Chapter 5

The Integration Stage of Image Science and Technology

The Ming and Qing Dynasties and the Republic of China (1368–1949) were the integration stage of Chinese image science and technology. Judging from the level of development of world science and technology, China’s science and technology in the Ming and Qing Dynasties were obviously backward compared with the world’s modern science and technology which had been advancing by leaps and bounds in the West at that time. If so, this period can be called the “decline period” of China’s image science and technology. Judging from the development of science and technology in China, Compared with the heyday of the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the development of science and technology, especially the development of image optics, still maintains its continuity, and its progress is even quicker than that of the Song and Yuan Dynasties. This is because of the absorption and integration of advanced Western science and technology. Therefore, this period should be called the “Integration stage of development” of Chinese image science and technology. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, China’s feudal system gradually aged. After the middle of the Ming Dynasty, the emperor was fatuous, the official governance was corrupt, the class contradictions became increasingly sharp, the peasant uprisings broke out one after another, and the newly rising regime in northern China launched invasion continuously. In 1644, the Ming Dynasty perished under the attack of internal and external strifes. The Qing Dynasty, which followed the Ming Dynasty, was the last feudal dynasty in China, totaling 268 years. The Qing Dynasty gradually reached its peak under Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong reigns, with scientific and technological development and economic prosperity. The Qianlong reign was the peak of the prosperity of the Qing Dynasty and the starting point of its decline. The subsequent Qing emperors pursued a closed-door policy. Various social contradictions became increasingly acute and China gradually deviated from the ranks of advanced countries in the world. Capitalism in China sprouted after the middle of the Ming Dynasty. Despite having promoted the development of production and science and technology, it was not strong. During the same period, the rapid development of capitalism in Europe finally

© Science Press 2021 C. Han, A Brief History of Image Science and Technology in China, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-6922-1_5

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led to the industrial revolution and the birth of modern science and technology. The level of science and technology far surpassed that of China which was still developing slowly on the traditional track. Along with the opening of world trade channels and industrialized production, the wealth and strength of Western countries increased rapidly. The powerful Western military forces were increasingly threatening the declining Qing Dynasty, having finally opened the door to China with guns in the Opium War of 1840. During the period from the Opium War in 1840 to the founding of New China in 1949, China had been in a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society. The Ming and Qing Dynasties became the period of summary and preparation for the transformation of traditional Chinese culture. The culture of the late Qing Dynasty became the summary of the development of traditional Chinese culture, while starting the prelude of the development of modern culture. From the Opium War in the late Qing Dynasty in 1840 to the death of the Qing Dynasty in 1912 and the establishment of the Republic of China, China had experienced the transformation from a feudal society to a democratic society, during which imperialist aggression, warlord scuffles and social unrest occurred. In the history of national development in China, this period of history was the history of sufferings on the part of Chinese and the history of Chinese resistance to aggression. However, science and technology in China had been continuously developing in this crevice and turmoil. Chinese people reached a new height in the theoretical exploration and practice of image science and technology. The internal cause was the joint efforts of the practice of revolutionary bourgeoisie of salvaging the nation through industry and the strong desire of a vast number of patriotic intellectuals and patriots to defend the country and become a powerful nation in promoting, learning from and introducing advanced Western science and technology. The external cause was that the strong “Westernized wind” continued to “spread eastward” and brought advanced scientific and technological civilization after the Western Industrial Revolution into China. Internal and external factors jointly resulted in a “chaotic and unruly” cultural and ideological state in China in this period. Various doctrines and concepts competed and collided with one another freely. On the contrary, the research space for individual explorers of Chinese image science and technology was very free. The independence of individual research and the openness of international exchanges became two major characteristics of scientific and technological researchers in this period. Especially during the period of the new democratic revolution marked by the May 4th Patriotic Movement in 1919, The New Cultural Movement with the slogan of “science” and “democracy” guided the Chinese people with the idea of “valuing culture and belittling industry” since ancient times to really attach importance to advocating the technology and science belonging to “industry”, hence greatly promoting the introduction, learning and sustainable integration of advanced foreign science and technology in our country. Photography was introduced into China during this period, and the Chinese course of image science and technology was connected with the international course of

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image science and technology. Numerous identical photos could be reproduced from photographic negatives at the moment of solidification, which also transferred the past fleeting and irreparable optical images via traditional machine and tool image reproduction technology during this period. Generally speaking, the nearly 600 years from the Ming and Qing Dynasties to the Republic of China was a very complicated, tortuous and important stage in the history of development of science and technology in China, as a period of gradual transition from tradition to modern times. Under the social background of internal and external troubles and wars, Chinese scientists and skillful craftsmen developed in a breakthrough way in the integration of Chinese and Western science and technology by inheriting traditional Chinese science and technology and learning from advanced Western science and technology, by way of study and exploration and mastery comprehensively. The Ming Dynasty inherited the tradition of science and technology of the Song and Yuan Dynasties. Some scientists with outstanding talents made great contributions to science and technology and scored outstanding achievements, such as Li Shizhen, Fang Yizhi, Song Yingxing, Tao Zongyi, etc. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, there were also some summary-based scientific and technological works, such as Song Yingxing’s “Heavenly Creation”, Fang Yizhi’s “Small Knowledge of Physics”, Zheng Guangzu’s “One-Spot Record” and so on. The optical knowledge mentioned in the medical and herbal works of this period was also attractive. For example, Li Shizhen kept many kinds of lost ancient mineral medicine and optical knowledge in his great pharmaceutical work named Compendium of Materia Medica. Wang Kentang’s “Criteria for Syndrome and Treatment” records crystal optical phenomena, problems related to eyes and vision, etc. Song Yingxing, a famous scientist in the Song Yingxing (about 1587–1661, Fig. 5.1), wrote “Heavenly Creation” which is recognized as a great work of science and technology in the world. The book records a lot of optical knowledge, such as “Heavenly Creation · Pearl Jade ·Jade”: “Only in the Western world, there is unique jade which is white at ordinary times, red in sunny days and cyan in rainy days. This can be described as a jade demon, and it is still available.” It means that at a place called Sori in the West, there was unique jade which is white at ordinary times, red in sunny days and cyan in rainy days. This is a kind of unique jade, and only this kind of jade was found in the royal court at that time. What is recorded here is actually the phenomenon of crystal discoloration and color change. In the early Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western missionaries spread Western scientific and technological knowledge while preaching in China, which had a great impact on traditional Chinese science and technology. It is generally believed that the period from Matteo Ricci, an Italian Jesuit, (1552–1610) coming to China to the reign of Yongzheng in the Qing Dynasty was the beginning of the introduction of Western science and technology into China. Physics accounted for a certain proportion of modern scientific and technological knowledge introduced into China from the West, and the optical part of physics accounted for a large proportion. Scientific and technological knowledge introduced was both theoretical and instrumental.

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Fig. 5.1 Song Yingxing drawn by Cheng Nailian

After the introduction of modern Western physics knowledge into China, many Chinese scientists confirmed experimental results. For example, when Xu Shou, a scientist in the Qing Dynasty, (1818–1884) conducted the experiment of triangular prism beam-splitting, he “was unable to buy triangular prism glass for grinding crystal seals into triangles, and testing seven colors of beam splitting”. Xu Shou also translated and introduced a variety of books on photography. In the process of learning, absorbing and spreading modern optics, Chinese intellectuals combined modern Western optics with traditional Chinese optics and produced some optical achievements with the characteristics of integration of Chinese and Western optical knowledge. These achievements were recorded in various works or translation with their own characteristics, such as Zheng Guangzu’s “One-Spot Records”, Boming’s “Accidental Learning from the West”, Zheng Fuguang’s “On Mirrors”, Zou Boqi’s “Grid Repair”, etc. Among them, the research on optical theories represented by Zheng Fuguang and Zou Boqi in the Qing Dynasty not only inherited the traditional optical knowledge of ancient China, but also fully absorbed Western optical knowledge, having realized the integration of Chinese and Western scientific and technological thoughts in modern China and become a milestone in the history of Chinese optics.

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Fig. 5.2 Bo Ming drawn by Cheng Nailian

Zheng Guangzu made many contributions to optics in the Qing Dynasty. He was a forerunner who successfully combined eastern and Western cultures and ideological methods and made outstanding contributions. His “One-Spot Record” describes natural phenomena such as solar eclipses, clouds, fog, thunder and lightning, rainbows along with his own explanation. As a scholar in the Qing Dynasty, Bo Ming (Fig. 5.2)’s book “Accidental Learning from the West” made a breakthrough in expounding the knowledge of natural science and technology compared with the tradition, especially the optical part is very distinctive. The knowledge of optical imaging in “Accidental Learning from the West” includes the understanding of color perception, the preliminary concept of complementary color, negative posterior image phenomenon, the understanding of the visual characteristics of eyes, the explanation of the causes of myopia and hyperopia of eyes, the principle of correcting myopia and hyperopia with glasses as well as the understanding of pinhole imaging, etc. In the late Ming and the early Qing Dynasties, China made a big step forward in the technology of optical application. Shortly after the introduction of Western optical instruments into China, Chinese soon mastered the technology of making optical instruments such as glasses, magnifying glasses and telescopes. For example, “Theories of Far Mirrors” by German missionary Johann Adam Schall Von Bell (1591–1666) is a translation of “Western Learning” focusing on optical knowledge.

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Fig. 5.3 Sun Yunqiu drawn by Cheng Nailian

It was the first to have introduced the method and usage of telescopes. After the publication of “Theories of Far Mirrors”, China began to develop its own telescopes. By the time of the Opium War, the quality of self-made Chinese glasses had exceeded that of imported ones, such as Sun Yunqiu (active in the 30th till the 60th of the 17th century), Bo Jue (living in the first half of the 17th century) and Huang Lvzhuang (1656–?), Zou Boqi (1819–1869) and other optical instrument manufacturers. They worked hard to study, develop and improve a number of practical photographic equipment and optical instruments. Among them, Bo Jue was the first in the world to have used telescopes in actual combat. Sun Yunqiu and Huang Lvzhuang made many optical instruments, while Zou Boqi was the first in China to have successfully taken portraits with glass-plate photography. In the early Qing Dynasty, Sun Yunqiu (Fig. 5.3) was a master of mirror- making. He made more than 70 kinds of glasses, telescopes and other optical instruments, and wrote China’s first monograph on optical instruments named “History of Mirrors”, which made outstanding contributions to the development of optical and astronomical instruments in China. “History of Mirrors” introduces in detail the manufacturing methods of various mirrors which were very popular and had a great influence on the manufacturing technology of optical instruments at that time. Later, workshops engaged in the glass-handicraft industry all manufactured “glasses” in large quantities according to the methods introduced in the book (Fig. 5.4).

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Fig. 5.4 Glasses Unearthed from Bi Wan’s Tomb in Wu County, Jiangsu Province

In the late Qing Dynasty, Britain launched the First Opium War of invading China in 1840. China was forced to open its doors. A large number of foreign businessmen and missionaries from various countries followed one after another, objectively dredging the channels for the introduction of Western science and technology into China. Daguerre Silver Photography, which was just released in Paris in 1839, was also introduced into China in the 1840s. The invention of photography opened up a new field for human culture and started a new chapter in image technology. The emergence of photography also provided a technical basis for moving images, such as movies. In 1895, movies were also born in Paris, France. The birth of photography and films was breakthrough development of image science and technology, having brought a brand-new feeling to the “horizon” of human beings. Shortly after photography and films were born in the world, China in the war followed suit and started exploration and research related to its continuous development, with considerable achievements. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, there were many outstanding black box makers in our country. For example, as recorded in “Yu Chu New Records” that Huang Lvzhuang in Jiangdu of Jiangsu Province was famous for being good at making optical instruments such as “Lin Hua Mirror” and “Shrinkage Mirror” during Kangxi’s reign in the Qing Dynasty. “Records of Suzhou Government” and “General Records of Hunan Province” respectively record that Bo Yu, a native of Changzhou, and Tan Xuezhi, a native of Qingquan, Hunan Province, were both good at making optical appliances. Huang Lvzhuang, a female scientist in the Qing Dynasty who was greatly praised by Liang Qichao, also produced “A dark box of multi-lens”. They played a great role in promoting the perfection and development of photography technology.

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Fig. 5.5 Portrait of Wu Jingheng

In the early 1850s, Shanghai published a number of translated works on natural science and technology. Among them, “On Light”, jointly translated by British missionary Joseph Edkins (l823–1905) and Zhang Fuxi, was the first book to have systematically introduced modern Western optical knowledge to China. In the 1860s, American missionar Carl T. Kreyer (whose date of birth and death is unknown) and Zhao Yuanyi (1840–1902) jointly translated “On Optics” written by British physicist Ding Fenger’s Optics. The book explained many natural phenomena, described some important experiments, introduced lots of applied knowledge of optics as well as comprehensively and systematically introduced modern Western optical knowledge. In the early 20th century, with the development of photography and continuous improvement of domestic printing conditions, a variety of professional books on photography were published in China. Some of these works were written by Chinese themselves and some were compiled, meeting the urgent needs of domestic lovers of photography. With the popularization of photography, many intellectuals were then willing to talk about photography, which can be seen in many literary works. For example, Wu Jingheng (Fig. 5.5) in the late Qing Dynasty specifically talked about

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photography in the eighth chapter of his popular science novel named “Talking about Ancient and Modern Times”. Some intellectuals also wrote poems praising photography. The popularity of these literary works in China has played a positive role in promoting the development of photography industry across the country. In the early years of the Republic of China, great social transformation brought unprecedented changes to Chinese culture. The rise of the New Cultural Movement promoted the transformation of Chinese culture from ancient times to the present. The influence of foreign culture spurred up the process of Chinese cultural modernization. Workers of science and technology and photographers in China, defying difficulties, actively engaged in the research of image science and technology and achieved many results, some of which were earlier than those of foreign countries and some reaching the advanced level in the world at that time. The Republic of China was the first prosperous period in the history of Chinese photography. The interest and involvement of intellectuals in photography made photography widely popular for the first time in China. At that time, the literary and art circles conducted personalized exploration and judgments on many issues of photography. Photography was tried and evaluated by people from famous painters such as Xu Beihong, Zhang Daqian, Feng Zikai and Qi Baishi to ideological and cultural giants such as Kang Youwei, Lu Xun, Hu Shi and Cai Yuanpei. Cai Yuanpei, Liu Bannong, Zhang Daqian, Hu Shi, Xu Beihong and other leading cultural figures had their own unique views on photography. Many of them also practiced what they preached, expressed their feelings through photography, and created many artistic works of photography. During the period in the Republic of China, the destruction and interference of the war, on the one hand, destroyed China’s science, technology and culture. On the other hand, inspired by patriotism, people displayed unprecedented creativity. Under very difficult conditions, scientific and technological workers and photographers in China have filled in the gaps in the field of domestic image science and technology through their arduous efforts and made contributions to the development of image science and technology in our country. During this period, such scientists as Yan Jici, Wu Dayou and Wang Daheng made outstanding contributions to optics. Yan Jici (Fig. 5.6) made outstanding achievements in the research of image optics. He published more than 50 papers in foreign journals (until the eve of the AntiJapanese War). Among them, the “Influence of Pressure on Photography Sensitivity” written in cooperation with Qian Linzhao was published in the “Weekly of Academy of Sciences” in France. Yan Jici also conducted research on visual theories. His pinhole- imaging experiment was well-organized, simple and very convincing. Wang Daheng (Fig. 5.7) was a well-deserved founder of optical industry in China. He had deep academic attainments in laser technology, space optics, remote sensing technology, instruments and meters, metrology, chromaticity standards and other

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Fig. 5.6 Yan Jici

aspects, having made outstanding contributions to applied optics, especially optical engineering of national defense. His book “Chromaticity in Color TV” solved the problem of color reproduction in color TV at that time, which was of great guiding significance to the development of color TV in China. In terms of theories on photography, Liu Bannong (Fig. 5.8) was the founder. He elaborated his theories on photographic art in his book entitled “Bannong’s Talk on Shadows”. From 1927 to 1949, “Liu’s Theories” had been an important impact on the development of photography in our country. No matter in the theoretical research of photographic art or in the creation of photographic art, he was a pioneer and forerunner, having made outstanding contributions in the history of Chinese photographic art. Figure 5.9 shows his photographic work named “Suburbs”. Photographic science and technology and image publication made great progress during the period in the Republic of China. In 18 years until the outbreak of AntiJapanese War in 1937, there were about 300 kinds of photographic books and photographic albums of various contents edited and published in China, among which about 50 kinds of books on photographic technology were compiled and translated. These photographic publications played a great role in spreading the knowledge of image

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Fig. 5.7 Wang Daheng

science and technology and promoting the development of image science and technology in our country. At the same time, they also preserved a lot of image historical data. Among these works, quite influential ones are: “New Photography” compiled by Du Jiatian in 1913, “A Shortcut to Photography” by Chen Gongzhe in 1917, “A Guide to Photography” by Ouyang Huiqiang in 1923, “A Pocket Photographic Friend” by Gao Weixiang in 1926, later renamed as “An Augmented Photographic Friend”, “Preliminary Photography” by Shu Xincheng in 1929, and “Common Sense of Photography” by Wu Yinxian (Fig. 5.10) in 1939, etc. Image science equipment and optical instruments are the foundation of image science and technology, playing an important and sometimes even decisive role in the development of image science and technology. Former scientists and photographers in China had a full understanding of the functions of photographic appliances and equipment, so they threw themselves into practice in making such hardware, exerted a lot of painstaking efforts, and made many inventions and improvements, such as the “Three Colors and One Camera” and “Jinghua Ring Camera (i.e. Panorama camera)” successfully developed by photographer Qian Jinghua (Fig. 5.11). Qian Jinghua developed the “Three Colors and One Camera” as early as in the 1920s. Germany’s Wilhlm Brempl did not develop the “Wilhlm Brempl One Exposure

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Fig. 5.8 Liu Bannong

Fig. 5.9 “Suburbs”, 1891–1934, taken by Liu Bannong

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Fig. 5.10 Wu Yinxian in Yan’an

Fig. 5.11 Taken by Jinghua Ring Camera (the original photo was 29 inches long and 7.5 inches high)

Camera” until 1934 and improved it five years later. Qian Jinghua’s “Three Colors and One Camera” was about four or five years earlier than Brunbohr’s initial product and about ten years earlier than his improved product. In addition, photographic artist Zhang Yinquan developed a very popular small reflector box that could take 17 negatives with 120 films, etc. These achievements were earlier than those of foreign countries, and some reached the advanced level in the world at that time. The most outstanding and representative classics on image science and technology in this period were Li Shizhen’s “Compendium of Materia Medica” in the Ming

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Fig. 5.12 Li Shizhen drawn by Cheng Nailian

Dynasty, Fang Yizhi’s “Some Knowledge of Physics” in the Ming Dynasty, Zheng Fuguang’s “On Mirrors” in the Qing Dynasty and Zou Boqi’s “Grid Repair” in the Qing Dynasty. Li Shizhen and his “Compendium of Materia Medica” Li Shizhen (1518–1593, Fig. 5.12) styled himself as Dongbi, Binhu and Binhu Mountain in his late years. He was born in Qizhou, Hubei Province (present-day Qizhou Town, Qichun County, Huanggang, Hubei Province). He was the most famous medical scientist, pharmacologist and naturalist in the Ming Dynasty in China. Li Shizhen came from a doctor family. At the age of 24, he gave up the imperial examination and concentrated on studying medicine. He opened his heart to his father: “My body is like a boat against the current, and my heart is stronger than the iron and stone. I hope you will let me fulfil my ambition, and I will not be afraid of difficulties until I die.” He studied hard and soon mastered the methods of curing diseases and became a very famous doctor. As he believed, to be a good doctor,not only should one understand medical theories, but also pharmacology. He found many problems in the ancient cursive script in his clinical practice and was determined to sort out these books.

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Fig. 5.13 Fang Yizhi drawn by Cheng Nailian

“Compendium of Materia Medica” is a medical and pharmaceutical work written by Li Shizhen in a period of 27 years with reference to more than 800 kinds of medical and pharmaceutical books of past dynasties and in combination with his own experience, investigation and research. It took him 12 years to have revised it three times after it was completed. “Compendium of Materia Medica” is a summary-based masterpiece of ancient Chinese pharmacology, having received extremely high evaluation at home and abroad. Many lost ancient mineral medicines and their optical knowledge are preserved in the book. Li Shizhen once made an in-depth investigation into the “Bodhisattva Stone” i.e. “Crystal”, described the phenomenon of crystal light-splitting, and drew illustrations of the appearance of the Bodhisattva Stone. “Compendium of Materia Medica” also records optical phenomena such as the method of taking fire with the bronze mirror and fire beads and the causes of mirages as optical phenomena. Fang Yizhi and “Some Knowledge of Physics” Styled respectively as Mizi, Mangong, Luqi and Longmianyuzhe, Fang Yizhi (1611– 1671, Fig. 5.13), born in Tongcheng of Anhui Province, was a famous philosopher and scientist in the Ming Dynasty. He was gifted and intelligent. When he was young, he followed his father to have travelled to famous mountains and great rivers.

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In his young age, he read extensively, having absorbed scientific, technological and cultural knowledge introduced from the West. He had quite profound attainments in philosophy, literature, phonology, history, astronomy, mathematics, medicine, fine arts, etc. He began to write “Some Knowledge of Physics” at the age of 20, the time of war in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties. He “wrote books in chaos and also worked with his staff”. It took him 22 years to finish writing. Fang Yizhi’s “Some Knowledge of Physics” is a notebook that integrates natural knowledge during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It involves many disciplines such as astronomy, geography, physics, biology and medicine, especially the phenomena of light, sound and fluid in physics which were recorded by his predecessors, but were not recorded by his predecessors. In the book, philosophical explanations are given to atmospheric optical phenomena such as material luminescence, light propagation, shadow formation and mirage, especially the theory of simple light-wave which we call a “Gas-light wave theory”. Fang Yizhi explained his proposition of “Light is fat and shadow is thin” on the basis of “The theory of gas and light fluctuation”. He believed that light would always invade the shadow-range of geometric optics in the process of propagation, expanding the light-area and narrowing the shadow-area. These are all unprecedented academic contributions. “Some Knowledge of Physics” on the light dispersion, reflection and refraction, as well as sound occurrence, propagation, reflection, resonance, insulation, specific gravity, magnetic effect and many other issues are all excellent. “Some Knowledge of Physics” inherits and integrates the scientific and technological achievements imported from the West in ancient and modern China, with a profound impact on the development of science, technology and culture in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Zheng Fuguang and “On Mirrors” Styled respectively as Yuanpu and Wanxiang, Zheng Fuguang (1780–?, Fig. 5.14), was a native of Xinxian County, Anhui Province. He was a famous scientist in the Qing Dynasty. Zheng Fuguang started to travel all over China as a teenager by “traveling thousands of miles and reading thousands of books”. During his travel, he got acquainted with famous scholars and skillful craftsman. He was especially interested in telescopes and paid special attention to the investigation into astronomical instruments in the observatory. In the process of studying optical problems, he studied and experimented, and applied optical principles he understood to the manufacture of specific optical instruments. He made a slide projector that could be used day and night, and also made a telescope that could carry out experimental observation of mysterious sky (Fig. 5.15). With this telescope, the moon could be clearly observed. Zheng Fuguang also made a famous experiment: making ice lenses. His tool was a large kettle. The reason why he wanted to use a large metal kettle for hot water was that the bottoms of these kettles were generally concave outside and convex inside. The ice cubes processed from them would naturally become circular and convex. The method was extremely clever, simple and effective. On the basis of a large number of experiments, Zheng Fuguang deduced the principle of optics. He did not stick

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Fig. 5.14 Zheng Fuguang drawn by Cheng Nailian

Fig. 5.15 An astronomical telescope made by Zheng Fuguang (Replica)

to the achievements of his predecessors or repeated the superficial theories of the early period in the West. He paid attention to practice and dared to explore. His down-to-earth scientific attitude and fearless spirit of exploration are admirable.

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After decades of observation, experiments and research, Zheng Fuguang completed writing “On Mirrors”, a theoretical work on geometric optics in the 15th year under Daoguang reign in the Qing Dynasty (1835) and published it in the 26th year of under Daoguang reign in the Qing Dynasty (1846). In the preface, he said that the book “took him more than ten years to complete the manuscript, and several years more for review before it was quite well-organized…”. It took him more than ten years to write and revise this book before it was published. His writing attitude was extremely rigorous and serious. “On Mirrors” was the first relatively complete optical work in Chinese modern history, as a collection of Chinese and Western optical knowledge at that time. It represents the level of optical development in China in the middle of the Qing Dynasty, as well as a monograph on image science and technology in the first half of the 19th century in China. It is an important work in the development of Chinese photography technology. The whole book has five volumes in four parts, i.e. “Ming Yuan”, “Lei Mirror”, “Shi Yuan” and “Shu Zuo”, with about 70,000 Chinese characters. The quality and shape of various reflectors and refractive mirrors are briefly analyzed. The imaging principle after light passes through various mirrors (mainly concave, convex and lens groups) is systematically expounded. The manufacture of various copper mirrors and the principle of light -transmission of copper transparent mirrors are expounded in detail. The writing style of “On Mirrors” is marked by special features, with interreflection among narrations, texts, pictures and graphs. The book also contains some optic concepts and nouns to explain the principle of producing optic instruments and ways of using them. Among them, “Shi Yuan” is the focus of the book. It is especially outstanding since it chiefly expounds the theories on the imaging of several kinds of convex and concave lens. Zheng Fuguang put forward the concepts of “Three limits along the line” and “Three limits on the side” with his own characteristics. In “The History of Academic Research in Recent 300 Years in China”, Liang Qicahao made comments on “On Mirrors”: “The exposition in this book is purely scientific and meticulous, and its genre organization is also purely scientific”. “An optical book like this a hundred years ago was not only unqiue in China, but may also occupy a position in the world.”1 Zou Boqi and his “Grid Repair” Styled respectively as Yi’er, Tefu and Huijun, Zou Boqi (1819–1869, Fig. 5.16), a physicist in Qing Dynasty, was born in Bichong, Nanhai County, Guangdong Province. He was the founder of modern optics in China and one of the pioneers of modern science and technology. Zou Boqi conducted a lot of research into astronomy, mathematics, optics, geography, etc. He was a scholar with a good understanding of “A collection of classics and history” and “can integrate Chinese and Western theories and achieve mastery through comprehensive study”. He despised fame, devoted himself to science and technology, made outstanding achievements and wrote many 1 Liang Qichao: “The History of Academic Research in Recent 300 Years in China”, Taiyuan: Shanxi

Ancient Book Publishing House, 2011, p. 328.

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Fig. 5.16 Zou Boqi drawn by Cheng Nailian

books. He fully combined mathematics with physics as the first person in modern Chinese history to have explained physics (especially optics) with mathematical language. Zou Boqi also made his own “camera” (Fig. 5.17) in 1844, which was a simple camera and also the first camera made in our country. “Grid Repair” (Fig. 5.18) is Zou Boqi’s representative work and a relatively complete geometric optics work in modern China. Some of its studies have filled in the gaps in optics in our country. On the basis of the exposition on optics in “On Mo” and “Mengxi Records from Conversation”, many optical principles, structures of optical instruments and optical phenomena are thoroughly analyzed by further using geometric optics. “Grid Repair” not only thoroughly analyzes the principle of lens imaging, the formula of lens imaging, focal length of the lens group, optical principle of eyes and vision, structures and principles of various telescopes and microscopes, etc., but also discusses the view-field of telescopes, the function of field mirrors, the phenomena of exit pupils and vignetting, etc. (Fig. 5.19).

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Fig. 5.17 Zou Boqi self-portrait

Conclusion This paper briefly describes the development of image science and technology in ancient and modern China, focusing on the development of optical imaging related to images. The development of image science and technology in our country has a long history, with extremely rich content, shining with the wisdom of the Chinese nation. According to the history of reliable written records at present, Since the Spring and Autumn Period and the Period of Warring States, in the Tang, Song, Yuan, Ming, Qing Dynasties and the Republic of China, many scholars spent great efforts on longterm observation and in-depth research into light and shadows, pinhole imaging, condensation of convex and concave lens, large darkrooms, small sketch mirrorboxes and discoloration of silver salt substances with light seen, having contributed to the occurrence and development of image science, technology and photography. In the long historical process of the development of image science and technology, A large number of outstanding scientists, such as Mo Zhai, Liu An, Wang Chong, Zhang Hua, Tan Qiao, Shen Kuo, Zheng Qiao, Zhao Youqin, Li Shizhen, Fang Yizhi, Zheng Fuguang, Zou Boqi, etc., made unremitting efforts in exploring the mysteries of nature and improving the quality of human life. They have left a deep impression

Conclusion

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Fig. 5.18 Camera made by Zou Boqi

on the scroll of scientific and technological development. They are dazzling stars in the starry sky of science and technology, as well as navigation marks in the long river of human history, leading people to advance into a wonderful world of science. The achievements of image science and technology have been outstanding since ancient times in China, with a large number of talented people emerging in succession, numerous writings and abundant works and data. It is difficult to give all the details here. Only the key points and highlights related to the research of image science

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Fig. 5.19 Zou Boqi’s manuscript of “Grid Repair”

and technology have been selected and introduced. Looking at the above, we can roughly find out several characteristics of the development related to ancient and modern image science and technology in our country: 1.

The ancient image science and technology in our country have a long history with extremely rich contents. It is not only featured by continuity, but also by the development characteristics of various stages. In continuous development, there were peaks of development respectively in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (the Spring and Autumn Period and the Period of Warring States), the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China, with the accumulation of internal quality and quantity and the guidance of external power. What deserves our particular pride is that in a long period of ancient history,

Conclusion

2.

3.

4.

5.

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image science and technology in China had been in a leading position in the world for more than 1,000 years, by relying on its own good foundation and driving force for development. The nearly 600 years from the Ming and Qing Dynasties to the Republic of China had been a very complicated, tortuous and important stage in the history of the development of science and technology in China. It had been a period of gradual transition from tradition to modern times. Judging from the level of development of science and technology in the world, China’s science and technology in the Ming and Qing Dynasties were obviously backward compared with the modern science and technology rapidly advanced by leaps and bounds in the West at that time. Judging from the development of science and technology in China, Compared with the heyday in the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the development of science and technology, especially the development of image optics, still maintained its continuity and growth, and its progress was even quicker than that of the Song and Yuan Dynasties. This was an “ integration stage of development” in which China’s image science and technology had broken through the tradition, fully absorbed and integrated the advanced image science and technology in the world. The process of China’s understanding of, exploration into and research on images gradually merged into the world process of images from the Qing Dynasty to the Republic of China. Since 2000, singleline parallel development of optical images, image exploration and technology of machine image reproduction in China have been linking with photography. Ancient China gave birth to many advanced philosophical thoughts and outstanding research methods concerning image science and technology. For example, Mohism used the advanced physical idea of light travelling in a straight line in the 4th century BC to make a scientific and systematic optical exposition on pinhole-imaging. For example, Shen Kuo’s scientific research methods of careful observation, professional analysis and emphasis on experiments not only played an important guiding role in China at that time, but also occupied a position in the history of world science and technology. Today, they are still scientifically rigorous. Although Chinese exploration of image science and technology has not formed independent iconology, their work has opened up an infinite and vast space of development for iconology. Almost all the knowledge of image science and technology in ancient China was developed on the basis of direct experience from production practice and direct observation of nature. Such knowledge is featured by the characteristics of intuition. Traditional optics is mostly based on empirical and qualitative technologies, which embodies the sharp observation and realistic scientific spirit of our ancestors. However, due to the emphasis on empirical statements, most of them lack rational and mathematical research methods, which makes the traditional optics in ancient China basically stay in the observation and recording of phenomena, lacking theoretical analysis, abstraction and quantitative analysis. The thought of preferring literature to industry in ancient Chinese society hindered the development of image science and technology to some extent. It denounced image science and technology as “Odd technology and obscene

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skills” with a humble social status, which affected the development of image science and technology. Compared with the West, many researches of ancient Chinese image science and technology did not pay attention to timely industrialization to form productive forces. As the basis of image science and technology, various disciplines are isolated and scattered due to the lack of necessary contacts and coordination, which makes it difficult to form a system. Image science and technology have not been separated from philosophy, Confucian classics and ethics to form an independent discipline. Consequently, although there are numerous ancient books on science and technology in our country, there are no works specially dedicated to “optics” or “iconology”.

6.

(The writing of this book has received strong support and help from Professor Sha Zhenshun of Nanjing University and Professor Cheng Nailian of Datong University. I would like to express my special gratitude to them). First draft: March 2011 Revised in August 2013 Revised in December 2015 References: I. Ancient Books and Records: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

“The Book of Poetry”, annotated and translated by Chen Jie, Guangzhou: Huacheng Publishing House, 2002. “The Rites of the Zhou Dynasty”, proofread by Cui Gaowei, Shenyang, Liaoning Education Press, 1997. (The Jin) Written by Zhang Hua, proofread by Fan Ning, “Proofreading of Natural History”, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1980. “The Book of History”, translated by Xu Qitang, Guangzhou, Guangzhou Publishing House, 2004. (The Period of Warring States) “Zhuangzi” by Zhuang Zhou, annotated and translated by Fang Yong, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2010. (The Period of Warring States) Xunkuang: “Xunzi”, compiled and translated by Wang Xuedian, Beijing, China Textile Publishing House, 2007. (The Period of Warring States) “Han Feizi” by Han Fei and proofread by Qin Huibin, Shenyang, Liaoning Education Press, 1997. (The Yuan Dynasty) “Five Volumes of A New Book of Reformed Images” by Zhao Youqin, Shanghai, Shanghai Ancient Book Publishing House, 1987. (The Jin) “Bao Puzi” by Ge Hong, proofread by Sun Xingyan, A Collection of Books of Various Schools of Thoughts. (The Tang) “The Story of Ancient Mirrors” by Wang Du, On Fu (Wanwei Mountain Hall). (The Song) “Materia Medica Yan Yi” by Kou Zongshi, complied from A Collection of Books.

Conclusion

12. 13. 14. 15.

16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

25.

26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31.

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(The Ming) “Compendium of Materia Medica” by Li Shizhen, Beijing, People’s Health Publishing House, 1982. (The Han) “Huai Nan Zi” by Liu An, annotated by Gao You, from A Collection of Books of Various Schools of Thoughts. (The Han) “On Balance” by Wang Cong, from A Collection of Books of Various Schools of Thoughts. (The Han) “On the Potential People” by Wang Fu, from A Collection of Various Schools of Thoughts. 1716. (The Yuan) “The Record of Dropping out of Farming” by Tao Zongyi. The initial edition of a series of collection. “Encyclopedia” by Liu An and edited by Sun Fengyi, Beijing, Zhonghua Book Company, 1985. (The Song) “Mengxi Records from Conversation” by Shen Kuo. “A Complete Library in Four Branches of Literature”. (The Song) “Yan Fan Lu” by Cheng Dachang. “A Complete Library in Four Branches of Literature”. (The Song) “Qingbo Magazine” by Zhou Hui. “A Complete Library in Four Branches of Literature”. (The Song) “Records of Things and Phantom” by Su Shi. The initial edition of a series of collection. (The Ming) “Some Knowledge of Physics” by Fang Yizhi, Beijing, Commercial Press, 1937. (The Qing) “On Mirrors” by Zheng Fuguang, Beijing, Zhonghua Book Company, 1985. (The Qing) “One-Spot Records” by Zheng Guangzu, Beijing, China Bookstore, 1990. (The Qing) “Accidental Learning from the West” by Bo Ming, Engraved Edition, the 26th Year of Guangxu Reign in the Qing Dynasty (1900), collected by Nanjing Library. (The Qing) “Fei Yin and Zhilu” by Zheng Fuguang, a movable type threadbound edition of a movable type in the 22nd Year of Daoguang Reign in the Qing Dynasty. (The Qing) “Zou Zhengjun’s Note of Last Will” by Zou Boqi, a thread-bound edition of a movable type in the 13th year of Tongzhi Reign in the Qing Dynasty. (Britain) Interpreted by Joseph Needham, (The Qing) “On Light” by Zhang Fuxi. The initial edition of a series of collection. “On Alchemy” by Tan Qiao, proofread by Ding Zhenyan and Li Sizhen, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1996. (The Tang) “Youyang Zazu” by Duan Chengshi, proofread by Fang Nansheng, Beijing, Zhonghua Book Company, 1981. (The Qing) “History of Mirrors” by Sun Yunqiu, Preface Edition of Kangxi Reign in the Qing Dynasty (Xinyou 1681), collected by Shanghai Library. (The Han) “History of the Han” by Ban Gu, Beijing, Zhonghua Book Company, 2007.

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(The Period of Warring States) “Legends of Spring and Autumn Period” by Zuo Qiuming (the Western Jin Dynasty), Shanghai Ancient Book Publishing House, 34, 1997. (The Song) “Mengxi Records from Conversation” by Shen Kuo, Shanghai, Shanghai Bookstore Publishing House, 2003.

II. Translation and annotation of ancient books and records: 33. 34.

35. 36. 37.

38.

39. 40.

41.

42. 43. 44.

“Complete Translation of the Rites of the Zhou Dynasty”, translated by Lu Youren, Zhengzhou, Zhongzhou Ancient Book Publishing House, 2004. “Complete Translation of Prose and History Since Ancient Times”, translated by Jiang Hao, etc. Guiyang, Guizhou People’s Publishing House, 37, 2009. “Translation of Examination of Handi-craftsmanship”, translated and annotated by Wen Renjun, Shanghai, Shanghai Ancient Book Publishing House, 1993. “Translation of Classified Mohist Classics”, translated and annotated by Tan Jiefu, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company. 198l. “Complete Translation of the Book of Poetry”, translated and annotated by Yuan Yuyi, Guiyang, Guizhou People’s Publishing House, 2008. “Translation of the Book of Poetry” (Revised Edition), translated and annotated by Zhou Zhenfu, Beijing, Zhonghua Book Company, 41, 2010. (The Han) “Huai Nan Zi (Full Vernacular Color Pictures) by Liu An, Chongqing: Chongqing Publishing House, 2007. (The Han) “Complete Translation of ‘On Balance’ “ by Wang Chong, translated and annotated by Yuan Huazhong and Fang Jiachang, Guiyang, Guizhou People’s Publishing House, 1993. “Mathematics and Physics in Mohist Classics” by Fang Xiaobo, Beijing, China Social Science and Technology Press, 1983. (The Song) “Selected Readings of Mengxi Records from Conversaton Natural Science and Technology” by Shen Kuo, annotated and translated by Li Qun, Beijing, Science and Technology Press, 1975. (The Han) “Huai Nan Zi, a Chinese Classical Book” by Liu An, etc., edited by Qi Yusheng and Xia Yuquan, Changchun, Northern Women’s and Children’s Publishing House, 2006. (The Han) “Vernacular Huai Nan Zi” by Liu An, etc., Xi’an, Sanqin Publishing House, 1998. “On Balance in Vernacular Chinese”, Original Work of Wang Chong, translated by Chen Jianchu and others, Changsha, Yuelu Book Company, 1997. “Mengxi Records from Conversation” translated and annotated by a group, Hefei Iron and Steel Company of Chinese University of Science and Technology: “Translation and Annotation of Mengxi Records of Conversation Natural Science and Technology”, Hefei, Anhui Science and Technology Press, 1979.

Conclusion

45.

46.

47.

48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53.

73

“Compendium of Materia Medica in Vernacular Explanation” by Wang Zhuxing as the editor-in-chief, Tianjin: Tianjin Science and Technology Publishing House, 200850. [The Jin] “Complete Translation of Natural History” by Zhang Hua as his original work, Guiyang, Guizhou People’s Publishing House, 1992. “Detailed Translation of Compendium of Materia Medica” by Qian Chaochen with Dong Lianrong as editor-in-chief, Taiyuan, Shanxi Science and Technology Press, 1999. “Complete Translation of Lun Heng (Chinese)” by Wang Chong as his original work, translated by Yuan Huazhong and Wan Jiachang, Guiyang, Guizhou People’s Publishing House, 1993. (The Han), “Complete Translation of Potential People” by Wang Fu, Guiyang, Guizhou People’s Publishing House, 1999. (The Jin) “Complete Translation of Bao Puzi” by Ge Hong, translated and annotated by Gu Jiu, Guiyang, Guizhou People’s Publishing House, 1995. (The Tang) “ Youyang Zazu” by Duan Chenshi, annotated and commented by Xu Yiming, Beijing, Xueyuan Publishing House, 2001. (The Tang) “ Youyang Zazu “ by Duan Chenshi, selectively translated by Jin Sang, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Ancient Book Publishing House, 1987. (The Period of Warring States) “Han Feizi” by Han Feizi, translated and annotated by Gao Hua, etc., Beijing, Zhonghua Book Company, 2010. (The Han) “Records of History” by Sima Qian, translated by Han Zhaoqi, Beijing, Zhonghua Book Company, 2008

III. Modern Chinese Books: 54.

55. 56.

57. 58.

59. 60.

“The Outline of History of Science and Technology in Ancient China: Volume of Physics and Chemistry” by Guan Zengjian, Shenyang, Liaoning Education Press, 19966 “History of Science and Technology in China: Volume of Physics” with Dai Nianzu as the editor-in-chief, Beijing, Science and Technology Press, 2001. “Brief Introduction to the Essentials of Ancient Chinese Science and Technology” by Mai Qunzhong, Taiyuan, Shanxi People’s Publishing House, 1984. “100 Famous Works of Chinese Literature (No.47)” By Qi Yusheng, Urumqi, Xinjiang Youth Publishing House, 2000. “A Complete Library in Four Branches of Literature Compared by Ancient Chinese and Modern Chinese: The Second Volume “, with Qi Yusheng and Xia Yuquan as editors-in-chief, Yanji, Yanbian People’s Publishing House, 1999. “Famous Works of Ancient Chinese Science and Technology” by Liu Shuyong, Beijing, Capital Normal University Press, 1994. “A Collection of Ancient Chinese Science and Technology” by Dong Fuchang, Harbin, Heilongjiang Science and Technology Press, 1987.

74

61.

62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77.

78. 79.

80. 81.

5 The Integration Stage of Image Science and Technology

(The Han) “Huai Nan Zi: A Famous Classical Chinese Book” by Liu An,etc., with Qi Yusheng and Xia Yuquan as editors-in-chief, Changchun: Northern Women’s and Children’s Publishing House, 2006. (The Han) “Vernacular Huai Nan Zi” by Liu An, etc., Xi’an, Sanqin Publishing House, 1998. “Ancient Chinese Physics” by Dai Nianzu, Beijing, Commercial Press, 1997. “History of Ancient Physics” by Dai Nianzu, Changsha, Hunan Education Press, 2002. “History of Ancient Chinese Physics” by Wang Chunheng, Lanzhou, Gansu Education Press, 2002. “History of Optics in China” by Wang Jinguang, Changsha, Hunan Education Press, 1986. “History of Ancient Chinese Physics” by Wang Jinguang, Shijiazhuang, Hebei People’s Publishing House, 1981. “History of Physics in China: History of Optics” with Dai Nianzu as the editor-in-chief, Changsha, Hunan Education Press, 2001. “History of Physics in China: The Volume of Ancient Physics” by Dai Nianzu and Liu Shuyong, Nanning, Guangxi Education Press, 2006. “Ancient Chinese Physics” with Ren Jiyu as the editor-in-chief, Jinan, Shandong Education Press, 1991. “Ancient Chinese Physics” by Guo Yulan, Beijing, Beijing Science and Technology Press, 1995. “History of Chinese Photography” with Hu Zhichuan as the editor-in-chief, 1840–1937, Beijing, China Photography Publishing House, 1987. “History of Chinese 73. Photography” by Wu Suxin, Shenyang, Liaoning Fine Arts Publishing House, 1984. “Images and Art” by Long Uzu, Shenyang, Liaoning Fine Art Publishing House, 2000. History of Photography” by Wu Gang, Beijing, China Photography Publishing House, 2006. “A Collection of Science and Technology” with Zhang Binglun and others as editors-in-chief, Hefei, Anhui People’s Publishing House, 1999. “Collected Works on the History of Science and Technology: No.12 Album on the History of Physics” compiled by Institute of Natural Science and Technology, Shanghai, Shanghai Science and Technology Press, 1984. “History of Thoughts on Chinese Graphics” by Liu Keming, Beijing, Science and Technology Press, 2008. “Special Study on the History of Thoughts of Ancient Chinese Science and Technology” by Hou Yude, Beijing, Beijing Science and Technology Press, 2006. “Physical World in Ancient Times (the first volume and the second volume)” by Xing Chunru, Shenyang, Liaohai Publishing House, 2007. “Lecture Notes on the History of Physics: Physics in Ancient China” with Cai Binmou and Yuan Yunkai as editors-in-chief, Beijing Higher Education Press, 1985.

Conclusion

82.

83.

84. 85.

86.

87.

88. 89. 90. 91.

92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98.

99.

75

“A Collection of Papers on History of Science and Technology” with Fang Lizhi as the editor-in-chief, Hefei, Chinese University of Science and Technology Press, 1987. “Exhibition and Review of Famous Works of Traditional Chinese Culture” by Bao Heping and Wang Xueyan, Beijing, Beijing Library Publishing House, 2006. “Drafts on the History of Chinese Academic Thoughts” by Zhang Anqi and Bu Jinzhi, Beijing, China Social Science and Technology Press, 2007. “Essentials of Taoist Scientific and Technological Thoughts “ by Gai Jianmin, Beijing, Publishing House of Literature on Social Science and Technology, 2005. “Chronology of World Photography: Part One” by Li Ruifeng and Peng Yongxiang, Beijing, “Historical Materials of Chinese Photography: Part Four” edited by the Research Office of China Photographer Association, June 1982. “Chronology of World Photography: Part Two” by Li Ruifeng and Peng Yongxiang, Beijing, The Fifth and Sixth Series of “Historical Materials of Chinese Photography” edited by the Research Office of China Photographer Association, February 1983. “Early Taiwan Images Collected in France” by Wang Yalun, Taipei, Taiwan Lion Book Co., Ltd., 1997. “Twenty Lectures on the History of Physics” by Hu Huakai, Hefei, Press of Chinese University of Science and Technology, 2009. “Physics Volume of Chinese Science and Technology Classics” with Ren Jiyu as the editor-in-chief, Zhengzhou, Henan Education Press, 1995. (Britain) “Collected Works of Joseph Needham” with Joseph Needham and Pan Jixing as editors-in-chief, Shenyang, Liaoning Science and Technology Press, 1986. “Chinese Science and Technology Classics of 5000 years” by Yang Li, Beijing, China Science and Technology Press, 1999. “History of Chinese Physics: History of Sino-Foreign Exchange in Physics” by Wang Bing, Changsha, Hunan Education Press, 2001. “Comprehensive Volumes of Chinese Science and Technology Classics” with Ren Jiyu as the editor-in-chief, Zhengzhou, Henan Education Press, 1995. “ Papers on the History of Thoughts of Traditional Chinese Science and Technology” by Guo Jinbin, Beijing, Knowledge Press, 1993. “Great Works of Science and Technology” with Lin Dehong as the editor-inchief, Beijing, China Youth Publishing House, 2000. “History of Physics” by Guo Yiling and Shen Huijun, Beijing, Tsinghua University Press, 1993. “Achievements in Technology in Ancient China” with the Institute of History of Natural Science and Technology as the editor-in-chief, Beijing, China Youth Publishing Jean, 1978. “History of Physics” by Liu Xiaoli and Zhong Kouzhuang, Nanjing, Nanjing Normal University Press, 2001.

76

100. 101. 102.

103.

104.

105. 106. 107.

108. 109. 110. 111.

112. 113.

114.

115.

116. 117.

5 The Integration Stage of Image Science and Technology

“Anthropology of Image Culture” by Wu Qiulin, Beijing, Publishing House of Nationalities, 2010. “The Development of Photography in China” by Wu Qun, Beijing, Xinhua Publishing House, 1986. “Summary of Cultural Tradition in the Qing Dynasty and Development of Great Exchange between China and the West” by Nan Bingwen, Tianjin, Tianjin Ancient Book Publishing House, 1991. “Optical Education and Industrial Development in East Asia” by Liu Xu, Wang Jueren and Zhang Xiaojie, Hangzhou, Zhejiang University Publishing House, 2009. “Selected Philosophical Masterpieces of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism” with Hong Xiuping as the editor-in-chief, Nanjing, Nanjing University Press, 2006. “Selected Works of Chinese History: Part Two” with Que Xunwu as the editor-in-chief, Beijing, Higher Education Press, 1993. “Commentary on Wang Fu” by Liu Wenying, Nanjing, Nanjing University Press, 1993. “Colorful Illustrations on the History of Science and Technology in China” with Lu Jiaxi and Xi Zongze as editors-in-chief, Beijing, China Science and Technology Press, 1997. “Illustrated Chinese Culture: The Volume of Science and Technology” by Wang Xingwen, Changchun, Jilin People’s Publishing House, 2007. “Illustrated Chinese Culture: The Volume of Ideology” by Wang Zhi, Changchun, Jilin People’s Publishing House, 2007. “Illustrated Chinese Culture: The Volume of Utensils” by Zhang Guohua and Zuo Yuhe, Changchun, Jilin People’s Publishing House, 2007. “Illustrated Chinese Culture: The Volume of Archaeological Discoveries” by Wang Yueqian and Hong Shi, Changchun, Jilin People’s Publishing House, 2007. “Illustrated China for 5,000 Years” by Xu Huping, Nanjing, Jiangsu Children’s Publishing House, 2002. “The First-Batch Members of the Chinese Academy of Science and Technology (Department of Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry as well as Department of Technology and Science and Technology)” with He Ming as the editor-in-chief, Beijing, China Encyclopedia Publishing House, 2010. “The History of Cultural Development of the Republic of China: Volume Three” with Qin Xiaoyi as the editor-in-chief, Taiwan Modern China Publishing House, 1981, p. 1257. “Preface to the Cultural History of the Republic of China” with Shi Quansheng as the editor-in-chief, Changchun, Jilin Literature and History Publishing House, 1990. “A New List of Historical Events in China” by Wang Jianguo and Wang Jianjun, Yinchuan, Ningxia People’s Publishing House, 2010. “Wang Daheng” with Xuan Ming as the editor-in-chief, Beijing, Science and Technology Press, 2005.

Conclusion

118.

119. 120.

121.

77

“Footprints of Overseas Students: The Volume of China and the World” by Wang Yunfeng and Ma Zhenxing, Tongliao, Inner Mongolia Children’s Publishing House, 2003. “History of Academic Research in China in Recent 300 Years” by Liang Qichao, Taiyuan, Shanxi Ancient Books Publishing House, 2011. (Britain) “History of Science and Technology in China: Volume One” by Joseph Needham, Shanghai, Science and Technology Publishing House, Shanghai Ancient Book Publishing House, 1990. (USA) “The Invention of Chinese Printing and its Spread to the West” by Carter, Translated by Wu Zeyan, Commercial Press, with the first edition in 1957 and the 4th printing in 1991.

IV. Papers 123. 124. 125. 126. 127. 128.

129.

130. 131.

132.

133. 134. 135.

“Review of Mohist Physics Achievements” by Xu Keming, “Physics”, No. 1 and No. 4, 1976. “Understanding of Dispersion in Ancient China” by Li Di, “Physics”, No. 3, 1976. “Bo Ming and His Optical Knowledge” and “Research on History of Natural Science and Technology” by Wang Jinguang and Li Shenglan, No. 4, 1987. “Optical Experiments by Zhao Youqin, a Chinese Expert of Science and Technology in the 14th Century” by Yinhe, “Physics Bulletin”, No. 4, 1956. “The Periscope Invented in Ancient China” by Yinhe, “Physics Bulletin”, No. 7, 1957. “Achievements of Optics in Ancient China” and “Achievements of Science and Technology in Ancient China” by Jin Qiupeng, pp. 182–194, China Youth Publishing House, 1978. “Dissemination and Influence of Western Optical Knowledge in China during the Ming and Qing Dynasties” by Sun Chengsheng, “Research on History of Natural Science and Technology”, No. 3, 2007. “Review of Studies on Mongolian Poet Bo Ming in the Qing Dynasty” by Wang Li, “Literary Circle (Theoretical Edition)”, No. 6, 2012. “Establishment and Development of Photographic Art Theories in China” by Hu Zhichuan, and “A Collection of Papers on Photographic Art” by Zhu Jiashi, Beijing, China Photography Publishing House, 1986. “Understanding of Mirage Phenomena in Ancient China” by Liu Zhaomin, “Historical Materials of Chinese Science and Technology”, 1990, No. 2, pp. 11–21. “Thoughts of Science and Technology Related to ‘On Alchemy’” by Huang Shirui, “Journal of South China Normal University”, 1991, No. 2, pp. 15-19. “Ancient Chinese Opticians” by Tang Xuanzhi, “Engineering Physics”, 1997, No. 1. “Optical Technicians in Jiangsu Province” by Joseph Needham, in “Collected Works of Joseph Needham” with Pan Jixing as the editor-in-chief, Liaoning Science and Technology Press, 1986, p. 533.

78

136.

137.

5 The Integration Stage of Image Science and Technology

“Some Optical Historical Materials in Daozang” by Hu Huakai and Ji Xiaohua, “Historical Materials of Chinese Science and Technology”, 2004, No. 2, pp. 167–174. “On the Characteristics of Western Learning Spreading to the East during the Period of the Republic of China “ by Zheng Dahua, “Zhongzhou Academic Journal”, 2002, No. 5, pp. 118–121.

Appendix

Image and Iconology

Han Congyao Image is the oldest and continuously-refreshing cultural gene of mankind and each visual schema reflects the spiritual paradigm of human beings. Starting from humans picking up the first tree-stick and throwing the first stone, image accompanied them characterizing human sentiments and cognition of nature and world as well as recording all the courses of human development, hence having formed a complete cultural DNA pedigree evolving from human-like creatures to mankind so far. It is intuitive convenient, simple and quick to read the image, but it is sometimes not easy to truly understand it. Iconology is a branch of learning established by people to try to describe, analyze and explain the image scientifically and orderly. Image has a long history, but iconology is very young and its visual form, cultural form and historical form of learning occurring in social environment are quite different in the East and West respectively. This paper, from the angle of cultural dissemination, has briefly investigated the image and analyzed the path of occurrence of iconology to reveal the rules of production and regulations of social operation disseminated by image culture. Image is the tool for human beings to understand, master and characterize the world. It is not only within the range of research into humane social science, but also the target of research by natural science. Image history is a history of evolution of human civilization. It is the most effective memory of human history and the history being memorized. There are different requirements for the exposition of image made by iconology in different social periods, but the ultimate efforts and exploration of the “significance” of image always remain unchanged. Demands on the image have been increasing in modern society. Image has even become the biggest commodity in the daily consumption of society. Just like social demands on the image, research into iconology has become the most inexpensive academic product in present-day academic consumption in the wake of the “Famous School”. These two things are both conspicuous and bustling. It is only image practitioners who still stay calm and devoted and rigorously engage in the build-up of applied iconology as their responsibility. © Science Press 2021 C. Han, A Brief History of Image Science and Technology in China, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-6922-1

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Image is the most effective visual medium in contemporary society, as well as culture of public media marked by universality. Visual dissemination is the process of transmitting culturally-shared codes through image media. The foundation of image dissemination of knowledge and construction of civilized society also build up people’s cognition/imagination of the world and their methods of cognition/imagination.

Image There are two main ways for human beings to record history, characterize the world and spread civilization: one is linear, diachronic and logical description and mode of transmission with language (speech, language, writing, abstract symbols, etc.) as the main carrier; the other is the uni-dimensional, synchronic and perceptual depiction and mode of transmission with image (graphs, drawings, images, structural codes, etc.) as the main carrier. Chinese accounts and modes of transmission have gradually become the main means of recording, characterizing and spreading civilization for mankind in nearly 5,000 years. It has been fully developed and absolutely respected by human society. However, the forms of image characterization and dissemination with a history of tens of thousands or even hundreds of thousands of years containing a large amount of cultural information have not received due attention and sufficient scientific interpretation. The logical causal relationship between image forms and language forms has not been effectively linked.

Image Image is the general name of graphs and images. This kind of uni-dimensional, synchronic and perceptual depiction has constructed the foundation of human visual civilization and also the basic pattern of visual culture. Some people also think that the word “picture” in the word “image” refers to the figure, while “image” refers to the meaning in the figure, which is a metaphysical cultural concept with “picture” as the media. Mr. Chen Zhaofu also stressed that the image must be artificial, filled with human spirit and consciousness, with certain cultural connotation. Obviously, as artificial visual graphs and images, images will not be the original expression and mechanical production of the natural world, but the subjective experience and reconstruction of human spirit,sentiments and cognitive attitude. They are the basic means for human beings to grasp and characterize the world, as well as the basic medium for spreading and inheriting human culture. This is also the foothold for this research into and discussion of the image. The history of the image is actually about human beings “looking at” history. China has a cultural tradition of “Pictures on the left and history on the right”. According to Professor Dai Yi’s textual research, the word “antique catalogue” first

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appeared in the Eastern Han Dynasty, while the word “image” had a special “Image” volume in the classic Buddhist scripture document “Dazhengzang” in the Eastern Jin Dynasty. By the Song Dynasty, images had become a special branch of learning. When human beings “watch” the world, it is not possible to list the number of images regarding what they have seen, thought about, wished and left behind. However, a few remaining images left behind have greatly surpassed the imagination of people. With these images left behind, we can still identify a series of their historic traces. Regretfully, so far, no one has sorted out the history of disseminating image culture from the angle of iconology and no one has shown concern about the history of image in Chinese culture. Unfortunately, so far no one has sorted out the history of the dissemination of image culture in China from the perspective of iconology, and no one has seriously paid attention to the history of images in Chinese culture from the perspective of theories. Western scholars have made a distinction among icon, picture, image and other words about the image. The first term was borrowed from Panovsky, mostly referring to symbols in the linguistic sense, which are generally translated as “language image” or “iconicity”. The second term, “picture” in the general sense, emphasizes the popularization and popularity of the image. The third term is translated as “image” or “imagery”, which can be understood as the basic copy of various pictures. Pictures can be processed, modified, distorted or even torn up, while the original image that cannot be changed is “imagery”, such as visible image or mental image. In addition, Western image theories have a special term used to refer to the relationship between language picture and picture-text, i.e. ekphrasis.1 Chinese traditional academic research also attaches great importance to the function of the image in recording and studying history. “Shi Ben • Zuo Pian” said that “The emperor made pictures and Cang Xie made books”. Although it is only a legend, it can be seen that people at that time also believed that picture documents originated very early and were as important as documents. In the Song Dynasty, Zheng Qiao’s “A General History • A Brief Introduction to the Image” has an extremely wonderful exposition on the relationship between pictures and books, which is well known. Here we might as well quote it again: 河出图,天地有自然之象。洛出书,天地有自然之理。天地出此二物以示圣人,使 百代宪章必本于此而不可偏废者也。图,经也。书,纬也。一经一纬,相错而成文。 图,植物也。书,动物也。一动一植,相须而成变化。见书不见图,闻其声而不见其 形;见图不见书,见其人不闻其语。图至约也,书至博也,即图而求易,即书而求难 。学者为学有要,置图于左,置书于右,索象于图,索理于书,故人亦易为学,学亦易 为功,举而措之,如执左契。后之学者离图即书,尚辞务说,故人亦难为学,学亦难 为功,虽平日胸中有千章万卷,及真之行事之间,则茫然不知所向。 The river shows the picture, while heaven and earth have the image of nature. Luo published a book, while heaven and earth have natural principles. Heaven and earth 1 Wang

2013.

An: “When Literature Encounters the Image”, China Social Science News, September 27,

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produce these two things to show saints, so that the Charter of the Century must be based on them and cannot be neglected. Pictures are related to the longitude, while books are concerned with the latitude. One longitude and one latitude constitute writings. Pictures are related to plants, while books are concerned with animals. Animals and plants constitute changes. See the books but not pictures, hear sounds but cannot see forms. See pictures but not books, see people but cannot hear speech. Pictures should be concise, and books should be knowledgeable, that is, pictures should be easy to be seen, books should be profound in content. Scholars should put learning first. Pictures should be on the left, books on the right. The image can be reflected in pictures, and theories should be in books. Therefore, it makes it easy for people to learn, and success can be made through easy-learning. Measures should be taken like holding the contract at hand. Scholars can turn to books when pictures are absent, but they still say that it is difficult to learn, and also difficult to make success through learning. Although there are thousands of chapters and volumes everyday, people would find themselves at a loss in practice. Zheng Qiao “took pictures” as the basis of “seeking the image” with books as the path of “seeking principles” as well as “Pictures on the left and books on the right” as the method of doing scholarly research, which is sincere and insightful. It is a pity that scholars of later generations have failed to put it into practice. They are still saying that “Books come first when pictures are absent, and words are still used”. The ancient tradition of paying equal attention to pictures and texts has not been inherited and carried forward. For thousands of years, it has withered and gradually become a few morning stars. In fact, at the beginning of its formation, the image was not just the text of “meaning”. It stimulated the generation of meaning, but not the cognition of meaning, that is to say, “image” has been transformed into the main medium in the process of ideological dissemination. People use image medium to recognize material entities and spiritual symbols in the world. (1) People’s grasp of the world Since the birth of human beings, the highest dream has been to be able to grasp the world in which they live. To this end, they create the image, use it and and try to grasp the world with it. After human beings began to make stone tools, the creation of the image began at the same time. As believed by Mr. Chen Zhaofu, the appearance of ancient rock paintings and other artifacts represents the fact that human beings have completed their basic grasp of the image. From then on, human beings began to use the image to grasp the world, hence also leading to a history of human image culture. Image had irreplaceable special significance in the early stage of human cultural development. It was the earliest culture expressing the material and spiritual existence of human beings. We believe that if we judge the image according to its field of application, discourse function and cultural value, we can not only have a more macro and comprehensive understanding of the image, but also break through the narrow cognition under the traditional concept and have further and thorough understanding of the meaning of the image. What is more important is to endow the image with

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the value of human culture and civilization promoters comparable to texts in beauty. Only in this way can we build up a real history of human culture. In the history of human development, the way human beings obtain information and convey emotions through the image has been at least millions of years before texts. In some aspects, it has advantages beyond the reach of texts. Its advantages are just like what is commonly said, “Seeing is believing”, “Hearing is empty, seeing is realistic” and “one can follow the drawing to find a good horse” and so on. But the invention of writing finally replaced the position of the image. Things change greatly as time goes by. Now, due to the development of digital technology, the “image era” is truly approaching us, and the image has gradually become the main form of some media in the process of ideological dissemination. The accuracy and delicacy of those image-based works completed by using new technologies, as well as the speed of reproduction and dissemination efficiency, are no longer comparable to traditional modes of text acquisition and information through transmission. It is very difficult to preserve the original image. Even if it is preserved, it is not easy to find it. Three quarters of them have been discovered in the past 50 years. As for the image art of modern primitive tribes, they have directly inherited the original image tradition. Most of the materials used in tribal image works are perishable organic substances which can not be preserved for a long time in the natural environment. This original image has been abandoned by social and technological revolution brought about by urbanization and writing. Human beings have been living on the earth for millions of years, most of which were spent without texts. Human beings mainly understand and grasp the world through experience of visual perception, and try to depict and characterize the world with visual pictures and symbols. It is obviously inappropriate for us to call the history before the occurrence of the writing “pre-history”. Therefore, some people call the historical period before the writing was produced “a primitive period”. At this time, human beings were in primitive society which was really a very long period, equivalent to the whole Paleolithic period to the late Neolithic period, accounting for more than 99% of human history.2 (2) People’s imagination of the world The chaotic and ignorant primitive ancestors were full of fear of, curiosity about and desire to explore the outside world. In the harsh living and competitive environment, people expected the heaven to protect them and prayed for peace, health, racial reproduction and happiness. As a result, carving and painting activities with mysterious witchcraft color and important ritual functions gradually appeared and became one of the original origins of human images. People’s imagination of the world was expressed in the form of the image. Drawing the image became a powerful magic and ritual behavior, evolving to create totems and totem culture. The so-called totem means that people in primitive times regarded certain animals, plants or inanimate things as their relatives, ancestors or protectors. They believed 2 See

Chen Zhaofu’s “History of Chinese Image Culture · Original Volume”, China Photography Publishing House, 2017.

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that they would not only be friendly towards themselves, but also protect them and enable them to acquire their superhuman strength, courage and skills. Treating them with respect, people were generally not allowed to hurt them. Social organizations such as clans, tribes or families were named after totems and used totems as hallmarks or symbols. Academia usually regards totem as the hallmark and symbol of clans, or only as the blood relatives of a certain group. In fact, these views are not scientific. There are many types of totems, including clan totems, phratry totems, tribal totems and ethnic totems, as well as individual totems and families or family totems. The meaning of totem also varies greatly. Some regard it as relatives, some as ancestors, some as deified protectors and some as signs of distinction. The so-called totem culture refers to various cultural phenomena derived from totem concepts, that is, various cultural phenomena were created by people in primitive times in order to show their reverence for totems after they regarded totems as relatives, ancestors or protectors. These cultural phenomena are collectively called “totemism” in English, which can be translated into “totemism”, “totembased system”, “totem worship”, “totem religion”, “totem view” and “totem culture”. At present, the more common translated name is “totem worship”. In fact, various concepts, phenomena and customs related to totems have a wide range of contents. They contain various cultural phenomena, which cannot be generalized by words such as “doctrine”, “system”, “worship”, “religion” and “concepts”. The word “culture” has a wide meaning and can include various totem cultural characteristics. Therefore, when referring to totems in general, it is appropriate to call it “totem culture”. The essence of totem culture is also controversial in academia. To sum up, there are mainly four kinds of opinions. One is that totem culture is a religious belief. The second is that totem culture is a semi-social and semi-religious cultural phenomenon. The third is that totem culture is a system of social organization or cultural system. The fourth is that totem culture is a social ideology. In final analysis, totem culture was a chaotic cultural phenomenon in the early days of human society. In the early days of human society, social consciousness and religious consciousness were interwoven without separation. Therefore, totem culture is both religious culture and social culture. Totem culture is one of the oldest and strangest cultural phenomena in human history. The core of totem culture is totem concept. Totem concept stimulated the imagination and creativity of primitive people, and gradually bred totem names, totem signs, totem taboos, totem marriage, totem rituals, totem birth beliefs, totem incarnation beliefs, totem holy objects, totem holy places, totem myths, totem art, etc., thus having formed a unique and colorful totem culture.3

3 See

He Xingliang’s “History of Chinese Image Culture ·Totem Volume”, China Photography Publishing House, 2017.

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(3) Man’s symbol in the world At the beginning of civilization, image culture was extremely simple. The most symbolic expression of people’s image was “ritual (Li)” and “ritual (Yi)”. In the Xia, Shang, Zhou and Qin and Han Dynasties of China, people used the image to symbolize the world to the maximum. This period was called the Bronze Age of China by many scholars. As the carrier of etiquette system, bronze utensils strictly belonged to the elite class in the patriarchal clan system at that time. The image on bronze ritual vessels had a unique way of cultural characterization, with emphasis of utensils on “ritual” and emphasis of pictures on “characterization”.4 For people today, the interpretation of the image in this period is quite difficult and the process of analysis is also relatively obscure. If you are not familiar with the patriarchal clan system at that time and the elite who used them, you will also have obstacles in understanding the relevant image symbol methods. However, if we do not give up the method of iconology itself, plus the method of tomb-art research, and place the image in its original coordinate system of time and space, it will be possible to restore the historical context of the image in this period. The following Chinese empire was almost everywhere with the image. In real life, bronze mirrors, lacquer ware, bronze ware, costumes, palace decorations, etc. were all decorated with the image. After death, people at that time still lived in a world of images. Silk paintings, murals, stone reliefs and brick reliefs all became the media for the expression of the image. People’s enjoyment before death and hope after death were all realized in this image-based world.5 (4) People’s belief in the world People’s belief in the world is mainly manifested in the development of religious images. In China, the development of Buddhist images in particular can best reflect people’s visual way of belief. Buddhist images originated in India and then spread to all parts of Asia. In different times and against regional cultural backgrounds, there were colorful image features. Through a long period of development and evolution, Buddhist images have left behind a rich cultural heritage of images, which not only embodies the universality of Buddhist belief, but also contains the aesthetic tastes and cultural spirits of all ethnic groups. Chinese Buddhist images were produced and developed under the influence of India. In terms of their long age span, wide distribution areas, rich remains and brilliant achievements, they are unique and attractive in the history of Buddhist images. Compared with India, Central Asia and other places, Chinese Buddhist images have distinct characteristics. 4 See

Zhang 270s “History of Chinese Image Culture ·Pre-Qin Volume”, China Photography Publishing House, 2016. 5 See Wu Lihua’s “History of Chinese Image Culture · Volumes of the Qin and Han Dynasties” China Photography Publishing House, 2016.

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The themes of Chinese Buddhist images mainly come from Buddhist scriptures and secret classics, as well as stories and legends about Buddhism, with a wide range of materials. As far as the content of expression is concerned, it can be divided into Buddhist statues, Buddhist stories and Buddhist changes. Among them, the Buddhist statues usually include three statues, five statues, seven statues and nine statues. The images of Buddhist stories include Buddhist biography, origin, karma and historical records. There are two main reasons for the small number and limited types of Buddhist images of original stories in mainland China. On the one hand, most of the original images closely related to Mahayana Buddhism are difficult to be popular in the prevailing atmosphere of Mahayana Buddhism in China. On the other hand, judging from a limited number of images such as original stories, the spiritual connotation of teaching or Bodhisattva six degrees is obviously emphasized, that is to say, these story-based images are the result of “screening” from the perspective of Mahayana Buddhism. The styles of Chinese Buddhist images are quite rich. The proportion of styles imported from abroad is relatively small, and most of the image styles were created in China. Chinese Buddhist image styles include the creation of artists of past dynasties and the creation of eminent monks and virtues in the Buddhist circle. Since the function of Buddhist images is closely related to ceremonial activities such as confessions and Zen, the image layout must conform to the religious paradigm. Therefore, the image layout in the Ashram should usually be the result of cooperation between artists and Buddhist monks, with the latter possibly playing a more dominant role. After the introduction of Buddhist images into China in the Han Dynasty, they began to undergo a long process of development and evolution in the distinctive Chinese cultural background. During the development of Chinese Buddhist images, the most striking thing was gradually getting rid of the influence of Mahayana Buddhist art of India and Central Asia, while setting up Mahayana Buddhist image system. The process of Chinese Mahayana Buddhism in constructing its own image system was also a process of all-round collision and blending between Buddhist images and Chinese local culture. After Buddhism was introduced into China, Mahayana Buddhism, which was closely linked with metaphysics and Confucianism, developed actively, having eventually become a major school juxtaposed with Confucianism and Taoism. The influence of Buddhism sometimes overrides the latter two. In the development of Buddhism in Chinese culture, besides monks, emperors, nobles, teachers of the law and common people also actively participated in the construction of temples, grottoes, statues and other activities. Due to different understanding and belief-based motives of Buddhism, the influence of these social groups on their thoughts, emotions and aesthetic tastes is also different. From this perspective, temples (including grotto temples) and dojos are not only the centers of beliefs of people in all walks of life, but also a focus of various social relations.6

6 See

Yu Xiangdong’s “History of Chinese Image Culture· Buddhist Image Volume”, China Photography Publishing House, 2017.

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(5) People’s description of the world When human society develops to a certain stage, images are not only a means of cultural expression, but also a tool of lyrical expression for a certain social class. Especially with the intervention of literati and officialdom, the description function of the image has been fully displayed. The richer and more diverse the social culture, the greater the social function of image description. On the one hand, images are becoming simpler and simpler, more life-like and secular; On the other hand, images are becoming more and more refined, elegant and literati. As popular culture, images have penetrated into all social strata. They not only undertake various application functions endowed by people, but also express people’s views on the world more freely and even become tools for people to create the world. In ancient China, the government also set up a special branch of science specializing in “image” painting. In the third year of Chongning in the Song Dynasty under emperor Song Huizong (1104), painting was created by the imperial court and brought into the management of Imperial Academy System, an important school management institution in the Song Dynasty. It was the first national institution of visual image (art) education in China. At that time, painting distinguished itself in the types of images that students learned, formed a relevant curriculum system and divided students into scholars and miscellaneous flows. The curriculum was divided into six subjects, namely, Buddhism, Taoism, figures, landscapes, birds and animals, flowers and bamboos, and wooden houses. The reason why painting could become “learning” lies in the fact that learning painting was not only to learn skills, but also to comprehensively improve the knowledge and cultivation of image authors by learning other cultural knowledge. Therefore, students extensively studied Shuowen, Erya, Dialect, Interpretation of Names and other books. Studying Shuowen enableed students to write seal characters and explain pronunciation training, while other three books were taught by the question-and-answer method. For the examination of images drawn by the painting students, the standards were not the imitation of their predecessors, the modality of people and objects drawn, the natural appearance and the high rhyme of the pen. The content of images in the Song Dynasty was very complicated. According to the themes of the image-production, they could be divided into human figure painting, landscape painting and flower-and-bird painting. According to the materials of image production, it could be divided into murals, prints, porcelain paintings, embroidered paintings, silk paintings, stone reliefs, silk paintings, paper paintings, etc. According to the author of the image production, it could be divided into literati painting, painting academy painting and painter painting. According to the technique of image production, it could be divided into ink painting, color setting, meticulous brushwork, freehand brushwork and part-time writing. According to the form of image-mounting, it could be divided into screen painting, fan painting, hand scroll painting, album painting, vertical axis painting, etc. In addition, there were genre paintings, religious paintings, political paintings with comprehensive characteristics, as well as boundary paintings, architectural paintings, epigraphy paintings and so on, belonging to the category of engineering iconology.

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Of course, if we divide the images according to the aesthetic trend of elegance and vulgarity, there was still a situation of diversion of elegance and vulgarity as well as confluence of elegance and vulgarity in the images of the Song Dynasty. The diversion of elegance and vulgarity mainly refers to different aesthetic and creative trends of literati painting, painting academy painting and painting of painters at that time, each with its own advantages and elegance and vulgarity. As far as the images in the Song Dynasty as a whole are concerned, elegance and vulgarity were combined. Literati painting mainly includes the so-called “elegant” fields such as bamboo, plums, wood, stone and landscape, with ink painting advocated as the top priority. The painting of the painting academy had a wide range of themes and rich techniques, which were between elegance and vulgarity. Painters’ paintings mainly served the folk customs and emphasized practicality, including religious murals, tomb murals, vessel decorative paintings and many other images related to people’s life.7 Throughout history, this form of image category has basically laid a foundation for image classification in following generations, having become the peak in the image history of China and even the world. As believed by Mr. Zheng Zhenduo: “When discussing the history of Chinese painting, we must focus on the glorious era of the Song Dynasty. Its painting can be compared with Greek sculpture as well as painting and sculpture of Renaissance.” What is even more shocking is that the engraving image reproduction (printing) technology in the Song Dynasty became quite mature, and its quality and efficiency of dissemination underwent a fundamental breakthrough, enabling images to penetrate into the society and the hearts of the people through more popular channels of dissemination. Images interact with people and society. Image authors, readers and society have established a relatively complete set of contents, forms and links of image dissemination, laid down the basic program of image media dissemination, formed the characteristics of image culture dissemination with Chinese characteristics, and influenced the mode of transmission of all kinds of images in the world. (6) Man’s copy of the world People’s desire to reproduce the world is due to the emergence and maturity of image reproduction technology. During the clay-printing period, people completed movable type reproduction technology. During the wood-plate printing period, people completed the image reproduction technology. During the printing period of stone-plates and copper-plates, people completed the technology of fast image reproduction. During the screen-printing period, people completed the image tone reproduction technology. The invention of photography evoked people’s dream of copying the whole world. The application of digital images has given rise to people’s dream of reconstructing the world. The reproduction of the world by human beings is also the beginning of human consumption of the world. In the process of reproducing the world’s technical 7 See

Shao Xiaofeng’s “History of Chinese Image Culture · Volume of the Song Dynasty”, China Photography Publishing House, 2016.

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consumption and social consumption that have gradually merged into people’s daily life consumption, the shape of time is described by images, the shape of space is displayed by images, the evolution of perception is revealed by images, the world has become the world of media where visual images exist, and images have become the world image characterizing the world. These changes and phenomena were especially true after the birth of photography in 1839. It can be said that the image in the 19th century was an observer’s technology, and people pursued the ability to reproduce the world in equal proportion. The image of the 20th century was a wish of the expresser. People pursued to duplicate a realistic world marked by truth. The image of the 21st century is the wing of an imaginator. People endeavor to reproduce a world of super-real imagination and insert infinite imagination wings for spiritual consumption. At present, some of them have been realized, some are on the way to realization, and some are still in fantasy.

Image Culture Image is a cultural form created by a nation in its long-term practice of production, social practice and spiritual practice. It is a social cultural code which keeps the cultural gene of a nation, constructs a spiritual framework of national civilization, and shapes a form of visual civilization. From the naked vision to mirror image, from the mirror image to landscape, from the landscape to illusion, from illusion to netscape…… The history of visual images itself is a magnificent history of disseminating human civilization. From the view-point of academic research, Image is a kind of code structure with qualitative similarity, it applies a qualitative similarity between the signifier and the signified. It imitates, repeats or even reconstructs some features of things, such as the shape, proportion, color, texture, background, etc. Since most of these features can be perceived according to vision, its daily usage always gives vision priority in interpretation. Therefore, visual images have become the basic means of human cognition, the text of information dissemination and the map of social records. Images are also conclusive visual historical facts and the most direct, concrete and credible embodiment of national cultural images. The uniqueness of visual images lies in the fact that images belong to both technical and cultural levels. It exists in various fields of human society, such as painting, sculpture, film and television, photography, news, advertising, application design, network, games, entertainment, etc. It already has the most influential media characteristics in the contemporary information society. As Kellner said: Media phenomena that can embody the basic values of contemporary society, guide individuals to adapt themselves to modern lifestyles, and dramatize contemporary socialized conflicts and solutions include various luxurious scenes (show-making processes), sports competitions and political events created by the media. In the past, when touch had a preeminent position, it was to operate specific material reality to change the world. Now, what plays a decisive role is to let people “see” for themselves. This is an era when vision is in a preeminent position. In the era

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of visual images, visual images have become the dominant form of social structure, and visual language has become the most important language-form for contemporary cultural dissemination.8 The study of images and image culture is a new field of interdisciplinary research that has emerged in the international academic circle in the past 20–30 years. Richard Rorty said: “The ancient and medieval philosophical pictures focused on things, philosophical pictures from the 17th century to the 19th century focused on thoughts, while the civilized contemporary philosophical pictures focus on words”. Now no one doubts that since the 1970s, pictures of philosophical and social science picture have been focusing on visual images. Therefore, as a social science, research of image culture pays attention to history, the present and the eternal proposition of human beings. Such a discipline, which has deep homogeneity and heterogeneity and extensive heterogeneity and isomorphism with philosophy, history, sociology and other disciplines, should have its own academic status. However, the actual situation is not optimistic. Visual images are still under the hegemony of words. As a foreign scholar pointed out, the humanities seem to be facing a dilemma today: those with credible research results only have a weak status of “discipline”. With a higher status of “discipline”, the research results are not very credible. As for the theoretical research of image culture, it does not even have the status of a “discipline” as yet. Today’s society has entered an era centering on images. Movies, television, painting, photography, advertising, design, architecture, animation, network, games, multimedia and so on agitate and converge with one another. This is what people call as the era of visual culture. The word “visual culture” emphasizes that images are embedded in a broader culture. Images are a cultural form. Therefore, culture can also be regarded as a series of meaningful social practices embedded with image effects. In this society of image consumption full of innovation and variation, the way people understand life and study the world has turned, and they are trying to establish a “scope regime”, that is, a set of cognitive systems and even value order based on vision, and a set of rules of cultural operation based on the construction of subject cognition and social control, forming a visual practice and production system. Images are made and can be shown, exhibited, sold, censored, placed, collected, destroyed, touched and rewritten. Images are made and used by different people in various ways for different reasons, and the manufacture and use that affect the effect are the most important to the significance they carry. Images have their own effects, but this effect can only be exerted by centering on various purposes. People always watch images in the environment of dissemination, and this environment in society has promoted the role of images. The application of images is numerous and jumbled, and the interpretation of images has also formed a cumbersome system. Culture itself is a very complicated concept. “Image culture” is only a strategy, not a discipline, but the theoretical research of image culture should become an independent discipline. In essence, the 8 Kellner,

Douglas. “Media Wonders-A Perspective of Social Culture of Contemporary America”. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press, 2003, p. 2.

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core content of image culture is extremely simple, that is, to pay attention to the “exchange” and “production” of “meaning” among members of society or groups. The meaning is clear or vague, real or illusory, precise or popular, visible or speakable, known to women and children or out of imagination.…… Meaning has become a way in the daily life of people’s behaviors in contemporary society. “Daily life” is a profound “cultural revolution” (also called “cultural turn”, “image turn” and “visual centralism”) taking place all over the world today, that is, landscapebased society replaces commodity society. The concepts of image, space and daily life replace the concepts of governmental forms such as production modes, productivity and production relations. Image-art behaviors replace class struggle. Artists and “drift” in the psychological sense of the concept of “different tracks” give up alienation and fetishism.9 In daily life, cross-cultural image experience constitutes the field of image culture. Therefore, the dominance of contemporary society itself is mainly manifested as a kind of culture displayed. All levels of daily life have been commercialized by capital industry, and the human body and even the process of watching the human body have not been spared. The daily life of people in contemporary society is already a kind of interaction of homogeneity and heterogeneity of global economic integration as well as regional and multiple culture. It is the visual interaction of globalization “Internet landscape”. The emerging image-based global visual interaction gradually takes shape with the use of Internet “Netscape”.10 Image culture has a changeable structure of interpretation, focusing on the dissemination of visual images and interacting with people’s daily life. Its greatest feature is to “visualize” things that are not visual in themselves and give full play to the technical efficiency of image transmission. Experts and scholars at home and abroad have many definitions of “culture” and the discussion is even more complicated. As mentioned earlier, the core content of culture is very simple, that is, to pay attention to the “exchange” and “production” of “meaning” among members of society or groups. The “exchange” and “production” of “meaning” are exactly the core concepts of culture. Image is the object of vision. In activities of cultural dissemination, image is the end of structuralism while becoming the tool of empiricism. In the face of the multiplication of mechanical reproduction images, digital images and various image conversion and image-display methods over the past years, some 9 The main viewpoint quoted here comes from Guy Ernest Dobord’s book named “Landscape-based

Society”. In the book, he argues that “The world has been filmed”, Developed capitalist society has entered a landscape-based society dominated by the production of image goods and the consumption of image goods. Landscape has become a materialized world-outlook. In essence, landscape is “the social relationship among people mediated by images” and “landscape is the moment of colonial social life when commodities are completely successful”. 10 Internet spectacle refers to an image presented through the Internet. It is an image established by a picture element image and a pixel element screen. In a broader sense, Netscape is where we can see, involving all we “watch” and determining what we may see. Clary described its technical symptoms: “Computer-aided design, synthetic writing, flight simulators, computer animation, robot image recognition, ray tracing, texture mapping, motion control, visual environment protection, magnetic resonance images and multi-spectral sensors.”

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people exclaim that this is the “image era” and even claim that it is the advent of the “image-reading era”. They simply understand images as cultural mechanism opposite to texts, separate image transmission from other forms of transmission, and depict the seeing of more images, the reading of more images as an epoch-making feature of group-based culture in this society. Of course, in the era of language hegemony, discourse is indeed so rampant. The reproduction of images has a kind of resistance to break away from the colonial mentality of “text is above visual images”. However, this kind of emotional behavior, which is too hard, does not help people to recognize images, nor does it help to define the research field of visual culture, and nor does it help the smooth progress of research into image culture. In the long river of human history, vision (image) has been turning with the focus of culture. From Socrates’ “eyes” and the authoritative exposition of “vision” and “vision” associated with them, to Mozi’s, eight articles of light show people of future generations. From the scientific enlightenment of the perspective in Renaissance to the universal use of movable type printing invented by Bi Sheng11 …… From the naked view to mirror image, from the mirror image to landscape, from landscape to Netscape……12 Discourse is always regarded by society as “The highest form of wisdom expression” and “visual reproduction is regarded as the statement of the secondary concept”. In the traditional concept, language is considered as “The fundamental attribute of human beings”. For example, “human beings” are “talking animals”. The social characteristic of human beings who are different from animals and higher than animals, is “the ability to talk”. However, images are always regarded as sub-human media, for example, savages are “dumb animals” and so on, and even women, children, the mentally handicapped and the general public are regarded as sub-cultural groups. However, ordinary people in the society have been fighting against this aristocratic elite culture. When the visual culture turns to focus on behaviors in people’s daily life and regards images as “complex interaction among vision, 11 Mozi’s “On Mo”, starting from the principle of linear transmission of light, which was known by people long ago, first put forward the relationship among the shadow, light and things. “On Mo” also introduces plane mirror imaging and describes the imaging rules of the concave mirror and the convex mirror. Mohist private studies not only systematically studied and taught the knowledge of geometric optics and drew incisive opinions and conclusions, but also used the methods of observation, analysis and scientific experiments in the research and teaching. Mozi put forward that “The scene does not move, but it changes.” “The scene comes the second, it’s important.” “The size of the scenery is said to be in the right direction, far and near.” “When scene falls, there is an end in the afternoon, and the scene is long. It is at the end.” “If the light shines, the person under it is also high, and the person who is high also goes down. Sufficiency covers light, so the scene is on the top. The first cover is polished, so the scene is below. There are ends and lights near and far, so it is also within the scene.” These eight theories of optics were the earliest scientific exposition on optics in the world. 12 Michelle once discussed the custom of controlling the relationship between vision and language experience: “Put words above vision, words above landscape, and dialogue on visual landscape.” Mirtsov also explored this issue in depth, believing that this kind of putting language above vision and comparing women, children and vulnerable groups with sub-human culture such as visual culture, is a typical feature of colonial cultural society.

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machines, systems, words, bodies and metaphors”, the public first turns their eyes to more and more images, artifacts and images in the society. Just as “the world of words” cannot replace “the world of images”, “the world of images” should not try to dream of replacing “the world of words” with joy, although we admit that vision can “disintegrate” and “challenge” any attempt to “define culture purely from a linguistic perspective”. People’s eagerness to correct the name of the image is understandable, but shouting across the rational boundary will only make things worse and make the already unbridled image more frivolous. Pictures are not images, and paintings and movies may not necessarily become images. Images always maintain their characteristics and are organized together with texts. Images and texts in image transmission not only present complex glued states, but also show concise combined shapes, instead of opposing states. Michel once said about people’s attitude towards images: “The idea of reading images into compositions is not new in today’s art history. It is popular wisdom and a new thing.” In today’s society, such a kind of “wisdom” is “popular” around us, just as “reading pictures” has become a new and fashionable topic.13 As far as images and texts are concerned, this is actually the same relationship. Just as it is difficult for literature to get rid of visuality and also difficult for people to get rid of images from words. Images of texts “are inside images, when they appear to be most completely absent, hidden and silent, perhaps in the deepest part of images.” Similarly, “visual reproduction suitable for words do not need to be foreign. They are already embedded in words, in the formal arrangement and characteristics of description, narrative ’vision’, reproduced objects and places, metaphors, text functions, and even in type-setting, paper, binding or (in the case of oral performance) directly heard voices and the body of speakers.” Therefore, it can be said that all cultural media are mixed. All reproduced images are heterogeneous, although the images have their indicative side.14 If there is the emergence of the so-called “image era” and “image-reading era”, it must not be based on the number and frequency of images, it must be the situation that words focus on visual things (visual images; image technology that drives and maintains images; image audience). What people are willing to discuss must be three fields in which images produce meaning: the production field of images, the field in which images are formed by themselves and the field in which images are viewed by the audience, rather than anything else. It is both impossible and utopian to try to make “pure images”. The meaning of the image lies not in its existence, but in the embodiment of the dissemination effect and audience’s cognition and interpretation of the image. The rise of image-dominated culture, as Decoard said, is due to the fact that “the core of this accumulated phenomenon is landscape, so it has become an image”. In this “cultural turn” movement, visual images are reluctantly but forced to act as naked depth 13 W.J.T. Michel: “Image Theories”, pp. 86–87, translated by Chen Yongguo and Hu Wenzheng, Peking University Press, September 2006. 14 W.J.T. Michel: “Image Theories”, p. 86. translated by Chen Yongguo and Hu Wenzheng, Peking University Press, September 2006.

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charge. The formation of all this depends on the maturity of image dissemination technology and the popularization of image dissemination. When images become a necessity for “daily life” consumption, it is not surprising to have all this occurrence. The typical feature of post-modern society caused by the wide spread of images is to visualize knowledge. Before that, of course, the society had been constantly filling in the visual field, even learning some ways to speed up the filling-speed. However, present development of visual science and technology, the popularization of image culture and the demands of consumer culture make this kind of fast overload strong stimulation possible with increasing acceleration. Images have become the content of people’s daily life. People in modern times in this situation show a strong tendency of visualization. This tendency to depict things in an image way and visualize them is not to replace exposition, but to make exposition more all-encompassing, faster and more efficient. Especially in the society where the Internet is running at a high speed, life photos, medical images, film and television images, advertising images, computer images and digital images have all become the daily video images of housewives. Even the high-tech images exploring the secrets of the outer starry sky are talked about by children with relish in front of the TV. Images have become an effective carrier for people to describe things or visualize knowledge. Images have become a place for visual creation or struggle of meaning, a necessity for consumers, and an effective means for capital industry to obtain maximum profits. Image thinking has also become a visual experience of “structural viewing”. Image is a re-discovery in the field of humanities and social sciences in the wake of semiotics. As mention earlier, it applies a qualitative similarity between the signifier and the reference, It imitates or even repeats some characteristics of things. Since most of these features can be perceived visually, its daily usage always gives priority to the interpretation of visual images. However, under the perspective of qualitative similarity, images are not necessarily visual. Just as we use several physiological sensory organs to perceive the real material world, we can not only imitate the visual properties of an object, but also imitate its auditory characteristics, olfactory characteristics, tactile characteristics, taste characteristics, even mental characteristics and hallucinations. Therefore, in addition to visual images, there should also be auditory images, olfactory images, tactile images, taste images, mental images, language images, illusion, etc. As emphasized earlier, the uniqueness of the image lies in the fact that it belongs to both the technical level and the cultural content. Once the image leaves its production field and is spread by the society, it immediately shows its rich cultural connotation and requires viewers to “watch” and interpret it. Although image is a construction of structural cultural symbols, it is far beyond the control and jurisdiction of linguists and semioticians. Many linguists have brought it into the category of linguistics and semioticians have brought it into the category of semiotics. It is only partially consistent under their hegemonic discourse. In essence, it has always been in a unique form of image culture. It is far from enough to select several similar disciplines around it for research. It is a new object of interdisciplinary research and a visual way for people to get to know, understand and interpret the world.

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Images are Visual Codes and Cultural Codes The essential use of images is a social cultural code. Therefore, when we “look at” images, we actually regard images as image symbol systems and deconstruct them visually, semantically and even meaningfully. Deconstruction of image symbols is to explore the meaning of image symbols. In fact, it is to study the social validity of images. It can also be said to be a specialized issue of image semiotics. Commonly speaking, it is to interpret images. People have used the tools of ordinary semiotics to study how to more properly outline the image (analogy) side of the image (a generally recognized side) and the index (modeling) side of the image (except for photographic recording, people are not used to regarding it as a feature of the image). If we explore the signs, analogy and symbolism of images from the perspective of meaning, especially the symbolic side of images, we will find that the symbolism of images is built by some parameters with social and cultural codes, which plays a dominant role in our interpretation. From a certain point of view, the interpretation of the meaning of the image is actually a social dismantling of image symbols, so we need to have considerable patience. Many foreign scholars have devoted a lot of efforts to the in-depth exploration of the meaning of images, of which Roland Barthes is the most thorough. He completed his famous book “Rhétorique de L’image” (1964) in his unique way. When expounding image semiotics, he raised a question: How does image have meaning? This has also become the focus of research into image culture today. (1) The meaning of images This question sounds very simple and easy to answer, but it is not easy to answer at the level of image symbols (or in the semiotic sense), and a special method is needed. This question mainly involves semiotic means, but it does not belong exclusively to this category. As to this same question, expert in different fields (such as plastic artists, art theorists, philosophers, historians, psychoanalysts, aestheticians, writers, communication scholars, etc.) have different answers, and there will be a type of scene of “different people have different opinions, and the wise have different opinions”. In fact, their reflection of and answer to the image and its meaning have not yet deviated from the dynamic range that they may control. It is recognized that, art, especially visual art, links rationality, irrationality, cognitive understanding, intuitive experience and even meditation on mysterious things all together. Many scholars and artists are also addicted to this. To understand how these different levels of understanding are constructed, it is important to analyze the most easily understood function among them. In fact, it is to devote all efforts to the exploration of their significance. In the 1970s, many Western researchers of social science began to change their way of life to understand society, which is historically called “cultural turn”. What promoted this cultural turn was the emergence of ocularcentrism. People began to search for the meaning from visual things. At this time, the meaning of the image really entered the public’s field of vision and became as lovely as the girl next door. Just as Gillian Rose said: “People feel that meaning is real or illusory, as accurate

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as science or as general as images. Daily dialogues, precise rhetoric, elegant art, TV soap operas, dreams, movies and Muzak (vulgar music often played at public places in Muzak) are all ways of meaning transmission. Different social groups would understand the world in different ways.”15 Before that, Russian formalists found some examples of this question and some answer modes. For example, Iouri Lotman believed that art is speech and art is a way of exchanging ideas, so it is also “many means.” Martine Joly, a French scholar, believes that this question, which is mainly aimed at poetry, pollutes an act of reflecting on the meaning mechanism through images early, which has a great influence on the thoughts of former Soviet director Eisenstein. His reflection and experiment on montage were mainly on the generation mode of movie images. The “Odessa Steps” in his film “Battleship Potemkin” has become a model of montage, and its image revelation of the meaning is still perfect so far. Psychoanalysts also questioned the meaning of images, especially with Freud and Foucault as representatives. The most important part of their work was about artistic creation and the meaning of artistic works. Of course, art theorists and art educators also joined the team of this exploration. For example, Kandinsky, Klee and Johanes Itten developed some methods to analyze the meaning of visual works. Art historians, represented by Gombrich, put forward methods of interpretation of the meaning of images. Philosophers represented by Goodman and image-research experts represented by Panofsky also highly questioned it, having deeply analyzed and extensively deduced the meaning of images. (2) Image limitation This is what French scholar Jacques Aumont summed up when he explored the meaning of images. He believed that the expression of time and space in images was usually limited by a more general purpose, and this limited activity had a narrative nature. That is to say, the narration of the image (the process of expressing meaning) is limited (“perceived” or “named”). This narration is manifested in two aspects, one is related to the expression, and it is time and space with plots. The second is that the change after performance itself is also in the process of a story-change or in the process of a story fragment. The story has become the result of image narration.16 People all know clearly that the story is an imaginary construction with its own laws, and is more or less similar to the rules of nature, or at least similar to its concept, which itself is also changing. In fact, most of the whole plot construction is limited by its social reception, that is, it is stipulated and named by the social convention, coding and current symbolism, eventually becoming a cultural code with social nature. This social and cultural features of the image are very obvious. For example, we can see the street scenes, customs and human feelings of the capital in the Song Dynasty, as well as the political, economic and cultural situations at that time from the “Riverside scenes at Qingming Festival ”. From the rock paintings on Jiangjun 15 Gillian Rose: “An Introduction to Visual Studies”, p. 7. Translated by Wang Guoqiang, Taipei: Qunxue Publishing Co., Ltd., March 2006, p. 7. 16 See Jacques Aumont: L’image [M], Paris: Nathan, 1990.

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Cliff in Lianyungang, Jiangsu Province, we can understand the living conditions and totem worship of ancestors of Dongyi Bird Country. In the visual works of ancient Greece and Rome, we usually find that these works can often provide information about the era when they were produced. Of course, these images do not show the production era itself, but some information about that era. Therefore, how to read out this information is a professional ability, requiring special training. If it is a contemporary theme, then the untrained public would have this ability. However, people also find that in the face of the same theme, some of the images shown have some similarities and some have nothing in common. It should be admitted that all the image works have been added with some ideological, cultural and symbolic statements by the audience and even their historical and continuous audience. Without these, the image works would really lose their meaning. As believed by Ormond, the statements added can be completely implicit and need not be stated. This is not to say that these statements are unspeakable. The meaning of images lies first in the relationship between images and speeches as well as between images and language. Although the problems of images and speeches as well as images and language are often mentioned by people, It is also a problem that experts and scholars have discussed countless times, but here we still have to solemnly mention again: there is no “pure” and completely pictorial image, because in order to be fully understood (refusing to explain is also a way of understanding), images must inevitably have a language expression. In this regard, all research methods on meaning have put aside their own views and reached a high degree of agreement for the first time. As far as semiotics is concerned, it believes that language is the foundation and example of all phenomena of cultural dissemination and meaning phenomena. For example, as once pointed out by Christian Metz, there are not only a series of non-pictorial codes in images, but also pictorial codes themselves that can only exist under the condition of referring to language. Michel Colin proposed more strictly that there is a definitive interdependence between images and a language definition. In the study of visual representation, don’t forget the symbolic field either. Julian Hochberg and Virginia Brooks believe that empirically, children’s understanding of visual images is involved in oral acquisition at the same time, and this understanding is related to oral acquisition.17 (3) Image information This is a very thorny problem. Most people think that images are easier to understand than language, but in fact this is not the case. The methods of transmitting information from images are different, so we should use different methods when interpreting images, instead of applying our methods of understanding language. The symbolic school of semiotics pays special attention to this point. They will highlight the basic difference between image-meaning and word-meaning. As once pointed out by American scholar Sol Worth, image interpretation is different from word interpretation because grammatical, syntactic, time-limited and 17 See

Jacques Aumont: L’image [M], Paris: Nathan, 1990.

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real features are not suitable for it. However, the image cannot be true or false, at least it cannot be true or false in the spoken sense. It can only express some statements, especially a negative statement. The image cannot say “no”, just like Margritte’s words on his pipe painting: Ceci n’est pas une pipe (It is not a pipe) Then, is the image fake? Of course, words are not able to confirm physical color like images. It is just like a political declaration, we cannot identify it as being green or red. In fact, we can insist on their similarity in opposite aspects, or insist on the inevitable connection between the two. The “perceived” and “named” mentioned earlier are actually the most obvious necessity to obtain the relationship between the “visual meaning” and “explanatory meaning” of the image. Ormond believes that one of the important concepts is “image naming coding”. Of course, there are quite a few other elements to be added. From Eco to Bart, and then to a recent trend, i.e. it is to establish a “generation” semiotics of images based on the assumption of consistency between a “profound” mechanism of mastering language and images. On this point, some scholars have reached a consensus at present. In essence, the semiotics of image generation is to insist on the important symbolic meaning of images. The reason for insistence is that images can express meanings. In this regard, images are closely related to spoken language. However, Ormond also stressed: “We take a clear stand against some image philosophies which want to discover a ‘direct’ way to express the world in images. They can compete with language but do not make use of language and take a shortcut.” Roger Munier said in his book Contre L’image: Images replace writing forms with a common and powerful suggestive expression. Moreover, images reverse the traditional relationship between people and things. The world is no longer named. It expresses itself in its own repetition and becomes its own statement. He therefore concluded that images are dangerous and should be transcended by incorporating them into a new and unprecedented form, giving the world family of images a language of self-statement. If we want to continue to list the above views on the interpretation of image information, there are still many. Among them, some greatly appreciate and cheer the popularity of images. Some express apocalyptic worries about the invasion of images. Some support the view that images are domineering. Some people who oppose images hate them deeply and use all their strength to curse them. In fact, none of these are desirable. This also fully reflects the impetuous mentality of some experts and scholars, their superficial understanding of images and their childish views. Some viewpoints often overestimate the identity of images in the real world, but forget the “symbolic strategy” of images. These two are used relatively and have nothing in common. At the same time, some viewpoints underestimate the “deep” appearance of language in images. Minier proposed that movies are an effective form of language that should be “subordinate” to images. On the contrary, Pasolini proposed to watch “realistic written language” in movies. What needs special emphasis here is that images are both social science and natural science. In the aspect of natural science, images are not only tools to reproduce or interpret natural science, but also become the research object of natural science. In

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social science, images are an important medium to spread knowledge and construct a civilized society, as well as construct people’s cognition/imagination of the world and the methods of cognition/imagination.

Iconology Theories Image is the construction of a structural code. Symbol is a meaning system shared by members of a culture or sub-culture, which consists of symbols and conventional rules. Interpretation of images is also the process of finding the meaning. Meaning needs to be obtained not only from visual information, but also from the understanding of culture.

Iconology Iconology, as its name implies, is the knowledge of images and the exposition of images. It is a science used to explain visual modeling activities and their significance to visual works. At present, iconology is not only a humanities and social science, but also a natural science. In the West, the word “iconology” was developed from the Greek image evolution into the image record. It was originally a systematic explanation and research of Christian images (Christ images and saint images), studying the tradition, subject presentation as well as meaning interpretation and historical and cultural development of painting themes. As iconology and its related words (iconography, iconology) are quite complicated and polysemous in the West, there have been endless debates and discussion on iconology in the West since its appearance, and there have also been constant debates over its translation and interpretation in Chinese, with different viewpoints and different reasons. This paper can only sort out a main line from a practical point of view, presenting the most important aspects of iconology and providing readers with the basic features of iconology, instead of getting entangled in all aspects that require in-depth study. The exposition of Western scholars and Chinese translators reflected in this paper does not mean that the author agrees with such views, nor does it mean that the author abandons or opposes these views. As already discussed above, that definition of the icon, picture and image is very complex, American scholars mostly consider problems from the perspective of narratology, while European scholars mostly consider problems from the perspective of semiotics. As a result, Chinese scholars have different orientations and interpretations of icon, picture and image from different perspectives. Chinese scholars have different understandings of these interpretations and the need for professional discourse from different subject backgrounds. Then the difficulty of understanding and professional interpretation of Iconography (Iconography, iconology) can be imagined. At present, the discussion on iconology in Chinese academic circles is also

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very lively without reaching a final conclusion. Taiwan scholar Mr. Chen Huaien has done a very detailed combing and in-depth research on this issue in his book named “Iconology-Significance and Interpretation of Visual Arts”. Taking the English-speaking world as an example, Mr. Chen sorted out the explanations of relevant entries of “Iconology” and “Iconography” in Webster’s Dictionary. As shown in Table A.1.18 From Webster’s Dictionary, we can see four application directions of the term “Iconography”: (1)

(2)

(3)

When we use the word “Iconography” to refer to “image data related to a certain topic or directly describing the topic”, then “Iconography” is equivalent to “image assembly” and “theme gallery” in a broad sense. When we use the word “Iconography” to refer to certain images or signs derived from “tradition or inheritance, the images or signs will be associated with the exact theme, usually the theme of a certain religion or legend.” As far as Western tradition is concerned, the word “Iconography” at this time is close to all kinds of images appearing in Christian iconology or Orthodox iconology. If the word “Iconography” is used to refer to “the image series or symbolic series of works of art, artists or certain arts”, it refers to the “whole” as the image.

Table A.1 Explanation of Iconology in English (Quoted from Iconology-The Meaning and Interpretation of Visual Arts, pp. 19–20) Icon(ikon)

It was first found in the English world in 1572. Latin, derived from Greek eikn, is also quite similar to eikenai. Its usage and meaning are as follows: 1. Commonly seen images have the same meaning as IMAGE 2. Greek meaning eikn: Traditional religious images, usually drawn on small wooden sketch-boards, are used for orthodox worship 3. Untested worshipers have the same meaning as IDOL 4. Flag, the same as EMBLEM, SYMBOL. Such as “this house became one of the symbols (icon) of housing construction in the 1860’s” (Paul Goldberger) 5a. A mark (text or graphic mark) in the form which can indicate its inner meaning 5b. A graphic sign on a computer screen, usually used to indicate the type of object or a certain function

Iconography In 1678, Latin iconographia from the Middle Ages was derived from the Greek noun eikonographia–depicting and describing. The verb eikonographein–describing, eikon-+ graphhein (writing) 1. Image data that are related to or directly describe a topic 2. A traditional or inherited image or symbol that is associated with an exact theme, usually the theme of a religion or legend 3. A series of images or symbols of a work of art, an artist, or an art 4. It is equivalent to ICONOLOGY Iconology

Icoonologie, from French, was formed by the words icono-icon-+-logie-logy and appeared around 1736. Referring to the study of images or artistic symbols

18 Chen Huai-en, “Iconology-The

Publishing House, January 2008.

Meaning and Interpretation of Visual Arts”, p. 19. Taipei: Ruguo

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When text users equate “Iconography” with “Iconology”, “Iconography” refers to a discipline. Is “Iconography” really equivalent to “Iconology”? It is an academic issue. It is obvious that general dictionaries do not need and have no intention to write much here.19

The West first moistened iconology in the history of art. At that time, iconology had two aspects: First, this kind of academic research is devoted to the understanding and explanation of the theme of European concrete paintings. The concern is what people, things and objects are depicted in these paintings. What is the meaning of the scene on the picture? What kind of concept or personification will the characters in the image be? What is the basis of the above-mentioned image depiction forms? Second, it is a method of art history dedicated to understanding the meaning and content of images and explaining the meaning of images. This method can be called “Iconography” or “Iconology” sometimes, so as to be different from iconology, which studies the theme and content of images. If image science is divided into “applied image science” and “explanatory image science” from a practical point of view, then complex academic problems can be somewhat simple. The explanation of the general perception of a specific image in a certain era and the explanation of the collective aesthetic form in a certain era can be called “Iconography”. If it is a historical discipline in art, the purpose of which is to identify and describe artistic works and further interpret the contents of these artistic works, it can be called “Iconology”.20 Images have their own history. Images are also in history. The evolution of iconology is extremely complicated. In different historical periods, iconology plays different roles and shows different functions. Generally speaking, iconology is an academic theoretical research and practical activity concerning the integrity of interpretation and explanation of visual works. Mr. Chen Huaien divided it into several periods. Early Iconography was used to explain the unique artistic types and image expressions that appeared in Europe during the Renaissance. Because the producers or designers of these artistic types consciously constructed the norms and criteria involved in the combination of various images and languages, fully showing the producers’ efforts in constructing the image symbol system, this period is also regarded as the exact period of establishment of iconology by later researchers. Traditional Iconography complied with this system and continued to flourish. Although it was initially displayed in the form of image arrangement and compilation, it also had a set of clear selection methods or interpretation principles. It is not too much to call this systematic image integration and explanation work iconology. At the same time, it is also because of the construction of these image systems of practical characters that it is possible for people of following generations to study the theme 19 Chen Huaien. Iconology-The Meaning and Interpretation of Visual Arts. Taipei: Ruguo Publishing House, January 2008, pp. 20. 20 Chen Huaien. Iconology-The Meaning and Interpretation of Visual Arts. Taipei: If Publishing House, January 2008, pp. 16–17.

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and content of artistic objects. In other words, today we can describe and classify the motif, viewpoint and recurring themes in the image so as to understand the meaning to be shown in the work, which depends entirely on the set of conscious practical activities carried out by artists when creating symbols. The efforts of traditional iconology led to the formal discipline-title of this research activity in the 19th century, which can be called modern iconology in Chinese. As note earlier, modern iconology is based on the achievements of traditional iconology, including two aspects of “Iconography” and “Iconology”. On the one hand, scholars inherit and improve the research methods and procedures of traditional iconology, on the other hand, they open up an approach of cultural interpretation for understanding the meaning of iconology, and build iconology into a humanities discipline close to cultural anthropology and philosophy. Most of the academic issues corresponding to post-modern iconology are found at the “Iconology” level. However, some art writers also use the word “Iconology” to slow down their philosophical meaning. Post-modern American writers often use the word “Iconology” directly to challenge and subvert the dominant position of modern iconology represented by Panovsky. From this point of view, when we try to describe an academic activity with “image” as its central topic and hope to explain the academic trend that is still developing continuously, the word “image science” in Chinese is still quite suitable. Mr. Chen Huaien discussed the issue of iconology within the scope of art. It is natural and even reasonable to draw such a conclusion. The development and social role of iconology have long been beyond the control of artists, historians and even all workers of humanities and social science. It can be said that at the beginning of the birth of iconology, even in the “pre-iconology” period, the eve of the development of the discipline of “iconology” in the West, people used the theoretical tools of “iconology” extensively to analyze and explain the issues of visual works. People use the analysis work of “iconology” to solve problems in social life, especially in the research of natural science. Therefore, the author solemnly states here that the time for the appearance of the Western terminology of iconology can be verified, but the emergence of iconology is definitely not only after the appearance of the term “iconology”. Before that, as clearly shown by numerous human scientific and technological realization as well as practice of humanities and social science, the use of the word “iconology” was at best an honorary ratification of image science or iconology practice, just like a child who is named when he grows up, but the age of the child can not be counted from the day he is named. At all times and in all countries, there are too many repeated examinations and debates on the term of iconology, especially taking the appearance of the word “iconology” in the West as the source, most of which have no substantive significance and are helpless to the construction of iconology. Iconology has long gone beyond the scope of debate and speculation in study. It is free to practice itself in a vast world from astronomy to geography, with philosophy and art together. Theorists do not need to waste energy and time to study it endlessly. Practice of thousands of years in China’s “iconology” reminds us not to “always cover our eyes for floating

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clouds” and forget the foundation of learning. We should enter the field of iconology practice, realize and investigate iconology realistically.

The Task of Iconology Today, the development of iconology has shown a different look from the perspective of original European art of “iconology” research. At present, what we refer to as “iconology” aims to establish a theoretical object and put forward a completely formal overall model, focusing on explaining the definition of image itself, as well as the structure and motivation of the image. Its nature is philosophical as a theoretical thinking on iconology research. The original purpose of iconology was to penetrate and understand the complex cultural field of an era through the cognition of visual impression. At this fundamental point, there has not been much change through the ages. The task of Western iconology “is to unlock the secrets of ancient images that are as obscure as codes,” according to Mr. Chen Huaien’s vivid analogy: “To put it mildly, iconology researchers are like parents who tell bedtime stories for children, and that they have been repeatedly narrating various story lines familiar to adults.” As remarked by Kop Schmidt : “The purpose of iconology is to describe or rebuild the meaning of images that have been gradually forgotten due to the changes of the times, so that laymen in art history and experts and scholars who are not of this type of art can understand the essence of these works of art.”21 In fact, images are only a kind of medium, a kind of visual medium. People are most concerned about the social significance that this medium can bring about. “Meaning” has become the essential task of iconology research, while “production” and “exchange” of “meaning” have become the whole content of iconology research. With the speech form of “visual language”, Mr. Chen Huaien sorted out and summarized a sketch of “meaning” that Thomas von Aquin could produce to images, as shown in Table A.2. As shown in a 13th century manuscript, the literal meaning teaches us events, the metaphor meaning tells us beliefs, the moral meaning tells us actions and the returning meaning tells us the direction of struggle.22 As far as the visual interpretation of artistic works is concerned, people are more willing to accept a concise and practical position of image interpretation, that is, the “meaning” of images is understood as three levels: original meaning, meaning and implication. According to Gombrich’s understanding, when people want to interpret the author’s original intention, they must start with his original intention and plan. When people explain the inspiration and significance of the works to the viewers, they may get various meaning explanations that vary from time to time and from place to place. 21 Quoted 22 Quoted

from “Iconology-Meaning and Interpretation of Visual Arts”, p. 14. from “Iconology-Meaning and Interpretation of Visual Arts”, p. 31.

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Table A.2 “Meaning” differentiation of Aquinas (Quoted from “Iconology-Significance and Interpretation of Visual Arts”, p. 30) Wen (Littera)

1. Literal meaning (Sensuslitteralis)/historical meaning (Sensushistoricus): the exact historical things referred to in the classics

Quality (Nucleus) 2. Metaphorical Meaning Sensusallegoricus: The images of historical things mentioned in the classics show traces of Jesus and the church everywhere 3. Moral Meaning Sensustropologicus/Sensusmoralis: Classical Suggestions to Individual Life from the Images of These Historical Things 4. The meaning of returning to the clan Sensusanagogicus: The classics put forward the mysterious meaning of other or eschatological theology from the images of these historical things

However, when people infer the possible meaning or creative concept contained in the work, this implication may become a fusion of hermeneutics and interpretation.23 These methods of illustration and interpretation of images are all effective, but as far as general theories are concerned, the long-term practice of image researchers from different countries, different cultural groups and different beliefs in the world shows that Panovsky’s three-dimensional interpretation theory of images is more acceptable to most people. According to the requirements of Pan Shi’s theories, the first thing to do is image description. Image description is also called pre-image description, that is, the recognition of images and objects. As believed by Panovsky, the first thing to do is to describe the image in pre-portraitology, which is only limited to studying various motifs and analyzing the motif world of objects or events through the reproduction of lines, colors, shades, etc., presented by the image author. This job looks very simple, because according to our actual experience, it can proceed smoothly. In fact, this is not the case, because no matter how rich one’s personal experience is, there will still be a lot of ignorance in the face of the myriad changes in the motif world. No matter how much one has scientific and cultural knowledge, the world will look pale in the face of reality. Therefore, we should use our solid professional knowledge and dialectical view of history to describe the motif world in continuous study and practice. “When we think that we identify each motif entirely according to experimental experience, in fact, we understand ‘what we see’ from this view-objects and events are expressed through forms under different historical conditions. In doing so, we subordinate our actual experience to a correct principle that can also be called style-oriented history.”24 The second is image analysis. Image analysis is also called the interpretation of image analysis, that is, confirmation symbolized by images. Iconological analysis refers to the mastery of special themes and concepts inherited from various cultural 23 Chen Huaien, “Iconology-Significance and Interpretation of Visual Arts”, Taipei: Ruguo Publishing House, January 2008, p. 32. 24 Panovsky: “The Meaning of Visual Arts”, translated by Fu Zhiqiang, Shenyang: Liaoning People’s Publishing House, January 1987, p. 42.

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traditions as a prerequisite, regardless of whether it is official history or unofficial history, written materials or folk word of mouth. As believed by Panovsky, iconological analysis refers to the study of images, stories and even fables, but it does not study motifs and premises. Therefore, as the author of the image, he must be familiar with these historical things. No matter what kind of ways and means he uses, he must have sufficient information so as to be adept and handy in his performance. He once cited an example: “It is impossible for Australian jungle residents to know the subject of the work named” The Last Supper. “To him, the painting is only an exciting lunch party. To understand the portrait meaning of this painting, he must be familiar with the contents of the Gospel. When we encounter some works that reproduce historical and mythological themes which only ordinary ’educated people’ occasionally know, instead of stories or scenes about the Bible, we will all become Australian jungle residents.” Of course, it is not to say that if we have sufficient and reliable materials, we will be able to make correct analysis. Just like style-oriented history that corrects our actual experience, this traditional knowledge and these written materials also need to be corrected by typical history.25 Finally, it comes to the image interpretation. Image interpretation is also called the interpretation of image hermeneutics, that is, the interpretation of cultural roots of images. We can also translate it directly into the interpretation of images, which Panovsky calls it as the interpretation of icons. Of course, this is not the application of specific themes and the expression of concepts, nor is it just the combing of traditional knowledge and written materials, but an analytical discourse with both professional education and universality for images. “We hope to master the basic principles that enable us to make choices and expressions on motifs, constitute the creation and interpretation of images, stories and fables, and even give meaning to the arrangement of forms and technical process”, not for other reasons, but to make the interpretation of images consistent with what the content of images is to express.26

Iconology Research At present, iconology research is a prominent subject both in domestic and foreign academic circles. The field of iconology has never been so lively. Researchers have different motives and purposes to study all aspects of iconology from their respective academic backgrounds and subject perspectives. The results of iconology research have also been immense in recent years. There are all kinds of voices and all kinds of viewpoints. It can be said that a hundred flowers blossom and a hundred schools of thought contend.

25 Panovsky, The Meaning of Visual Arts, Trans. Fu Zhiqiang, Shenyang: Liaoning People’s Publishing House, January 1987, p. 43. 26 Panovsky: “The Meaning of Visual Arts”, Trans. Fu Zhiqiang, Shenyang: Liaoning People’s Publishing House, January 1987, p. 46.

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The author has also been involved in the research field of images and iconology for quite a long time. In the first ten years or so, the criminal police focused on “trace images” because of the need to investigate the scene. In the next ten years or so, I devoted myself to “similar images” because of the needs of artistic creation and photography-teaching. In the past ten years or so, I have devoted myself to “symbolic images” because of my interest in theoretical research and the needs of scientific research topics. It can be said that I have been “imaged” in the past 30 years. Although the requirements are different and the purposes are different, one thing remains unchanged, that is, to pay attention to the development and utilization of the practical functions of iconology, to devote oneself to the tempering of instrumental methods of iconology as well as the verification and detection of validity of use under the control of personal interests, and to revise and perfect the research methods of iconology. In other words, The author has always been engaging in the process explanation of the popular application of the image science, Occasionally, I will have a little experience and some thinking, but compared with the metaphysical macro theories of various scholars in iconology research, it cannot be regarded as a kind of iconology research. This is the author’s regret and doubt all along, but the exploration into the methodology of iconology is what the author has been trying to do. In the end, image or iconology research is a kind of research on “meaning”. The meaning of image is either clear or vague, or known or occurs outside perception. However, image is the carrier of “production” and “exchange” of “meaning” and becomes a very effective medium for meaning composition and dissemination. The visual schema of images is the oldest and eternal, the easiest and the most difficult, the most common and the most unique way to describe, characterize and understand the world. Therefore, the author’s visual iconology research is actually an interpretation of “meaning”. For the interpretation of image meaning, we believe that there are three fields that should attract our special attention. Before expounding the field in detail, let’s get to know three forms of images, namely, technical form, constitutive form and social form. Grasping three image forms is very beneficial to understanding images and should also be the basic academic orientation of iconology research. There will be special case studies later.27 (1)

Technical form. Some people define image technology as “any form of mechanism designed for people to watch or beautify natural images” (whether they are pictures, movies, television or the Internet). This is also an important reason why we want to devote a separate chapter to modern image production technology. If images are not examined from a technical point of view, the so-called research on images must be extremely superficial. Image news research, which is divorced from image technology, is a kind of discourse construction divorced from image subject and hides the danger of over-interpretation.

27 See Gillian Rose’s “Introduction to Visual Research” , translated by Wang Guoqiang, Taipei: Qunxue Publishing Co., Ltd., March 2006. In the book, when expounding some methodological tools about visual images, the author discussed the modes of visual images—technical, structural and social.

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The constitutive form. In the process of image production, people must use some formal planning: such as content, lines, colors and space configuration. Some specific forms of these plans often appear together, so people with visual literacy of images can define some images through special composition. Therefore, in the research, the author of the image should be given as detailed research as possible to understand their working state, the means of constructing the image, their visual style of the image, their cultural background and other factors. The social form. This is an overly abbreviated word. It is generally used to refer to the economic, social and political relations, organizational system and other categories surrounding the image. Only through these categories can the image be viewed and used. Therefore, we should pay full attention to the social form of images in the research, especially pay special attention to the interactive presentation of various relationships in image analysis.

The above division of three forms of images is somewhat similar to that of the founders of modern communication studies, i.e. Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver, the authors of “Mathematical Model of Communication”, divided the issues of communication research into three levels. (1) The technical level: Explore how to accurately transmit communication symbols. This is like the technical form of an image. (2) The semantic level: Discuss how transmission symbols convey accurate original meaning. Like the composition form of the image, the image uses modeling symbols (such as colors, lines, etc.) to form the image symbols of the whole picture, thus forming the semantics of communication. (3) The effect level: To explore how the meaning after receiving messages effectively affects the expected behaviors. Like the discussion of the social effects of image transmission, this is also the last field in which images produce “meaning”. The author knows clearly that this simple linearity and emphasis on the nature of the process will lead to lots of criticism, but the author also believes that this simplicity has also given rise to many subsequent developments. All the above forms can be found in three types of fields described below, so the separation between fields is not very clear. As we have repeatedly stressed, “meaning” needs to be understood not only from information but also from culture. (1) The field of Image production. The first is to explain the field of material technology of image production. All kinds of image reproduction are made in some way, and the environmental conditions of their production may affect the effect of image reproduction. The material and technology used in making images determine the form, significance and effect of images. Obviously, image technology is related to the appearance of the image, thus interfering with the possible role and treatment of the image. As far as iconology research is concerned, it is important to understand the material and manufacturing technology used in the process of image production. In the research practice of iconology, great attention should be paid to the collection of documents and materials in this field and the investigation of image-making technology.

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Part of the effect of the image comes from obvious spontaneity, but a considerable part will be realized by technology. For example, the images printed by lithography technology are more realistic than woodcut technology, and the authenticity of news photos is attributed to photography technology. In the course of study, we not only examined the obvious technical effects in the process of visual image production as carefully as possible, but also noticed that some effects were not purely technical problems at all. The second form of making images is related to its composition. Some scholars have demonstrated that the production conditions of images dominate the composition, and these arguments are most effective at the level related to the type of images (the author agrees with the principle of type priority, that is, confirm the text attributes of images first, and then explain the images). Some images conform to one type, but at the same time it is related to other types of images. Clarifying this point enables us to explain many aspects of this rich image data. The third form of making images is called social. Similarly, many experts and scholars insist that social form is the most important factor in understanding visual images. Others argue that only the economic process inlaid with cultural production shapes visual imagination. We cautiously agree with these views and use them to analyze images. We know that we must have a comprehensive understanding of the cultural and economic process of producing images. However, we also know that too much emphasis on the influence of extensive production systems on the importance of image meaning sometimes ignores the characteristics and details of the image itself. We admit that social form has the core importance to image production, but we will not neglect more detailed methods of analysis, focusing not only on specific image publishing organizations and image works, but also on the overall operation of the publishing industry when images are displayed. (2) The field of the image itself. The second is to explain the composition field of the image itself. Image is a visual form completely different from the composition form of language and characters, as the construction of structural codes. An image is a plane with profound meaning. In this visual plane, it is full of both symbolic symbols (symbols) and symbolic meanings (symbols), including both on-site symbols and reproduction symbols. Images present the meaning of things in the external world, which can not only abstract the world, but also have concrete ability, or imagination, to return the abstraction to the external world. Therefore, the study of the image’s own composition field has become the top priority of iconology research. The second field in which images produce “meaning” is the process and technology of image’s own construction. We know that all kinds of images have formal components. Some of the sources are technologies that make, reproduce or display images. The technology of image composition itself has developed into an independent discipline-image composition. Some people think that the composition is the most important to the image’s own effect. The form of images contributes to the way people watch images. The research on the composition of the image’s own field is quite convincing in explaining the

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viewing-mode of the image, but such explanations will refuse to explain the viewingmode with the help of reference image production conditions. Therefore, we should treat it carefully with restriction, and analyze it on the basis of strict self-discipline and self-awareness. Other components of the image depend on social practices. For example, some images are made for specific media and exhibition space according to certain purposes, thus determining how they look to some extent. This is especially clearly reflected in the publication of various reproduced picture albums. We know that some people argue that images have their own effects, and the effects exceed the limitations of image production (and dissemination). For example, some people say that the special nature of photographic images allows us to understand their use-technology in a specific way, otherwise it is not. In other words, those special properties shape the social form of mosaic images, but not the other way around. (3) The field of image propagation. Finally, the social communication field of the image is explained. The audience of the image may agree or disagree with the interpretation of the “meaning” of the image made by experts and scholars for them, and they will put forward other interpretations according to their own cultural backgrounds. We believe that the audience’s acceptance or rejection in a certain way is the field where the “meaning” and effect of the image are finally created, which is the social communication field of the image. In this field, because the audience is the viewer of the image, the image audience, like the reader of the media, has its own way of watching or reading and other kinds of knowledge, which is the most important occasion to make the “meaning” of the image. John Fiske also used the word “viewing” to refer to the meaning of visual images as determined by the audience’s renegotiation or refusal under certain circumstances. The meaning of exclusive image is produced in the field of image technology. Theorists also often say that the technology used to make and display images will control the audience’s reaction. In fact, this is a problem that needs careful and cautious consideration. For example, if you watch a movie on TV, will you have the same visual feeling as if you watch it with 3D glasses in a big cinema? Do you feel the same when watching the original image and the replica in the general picture album? At a certain level, these all clearly show that it is indeed a technical problem of the image, such as the size, color and texture of the image. However, at another level, it raises a more important question: how the image is watched by its audience in different contexts. It is different to look through a book with pictures and illustrations in a crowded downtown street than to watch the original carefully in a quiet library. What we want to say is that the social transmission field of the image, that is, the viewing place of the image, is very important to the meaning and effect. We admit that it is the formal arrangement of image elements that dominates how the audience views the image, but this is not the only dominant factor. In addition, individual viewers not only see what the author gives in the image, but also see some special things through some redundant information provided by the image, so the audience has the right to interpret the image. Therefore, it is necessary to pay some attention to the image audience at that time in the image research.

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Being related to the first place in the social communication field of images is the social composition of images. Social form is probably the most important form to understand image viewing. To some extent, this is a problem of different social practices, forming the viewing of specific images in specific fields. People usually process visual images in a specific way, and the processing practices will vary with the field of image transmission and image types. The second correlation with the field of image transmission is the social form of the image. Iconology research should pay attention to the social identity of viewers, how different audiences interpret specific visual images in different ways, and where the sources of different social identity of recipients come from. From the perspective of iconology, images have three forms: technical, constitutive and social. These three different aspects provide us with different perspectives to study images and then draw different conclusions. Analyzing the technical, constitutive and social problems of images is the basis of iconology research. The field of “meaning” of image production includes the field of image production, the field of image itself and the field of image transmission. No matter which field, we should study images from three aspects or forms of technology, composition and society, which is also a relatively independent and complete methodological tool for image research. In order to enable readers to quickly understand this rather complicated theory of iconology, the author illustrates the generation of images, the analysis of images and the interpretation of iconology with Fig. A.1. It should be emphasized that it is only a schematic diagram of simple cognitive iconology research, not any theoretical explanation of iconology research.

The Research Content and Research Orientation of Iconology The paths of academic research in today’s society are rich and varied, and the research content of iconology is even more complicated and jumbled. The selection of each research content can be said to be carried out confidently under the control of sufficient reasons, some of which are about the speech of the text and some of which are about the text of the speech. The author is a supporter of applied iconology, who cares about the study of the essential features of images and tends to simplify complex issues in order to increase the clarity and understandability of the study, which may lead to some loopholes in the research text and deficiency in in-depth exposition. The author believes that the first thing to be explored in the study of iconology is the issue of images and essence. Starting from the examination of prehistoric images, the “imitation images” and “trace images” in the period of “pre-history” should be discussed. In the research, we should focus on the signs, similarity and symbolism of images, and expound the properties of various images in depth. On the basis of different types of images, we should analyze the fundamental attributes of images in detail according to the material basis, composition patterns and the social field of a certain type of images.

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Fig. A.1 Image generation, image analysis and schematic illustration of iconology, by Han Congyao

The discussion of the relationship between image and reality is a must for iconology research. It is necessary to study the perception of image audience, the reality and reality of image. Among them, the issues of analogy between images and reality and signs of similarity between images need to be intervened from the perspectives of history and reality, and even to go deep into the interior of the visual schema of images for analysis, so as to define the reality of images and realistic images, and to study the complex and complicated presentation as well as perception relationship among images, people and reality. Image is a man-made thing, which is the retention of one thing after it acts on one thing. However, image is an independent objective existence all the more, and image is a type of relationship between time and space.

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In the study of images and space, we can start from people’s perception of space, and then discuss the problems of projection and perspective, surface and depth, scene and space. We need to study the trust of space and the space of trust. In the study of images and time, we should first clarify the problems of lifetime and image- time, and carry out rational demonstration of natural science and perceptual description of humanities on the comprehensive time of images, hidden time of images, instantaneous time of images and temporal images. We have made it clear through the knowledge of other disciplines that visual images are a fabric of social codes. It shows a certain theme which is carried by the visual subject, and the visual subject is composed of visual elements, even a visual symbol/modeling symbol, as shown in Fig. A.2. Therefore, the research content of image and theme, image and composition, image and symbol should focus more on the research of professional iconology, focusing on analyzing the signifier of image and constructing the text-form of image “meaning”. Images are the visual things which constitute the text of “meaning”. Interpreting images is also the process of finding meaning. People have too many explanatory words about images, and need professional discussions on scale control, instead of unrestrained and promiscuous “live broadcast”. Image is a kind of communication text and also an artistic style or the main style of visual art. Therefore, topics such as “image and discourse”, “image and art” and “image and meaning” need to be discussed professionally, so as to describe the subject characteristics of iconology in theory and strengthen its theoretical connotation in content. As shown in Fig. A.3. Judging from the current development of iconology, it can make some achievements in three research directions.

Fig. A.2 Society-Image-Element by Han Congyao

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Fig. A.3 A brief view of the research content is made by Han Congyao

One is the study of ordinary iconology. This kind of research is philosophical in nature, aiming at establishing a theoretical object and proposing a completely formal overall model. It studies the image definition itself, structure and dynamics. The second is the research into professional iconology. It studies the structure of image language, including composition, organization, modeling symbols, image symbols, meaning, syntax, semantics and pragmatic philosophy. It mainly studies theoretical and conceptual viewpoints. Special image systems, such as visual symbols, movie pictures, TV images, photographic composition, painting techniques, video techniques, etc. The third is the research into applied iconology. It is a research model, and its rigour is based on the application of iconological methods. The social consistency assumed by these methods is relative to unverified or too many accidental interpretations.

Features of Modern Images Modern images refer to technical images made by people using physics, chemistry, electronics and other principles with modern mechanical tools. We call them machine images. Different from the principle of traditional hand-drawn images, although it is also manually drawn, it is “produced” by people using mechanical and electronic equipment, etc. Its biggest characteristic is the replicability of images. Compared with tradition, it is more modern. Compared with manual means, it is made by machinery, so it is also called mechanical image. Because there is a strict proportional relationship between machine technology (photographic cameras, cameras, video cameras and

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other machines) and the object depicted (recorded), the visual form is very similar (equal scale), which is generally called image.

Modern Images and Traditional Images Traditional hand-drawn images (such as totems, rock paintings, etc.) have been existing in human society for tens of thousands of years, and the appearance of characters is only thousands of years old. Compared with traditional images, articles are still very young in traditional form. Machine images appeared after articles. In terms of time, it should have started with the invention of photography in 1839. Images produced by machines such as movies, televisions and computers that appeared after photography should be called machine images or images, including digital images. In order to correspond to traditional images, we call the images made by machines modern images. (1) Questions raised Some people believe that the appearance of machine images benefits from the progress of science and technology, while the progress of science and technology comes from scientific research. Only with scientific research and articles (ways of presenting ideas) of scientific research can machine images be produced. This is also why Vilém Flusser called the machine image “technical image”. However, the author dares not fully agree with this view, because we know that “technology” has been accompanied by the evolution of human civilization. Labor created human beings. It is a kind of technology for people to master labor skills skillfully when working (such as hunting in the same organizational form many times, forking fish with sharpened wooden sticks, painting with mineral pigments, singing with the same syllables and pitches, etc.). Traditional images from artificial hands in the Stone Age should also be admitted as a technology.28 In fact, the image always exists in the tension of two factors (media and reproduction). Without either of the two factors, the image does not exist. Even in a painting with extremely high artistic value, “technology” often enjoys a magical value beyond “art”. The high-quality performance is not attributed to its artistic foundation, but to the painter’s mastery of technology. “All arts have a physical part”. However, compared with the traditional image (manual painting), the most decisive thing about the machine image is the relationship between the image author and his technology. For photographers, every audience is a member of the newly rising social class. To the audience, photographers represent technicians of a new school. Camille Recht once had a wonderful analogy: “Violinists must create their own tones and find them 28 Vilém Flusser believed in his book “Towards a Philosophy of Photography” that technical images were made by machines. According to Vil é m Flusser, images drawn by people manually before photography was invented could not be called technical images. In fact, it is not. Technology exists with the material civilization of human beings. Technology in the modern sense refers to the production technology produced under the guidance of modern science.

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as quickly as lightning, while pianists only need to press the keys and the tones will ring. Both painters and photographers have a tool to use: the painter’s sketch colormatching corresponds to the violinist’s sound-shaping; Photographers, like pianists, use a machine that is subject to restriction, while violins are not. No pianist like Paderewski can enjoy the same reputation as violinist Paganini, nor can he show almost legendary magic skills like the latter.”29 Before the invention of reproducible machine image (modern image), nonreproducible manual image (traditional image) had more profound technical determinants. Therefore, it is very inappropriate to indiscriminately call the reproducible images made by cameras, movie machines, cameras, computers and other machines as technical images and traditional hand-drawn images in opposition. Of course, it is not quite accurate to call it a machine image. However, for the convenience of discussing the problem, we call this kind of image with unique characteristics that can be reproduced a machine image closer to the core of the discussion than a technical image. In order to compare with traditional images, we also call machine images modern images. (2) Abstract results From the perspective of cultural form, traditional images occurred about hundreds of thousands of years ago, then characters began to appear about 5,000 years ago, and today’s common machine images only appeared in the 19th century thousands of years after characters appeared. The traditional image is the abstraction of the first stage, because the traditional image is abstracted from the real outside world, the modern (machine) image is the abstraction of the third stage, and the machine image is abstracted from the article. Looking back at the article, the article should be the result of the image being abstracted again after being abstracted from the real outside world. As shown in Fig. A.4. Today, when people read machine images (such as watching movies, TV and news photos), they do not actually regard them as abstract (or even conceptual) things, but still regard them as the first stage things. Therefore, the function of the image is often not easy to highlight. The result is: the photographic works are clearer; The film works are more subtle. However, TV works are very straightforward and digital images are very casual. They present a post-modern style, that is, broken, separated and conceptual linear ability. The text meaning of TV images is different from that of TV standard and technology. This is the message that TV sends to people—TV lies. Television is deconstructing our society and constructing it at the same time. In order to find a balance between the two, we need to find a kind of criticism. When we say that traditional images are extracted from the real outside world, we do not mean that they are completely “realistic” about life. Because any realism is relative and varies with different cultural environments. Every society, every period, everyone will use their own concepts to explain the world. Traditional image is a 29 Quoted from “Facing the Age of Flashes Gone”, Xu Qiling (translated), Taipei: Taiwan Photography Studio, 1998, pp. 32–33.

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Fig. A.4 Abstract three stages by Han Congyao

technology of manual operation which cannot achieve mathematical accuracy. Each author has his “realistic” scale for real life. Therefore, we should determine our viewing-attitude towards such image works (more called works of art): (1) What matters is not the subject matter, but the way (style, tradition) of dealing with the subject matter in a specific painting; (2) Art is not the scene of the outside world seen from a transparent window, but a unique way for human beings to watch the world (one of countless ways); (3) Art is not only a presentation of objects, but also a “comment” on them. (4) Our reaction to the artwork is not equal to our reaction to the things depicted by the artwork. It has its own characteristics which are most concentrated in the way the things are depicted. (5) the organization and structure of works of art are different from the organizational structure of the subject matter itself; (6) artists always bring their personal views and standpoints to works of art; (7) The description of reality is not carried out according to its own appearance. Therefore, the traditional image is an abstraction of real life. The picture is a phenomenon of real life (what the author sees and wants to see), not a physical record of machine images. As Braddock said, there is a visual agreement or relationship between painting and reality, which is not between language and reality. Language reproduction is almost entirely customary, while artistic reproduction is only partially customary. However, it is precisely because the existing part of painting is conventional that we will never find a painting that can completely and objectively reproduce the real world. The consistency between machine images and reality is much stronger than that of traditional images. However, the use of lenses with different focal lengths has subverted this consistency. This specious consistency makes the possibility of objective reproduction of reality more suspicious.

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(3) The position of modern images From the perspective of reading, the position of modern images contains two meanings: one is its spatial position, the other is its time and position. Vilém Flusser called the traditional images in history “pre-historical” and the technical images of machines and tools “post-historical”. In fact, interpreting modern images means reading their space-time positions.30 The so-called position of modern images mainly refers to its time position. From the real world to the image, there is an abstract process (abstracting the real world). Figure A.5 shows a concise presentation of this process. After reading Fig. A.5, people cannot help asking: Why do people think they are the real world when watching photos, movies and TV today? Why don’t you think it is a product of stripping and conceptualization? In fact, when we do not illustrate anything through TV, movies and photographic pictures, the producers of images have already given meaning. Of course, the ideal situation should be that the image producer only gives the visual elements and the composition conditions of the visual elements, so that the audience of the image can analyze the real meaning on the other side of the horizon (psychology), and the image producer can provide the reader with an imaginary space. In the process of “reading” the image by the audience, the concept has actually been changed secretly. Because traditional images are phenomena, modern images are concepts. This may not be easy to understand, so let’s look at the example of Buddhist statues. As one of the three major religions in the world, Buddhism has many believers. The origin, inheritance and development of Buddhism are all determined by images.

Fig. A.5 The position of modern (Machine) image by Han Congyao 30 [Vilém Flusser: “Towards a Philosophy of Photography”, translated by Li Wenji, Taipei: Yuanliu

Publishing Co., Ltd., 1994, p. 35.

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Today, many religious men and women enter Buddhist temples. Most of them do not know the names and characteristics of the Buddhist statues they worship, and it is even more difficult to know their titles. Sometimes, it is even difficult to distinguish the respectful image of Buddha Skya-muni, and it is mainly determined by the worship position of the temple. In fact, Buddha statues have their own strict regulations. “The form of Buddhist statues is not based on the free will of producers, but on certain rules. The basis of this rules are the classics and rituals, as the manifestation of teaching. The so-called rituals refer to the rituals and rules of chanting Buddha, Bodhisattva and Heaven as mentioned in the Tantric Classics: such rituals and rules are explained in schemata, commonly known as rituals.” The production of Buddhist images originated from the wisdom and skills of Indian craftsmen and gradually flourished in China, Nepal, Japan and other countries. Japan has long been regarding Buddhist images as a special subject. It is said that the Buddha statue was originally Fig. A.6 The 41-year-old image of Sakyamuni painted by Fu Louna is now preserved in the Fu Wu Museum of the British Empire’s Office

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based on the 41-year-old portrait of Shijiamuni painted by his disciple Fuluna, as shown in Fig. A.6.31 This shows the relationship between traditional images and spiritual life of people. Therefore, traditional images are more of a phenomenon and spiritual reflection. The magic function of images endows the pictures with magic charm.

Social Characteristics of Modern Images Some of the features of modern images are very similar to those of traditional images, while others show their unique signs. The obvious differences are easy to understand. Similar features are often easily ignored and similar features are often easily confused. The features listed here are relative to traditional images. (1) Phenomena and meaning in coexistence Some people once sighed with emotion about the photographic images produced by machines: Photography is difficult, but the difficulty is that it is too easy. This exclamation is true to the whole machine image (TV, movies, etc.). Because the image of the machine is explicit, it does not need to be interpreted by the general audience. It can be seen at a glance, whether being natural or unnatural. Of course, this is from the reading of its appearance. In terms of meaning, compared with traditional images, machine image is more difficult to understand than the traditional image, or it is not as easy to understand as the traditional image. Why is it difficult to understand the machine image? The answer should be found from its characteristics: the biggest characteristic of machine image is the coexistence of phenomena and meaning. When people see the phenomena, they will treat them as life scenes for interpretation. In essence, the machine image is not the “regeneration” of the real world, but the “transformation” of the real world, which makes the image meaningful. The movies named “Raise the Red Lantern” (directed by Zhang Yimou) and “A Big Shot” (directed by Feng Xiaogang) are typical cases.32 According to Vilém Flusser’s point of view, the meaning of the machine image seems to automatically emerge to the surface of the image (the word “seems” is very interesting and difficult to explain clearly). Just like human fingerprints, the meaning (finger) is the cause and the image (fingerprint) is the result. The world in which the machine image highlights the meaning seems to be the cause of the image. The image itself is a causal chain and the last link in the chain connecting the image and the meaning of the image-phenomena and meaning-end in front of the machine image. Because the light and shadow of the real object image and the object in front of the lens will be captured on a photosensitive plane (the film, photosensitive paper, magnetic tape, CCD and other photosensitive materials) by machinery (photographic cameras, cameras, video cameras, scanners, etc.) in the form of light waves, Then 31 Hong 32 Han

Xue: “Buddhist Image Theories”, Chengdu: Bashu Book Company, 1999, p. 3. Congyao: “On Photography”, Beijing: People’s Liberation Army Press, 1997, pp. 276–277.

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by physical, chemical or electronic means, the image recorded on the photosensitive material is presented, so we get a machine image. Therefore, the image seems to exist at the same real level as the meaning of the image. “It seems that what people see when looking at technical images is not the symbol that needs to be interpreted, but the symptom of the world referred to in the images, and we can see this meaning through the images, no matter how indirect the process is.”33 (2) Non-symbolization and materiality in coexistence Because the meaning and phenomena of the image exist on the same real plane, when people read the machine image, it is an intuitive image that does not need much cultural knowledge and experience background for analysis, and it is not a symbol. Because of this obvious non-symbolic nature, it has the characteristics of being “objective” and “substantial”. In this way, when the audience of the image watches it, they do not regard it as a real image, but as a window to the world. People trust images so much as they believe in their eyes. All this is caused by the material characteristics of images. If there is any comment on the image, we will find that the comment is not on the image itself at all, but on its vision, that is to say, the comment has nothing to do with the finished image, but the world “seen through the image”. For example, some people of current movie reviews and TV reviews have little or no involvement in the movie itself (some critics do not understand the media characteristics of the images that they are commenting on), and they add imagination to what they see with their eyes, or use language (article) structure to smear them out. As a result, reviews and works on modern images (movies, television, photography, etc.) are published one by one, but the existence of images is not involved. This critical attitude towards the lack of ontology in machine images is actually extremely dangerous. The reason why this attitude is dangerous is that we believe that the material characteristics of modern images are their essential “objectivity”. In fact, this is an illusion. “They are actually images, and they have symbolic meanings because of being image-based. In fact, they are even more abstract and symbolic complexes than traditional images. They are codes set up after articles.……34 They are aimed at articles, while the reference to the ’external world’ is indirect.” Its origin “benefits from a new type of imagination: the ability to translate the concept of an article into images.” What people see when looking at these images is related to the outside world, but it is a completely translated new concept, as shown in Fig. A.7. Vilém Flusser once discussed the symbols and code features of traditional images and modern images. He pointed out that for traditional images, it is easy for people to understand that they are facing various symbols painstakingly developed by painters. In fact, painters are between the symbol and the symbolic meaning. If painters want to express what kind of meaning to the audience, they must choose the corresponding symbol to use. The real situation in life is that painters have already managed the 33 [Vil é m Flusser: “Towards a Philosophy of Photography”,translated by Li Wenji , Taipei: Yuanliu Publishing Co., Ltd., 1994, p. 36. 34 [Vil é m Flusser: “Towards a Philosophy of Photography”, translated by Li Wenji , Taipei: Yuanliu Publishing Co., Ltd., 1994, p. 36.

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Fig. A.7 Image production from audience perspective by Han Congyao

image symbols in detail “in their minds” and converted those symbols on the plane (canvas, walls, rocks, etc.) through their pigments and brushes. If people want to interpret such symbols, they must decode the coding program that occurs in the painters’ minds, as shown in Figs. A.8 and A.9. The decoding system of modern images is very complicated and will not be as simple as traditional images. For traditional images, the author (painter) is placed between the symbol and the meaning. For modern images, the author is between the image and the meaning. The author may be a photographer and may be a computer operator. In short, the author is a user of the imaging machine, a person that Flusser calls as the “apparatus-operator”. He does not seem to break the link between the image and the meaning. The key is the word “seem”. On the contrary, meaning seems to flow into this factor from the (input) side and out from the (output) side, as shown in Fig. A.10.

Fig. A.8 Traditional (hand-painted) image schema by Han Congyao

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Fig. A.9 Modern (machine) image schema by Han Congyao

Fig. A.10 The schema of “Whitening” of the black box by Han Congyao

In the process of the action of this factor (the machine operator), it still remains obscure, and this factor is still a black box. The encoding process of machine image takes place in this black box, so the review-articles of the image (photography, movie, TV, etc.) must focus on whitening the inside of the black box. As long as our theoretical research articles cannot be “whitened”, we will always be illiterate of this kind of image. The problem is that there are more and more illiterate people with knowledge but without culture. (3)Reproduction of modern images Compared with traditional images, the most fundamental difference between modern images is its reproducibility. Of course, “in principle, works of art can always be reproduced.” In order to make an in-depth study on the reproduction of works of art in the Mechanical Age, Walter Benjamin specially wrote a famous article entitled “L’oeuvre D’art à L’epoque De Sa Reproduct Ibilité Technique”. The ability of

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machine image to copy other works and itself is its essential feature, and it is also the essential difference between machine image and traditional image. The reproduction ability of the machine is shown in the following aspects: first, it takes all the “physical space” scenes in front of the machine lens and records them on photosensitive materials (photographic negatives, motion picture films, TV videos, digital chips, etc.) to obtain a reproduction image of the “physical space”; The second is to deal with the similarity of “images” on photosensitive materials. In this way, the same image can be obtained by shooting the same scene at the same place and repeating printing (output) for similarity processing, which is the most essential reproduction capability that people mastered after the invention of photography. It has overturned the possibility of the difference between the original and the replica, directly affecting the art field and even the social and cultural consumption field. When machinery reproduces images, it not only disintegrates the singleness of the original work, but also constructs a new “image”. The ability of mechanical reproduction and the ability to construct new images are also the essential characteristics that distinguish it from any other artistic form. The biggest impact of this reproduction ability of modern images on this era and this society is: (1)The unreality of works of art; (2) The unreality of things; (3) Reproduction of images to the society and the world is not real. Walter Benjamin said: “The authenticity of a thing refers to all the components contained in it that could have been reversed, from the time-course of materials to its historical witness. And it is because this witness itself is based on its time-course that, in the case of replicas, the first point-time is beyond human control, while the second point-historical witness of things is bound to be shaken. There is no doubt that what is so wavering is the prestige or authority of things.”35

The Significance of Modern Images Although modern images show obvious non-symbolic features, they are still images rather than the real world, which should be beyond doubt. The problem is that people do not regard it as a real image, but as a window that refers to the real world. What people see through the window of the image is the meaning of the world. No matter how indirect the process is, it is also in line with the characteristics of the image. (1)The category of meaning Brock once discussed the issue of meaning. Meaning in ordinary English not only refers to the meaning of statements and sentences, but also contains other different meanings. What is directly related refers to a certain purpose and intention, such as: “I mean, if you can help him, help him as much as possible.” “What do you mean?” “I intend to use it as a footstool” and so on. Sometimes it refers to the 35 [De] Walter Benjamin: “Facing the Age of Flashes Gone”, translated by Xu Qiling, Taipei: Taiwan

Photography Studio, 1998, p. 63.

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interrelation between things, such as “the passage of this bill means the disappearance of second-class citizens”, “Dark clouds mean rain”, “Buzzing means bees and the bee means honey”, “Small things mean many” and so on. Of course, in addition to the meanings of these languages listed above, there are at least three kinds of meanings: (1) Purposeful meaning; (2) The meaning of interrelation; (3) Categorybased meaning.36 What the machine image presents us is to push the image and meaning together on a plane, and both are in coexistence. People will think that the image of the machine first presents the meaning of interpretation. In fact, the image is meaningless. The image is just an image, and the meaning is given by the image audience and pointed out by the image itself. When people call modern images or images, they have a kind of worship-oriented mentality. People are convinced that their eyes are seeing images as if they were seeing the real world. We can better understand the meaning given to the image by the audience, but it seems that the meaning that the image can refer to is not well understood. In fact, this is the structural fable of images. For example, some people have many good ideas before shooting documentaries, and they also have a profound understanding of the meaning of the images. However, the finished film may not be able to achieve the expected meaning statement. Then why on earth? One of the most important reasons is that his ability to structure images is not strong, resulting in poor techniques, improper use of technology and poor performance of skills. Of course, the purpose structure of his later pictures cannot refer to deeper and broader meaning. Zhang Yimou’s pictures in “Yellow Land” and “Red Lantern Hanging High” have a particularly strong ability to be pointed out. The form has become a part of the content, and the form is even the technical language of the image. For the audience, the picture form of technical language is a complex of texts, as shown in Fig. A.11.

Fig. A.11 A compound schema of the image and the concept by Han Congyao

36 [Gene

Blocker: “Philosophy of Art”, translated by Teng Shouyao, Chengdu: Sichuan People’s Publishing House, 1998, p. 270.

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(2) Technical language Whether or not modern images can be effectively transmitted and produce preset meaning effects depends on the application of its technical language. The technical language mentioned here has three meanings: ➀ Image text; ➁ Tension on the picture; ➂ Aesthetic granularity on the picture. The text of the image is the content (people and things) included in the image. As for what the image is intended to represent, the author of the image should make a decision according to the meaning-effect to be achieved. For example, to show the significance of “The Hope Project” to out-of-school children in poor areas, choosing documentary images may be more in line with the requirements, so the black-andwhite documentary picture of “I want to go to school” taken by journalist Jie Hailong clearly explains this great significance. As shown in Fig. A.12, the text of the image plays a very good bearing role in the meaning of the image. If hand-painted posters are used, the significance will be greatly reduced. The tension of the picture is also called visual impact. The image is viewed with eyes. The composition of the picture should conform to people’s habits of visual thinking, and the picture with visual power is formed by visual elements such as Fig. A.12 “I want to go to school” taken by Jie Hailong

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color, shadow tone, lines, etc., thus forming a kind of tension as a whole. We should not be too straightforward or too obscure. We should properly deal with these visual physical elements so that they can arouse the audience’s psychological perception on the other side of the visual interface and form a force that impacts the soul. The so-called granularity problem is the question of whether and how to analyze beauty-like things. The kind of beauty mentioned here refers to the aesthetic object composed of several granular aesthetic forms. All aesthetic objects are not composed of one but several aesthetic forms. A single form of pure beauty cannot exist. “Sunset Melts Gold” means that there is the brilliance of gold in the sunset, but only the brilliance of gold cannot be a sunset. Another example is “green, fat, red and thin”. If there are only red and green colors, the sadness caused by flowers and leaves and their contrast will not exist. The problem of aesthetic granularity is a problem of grasping the overall taste of the picture. Because the aesthetic effect of image works is more intuitive. Therefore, more attention should be paid to this problem. (3) The myth of images In the above discussion, we have stressed several times that modern machine images (images) are not the real world, nor are they windows that can see the real world. Images are only images. In other words, they translate everything into situations, like all images, sending out myths to lure their observers to project this uninterpreted myth into the “external” world. Machine-images in modern times have a power that is still incomprehensible. This power is called “myth” by Vilém Flusser. Vilém Flusser made an in-depth exploration into the myth of modern images. He thinks that this myth of modern images can be seen everywhere: how they give life myth, how we become one of their functions to experience, know and evaluate everything. Therefore, it is extremely important to ask what kind of myth is involved. Vilém Flusser believes that the myths emitted by modern images are not of the same type as those emitted by traditional images. Magic situations emitted from TV screens or movie screens are different from the myths we experience when watching cave paintings (rock paintings) or Etruscan graves. Television and movies, as opposed to caves or Etruscan tombs, exist at different levels of the real world. The older myth was before history and before historical consciousness. The relatively new myth is after history and inherits the historical consciousness. The purpose of ancient witchcraft was to change the world. The purpose of the new witchcraft is to change our concept of the “external” world. Therefore, the issue we are facing is the second level of myth and an abstract witchcraft. He believes that the difference between ancient witchcraft and new witchcraft forms can be expressed as follows: prehistoric myth is a ritualization of models called “myths”, while present-day myth is a ritualization of models called “programs”. Myth is a writer with the identity of “God”, a model transmitted orally. God is someone who is outside the process of transmission. The program is a model transmitted in writing by a writer with the identity of “functionnaires”, who is the person in the process of transmission.37 37 [Vilém Flusser: “Towards a Philosophy of Photography”, translated by Li Wenji, Taipei: Yuanliu

Publishing Co., Ltd., 1994, pp. 37–38.

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Fig. A.13 Image relationship by Han Congyao

(4) Image relation In order to better understand modern machine images and see its relationship with viewers and the real world, we may as well present this relationship in the form of Fig. A.13. Modern (machines) images can be seen in our field of vision, but what we see is far from these images. We can also see the real world. Images only refer to a window of the world, not the real world. What they can reflect is only a part of the real world. It is the machine that causes tension between the real world and the machine image. The author “seems” to be among them (such as photographers, cameramen and other people who use machines to construct images). A subtle image relation is formed between “seeing” and “image”. Images lie between people and the world. Of course, the scale of the image between the two should be determined before the specific structure image is constructed. Either the technical picture is obvious or it is naturally strong. It depends on whether future machine images are intended to state or to symbolize.

The Function of Modern Images After the above discussion, we can know: ➀ Modern image is a kind of machine image which has nothing to do with the outside world. ➁ Modern image is more abstract and symbolic than traditional image (it should be a abstract and symbolic complex, not a comprehensive body); ➂ Modern image is an symbol set up after articles, a symbol which always aimed at articles. ➃ Modern image can state or

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symbolize the world, providing us with a new imagination, that is, the ability to translate the concept of articles into images. The function of modern image is to replace conceptualization with the help of the second level of imagination and to relieve the need of image audience for conceptual thinking. The image will replace the article with itself. (1) Linear writing and modern images Vilém Flusser believes that the linear article invented more than 2000 BC ago was to decode the myth of traditional images, although the inventor of the article may not have realized this effect. Photography, as the earliest technical image production program, was invented in the middle of the 19th century. The invention of photography and the invention of linear writing are both decisive historical turning points. After writing, the struggle against idolatry began in history. Similarly, with the use of photography, the struggle between the “Post-history era” and the worship of articles began. The original purpose of the article was to resist and eliminate worship, break away from the myth of images, and enable more people to understand images. However, the myth of articles became more and more serious later, resulting in the formation of the present article worship (the prevalence of article worship is fully illustrated by the number of academic papers published on heroes). After the invention of photography (especially the emergence of movies, television and digital image media), their original intention was to get rid of the worship of articles, but now the ability of this modern image is becoming more and more powerful. Although it also gives articles an image meaning, it also reveals its modern hidden myth. In Europe, after the end of the dark Middle Ages, people set off a Renaissance movement. In this long-lasting movement, people’s thoughts were greatly emancipated, social productivity was greatly improved, and science and technology were truly developed. By the 19th century, they had reached a brilliant peak. Such as the widespread use of printing and the invention of photography as well as the invention and use of railway and electricity, the implementation of national compulsory education, etc. In short, the Industrial Revolution brought great benefits to people. According to Vilém Flusser, When everyone has mastered the tool of writing, it will inevitably lead to the formation of popular historical knowledge. The article itself is to construct historical knowledge. This historical consciousness could magically penetrate into the agricultural society at that time. Farmers, who occupy the vast majority of the population, occupy a place in history and become a class, i.e. the proletariat. The reason why it became a class was related to many popular articles at that time. The so-called masses of people here are compared with aristocrats, and popular articles such as books, newspapers, pamphlets, etc. Every popular article will inevitably create the historical consciousness of the public and the same conceptual thinking of the public. The result is the development of the deviation between the two compartments. First, traditional images have escaped the proliferation of articles and entered elite areas such as art galleries, art salons, galleries, etc. They have evaded the interpretation about them by the general public. Of course, they have also lost their influence on the daily life of the public since then. Second, there have been elite articles which are beyond the reach of the conceptual thinking of the general

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public. Cheap articles are one-to-one correspondence, saying whatever you have, just like the case with most articles in newspapers now, but the articles of elites are different. They belong to the articles published and loved by some experts and elites. As in the current situation, the authors of articles enjoyed by the public are often looked down upon by academia. However, the so-called academic experts have a very narrow reading range, and the more first-class periodicals and core periodicals, the smaller the audience. Of course, elites (experts and scholars) all know their own interests (academic). They use articles and positions to rightfully deprive the public of their interests. They often formulate rules for games (draft selection criteria) that are more beneficial to small groups and can have so-called academic rhetoric. These rules of the game cannot be easily mastered by most people. Once entering the rules, they begin to operate the rules in a closed manner, leaving the rules in a hidden state. The more they are not recognized by others, the more “academic value” they seem to have. (2) Civilized ways After traditional images escape from the public, elite articles alienate the public and the public explicitly rejects aristocratic concepts of thinking and aristocratic behaviors, social civilization is divided into three ways: (a)

(b)

(c)

Art. Fine arts is an art nourished by traditional images enriched with concepts. This was the case in the past, and it is still the case now. With the proliferation of modern images, the style of this kind of fine arts is also changing, and the conceptualization is getting stronger and stronger. Science and technology. Science and technology are nourished by the articles of elites. Science and technology are closely related by blood, but they are essentially different. Science and technology are neither science nor technology, but just a name. The public. The public is nourished by those popular articles. There would be no public civilization without popularizing articles. In order to improve the quality of the whole nation, we must use public means and methods instead of popularizing any elegant art. In a sense, art should be popular.

The invention of modern machine image is to prevent civilization from falling apart by three stitches. Its intention is to serve as a general code applicable to the whole society. This is also the real function of modern images. The original intention of modern images was: ➀ Reintroduce images to daily life; ➁ Translate elite articles into imaginable things; ➂ Translate lofty myths in popular articles into visible things.38 It originally wanted to find a common denominator for art, politics and science of acceptable value to ordinary people. It should have represented “truth”, “good” and “beauty” at the same time. This is a code with wide applicability that can overcome the crisis of civilization, art, science and politics. 38 [Vilém Flusser: “Towards a Philosophy of Photography”, translated by Li Wenji, Taipei: Yuanliu

Publishing Co., Ltd., 1994, p. 39.

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Have modern images achieved it? Now it seems that they have partially done it, but a large part remains undone, and even does not perform its function in that way.

The Reproduction of Modern Images Only after human beings entered the industrial society were machine images produced. Machine images were originally intended to look for a common denominator of art, politics and science in order to stabilize the society. However, what people cannot imagine is that the reproducible features of machine images make the common denominator they are looking for larger and larger. (1) Cause analysis Why does the reproducible features of machine images cause the common denominator of art, politics and science to become larger and larger? According to analysis, there may be several following reasons: (a)

(b)

(c)

They fail to introduce traditional images back to daily life. In other words, they are unable to introduce traditional images. They can only replace traditional images with reproduction, which means that they place themselves in the position of traditional images. It has not translated the articles of elites into images, that is to say, the articles interpreted by machine images are more intuitive and direct. They even distort hermit articles and translate scientific propositions and equations into situations, i.e. it has completely translated scientific propositions and equations into images. It has not translated the faint myths inherent in popular articles into visible things. Compared with hermit-like articles, the things in popular articles are still conducive to the translation and introduction of machine images. Unfortunately, they are not well presented. Instead, a new form of myth replaces the rare myth in popular articles, that is, a very stylized myth.

At this point, modern images have no ability to construct a common denominator which is good enough to unite civilization again. On the contrary, it has crushed the social civilization into an unorganized mass, resulting in a fragment of popular civilization. (2) Replication Walter Benjamin once said: “In principle, works of art can always be reproduced. Anyone who makes it can be redone by others.” In fact, human society has progressed and developed through repeated replication of technology. The reproduction of machine images is essentially different from its previous reproduction. Previously, people mastered two kinds of reproduction techniques, namely, melting

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and impressing. Therefore, they created bronze ware, pottery and coins. After people mastered woodcut technology, sketches were reproduced. Once people mastered printing, a technique of copying articles, literature appeared. When people mastered the lithographic reproduction technology, image works of art entered the market in large quantities. The appearance of woodcut and stone tablets makes it possible for newspapers that only publish articles to publish image news. The most important technology to reproduce the contents and artistic forms of social life is the invention of photography. “After the invention of photography, for the first time in history, human hands no longer participated in the main artistic task of image reproduction. Since then, this task has been reserved for the eyes staring at the camera.” Not only that, one day it will replicate the beautiful scenery depicted by Paul Van Loch: we will get “the supply of sound and images” like conveniently using tap water and electricity. At present, the artistic level of image reproduction and the technical ability of image reproduction have reached a fairly high level. Images have really become a necessary and convenient supply for daily life.39 Modern image technology makes traditional images copied in large quantities, and the existence of such copied works does not depend on the original works. For example, portrait photography and scenery photography have become an independent art form, and more importantly, copies can be spread to places that the original works could never reach. For example, few people have actually entered the Louvre and seen the original oil painting of the Mona Lisa as shown in Fig. A.14, but many people know the image of the Mona Lisa or have seen it. However, the replica has different or even opposite meanings from the original due to the different places where it is displayed. In an era when there are a large number of image reproductions, people should not forget Walter Benjamin’s reminder: “In Homer’s era, people performed for the gods of Olympia. Today, people perform for themselves, and they become very alienated and strange. They are so strange to such an extent that they can experience their own destruction and take their own destruction as the first-class aesthetic enjoyment.”40,41 For scientific articles, once injected into modern images, they are translated into symbols to obtain myth characteristics. The influence of machine images on science in the past two centuries has been very great. From the unmeasurable universe to infinitely small objects, all parts of the world seem to be within its field of vision. 39 [De] Walter Benjamin: “Facing the Age of Flashes Gone”, translated by Xu Qiling, Taipei: Taiwan Photography Studio, 1998, p. 61. 40 53cmLeonard da Vinci’s Mona Lisa, also known as “Giogonda”, was a wood oil painting in the period from 1503 to 1506, with a size of 77×. All painters, writers or theorists are attracted by the superb artistic attainments of Florentine contour blurring master Leonard: he depicted circulating and moist air, making the atmospheric effect ethereal, making the contour lines of human bodies or objects gradually melt under the interaction of light and shadow and merging with the surrounding scenery. All this is condensed in the masterpiece of Mona Lisa (a portrait of a woman in yarn and filial piety), and also reflected in the description of immortal characters against a hazy background.(See “LOUVER”. French Reese Art Publishing House, Versailles, 1997.) 41 [De] Walter Benjamin: “Facing the Age of Flashes Gone”, translated by Xu Qiling , Taipei: Taiwan Photography Studio, 1998, p. 102.

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Fig. A.14 “Mona Lisa”, also known as “Giogonda”, was made by Leonard da Vinci in the period from 1503 to 1506. The size of the wood oil painting is 77 × 53 cm. It is now preserved in Exhibition Hall 6 on the second floor of the De Nong Pavilion in Louvre in France

Modern science seems to owe everything to images, although modern images also owe much to science. When popular articles (such as newspapers, pamphlets, novels and other popular articles) flood into machine images, people find that their innate ideological and myth abilities have been translated into a stylized myth which is the unique personality of machine images themselves (such as news photos, film documentaries, feature films, TV news, MTV, advertising pictures, digital composite images, etc.). Modern images construct a social memory that is always whirling. In this reciprocating memory, people have become part of modern images. (3) Images as popular culture When looking at images from the artistic form of images, we often find ourselves confined to a series of exhibition space and book pages. However, as popular culture,

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images have actually penetrated into all aspects of human social life. In the modern social environment, no one can get rid of the observation of modern images, i.e. photographic photos, newspaper pictures and news, image explanation of science books, temptation of movie stories over and over again, family of TV images, overwhelming of advertising pictures, image interface of computers, etc. Daily or popular images have taken rich and varied forms to penetrate into our living space. When our culture has just seen the first side of modern images, thinking that it is an impeccable visual reproduction of optical reality, there is an impulse to expand the physical possibilities of this medium, and the daily usage of digital images has further accelerated this impulse. As popular culture, modern images have their own unique charm which is often the real driving force for the development of this media. It is the need of social development that modern images become the restoring factor of popular culture. In the fields of military affairs, science, justice, archaeology, as well as production, power and human relations, machine images are considered as the decisive way for restoration. It has revealed the true pursuit of the following absolute limits: Absolute limits in terms of accuracy and directness of expression (identity of visual illusion between the subject and the image); Absolute limits in mastering time (permanent records of short-term things); Absolute limits in drawing global maps (reproducing “the world” in images); Absolute limits of democracy in achieving equality for all as a result of popularization through image publicity.42 Modern images attract people like a vortex. No one can resist them or escape them. Due to the rapid development of image technology, the impact of images on human society is becoming more and more extensive. It has penetrated into every field and part of human life, from astronomy to geography, from art to science, from archaeology to industry, from macro-aspect to micro-aspect. It is ubiquitous and omnipresent. Image culture has become an indispensable social productive force and a form of creative activities. The power of image culture is a tool to promote social change. As far as the world is concerned, images have infiltrated into different cultures in different ways, having brought tangible and intangible social changes. Image culture has created popular civilization.

Conclusion The word “image” is very clean, its meaning is simple, and its understanding is not complicated. However, once experts and scholars carry out academic research “on the top of the line”, the problems of image are not simple. There are signifiers and elements of being signified. There are explicit meanings and implicit meanings. There are Western ingenuity and eastern wisdom. There are historical sources and realistic consideration etc. People admire the extraordinary efforts and academic enthusiasm in images regarding various theoretical viewpoints, research paths, academic schools 42 Han

Congyao: “On Photography”, Beijing: People’s Liberation Army Press, 1997, p. 11.

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and representative figures. Their academic achievements and rich attainments in iconology research have expanded the space for future generations to conduct more in-depth and fine research on images. This paper has only made a little historical review and realistic observation on the research of images and iconology. Instead of making a comprehensive introduction or in-depth exploration, it has made a superficial introduction to the contents that are positively related to the research on the history of image dissemination in China. Of course, the more economical idea is to consider the actual needs of this study. Second, the academic ability is really inadequate. However, readers can further understand the research situation of iconology from many academic works and papers on iconology research at home and abroad, and feel the vigorous rise of image culture in today’s society. Communication research into image culture is not only a specialized academic research, but also basic knowledge of popular culture. Its position in today’s society goes beyond doubt. Today, when the spread of image culture is developed, the level of people’s image cognition will directly determine the form of material civilization, spiritual civilization and political civilization in human society. It plays a fundamental and decisive role in scientific development, technological progress, resource allocation, economic construction, cultural construction and social civilization. The purpose of the study entitled “ dissemination of image culture” is to penetrate and understand the complex cultural field of an era through the cognition of the visual impression of “image”. (This article is a systematic and comprehensive attempt to expound the research of image media and iconology from the perspective of communication study. Some of the viewpoints and expositions in this paper have been expressed in a scattered way in publications. The paper has also quoted research results of many experts and scholars at home and abroad. My special gratitude goes to them here. )

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The Postscript

This pamphlet is, within the framework of the history of communication technology, a source tracing and reorganization of the image, the image technology, and the image media. Some opinions and their analyses have been presented in some publications elsewhere already. Besides, this book also quotes research done by many experts and scholars in and above China. As I repeatedly state, “when other scholars’ wisdom is appropriately cited, sincerely gratitude is supposed to go to them; when inappropriately, it is all my fault, so I take the blame and genuinely apologize to them”. My sincerest thankfulness also goes to all publishers and academic journals that have published my works, without whom I cannot go deeper and deeper into the field of the image, image technology, and image media as it is. With all these earlier thinking and accumulation, my effort can now be visualized in the form of a brief history of the image science and technology. Throughout the writing process of this book, I am indebted to Professor Sha Zhenshun, Professor Cheng Nailian, Researcher He Xingliang, Researcher Zhang Chong, Professor Chen Yaofu, Professor Wu Lihua, Professor Yu Xiangdong, Professor Shao Xiaofeng, Professor Yao Yibin, Professor Zhu Yongming, and many others. I particularly appreciate their abundant support and help. Any feedback from our readers and other experts is welcomed. Congyao Han 18th March 2018

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