A Bioarchaeological Approach to Prehistoric Cemetery Populations from Central and Western Greek Macedonia 9781841711850, 9781407353272

Citation preview

A Bioarchaeological Approach to Prehistoric Cemetery Populations from Central and Western Greek Macedonia Sevi Triantaphyllou

BAR International Series 97 6 2001

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 976

A Bioarchaeological Approach to Prehistoric Cemetery Populations from Central and Western Greek Macedonia © Sevi Triantaphyllou and the Publisher 2001 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781841711850 paperback ISBN 9781407353272 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841711850 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2001. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

BAR

PUBLISHING BAR titles are available from:

E MAIL P HONE F AX

BAR Publishing 122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK [email protected] +44 (0)1865 310431 +44 (0)1865 316916 www.barpublishing.com

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS A l though t h e r e spon s ib i l i t y f o rt h ec omp le t ion o f ad oc to r a l d i s s e r t a t ion f a l l s t o o n e p e r son o n ly , t h e p roduc t ion o f i t r e qu i r e s f r u i t f u l c o l labo r a t ion b e tw e en a l a rge n umbe r o f p eop le . T he c u r r en t w o rk w ou ld h av e b een i mpo s s ib le w i thou t t h e c r uc ia l c on t r ibu t ion o ft h e f i e ld a r chaeo log i s t s w ho e x cava ted , r e t r ieved a nd c u r a ted t h e s t udy s k e le ta l m a te r i a l . Ia m p ar t icu la r ly i n deb ted t o Man tho s B e s s io s . A r e t i H ond roy iann i -Me tok i . G eo rg ia K a r am e t rou Men te s id i , Ma r ia P appa . E f i P ou lak i -Pan tenna l i a nd C h r i s t ina Z io ta w ho v e ry k ind ly e n tr u s ted m e w i th t h e i r m a t e r i a l a nd f a c i l i ta ted t h e p ro cedu r e s f o r o b ta in ing t h e p e rm i s s ion s n ece s sar y f o r s t udy a nd s amp l ing a nd f i e ld w o rk . D r K en Wa rd le , w ho i si nc ha rge o f t h e N eo l i th ic s i te o fN e a N ikomede ia . o f e r ed m e e a sy a c ce s s a nd p e rm i t s t o r e s tudy t h e h uman b one s . Ia m e s pec ia l ly g r a tef u l t o Man tho s B e s s io s , Ma r ia P appa a nd C h r i s t ina Z io ta . r e spon s ib le f o r m o s t o f t h e c eme te r y p opu la t ion s a na ly sed h e r e . w ho o f e r ed m e i d ea l c ond i t ion s f o r c o l labo r a t ion , a s w e l l a s c on tex tua l i n f o rma t ion a nd u npub l i shed r e por t s . D e sp i t et h e i rt i gh t s chedu le sa nd b u r eau c ra t ic o b l iga t ion s t o t h e A r ch aeo log ica l S e rv ice , t h ey w e r e a lway s w i l l ing t o a n sw e r t o m y q ue s t ion s a nd d i scu s s w i th m e a s pec t s o f b u r ia lp r ac t ice sf r om t h es t udy a r ea . My s u pe rv i so r s i n S hef f i e ld o f e r ed m e ag r e a t d ea l o f i n v a lu ab le h e lp a nd n ume rou s u s e f u l c ommen t s . D r A nd r ew C hambe r la in a s p r im ar y s up er v i so r g av e c r uc ia l a dv ic e . e s pec ia l ly o n t e chn ica l m a t te r s r e ga rd ing h uman b on e a na ly s is , m ode rn m e thodo logy a nd s t and a rd s o f p hy s i c a l a n th ropo log y . D r P au l H a l s tead a s s e cond a ry s up e r v i so r m anaged t o e x tr apo la te m y d eep t h ough t s a nd i d e a s a nd m ade m e c onver t w ha t w a s o r ig ina l ly a d r y . t e chn i c a l o s teo log ica l t e x t i n to am o r e c omp r ehen s ive s t udy w h i ch i n teg ra te s a r chaeo log ica l a nd s c ien t if i c k now ledge . P au l w en t f a r b eyond h i s o b l ig a t ion s ; h e h e lped m e s i gn if i c an t ly w i th e d i t ing a nd w o rk ing o nt h et e x t t om ake i t r e ad ab l e a nd c omp rehen s ib le . Io we s p e c ia l t h ank s t oh im . D r S t e l io s A nd r eou a s j o in t s up e r v i so r p rov ided h i s e xp e r t i se a nd v a luab le k now ledg e o n a r chaeo log ica l i s sue s f r om N or the rn G reece a nd . d e sp i te t h e l o ng d i s tanc e . h e r e sponded q u ick ly b y r e ad ing a nd m ak ing c ha l leng ing c omm en t s o n t h e a r chaeo log ic a l c h ap te r s . H e a l so e ncou r aged m e i n c r i t ic a l m omen t s w hen m y e n e rg y w a s r unn ing o u t . D r G en v an K l ink en c onduc ted t h e s t ab le i s o top e a n a ly s i s i n t h e O x f o rd L abo r a to r y . a nd h e lped m e e no rmou s ly b ye xp la in ing t h eu s ea nd c omp lex d e ta i l so ft h e a na ly s i s . G er t h e lped m e t o p o se t h e a r chaeo log ica l q ue s t ion s f o r t h e p ro jec t . a nd t h u s t om a tch t h e s c ien t if i c i n f o rm a t ion d i r ec t ly t o t h e a im s o f t h i s t h e s i s . H i s c on t r ibu t ion t o t h e i n te rp r e ta t ion o f t h e f i na l r e su l t s w a s i n v a lu ab le , s i nce c hem i s tr y w a s u n t i l r e cen t ly a f i e ld r e la t iv e ly n ew t om e . Ia m g r a tef u l t ob o th m y e x am ine r s , P ro f e s so r K e i th B ran igan a nd D r B i l l C avanagh w ho g ave m e t h e o ppo r tun i t y t o d i scu s s i n ac on s truc t ive w ay t h e d i ff i cu l t ie s , l im i ta t ion s a nd e xc i t ing r e su l t s o f t h e c u r r en t w o rk . T h ey g ave m ea ne xce l len t f e edb ack a nd m ad e m e t o

r e a l i se t h ev a lue o ft h i sw o rk a nd i t sc on t r ibu t ion t ot h e f i e ld o fb u r ia la r chaeo log yi nt h e A egean . I n a dd i t ion t ot h e o bv iou s p eop le i n vo lv ed i nt h e s h ape o f t h i s t h e s i s . Is hou ld a l so m en t ion an umbe r o ff r iend s w ho o f e r ed t h e i r h e lp a nd a dv ice i n m omen t s o f t o ta l c hao s . M ike C ha r le s . Amy B oga rd a nd I n g r id Ma in land g ave m e t h e i ri n va luab le h e lp o n c omp lex s t a t i s t ica l q ue s t ion s . B e th R ega , i n a dd i t ion t o t e ach ing m e h ow t o h and le b on e s d u r ing t h e y ea r s o fm y MSc s t ud ie s a tS hef f i e ld , e n t ru s ted m e w i th h e r u npub l i shed t h e s i s a nd d a ta a nd p rov id ed e no rmou s h e lp w i th s ugge s t ion s b a sed o n h e r o wn i n ve s t iga t ion o f t h e E a r ly B ronze A g e p opu la t ion s a t Mok r in , i n H unga r y . R ob C r a ig ie a nd R ock ie H yac in th h e lped w i th s c ann ing t h e p ho tog r aph s a nd p r in t ing o u t t h e t h e s is , w h i le A r tu ro V a rg a s t o ok s ome s up e rb p i c tu r e s o f h uman b one s f r om E IA Mak r ig ia lo s . Y iann i s K a r l iaba s g av e m e ac opy o f h i s Mas te r d i s s er ta t ion b ef o r e h e h ad e ven s ubm i t ted i ta nd d i scu s s ed w i th m e s i gn if i can t a sp ec t s o ft h em o r tua r yb ehav iou rh ee xp lo r ed a tt h eE a r ly I r on A g e Mak r ig ia lo s c eme te r y . M ike P a rke rP ea r son p o in ted o u t t o m e u s ef u l r e f e r en ce s r e ga rd ing t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f d i sar t icu la ted h uman s k e le ta l r ema in s . R o sa l ia C h r i s t idou d r ew m y a t ten t ion t o a n im a l b on e a s semb lag e s f r om p r eh is to r ic s i te s i n G r e ek Mac edon ia w h ich y i e lded s c a t te r ed h uman b on e si nt h e s e t t lemen t d epo s i t s . V ange l io K i r ia tz i h e lp ed m ee no rmou s ly i no cc a s iona l d i scu s s ion sw e h ad o n i s sue s o f m a te r ia l c u l tu r e i n N or the rn G r ee ce . e sp ec ia l ly d u r ing t h e e a r ly y e a r s o f t h e p ro jec t . N ancy K r ah topou lou c heck ed t h e e nv i ronmen ta l s e c t ion s o f t h e t h e s i s a nd e n r iched t h em w i th r e f e r ence s u nknown t o m e a nd w i th u npub l i shed i n f o rma t ion f r om h e r o wn w o rk . K a te r ina S kou r topou lou a l so o f e r ed h e lpf u l c ommen t s a nd i n f o rma t ion f r om N eo l i th ic Mak r ig ia lo s . G r eg A nde r son h e lped m e w i th t h e e d i t ing a nd f i na l p o l i sh ing o f l a rge s e c t ion so ft h is t h e s i s . Wr i t ing ad oc to r a l d i s s e r ta t ion i s af o rm idab le t e s t o fo ne s o wn r e sou r c e s , b o th i n te l lec tu a l a nd p e r sona l . r e qu i r ing n o t o n ly a h uge i n ve s tmen t o f a c ad em ic k now ledge a nd r e sea r ch . b u t a l so c on t inuou s m omen t s o fs o l i tude a nd s e lf c on sc iou sne s s . N an cy K r ah topou lou , V ange l io K i r ia tz i a nd E va P anag io takopou lou g ave m e e no rmou s e ne rg y t ok e ep s t rong i ne x t r eme ly d if i cu l t t ime s i nE ng land w hen Iw a s v e ry c l o se t oc o l lap se . T he F i she r s . m y E ng l i sh f am i ly i n S hef f ie ld . p u t m e u p a nd p u t u p . w i th m y s t o rmy G r eek c ha rac te rt h rough a l t h e y ea r s o fm y s t ud ie s s i nce t h e t im e o fm y Ma s te r 's d eg r e e . T h i s t h e s i s c ou ld n eve r h ave b een c omp le ted w i thou t t h e f und ing s uppo r t o f s e v e r a l i n s t i tu t ion s a nd f o unda t ion s . T he U n iv e r s i t yo fS h ef f i e ld p rov ided m ef o rt h r ee y ea r s w i th s ub s tan t ia l f u nd ing s uppor t a s aR e sea r ch S t uden t i n t h e D epar tmen t o fA r chaeo log y a nd P r eh i s to r y . T he Ame r ican S choo l o f C la s s ica l S t ud ie s a t A th en s . a nd t h e W ien e r L abo r a to r y i n p ar t icu la r . w h e r e al a rg e c omponen t o f t h e s t udy m a te r ia l w a s p ro ce s sed a nd a na ly sed . g av e m e t h e

i mpe tu st os t ar t s uch at a sk b y a wa rd ing m e t h e J .L . Ange l F e l low sh ip a nd aR e sea rch A s soc ia te sh ip . a nd p rov ided m e w i th g ene rou sf i nanc ia l s uppor t t oc ope w i th t h ee xpen se s o f f i e ld w o rk . T he B r i t ish S choo l a tA then s a pp roved at h ree mon th B u r sary f o r m y i n i t ia t ion i n to t h e u se o f s t ab le i s o tope a na ly s i s . T he I n s t i tu te o f A egean P reh is tor y , t h rough t h e l a rge sca le N eo l i th ic Makr ig ia lo s p ro jec t . c ove red t he e xpen se sf o rd a t ing t h e E ar ly B ronze A ge a s semb lage . T he B F WG Women 's F ounda t ion h e lped s i gn if ican t ly d u r ing t h e l a s t y ear o f w r i t ing u p w hen Iw a s a lmo s t f i nanc ia l ly e xhau s ted .

t h e K ozan i A rchaeo log ica l Mu seum a nd t h e Mu seum s i n D ion . V e ro ia a nd A ean i . T hey k ind ly o f e r ed m e t h e i r h e lp w i th c l ean ing . w ash ing . b ox ing a nd t r an sf e r r ing b on e s . w h ich i sn o t s u ch ap l ea san t a c t iv i ty f o r t h e u n in i t ia ted a nd a l so d id t h e i r b e s t i np rov id ing m e w i th e x ce l len t w o rk ing c ond i t ion s , i n c lud ing w o rk s pace . f ood , d r ink s a nd a l o t o f g o s s ip . Id o h ope t h a t t h is w o rk w i l l f i nd i t s u l t ima te a pp rova l i n P anag io t is * s umme r c l ub i n Mak r ig ia lo s , j u s t b eh ind t h eb a rb ench o fB o ra -Bo ra . Id ed ica te t h is t h e s is t om yf am i ly . R i tsa . D im i tr i s a nd A nna w ho t o le r a ted m y l una t ic h ab i ts a nd mod s w ing s , Ih ope t empo rar y . d u r ing t h e y ear s o f c omp le t ion . W i thou t t h e i r s uppor t a nd r e l ief i nt ime s o fa b so lu te m adne s s . t he i d ea o f t h is t h e s i sw ou ld n o te ven h ave b een c once ived .

L as t ly . Iw an t t ot h ank t h e G reek M in is try o f C u l tu re . t h e E pho re ia o f S pe leo logy a nd P a laeoan th ropo logy . t h e I ET E pho r e ia o f T he s sa lon ik i a nd I Z E pho re ia o f P e l la wh ich f a c i l i ta ted t h e p rocedu re s f o r o b ta in ing p e rm is s ion s f o r t h e

A l though a g r ea t n umbe r o f p eop le h ave h e lped w i th t h i s t h e s i s . It a ke a l l r e spon s ib i l i ty f o r t h e g ood p o in t s , i fa ny , a nd u n f or tuna te ly , f o ra l lt h eb ad a sw e l l .

s t udy . s amp l ing a nd t r an sf e r p ar t o f t h e m a te r ia l t o t he W iene rL abo ra tor y i nA then s . Ia l so o we s pec ia l t h ank s t o p eop le a t Mak r ig ia lo s . p ar t icu lar ly P anag io t is , t h e g uard s o f

1

LI S TO F CO NTENTS A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS L I ST O FC ONTENTS L I ST O FT ABLES L I ST O FF IGURES A BBREV IAT IONS

i v i v i i i

C HAPTER 1 :I NTRODUCT ION

1

1 . 1 . 1 . 2 . 1 . 3 . 1 . 4 .

1 3 3 4

D ef in i t ion a nd a im so ft h et h e s is T heo r e t ica lb ackg round o fm or tuar y a na ly s i si nG r eece T he s t udy o fa nc ien t h uman r ema in si nG reece S t ruc tu r ea nd s i gn if icance o ft h is t h e s i s

C HAPTER 2 :H ISTOR ICAL ,C HRONOLOG ICAL ,E NV IRONMENTAL A ND A RCHAEOLOG ICAL B ACKGROUND OF THE CASE STUDY R EG ION

5

2 . 1 . 2 . 2 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 5 .

5 7 7 8 9

H i s to r ica lc on tex t : H is tor y o fp reh i s to r ic r e sea rch i nt h e s t udy a r ea C h rono log ica lc on tex to ft h es t udy G eog r aph ica l l o ca t ion a nd p r e sen t -day n a tu ra l e nv ironmen t T he p r eh is to r ic n a tu r a l e nv ironmen t A r ch aeo log ica lb ackg round t ot h es t udy a r ea 2 . 5 .1 . S e t t lemen tp a t te rn s 2 . 5 .2 . S ub s is tence 2 . 5 .3 . S oc ia lo rgan isa t ion

9 1 4 1 5

CHAPTER 3 :H ISTOR ICAL ,C HRONOLOG ICAL ,E NV IRONMENTAL CONTEXT OF THE S TUDY CE METERIES 3 . 1 H is to r ica l C on tex t 3 . 2 . C h rono log ica ld ef in i t ion o ft h es t udy c eme te r ie s 3 . 3 . E nv i ronmen ta l b ackg round o ft h ec a se s t udy c eme ter ie s

A ND A RCHAEOLOG ICAL 1 8 1 8 1 9 1 9

3 . 4 . A r ch aeo log ica lb ackg round 3 . 4 .1 . N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s 3 . 4 .2 . E ar ly B ronze A ge a s semb lage s 3 . 4 .3 . L a te B ronze A ge a s semb lage s 3 . 4 .4 . T ran s i t iona l ( La te B ronze /Ear ly I r on A ge ) a s semb lag e s 3 . 4 .5 . E ar ly I r on A ge a s semb lage s

2 1 2 1 2 2 2 4 2 6 2 6

C HAPTER 4 :P ALAEODEMOGRAPHY

3 0

4 . 1 . I n t roduc t ion : A im so ft h ea na ly s is 4 . 2 . L im i t a t ion sa nd p rob lem s : Wha t 's l e f t? 4 . 3 . Me thodo log y

3 0 3 0 3 5

4 . 4 .1 . I n te r -ceme te ry a na ly s is : I se ver ybody h e r e? 4 . 4 .2 . Wha ta bou t s ex g roup s? 4 . 4 .3 . Ana ly s i so fg eog raph ica la nd c h rono log ica l g roup ing s 4 . 4 .4 . A na ly s is o fg eog raph ica l /ch rono log ica l g roup ing s : w ha ta bou t t h e s e xe s? 4 . 5 . C onc lu s ion s

3 7 4 1 4 3 4 5 4 6

CHAPTER 5 : MANIPULAT ION OF THE DECEASED 5 . 1 . D ef in i t ion a nd a im so ft h ea na ly s i s 5 . 2 . T h e c a se o fN eo l i th ic Mak r ig ia lo s 5 . 3 . S ing le v e r su ss e condar ya nd mu l t ip le b u r ia ls

4 7 4 7 4 7 5 5

5 . 4 . D iscu s s ion : Man ipu la t ion o ft h ed ecea sed . H ow d oe si tc hange?

5 7

CHAPTER 6 : PATTERNS OF 6 . 1 . I n t roduc t ion

H EALTH

S TATUS

6 6 6 6

6 . 2 . Me thodo logy 6 . 3 . D egene r a t ive J o in t D isease 6 . 3 .1 . I n t roduc t ion 6 . 3 .2 . R e su l ts

6 7 6 7 6 7 6 8

1 1

6 . 3 .2 .1 . P reva lence o fd egene ra t ive j o in td i sease 6 . 3 .2 .2 . P reva lence o fd egene r a t ive j o in td i sease p a r t o fs k e le ton

6 8 7 3

6 . 3 .3 . C onc lu s ion s 6 . 4 . T rauma 6 . 4 .1 . I n t roduc t ion 6 . 4 .2 . R e su l ts 6 . 4 .2 .1 . O ve r a l l p r eva lence o ft r auma 6 . 4 .2 .3 . T ype o ff r ac tur e s . l o ca t ion , h ea l ing a nd c omp l ica t ion s

7 5 7 6 7 6 7 9 7 9 8 3

6 . 4 .3 6 . 4 .4 . 6 . 5 . V er teb ra l 6 . 5 .1 .

8 5 8 8 9 0 9 0

C onc lu s ion s D en ta l t r auma p a tho logy ( s pondy lo ly s i s , s a c ra l isa t ion a nd s p ina b i f ida ) I n troduc t ion

6 . 5 .2 . R e su l ts

9 2

6 . 6 . N on spec if ic i n f ec t iou s l e s ion s 6 . 6 .1 . I n troduc t ion 6 . 6 .2 . R e su l t s 6 . 7 . A naem ia

9 4 9 4 9 4 9 8

6 . 7 .1 . I n t roduc t ion 6 . 7 .2 . R e su l t s 6 . 7 .2 .1 . P r eva lence o fa naem ia 6 . 7 .3 . C onc lu s ion s

9 8 1 03 1 03 1 08

6 . 8 . E name l h ypop las ia 6 . 8 .1 . I n t roduc t ion

1 08 1 08

6 . 8 .2 . Me thodo logy 6 . 8 .3 . R e su l t s

1 09 1 09

6 . 8 .4 . C onc lu s ion s

13

6 . 9 . D i scu s s ion

14

CHAPTER 7 : D IETARY I ND ICATORS AND ORAL HEALTH S TATUS 7 . 1 . I n troduc t ion

17 117

7 . 2 . D en ta l P a laeopa tho logy 7 . 2 .1 . Me thodo logy 7 . 2 .2 . C a r ie s 7 . 2 .2 .1 . I n troduc t ion 7 . 2 .2 .2 . R e su l ts

18 18 18 18 1 20

7 . 2 .2 .3 . 7 . 2 .3 . C a lcu lu s 7 . 2 .3 .1 . 7 . 2 .3 .2 . 7 . 2 .3 .3 .

C onc lu s ion s

1 22 1 22 1 22 1 23 1 26

I n troduc t ion R e su l ts C onc lu s ion s

7 . 2 .3 .4 . C a r ie sv e r su sc a lcu lu s : I mp l ica t ion sf o rd if e ren t ia l d i e tar yp a t te rn s? 7 . 2 .4 . A n temor tem T oo th L o s s

1 26 1 27

7 . 2 .4 .1 . I n t roduc t ion

1 27

7 . 2 .4 .2 R esu l ts 7 . 2 .4 .3 . C onc lu s ion s

1 27 1 30

7 . 2 .5 . P e r iap ica l 7 . 2 .5 .1 . 7 . 2 .5 .2 . 7 . 2 .5 .3 .

a b sce s s I n troduc t ion R e su l ts C onc lu s ion s

1 30 1 30 1 30 1 30

7 . 3 . S t ab le i s o tope a na ly s i s

1 33

7 . 3 .1 . I n t roduc t ion 7 . 3 .2 . S amp l ing : L im i ta t ions a nd a im s o ft h e a na ly s is 7 . 3 .3 . R e su l ts

1 33 1 34 1 35

7 . 4 . D iscu s s ion

1 39

CHAPTER 8 : CONCLUS IONS

1 42

B IBL IOGRAPHY

1 48

i v

L IST OF TABLES T ab le 3 . 1 : T ab le 3 . 2 : T ab le 4 . 1 :

T ab le 4 . 11 :

L i s to ft h ep ub l ished p r eh is to r ic c eme te r ie sa nd i s o la ted b u r ia ls f r om t h e s t udy a r ea F ea tu re so f mo r tua ry b ehav iou ri nt h ed i f f e ren ta r chaeo log ica lp e r iod s O ve ra l l f r equenc ie so fc omp le tene s so ft h es ke le ta lr ema ins ( e xpe c ted /ob se rved a nd p e r cen tage r a te )i nt h e c a se s t udy p opu la t ions S ke le ta l e l emen ts a nd b one p a r ts s e lec ted t ob et e s ted f o rb one r e p re sen ta t ion i nt h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ion s O ve ra l l f r equenc ie so fc omp le tene s so ft h es ke le ta lr ema in s( expe c ted /ob se rved a nd p e rcen tage r a te )b ya ge g r oup O ve r a l l f r equenc ies o fc omp le tene s so ft h es ke le ta l r ema ins ( e xpe c ted /ob se rved a nd p e r cen tage r a te )b ys ex g roup N umbe ro fi n d iv idua ls b ya ge g r oup b ef o re p ropor t iona te r ed is tr ibu t ion G roup ing o ft h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ion sa c co rd ing t og eog raph ica la nd c h rono log ica l v a r iab le s N umbe ro fi n d iv idua ls ( Dx) ,m o r ta l i ty ( dx) ,s u rv ivo r sh ip ( 1x)a nd p robab i l i ty o fd y ing ( qx)i nt h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ion s D is t r ibu t ion o ft h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ions b ys ex g roup ( adu l ts o n ly ) D is t r ibu t ion o ft h es exe sb ya ge g r oup i nt h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ions ( ex c lud ing a du l t so fi n de te rm ina te a ge ) N umbe ro fi n d iv idua ls ( D x) ,m o r ta l i ty ( dx) ,s u rv ivo r sh ip ( 1x)a nd p r obab i l i ty o fd y ing ( qx)i nt h ec a se s t udy c eme te r ie s D is t r ibu t ion o ft h es exe si nt h eg eog raph ica l /ch rono log ica l g r oup ings

T ab le 5 . 1 : T ab le 5 . 2 : T ab le 5 . 3 :

T he a r t icu la ted s ke le ta lr ema in so fN eo l i th ic Mak r ig ia lo sI L i s t o ft h es ke le ta l e l emen ts c oun ted i nt h ea na ly s is o ft h ed i sa r t icu la ted a s semb lage sb a sed o nL yman ( 1994 ) D is t r ibu t ion o fb u r ia l t y pe sb ya ge g r oup i nt h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ion s

4 9 5 0 5 7

T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le

7 0 7 1 7 2 7 4 7 9 8 0 8 2 8 4 9 3 9 6 9 7

T ab le 4 . 2 : T ab le 4 . 3 : T ab le 4 . 4 : T ab le 4 . 5 : T ab le 4 . 6 : T ab le 4 . 7 : T ab le 4 . 8 : T ab le 4 . 9 : T ab le 4 . 10 :

6 . 1 : 6 . 2 : 6 . 3 : 6 . 4 : 6 . 5 : 6 . 6 : 6 . 7 : 6 . 8 : 6 . 9 : 6 . 10 : 6 . 11 : 6 . 12 :

T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le

6 . 16 : 6 . 17 : 6 . 18 : 6 . 19 :

O ve ra l lp r eva lence o fd egene ra t ive j o in td i sease i nt h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ions ( r aw d a ta ) P reva lence o fd egene ra t ive j o in td i sease b ya ge g r oup ( c rude r a te s ) P reva lence o fd egene ra t ive j o in td i sease b ys ex v e r su sa ge g roup s( c rude r a tes ) P reva lence o fd egene r a t ive j o in td i sease i nt h e u ppe ra nd l owe rs k e le ton ( c rude a nd s t anda rd ised r a te s ) O ve r a l lp reva len ce o ft r auma i nt h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ions ( r aw d a ta ) P reva lence o ft r auma b ya ge g r oup ( c rude r a te s ) P reva lence o ft r auma i nt h eu ppe ra nd l owe rs ke le ton ( c rude a nd s t anda rd ised r a te s ) C omp l ica t ion so ft r auma t ic l e s ion si nt h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ions O ve ra l lp r eva lence o fv e r teb ra la bno rma l i t ie si nt h ec a se s t ud p opu la t ion s( r aw d a ta ) O ve ra l lp r eva lence o fn on spe c if ic i n f ec t iou s l e s ion si nt h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ion s( r aw d a ta ) P reva lence o fn on spec if ic i n f ec t iou sl e s ion sb ya ge g r oup ( c rude r a te s ) P reva lence o fn on -spec if i ci n f ec t iou sl e s ion si nt h eu ppe ra nd l owe ra ppend icu la rs k e le ton ( c rude a nd s t anda rd ised r a te s ) O ve ra l lp reva lence o fa naem ia i nt h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ions ( r aw d a ta ) P reva lence o fs ke le ta l m an if e s ta t ion so fa naem ia i nt h eN eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ron ze A ge p opu la t ion sb ya ge g roup ( c rude r a te s ) P reva lence o fs ke le ta lm an if e s ta t ion so fa naem ia i nt h eL a te B ronze a nd E a r ly I r on A ge p opu la t ions b ya ge g roup ( c rude r a te s ) O ve r a l lp reva len ce o fe name l h ypop las ia i nt h ec ase s t udy p opu la t ion s( r aw d a ta ) P reva len ce o fe name l h ypop la s ia b ya ge g roup ( c rude r a te s ) P reva lence o fe name l h ypop la s ia b yt o o th c a tego ry ( c rude r a te s ) F requency d i s t r ibu t ion o fe name l h9op las ia l i ne sb yh a lf -yea rp e r iod s

T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le

7 . 1 : 7 . 2 : 7 . 3 : 7 . 4 : 7 . 5 : 7 . 6 : 7 . 7 : 7 . 8 : 7 . 9 : 7 . 10 : 7 . 11 :

O ve ra l lp reva lence o fc a r ies i np e rmanen td en t i t ion o ft h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ion s( r aw d a ta ) P reva len ce o fc a r ie si np e rmanen td en t i t ion b ya ge g r oup ( c rude r a tes ) O ve ra l lp reva lence o fc a lcu lu si np e rmanen td en t i t ion o ft h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ion s( r aw d a ta ) P reva lence o fc a lcu lu si np e rmanen td en t i t ion b ya ge g r oup ( c rude r a te s ) O ve ra l lp r eva lence o fa n temo r tem t o o th l o s si np e rmanen td en t i t ion o ft h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ion s( r aw d a ta ) . P reva lence o fa n temo r tem t o o th l o s si np e rmanen td en t i t ion b ya ge g r oup ( c rude r a te s ) O ve ra l lp reva lence o fp e r iap ica la b s ce sses i nt h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ion s( r aw d a ta ) P reva lence o fp e r iap ica la b sce s se si np e rmanen td en t i t ion b ya ge g r oup ( c rude r a te s ) S t ab le i s o tope v a lues f r om t h eL a te B ronze A ge s ke le ta la s semb lages S t ab le i s o tope v a lues f r om t h e Mak r ig ia lo ss ke le ta la s semb lage s S t ab le i s o tope v a lue sf r om t h e LN Mak r ig ia lo s Ia n ima lb one s amp le s

T ab le 6 . 13 : T ab le 6 . 14 : T ab le 6 . 15 :

2 0 2 2 3 1 3 2 3 3 5 3 6 3 7 3 8 4 1 4 2 4 3 4 5

9 8 1 03 1 05 1 06 1 09 1 1 12 13 1 20 1 2 1 1 24 1 25 1 28 1 29 1 3 1 1 32 1 35 1 36 1 36

L IST OF F I GURES F i gu re 1 . 1 :

Map o ft h es t udy a r ea i n d ica t ing t h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ion s

F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re

2 . 1 : 2 . 2 : 2 . 3 : 2 . 4 : 2 . 5 : 2 . 6 : 2 . 7 : 2 . 8 : 2 . 9 : 2 . 10 :

Map o ft h ee xcava ted p r eh is to r ic s i te si nt h ec a se s t udy r e g ion Map o ft h ec a se s t udy a r ea P l an o fK as tanas p hase 1 7( LH 1 IA ) i n d ica t ing s i ng le room h ou ses ( Hanse l 1 989 : 2 4) P l an o fK a s tanas p ha se 1 6( LH 1 BB )i n d ica t ing s i ng le -a nd mu l t ip le room h ou se s( Han se l 1 989 : 3 1 ) R e con s t ruc t ion o fK as tanas p hase 1 2( LH MC )i n d ica t ing m u l t ip le room h ou se s ( Hanse l 1 989 : 7 1 ) P l an o fA s s i ro sp ha se 6( Wa rd le 1 989 : F igu re 2 ) P l an o fA s s i ro sp hase 7( Wa rd le 1 987 : F igu re 5 ) P l an o fT oumba p ha se 4( And reou a nd K o t sak is 1 994 : F igu re 7 ) R e cons truc t ion o fA s s i ro sp hase 9s t o re room (Wa rd le 1 986 : F igu re 8 h ) R econ s truc t ion o fK a s tana sH ou se A ( EBA )( A s lan is 1 985 : F igu re 2 4 )

6 8 1I 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 3 1 3 1 3

F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re

3 . 1 : 3 . 2 : 3 . 3 : 3 . 4 : 3 . 5 : 3 . 6 : 3 . 7 :

Map o ft h ep ub l ished a nd e xcava ted p r eh is to r ic c eme te r ie si nt h ec a se s t udy a r ea P i c tu re o f ab u i l t g r ave f r om t h eE BA K o i lada c eme ter y P i c tu re o f ap i thos b u r ia l f r om t h eE BA K o i lada c eme te r y P i c tu re o f as t one p i le f r om t h eE BA K o i lada c eme tery P l an o fa nE a r ly I r on A ge t umu lu s( And ron iko s 1 969 : P l a te H ) P i c tu re o fc hambe rt omb 1 f r om t h eE a r ly I r on A ge Makr ig ia lo s P l an o fc hambe rt omb 1 f r om t h eE a r ly I r on A ge Mak r ig ia lo sc eme te ry

1 8 2 4 2 4 2 5 2 7 2 8 2 8

F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re

4 . 1 : 4 . 2 : 4 . 3 : 4 . 4 : 4 . 5 : 4 . 6 : 4 . 7 : 4 . 8 :

Mo r ta l i ty p rof i les (4 i nt h eN eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze A ge c a se s t udy p opu la t ion s Mor ta l i ty p rof i le s( dx)i nt h eL a te B ronze a nd E a r ly h on A ge c a se s t udy p opu la t ions S u rv ivo r sh ip ( 1 , )i nt h eN eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze A ge c a se s t udy p opu la t ion s S u rv ivo r sh ip ( 1 , )i nt h eL a te B ronze a nd E a r ly I r on A ge c a se s t udy p opu la t ion s Mor ta l i ty p rof i le s( dx)i nt h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ion s S u rv ivo r sh ip ( 1 , )i nt h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ion s D is tr ibu t ion o fs ex v e r su sa ge g roup si nt h ec a se s t udy e a r ly p opu la t ion s D is t r ibu t ion o fs ex v e r su sa ge g roup si nt h ec a se s t udy l a te p opu la t ions

3 9 3 9 4 0 4 0 4 4 4 4 4 5 4 6

P l an o fN eo l i th ic Mak r ig ia lo s( Be ss io sa nd P appa 1 998 a :F igu re 4 ) D is t r ibu t ion o fa r t icu la ted v e r su sd i sa r t icu la ted s ke le ta lr ema in si n LN Mak r ig ia lo s I(M in imum N umbe ro f I n d iv idua ls ) B one r e p resen ta t ion i nd i sa r t icu la ted v e r su sa r t icu la ted s ke le ta l e l emen ts o fL N Mak r ig ia lo sI E xpec ted s ke le ta lr e p re sen ta t ion i n ac omp le te a du l t s ke le ton B one p a r tr e p resen ta t ion i nt h ed i sa r t icu la ted v e r su st h ea r t icu la ted s ke le ta l r ema ins o fD i tch A D is t r ibu t ion o fd i sa r t icu la ted v e r su sa r t icu la ted s ke le ta lr ema in si n LN Mak r ig ia lo s Ib ya ge g roup D is t r ibu t ion o fd i sa r t icu la ted v e r su sa r t icu la ted s ke le ta lr ema in si n LN Mak r ig ia lo s Ib ys ex g roup D is t r ibu t ion o ft h eL N Mak r ig ia lo s Id i sa r t icu la ted s ke le ton s( M in imum N umbe ro fI nd iv idua ls ) D is t r ibu t ion o ft h eL N Mak r ig ia los i ld i sa r t icu la ted s ke le ta le l emen t s D is t r ibu t ion o ft h ea ge g r oups i n LN Mak r ig ia los I D is t r ibu t ion o fb u r ia lt y pe i nt h ec a se s t udy c eme te r ie s D is t r ibu t ion o fs i ng le v e r sus mu l t ip le / secondar yb u r ia ls b ya ge g r oup D is t r ibu t ion o fs i ng le v e r su s mu l t ip le / seconda ry b u r ia ls b ys ex g r oup D is t r ibu t ion o ft h ei n d iv idua ls d i spo sed o fi n mu l t ip le a nd s e conda ry b u r ia ls i ne a ch g r ave a s semb lage o ft h e c a se s t udy c eme te r ie s

4 7

F igu re 5 . 1 : F igu re 5 . 2 : F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re

F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F i gu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re

5 . 3 : 5 . 4 : 5 . 5 : 5 . 6 : 5 . 7 : 5 . 8 : 5 . 9 : 5 . 10 : 5 . 11 : 5 . 12 : 5 . 13 : 5 . 14 :

6 . 1 : 6 . 2 : 6 . 3 6 . 4 : 6 . 5 : 6 . 6 : 6 . 7 : 6 . 8 : 6 . 9 : 6 . 10 :

F igu re 6 . 11 : F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re

6 . 12 : 6 . 13 : 6 . 14 : 6 . 15 :

O s teophy t ic d eve lopmen to n l umba rv er teb r ae ( Ka r i tsa T u r n5 b ) S eve re d egene ra t ive c hange sc au s ing a nky los is o ft h ea nk le ( Ko i lada 4 5) S eve re d egene ra t ive c hange sc au s ing a nky lo s is o f L5 a nd S 1 (Ko i lada L i th44 ) P reva lence o fd egene ra t ive j o in td i sea se i nt h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ion s( s tanda rd ised r a te s ) P reva lence o fd egene ra t ive j o in td i sea se b ys ex g roup ( s tanda rd ised r a te s ) P reva lence o fd egene r a t ive j o in t d i sease b ys i de i nt h eu ppe ra nd l owe rs ke le ton ( s tanda rd ised r a te s ) P reva lence o fd egene ra t ive j o in td i sea se b ys ex g r oup i nt h eu ppe ra nd l owe rs k e le ton ( s tanda rd is ed r a tes ) L ong te rm h ea led o b l ique f r ac tu re o nr i gh tr a d iu s( Ko i lad a 1 00 ) L ong te rm h ea led f r ac tu re so n l e f tr i b s( Ko i lad a 8 3 ) L ong te rm h ea led f r ac tu re o nt h el e f tt h ird m e taca rpa l c au s ing d egene r a t ive j o in td i sease o nt h e m e taca rpopha langea lj o in t( Gou le s2 0 ) L ong te rm h ea led f r ac tu re o nt h ed i s ta lr i gh t f o rearm c au s ing o s teop lw t ic d eve lopmen to nt h er ad io ca rpa lj o in t ( Ka r i tsa T um 5 , b ) P reva lence o ft r auma i nt h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ion s( s tand a rd ised r a tes ) P reva lence o ft r auma b ys ex g r oup ( c rude r a te s ) P reva lence o ft r auma b ys i de i nt h eu ppe ra nd l owe rs ke le ton ( s tanda rd ised r a te s ) P reva lence o ft r auma b ys ex g r oup i nt h eu ppe ra nd l owe rs ke le ton ( c rude r a te s ) v i

2

4 8 4 9 5 1 5 1 5 2 5 3 5 3 5 4 5 4 5 5 6 5 6 5 8 6 8 6 9 6 9 7 1 7 3 7 4 7 5 7 6 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 0 8 1 8 2 8 3

F igu re 6 . 16 : F igu re 6 . 17 :

F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re

6 . 2 1 : 6 . 22 : 6 . 23 : 6 . 24 : 6 . 25 : 6 . 26 : 6 . 27 :

P reva lence o fb ones d eve lop ing p o s t t rauma t ic c omp l ica t ion s L ong te rm h ea led o b l iqu ef r ac tu re o nt h em id sha f to fr i gh tr ad ius a c compan ied b ym a la l ignmen to ft h e a f f e c ted b one e nd s( Spa the s 1 4b ) L ong te rm h ea led f r ac tu r eo nb o th s i de sd i s ta lr ad i i( T re is E l ie s7 ) S eve re d egene ra t ive j o in td i sea se w i th e v idence o fa r th r i t ic c y s t so nt h ei n f e r io rs u rf ace o fb o th s i de sd i s ta l r ad i i( T re is E l ie s7 ) L ong te rm h ea led f r ac tu re o nt h el e f td i s ta l l owe rl e gc au s ing m a la l igmnen t a nd o ve r lapp ing o ft h ea f f ec ted b one e nd s( Ko i lada 1 06 ) D en ta lt r auma s how ing s h a l low g r oove o nt h ea n te r io rm ax i l la ry t e e th ( Ko i lada L i th39 ) D en ta l t r auma s how ing s h a l low g r oove o nt h ea n te r io rm ax i l lar yt e e th ( Ko i lada L i th 2 ) S ha l low g r oove o na n te r io rm ax i l lar yt e e th ( Lukacs a nd P as to r 1 988 : F igu re 1 2 ) S ha l low g r oove o na n te r io rm ax i l lar yt e e th ( I r ish a nd T u rne r 1 987 : F i gu re 1 ) S pondy lo ly s is o f L5 ( Ne aN ikomede ia XX I ) S ac r a l isa t ion o f L5 ( Nea N ikomede ia I ) S p ina B if id a( Nea N ikomede ia XX I )

F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu r e

6 . 28 : 6 . 29 : 6 . 30 : 6 . 31 :

P reva lence o fv e r teb r a la bno rma l i t ie si nt h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ion s( s tanda rd ised r a te s ) P reva lence o fv e r teb ra l a bno rma l i t ie sb ys ex g roup ( s tanda rd ised r a te s ) P e r io s t i t is o nt h em id shaf t o fl e f t f emu r( Mak r ig ia lo s 1 9 ) O s teomye l i t is o nt h ep r ox ima l l e f th umeru s (Mak r ig ia lo s5 6p r im )

F igu re 6 . 18 : F igu re 6 . 19 : F igu re 6 . 20 :

8 4 8 5 8 6 8 6 8 7 8 8 8 9 8 9 9 0 9 1 9 1 9 2 9 3 9 4 9 5 9 5

F igu re 6 . 32 : F igu re 6 . 33 : F igu re 6 . 34 : F igu re 6 . 35 : F igu re 6 . 36 : F igu re 6 . 37 : F igu re 6 . 38 : F igu re 6 . 39 : F igu re 6 . 40 F igu re 6 . 41 : F igu re 6 . 42 : F igu re 6 . 43 : F igu re 6 . 44 : F igu re 6 . 45 : F igu re 6 . 46 : F igu re 6 . 47 :

P reva lence o fn on -spec if i ci n f ec t iou sl e s ion si nt h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ions ( s tanda rd ised r a tes ) P reva lence o fn on spe c if i c i n f e c t iou sl e s ion sb ys ex g r oup ( c rude r a te s ) P o ro t ic h ype ro s to s is o nt h er o of so ft h eo rb i ts ( Cr ib ra O rb i ta l ia )( Ka r i tsa T u rn 1 5 c ) P o ro t ic h ype ro s to s is o nt h eo c c ip i ta l ( Nea N ikomede ia V ) B u lgy e m inence o nb o th p a r ie ta ls ( Nea N ikomede ia X IV ) E n la rged n u t r ien t f o r am ina o nh and p ha lange s( Nea N ikomede ia X ) E n la rged n u t r ien t f o ram ina o ni mma tu re l o ng b ones ( Ne aN ikomede ia # 3 ) F l a r ing e nd so fi mma tu r ef emo r a( Nea N ikomede ia # 8 ) P reva lence o fa naem ia i nt h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ions ( s tanda rd ised r a tes ) P reva lence o fa naem ia b ys e xg r oup ( c rude r a te s ) E name lh ypop las ia l i ne so nm and ibu la rt e e th ( Mak r ig ia lo s 1 00p r im ) P reva lence o fe name l h ypop la s ia i nt h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ion s( s tanda rd ised r a te s ) P reva lence o fe name lh ypop las ia b ys ex g r oup ( c rude r a tes ) P reva lence o fe name l h ypop las ia i np o s te r io rv e r su sa n te r io rd en t i t ion P reva len ce o fp a tho log ica l c ond i t ion sb ya r chaeo log ica l p e r iod ( s tanda rd ised r a te s ) O ve ra l lp r eva lence o fp a tho log ica l c ond i t ion si nt h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ion s( s tanda rd ised r a te s )

9 6 9 7 9 9 9 1 00 1 00 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 04 1 07 1 08 10 1 1 12 15 15

F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re

S eve re c a r ie so nr i gh tm and ibu la rm o la r( Mak r ig ia lo s 1 9 ) S eve re c a r ie so nr i gh tm and ibu la rm o la r s( Makr ig ia lo s2 60p r im ) P reva lence o fc a r ie s i nt h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ion s( s tanda rd ised r a te s ) P reva lence o fc a r ie sb ys e xg r oup ( s tanda rd ised r a te s ) Mode ra te c a lcu lu sd epo s i t so nt h el i ngua l s u rf ace o fp o s te r io rm and ibu la rt e e th ( Ko i lada L i th 10 .) P reva lence o fc a lcu lu si nt h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ions ( s tanda rd ised r a tes ) P rev a lence o fc a lcu lu sb ys e xg r oup ( s tanda rd ised r a te s ) P reva lence o fc a r ie s v e r su sc a lcu lu si nt h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ion s( s tanda rd ised r a te s ) P reva lence o fc a r ie s v e r su sc a lcu lu sb y s ex g roup ( s tanda rd ised r a te s )

I1 9 19 1 2 1 1 22 1 23 1 24 1 25 1 26 1 27

F igu re 7 . 10 : F igu re 7 . 11 :

A n temo r tem t o o th l o s so n l e f tp o s te r io rm and ibu la rd en t i t ion ( Mak r ig ia lo s2 60p r im ) P reva lence o fa n temo r tem t o o th l o s si nt h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ion s( s tanda rd ised r a te s )

1 28 1 29

F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re

7 . 12 : 7 . 13 : 7 . 14 : 7 . 15 : 7 . 16 : 7 . 17 :

P reva lence o fa n temo r tem t o o th l o s sb ys ex g r oup ( s tanda rd ised r a te s ) L a rge p e r iap ica l a bsce s so nl e f tm and ib le ( Ka r i tsa T um lS i ) P reva len ce o fp e r iap ica la b sce s se si nt h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ion s( s tanda rd ised r a te s ) P reva lence o fp e r iap ica la b sce s se sb ys ex g r oup Mean v a lue so fs t ab le i s o tope r a t io sf r om N o r the rn G reece S t ab le i s o tope v a lue sf r om N o r the rn G ree ce

1 30 1 3 1 1 32 1 33 1 37 1 37

F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re

7 . 18 : 7 . 19 : 7 . 20 : 7 . 21 :

D is t r ibu t ion o fs t ab le i s o tope v a lue sf r om E IA Mak r ig ia lo sb ys ex g r oup D is t r ibu t ion o fs t ab le i s o tope v a lue sf r om E IA Mak r ig ia lo sb ya ge g r oup D is t r ibu t ion o fs t ab le i s o tope v a lue sf r om E IA Mak r ig ia lo sb ;g r ave t y pe P reva lence o fd en ta l d i sea se b ya r chaeo log ica lp e r iod ( s tanda rd ised r a te s )

1 38 1 39 1 40 1 40

O ve ra l l p r eva lence o fd en ta l d i se ase i nt h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ion s( s tanda rd ised r a te s )

1 4 1

7 . 1 : 7 . 2 : 7 . 3 : 7 . 4 : 7 . 5 : 7 . 6 : 7 . 7 : 7 . 8 : 7 . 9 :

F igu re 7 . 22 :

v i i

ABBREV IAT IONS AMS : E BA : E IA : EN : ENE : I ndAdu l t : L BA : LN : Madu l t /MA : m a s l : MN : MN I : M t : N IA : N IO : N -S I n f ec t ion : O adu l t /OA : P /SC : P /W : P adu l t /PA : Y adu l t /YA :

A cce le ra to r Mas s S pec t rome tr y E ar ly B ronze A ge E ar ly I r on A ge E ar ly N eo l i th ic E as t -no r th -eas t I nde te rm ina te a du l t L a te B ronze A ge L a te N eo l i th ic Ma tu re a du l t m e te r sa bove s e a l e ve l M idd le N eo l i th ic M in imum N umbe ro fI nd iv idua ls Moun t N umbe ro fI nd iv idua l s Af ec ted N umbe ro fI nd iv idua ls O b served N on -Spec if ic I n f ec t ion O ld a du l t P i tc ove red w i th s ch is t P i tw i th w ooden c ove r P r ime a du l t Y oung a du l t

v i i i

C HAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1 . 1 . DEF INIT ION AND A I MS OF THE THES IS Al a rg e n umbe r o f w o rk s o n p r eh i s to r ic G r eek m o r tua ry b ehav iou r h ave f o cu s ed o n g r ave a s semb lage s f r om t h e s o u the rn m a in land . C r e te a nd t h e C yc lade s ( P e r s son 1 9 31 ; My lona s 1 966 ; B lackbu rn 1 970 ; F e lon 1 976 ; D ouma s 1 977 ; P r o tono ta r iou -De i lak i 1 980 ; N o rdqu i s t 1 987 ; B ran igan 1 9 93 ; C avanagh a nd Mee 1 998 ) . T h i s t h e s i s w i l l r e v e r s e t h i s g eog r aph ica l b i a s b y e xp lo r ing t h e e v id enc e o fh uman s k e le ta l r ema in s f r om C en t ra l a nd We s te rn G r eek Ma c edon ia . I n c on t r a s t t o t h e s t ud ie s r e la t ing t o t h e s o u the rn G r eek m a in land , w h ich h av e p roduced e xhau s t ive d i scu s s ion s o fm or tua ry b ehav iou r a nd b u r ia l p r ac t ice s , t h e c u r r en t w o rk w i l l d r aw a t ten t ion t ot h e o ccupan t s o f t h e g r av e a s s emb lage s . t h a t i st o t h e h uman s k e le ta l r ema in s b u r ied ,d i spo sed o fo rt r ea ted a ss e conda ry p roduc t s . Mo s t r e s ea r ch t od a te o n p r eh i s to r ic b u r ia l a s semb lage s i n t h e s t udy a r ea h a s b een s t r ic t ly l i m i ted t o p r e l im inar y e x cava t ion r e po r t s b r ie f ly d e sc r ib ing a spec t s o f b u r ia l p r ac t ic e sa nd e v iden ce o fm a te r ia l c u l tu r e s u ch a sc e r am ic s . j ewe l le r y a nd w eapon ry . A s r e ga rd s h uman s k e le ta l m a te r ia l , t h e p r e l im in ar y r e po r t o n E a r ly N eo l i th ic N ea N ikom ed e ia ( Ange l 1 973 a ) t r ea t s t h e h uman s k e le ta l m a te r ia l o u t o f a r cha eo log ica l c on t ex t a nd t h e r e i s n o t h o rough s t udy a t ap opu la t ion l e ve lw h ich c on s ide r s al a rge s e r ie s o f h uman r ema in s f r om a b r o ad g eog raph ica l a r ea d i ach ron ic a l ly . T he c u r r en t t h e s i se xam in e sh uman s k e le ta l r em a in s f r om t h e s t udy a r ea , s p ann ing t h e p e r iod f r om t h e N eo l i th ic t ot h eE a r ly I r on A ge .w i th t wo a im s : • f i r s t . t h er econs t ruc t ion o fa spec t so fl i f eh i s tory • s e cond ly , a na ly s is o ft h e t r ea tmen ta nd m an ipu la t ion o f t h e d ecea sed a nd t h e i r r o le i ns o c ia l m ob i l i t y a nd s o c ia l t r an sf o rma t ion s . T h e a na ly s i s w i l l t h u s f o cu s o n t h e i n ve s t iga t ion o f d emog r aph ic p a ram e t e r s , p a t te rn s o fh e a l th a nd o r a l s t a tu s , a sw e l l a so n d i e t i nt h e s t udy c eme te r y p opu la t ion s . A pa r t f r om o ve r a l l c ompa r i son s a t t h e p opu la t ion l e v e l , t h e se p a r am e te r s w i l l b e e xp lo r ed f o r p opu la t ion s ubg roup s s u ch a st h o s e d ef ined b y a g e a nd /o r s e x . I tm u s t b e e mpha s i s ed t h a t t h e s e p a rame te r s w i l l n o t b e c on s ide r ed a s s t r ic t ly b i o log ic a l ly d e te rm ined . R a the r . d emog raphy . h ea l th s t a tu s a nd d i e ta r y p a t te rn s w i l l b e s e en i n ah i s to r ica l , r e g iona l a nd c h rono log ica l c on tex t , w h i le t h e a r chaeo log ica l b a ckg round o ft h e c eme te r y p opu la t ion s w i l l b e a l so t a ken i n to a c coun t . T he a im o ft h i s t h e s i s w i l l b e t od ef in e t h e e f e c t o n t h e d if e r en t a ge a nd /o r s e x g r oup s o f q ua l i ty o f l i f e , s t r e s s e p i sode s o r l o ng te rm c ond i t ion s , l i f e s ty le a nd p hy s ica l a c t iv i t ie s , a nd a c ce s s t o c e r ta in d i e tar y r e g im e s . O n t h i s b a s i s . i tw i l l b e p o s s ib le t od i s t ingu i sh p a r t icu la r r o le s t h a t b i o log ica l ly -d e te rm ined p opu la t ion s ubg roup s h e ld d ur ing l i f e i n c e r ta in c ommun i t ie s , s u ch a s t h e i n vo lvemen t o fc h i ld r en a nd j uven i le s i np hy s ica l a c t iv i t ie s

o r t h e g r ea t e r a c ce s s o f ac e r ta in s e x g r oup t o p ar t icu la r d i e ta r yr e sou r ce s . S t udy o ft h e m an ipu la t ion o f t h e d e cea sed w i l l a t temp t t o o u t l in e b u r ia l p r ac t ic e s a nd t r ac e e v id en ce o f m o r tu a r y d if e r en t ia t ion d i ach ron ica l ly . b a sed o n ly o n t h e p ub l i shed p r e l im ina r y e xcava t ion r e po r t s a nd t h e e v id ence o f t h e h uman s k e le ta l r ema in s . A tt h e s am e t ime , t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e c ommun i t y o ft h e d ecea sed a nd t h e c ommun i ty o ft h e l i v ing w i l l b e c on s id e r ed a s ac on t inuou s i n te rac t ion o fr o le s r e su l t ing i nt h e e s tab l ishmen t . a ff i rma t ion a nd r e af i rma t ion o fd eve lop ing o re x i s t ing s o c ia lo r d e r s . T he a na ly s i s i n c lude s e l ev en c eme te r y p opu la t ion s . w h ich p rov ide s k e le ta l r ema in so f5 10 i n d iv idu a l s . T he c a s e s t udy s amp le i n c lud e s a l l t h e a va i lab le e x cav a ted p r eh i s to r ic o s teo log ica l m a te r ia lf r om C en t ra l a nd We s ter n Mac edon ia : b o th p ha se s o f LN Mak r ig ia lo s , E BA Mak r ig ia lo s , E BA G ou le s , E BA K o i lada . E BA /LBA K o r ino s , L BA S pa the s . L BA /E IA T r e i s E l ie s . E IA Mak r ig ia lo s a nd t h e E IA O lympu s t umu l i . w h i le a r e v iew i s a l so o f e r ed o f t h e p r ev iou s ly e xam ined b u r ia l a s semb lage o f E a r ly N eo l i th ic N ea N ikomed e ia ( F igu r e 1 . 1 ) . 1 .2 . THEORET ICAL BACKGROUND OF MORTUARY ANALYS IS I N GREECE Mor tua r y s t ud ie s i nt h e A egean c omp r i se a l a rge b ody o f a r chaeo log ica l l i t e r a tu r e , c on ce rn ing p r ima r i ly t h e s o u th e rn G r eek m a in land a nd C r e t e . U n t i l t h e e a r ly 1 980 's t wo p r inc ipa l t r end s i n f luenced m o r tua r y s t ud ie s i n t h e p r eh i s to r ic A egean : t h e t r ad i t iona l c u l tu ra l -h i s to r ic a l a nd t h ed i f f u s ion is ta pp roach . I n t h e f o rme r a pp roach , b u r ia l p r ac t ic e s a r e c l o s e ly a s soc ia ted w i th r e l ig iou s b e l ief s a nd p r e jud ice s o n a n a f te r l if e ( My lona s 1 973 ; H ägg 1 990 ; K i l ian 1 990 b ; P ro tono ta r iou -De i lak i 1 990 a ;1 990 b ) . F o r i n s tance , i nt h e -r o ya l" b u r ia l s o f t h e g r ave c i r c le s o r t h o lo s t omb s a t Mycena e , t h e r i tua l c e remon ie s a nd b u r ia l c u s tom s a c company ing t h e f une r a l h ave b een i n te rp r e ted i nt e rm s o f t h e c e leb ra t ion s o f t h e l i v ing f o r t h e d ead w ho w e r e r e cogn i sed a sm ed ia to r st ot h ea f te r l if e . T he d i f f u s ion i s t a pp roa ch t r ea t s b ur ia l p r ac t ice s a sp rodu c t s o fc u l tu r a l i n f luence s , t h u s p ay ing a t t en t ion t ot h e d if e r en t e l emen t sr e p r e sen ted i nt h e m or tuar ya r ena . I nt h i sc a s e . i n o rd e r t o t ia c e c u l tu r a l g r oup s a f e c t ing b u r ia l p r ac t ice s , -o t he rne s s " i s i n te rp r e ted a s t h e p rodu c t o f f o r e ign i n f lu enc e s o r ig ina t ing f r om a n o u t s id e w o r ld ( Evan s 1 9 29 ; P e r s son 1 9 31 ; My lona s 1 966 ; 1 973 ; Ma r ina to s 1 974 ) . F o r e xamp le . t h e o ccu r r ence o f -t umu l i" i nt h e E a r ly / M idd le B ronze A ge p ar t icu la r ly i n t h e s ou the rn G r e ek m a in land , h a sb een i n te rp r e ted a s af o r e ign e l emen ti mpo r ted f r om t h e

INTRODUCT ION

E astern Macedon ia

•

Map o fG reece

Centra l Macedon ia

Na N ikomede ia

Cha lc id ik i

•

Western Macedon ia

• K odada

•

N eo l i th ic Aegean Sea

T hessa ly

F i gure 1 . 1 : Map o ft h e s t ud

• •

E a r ly B ronz e A ge

o Late Bronze Age •

T rans i t iona l p hase

•

E a r ly I r on A ge

a rea i nd ica t ing t h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ions

n o r the rn " Ku rgan "t r ad i t ion ( Hammond 1 967 ; Mü l le r 1 989 ; f o r ad i scu s s ion s e eF o r s en 1 992 ) . T he c r uc ia l p rob lem w i th b o th a pp roach e s i s t h a t t h e c on s t i tuen t p r inc ip le s w h ich s t ru c tu r e m or tuar y b ehav iou r a s aw ho le a r e u sua l ly i g no r ed . I n s tead , t h e r e i s ac l ea r t e nden cy t owa rd st h ep ro f ound s t udy o fi s o la t ed p h enom ena , s u ch a sg rave o f e r ing s a nd t omb a r ch i te c tu r e ( P e lon 1 976 ) , w h ich r e p r e s en t o n ly a v e ry l im i ted a spec t o f m o r tua ry b ehav iou r . T h i s g ap w a s p ar t ly b r idged i n t h e 1 980 's u nde r t h e i nf luen ce o fN ew A r chaeo log y ( B rown 1 971 ; B in f o rd 1 972 ; S axe 1 973 ; G o ld s te in 1 976 ; 1 981 ; T a in te r 1 978 . O 'She a 1 981 ) . A cco rd ing t ot h i s t h eo r e t ica l p e r spec t ive , t h e f o rm o ft h eb u r ia l r i tua l i sd ef in ed i np a r tb yt h e s o c ia l p e r sona o f t h e i n d iv idua l , t h a t i s . b y t h e s o c ia l s t a tu se s o r s o c ia l i d en t i t ie s t h a t t h e i nd iv idua l p o s se s sed d u r ing l i f e a nd b y t h e n umbe r s o fp eop le w ho p a r t ic ipa ted i n t h e b u r ia l a nd r e cogn i sed r e spon s ib i l i t ie s t owa rd t h e d ecea sed . T hu s , t h e -n ew w ave " i n A egean m o r tua ry s t ud ie s t e nd s t o s ha r e a c once rn w i th e x t r apo la t ing s o c ia l p henomena f r om f ime r a r y c on tex t s . I n f a c t , mu ch o f t h i s w o rk h a s g i ven p a r t icu la r e mpha s is t ot h e a s so c ia t ion o f b u r ia l p r ac t ice s w i th s o c ia l a nd p o l i t ica l s t ruc tu r e ( e .g . A ld en 1 981 ; Mee a nd C avanagh

1 984 ; 1 990 ; C avanagh 1 987 ; N o rdqu is t 1 987 ; 1 990 ; Wr igh t 1 987 : G r az iad io 1 991 ; C avanagh a nd Me e 1 998 ) . T he s e s t ud ie s , o f t en s uppor ted b y s t a t i s t ica l a na ly s e s a nd t h o rough c on s ide ra t ion o f t h e s o c ia l , c u l tu ra l a nd e c onom ic b ackg round o f t h e b u r ia l a s semb lag e s e xam ined , h ave c on t r ibu ted s i gn if ican t ly t ot h e t r an sf o rma t ion o ft h e s t a t ic , t r ad i t iona li d ea sw h ich h ad d om ina ted t h ef i e ld . N ever the le s s , t h e s t ra igh tf o rwa rd r e la t ion sh ip b e tween b u r ia l p ra c t ic e sa nd s o c ia l o rgan i sa t ion h a sb een t h e s ub jec t o f ad eba t e , l a rge ly i n f luenced b y t h e n o rm s o f s o c ia l a n th ropo logy , a r gu ing t h a t w ha t b u r ia l p r a c t ic e s a r e r ef l ec t ing m ay b e a n i d ea l i sed p i c tu r e o f s o c ia l r e la t ion s ( Hodde r 1 9 82 ) . F ur th e rmo r e . t h e s o c ia l r o le o ft h e l i v ing a nd t h e i ri n te r ac t ion w i th t h ed ecea sed h a sb een p a r t icu la r ly e mpha s i sed b y v i ew ing m o r tuar y p r ac t ic e s a s a n a c t iv e a r ena w h e r et h e l i v ing , a c t ing w i th t h e d ec ea sed , a temp t t o r e a ff i rm o r r e d ef ine t h e i r r o le s i n s o c ia l p r ac t ic e s ( P a rke r P ea r son 1 982 ; 1 993 ; 1 999 ) . V ou t sak i h as i n t rodu ced a s im i la r p e r sp e c t ive i n t h e A egean m or tua r y c on tex t b y t r y ing t o t r ac e t h e s ymbo l ic a nd c u l tu ra l s i gn if i cance o f m o r tua ry f o rm sa nd p rac t ice sa nd s ot oi n te rp r e tt h e i ru s e i n t h e d eve lop ing s o c ia l s t r a teg ie s o ft h e L a te B ronz e A ge i n t h es ou the rn G r eek m a in land ( Vou t sak i 1 998 ) .

INTRODUCT ION

I n N o r th e rn G r eece , t h e re i s ar ema rkab le l a ck o f a ny t ho rough w o rk o n mor tua ry b ehav iou r b a sed o n p r eh is to r ic b ur ia l a s semb lage s . One p rob lem i st h e l im i ted a moun t o f m a te r ia l , a nd a no the r i st h e t o ta l a b sence o fp ub l ica t ion s o f e xcava t ed p r eh i s to r ic c eme te r ie s , e x cep t f o r E a r ly I r on A ge V e rg in a i n C en t ra l Macedon ia ( And ron iko s 1 969 ) a nd K a s t r i o n T ha s so s ( Koukou l i -Ch ry san thak i 1 992 ) ( F igu r e 1 . 1) . Mo r eove r , t h e v i ew s e xp re s sed i np re l im ina ry r e por t s o n L a t e B ronze a nd E a r ly I r on A ge c eme te r ie s , s uch a s L BA S pa th e s a nd R ymn io , LBA /E IA T r e i s E l ie s a nd E IA Mak r ig ia lo sh ave b een l a rge ly i n f luenced b yt h e d i f f u s ion i s t a pp roach . T he o ccu r rence o f n ew "Mycenaean i sed " e l emen t s , s u ch a sl a rge c i s t s r e ca l l ing t h e Mycenaean s ha f t g rave s a nd c hambe r t omb s k nown f r om t h e s ou the rn G reek ma in land , t oge the r w i th t h e a dop t ion o f n ew b u r ia l p rac t ice s , s u ch a ss e conda ry a nd mu l t ip le b u r ia l s , h ave b een s e en a s e v idence f o r t h e d i rec t i mpor t o f i d ea s a nd /o r p roduc t s f r om t h e S ou th ( Kar ame t rou -Men te s id i 1 993 ; P ou lak i -Pan te rma l i 1 993 ; B e s s io s 1 997 b ) .

a n th ropo logy a nd a r chaeo logy i n p opu la t ion movemen t s . i mm ig ra t ion , p opu la t ion af i l ia t ion s , p opu la t ion i n te r b reed ing a nd f am i ly r e la t ion s . A dd i t iona l ly , p hy s ica l a nd b i o log ica l a n th ropo logy i nG r eek c on tex t sh a st e nded t owa rd st h e s t udy o fi s o la ted i nd iv idua l s r a the r t h an o fl a rge s e r ie s o fc eme te ry p opu la t ion s a nd , i n g ene ra l h a s f o cu sed o n f amou s o r n o to r iou s d i scove r ie s ( Mu sg rave 1 985 ; 1 990 ; P rag 1 990 ; Mu sg rave e ta l . 1 994 ; Mu sg rave e t a l . 1 995 ; P r ag a nd N eave 1 997 ) , t hu s n eg lec t ing t h e e v idence a s a w ho le p rov ided b y a r chaeo log ica l a nd h i s to r ica l s ou r ce s . T he ref o re , s t udy o f a nc ien t h uman r ema in s i n G reece t o d a te c an b e s umma r ised i nt e rm s o ft h ree c ha rac te r is t ic s : 1 ) t h e s e lec t ive c on s ide ra t ion o ft h e h uman s ku l la so ppo sed t o t h e p o s tc ran ia l s ke le ton : 2 ) t h e i n ve s t iga t ion o f d i sea se l e s ion s o r s ke le ta l a bno rma l i t ie s i n s i ng l e s ke le ton s a s o ppo sed t o t h e e p idem io logy o f s e r ie s o f s ke le ta l p opu la t ion s ; a nd 3 ) p ar t icu la r i n te re s t i n ' f amou s" i nd iv idua l s , c on s ide red t o b e m embe r s o f -r o ya l f am i l ie s "

1 . 3 . THE STUDY OF ANCIENT HU MAN RE MA INS I N GREECE

a nd -e l i te s" , a s o ppo sed t ot h e s t udy o fc omp le te c eme ter y p opu la t ion s f r om a c ompa ra t ive r e g iona l a nd d i ach ron ic

D e sp i te t h e e xcava t ion o f ag rea t n umbe r o fc eme te r ie s i n G reece , a nd t hu s t h e a va i lab i l i ty o fl a rge s e r ie s o f s ke le ta l r ema in s , t h e s t udy o f h uman r ema in s h a s a dvanced r e la t ive ly l i t t le . U n t i l v er y r e cen t ly , t h e s t udy o f a nc ien t h uman b one w a s ab ranch o fp hy s ica l a n th ropo log y a nd t h e b io log ica l s c ience s( f o ra n a na ly t ica l r e v iew o ft h eh i s to r y o f p hy s ica l a n th ropo logy i n G r eece t o ge the r w i th c u r r en t p e r spec t iv e s a nd a r i ch b ib l iog raphy . s e e R ober t s e ta l . i n p res s . a nd A ge la rak is 1 995 ) . T he m a jor i ty o ft h e s cho la r s i nvo lved . f r om t h e f ounda t ion o f t h e A n th ropo log ica l Mu seum i nA then s ( 1886 ) o nwa rd s . c ome e xc lu s ive ly f r om b io log ic a l a nd m ed ica l b ackg round s w i thou t a ny e s sen t ia l k now ledg e o fh i s tor y a nd a r chaeo logy . A cadem ic s t udy o f p hy s ica l a n th ropo logy a nd p a laeoan th ropo logy h a s b een e s tab l ished o n ly i n d epar tmen t s o f B io logy a nd P a laeon to logy . a tt h e s ame t ime b e ing c on sp icuou s ly a b sen t i nd epa r tm en t so fA rchaeo logy a nd H is tory .

p e r spec t ive . T he i gno rance o f t h e m a jo r i ty o f a r chaeo log is t s o f t h e p rocedu r e s f o r t h e c o l lec t ion . c on se rva t ion a nd a na ly s i s o f h uman r ema in s h a s a l so l im i ted b i o log ica l a n th ropo logy i n G reek c on tex t s , a nd h a s l e d t ot h e d i sca rd ing o fl a rge w e l l p re served s ke le ta l p opu la t ion s wh ich c ou ld h ave p rov ided v a luab le i n f o rma t ion w i th r e ga rd t o p a laeodemog raphy , e p idem io logy , d i e t , o ccupa t iona l a nd h ea l th s t a tu s , a nd t h e h i s tor y o fm ed ic ine . A pp rop r ia te s t andards o fd ea l ing w i th h uman b one s h ave n o t b een w ide ly a dop ted a nd o n ly af ew c eme ter y e xcava t ion s h ave i n vo lved t h e p ar t ic ipa t ion o f a h uman b one s pec ia l is t . F ina l ly , p a r t icu la r ly w i th r ega rd t oN o r the rn G r eece , t h e r e i s an o tab le l a ck o f s t ud ie s o f a nc ien t h uman r ema in s , i n c on t ra s t w i th t h e l a rge r n umbe r o fr e po r t s a nd p ub l ica t ion s c once rn ing p opu la t ion s o f t h e S ou the rn G reek m a in land ( Ange l 1 959 ; 1 971 a ; 1 973 b ; 1 973 c ; 1 975 ; 1 982 ;

T he d eve lopmen to fp hy s ica l a n th ropo logy i nG r eece , a tt h e e nd o f t h e 1 9t h/ b eg inn ing o f t h e 2 0t h c en tur y , f o l lowed

Mu sg rave 1 980 a ; Mu sg rave a nd P opham 1 991 ; L ag ia 1 999 ; 2 000 ) , C r e te ( Mu sg r ave 1 976 a ; 1 976 b ; 1 996 ; McGeo rge 1 983 ; 1 988 : 1 989 ; H a l lage ra nd McGeo rge 1 992 ; B ou rbou 1 998 : L is ton 1 993 ) . a nd t h e i s land s ( Ange l 1 977

s im i la r i d eo log ica l t r end s t ot ho se w h ich i n f luenced G reek a r chaeo logy . T hu s , t h e p r ima ry a im o f r e sea rche r s i n t h e f i e ld w as t o i nve s t iga te i s sue s o f e t hnogene s i s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e o r ig in s o f t h e G r eek s a nd t h e ir c l o se l i nk s w i th t h e ir a nc ien t a nce s to r s . T h i s i n te re s t r e su l ted i n t h e c o l lec t ion . s t udy a nd t ho rough a na ly s i s a lmo s t e xc lu s ive ly

a ) . T he l im i ted w o rk i n b i o log ica l a n th ropo logy i n G r eek Macedon ia i sc on s is ten t w i th t h e l ow l e ve l o f p reh i s to r ic r e sear ch i ng ene r a l i nt h is a r ea . O s teo log ica l a na ly se s f r om N or the rn G r eece i n c lude : 1 ) w o rk b y A . A ge la rak i s i n

o f h um an c r an ia ( Mu sg rave 1 980 b ; 1 985 ; X iro t i r i s 1 981 ; 1 986 ; Mano l is 1 991 ; P anag iar is 1 992 ; P anag ia r is e t a l .

E a s te rn Macedon ia a nd T h r ace ( Age la rak i s a nd A ge la rak i s 1 989 ; A ge la rak i s 1 996 ; A ge la rak is a nd E f s t ra t iou 1 996 ) ; 2 ) t h e p r e l im inar y r e su l t s o n N eo l i th ic N ea N ikomede ia a nd C la s s ica l O lyn thu s b y J .L . A nge l ( Ange l 1 942 ; 1 973 b ) ; 3 ) a nd t h e f ew i s o la ted c a se s o f h i s to r ica l d a te f r om C en t ra l Macedon ia i nve s t iga ted b yJ .H . Mu sg rave ( 1985 ; 1 990 ) .

1 994 ; P an ag ia r i s e t a l . 1 997 ) . I n p ar t icu la r . t h e re w a s a c on s tan t a ten t ion t ot h e s t udy o f mo rpho log ica l s im i lar i t ie s i n d if e ren t p opu la t ion s o r e thn ic g roup s b a sed o n l a rge s e r ie s o f m e t r ic d a ta . O bv iou s ly , s uch a na ly t ica l w o rk . w hen c on s ide red s y s tema t ica l ly a nd f r ee f r om p o l i t ica l mo t ive s , c an c on t r ibu te g rea t ly t ot h ei n ter e s to fp hy s ica l

3

I NTRODUCT ION a naem ia a nd e name l h ypop la s ia . T h e f o rme r e nab le s i n f e r ence s a bou t t h e l i f e s ty le a nd p hy s ic a l a c t iv i t ie s o ft h e s t udy p opu la t ion s . w h i le t h e l a t te r c an s h ed l i gh t o n s t r e s s e p i sode s o r l o ng te rm c ond i t ion s w h ich m ay h ave a f e c ted t h e s t udy p opu la t ion s a nd t h u s p rov id e e v idence o n t h e b i o log ica l a dap tab i l i ty o fc e r ta in a ge a n d /o r s e x g roup s t o t h e ir p hy s ica la nd s o c ia le nv i ronm en t .

1 . 4 . S TRUCTURE AND S IGNIF ICANCE OF THIS THES IS T h i s t h e s i s w i l l a t temp t t ob r idg e t h e g ap b e tween t h e t wo d i s c ip l ine s o f a r chaeo logy a nd b i o log ica l a n th ropo logy b y t h o rough ly a na ly s ing N or the rn G r eek o s teo log ica l m a te r ia l . T hu s . C hap te r 2 i s a n i n t roduc t ion t o t h e h i s to r ica l , g eog raph ica l . e nv i ronmen ta l , c h rono log ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica lb ackg round o ft h e s t udy a r ea . T he h i s tor yo f p r eh i s to r ic r e sea r ch i sb r ie f ly d i scu s sed , a nd a n o u t l ine o f t h e g eog raphy o f t h e r e g ion a nd t h e p r e sen t -day e nv i ronmen t i sa l so p r e sen ted . T he a r chaeo log ica l p e r iod s a r e d e f ined i n t e rm s o f t h e e x i s t ing r e g iona l c h rono logy . F ina l ly , t h e a r chaeo log ica l b ackg round t o t h e s t udy i s d i s cu s s ed w i th r e ga rd t os u ch r e levan t a spec t s a s s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s , s ub s i s tenc ea nd s o c ia lo rgan isa t ion .

C hap te r 7d i s cu s se s a spe c t s , f i r s t , o f d i e ta r y p a t te rn s a nd s e cond ly , o fo r a l h ea l th s t a tu s . I np ar t icu la r . t h e p r eva len ce o fc e r ta in d en t a l c ond i t ion s i se va lua ted i nr e la t ion t oa g e a nd s e x g roup s , s how ing t h a t c e r ta in p opu la t ion s ubg roup s h ad g r ea te ra c c e s st op a r t icu la rd i e ta ry r e g ime s . I na dd i t ion t o t h e r e su l t s o f m ac ro s cop ic i n v e s t ig a t ion , t h i s c hap t e r d i scu s se s t h e r e su l t s o f as t ab le i s o top e a na ly s i s . w h ich c ha rac te r is e s h uman s k e le ta l r ema in s i n t e rm s o f b road d i e ta r yc a tego r ie s .

C hap te r 3p r e sen t s t h e i n f o rma t ion a va i lab le i np r e l im inar y r e po r t s o n c eme te r y e xcava t ion s a nd b u r ia l a s s emb lage s . T he s t udy c eme te r yp opu la t ion sa r ed ef ined i ng eog raph ica l , e nv i ronmen ta l a nd c h rono log ica l t e rm s . N eo l i th ic t oE a r ly I r on A g e b u r ia l p r ac t ice s a r e t h en d i scu s sed o n t h e b a s i s o f t h ep ub l i shed e xcava t ion e v idence .

T he s i gn if i c an ce o ft h ec u r ren tt h e s i sm ay b es umma r i s ed a s f o l low s : A . I ti st h e f i r s t s t udy o f al a rge s e r ie s o fs k e le ta l r ema in s f r om G r eek Macedon ia , r a ng ing c h rono log ica l ly f r om t h e N eo l i th ic t ot h e E a r ly I r on A ge a nd g eog raph ica l ly f r om t h ec oa s tt ot h el ow land so fC en t ra l Macedon ia a nd t h eu p land so f We s te rn Macedon ia . B . I ta pp roach e s t h e h uman s k e le ta l r em a in s i nt h e i rb u r ia l c on tex t , t r y ing t oe xp lo r ee v idence o fb u r ia lt r ea tmen t a s i n d ica ted b y t h e h uman r ema in s a l one a nd b y p r e l im inar y e xcava t ion r e po r t s . I s su e s o f m o r tua ly t r ea tmen t a r ec on s id e r ed f o rt h ef i r s t t i m e i nt h i sa r e a i n t h e l i gh t o f r e cen t t h eo r e t ica l a pp r oache s . t r ea t ing m o r tua r y b ehav iou r a s a n a r ena o f s o c ia l i n te r ac t ion b e tw een t h e c ommun i t y o f t h e d e c ea sed a nd t h e c ommun i ty o f t h e l i v ing w he r e s o c ia l r o le s a r e c on t inuou s ly af i rm ed a nd r e -af f i rm ed i nn ew o re x i s t ing s o c ia lo rd e r s . C . I tf o cu s e s . a c co rd ing t o m ode rn s t and a rd s o f p hy s ica l a n th ropo log ica l m e thodo logy . o n t h e r e con s t ru c t ion o f a spec t s o f l i f e f r om h uman r ema in s . D emog raph ic p a rame t e r s , p a t te rn s o f h ea l th . o r a l s t a tu s a nd d i e t a r e c on s ide r ed w i th in t h e h i s to r ica l c on tex t o f t h e s t udy c eme te r yp opu la t ion s i no rde rt oe xp lo r e t h e r e spon se o f d if e r en t p opu la t ion s a nd p opu la t ion s ubg roup s t o b i o log ica l o r e nv i ronmen ta l e f e c t s s u ch a s s t r e s s e p i sode s . l o ng te rm c ond i t ion s , p hy s ic a l a c t iv i t ie s a nd p ar t icu la r d i e tar y p a t te rn s : t h e d if e r en t ia l r e spon s e o f p opu la t ion s ubg roup s t ot h e a bove c ond i t ion s c an s h ed f u r th e r l i gh t o n t h e r o le s t h ey h e ld i nt h e ir p r eh i s to r ic c ommun i t ie s .

C hap te r 4 a na ly s e s d emog r aph ic p a r ame te r s . t h a t i s m o r ta l i t y a nd s u rv ivo r sh ip . t o ge the rw i th t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e s e xg roup sf r om t h e s t udy c eme ter y p opu la t ion s . T he r e i sa n e x ten s ive s e c t ion o n p r e s e rva t iona l f a c to r s , i n c lud ing e x cava t ion a nd r e t r ieva l , w h ich h ave a f ec ted t h e c ond i t ion a nd s i z eo ft h es amp le ss t ud ied . T h i sc hap te rp a r t ly s e t st h e f r amewo rk f o rt h e f o l low ing c hap te r sb y a dd r e s s ing s p ec if i c q ue s t ion sa sr e ga rd s . f i r s t . t h e m an ipu la t ion o ft h e d ecea sed a nd , s e cond ly , t h e e f ec t o f o ve ra l l h ea l th s t a tu s o n t h e d emog r aph ic r e p r e sen ta t ion o ft h ep opu la t ion s . C hap te r 5c on s ide r st h e m an ipu la t ion o ft h e d ecea sed i nt h e l i gh to ft h em in imum n umbe ro fi n d iv idua l s h e ld i n as i ng le b u r ia l a s semb lage , r a ng ing f r om t h e N eo l i th ic d i tche s a nd d i sa r t icu la ted s k e le ta l r ema in s o f Mak r ig ia lo s t ot h e s i ng le b u r ia l s o ft h e B ronze A ge a nd t h e mu l t ip le a nd s e conda ry b u r ia l s o f t h e L a te B ronze a nd E a r ly I r on A ge s g r av e a s semb lage s . I s sue s o f b u r ia l t r ea tmen t a r e c au t iou s ly d i scu s s ed i nt e rm so fc hange s i nt h e h ou s eho ld u n i t a nd t h e c ha rac te r o f r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween t h e c ommun i ty o f t h e d ecea s ed a nd t h ec ommun i t yo ft h el i v ing t h rough t ime . C hap t e r 6a s s e s se s p a t te rn s o fh ea l th s t a tu s i nt h e c eme te ry p opu la t ion s b y f o cu s ing o n t wo m a jo r p a rame te r s : 1 )h eav y w o rk load a s e v idenced b y a r th r i t ic c hange s , t r auma a nd v e r teb r a l a bno rma l i t ie s : a nd 2 )t h e o ve ra l l p a thogen l o ad a s s hown b yt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fn on spec if i ci n f ec t ion s ,

D if f icu l t ie s e n coun te r ed i n c lude t h e p oo r c ond i t ion o f t h e h uman s k e le ta l r ema in s , t h e r e scue c ha rac te r o f t h e e xcava t ion s , t h e n o tab le l a ck o f a b so lu t e c h rono log ica l s e r ie sa nd t h el a ck o fp ub l i shed c ompa r a t iv es t ud ie s .

4

CHAPTER 2 HI STORIC ' ,AL , CHRONOLOGICAL , ENVIRON MENTAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND 2 . 1 . H ISTOR ICAL CONTEXT : H ISTORY OF PREH ISTOR IC RESEARCH I N THE S TUDY AREA D u r ing a nd a f te r Wo r ld Wa r I .t h ea l ied a rm ie sc a r r ied o u t s u r vey s a nd s ma l l s ca le e x cava t ion s i n Macedon ia , e spec ia l ly w h i le d i gg ing m i l i ta r y t r enche s n ea r v i s ib le p r eh i s to r i c m ound s . T he r e su l t s o ft h e se e a r ly e xp lo ra t ion s w e r e r e po r ted i n t h e j ou rna l s o f t h e B r i t i sh a nd F r ench A r chaeo log ica l S choo l s i nA then s ( R ey 1 9 16 ; C a s son 1 9 19 1 920 ; 1 9 24 ; 1 968 : f o r ag ood r e v iew a nd d i scu s s ion . s e e F o t iad i s . i n p r epa r a t ion ) a nd i n c luded i n ven to r ie s o f t h e s i te s a nd c r ude p o t te r y d e sc r ip t ion s ( R ey 1 9 17 1919 ) . R ey i n ven t ed a f i r s t t y po log y o f p r eh i s to r ic s e t t lem en t s , d i s t ingu i sh ing t h r ee t y pe s o f m ound s ( t oumba , t a b le a nd t o umba -on tab le ) , w h i le C a s son c ondu c ted a tT saous i t sa , i n C en t ra l Macedon ia , w ha t h e r e ga rded a s t h e " f i r s t s c ien t if i c " e xcava t ion ( Ca s son 1 9 19 1920 ; 1 924 ) . T saou s i t s ai sl o ca ted i nt h e A x io sv a l ley a nd C a s son 's w o rk w a s i n sp i r ed b y h i s b e l ie f i n t h e s t rong r e la t ion sh ip s o f Macedon ia t o t h e B a lkan s a nd C en t ra l E u rop e a nd h i s d e s i r et os e a r ch f o rf i rm e v id ence o ft h e s e . T he f i r s t m a jo r s yn the s i s o fp r eh i s to r ic r e sea r ch i nC en t ra l a nd We s te rn Macedon ia w a s i n H eur t ley 's P r eh is tor ic Maced on ia ( 1 939 ) . H eur t ley c a ta logued a l l t h en k nown p r eh i s to r i c s i te s , t o ge the r w i th a d i s cu s s ion o f l o ca t ion , a r ch i te c tu r a l r ema in s , s ma l l f i nd s a nd p o t te r y s t y le s a nd m anuf a c tu r e . A f te r ah i a tu s o fs ome t h ir ty y ea r s , e xcava t ion b eg an a ga in i n 1 96 1 w i th t h e j o in t C amb r idg e -Ha rva rd e xped i t ion t o N ea N ikomed e ia ( F igu re 2 . 1 ) . t h e e a r l ie s t f a rm ing s e t t lem en t t h en k nown i n E u rop e ( Rodd en 1 962 ) . T he l o ca t ion o ft h es i te i nt h e s ou the rn B a lk an sw a so fp a r t icu la r i n te r e s t r e ga rd ing t h ep r e sumed s p r ead o ft h eN eo l i th ic a nd o f f a rm ing t o E u rop e f r om A na to l ia . T he e x cava t ion a ch iev ed t h ef i r s t s y s tema t ic r e t r iev a l o fp o s t -bu i l t s t r uc tu re s i n G r e ec e , a nd i n c luded a t e am o f s p ec ia l i s t s w i th w e l l d ef ined g oa ls : f i r s t . t ot r ace a ny m a te r ia l e v id enc e f o r t h e a dop t ion o ff a rm ing a nd n eo l i th i s a t ion o f E u rop e a nd f o r t h e p o s s ib le l i nk s o f " advanced - A na to l ia t o " b a rba r ian " E u rope ; a nd . s e cond ly , t o e xp lo r e a spe c t s o f s o c ia l o rgan is a t ion a nd t h e p o ten t ia l f o r a dap ta t ion o f t h e c ommun i t y t o i t s n a tu ra l e nv i ronmen t . T hu s , i s sue s o f g eomo rpho logy . e conomy , s o c ie t y . i d eo logy a nd m a te r ia l c u l tu re w e r ee xp lo r ed b yt h ee xpe r t sw ho p ar t ic ip a ted i nt h e t e am . I n t h e l a te 1 960 's . a s y s tem a t ic r e conn a i s sance o f p r eh i s to r ic s i te s i nC en t ra l Macedon ia w a s p rodu ced b y D . H . F ren ch ( 1 967 ) , r e cen t ly u pda ted w i th n ew ly d i s cove red s i te s b y G r ammeno s a nd B e s s io s ( 1 997 ) . Am a jo r r e scue

T O T HE

STUDY R EGION

e xcava t ion w a s c onduc ted a tS er v ia i n We s te rn Mac edon ia ( F igu r e 2 . 1 ) b y ac o l labo r a t ion b e tw een t h e B r i t i sh S choo l a nd t h e G r eek A r chaeo log ica l S e rv ice , b e tween 1 971 a nd 1 973 ( R id ley a nd R hom iopou lou 1 972 ; R hom iopou lou a nd R id ley 1 973 ; 1 974 ; R id ley a nd Wa rd le 1 979 ) . S er v ia w a s a l ow m ound l y ing o n at e r r ace a bove t h e H a l iakmon r i ve r , w i th s e t t lemen t l e ve l s w h ich i n c luded t h e M idd le a nd L a te N eo l i th ic a nd t h eE a r ly B ronze A g e . S ub sequ en t ly , a nd i np a r t i cu la rs i nce t h e 1 980 's , p r eh i s to r ic r e s ea r ch h a s e xpand ed . e s pec ia l ly t h rough G r eek A r chaeo log ica l S e rv ic e s a lv ag e e xcava t ion s . Mo s t s u ch r e scue e xcava t ion s a r e . n ece s sa r i ly , s ma l l i n s c a le , c on s t ra ined b y b u r eau c r a t ic a nd f i nanc ia l p rob lem s a nd d ependen t o n t h e p e r sona l i n te r e s t o f t h e i n d iv idua l a r chaeo log i s t r e spon s ib le . Af ew e xcep t iona l c a se s s hou ld b e n o ted , s u ch a s : 1 ) t h e e xcava t ion o f T herm i i n T h e s sa lon ik i ( G ramm eno s e ta l . 1 990 ; 1 992 ; P appa 1 990 ) i n vo lv ing a l a rge n umb e r o f s p ec ia l i s t s i n f i e ld s s u ch a s a n ima l b one s , s e ed s , l i t h ic s . b on e t o o l s , p o t te r y e t c . ; 2 )t h e m idd l e H a l iakmon s ur v ey ( Ka ram e t rou -Men te s id i 1 989 : H ond roy iann i -Me tok i 1 993 ; Z io ta a nd H ond roy iann i Me tok i 1 997 ) ; 3 ) t h e K i t r in i L imn i p ro jec t ( Ka r ame t rou Men te s id i 1 986 ; F o t iad i s 1 988 ; 1 991 ; Z io ta e t a l . 1 993 ; K a log i rou 1 994 ; F o t iad i s a nd H ond roy iann i -Me tok i 1 997 ) i n We s te rn Macedon ia ; a nd 4 ) t h e r e c en t l a rge s c a le e xcava t ion o f Mak r ig ia lo s n ea r t h e c oa s t ( Be s s io s a nd P appa 1 997 ; 1 998 a ;1 998 b ;1 998 c ;P appa 1 997 ; P appa e t a l . 1 998 ; P appa a nd B e s s io s 1 999 a ;1 999 b )( F igu r e2 . 1) . I na dd i t ion , t h e D epa r tmen t o fA r chaeo logy a nd P r eh i s to r y o ft h e U n ive r s i ty o fT h e s s a lon ik i h a s s e t h i gh s t anda rd s o f m od e rn f i e ldwo rk a nd h a s p romo ted t h e a pp l ica t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l s c ienc e t ov a r iou s a spec t s o fp r eh i s to ry s u ch a s c e ram ic s . a r chaeozoo logy . a r chaeobo tany , g eoa r chaeo logy a nd p a laeoan th ropo log y . F i e ld p ro jec t s u nde r tak en b y t h e U n iv e r s i ty i nt h e l a s t d ecade i n c lude : 1 ) t h e i n ten s iv e s u rvey p r o je c t i n t h e L angada . s p la in i n C en t r a l Macedon ia ( Ko t sak is 1 989 ; 1 990 ; A nd r eou a nd K o t sak i s 1 994 b ;K o t sak i sa nd A nd reou 1 995 ) ; 2 )t h e m a jo r s y s tema t ic e xcava t ion o fT oumba i nT he s sa lon ik i ( Ko t sak i s a nd A nd r eou 1 988 ; 1 9 9 1 ; 1 997 ; A nd r eou e t a l . 1 990 . A nd r eou a nd K o tsak i s 1 9 9 1 ; 1 994 a ; 1 995 ; 1 . 997 ; 1 999 a : A nagno s tou e t a l . 1 993 . H ou r rnouz iad i s 1 993 ; K rah topou lou a nd T ou loum i s 1 993 ; K o t sak i s e ta l . 1 995 ) ; 3 ) o t he r r e sea r ch e x cav a t ion s a t A r chond iko i n C en t r a l Macedon ia ( P apaef th im iou -Papan th imou a nd P i la l i P apa s te r iou 1 991 ; 1 995 : 1 997 ; 1 998 ) , A l anda lo i n We s t e rn Macedon ia ( P i la l i -Papa s t e r iou e ta l . 1 986 ; K o t sak i s e ta l . 1 989 ; P i la l i -Papa s te r iou a nd P apaef th im iou -Papan th imou 1 989 ; P apae f th im iou -P ap an th imou a nd P i la l i -Papa s te r iou 1 988 : 1 989 : 1 990 ; 1 99 1 ; 1 993 : i np r e s s )a nd t h es e t t lemen t

H ISTOR ICAL , CHRONOLOG IC4L , ENf7RONAIEN 7 : 4L AND ARCHAEOLOG ICAL B ACKGROUND T O THE S TUDY REG ION

Entern Macedon ia / N .

Map o fG reece

C entra l Macedon ia Mande l° •

L K as tanas A rchond iko

6

T oumba T hessa lon ik is

N ea N ikomede ia Western Macedonia

OS

A ss i ros

•

T he rm i

Cha lc id ik i •

•

k r ig ia l

•

D isp iho • S erv ia

T h es sa l y

Aegean S ea

•

N eo l i th ic

•

E ar ly B ronze A ge

A

L a te B ronze /Ea r ly I r on A ge

F igur e2 . 1 : Map o ft he e xcava ted p reh is tor ic s i te s i nt h ec a se s t udy r eg ion

o fD isp i l io o n t h e s ho r e o ft h e l a ke o fK a s to r ia , i n We s te rn Macedon ia ( Hou rmouz iad i s 1 997 : A nagno s tou e ta l . 1 997 ; 1 998 ) ( F igu r e 2 . 1 ) . F ina l ly , p r eh i s to r ic r e sea r ch h a s a l so b een c onduc ted i nt h e l a s t d ecade s i nC en t ra l a nd We s te rn Macedon ia b y f o r e ign A r chaeo log ica l S choo l s a nd I n s t i tu te s : e xcava t ion s a t K a s tana s ( K ro l l 1 983 : A s lan i s 1 985 ; B ecke r 1 986 ; 1 998 ; H och s te t te r 1 984 ; 1 987 ; H än se l 1 989 ) , T orone ( Camb i tog lou a nd P apadopou lo s 1 981 : 1 984 ; 1 988 ; 1 990 ; 1 991 ; 1 992 ) , A s s iros ( Wa rd le 1 980 ; 1 983 ; 1 987 ; 1 988 ; 1 989 ) , a nd A y io s Mama s( Hän se l 1 997 ; 1 998 ) ; a nd t h e G r evena s ur vey p ro jec t ( W i lk ie 1 993 ) ( F igu r e 2 . 1 ) . T h e se p ro jec t s h ave e n joyed r e la t ive ly g ene rou s f und ing , t e chn ica l s uppo r t a nd t h e p a r t ic ipa t ion o f s p ec ia l i s t s . r e su l t ing i n s y s tema t ic f i e ldwo rk a nd t h e p ub l ica t ion o f d e ta i led p r e l im ina r yo rf i na l r e po r t s .

A r chaeo log ica l r ema in s r e levan t t o t h e f i r s t o f t h e se c once rn s a t t r ac ted t h e a t ten t ion o f s c ho la r s : monum en ta l a r ch i tec tu r e , p ub l ic b u i ld ing s a nd p a la c e s . e l i te t omb s a nd l u xu r iou sf i nd s ,w h ich e mpha s i sed t h ep r o spe r i ty o ft h ea r ea i nt h e 4± c en tu r y BC . -T he r ew a s i n de ed v e r y l i t t le c hance o f i n c lud ing i nt h i s s t r ic t i d eo log ica l m od e l a ny th ing t h a t w ou ld n o t e s tab l i sh a d i r ec t c on t inu i t y w i th t h e C l a s s ica l G r eek p a s t , s i nce a ny th ing e l se w a s e i the r d i s r ega rd ed o r s e en a sa n u nn ece s sa ry c omp l ica t ion " ( Ko t sak is 1 99 1 : 6 7 ) . T im e p e r iod s p r eced ing t h e l a te 5t h/ 4t h c en tu ry B C h ave b e en c on s tan t ly n eg lec ted . Mo reove r , t h e p e r cep t ion o ft h i s r e g ion a sm a rg ina l h a s l e d t ot h e p ar t icu la rc ha rac te ro fi t s c u l tu r eb e ing i n te rp r e t ed i n t e rm s o fs o u th e rn o rn o r the rn p a r a l le l s . O n ly r e cen t ly , h a s i tb een t r e a ted a s a n a u tonomou s e n t i t y s haped b y l o ca l p o l i t ica l , s o c ia l a nd h i s to r ica l p roce s s e s w i th in a b r oad w o r ld s y s tem w h ich g i ve s a s p ec ia l e mpha s i s t o t h e " i n te rac t ion a mong c en t r e s . p e r iphe r ie s a nd m a rg in s " ( And r eou e t a l . 1 996 ) . T hu s , m o s t p r eh i s to r ic r em a in s r e cov e r ed i n Macedon ia h ave b een d ea l t w i th i n t e rm s o f s im i la r i t ie s w i th N eo l i th ic T he s sa ly , w i th L a te B ronz e A ge Mycenae o r . i n t h e m o s t o pen -m ind ed c a se s , w i th t h e n e ighbou r ing B a lkan s . T h i s h a s r e su l ted i na n e mpha s i so n -f o r e ign - c u l tu ra l i nf lu ence s , r e p re s en ted b ye i the ri mpo r ted p rodu c t so rl o ca l i m i ta t ion st h e reof , a nd i n ar e jec t ion o ft h e

T h e d eve lopmen t o f r e sea r ch i n Macedon ia h a s e v id en t ly b een a f ec ted b y i t s w ide r p o l i t ica l a nd h i s to r ica l c on tex t a nd , p a r t icu la r ly b y t wo c once rn s : f i r s t , b y a t temp t s t o d emon s t ra te t h e a n t iqu i ty o fG reek c u l tu r e i nt h i s a r ea ; a nd s e cond ly , b y p e r cep t ion s o f t h i s a r ea a s am a rg ina l o r t r an s i t iona lp rov in ce b e tween g r ea t c en t r e s o fc i v i l i sa t ion i n s ou the rn G r eece a nd i nC en t r a l E u rop ea nd t h e B a lkan s ( f o r af r u i t f u l d i scu s s ion , s e e K o t sak i s 1 991 ; A nd r eou e t a l . 1 996 ; Wa rd le 1 997 ba nd F o t iad i si np r epa ra t ion ) .

6

H ISTORICAL , CHRONOLOG ICAL , ENV IRONMENTAL AND ARCHAEOLOG ICAL B ACKGROUND T O THE S TUDY REG ION b road t ime l im i t s , e x tend ing f r om t h e BC .

i nd igenou s d imen s ion s o f t h e c u l tu ra l b ackg round o f Macedon ia . Macedon ia 's " o the rne s s" i n r e la t ion t o s ou the rn p ara l le ls i so f ten e xp re s sed i nt e rm s o fi t s d i s tance f r om t h e p ro spe rou s monumen ta l c i v i l i sa t ion s o f t h e s ou th e rn m a in land , a nd f r om t h e i s land s a nd t h e b a rba r ic w i lde rne s s o f t h e N o r th ( And reou e ta l . 1 996 ; F o t iad i s i n p repa r a t ion ) . B e s ide s , Macedon ia r e p re sen ted -t h e l a nd wh ich l a y o n t h e r ou te f r om o n e i mpor tan t a r ea o f c i v i l i s a t ion t o a no the r . I t s o wn i mpor tance f o r p reh is to ry w a sp r ec i se ly t h a tc ond i t ion : b e ing ap a s sage , o r ah ighway " ( Fo t iad i s , i n p r epa ra t ion ) . At yp ica l e xamp le o ft h e l a t te r a pp roach i st h ea s soc ia t ion o ft he r e g ion w i th t h e p a s sage o f t h e D o r ian s f r om n or th t o s ou th e n r ou te t o t h e v i o len t

1t h

t ot he 8 `1 c en tur y

Mo reove r , p reh is to r ic c eme te r ie s i n Macedon ia a r e p a r t icu la r ly p oo r ly d a ted . T h i s s t udy a dop t s t h e a b so lu te c h rono log ica l s cheme ( i n c a l ib ra ted y ea r s BC ) d e sc r ibed i n t h e mo s t r e cen t r e v iew o f n or ther n G reek p reh i s to ry ( And r eou e ta l . 1 996 ) : E a r ly N eo l i th ic : 6 700 /6500 -5800 /5600 BC M idd le N eo l i th ic : 5 800 /5600 -5400 /5300 BC L a te N eo l i th ic 5 400 /5300 -4700 /4500 BC F ina l N eo l i th ic : 4 700 /4500 -3300 /3100 BC E a r ly B ronze A ge : 3 300 /3100 -2300 /2200 BC ( M idd le B ronze A ge ) : 2 300 /2200 -1700 /1500 BC

d e s t ru c t ion o f Mycenaean c i v i l isa t ion . I ti sn o t a cc iden ta l t ha t t h i s a t t i tude i s m i r ro red i n a cadem ic o verv iew s o f G r e ek p r eh is to ry s uch a st h e r e cen t T he A egean B ronze A ge

L a te B ronze A ge : 1 700 / 1500 1100 BC E ar ly I r on A ge : 100 -700 BC

b y 0 . D ick in son ( 1994 ) wh ich a vo id s e x tended r e f e rence t o t h ep r eh i s to ry o f Macedon ia .

B ecau se t h e -M idd le B ronze A ge" h a s n o t b een r e cogn i sed i n al a rge p ar t o ft h e s t udy r e g ion . A nd reou e ta l . s ugge s t t h e b roade r t e rm " l a te r B ronze A ge " t o c ove r t h e t ime p er iod f r om 2 300 /2200 t o 100 BC . ( And r eou e ta l . 1 996 : 5 39 ) .

I ti se ncou rag ing t h a t i nt h e l a s t t wen ty y ea r s m embe r s o f b o th t h e U n ive r s i ty o f T he s sa lon ik i a nd t h e G r eek A rcha eo log ica l S erv ice h ave b egun t o a pp ly mode rn m e thod s a nd t h eo re t ica l mode ls t ot h e i nve s t iga t ion o f t h e p reh i s tor yo f Macedon ia .

2 . 3 . GEOGRAPHICAL LOCAT ION AND PRESENT DAY NATURAL ENV IRON MENT

2 . 2 . CHRONOLOG ICAL CONTEXT OF THE STUDY T he c eme te r ie s e xam ined i n t h is t h e s is a r e l o ca ted i n t h e T he p r eva len t r e la t ive c h rono log ica lf r amewo rk i nN or the rn G r e ece i sl a rge ly b a sed o n s im i la r i t ie s o fp o t te ry s t y le s w i th t he s o u th . n ame ly t h e G reek ma in land a nd T he s sa ly , a nd w i th t h e n e ighbou r ing B a lkan s , f o r w h ich t h e r e a r e al a rge n umb e ro fa b so lu te c h rono log ie s (Wa r ren a nd H ankey 1 989 ; Mann ing a nd Wen ige r 1 992 ; Mann ing 1 995 ; f o r a n

mode rn r eg ion s o f C en t ra l a nd We s te rn Macedon ia . T he a r ea p re sen t s ab road r ange o f p hy s ica l s e t t ing s , f r om t h e c oa s t l ine o ft h e T he rma ic g u lf t ot h e l ow land s a nd u p land s o ft h e i n te r io r ( F igu re 2 . 2 ) . T h ree m a in f e a tu re s d ef ine t h e n a tu ra l e nv ironmen t o ft h e r eg ion : 1 )t h e m oun ta in r ange s i n c lud ing M tO lympu s ; 2 )t h el a rge l ow land p l a in s ( e .g . t h a t o fG iann i t sa i nC en t ra l Macedon ia ) a nd u p land b a s in s ( e .g . t h a to fK i tr in i L imn i i n We s t Macedon ia ) : a nd 3 )t h e r i ve r s . o fw h ich t h eH a l iakmon a nd A x io s ( V a rda r )a r et h el a rge s t .

e x ten s ive d i scu s s ion . s e e G rammeno s 1 991 : 8 5 -98 f o r C en t r a l a nd E a s te rn Macedon ia a nd K a log irou 1 994 : 3 0 -38 f o r We s te r n Macedon ia ) .

T he a s sump t ion u nde rp inn ing

t h is r e la t ive c h rono logy , t ha t s im i la r a r tef ac t s n ece s sa r i ly r ep r e s en t t h e s ame c h rono log ica l p e r iod s o ve r ab road g eog raph ica l a r ea , i s v ery d ub iou s , h oweve r , a nd i n con s i s tenc ie s i n c e ram ic t y po log y b e tween d if e ren t r eg ion sa l so p o se p rob lem s ( Ha l s tead 1 994 : 1 95 ) .

T he m a in moun ta inou s a r ea i s i n t h e r e g ion o f We s ter n Macedon ia a nd c on s is t s o f h igh r ange s o n t h ree s i de s : t h e K amvoun ia ( 1675 m a s 1 ) . P ier ia moun ta in s ( 2 190 m a s l ) a nd Moun tO lympu s( 2917 m a s t ) ( Bo rza 1 990 ) .

C on s id e r ing t h e r e la t ive ly l im i ted s c a le o f f i e ldwo rk c ondu c ted i n Macedon ia , t h e re a r e af a i r ly l a rge n umbe r o f r ad ioca rbon d a te s . T he re a r e s e cu r e ly d a ted c h rono log ica l

T he g r ea t p l a in o f C en t ra l Macedon ia i sd ef ined b y t h e P ie r ian Moun ta in s t o t h e s ou th , t h e l o ng r i dge s o f M t V e rm ion t ot h e w e s t . M t P a ikon t ot h e n or th a nd t h e l owe r

s e r ie s f r om C en t ra l a nd We s te rn Macedon ian s e t t lemen t d epo s i t s f o r t h e m idd le a nd l a te p ha se s o f t h e N eo l i th ic ( 5800 /5600 c a l BC - 5 400 /5300 a nd 5 400 /5300 - 4 700 /4500 c a l B C r e spec t ive ly ) a nd t h e e a r ly a nd l a te p hase s o f t h e B ronz e A ge ( 3 300 /3100 c a l BC -2300 /2200 c a l BC a nd 1 700 / 1500 -1100 c a l BC r e spec t ive ly ) .

A x io s v a l ley t o t h e e a s t . A dd i t iona l ly , t h e s t udy a r ea i n c lude s t h e u p land b a s in o f K i tr in i L imn i i n We s tern Macedon ia l o ca ted b e tween 6 50 a nd 6 80 m a s l o n t h e ENE l owe rs l ope so fM t V e rm ion . F ina l ly , f ou r g r ea t r i ve r s , t h e H a l iakmon , A x io s . L oud ia s a nd G a l l iko s r un t h rough t h e a r ea a nd f l ow i n to t h e u ppe r T henna ic G u lf . I n p ar t icu la r , t h e H a l iakmon f o rm s t h e M idd le H a l iakmon v a l ley i n a m a jo r p ar t o f We s te rn Macedon ia a nd t h en e n te r s t h e g r ea t p l a in o f C en tra l

S ome p e r iod s h ave n o tb een a ccu ra te ly d ef ined , h oweve r , i n t e rm s o fe i the rr e la t ive o ra b so lu te c h rono logy : t h e "M idd le B ronz e A ge" c an b e i d en t if ied o n ly i nT he s sa ly a nd p ar t s o f Macedon ia ( And reou e ta l . 1 996 ) ; a nd t h e t r an s i t ion f r om

Macedon ia a t i t s s ou th -we s te rn c o rne r t h rough a g ap

t he " La te B ronze A ge" t ot h e" Ea r ly I r on A ge" h a sv e ry

b e tween M t . V e rm ion a nd t h eP i e r ia r ange .

7

H ISTOR IC 4L , CHRONOLOG ICAL , EN T " IRON AIENT 4L AND . 4RCHAEOLOG IC 4L B ACKGROUND T O T HE S TUDY REG ION

• c

VERIA

K i tr in , « L in tel ' ye a I SOZA NI

s

KATERIN I

Ne

SERV IA

F igure 2 . 2 : Map o ft he c a se s t udy a rea ; d rawn b y K ir iak i P apadopou lou ,A rchaeo log ica l Museum o f Kava la

r e su l t o fa l luv ia l d epo s i t ions i nt h e g u lf o fT he s sa lon ik i

Two d i s t inc tc l ima te z one sa r e r e p re sen ted i nt h e s t udy a r ea : 1 )t h e i n te r io r e xpe r ience s a-c on t inen ta l" c l ima te , m a rked b y c o ld w in te r s a nd h o t s umme r s a nd . w h i le t h e r ange o f m ean m on th ly t empe ra tu re i s w ide , t h e a nnua l r ange o f m ean m on th ly r a in f a l l i sr e la t ive ly n a r row ; 2 ) t h e c oa s ta l

• T he c oas t l ine o f C en t ra l Macedon ia h as c hanged s ub s tan t ia l ly . p ar t icu la r ly whe re t h e g r ea t r i ve r s f l ow

a r ea e xpe r ience s ag ene ra l ly w arme r a nd mo re mode ra te -m ed i te r ranean " c l ima te . c ha rac te r ised b y much g rea te r

i n to t h e g u lf o fT he s sa lon ik i , a s ar e su l t o ft h e c omb ined e f ec ts o fa l luv ia t ion . d e l ta ic p rog rada t ion a nd s e a l e ve l

v a r ia t ion i n m ean m on th ly r a inf a l l ( t ha t i sb y v er y d i s t inc t r a iny a nd d r y s e a son s ) a nd b y a much n ar rowe r a nnua l

c hange . T he c en t ra l s e c t ion o f c o a s t b e tween Mak r ig ia lo s a nd K i t ro s h as b een h i gh ly a f ec ted b y

r ange o fm ean m on th ly t empe ra tu re ( Ba laf ou t is 1 977 ) .

e r o s ion o ft h e s ho re l ine , w h i le t h e n a r row c oa s ta l s t r ip t o t h e s ou th h a s b een f o rmed b y a l luv ia t ion d u r ing t h e

T he l ow land sa nd u p land b a s in so f Macedon ia p rov ide s ome o ft h e r i che s t a r ab le l a nd i nG reece a nd , u n t i l v er y r e cen t ly ,

H o locene ( Geo rga s a nd P e r is so ra t is 1 992 , K rah topou lou 2 001) .

t h e r e g ion a l so s uppo r ted l a rge n umbe r s o f t r an shuman t s t ock , a l terna t ing p a s tu rage b e tween t h e h igh land s i n s umme r a nd t h e l ow land s i nw in te r . A lso , t h e g r ea t r i ve r s p rov id e a mp le w a te r f o r t h e i r r iga t ion o ft h e b as in s d u r ing t h e s umme r( Hammond 1 972 ; B o rza 1 990 ) .

• L a rge sca le a n th ropogen ic e f ec t s o f t h e l a s t d ecade s h ave d r as t ica l ly c hanged t h e n a tu ra l e nv i ronmen t o f We s te rn Macedon ia . p ar t icu la r ly i nt h e u p land b a s in o f K i t r in i L imn i a nd t h eM idd le H a l iakmon v a l ley .

( S truck 1 908 ; B in t l if f 1 976 : S chu lz 1 989 : f o r f u r the r d i scu s s ion s e e G eo rga sa nd P e r i s so ra t i s 1 9 92 ) .

Mo s t o ft h e w o rk o n e nv ironmen ta l c hange s h a s b een b a sed o n p a lyno log ica l a na ly s is a nd s o h a s f o cu sed o n t h e v ege ta t ion h i s to ry o f t h e a r ea r a th e r t han o n g eomorpho log ica l t r an sf o rma t ion s ( Bo t tema 1 974 : 1 982 :

2 . 4 . THE PREH ISTOR IC NATURAL ENV IRON MENT

1 994 : B o t tema a nd Wo ld r ing 1 990 : f o r f u r the rb ib l iog raphy s e e A nd reou e t . 1 996 ) . A f te r t h e l a te g l a c ia l s t eppe . t r ee s r e co lon ised t h e l a nd scape a nd a d ec iduou s o ak f o r e s t

R ecen t r e sea rch h a s r e vea led t h a t t h e p r eh is to r ic e nv ironmen t o f Macedon ia d if e red s i gn if i can t ly f r om t h a t o ft h ep r e sen td ay :

d om ina ted t h e l ow land s b y t h e E a r ly N eo l i th ic . B e tween t h e s e ven th a nd t h ird m i l lenn ium BC . t h ef o r e s t c hanged i n

• T he m a jo r p ar t o ft h e g rea t p l a in o fC en tra l Macedon ia f o rmed f r om t h e rd a nd 1 ' c en tu r y BC o nwa rd s , a s a 8

H ISTOR ICAL , CHRONOLOG ICAL , EN TIRON AIENTAL AND ARCHAEOLOG ICAL B ACKGROUND T O THE S TUDY REG ION c ompo s i t ion . w i th a n e xpan s ion o fc on if e r s i nt h e u p land s a nd t h e e x ten s ion o f t h e f o r e s t t o t h e l ow land s ( Bo t tema 1 974 ) . P o s s ib le c au se s o f s u ch c hang e s i n v ege ta t ion i n c lud e t h e i mpac t o f c l ima te ( Bo t tem a 1 974 ) a nd t h e m ig ra t ion o f s p ec ie s f r om g l ac ia l r e f ug ia ( Benn e t e t a l . 1 99 1 ; W i l l i s 1 994 ) .

A d e ta i led a na ly s i s o f s e t t lem en t p a t te rn s i sb eyond t h e s c ope o f t h e c u r r en t w o rk . H e re , t wo p o in t s a r e b r ief ly c on s ide r ed : 1 )t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fp r eh i s tor ic s e t t lemen t s i n t h e -n a tu r a l" e nv i ronmen t a nd 2 ) t h e c ha rac t er o f p r eh i s to r ic s e t t lemen t si ne a ch c h rono log ica lp e r iod . ( 1 )D u r ing t h ee a r ly p ha se s o ft h e N eo l i th ic , t h e m a jo r i ty o f s i te s w e r e l o ca ted i n t h e l o ml a nd s , p r e f e rab ly n ea r w a te r s ou r ce s ( And r eou e t a l . 1 9 96 : 5 75 ) . T h i s i s t h e c a se p a r t icu la r ly i n We s ter n Macedon ia ( e xcep t p e rhap s G r evena ) . s i nc e i n C en t r a l Macedon ia t h e e a r ly p ha se s o f t h eN eo l i th ic a r ep oo r ly r e p r e s en ted . B yt h ee nd o ft h es i x th m i l lenn ium , t h a t i st h e L a te N eo l i th ic , s e t t lemen t s s e em t o e xpand t o av a r ie t yo fl o ca t ion s ,f o re xamp le , t oe l eva ted d r y t e r r ace s n or th o ft h eH a l iakmon ( And r eou e ta l . 1 996 : 5 75 ) . D u r ing t h e B ronze A ge , h ow eve r , a nd e s pec ia l ly t h e l a te r p ha s e s o ft h a t p er iod . -h i gh p l ace s " a f o rd ing w id e v i ew s t e nd ed t ob e p r ef e r r ed ( And r eou e ta l . 1 996 : 5 75 ) . Wh i le E a r ly B ronze A ge s i t e s s e em t oo ccupy p r ev iou s N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t s . t h e L a te B ronz e A ge h ab i ta t ion e xpan s ion m ay s ugge s t a p r ef e r en ce f o r m o r e s t ra teg ic l o ca t ion s f o r t e r r i to r ia l s u r ve i l lan ce , a nd t hu s b e t te r c on t ro l a nd p rom inence i nt h eb roade rr e g ion ( And r eou e ta l . 1 996 ) ,o r t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f n ew e nv i ronmen ta l z on e s i n c lud ing i s o la ted h i l l s w h ich w e r e p r ev iou s ly c on s id e red -m a rg ina l( G r ammeno se ta l . 1 997 : 9 1 ) . W i th r e ga rd t ot h eE a r ly I r on A g e s e t t lemen t s , s om e c on t inu ed o ccupa t ion o fs e t t lemen t s o f t h e L a te B ronze A ge ( e .g . T oumba T he s sa lon ik i s . A s s i ro s ) a nd o t h e r s a r e n ew s i t e s e s tab l i shed o n h i l l t o p s o r u p land l o ca t ion s( And r eou a nd K o t sak i s 1 999 b ;K oukou l i C h ry san thak i a nd V oko topou lou 1 993 : 1 29 ; G rammeno s e t a l . 1 997 : 9 1 ) . ( 2 ) T he c ha r ac te r o f s e t t lemen t s i n e a ch p e r iod h a s i mp l ica t ion s f o r p a laeodemog raphy , b u t t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v id ence i s v e ry s p a r se . P a rame te r s n eed ing t o b e c on s ide r ed i n p a laeodemog r aph ic a na ly s is i n c lude : 1 ) n umbe r o fs i t e s . 2 )o ve ra l l s i z e o fs i te . 3 )l o ngev i ty o fs i t e , 4 ) t y po logy a nd h ab i ta t ion d en s i ty w i th in t h e s e t t lemen t ( Ha s san 1 98 1 ) . A dd i t ion a l ly . f a c to r s r e la ted t o s o i l d epo s i t ion o r e r o s ion a nd o t he r g eomo rpho log ica l c hange s c an o bv iou s ly a f f ec t t h e r e cov e ry r a te s o fs i te s a nd t h u s t h e o v e r a l l p opu la t ion e s t ima t ion s . I ti sc l ea r . t h e r ef o r e . t h a t a ny a t temp t t o e s t ima te p opu la t ion s i z e s f r om s e t t lemen t p a t te rn a na ly s i s w ou ld r e qu i r e m uch , i n ten s ive a nd s y s tema t ic s u rv ey w o rk w h ich f o r t h e s t udy a r ea i so n ly s po r ad ica l ly a va i lab le .

O n ly i nt h es e cond m i l lenn ium BC i st h e r ec l ea re v idenc eo f a n th ropog en ic i mpac tu pon t h ev eg e ta t ion , i n c lud ing : 1 )t h e a ppea r an c e o f f ru i t -bea r ing t r ee s e xp lo i ted b y h uman s ( Bo t tema 1 974 : 1 62 163 ) , t he w a lnu ta nd s wee tc h e s tnu ti n t h e u p land s a nd t h e o l ive t r ee i n t h e l ow land s ; 2 ) a s ugge s t ed d ec rea se i n f o r e s t c ove r d u e t o c l ea rance f o r g ra z ing i n t h e u p land s ( Bo t tema 1 974 ; W i l l i s 1 994 ) . E x ten s iv e d ef o r e s ta t ion r e su l ted i ns e ve r e s o i l e r o s ion a nd d epo s i t ion o f l a rge q uan t i t ie s o f s e d imen t i n t h e p l a in s ( W i l l i s 1 9 94 ) . T he e p i sod e m ay h ave i n i t ia ted ac yc le o f s l ope e r o s ion a nd d epo s i t ion o fc oa r s e s e d im en t s a l ong t h e p e r iph e r i e s o f t h e v a l ley s . A s af u r the r r e su l t , s u r f ac e o u t le t si ns ome b a s in s m ay h ave b e en b l o cked , a nd m a r she s m ay t h u s h ave f o rmed a nd e xpand ed . f o r e xamp le . i n K i t r in i L imn i ( And r eou e ta l . 1 996 ) . F ina l ly , c h ange s i n c l ima t e c an o n ly b e i n f er r ed i n d i r ec t ly f r om t h e p a lyno log ica l r e co rd o f c hang ing v eg e ta t ion . D u r ing t h e E a r ly H o locene . t empe ra tu r e s m u s t h ave r i sen q u i te m a rked ly a nd , b y t h e f i f th m i l lenn ium B C . s umme r s i nt h e u p land s m ay h ave b een w a rme r t h an t o d ay b y u p t o 4° C ( Hun t l e y a nd P r en t ice 1 988 ) . C oo le r , m o r e h um id c ond i t ion s , a pp rox ima t ing t o t h o se o ft h e p r e sen t . b ecame p rog r e s s iv e ly p r eva len t i n t h e l a s t t wo m i l lenn ia o f p r eh i s to r y , e spec ia l ly a f te r 2 500 B C ( And r eou e t .a l . 1 996 : 5 62 ) . 2 . 5 . ARCHAEOLOG ICAL BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY AREA T h i s s e c t ion b r ie f ly r e v iew s t h r ee a sp ec t s o ft h e N eo l i th ic t o E a r ly I r on A ge a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd f r om t h e s t udy a r ea w h ich a r e p ar t icu la r ly r e levan t t o t h e b i o -a r chaeo log ica l e v iden c e i n ve s t iga ted i n t h i s t h e s i s : s e t t lem en t p a t te rn s , s ub s i s t en c ea nd s o c ia lo rgan i sa t ion . 2 . 5 .1 . S ETTLE MENT PATTERNS S e t t lem en t p a t ter n s i n t h e s t udy a r ea a r e k nown p r ima r i ly f r om e x c ava t ion s , b r ief ly s umma r i s ed a tt h e b eg inn ing o f t h i s c h ap te r , a nd s e cond ar i ly f r om s y s tema t ic , i n ten s ive s u rvey p r o jec t s . b o th o n al a rge sca le i nt h eL angad a sb a s in ( Ko t sak i s 1 989 ; 1 990 ; K o tsak i s a nd A nd r eou 1 995 ; A nd r eou a nd K o t sak i s 1 994 b ) a nd G r evena a r e a ( W i lk ie 1 993 ) a nd o n a s ma l l s ca le i n t h e H a l iakmon v a l ley ( Hond r oy iann i -Me tok i 1 993 ; Z io ta a nd H ond roy iann i Me tok i 1 9 97 ) a nd K i t r in i L imn i b a s in ( Ka r ame t rou Men te s id i 1 986 ; F o t iad i s 1 988 ; 1 991 ; Z io ta e t a l . 1 993 ; F o t iad i sa nd H ond roy iann i -M e tok i 1 997 ) .

I n t h e l a t er N eo l i th ic p ha s e s , a n i n c r e as e o f p opu la t ion . p ar t icu la r ly i n We s tern Macedon ia . c an p o s s ib ly b e s ugge s ted . i n l i ne w i th t h e o ve ra l l p i c tu r e o f " Neo l i th ic d i spe r sa l" c l a imed e l sewh e r e ( Demou le a nd P e r le s 1 993 : 3 99 ; H a l s tead 1 994 : 2 00 ; A nd r eou e ta l . 1 996 : 5 75 ) . I n K i t r in i L in in i , f o r e xamp le . t h e r e i s ar ema rkab le i n c r ea se i n s e t t lemen t n umb e r s n o ted f r om t h e M idd le N eo l i th ic ( 5 400 /5300 BC ) o nwa rd s ( F o t iad i s a nd H ond roy iann i Me tok i 1 997 ) , w h i le t h e s i z e o f s ome L a t e N eo l i th ic s i te s c an b e i d en t if ied a s -m a s s iv e e ven b y A eg ean s t anda rd s " ( And r eou e ta l . 1 996 : 5 75 ) .

9

H ISTOR ICAL , CHRONOLOG ICAL , ENV IRONMENTAL AND ARCHAEOLOG ICAL B ACKGROUND T O T HE S TUDY REG ION W i th r e ga rd t o t h e B ronz e A ge , i n We s t e rn Mac edon ia , a l though s i t e s a r e n ume rou st h rough t h eL a t eN eo l i th i c a nd E a r ly B ronz e A ge , t h e L a te B ronz e A ge g i v e se v iden c eo fa d e c r ea s e i n s i te n umbe r s ( Kokk in idou a nd T randa l idou 1 991 ) . T he K i t r in i L imn i p ro jec t , h ow eve r , t o ge th e r w i th t h e M idd le H a l iakmon v a l ley s u rvey , s ugg e s t s ad ec r ea s e i n t h e n umb e r o f s e t t lemen t s b ef o r e t h e E a r ly B ronz e A g e w h ich c anno ty e tb ei n te rp r e ted ( Fo t iad i sa nd H ond roy iann i Me tok i 1 997 ; Z io ta a nd H ond roy iann i -M e tok i 1 997 ) . T h e M idd le H a l iakmon v a l ley s u rvey , i np ar t i cu l a r . h a sp r ov id ed e v idenc e o fa n o v e r a l l d ec r ea se o fs i t e s i nt h e E a r ly B ronz e A ge f o l low ed b y a n i n c r ea se i nt h e l a te rB r onze A ge ( Z io ta a nd H ond roy iann i -Me tok i 1 997 : 3 4 ) .

I n C en t r a l Macedon ia , t h e e v id ence o fN eo l i th ic h ab i ta t ion i sp a r t icu la r ly p rob lema t ic . T h i s a r ea , h ow eve r , r e vea l s d u r ing t h e l a te p ha s e s o ft h e p e r iod , t h e c o -ex i s tence o ft wo s e t t lemen t t y pe s w h ich a r e b o th w e l l k nown f r om t h e B a lkan s ( McPhe r ron a nd S r e jov ic 1 988 ; C hapman 1 988 ; T r ingham a nd K r s t ic 1 990 ) : 1 )f l a t , e x tended s e t t lem en t s a nd 2 )t e l l s ( And r eou a nd K o t sak i s 1 986 : 1 994 b : 1 999 b ) . T he f o rm e r o f ten e x tend ed o ve r s e ve r a l h ec ta r e s a nd p e rhap s i n d ica te r e s t r ic ted , w ide ly spaced h ab i ta t ion c l o se ly a t tached t oa g r icu l tu ra l l a nd . T he l a t te r , b yc on t r a s t , o ccupy ar e s t r ic ted a r e a , o f ten l e s s t h an 1 h ec ta r e , a nd s ugge s t d en se ly n u c lea ted h ab i ta t ion w i th f a rm l a nd a r ound t h e s e t t lemen t . I n t e rm s o f p a laeodemog raphy , i ti s w or th e mpha s i s ing t h a t t h e l a rge rs i ze o ft h e e x tended t y pe o fs i te a so ppo sed t ot h e n uc lea ted h ab i ta t ion o ft h e t e l l s i te s d oe s n o t n ece s sa r i ly i mp ly al a rge rp opu la t ion s i z e o rp opu la t ion a gg r ega t ion ( And r eou a nd K o t sak i s 1 986 ; 1 999 b ) .

I n C en t r a l Ma cedon ia . t h e r e i sa n o v e r a l l i n c r ea se i nt h e n umbe r o f s i te s , p a r t icu la r ly i n t h e L a t e B ronz e A ge , a l though t h i s i sn o t a s m a rked a s i n s o u th e rn G r e e c e a nd a l so d oe s n o t s e em t o b e t h e c a se i n a l l s ub r eg ion s ( G ramm eno s e ta l . 1 997 ; Wa rd le 1 997 b ) . T he L angada s b a s in s u rv ey , f o r e xamp le , p rov id e s e v id en c e o f ad r ama t ic d e c rea se i nt h e m ean s i ze o fs e t t lem en t s i nt h e B ronz e A ge w i thou t a ny s i gn if i can t c hange s i n t h e n umbe r o f s i t e s ( And r eou a nd K o t sak i s 1 999 b ) .

T h e q ue s t ion s i mm ed ia te ly r a i s ed a r e w hy b o th t y pe s c o e x i s t i n ar e la t ive ly r e s t r ic ted r e g ion s u ch a s C en t ra l Ma cedon ia a nd w ha t e a ch o f t h e s e t t lemen t t y pe s r e p r e sen t s ? I ti sd if i cu l t t od ef ine c l ea r ly t h e c ha rac te r o f e a ch o f t h e s e t t lem en t t y p e s h e r e . H oweve r , t h e f l a t , e x tended s i t e s a r e u sua l ly s ho r t l ived s e t t lem en t s w he r e o ccupa t iona l a nd p roduc t ive s pace i sn o t c l ea r ly s e g r ega ted , w he r ea s t h e t e l l s i t e s a r e l o ng l ived s e t t lem en t s w he r e o ccupa t iona l a nd p roduc t ive s p ace i sd i s t inc t ( And reou a nd K o t sak i s 1 986 : 1 994b ) . I tb ecome sa ppa r en t , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t e l l s i te s r e p r e sen t c on t inu i ty a nd s t ab i l i t y o f s e t t lemen t , w h i le t h e i r p hy s ica l a ppea r an ce i d en t if ie s t h em a s p rom inen t l a ndma rk s i n t h e p r eh i s to r ic l a nd scape ( Chapman 1 988 ; A nd r eou e t a l . 1 996 ) . I t h a s b een s ugg e s ted t h a t e conom ic p a rame t er s , p ar t icu la r ly t h e i n ten s if i ca t ion o fp roduc t ion i mp l ied b yt h ec l ea rd i s t inc t ion b e tw een f a rm l a nd a nd h ab i ta t ion , t o g e the r w i th a n i d eo log ica l a nd s ymbo l ic c on t en t i mp l ied b y t h e p rom inen t a ppea ranc e o ft e l l s , p l ayed am a jo r r o le i nt h e f o rma t ion o f t h e t wo s e t t lemen t t y pe s i n t h e r e s t r ic ted a r ea o f C en t ra l Macedon ia ( And r eou e t a l . 1 996 ) . A s y e t . t h e r e i s n o i n d ica t ion o f ah i e r a r ch ica l r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een t h e t wo s e t t lemen t t y pe s , w i th t e l ls p r edom inan t i n t h e l o ca l r e g iona lt e r r i to ry .

T he p r eva len t t y p e o fs e t t lemen t i st h e l o ng l ived , t e l l s i t e , k nown f r om t h e p r eced ing p e r iod a nd e mpha s i s ing t h e n uc lea t ed c ha r ac t e r o f h ab i ta t ion . T he o c cupa t ion o ft e l l s i te sd u r ing t h eB ronze A ge m ay a ga in h av eb een r e la t ed t o t h e a dop t ion o f a n i n ten s ive a g r icu l tu r a l r e g ime . T h i s i n ten s if i ca t ion i n a g r icu l tu r e , i mp l ied b y t h e e x is t en c e o f d i s t inc t , a mp le f a rm l a nd i nc l o se p r ox im i t y t o s e t t lem en t , o f e r ed m o r e s e cu r i t y a nd p e rhap s b e t te r p ro spe c t s f o r f u r the ri n ten s if ica t ion o fp roduc t ion ( And r eou a nd K o t s ak i s 1 999 b ) . I ti sw o r th p o in t ing o u t a ga in t h a t t h e n u c l e a ted c ha r ac te r o f t e l l s i t e s d oe s n o t s ugg e s t a ny p opu la t ion a gg r ega t ion . I n p a r t icu la r , t h e L ang ada s b a s in s u rv ey u nde r l ine st h et o ta l a b sence o fa ny B ronz eA ge f i nd so u t s ide t h e i mmed ia te a r ea o f t h e t e l l s , i n d ica t ing t h e r e s t r ic ted c ha r ac te ro fh ab i t a t ion a nd l a nd u s e ( And r eou a nd K o t s ak i s 1 999 b ) . I n t h i s r e sp ec t , h ow eve r , t h e t e l l s i t e s o ft h e L a te B ronze A ge p rov id e e v idence s ugge s t ing t h e d eve lopm en t o f p o s s ib le h i e ra r ch ie s a tt h e i n te r s i t e l e v e l ( Ha l s t ead 1 9 94 ; A nd r eou e t .a l . 1 996 ; A nd r eou a nd K o t sak i s 1 999 b ) . S uch e v iden ce i n c lud e st h e s c a le o fp ub l ic w o rk s . e x ten t a nd s i ze o f o ccupa t ion , c apac i t y a nd c en t ra l i sa t ion o f a g r i cu l tu ra l s t o rage a nd i n te rna l a r rangemen t o fh ou se s , wh ich s u gge s t e i the r p r imar y o r s e condar y p o s i t ion s i n a r e g iona l h i e ra r chy f o r c e r ta in s i te s ( And r eou a nd K o t sak i s 1 9 86 , H a l s tead 1 994 ; A nd r eou e ta l . 1 996 ) .

T h e i n t e rna l o rgan i sa t ion o f N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t s i sn o t v e r y c l ea r , b u t t h e f ew e x cava ted s i te s s ugg e s t t h a t o ve ra l l t h e re i s n o m a rked s i gn o f s p a t ia l d if e r en t ia t ion w i th in s e t t lem en t s w h ich l a s ted p robab ly u n t i l t h e l a te p ha se s o f t h e B ronz e A ge ( And r eou e ta l . 1 996 ) . I nd iv idua l , f r ee s t and ing b u i ld ing s ,p o s s ib ly o ccup ied b y o ne n u c lea rf am i ly . s e em t oh ave b een t h eb a s ic r e s iden t ia l u n i t i nt h e N eo l i th ic a nd t h e e a r ly p ha s e s o f t h e B ronze A ge ( Ha l s tead 1 994 : A nd reou e t a l . 1 996 ) . a l though t h e r e cen t e v idence o f m ega ro id s t ruc tu r e s i n p ha se I o f Mak r ig ia lo s w ou ld s ugg e s t t h e e me rgenc e o fp o s s ib le e x tend ed f am i l ie s i nt h e L a te N eo l i th ic ( Be s s io s a nd P appa 1 997 ; 1 998 a ; 1 998 b ; 1 998 c :P appa 1 997 ; P appa e ta l . 1 998 ; P appa a nd B e s s io s 1 999 a ;1 999 b ) .

T he L a te B ronze A g eh ab i ta t ion l e v e l so fK a s tana s ( F igu r e s 2 . 3 . 2 . 4 a nd 2 . 5 ) ( Hän s e l 1 989 : 1 9 3 -336 ) , A s s iro s ( F ig u r e s 2 . 6 a nd 2 . 7 ) ( Wa rd le 1 987 : 3 87 ; 1 989 : 4 57 -458 , 4 62 ) a nd T oumb a T h e s sa lon ik i s ( F igu re 2 . 8 ) ( And r eou a nd K o t sak i s 1 994a : 2 18 : 1 99 1 : 1 92 ) g i ve c l ea r e v idence o f d om e s t ic s t o r ag e a nd p r iva te c ook ing f a c i l i t ie s t o g e the r w i th f r e e s t and ing b u i ld ing so rc omp lexe so fb u i ld ing s , c r o s sed b ya 1 0

H ISTORICAL , CHRONOLOG IC AL , EN TT RON MENTAL AND ARCHAEOLOG ICAL B ACKGROUND T O THE S TUDY REG ION

52

5 1

50

49

48

47

46

‘ i k

•

45

44

43

42

4 1

40

52

5 1

50

49

48

47

46

45

44

43

42

4 1

40

• . 1

•

V

•

• 1 * • • •

A ▪

X

x

e. ; .

9- —

O h,e , p A

A A A

0

A

0

V

AA

S t: A

•

P ithoshaus

0

A M • 0

Fünfeckhaus

h • A

A

•

V

•

V

•—•• • •• • • : : :

V

•

Herdhaus V

haus

—

V

•

•

X

1

l m

X

1

Y

Sch icht 17

v 1

+2

• 3

0

S ch icht 1 6

4

I

02

3

A

4

X5

Ak6

F igure 2 . 4 : P lan o f Ka s tana sp ha se 1 6 ( LH I IB ) i nd ica t ing s i ng le - a nd mu l t ip le -room h ouse s ( Hänse l 1 989 : F igure 3 1 ) ; r eproduced w i th p erm is s ion o ft he e xcava tor

F igure 2 . 3 : P lan o f Ka s tana s p ha se 1 7 ( LH MA ) i nd ica t ing s i ng le -room h ouse s( Hän se l 1 989 : F igure 2 4 ) ; r eproduced w i th p erm i s s ion o ft he e xcava tor

F igure 2 . 5 : R econs truc t ion o f Ka s tana s p ha se 1 2 ( LH M C ) i nd ica t ing mu l t ip le -room h ou se s ( Hän se l 1 989 : F igure 7 1 ) ; r eproduced w i th p erm is s ion o ft he e xcava tor

1

H ISTORICAL , CHRONOLOGICAL , ENV IRONMENTAL AND . ARCL IAEOLOG ICAL BACKGROUND TO THE S TUDY REG ION

(

• r

1

Ear ly I ron Age p it

;

ASSIROS TOU MBA 1 988 PHASE 6 c . 1160 B .C . Pos ts a a Yards P itho i 0 Way u lna 0 Mudbr ick wa lls

E l

F igure 2 . 6 : P lan o fA s s iro s p ha se 6 (Ward le 1 989 : F igure 2 ) ; r eproduced w i th p erm is s ion o ft he B r i t ish S choo l a t A thens

ASS1ROS TO U MBA 1 986 PH ASE 7 c .1175 B .C .

Ponta o P itho i 0 Yard. Mudbr ick wa l l.

n f l

F igure 2 . 7 : P lan o fA s s iro s p hase 7(Ward le 1 987 : F igure 5 ) ; r eproduced w i th p erm is s ion o ft he B r i t ish S choo l a t A thens

1 2

H ISTOR IC4L , CHRONOLOG ICAL , ENV IRONMENTAL AND ARCHAEOLOG ICAL B ACKGROUND T O THE S TUDY REG ION

0 ' 377

2 73

T OTN IT IA

( P AEH 4

E KAMMA T O IXOE I tO T+E IE 76 f l AEEAAOTPT I 1A .

—

Ä (

K ATAEKETH

A rn ie ,

0 1

F igure 2 . 8 : P lan o fT oumba p ha se 4( Andreou a nd Ko tsak i s 1 994 : F igure 7 ) ; r eproduced w i th p erm is s ion o ft he e xcava tor s

-

_

F igure 2 . 9 : R econ s truc t ion o fA s s iro sp ha se 9 s t oreroom (Ward le 1 987 : F igure 8 b ) ; r eproduced w i th p erm is s ion o ft he B r i t ish S choo l a tA then s

_ . . . . .,, .---. .. .. . .

F igure 2 . 10 : R econ s truc t ion o f Ka s tana s House A ( EBA ) ( A s lan i s 1 985 : F igure 2 4 ) ; r eproduced w i th p erm is s ion o f t he e xcava tor

1 3

H ISTOR IC 4L , CHRONOLOG ICAL , EN IIRONMENTAL AND ARCHAEOLOG ICAL B ACKGROUND T O THE S TUDY REG ION e nv i ronmen ta l z one s a nd p o s s ib ly a d i ve r s if ica t ion i n t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o ft h e l a nd scap e ( And r eou a nd K o t sak i s 1 999 b ) .

s y s tem o fs t r ee t s . C onve r se ly , e xcava t ion a tA s s i ro s ( F igu r e 2 . 9 ) h a s e s tab l i shed t h e e x i s tence d u r ing b u i ld ing h o r izon s 9a nd 8 o f s t o rag e f a c i l i t ie s c ove r ing 7 5% o f t h e t o ta l e x cava ted s e t t lemen t s pa ce . a nd i th a s b een s ugge s ted t h a t t h i s s t o rage w a s p robab ly c ommuna l . T he i r s i ze a nd t h e q uan t i t y o fp roduce s t o r ed i nt h em f a r e xceed t h e n eed s o f t h e p r e sumed i nhab i tan t s o f t h e s i t e . A s im i la r c omp lex w i th e x ten s ive s t o r e room s h a s b een u ncove r ed i n T oumba T h e s sa lon ik i s ( F igu r e 2 . 8 ) o ccupy ing m o r e t h an h a lf o ft h e e xcava ted a r ea a t t h e t o p o f t h e m ound ( And r eou a nd K o t sak i s 1 995 ) . I tc an b e a s sumed t h a t t h e s i gn if icance o f t h e se s t o rage r o om s c ove r s aw ide r r e g ion t h an t h e s i te s t h em s e lve s . I ft h i s a s sump t ion i sc o r r ec t . t h en t h e s i te s o f A s s i ro s a nd T oumba T h e s sa lon ik i s r e sp ec t iv e ly c ou ld h av e b e en t h ef o ca l p o in t o f ar e g iona l s e t t lemen t n e two rk w i th a h i e ra r ch ica l s t ruc tu r e . B e s ide s , i n T oumba T he s sa lon ik i s a nd A s s i ro s t h ec on s truc t ion o fm a s s ive t e r rac e s o n t h e s i d e o f t h e m ound , c r ea t ing a s t epped f o rm o f s e t t lemen t . i n d ica te s al a rge sca le c ommuna l e f o r t w h ich m ay p o in t t o ac en t ra l i sed s o c ia l s t ruc tu r e . C onve r se ly , t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l l a you t o ft h e s i te o fK a s tan a s . i nt h e A x io s v a l ley , w i th t h e r ema rkab le a b sence o fb o th t h e c ommuna l s t o r e room s a nd t h e s y s tem o f t e r race s f o und a t A s s i ro s a nd T oumb a T he s sa lon ik i s . s ugge s t s t h a t t h i s s i te i sn o t t h e c en t r e o ft h e l o ca l r e g iona l p o l i t y ( And r eou e t a l . 1 996 : 5 81 ) . T hu s , t h e r e i se v idence f r om L a te B ronze A ge Macedon ia . t h a t l o ca l i sed h i e r a r ch ie sh ad d eve lop ed a tt h ei n te r s i te l e ve l .

A t t h e i n t r a s i t e l e v e l , t h e E a r ly I r on A ge d oe s n o t r e v ea l d r ama t ic d if e r en ce s f r om t h e p r ev iou s p e r iod N eve r the le s s , t h e r e i s s ome s l igh t e v idence f r om t h e e xcava ted s i t e s f o r as h if t f r om p r ev iou s ly -c ommuna l b u i ld ing s " t os t r u c tu r e s o f ap r iva te c ha rac te r , s u ch a s t h e h ou se f o und ed o n t h e e a r l ie r L a te B ronze A g e p ub l ic e a r thwo rk s o n t h e s l ope s o f T oumba T h e s sa lon ik i s ( And r eou a nd K o t sak i s 1 991 ) a nd t h e c en t ra l h ou s e ( pha s e 1 0 ) o n t h e t o p o f t h e K a s tana s t e l l s i t e ( Hän se l 1 989 ) . F ur the rmo r e , t h e l a rg e s t o rage f a c i l i t ie s i n A s s i ro s d ec rea sed i ns i z es i gn if i can t ly b yt h ee nd o ft h eL a t eB ronz e A ge o nwa rd s s ot h a t t h e c ha r ac te r i s t ic s o f ar e g iona l l o ca l c en t r e w e r e r e p laced b y t h o se o f i n d iv idua l h ou seho ld s ( Wa rd le 1 9 89 ) . 2 . 5 .2 . SUBS ISTENCE T he s y s t ema t ic c o l lec t ion o f a r chaeobo tan ica l a nd a r chaeozoo log ica l d a ta , r e qu ir ing t h e u s e o f f l o ta t ion a nd s i ev ing , h a s d ev e loped o n ly i n t h e l a s t f i f t een y e a r s . T he re f o r e , t h e s c a r ce e v id ence f o r t h e d i e tar y c ompon en t s a nd s ub s i s t enc eo ft h ep r eh i s to r ic i n hab i tan t so fC en t ra l a nd We s te rn Macedon ia h a s b een p rov ided p r ima r i ly b y i nd iv idua l s i t e r e po r t s ( Ha ls tead a nd J one s 1 980 ; K ro l l 1 983 ; 1 984 ; B eck e r 1 986 : J on e s e ta l . 1 986 ) o r s yn the t ic s t ud ie s o fa g r icu l tu r e a nd s t ock r e a r ing i nG r ee ce ( Ha l s tead 1 981 ; 1 987 : 1 989 a ; 1 990 a ; 1 992 ; P ayne 1 985 ; H an sen 1 988 : J on e s 1 987 ; 1 992 ) .

T he r e a r e a l so i n d ica t ion s , a l be i t s c a r ce , o f ap o s s ib le s h if t i n h ou seho ld s i ze i n t h e L a te B ronze A g e . T he p r ev iou s a s sump t ion o f o ne n uc lea r f am i ly c omp r i s ing t h e b a s ic r e s id en t ia l u n i t i nt h e N eo l i th ic a nd t h e e a r ly p ha se s o ft h e B ronze A ge ( F igu r e2 . 10 )t hu st e nd st og i ve w ay i nt h e L a t e B ronze A ge t oe xpanded r e s iden t ia l u n i t s c omp r i s ing m o r e t h an o ne h ou seho ld . E xamp le s o ft h i s l a t te r p a t te rn c om e f r om t h e L a te B ronz e A ge s e t t lemen t s o f K a s tana s , e s p ec ia l ly mu l t ip le c ook ing a nd s t o r age f a c i l i t ie s p o s s ib ly s e rv ing al a rge n umbe ro fo ccupan t s .

T hu s . f o r t h e N eo l i th ic , t h e a r chaeobo tan ica l d a ta o f t h e s t udy r e g ion s how ap r edom inan ce o fd ome s t ic s e ed c r op s a nd . i ti ss ugg e s ted , -d ependen ce f o r t h e b u lk o f d i e ta ry e ne rg y r e qu i r emen t s o n a r ab le f a rm ing " ( Ha l s tead 1 994 : 2 00 ) . N eo l i th ic g r a in c r op s i n c luded e i nko rn ( EN N e a N ikomed e ia . MN S e rv ia ) . e mme r ( EN N ea N ikomede ia ) , h u l led a nd n ak ed b a r ley ( EN N e a N ikomed e ia , L N O lyn tho s ) . c ommon m i l le t ( LN O lyn tho s ) . l e n t i l ( EN N e a N ikomed e ia . MN S e r v ia ) . g r a s s p ea ( MN S e rv ia ) a nd b i t te r v e tch ( MN S er v ia ) . w h i le s p e l t ( LBA A s s i ro s ) m ay n o t h av e b een c u l t iv a t ed u n t i l t h e B ronze A ge ( Ha l s tead 1 994 : t a b le 7 . 1 ) . T h e r e la t ive ly b a lanced c omb ina t ion o f c e r ea l s a nd p u l se s i n d ica te s am a rked d i ve r s if ica t ion a s o ppo s ed t ot h e h igh ly s p ec ia l i s ed p roduc t ion o f p r e sen t -day G r ee c e ( Ha l s tead 1 9 92 ) .

F ina l ly , t h e e v idence o fE a r ly I r on A g e s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s i se x t r eme ly p oo r a nd c om e s o n ly f r om C en t ra l Macedon ia . T he r e i sa no ve ra l l i n c r ea se i ns i te n umbe r s ( G r ammeno s e t a l . 1 997 : 9 1 ; A nd r eou a nd K o t sak i s 1 999 b ) w h ich , i nt h e L angada s b a s in , i s c on s i s ten t w i th a s i gn if i can t d emog raph ic r i se . I ti si n te r e s t ing t o n o te t h a t , a l though t h e r e i s a n i n c rea se i n s i te n umbe r s , t h e m ean s i ze o f s e t t lemen t i s u nde r 1h ec ta r e , w h ich a ga in d o e s n o t c on s t i tu te a s t rong i n d ica t ion o f p opu la t ion a gg r eg a t ion ( And r eou a nd K o t sak i s 1 999 b ) .

T he a r chaeozoo log ica l e v idence f o r t h e s ame p e r iod i nd ica te s ap r edom inance o fs heep . a l though g oa t , c ow a nd p ig w e r e a l p r e s en t f r om t h e b eg inn ing o f s e t t led v i l lag e l i f e i nt h e E a r ly N eo l i th ic . I th a s b e en p ropo sed t h a t t h e h i gh p r ev a lenc eo fs h eep r a the rt h an o fc a t t le , g oa t s , o rp i g s m ean t t h a t l i t t le u s e w a s m ade o f t h e e x ten s ive w ood land a nd s o p e rhap s s ugg e s t s t h a t s t ock w e r e f ew i n n umbe r . l a rge ly r e s t r ic ted t o t h e a g r icu l tu r a l l a nd ( Ha l s tead 1 987 : 7 4 . 8 1 ) . I nl a te rN eo l i th ic a s semb lage s , h oweve r , am o r e

F ur the rmo r e . an ew t y pe o fs e t t lemen te me rge si nE a r ly I r on A g e , t h e " t ab le " w h ich i so f ten a s soc ia ted w i th a p r ev iou s L a te B ronze A ge t e l l s i t e . T he se " t ab le s " d eve lop a tt h e b a s e o f t h e L a te B ronze A ge t e l l s . e . g . a t A x iocho r i a nd T o t imba T he s sa lon ik i s . s ugge s t ing t h a tt h ea r ea a va i lab le o n t o p o ft h e B ronze A ge s e t t lemen t h ad b ecome t o o r e s t r ic ted ( Wa rd le 1 997 b ) . B e s id e s , n ew s i te s a l so a ppea r a s s ma l l t e l l so n h i l lt o p si mp ly ing t h eu se o fp r ev iou s ly " ma rg ina l"

1 4

H ISTOR ICAL , CHRONOLOG IC 4L , ENV IRONMENTAL AND ARCHAEOLOG ICAL B ACKGROUND T O THE S TUDY REG ION s u ch a m ix tu r e o ff i e ld -and g a rden -weed s i sp a ra l le led i n N eo l i th ic c en t r a l E u rope a nd h a s b een s e en a s i n d ica t ing s m a l l s ca le , i n ten s ive c r op h u sb and r y . Mo reove r , A s s i ro s p rov ide s e v idence f o r l o ca l r e d i s t r ibu t ion o f s t ap le g r a in s ( H a l s tead 1 994 : 2 09 ) . T he r a nge o f g r a in c r op s s t o r ed i s i mp r e s s ive , b u t t h e r e i s ad i s t in c t c on cen t r a t ion o n c e r ea l s , w i th a s p ec ia l e mpha s i s o n e i nko rn , w h ich c omb ine s l ow r i sk o ff a i lu r e i nt h e f i e ld w i th ar e la t iv e ly l o ng s t o rage l i f e ( Ha l s tead 1 992 ) . S t o r age a t A s s i ro s . t h e r ef o r e , m ay n o t r e p r e sen t ac en t r a l ly c o l lec ted s u rp lu s i n o rde r t o s e rv e a l a rg e a gg r ega t ion o fc r af t s p ec ia l i s t s o re l i te r e ta ine r s a si n t h e s o u the rn G r eek p a lace s . I n s tead , i ts e em s p o s s ib le t h a t t h e A s s i ro s s t o r e s w e r e a s e cu r e r e s ervo i r a ga in s t u np r ed ic tab le b ad y ea r sa nd c on ta ined t h e s u rp lu s " banked " b yn um e rou ss ma l l s ca le p roduc e r s( Ha l s t ead 1 992 ; 1 994 ) .

b a lanced m ix tu r e o f s h eep . g oa t s , c a t t le a nd p i g s i s e v iden c ed . T he l a t te r m ay r e f le c t t h e e xpan s ion o f s t o ck r e a r ing b e yond t h e a r ab le s e c to r b y f a rm e r s -c o lon i s ing p a r t s o f t h e l a nd scape m o r e m a rg ina l f o r a nnua l c r op s " ( Ha l s te ad 1 994 : 2 02 ) . a s a l r eady s ugg e s ted i n a n e a r l ie r s e c t ion o ft h i sc hap te r . W i ld s p ec ie s s u ch a sd e e r , b oa r , a u roch s , f o x , h a r e . b eav e r , b i rd s a nd f i sh o ccu r i nL a te N eo l i th ic s i t e s b u t a r e a lway s r a r e ( Demou le a nd P e r le s 1 993 : 3 61 ) . I ti so f p ar t icu la r i mpo r tanc e t h a t N eo l i th ic a s semb lag e s f r om e x ten s ive L a te N eo l i th ic s i t e s s u ch a s V a s i l ika C a nd T he rm i i n C en t r a l Mac edon ia a r e a l so d om ina t ed b y d ome s t ica te s ( G ramm eno s 1 991 ; Y annou l i 1 990 ; 1 994 ) . F ur the rmo r e , i t h a s b e en a rgu ed a s mu ch o n e co log ica l a s o n a r chaeozoo log ica l g round st h a tf i sh ing w a s o n ly m ode r a te ly e xp lo i t ed e v en a tc oa s ta l s i te s ( Ga l lan t 1 985 ; G a rn sey 1 999 c f . B in t l if f1 977 ) .

A t t h e s ame t im e . c u t m a rk s o n b on e s s how t h a t m o s t a n ima l s . d ome s t ic a nd w i ld w e r ee a ten , w h i le h i gh l e ve l so f m o r ta l i t yb e tw een s i xm on th sa nd t h r e ey ea r so fa g e s ugg e s t t h a t m anagemen t o f l i ve s tock f o l low a " mea t p roduc t ion m od e l " , a l though t h i s d oe s n o t e xc lud e t h e u se o fa n ima l s f o r t h e i r s e conda ry p rodu c t s ( m i lk , w oo l , e t c . ) ( Ha l s tead 1 987 : 7 ) . Mo r eove r , d u r ing t h e B ronze A ge , p o s s ib le i n c r e a sed c o s t s o fa n ima l h u sband r y a nd a s ugge s ted s h if t f r om s ma l l sca le h e rd ing b y i n d iv idua l h ou seho ld s t o t h e c o l lec t ive h e rd ing o fl a rge f l ock s m ay b ec on s i s ten tw i th t h e n uc lea ted t y pe o f s e t t lemen t s r e p r e s en ted b y t h e t e l l s i t e s ( Ha l s tead 1 987 : 8 2 ) .

D u r ing t h e B ronz e A g e , e v id enc e f r om K a s tana s . o f e r ing t h e b e s t e xamp le o f p ub l i shed b i oa r ch aeo log ica l a na ly s i s , s ugge s t s ah i gh ly d i ve r s if i ed s ub s i s t enc e s y s tem d u r ing t h e E a r ly B ronz e A ge w h ich w a s s u cceeded i nt h e L a te B ronze A ge b y am o r e s pe c ia l ised a nd e x ten s ive s y s tem o f a g r icu l tu r e a nd s t ock ra i s ing . T he e nd o ft h e B ronze A ge w a s m a rk ed b y t h e a dop t ion o f am o r e b a lanced r e g ime . n ame ly , i n ten s ive s ma l l sca le c u l t iva t ion o f aw ide v a r ie t y o f c r op s a nd a n ew i n te r e s t i n g a the r ing , a nd e s pec ia l ly h un t ing ( Be cke r 1 986 : 2 91 ; A nd r eou e t a l . 1 996 : 5 80 ) . F a l low , r e d a nd r o e d e e r a r e w e l l r e p r e sen t ed i nN eo l i th ic a nd B ronz e A g e Macedon ia a nd t h e i r m o r e f r equ en t o ccu r r enc e i nB ronze A ge a s semb lage s h a s v a r iou s ly b e en a t t r ibu ted t o p rog r e s s iv e w ood land c l ea r anc e , t o t h e i n t roduc t ion o ft h e h o r s e ( mak ing t h e c ap tu r e a nd t r an spor t o f g am e e a s ie r ) a nd t o t h e g r ow th o f h un t ing a s a n a r i s toc r a t ic s por t ( Ha l s te ad 1 987 : 7 4 ) . F u r the r d i v e r s i ty w i th r e ga rd t op l an tp roduc t sc on sumed w a sp r ov ided b yt h e i n t rodu c t ion o ff r u i t s ( f ig . p ea r , s t r awbe r r y , o l iv ea nd g r ape ) a nd n u t s( wa lnu t , c he s tnu t , s he l led a co rn ) .

T h eE a r ly I r on A g e e v idence c ome s p r ima r i ly f r om t h e s i t e o fK a s tana s . A g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t s i n c lud e d ome s t ic s e ed c r op s s u ch a s h u l led b a r ley . e mme r , e i nko rn , b i t te r v e tch , l e n t i l , g r a s s p ea , b ean a nd p ea , w i th a n e mpha s i s o n m i l le t . w h i le c u l t iva ted g r ap e s a nd f i g s a r e s upp lemen ted b y f r u i t s g a the r ed i n t h e f i e ld s a nd t h e w ood s ( K ro l l 1 983 ) . W i ld a n ima l s , o n t h e o t h e r h and , m ake u p ah i gh p ropor t ion o f t h e a n ima l b on e a s semb lage . p a r t icu la r ly d u r ing t h e t r an s i t iona l p e r iod f r om t h e L a te B ronz et oE a r ly I r on A ge . A pa r t f r om f a l low , r e d d ee r a nd w i ld b oa r , l a rge p r eda to ry a n ima l s l i ke b ea r . l y nx , l i on a nd w o lf o c cu r . T he m or ta l i ty c u rv e s a s soc ia te p i g i n ev i tab ly w i th " mea t c on sump t ion " w h i le s h eep w e r ea l so k ep tf o rt h e i rw oo l ( Becke r 1 986 ) .

P a lyno log i c a l e v idence f r om We s te rn Macedon ia , a l r eady d e sc r ib ed a bove , i n d ica t e s t h e o ccu r r enc e o ft h e w a lnu t a nd c h e s tnu t i n N or the rn G r eece a s c u l t iva ted t r ee s f r om t h e s e cond m i l lenn ium BC ( Bo t tema 1 9 82 ) . B e s id e s , g r ape p i p s b o th f r om L a te B ronze A ge K a s tana s ( K ro l l 1 983 : 6 7 ) a nd T oumb a T he s sa lon ik is ( And reou a nd K o t sak i s 1 997 : 3 74 ) m ay r e p re s en t w in e -p r e s s ing w a s te . A l so , b yt h e e nd o ft h e p e r iod , i t i s o f p a r t icu la r i n te r e s t t h a t m i l le t w a s a n i mpo r tan t d i e ta ry e l emen t f o r i n h ab i tan t s o f A s s i ro s a nd K a s tana s ( Ha l s tead a nd J one s 1 980 ; K ro l l 1 983 : J one s e ta l . 1 986 ) .

2 . 5 .3 . SOC IAL ORGANISAT ION E v id ence f o r s o c ia l o r gan i sa t ion i nt h e s t udy r e g ion i sv e ry l im i ted a nd , f o r t h e N eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze A ge s . i s a lmo s t n on -ex i s ten t . Mo r eove r , b ecau s e i n n o c a se h a s a s e t t lemen tb een e xcava ted t o ge the rw i th i t sa s so c ia ted b u r ia l g round , i ti sn o t p o s s ib le t o e xp lo r e s o c ia l i s sue s i n t h e s phe r eo fb o th t h el i v ing a nd t h ed ecea s ed .

T h e a na ly s i s o ft h e a r cha eobo tan ica l d a ta f r om L a te B ronze A g e A s s i r o s i n C en t ra l Macedon ia h a s s h ed l i gh t o n t h e s ca l e o f c u l t iva t ion . T h e a nnua l c r op s r e cove r ed w e r e a s soc ia t ed w i th w eed s p ec ie s c ha rac te r is t ic o f m ode rn g a rd en s a s w e l l a s m ode rn f i e ld s ( J one s 1 992 ) . C ompa r a t iv e d a ta a r e n o t a va i lab le e i th e r f r om n e ighbou r ing s i te so rf r om p r eh i s to r ic G r eece a s aw ho le b u t

F o r b o th t h e N eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronz e A ge s i n C en t ra l a nd We s te rn Ma cedon ia , i ti sw ide ly a s sum ed t h a t s o c ie t y w a s e s sen t ia l ly e ga l i ta r ian w i th t h e b a s ic u n i t o fp roduc t ion a nd c on sump t ion b e ing t h e f am i ly h ou s eho ld b a sed o n t h e n u c lea r f am i ly , a s s ugg e s ted b y t h e s c a r c e a r ch i tec tu ra l r ema in s o f i n d iv idua l f r ee s tand ing h ou se s . O n t h e o t h e r h and , t h e r ea r ei n d ica t ion s , p ar t icu la r ly f r om t h eL a te 1 5

H ISTOR ICAL , CHRONOLOG ICAL , ENV IRONMENTAL AND ARCHAEOLOG ICAL B ACKGROUND T O THE S TUDY REG ION N eo l i th ic o nwa rd s , o f t h e m ob i l i sa t ion o f m a te r ia l s a nd i d ea s a t ab road e r l e ve l b eyond t h e c onf ine s o f t h e l o ca l c ommun i ty .

O lympu s c eme t e r ie s ( e .g . S pa the s a nd T r e i s E l ie s ) , K o r ino s a nd A ian i . I t m ay n o t b e a c c iden t a l t h a t an o t ab le p ropo r t ion o f t h e s i te s y i e ld ing My c enaean p o t ter y , i n c lud ing t h o s e o fA ian i , t h e M idd le H a l iakmon v a l ley a nd M tO lympu s , a r e l o ca ted o n m a jo rr ou te st oT he s sa ly ( Z io t a a nd H ond roy iann i -M e tok i 1 997 ; A nd r eou e ta l . 1 996 ) . I ti s a l so i mpo r t an tt on o te t h a t t h e e a r l ie s t e v id ence o fs ou the rn c on ta c t st h rough p o t te r yc ome sf r om t wo c o a s ta l s i te s i nt h e C ha lk id ik i p en in su la , n am e ly T o ron e ( Camb i tog lou a nd P apadopou lo s 1 993 ) a nd A y io s Mam a s ( Hän s e l 1 997 ; 1 998 ) . T h e -Mycenaean " t y pe f e a tu r e s r e cove r ed i n t h e s t udy r e g ion a l so i n c lud e o t he r a r te f ac t s . s u ch a sw eapon r y a nd j ew e l le r y , o f t en f o und w i th in g r av e c on tex t s ( e .g . t h e m oun tO lympu sp r eh i s to r ic c eme te r ie sa nd A ian i ) .

T hu s , a t t h e i n te r s i te l e ve l , t h e o ccu r r ence o f Me l ian o b s id ian a t Mega lo N i s i G a lan i s i n K i t r in i L imn i , Mak r ig ia lo s a nd S e rv ia a nd o f C a rpa th ian o b s id ian a t Manda lo ( K i l ikog lou e t a l . 1 996 ; P i la l i -Papa s te r iou a nd P ap aef th im iou -Papan th imou 1 997 ) . t h e w ide sp r ead e x change o ff i n e ,p a in ted p o t te ry i n c lud ing C la s s ica l D im in i t y pe s ( e .g . S erv ia , Mak r ig ia lo s . Mega lo N i s i G a lan i s i n K i t r in i L imn i ) , t h e i mp l ica t ion s f o r c r a f t s p ec ia l i sa t ion o f c e r ta in p o t te ry s h ape s a nd t y pe s ( Ka log i rou 1 994 ) , a nd t h e i n t rodu c t ion o f m e ta l w o rk ( e .g . Mak r ig ia lo s . Manda lo ) i n vo lv ing u s e o fc oppe r , l e ad a nd s po r ad ica l ly g o ld ( Be s s io s a nd P appa 1 997 ; 1 998 a ; 1 998 b ; 1 998 c ; P appa 1 997 ; P appa e ta l . 1 998 :P appa a nd B e s s io s 1 999 a ;1 999 b )a r ea l l c on s i s ten t w i th t h e d eve lopmen t o fl o ng -d i s tance e xchang e n e two rk se x tend ing b eyond C en tra l a nd We s te rn Macedon ia t oT he s sa ly , t h eA eg ean i s land s a nd t h eB a lkan s .

Mo r eove r , i n t h e L a te B ronze A ge /Ea r ly I r on A ge , t h e s t y le o f h and -mad e . m a t t -pa in ted p o t te r y g r adua l ly s p r e ad i n We s te rn a nd C en t r a l Macedon ia , f o r e xamp le i nt h e g r ave d epo s i t s o fA ian i a nd t h e s e t t lemen t d epo s i t s o f T oumba T he s sa lon ik i s ( pha se s 7 -4 ) . K a s tana s ( p ha s e s 1 9 13 ) a nd A s s i ro s ( pha se s 9 6 ) ( Wa rd le 1 993 ; 1 997 a ) . F ina l ly , d u r ing t h e s am e p e r iod , v e ry s t rong l i nk s w i th t h eb r o ad e ra r ea o ft h eB a lkan sa nd C en t r a l E u rop ea r e s ugg e s ted b y m e ta l f i nd s , s u ch a s b r onze a nd c oppe r o rnamen t sa nd w eaponr y r e cove r ed i nE a r ly I r on A ge g r av e d epo s i t s( Wa rd l e 1 997 b ) .

-M acedon ian "

A t t h e i n t r a s i te l e v e l , h oweve r , t h e i n d ica t ion s o f s u ch a s h if t a r e l e s s o bv iou s . T he e me rgenc e o f b u i ld ing s w i th m u l t ip le r o om sp o s s ib ly h o ld ing a ne x tended f am i ly , s u ch a s m eg aro id s t ruc tu r e s i n t h e " c la s s ic a l D im in i" p ha se o f Mak r ig ia lo s( Be s s io sa nd P appa 1 997 ; 1 998 a ;1 998 b :1 998 c ;P appa 1 997 ; P appa e ta l . 1 998 ; P appa a nd B e s s io s 1 999 a ; 1 999 b ) t h e o c cu r r ence o f c o l lec t ive l a rge sca le w o rk s , s u ch a st h e d i tch e s s u r round ing b o th p ha se s o f Mak r ig ia lo s a nd t h e s t one w a l l p ar t ly r i ng ing Manda lo ( P i la l i P apa s te r iou e t a l . 1 986 ; P apaef th im iou -Papan th imou a nd P i la l i -Papa s te r iou 1 988 ; 1 989 ; 1 990 ; 1 991 ; 1 993 ; P i la l i P apa s te r iou a nd P apaef th im iou -Papan th imou 1 989 ) , e mpha s i se c ommun i ty s o l ida r i ty , w h i le t h e o rgan i sa t ion o f d i s t in c t b u r ia l g round s ( e .g . E BA Mak r ig ia lo s . E BA A y io s Mama s a nd E BA G ou le s a nd K o i lada i n C en t r a l a nd We s te rn Macedon ia ) p e rhap s i mp l ie s t h e d eve lopmen t a t t h e e nd o ft h e N eo l i th ic a nd i n t h e E a r ly B ronze A ge o f m o r ec omp lex r u le st od e te rm ine s o c ia l i n teg r i ty .

T h e o ccu r r en ce o f -My c enaean " e v id en c e i n t h e L a te B ronze A g e p l ay s ak ey r o le i n ab road e r d i scu s s ion o ft h e s o c ia l t r an s f o rma t ion s a tt h is t im e i nt h e s t udy r e g ion . I n p a r t icu la r . s i t e s w i th e v id ence o f "My c enaean" i n f luence h ave o f ten b e en p e r ce ived a s "Mycenae an c o lon ie s " r a the r t h an " i nd ig enou s f o c i- o f l o ca l s o c ia l t r an s f o rma t ion ( f o r d i s cu s s ion s e e K i l ian 1 990 a ; Wa rd le 1 9 9 3 ; A nd r eou a nd K o t sak i s 1 999 a : H a l s t ead 1 994 ) . T hu s , t h e c oa s ta l s e t t lemen t so fA y io s Mama sa nd T o rone h av eb een r e ga rd ed a s t h e p r imar y n uc le i f o r e xpan s ive d i f f u s ion . T h e t e rm " commun i ty c o lony" h a s b een s ugge s t ed f o r t h i s t y p e o f s e t t lemen t w h ich m a in ta ined c on t inuou s c on tac t w i th t h e c en t r a l z on e s ( K i l ian 1 990 a : 4 55 ) . I tr ema in s a n o p en q u e s t ion , h ow eve r , w he the r t h e se s e t t lemen t s w e r e -M ycenaean c o lon ie s " o r Mac edon ian s e t t lemen t s w i th a bundan t l o ca lp r oduc t ion a sw e l la si mpo r t s (Wa rd le 1 993 : 1 20 ) .

B y t h e e nd o ft h e B ronz e A ge , t h e o rgan i sa t ion o f s o c ie t y b ecome s c l ea r e r , a t l e a s t f o r C en t r a l Macedon ia . D eve lop ing r e g iona lh i e r a r ch ie sa nd t h ep o s s ib le s h if ti nt h e h ou seho ld u n i t f r om n uc lea r f am i l ie s t ol a rge r g roup s h ave a l r eady b een m en t ioned . T he se c hange s m ay h ave b een a c compan ied b y a t e ndency t o s p ec ia l i sa t ion a nd e x ten s if ica t ion i nt h ee xp lo i ta t ion o fa g r icu l tu ra l a nd a n ima l p roduc t s .

T h e r e s t r ic t ed c ha rac te r o f "Myc en ae an " i t em s i n t h e L a te B ronz e A g e d epo s i t s m ay s ugg e s t t h a t t h ey h e ld s p ec ia l r o le s i n t h e l o ca l c ommun i t y o r a mong t h e p eop le w ho o wned o r u s ed t h em ( And r eou a nd K o t sak i s 1 999 a ; H a l s tead 1 9 94 ) . F o r e x amp le . -My c en ean p o t te ry " i n T oumba T h e s s a lon ik is i sa s soc ia ted a lmo s t e xc lu s iv e ly w i th e a t ing a nd d r ink ing ( K i r ia tz i e t . a l . 1 9 97 ) . I th a s b e en p ropo sed . t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e p roduc t ion , a cqu i s i t ion a nd c on sump t ion o f -My cenaean " p o t te r y i n T oumba T he s sa lon ik i s w a s a s soc ia ted w i th s o c ia l r o le s s u ch a s g ende r a nd k i n r e la t ion sh ip s . T hu s " My cenaean p o t t e ry " a ppea r st oh av ep l ayed ak ey r o le i nt h eo r g an isa t ion a nd r e n ego t ia t ion o fs o c ia lb ound a r ie sa nd i d en t i t ie s " ( K i r ia tz ie t

A dd i t iona l ly , i ti s w o r th e mpha s i s ing t h e e xpan s ion o f e xchange n e two rk s w i th t h e s ou the rn G r e ek m a in land , a s s e en p a r t icu la r ly i n t h e u s e o f s ou the rn s t y le s o f p o t te r y . T hu s , -Mycenaean p o t te ry" a ppea r ed i n t h e s e t t lemen t d epo s i t s o f T oumba T he s sa lon ik i s ( pha se s 5 3 ) , A s s i ro s ( pha se s 9 6 ) . K a s tana s ( pha s e s 1 8 13 ) . t h e b road e r a r ea o f t h e M idd le H a l iakmon v a l ley ( Z io ta a nd H ond roy iann i Me tok i 1 997 )a nd i nt h eg r ave d epo s i t so ft h em oun t

1 6

H ISTOR IC .AL , CHRONOLOG ICAL , ENV IRONMENTAL AND ARCHAEOLOG ICAL B ACKGROUND T O THE S TUDY REG ION a l . 1 997 ) . D u r ing t h eL a te B ronze A g e , t h e ref o re _ t h e r e i sa b road r ang eo fe v idence , s uch a st h el o ca l h i e ra rch ie sa tt h e i n te r s i t e l e ve l , t h e s h if ti nr e s iden t ia l u n i t s t oi n c lude mo r e t han o ne h ou seho ld , e xchange n e two rk s w i th t h e s ou the rn m a in land a nd n e ighbou r ing a r ea s , w h ich s ugge s t s a p e rcep t ib le c hange i ns o c ia l o rgan i sa t ion . T he e me rg ing

1 7

s t ab i l i ty o ft h e p reced ing p e r iod s s e em s t ob e r e p laced b y a f l u id i ty i nt h ed ef in i t ion o fn ew s oc ia l r o le s , i d en t i t ie sa nd p e rhap s a -n ew o rde r " i n t h e L a te B ronze A ge c ommun i t ie s . I t i s am a t te r o f f u r the r a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch a nd s y s tema t ic s u rvey w o rk t os pec if yt h e c ha rac te r a nd t h e e x ten t o ft h i s -n ew o rde r " , a nd a l so t ol i nk i tw i th t h e a gg rega ted p opu la t ion c en t re s w h ich e me rged i n t h e f o l low ing p e r iod . t h eE a r ly I r on A ge .

C HAPTER 3 HI STORICAL , C HRONOLOGICAL , ENVIRON MENTAL AND A RCHAEOLOGICAL C ONTEXT OF THE STUDY C EMETERIES D u r ing t he m id / la te 1 980 's . ag rea t i n c r ea s e t ook p l ace i n

3 . 1 . HISTOR ICAL CONTEXT

t h e r e cove ry o fp reh i s to r ic b ur ia l s i n t h e s t udy a r ea . T he m a jo r i ty o ft h e n ew ly f ound c eme te r ie s o r i s o la ted b u r ia ls c ome f r om r e scue e xcava t ion s c onduc ted b y t h e A r chaeo log ica l S e rv ice , s o t h a t t h e r e co rd ing o ft h e f o rme r r e su l ts f r om t h ee xpan s ion o ft h e l a t te r . S y s tema t ic s u r vey s , p ar t icu la r ly i n We s te rn Macedon ia . h ave a l so c on t r ibu ted t o t h ed i scove ry o fp reh is to r ic b u r ia l g round s . N ever the le s s , i t

A s d e sc r ibed i nC hap te r 2 .m o s t o ft h e p ro jec t s u nder taken i n t h e s t udy a r ea f o cus o n s e t t lemen t s i te s . R eco rd ing o f p reh is to r ic c eme te r ie s o r i s o la ted p r eh is tor ic b u r ia ls i sv ery l im i ted , a nd t h e e v idence i s p ar t icu la r ly s c a r ce f o r t h e N eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze A ge s . P ub l i shed e v idence o f p r eh is to r ic b u r ia l a c t iv i ty i n t h e s t udy a r ea w a s l a rge ly r e s tr ic ted u n t i l t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e 1 980 's t o E a r ly N eo l i th ic N ea N ikomede ia a nd t h e E ar ly I r on A ge V e rg ina

i sw or th empha s is ing t h a t m o s to ft h e n ew ly r e cove r ed c a se s d a te f r om t h e L a te B ronze a nd E ar ly I r on Age s , s o t h a t , u n t i lv e ry r e cen t ly , t h ee v idence f o rN eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly

t umu l i ( Tab le 3 . 1 ,F igu re 3 . 1) .

E as te rn M acedon ia

/ N

Map o fG reece

-

r

J

Gyna lkokes t rO

a

C en t ra l Macedon ia

Man .°

,

A rchon .°

•

ASSZOS

•,ergIna

Nea L o , .

•

Agn os

N ea P h i lade lph ia —

Nea N ikomede.

7 T oumba T hessa lon ik is • I l

, Wes tern Macedon ia •

C ha l idd ik i

T he"'

m e.Maknglak9

a lCo l lade

Ay los Ma mas •

Goo le , : H ymn .

•

K ounou ln lna

•

. ‹)

•

0

' 7

T r . L ies • 0 • K ohn°. O ly mpus t u mu l i

\ \l i s -A f-G enn i a l,e 3 euko syk ie

\ •

T o rOne

S pa thes Aenn i

I s ,o rna ta

A egean S ea

•

Neo l i th ic

•

E a r ly B ronze A ge

0

L a te B ronze A ge

mea n ly

T rans r tena l p h8Se I I

E a r ly I r on A ge

F igure 3 . 1 : Map o ft he p ub l ished a nd e xca va ted p reh is tor ic c eme ter ie s i nt he c a se s t udy a r ea

H ISTOR ICAL , C 'HRONOLOG IC 'AL , ENV IRONMENTAL AND ARCH . 4EOLOG IC .AL CONT . CEMETER IES B ronz e A g e b u r ia l a c t iv i t ie s w a s e i th e r v er y p oo r o r n on e x is ten t . I ti so n ly i n t h e l a s t f i v e y ea r s t h a t t h e l a t te r p e r iod s h av e p roduced s om e b u r ia l a s semb lage s , s u ch a s t h o se f r om L N Mak r ig ia lo s i n C en t r a l Mac edon ia ( Be s s io s a nd P app a 1 997 ; 1 998 a ; 1 998 b ; 1 9 98 c ; P appa 1 997 ; P appa e ta l . 1 998 ; P appa a nd B e s s io s 1 999 a ;1 999 b ) , E BA A y io s M ama s ( P appa 1 992 ; T r ian taphy l lou p e r s . i n ve s t ig a t ion ) a nd S yk ia ( A s souch idou e t a l . 1 998 ) i n C ha lk id ik i , E BA G ou le s ( Z io ta a nd H ond roy iann i -Me tok i 1 997 ) a nd K o i lada i n We s te rn Macedon ia ( Z io ta 1 996 a ; 1 996 b :1 9 98 a :1 998 b ;1 998 c ) .

= OF THE S TUDY

W i th r e ga rd t o LN Mak r ig ia lo s i np ar t icu la r , t h r ee h uman b one s amp le s f r om t h e o rgan i sed c em e te r y i n c l o se p rox im i ty t o t h e s i te h av e b een d a ted i n t h e A r izona L abo ra to r y b y A cce le r a to r Ma s s S p ec t rome t ry ( G i l le sp ie 1 986 : H edge s a nd v an K l inken 1 992 ) . T h i s b u r ia l a s semb lag e , w h ich p o s t -da te s t h e p ha se I D i tch A w a s i n i t ia l ly c on s ide r ed t o b e a s soc ia t ed w i th t h e p ha se I h ab i ta t ion a r ea o n t h e i n d i r ec t e v id ence o f i t s c l o s e p rox im i ty t ot h e p ha s e Ir u bb i sh p i t o f s e c to r E .( Be s s io s a nd P appa 1 997 ; 1 998 a ;1 998 b ; 1 998 c :P appa 1 997 w i th a pp end ix T r ian taphy l lou 1 997 a ;P appa e ta l . 1 998 ; P appa a nd B e s s io s 1 999 a ; 1 999 b ) . T h e AMS d a te s h ow ev e r . a s s ign i tt o t h e e a r ly /m idd le E a r ly B ronze A ge ( P app a p e r s .c omm .) .

W i th r e ga r dt op r eh is to r ic b u r ia l g round s i nt h e s t udy a r ea . f o u rp o in t ss hou ld b en o ted : 1 . E xc ep t f o r E BA K o i lada , i n We s te rn Macedon ia . n one o ft h e c eme te r ie s r e po r ted i nT ab le 3 . 1 h a s b een t o ta l ly e x c ava t ed . Mo r eove r , t h e e x cava t ion o f E BA K o i lad a h a so n ly r e cen t ly b een c omp le ted ( O c tob e r 1 998 ) , s ot h a t t h e f i n a l r e su l t s h av e n o t b een i n c lud ed i n t h e c u r r en t s t ud y . 2 . T h e r e s cue c ha r ac te r o ft h e e xc ava t ion s c r ea te s c e r ta in p rob lem sa nd l im i ta t ion sf o r t h e s t udy o ft h e p r eh i s to r ic c em e te r i e s . D u e t op ar t ia l e xcava t ion , i ti sn o t k nown w ha t p a r t o ft h e o r ig ina l c eme te r y i sr e p r e sen ted a nd a s ar e su l t . i ti sn o tp o s s ib le t o e s t ima t e t h e p opu la t ion s i ze i n i t ia l ly d i spo sed o f i n a p ar t i cu l a rb u r ia lg round . 3 . W i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t h e N eo l i th ic a s semb lag e s , n o c em e te r y i sa s soc ia ted w i th as e t t lemen t s i te . T hu s , n o f u r th e r a na ly s i s c an b e c ondu c ted o f a ny p o ten t ia l r e la t ion sh ip sb e twe en h ab i ta t ion a nd m or tua r ya r ea s . 4 . Wh e r e a s N eo l i th ic a nd B ronz e A ge a s semb lage s a r e a lw ay s c onf ined t o b u r ia l g r ound s u s ed o n ly i n p reh i s to ry . m o s t o ft h e E a r ly I r on A ge c eme te r ie s f o rm p ar t o f l a rg e r c eme te r ie s w h ich c on t inued i n u s e i n to h i s to r i c a l t ime s . T he l a t te r s ugg e s t s t h e u s e a nd r e -u s e o ft h es p a ce t h roughou ta n t iqu i ty a nd e sp ec ia l ly f r om t h e E a r ly I r on A ge o nwa rd s .

T he l a ck o fa b so lu te d a t ing o ft h ec a se s t udy c eme t e r ie s a nd b u r ia l s i s as e r iou s o b s tac le t o f u r th e r a na ly s i s o f b o th m o r tuar yb ehav iou ra nd b i oa r chaeo log ica l i s sue s : 1 . T he r e i sn o t as i ng le c a se w he r e t h e t i me l i mi t sf or t h e u s e o f ac eme t ery h av e b een d ef ined i n t e rm s m o r e n ar row t h an a t t r ibu t ion t o ap ar t icu lar a r chaeo log ica l p e r iod . C on sequen t ly . i ti s n o t p o s s ib le t o e s tab l i sh d emog raph ic f e a tu r e s s u ch a st h e t o ta l s i ze o ft h e l i v ing p opu la t ion o rt h e n umbe ro fg ene r a t ion s , p o s s ib le f am i ly o r k i n g r oup s , a c co rd ing t o t h e t o ta l n umb e r o f t h e r e cove r ed i n d iv idua l s d r awn f r om c e r ta in s k e le ta l a s semb lag e s . 2 . I ti su nc er ta in w he th e rv a r ia t ion s o b se rv ed a tt h e i n t r a c eme te r y l e ve l a r e d ue t od i f f er en t m or tuar y b eha v iour o r c hrono log ica l v a r ia t ion . T hu s . v a r iab i l i t y i n b u r ia l p r ac t ice s a nd m an ipu la t ion o f t h e d ecea sed w i th in t h e s t udy c em e te r ie s m ay r e f lec t t h e u s e o f ap ar t icu la r b u r ia l g r ound t h rough d if e r en tc h rono log ica l s ubpha se s . 3 . 3 . ENV IRON MENTAL BACKGROUND OF THE CASE S TUDY CE METER IES A s h a s a l r eady b een e mpha s i sed i n C hap te r 2 , t h e p r eh i s to r ic e nv i ronmen t o f t h e c a se s t udy c eme te r ie s h a s u nde rgon e r a d ica l t r an s f o rma t ion s . D ive rg ence o f t h e p r eh i s to r ic l a nd scape f r om t h e p r e s en t -day s i tua t ion m ay b e n o ted f o rt h r ee r e g ion s : 1 . T he s ho r e l ine o f t h e g u lf o f T he s sa lon ik i , b ecau se o f a l luv ia t ion a nd f l uc tu a t ion s i n s e a l e ve l , h a s c hanged s i gn if ican t ly . T h i s c hang e h a s c l ea r ly a f ec ted t h e p rox im i t y o fc e r ta in s i t e s . s u ch a s EN N ea N ikomede ia , E BA /LBA K o r ino s a nd LN a nd E IA Mak r ig ia lo s , t ot h e c oa s t l in e . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t . w i th t h e e xcep t ion o fE IA Mak r ig ia lo s , t h e r e s t o ft h e s i te sw e re c l o se rt ot h e c oa s t t h an t h e i r p r e sen t -day l o ca t ion ( S t ruck 1 908 ; B in t l if f

3 . 2 . CHRONOLOG ICAL DEF IN IT ION OF THE S TUDY CE METER IES T he c h r ono log ica l p ha se st ow h ich t h e s t udy c em e te r ie s a r e a t t r ibu t ed r e f e r o n ly t o r e la t ive c h rono logy . T hu s , t h e t y po logy o fa r tef ac t s a nd . i n p ar t icu la r , o f t h e a s soc ia ted c e ram ic s h a s p r imar i ly c on t r ibu ted t o t h e a r chaeo log ica l c h rono log yo f . f o re xamp le . t h e L a te B ronze a nd E ar ly I r on A ge s c em e t e r y p opu la t ion s . I n s om e c a se s , h oweve r , s u ch a st h eN eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze A ge a s semb lage s . t h e r e i s n o t e nough s e cu r ee v iden ce f r om a s so c ia ted g r ave g ood sf o r c h rono log i ca l d ef in i t ion . I n t h e s e c i rcum s tance s , o t he r f a c to r s s u ch a s s t r a t ig r aphy a nd t h e a s soc ia t ion o f t h e r e cov e r ed b u r ia l s w i th s e cu r e ly d a ted a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t s h ave b een u s ed b y t h e e x cava to r s t o d ef ine p rov i s iona l d a te s . s u ch a sa t LN Mak r ig ia lo s , E BA G ou le s a nd E BA K o i lada .

1 976 ; S chu lz 1 989 ; G eo rga sa nd P e r i s so ra t i s 1 992 ) . EN N ea N ikomede ia . i n p ar t icu la r , w a s g r ounded o n a m a r shy a r ea l o ca ted e i the r o n o r n ea r t o t h e c oa s t ( Rodden 1 964 ; B in t l if f 1 976 ) . C onve r se ly . t h e E a r ly I r on A ge s e t t lemen t o f Mak r ig ia lo s . w h ich p robab ly c o r r e spond s t ot h e c eme te ry o ft h e s am e n ame , w a s o n t h e c oa s t a nd h a s b een e r oded b y t h e s e a ( Be s s io s 1 997 b ) .

1 9

H ISTORICAL , CHRONOLOGICAL , ENV IRON MENTAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXT OF THE STUDY CE METERIES

NEOL ITH IC C eme tery /Bur ia l N ea N ikomede ia T hes sa lon ik i( DETh )

R ef erence R odden 1 962 ; 1 964 ; 1 965 ;A nge l 1 973 a

Manda lo

P appa 1 997 b ;T r ian taphy l lou 1 997 a B e s s io s a nd P appa 1 995 ; 1 997 ; 1 998 a ;1 998 b ; 1 998 c ; P appa 1 997 w i th a ppend ix T r ian taphy l lou 1 997 b ;P appa e ta l . 1 998 ;P appa 1 999 ;T r ian taphy l lou 1 999 P i la l i -Papa s te r iou e ta l . 1 986

G ou le s

Z io ta a nd H ond roy ia run - Me tok i 1 997

Mak r ig ia lo s

EARLY BRONZE AGE C eme tery /Bur ia l

R ef erence

A y io s Mamas

P appa 1 995

S yk ia t umu lu s

A ssouch idou e ta l . 1 998

Mak r ig ia los

( Bes s io sa nd P appa 1 997 ; 1 998 a ;1 998 b ;1 998 c ;P appa 1 997 w i th a ppend ix T r ian taphy l lou 1 997 b :P appa e ta l . 1 998 ; P appa a nd B e ss ios 1 999 a ;1 999 b )

A r chond iko

P apaef th im iou -Papan th imou 1 997 ;T r ian taphy l lou 1 996

a nd

P i la l i -Papas te r iou

G ou le s

Z io ta a nd H ond roy ia rm i - Me tok i 1 997

K o i lada

Z io ta 1 996 a ;1 996 b ;1 998 a ;1 998 b ;1 998 c

LATE BRONZE AGE C eme tery /Bur ia l

R ef erence

S pa the s

P ou lak i -Pan te rma l i 1 986 a ; 1 986 b ; 1 987 a : 1 987 b ; 1 990 ; 1 99 1

K o r ino s

B e s s io s 1 997 a

R ynuno

K a rame t rou -Men te s id i 1 990

TRANSIT IONAL ( LATE BRONZE /EARLY I RON AGE ) PHASE C eme te ry /Bur ia l T re is E l ie s T oumba T he s sa lon ik is

R ef erence P ou lak i -Pan te rna l i 1 988 ; 1 989 ; 1 992 K o t sak is a nd A nd reou 1 997 ;T r ian taphy l lou 1 993

EARLY I RON AGE C eme tery /Bur ia l

R ef erence

V e rg ina

A nd ron iko s 1 96 1 ; 1 964 ; 1 969

Mak r ig ia lo s

B e s s io s 1 992 ; 1 993 ; 1 994 : 1 997 a ; T r ian taphy l lou 1 994 ; 1 998 b ,K a r l iaba s 1 998

O lympu st umu l i

P ou lak i -Pan te rma l i 1 985 ; 1 986 a ;1 990

G yna ikokas t ro

S avvopou lou 1 988 ; 1 99 1

A s s i ro s

Wa rd le 1 989

N ea P h i lade lph ia

M isa i l idou -De spo t idou 1 998 a ,1 998 b

1 997

b :

T he rm i

S ka r la t idou a nd I g na t iadou 1 997

K ouko

C a r ing ton -Sm i th a nd V oko topou lou 1 99 1 ; 1 992

A i G iann i

T r ako sopou lou -Sa lak idou 1 991

T o rone

C amb i tog lou a nd P apadopou lo s 1 98 1 : 1 984 : 1 988 : 1 990 : 1 99 1 ; 1 992

K oupou ts ina

K a rame t rou -Men tes id i 1 988 ; 1 992

I s ioma ta

K a rame t rou - Men te s id i 1 987 ; 1 988

A ean i

K a rame t rou -Men tes id i 1 987 ; 1 992

K o i lad a

K a rame t rou -Men te s id i 1 983 ; 1 984

N ea Z o i

C hr y so s tomou 1 997

A g r iosyk ia

C h ry sos tomou 1 994

Tab le 3 .1 : L is t o ft he p ub l ished p reh is tor ic c eme ter ies a nd i s o la ted b ur ia ls f rom t he s tudy a rea

2 0

H ISTOR ICAL , CHRONOLOG ICAL , ENV IRONMENTAL AND ARCHAEOLOG ICAL CONTEXT OF THE S TUDY CEMETER IES 2 . T h eE a r ly B ronze A g ec eme ter yo fG ou le s i nt h e m idd le H a l iakmon v a l ley i s c u r r en t ly u nde r w a te r ( Hond roy iann i -Me tok i 1 993 ; Z io ta a nd H ond roy iann i Me tok i 1 997 ) . T he l a nd scap e a l ong t h e m idd le H a l iakmon h a s c hanged d r ama t ica l ly s i n ce t h e 1 970 's w i th t h e d amm ing o ft h e r i v e r a nd t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f t h e l a rge a r t if i c ia l l a k e o f P o ly f i to s . T he G ou le s c em e te r y w a s o n ly r e cove r ed a f te r t h e l e ve l o ft h i s l a ke w a sl owe red i n1 993 . 3 . T he E a r ly B ronze A g e c eme te ry o fK o i lada i sl o c a ted i n t h e u p land b a s in o fK i t r in i L imn i , n ea r t h e m ode rn c i t y o fK oz an i . T he b roade r a r ea o fK i t r in i L imn i h a s b een t h e f o cu s o f s y s tema t ic s u rvey , i n c lud ing p r e l im ina ry w o rk o n g eomo rpho logy ( Fo t iad i s 1 988 ; 1 99 1 ; Z io ta e t a l . 1 9 9 3 : F o t iad i sa nd H ond roy iann i -Me tok i 1 997 ) . T he a r e aw a sp a r to f al a rg e m a r sh w h ich w a s d r a ined i nt h e 1 9 50 's b y t h e G r eek E lec t r ic i ty C ompany f o r s t r ip m in ing . T h e N eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze A g e e nv i ronmen t w a s v e r y c l o se t o t h e p r e sen t -day p i c tu r e w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t h e d en s e f o r e s t o f c on if e r s e x t end ing o ve rt h e s u r round ing u p land s . I na bou t 1 200 B C , t h e re w a s i n c r ea s ing d e f o r e s ta t ion o f t h e s u r r ound ing m oun ta in s a nd t h u s -s o i l e r o s ion a nd d epo s i t ion o fl a rge q uan t i t ie s o fs e d imen t s t o ge the r w i th ab l ockage o fs u r f ac e o u t le t s " r e su l ted i nt h e f o rma t ion o ft h e l a ke o fK i t r in i L imn i ( Fo t iad is 1 988 : Z io ta e ta l . 1 993 ; A nd r eou e ta l . 1 996 ) . T he f o rma t ion o ft h e l a k e , h ow ev e r , w a s p r eceded b y t h e g r adua l d eve lopmen t o fa m a r shy a r ea . T he c h rono logy o ft h i s e p i sode , i t s e x ten t a nd i t s c au se s c anno t b e p r e c i s e ly d ef in ed . I ti sn o t p o s s ib l e , t h e r ef o r e , t od ef ine w h e th e r t h e a r ea c u r r en t ly o ccup i ed b y t h e E BA s e t t lemen t a s soc ia ted w i th t h e c em e te r y w a s o n d r y o r m a r shy l a nd . I t i s h i gh ly p r obab l e , h ow eve r , t h a tt h eE BA s e t t lemen t w a s i nc l o se p rox im i ty t o t h e m a r shy a r ea e x tend ing t owa rd s t h e l ow e s tl e ve lo ft h eb a s in . I n t e rm s o fe nv i ronm en ta l s e t t ing . t h e r ef o r e , t h e c a s e s t udy c eme te r ie s c an b e a s s igned t o f o u r b r oad u n i t s : ( 1 ) t h e c oa s ta lz o ne i n c lud ing LN a nd E IA Mak r ig ia lo s , E BA /LBA K o r ino sa nd p robab ly EN N ea N ikomed e ia . ( 2 ) t h e l ow land s r e p r e s en t ed s o le ly b y t h eE IA O lympu st umu l i , ( 3 ) t h e h i gh m oun ta inous z one . i n c lud ing L BA S p a the s a nd L BA /E IA T re i s E l ie s a nd ( 4 ) t h e u p land s r e p r e sen ted b y t h e E BA c eme te r ie s o f G ou le s a nd K o i lada . l o ca ted i n t h e m idd le H a l iakmon v a l ley a nd t h e u p land b a s in o f K i t r in i L imn i r e sp ec t ive ly .

3 . 4 .1 NEOL ITH IC ASSE MBLAGES T h e e v iden c e f r om t h e N eo l i th ic i n d ica te s ad i ve r s i ty i nt h e m an ipu la t ion o f t h e d e cea sed ( Tab le 3 . 2 ) ( T r ian taphy l lou 1 997 b ; 1 999 ) . Two t y p e s o f m o r tu ar y t r ea tmen t c an b e d i s t ingu i sh ed : 1 ) B ur ia l s w i th in t h e s e t t l emen t a r e m o s t c ommon . T h i s c a tego r y i n c lud e s a l l t h e e xcava ted N eo l i th ic b u r ia l s f r om t h z , s t udy r e g ion ( N ea N ikomed e ia : R odden 1 962 ; 1 964 ; 1 965 ; A nge l 1 973a , Mand a lo : P i la l i -Papa s te r iou e ta l . 1 986 . T hes sa lon ik i : P appa 1 997 b ;T r ian taphy l lou 1 997 a „V ak r ig ia lo s : B e s s io s a nd P appa 1 997 ; 1 998 a ; 1 998 b ; 1 998c : P appa 1 997 w i th a ppend ix T r ian taphy l lou 1 997 b ; P appa e ta l . 1 998 ; P appa a nd B e s s io s 1 999 a ; 1 999 b : P app a 1 999 ; T r ian taphy l lou 1 999 ) . T he d ecea sed w e r e u sua l ly i n humed i n a c on t r ac ted p o s i t ion i n s imp le p i t -g r av e s w i th m in ima l g r av e g ood s . c on s i s t ing o f t h e o cca s iona l s i ng le h andmade p o t . T hey a r e a l s i ng le b u r ia l s w i th t h e s o le e xcep t ion o f ad oub le b u r ia l f r om N ea N ikomed e ia , p opu la r ly k nown a st h e" mo the rw i th t h ec h i ld " ( Rodd en 1 962 ; G a l l i s 1 996 ) . I n af ew c a s e s . h ow eve r , s u ch a s T he s sa lon ik i a nd Mak r ig ia lo s , t h e d ecea sed w e r e d i spo sed o fa sp r ima ry b u r ia l s i nr e f u se p i t sw i thou t a ny p ar t icu la rc a r e . 2 ) D isa r t icu la t ed b one sw i th in t h e s e t t lemen t d epo s i t s ( N ea N ikomed e ia : A ng e l 1 973 a a nd Ma k-r i g ia los : T r ian taphy l lou 1 997 b : 1 999 . T herm i a nd E . A lac ed on ia : Y annou l i 1 994 ) . T h i s c a tego r y i sc omp lex a nd h a s n o t a t t r ac ted m uch a t ten t ion f r om r e sea r ch e r s . I ti sn o tab le t h a t t h e o ccu r r en ce o fd i sa r t icu la ted b one s , o f ten s how ing c u t m a rk s , i sc ommon i nt h e d epo s i t s o f m any p r eh i s to r ic s i te s i nG reece . f r om t h e N eo l i th ic a nd o t he r p r eh i s to r ic p e r iod s ( Y iannou l i 1 994 ; C h r i s t idou p e r s . c omm . ) . T he m a jo r i ty o ft h e s e r ema in s a r e s ma l l e . g . h and a nd f o o t b on e s a nd l o ng b on e s ( Yannou l i 1 994 ) . I ti sa n o p en q u e s t ion w he th e r t h e " s ca t te r ed b one s " n o ted i n p r e l im ina r y r e por t s o r ig ina ted f r om i n ten t iona l ly d i spo s ed p r ima ry o r s e condar y b ur ia l s , w h ich w e r e s ub sequen t ly d i s tu rbed b y l a t e r u s e o f t h e d i spo sa l a r ea , o r w e r e s imp ly r ef us e c o inc id en ta l ly d epo s i ted a mong o t he rd i sca rd ed m a te r ia l s . O ve ra l l , t h e d ead w e r e n o t a c co rded a ny p ar t icu la r t r ea tmen t , s u ch a s t h e c on s t ru c t ion o f a s soc ia ted m onumen ta l s t ruc tu r e s o ra dd i t iona l f u rn i sh ing . A c co rd ing t oD emou le a nd P e r le s ( Demou le a nd P e r le s 1 993 : 3 85 ) , t h e b u r ia lw a sr a the r am a t te ro fo ne s o c ia lu n i ta nd s oo ccu r r ed i nt h eb oundar ie so ft h en uc l ea rf am i ly , a st h eb u r ia l sw i th in t h e s e t t lemen t s ugge s t . I n g ene r a l . t h e r e s e em s t ob e n o e mpha s i s o n t h e v i s ib i l i t y o f t h e d ead , l i t t le i n d ica t ion o f e l abo ra te r i tua l s , a nd n o i n d ica t ion o f s o c ia l i n equa l i ty ( Demou le a nd P e r le s 1 993 : 3 85 ) , a l though t h e e v id enc e o f LN Mak r ig ia lo s , a s d i s cu s s ed i n C hap te r 5 . s ugge s t s t h e o ppo s i te . I nhuma t ion s a ppea r t oh ave b een t h e c ommon e s t t y pe o f d i spo sa l , w h i le c r ema t ion s h ave a l so b e en o cca s iona l ly r e co rd ed , s u ch a s i n LN Mak r ig ia lo s p ha se I ( Be s s io sa nd P appa 1 997 ; 1 998 a ;1 998 b :1 998 c :P appa

3 . 4 . ARCHAEOLOG ICAL BACKGROUND T he o v e r a l l s c a r c i t y o f p r eh is to r ic c eme te r y p opu la t ion s f r om t h e s t udy r e g ion h a s a l r eady b een u nde r l ined . E v id en c e f r om t h e N eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronz e A g e s . i n p a r t icu la r , i sv e ry s c an t y , w h i le t h a t f r om t h e L a t e B ronze a nd , e s p e c ia l ly ,E a r ly I r on A ge si n c r ea s e sm a rk ed ly .

2 1

H ISTORICAL , CHRONOLOGICAL , ENUIROA MENTAL AAD ARCHAEOLOG ICAL CONTEXT OF THE STUDY CE METER IES 1 997 ; P appa e ta t . 1 998 ; P appa a nd B es s io s 1 999 a : 1 999 b )

3 . 4 .2 . EARLY BRONZE AGE ASSE MBLAGES

a nd N eo l i th ic G ou le s , i n t h e M idd le H a l iakmon v a l ley ( Z io ta a nd H ond roy iann i - Me tok i 1 997 : 3 6 ) . I n a l l p r imary

T he E ar ly B ronze A ge p i c ture d if e r s s i gn if ican t ly f r om t ha t

b u r ia ls , t h e b od ies w e re p l aced i n ac on trac ted p o s i t ion w i thou t a ny a dd i t iona l f u rn ish ing o f t h e g rave s uch a s a f l oor o r c ove r ing . F ina l ly , t h e g rave g ood s a ccompany ing t h e d eceased w e re v ery f ew a nd c omp r ised mos t ly o f

f o r t h e N eo l i th ic ( Tab le 3 . 2 ) . T he p reva len t b ur ia l p r ac t ice c on t inued t o b e i nhuma t ion . a l though c r ema t ion s i n c rease i n f r equency ( Ay io s Mamas . G ou les . K o i lada a nd l a te ly S yk ia ) . C rema t ions a r e u sua l ly a s soc ia ted w i th i n f an t

e veryday i t em s , s uch a sb one a nd s t one t o o ls o rp o t tery .

1 )L oca t ion :

C hrono log ica lP er iod

Wi th in -s e t t lemen t b ur ia ls

D isar t icu la ted b one s

N eo l i th ic

+

+

E a r ly B ronze A ge

+

C eme ter ie s +

L a te B ronze A ge

+

T rans i t iona l P hase

+

E a r ly I r on A ge

+

2 )T ype o fd i spo sa l : C hrono log ica lP er iod

I nhuma t ion

C rema t ion

S ing le

Mu l t ip le / secondar y

N eo l i th ic

+

+

+

+

+

+

E a r ly B ronze A ge

+

L a te B ronze A ge

+

+

T r ans i t iona l P hase

+

+

E a r ly I r on A ge

+

+

+

+

+

3 )T r ea tmen to ft h e d ecea sed ( e x terna l f e a tur e s 1) : C hrono log ica lP er iod

G rave t ype d iver s i ty

G rave t ype h omogene i ty

N eo l i th ic

V is ib i l i ty

C lu s ter in

+

+

+ +

E a r ly B ronze A ge L a te B ronze A ge

+

+

T ran s i t iona l P ha se

+

+

E a r ly l i on A ge

+

+

4 ) T rea tmen to ft he d ecea sed ( i n terna l f ea ture s C hrono log ica l P er iod

S pec ia l c are

+

2) :

S tandard isa t ion

V ar iab i l i ty

A ge /Sex g roup d i f f eren t ia t ion

" Va luab le" g rave g ood s +

N eo l i th ic E a r ly B ronze A ge

+

+

+

L a te B ronze A ge

+

+

+

+

T rans i t iona l P ha se

+ +

+ +

+ +

E a r ly I r on A ge

+ +

T ab le 3 . 2 : F ea ture so f mor tuary b ehav iour i nt he d i f f eren t a rchaeo log ica l p er iods

G rave t y pe a nd a dd i t iona l e l emen ts f u rn ish ing t h eg rave , s uch a sc over ing a nd f l oor . 2C harac ter is t ics

o ft h e d i spo sa l o ft h e d eceased . s uch a sb u r ia l p os i t ion . g r ave g oods e t c .

1 '1

H ISTOR ICAL , CHRONOLOG IC AL , ENV IRONMENTAL AND ARCHAEOLOG ICAL CONTEXT OF THE S TUDY CEMETER IES b u r ia l s b u t , i n t h e E a r ly B ronze A g e . a du l t s a l so a pp ea r o cca s iona l ly t oh ave b een d i spo sed o fi nt h i s w ay ( Ko i lada . S yk ia ) .

b u r ia l s i nt h e l a t te r c eme te r ie s w e r e c ommon ly l a id o u t o n t h e n a tu r a l b ed rock . A t t h e s ame t ime t h e r e i sa t r emendou s v ar ie ty i n t h e c ove r ing o f e a ch g rave , r ang ing f r om t h e s imp le a c cumu la t ion o f s o i l t o o ne s l ab , o r ap i le o fr o ugh s t one so rs c a t t e r ed s h e rd so re ven i n ten t iona l ly b roken p o t s . F ina l ly , g rave g ood s , c on s i s t ing p r ima r i ly o fp o t ter y , p o s s ib ly u sed d u r ing l i f e , b eg in t oa c company t h e m a jo r i t y o fb u r ia l s . Al im i ted n umbe ro fb u r ia l s w e r ee qu ipped a dd i t iona l ly w i th s t one a nd o cca s iona l ly f a ien ce , c opp e r /b ronze a nd g o ld o rnam en t s a nd t o o l s . T he r a r e o ccu r r ence o f i t em s o f m e ta l a nd f a ience . r aw m a te r ia l s o f v a luab le a nd " exo t ic " c h a rac te r , p e rhap s i n d ica ted t h e s p ec ia l s i gn if i canc eo ft h e i ra s soc ia ted b u r ia l s . 4 ) . 4 t e nd ency t owa rd s s t anda rd isa t ion a t t h e i n t ra c eme t ery l e ve l . T h e c ommon m e thod o f d i spo sa l i n m o s t c eme te r ie s c on t inu ed t o b e s i ng l e i n huma t ions p laced i n ac on t rac t ed p o s i t ion . T he r e a r e o n ly af ew e xcep t ion s : t wo d oub le b u r ia l s i n K o i lada a nd a s e cond ar y b u r ia l i n G ou le s . F u r th e rmo r e , t h e r e i s a t e nden cy a tt h e i n t r a -cem e te r y l e v e l f o rb u r ia l s t of o l low c ommon o r ien ta t ions : E a s t / We s t i nG ou le s , S ou th /Nor th i nK o i lada a nd We s t /Ea s t i n Mak r ig ia lo s . A l so . b u r ia l s p l aced i np i tho i o rp o t st e nd t oh av et h eh ead o ft h eb od y t ow a rd st h eo pen ing o ft h ev e s se l . B u r ia l si nG ou le sa nd K o i lada w e r e a l so a c compan ied b y as t anda rd s e t o f g rave g ood s ,c on s i s t ing o fo ne o rt wo p a r t icu lar t y pes o f h andmad e p o t s u sua l ly p l aced i n c e r ta in p os i t ions , b y t h e h ead ( Gou le s ) . o r b y t h e h ead a nd f e e t ( Ko i lada ) . F ina l ly , t h e r e a r e s ome i n d ica t ion s o f p os s ib l e d i f f er en t ia l t r ea tmen t b y a ge s ex w i th in t h e c eme te r ie s . F i r s t , w i th r e ga rd t o a ge g roup s : ( 1 ) p o t -bu r ia l s a r e a s soc ia ted w i th i n f an t a nd c h i ld b u r ia l s i nb o th G ou le s a nd K o i lada . w h i le p i tho s b u r ia l s a r e a s soc ia ted w i th a du l t s i n G ou le s ; ( 2 ) c i s t s i n K o i lada w e r e f o und t o a c commoda te o n ly s ubadu l t s ; a nd ( 3 ) s ome o f t h e -r i che s t " b u r ia l a s s emb lage s a r e a s so c ia ted w i th i n f an t a nd c h i ld b u r ia l s i n t h e c eme te r ie s o f A y io s Mama s . G ou le s a nd K o i lada . S e cond ly , a s r e ga rd s d if e r en t ia l t r ea tm en t b y s e x g r oup , i ti si mpo r tan t t on o te t h a t a l l t h e e v idenc e h a s b een p rov ided b y t h e c eme te ry o f K o i lada : ( 1 ) a l though a l l b u r ia l s a ppe a r t o h ave b een p l aced i n ac on t rac ted p o s i t ion . w om en w e r e c l ea r ly l a id o n t h e i r l e f t a nd m en o n t h e i r r i gh t s i de ; a nd ( 2 ) a s i gn if i can tp r opo r t ion o ff ema le b u r ia l s w e r ed i spo sed o f i n p i t g r ave s , w h i le m a le b u r ia l s w e r e p r edom ina te ly p l ac ed i nb u i l tg r ave s . 5 ) P os s ib l e i nd ica t ions o f c l us t er ing i n t h e K o i lada c eme t e ry . I tm u s tb ee mpha s i sed t h a t t h e e v idence f r om t h e E a r ly B ronze A ge a s aw ho le d o e s n o t i n d ica te t h e d eve lopm en t o f c l u s te r ing w i th in c eme te r ie s . I n t h e K o i lada c eme te ry , h ow ev e r , c a . 1 0 b u r ia ls o u t o f 1 53 w e r e p l aced o n t o p o f e x i s t ing b u r ia l s a nd c ove r ed b y s t on e p i le s w h ich w e r e p r obab ly v i s ib le o n t h e g round . I t i s q u i te p o s s ib le t h a t t h e e x i s tence o f t h e e a r l ie r b u r ia l s w a sk nown t ot h e r e la t ive s o ft h e n ew o ccupan t s s i nc e t h e n ew b u r ia l s d i d n o t d i s tu rb t h e e a r l ie r o ne s . T hu s . i ti st emp t ing t o c on s ide r t h e l a t te r a s p o s s ib le i n d ica t ion so ff am i ly o rd e scen t l i nk sw i th t h ep r eced ing

I nt e rm so fb u r ia l l o ca t ion , t wo t y pe sm ay b ed i s t ingu i sh ed : 1 ) B u r ia l s w i th in t h e s e t t lemen t s u ch a s t h e t wo b u r ia l s f r om A r chond iko ( P apaef th im iou -Papan th imou a nd P i la l i -Papa s te r iou 1 997 ; T r ian taphy l lou 1 996 ) a nd af ew b u r ia l s f r om K o r ino s ( Be s s io s 1 997 a ) ; t h e f o rme rw e r e p l a c ed i np i tho id j a r s l a id i np i t s w h i le t h e l a t te r w e r e c a su a l ly t h rown i n to t h e r ubb i sh p i t so ft h eE a r ly B ronze A g es e t t lemen t . 2 ) O rg an i s ed c eme te r ie s s u ch a s a tA y io s Mama s ( P appa 1 995 : T r ian taphy l lou p e r s . i n v e s t iga t ion ) a nd S yk ia ( A s sou ch idou e ta l . 1 998 ) i nC ha lk id ik i . a t Mak r ig ia lo s i nC en t r a l Macedon ia ( Be s s io s a nd P appa 1 997 ; 1 998 a ; 1 998 b ; 1 998 c ; P appa 1 997 w i th a pp end ix T r ian taphy l lou 1 997 b ; P appa e ta l . 1 998 : P appa a nd B e s s io s 1 999 a : 1 999 b ; T r ian taphy l lou 1 999 ) a nd a t G ou le s ( Z io ta a nd H ond roy iann i -M e tok i 1 977 ) a nd K o i lad a i n We s te rn Macedon ia ( Z io ta 1 996 a ; 1 996 b ; 1 998 a ;1 998 b ; 1 998 c ;T r ian taphy l lou 1 998 a ) , t h e s e a pp e a r ed a tt h ee nd o ft h ep e r iod . e x cep tf o r Mak r ig ia lo s w h ich i sd a ted t ot h ee a r ly /m idd le E a r ly B ronze A g e . T he m o r tua ry e v idence f o r t h e E a r ly B ronz e A ge b a s ed o n t h e f i v e o r gan is ed c eme te r ie s , m ay b e s umma r i s ed a s f o l low s : 1 ) Eme rg ing d i ver s i ty i ng rave t y p e s . I n c on t ra s t t ot h e s imp le p i t g r ave s w h ich p reva i led i nt h e N eo l i th ic , t h e E a r ly B ronze A g e d i sp layed ar e la t ive ly l a rge v a r ie ty o f g r av e t y pe s , i n c lud ing p i t s ( Mak r ig ia lo s , A y io s Mama s . K o i lad a ) , c i s t s ( Gou le s . K o i lada ) . b u i l t g rave s ( F igu r e 3 . 2 )( Ko i lada )a nd p i tho s /po t b u r ia l s ( F igu r e 3 . 3 ) ( Ay io s Mama s , G ou le s a nd K o i lada ) . T he c eme te ry o fK o i lada c on ta in st h ef u l l r ange o fg r ave t y pe s . e l abo ra ted i n to a n i mm en s e v a r ie ty o f" s truc tu r a l" v e r s ion s u s ing av a r ie ty o fl o c a l ly a v a i lab le m a te r ia l s . 2 ) V i s ib i l i ty o ft h e b ur ia l g round . T he r e a r e s om e c l ea r i n d i ca t ion s t h a t g r ave s w e r e v i s ib le t o t h e l i v ing c ommun i ty , a l though m od e rn d i s tu rbanc e , p r ima r i ly b y a g r icu l tu r a l a c t iv i t ie s , h a s l im i ted s e cu r e e v iden c e o f p o s s ib l e -g r ave m a rk e r s " . T hu s , i n A y io s Mama s . i n a dd i t ion t ot h e p o s s ib le o ccu r r en ce o fs t one p i le s o n t o p o fe a ch g r ave , t h e b u r ia l s w e r e o f ten s u r rounded b y l ow r ow s o fs t one s . S im i la r f e a tu r e s h ave b een r e co rd ed i n K o i lad a . K o i lada , i n p ar t icu la r . h a s r e vea led t h e r e pe t i t iv e o ccu r r ence , o n t o p o fe a ch o f al a rge n umb e r o fb u r ia l s , o fs t one p i le sw h ich m ay h av eb een v i s ib le o n t h e g r ound a nd s o m ay h ave s e rv ed a s g r av e m a rke r s ( F ig u r e3 . 4 ) ( Z io ta 1 998 a ;1 998 b ;1 998 c ) . 3 ) S pec ia l c a r e i n t h e t r ea tmen t o f t h e d ecea s ed . T he b od i e sc on t inued t ob ep l aced i n ac on t r ac ted p o s i t ion o n t h e l e f t ( Gou le s ) o r r i gh t ( Mak r ig ia lo s ) o r b o th s i d e s ( Ko i lad a ) . T he r e m ay a l so b e s ome a dd i t iona l f u rn i sh ing w i th in t h e g rave , s u ch a s f l oo r b edd ing a nd c ov e r ing o f t h e b u r ia l . W i th r e ga rd t o t h e f o rm e r , b u r ia l s i n A y io s Mama s w e r e l a id o n ap ebb le f l oo r , w h ich a l so a ppea r si n af ew c a se sa tG ou le s . O therw i s e ,

2 3

H ISTORICAL , CHRONOLOGICAL , ENV IRON MENTAL AND ARCHAEOLOG IC4L CONTEXT OF THE S TUDY CE METERIES

F igure 3 . 2 : P ic ture o f ab u i l t g rave f rom t he EBA Ko i lada c eme te r y ;r eproduced w i th p erm is s ion o ft he e xca ‘a t or

F igure 3 . 3 : P ic ture o f ap i tho s b ur ia l f rom t he EBA K o i lada c e me ter y; r eproduced w i th p erm is s ion o ft he e xcava tor

2 4

H ISTOR ICAL , CHRONOLOG IC 4L , EN TI RONMEAT4L AND ARCHAEOLOG ICAL CONTE XT OF THE S TUDY CEMETER IES

F ig ure 3 . 4 : P i c ture o f as t one p i le f r om t he EBA K o i lada c eme tery ; r eproduced w i th p erm is s ion o ft h e e xcava tor

b u r ia l s . A l so , t h el a te s tf i nd ing sf r om t h e S yk ia t umu lu si n C ha lk id ik i( s umm e r 1 998 )a r ec on s i s ten tw i th t h ec l u s te r ing o fb u r ia l sw i th in t h ec em e t e r y .

p o s s ib le t o a na ly s e a spec t s o f s p a t ia l o rgan i sa t ion s u ch a s t h ed i s tr ibu t ion a nd f r equency o fg r ave si nt h eb u r ia l g round a nd p o s s ib le c l u s t e r ing a tt h e i n t ra -ceme te r y l e ve l . W i th r e ga rd t o t h e l a t te r , h ow eve r , t h e r e a r e s om e c l ea r i n d ica t ion s f r om b o th K o r ino s ( Be s s io s 1 997 a : 2 02 ) a nd R ymn io ( K a r am e t rou -Men t e s id i 1 990 : 3 55 ) , w h ich a r e c on s i s ten tw i th t h eo c cu r r en ce o ft umu l i c ove r ing c l u s te r so f g r av e s . F u r th e rmo r e , i nt h e c a se o fR ymn io , s om e o f t h e g r ave s a r e r e po r t ed t oh ave b een p l ac ed i n ar a d ia l p a t te rn i nr e la t ion t ot h ec en t r eo ft h et umu lu s .

3 . 4 .3 . LATE BRONZE AGE ASSE MBLAGES A l though af ew L a te B ronz eA ge s e t t lemen t sa r ee x ten s ive ly e xcava t ed ( Ka s tana s . A s s i ro s a nd T oumba T he s sa lon ik i s ) , t h e b u r ia l d a ta a r e v e r y s c an t y a nd c om e e s sen t ia l ly f r om t h re e s i t e s : S pa the s o n Moun t O lympu s . K o r ino s i nC en t r a l Macedon ia , a nd R ymn io , n ea r A ian i . i n We s te rn Macedon ia . A l though t h e L a te B ronze A ge m or tua r y e v id enc e i s e x t r eme ly l im i t ed , i t d i sp lay s s i gn if i can t c hange s f r om e a r l ie r m o r tua r y b ehav iou r ( Tab le 3 . 2 ) ( T r ian taphy l lou 1 998 a : 1 52 154 ) . T h ree m a in f e a tu r e s o f L a te B ron z e A g e m o r tua r y p r ac t ice m ay b e n o ted : ( 1 ) t h e e xc lu s iv e u s e o f o rgan is ed c eme t er ie s o u t s id e t h e s e t t lemen t s : ( 2 ) t h e o c cu r r ence o f m u l t ip l e a nd 'or s e conda ry b ur ia l s s w ep t a s id e f o r t h e p r imar y b u r ia l , a nd t h u s t h e i n c lu s ion i n t h e s ame g r av e o f mo r e t h an o n e i n d iv idua l ; a nd ( 3 ) a t e nden cy t owa rd s g r ea ter s t anda rd isa t ion i nt h e t r ea tmen to ft h ed ecea s ed .

Mo r eove r , t h e t e ndency t owa rd s c l u s te r ing a t t h e i n t ra c eme te r y l e ve l c an p o s s ib ly b e a s soc ia ted w i th t h e o c cu r r ence o fm u l t ip le a nd /o r s e cond ar y b u r ia l s w i th in t h e s am e g r ave . I n S pa the s . f o r i n s tanc e , t h e g r ave s h o ld b e tween t wo a nd f i ve i n d iv idua l s , i mp ly ing a n e mpha s i s o n s ma l l k i n g roup s ( T r ian taphy l lou 1 998 a : 1 53 ) . T he i n c lu s ion o f m o r e t h an o ne i n d iv idua l i n t h e s ame g r ave , h ow eve r , d oe s n o t o ccu r o f ten i n a ny o f t h e t h r ee c a se s . T hu s , w h i le i n S pa the s t h i s i st h e r u le f o r a l l b u r ia l s , i n K o r ino s , o n ly o ne d oub le b u r ia l h a s b een r e co rded , o u t o f c a . 3 0 s e cu r e ly d a ted t ot h eL a te B ronze A ge a nd i nR ymn io o u t o f t h e t o ta l o f c a . 1 5 b u r ia l s , t h r ee h ave p rov ided e v id ence o fm o r et h an o ne i n d iv idua l .

A l l t h r ee o f t h e o rgan i sed c eme t e r ie s h ave b e en o n ly p a r t ia l ly e x cava ted s o t h a t i ti sn o t p o s s ib le t o d e te rm ine t h e i r t o ta l l a you t . B e s id e s . i ti sn o t p o s s ib le t od ef ine w ha t p o r t ion o ft h e o ve ra l l b u r ia l g round i sr e p r e sen ted b y t h e e x i s t ing e x cava t ion , w i th t h e r e su l t t h a t i ti s n o t r e a l ly

I ta ppea r s , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e o c cu r ren ce o f mu l t ip le a nd /o r s e condar y b u r ia l s w a s n o t ag en e ra l i s ed p r ac t ice . I n f a c t , t h ee merg ence o fc l us t er si nt h ec eme te r yl a you t , t o g e the r 2 5

H ISTOR IC 4L , CHRONOLOG IC 4L , EN I MON AIENTAL AND ARCHAEOLOG ICAL CONTE XT OF T HE S TUDY CEMETER IES w i th m u l t ip l e a nd /Or s e condary b ur ia l s i nt h e s ame g r ave , p robab ly r e f le c t s as im i la rt e ndency t owa rd sa l te ra t ion o ft h e b a s ic s o c ia l u n i t p ar t ic ipa t ing i n s o c ia l . p rodu c t ive a nd e c onom ic a c t iv i t ie s o f t h e c ommun i ty f r om t h e n uc l ea r f am i ly t o l a rge r d e scen t g roup s . T he l a t te r p ro ce s s a ppa ren t ly d i dn o td eve lop i nt h e s am e w ay . h ow eve r , i na l l L a te B ronz e A g e s o c ie t ie s . T h i s i st os a y t h a t t h e e mpha s i s o n d e scen t g roup s i nL a te B ronz e A ge m or tua r y p r ac t ice s m ay r e f lec t p a r t icu la r s o c ia l t r an s f o rma t ion s r e ga rd ing t h e h ou seho ld u n i t . I tw a s s ugge s ted e a r l ie r i nC hap te r 2t h a t t h e s h if t t ow a rd s t h e f o rma t ion o fl a rge r d e scen t g roup s a s b a s ic s o c ia l u n i t s c an b e s e en o n al im i ted s c a le i n t h e s p a t ia l o rgan i sa t ion o f s ome L a te B ronze A ge s e t t lemen t s ( T r ian taphy l lou 1 998 a :1 5 3 ) : t h i s a spec t w i l l b e d ev e loped i nd e ta i l i nC hap te r5 .

t r an s i t iona l a s s emb lage s . T he p i c tu r e p r e s en ted , h ow ev e r , i n c lude s s ome i n te r e s t ing n ove l t ie s ( T ab le 3 . 2 ) , p r ima r i ly i n t roduced i nt h e c ou r se o ft h e E a r ly I r on A ge , a s w e l l a s f e a tu r e s r em in i scen t o f t h e B ronze A g e c eme te r ie s . I n g ene r a lf o u rd i s t in c t ive f e a tu re sm ay b en o ted : 1 ) V i s ib i l i ty o f t h e b ur ia l g round . T he r e a r e c l ea r i n d ica t ion s o f ag r ave c i r c le s u r round ing t h e b u r ia l g round o fT r e i sE l ie s . 2 ) R e la t ive v a r iab i l i ty i ng rave t y pe s a nd b ur ia lp o s i t ions . I n c on t r a s t t o t h e p r eced ing p e r iod , t h e r e i s ar e la t ive v a r iab i l i t y i n g r ave t y pe s a nd b u r ia l p o s i t ion s a t t h e i n t r a ceme te r y l e v e l , w i th c i s ts a nd at y p e o fb u i l t g r ave c on s t i tu t ing t h e p r ima r y b u r ia l c on ta ine r s . W i th r e ga rd t o b u r ia l p o s i t ion s . t h e r e i s ac l ea r v a r iab i l i ty r a ng ing f r om s t rong ly t os l igh t ly c on t rac ted b od ie s , r em in i sc en t o ft h eL a te B ronz eA g et r ad i t ion . 3 ) Ad op t ion o fs i ng l e b ur ia l s . T he m a jo r i ty o ft h e g r ave s c on s i s t o fs i ng le b u r ia l s , w i th af ew e x cep t ion s o n ly . i n c on t r a s t t o t h e L a te B ronz e A g e t r ad i t ion o f s e condar y /mu l t ip le u s eo ft h e g r av e . S i ng le b u r ia l s t e nd t ob ecom et h e r u le i nt h eE a r ly I r on A ge . 4 ) A r ema rkab l e d ec r ea s e i n " M ycenaean" o r " A l y cenaean is ing" i t ems . T he l a t t e r c omp r i se p r obab ly t h es t ronge s ta s so c ia t ion sw i th t h eL a t eB ronze A g e t r ad i t ion . A t t h e s ame t ime , t h o s e b u r ia l a s semb lage s w h ich d oi n c lude s ome p o t ter ya nd o t he ri t em so fa "My cenaean is ing - t y pe r e ca l l , t o al i m i ted d eg r e e . t h e r e p er to i r e so ft h ep r e ced ing p e r iod ( T r ian taphy l lou 1 998 a ) .

F in a l ly , s t anda rd i sa t ion w i th r e ga rd t ot h e t r ea tmen t o ft h e d ec ea sed i sa ppa r en t i n : 1 ) T he a d op t ion o f c e r ta in g rave t y pes a t t h e i n t r a c eme te ry l e ve l . C i s t s a r e f o und a tS pa the s a nd R ymn io , a nd p i tg r av e sa tK o r ino s . T he r e i sn od i v e r s i ty i ng r av e t y pe s w i th in t h e s ame c em e te r y a s o b se rv ed i n e a r l ie r p e r iod s . 2 ) T he a d op t ion o fi n huma t ion a st h e o n ly k ind o fd i spo sa l o f t h e d ecea sed . C onve r se ly , t h roughou t t h e e a r l ie r p er iod s , c r ema t ion . t h ough r a r e , i s a l so e v id en t . e s pec ia l ly i nn eona te sa nd i n f an t s . 3 ) T he c on t rac t ed b ur ia lp os i t ion i na l lc a se s . f o l low ing t h e t r ad i t ion e s tab l i shed d u r ing t h e N eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze A ge s . 4 ) T he o ccur r ence o f s t anda rd t y pes o f g rave g ood s . S t anda rd t y pe s o f g r ave g ood s , s u ch a s c e ram ic s . i n c lud ing l o ca l p a in ted a nd Mycenaean p o t te ry . t o o ls , j ewe l le ry a nd o c ca s iona l ly w eapon r y , a c company t h e d ecea sed . I np a r t icu la r .j ewe l le ry o fm e ta l ,b on eo rs t one u sua l ly a ccompan ie s t h e f ema le b u r ia l s , w h i le w eapon s o rt o o l s o fm e ta l a nd s t one m o s t ly a c company t h e m a le b u r ia ls . I n f a c t , t h e l a t te r d i s t inc t ion w a s a l r eady b ecom ing e v iden t i nt h e E a r ly B ronze A g e . t h ough n o t a sr egu la r ly . 5 ) T he a ccumu la t ion o fd i s t inc t a r t ef ac t s a s e v id ence f or s oc ia li d en t i t y . I nt h eL a te B ronze A g e , t h e r e a r eb u r ia l a s semb lage s , s u ch a s t h e m a jo r i ty o f g r av e c on ten t s i n S pa the s a nd R ymn io , w i th a n a ccumu la t ion o fp e r sona l i t em s s u ch a s s e a l s tone s , c l o th ing e qu ipmen t , j ewe l le ry o f " exo t ic " m a te r ia l , s u ch a s a mb e r a nd g l a s s p a s te . s t one o r c l ay -b u t ton s " . b ronze w eapon s r e ca l l ing My cenaean t y p e s . a nd Mycenaean o r "Myc enaean i s ing " p o t ter y . We c an c l ea r ly s e e i nt h e s e d epo s i t s a n a t temp t t od i sp lay s o c ia l i d en t i ty , r e f lec ted i nt h e p o s s e s s ion a nd d e s truc t ion a f te rd ea th o fp e r sona l i t em s .

3 . 4 .5 . EARLY I RON AGE ASSE MBLAGES F ina l ly . t h e E a r ly I r on A ge w i tne s sed a n i n c r ea sed n umbe r o fc eme te r ie s ( c a . 1 3 ) i nl o ca t ion s w h ich w ou ld c on t inu e t o b e u s ed d own i n to h i s to r ica l t ime s . T h e u s e o f o r gan i sed c eme te r ie s w a s a l r eady e s tab l i shed f r om t h e E a r ly B ronze A ge . N eve r the le s s , i ti s r ema rkab le t h a t , i n t h e l a rge s e t t lemen t s i t e s o f K a s tana s . A s s i ro s a nd T oumba T he s sa lon ik i s . t h e e v id ence f o r E a r ly I r on A ge m o r tua ry a c t iv i ty i sl i m i ted t oo n ly o ne b u r ia l f r om A s s i ro s , d i spo s ed o fi nt h e s e t t lemen t d epo s i t s w i thou t a ny s p ec ia l t r ea tmen t o rc a r e . B u r ia l p r ac t ice sa r e n o t d r am a t i ca l ly d if e r en tf r om t h o s eo ft h eL a t eB ronz eA ge . N eve r th e l e s s , w h i le t h e r ei sa d i s t inc t s t anda rd i sa t ion i n t h e o v e r a l l t r ea tmen t o f t h e d e cea s ed , t h e r e i s r ema rkab le h e te r ogene i ty i n b u r ia l a s semb lage sa tt h e l e v e l o ft h e c eme te r y . af e a tu r e w h ich i s n o t s o o bv iou s i n p r ev iou s p e r iod s ( T ab le 3 . 2 ) . S ev en f e a tu r e sd e s e r ve m en t ion : 1 ) T he t e nd ency t om a rk b ur ia lg round s o r s i ng l e g raves . Mo s t e x cava ted c eme te r ie s p rov id e e v idence o fd i s t inc t m a rk ing o fe i the rc l u s te r s o fg r ave so rs i ng le g r av e s . I n t h e m a jo r i ty o f t h e c eme te r ie s , t u n i t i l i w e r e t h e c ommone s t t y p e o f g r ave m a rk e r ( F igu r e 3 . 5 ) . T he n umbe ro fg r ave s i n c luded i n at umu lu s v ar ied b e tw een t wo a nd t wen ty -f ive ( V e rg ina ) . T h e t umu l i u sua l ly c on s i s t o f ap i le o f s o i l , s ome t im e s b rough t f r om a d i s tan ce ( s uch a st h e c l ayey s o i l i nt h e O lympu s t umu l i , V e rg ina a nd t h e Mak r ig ia lo sc h amb e rt omb s ) , o n as t one f o unda t ion v a r iou s ly c on s t ruc ted ( O lympu s . V e rg ina ,

3 . 4 .4 . TRANS IT IONAL ( LATE BRONZE /EARLY I RON AGE ) ASSE MBLAGES T he o n ly e v idence f o r t h i s p ha se c ome s f r om t h e Moun t O lympu sc eme te ry o fT r e i sE l ie sa nd t h eb u r ia lf o und i nt h e p ha se 3 s e t t lemen t o f T oumba T he s sa lon ik i s . T hu s . t h e s amp le i sc e r ta in ly n o t s uf ic ien tf o r ag ene r a lv i ew o f 2 6

H ISTOR ICAL , CHRONOLOG ICAL , EMIRONMENTAL AND ARCHAEOLOG ICAL CONTE XT OF THE S TUDY CEMETER IES , , cem , i , „ „ , , , u h a i im mume m o k k t e uee ee

090 ,9 G C 0 , 1 -— )C -k -34 )ge k

3 / 1 1

i f

eeag\' ‚

e spt.

F i gur e3 . 5 : P lan o fa n E ar ly I r on A ge t umu lu s( Andron iko s 1 969 : P lan H ) ; r eproduced w i th p erm i s s ion o ft h e A r chaeo log ik iE ta ire ia

w i th in ac eme te r y . d i s t ingu i sh ed b y c ommon s t ruc tu ra l f e a tu r e s ( Mak r ig ia lo s . i n C en t r a l Macedon ia : K oupou t s ina i n We s te rn Macedon ia ) : e i the r c l u s te r s o f g r av e s s e t a r ound ap a r t icu la r c h ambe r t omb o rc l u s t e r s o f g r ave s c on s truc ted i n a s im i la r w ay p o s s ib ly r e p r e sen t ing d e scen t g r oup s ( K a r l iaba s 1 998 ) . T he r e i s ar ema rkab le c a se a t G yna ikoka s t ro . w he r e c l u s te r s o f p o t s c on ta ined c r ema t ion s l a id o n r e c tangu la rp la tf orms i n ac on s i s ten tp a t te rn , w i th o ne p o t p l aced i nt h e c en t r e a nd a no th e r f o u r p o t s o n e a ch s i d e . F u r the rmo r e , t h e i n t roduc t ion o ft h e c hamber t omb a t Mak r ig ia lo s c ou ld a l so r ef l ec t ad e s i r e t ob u r y l a rge g roup s o fi n d iv idua l s t o ge the r ( F igu r e 3 . 6 ) . a nd f u r the r d i scu s s ion o f t h i s p o s s ib i l i t yw i l l f o l low i nC hap te r 5 . A l so n o tewo r thy i s t h ev a r iab i l i t yo b s e rved i nt h e s t ruc tu ra l f e a tu r e s u s ed i n e a ch c a se t oe xp r e s sc l u s te r ing w i th in t h ec eme te ry . 3 ) T he c o -occu r r ence o f s i ng l e a nd i n u l t ip l e i s econd a ry b ur ia l s . I na dd i t ion t ot h eo c cu r r en ce o fs i ng le b u r ia l s , a l a rge n umb e r o fg r ave s h o ld m o r e t h an o ne i n d iv idua l , e i the r i n m u l t ip l e ( O lympu s t umu l i . Mak r ig ia lo s , I s ioma ta . A i G iann i . K ouko , G yna ikoka s t ro ) o r s e conda ry b u r ia l s ( O lympu s t umu l i . Mak r ig ia lo s , I s ioma ta? . K oupou t s ina ) . I ts hou ld b e n o ted , h oweve r , t h a t g r ave s h o ld ing m u l t ip le / se conda r y b u r ia l s m ay b e i n c luded w i th in ac l u s t e ro fg r ave s , t h u s e mpha s is ing t h e d i spo sa l i n ac ommon p l ace o f al a rge n umbe r o f i n d iv idua l s . 4 ) C r ema t ions a l ong s id e i n huma t ions . Wh i le i n huma t ion was t h ec ommone s tt y pe o fb u r ia lu n t i lt h eL a te B ronze

T h e rm i . A g r io syk ia? ) . I n a dd i t ion . g r ave s w e re s om e t im e s c ove red b y s t one p i l e s ( l i tho so ro i ) ( Gyn a ikoka s t ro ) w h ich c an b e c l a s s if i ed u nd e r t h e g en e ra l t e rm o f t umu l i . F ina l ly , t h e r e a r e a l so t wo p o s s ib le g rave c i rc l e s a tt h e K ouko c eme te r y i n S yk ia ( Ch a lk id ik i ) , a nd a tG yna ikoka s t ro : t h e s e s u r rounded a c l u s t e r o f g r ave s a nd a p o t c on ta in ing c r ema t ion s r e sp e c t iv e ly . A" g r av e c i r c le " h a s a l so b e en r e co rded i n t h e t r an s i t iona l L a te B ronze -Ea r ly I r on A ge c eme te ry o f T r e i s E l ie s ( Moun t O lympu s ) , b u t a tK ouko a nd T r e i s E l ie s t h e g r av e c i r c le e nc lo sed t h e w ho le b u r ia l g round , n o t j u s t t h e c l u s te r s o f g r ave s . W i th r e ga rd t o s i ng le g r av e s , t h e r e i se v idenc e f o r a n o ve r ly ing s t one p i le o r t umu lu s ( I s ioma ta i n We s te rn Macedon ia ; O lympu s ; Mak r ig ia lo s i n C en t r a l Macedon ia ) o r l ow s t one e nc l osu r e ( A i G iann i . N ik i t i s i nC h a lk id ik i ; N ea Z o i . i n C en t r a l Macedon ia ) , o re ven ag rav e m a rk er i nd ica t ing t h e l o c a t ion o ft h e b u r ia l ( O lympu s ; Mak r ig ia lo s? ) . I n E a r ly I r on A ge Mak r ig ia lo s . i n p a r t icu la r , t h e l a t te r i s s ugg e s t ed b y t h e f a c t t h a t f ew g r ave s w e r e d i s tu rbed d u r ing t h e l a te r u s e o f t h e b u r ia l g round t h roughou t h i s to r ica lt im e s( Be s s io s 1 992 ) . 2 ) S t rong e v id ence f o r c l us t er ing a t t h e i n t ra -ceme tery l e ve l . T he b road a dop t ion o f t umu l i i n t h e E a r ly I r on A g e m a rk s as t rong t e nd en cy t owa rd s t h e d eve lopmen t o fc l u s t e r s w i th in t h e c eme te r y . I n t wo c a se s , t h e r e i s e v id en c e f o r c l us ter s o f t umu l i ( O lympu s t umu l i a nd V e rg in a ) a nd . i n c a s e s w he r e c l u s t e r ing i sn o t c l ea r ly d i sp l ay ed b yt umu l i . t h e r ea r ep o s s ib le c l u s t er so fg raves 2 7

H ISTORIC4L , CHRONOLOG ICAL , EMIRON AIEND IL AND ARCHAEOLOGIC4L CONTE XT OF THE STUDY CE METERIES

F igure 3 . 6 : P ic ture o f c hamber t omb 1 f rom t he E IA Makr ig ia lo sc eme tery ; r eproduced v t .i t h p erm iss ion o ft he e xcava tor

F igure 3 .7 : P lan o fc hamber t omb 1 f rom t he E IA Makr ig ia lo sc eme tery ; r eproduced w i th p erm is s ion o ft he e xcava tor 2 8

H ISTOR ICAL , CHRONOLOG ICAL , EN T ' IRONMENTAL AND ARCHAEOLOG ICAL CONTEXT OF THE S TUDY CEMETER IES A g e . i nt h e E a r ly I r on A ge c r ema t ion o ft h e d ec ea sed b ecam em o r ec ommon . C r ema t ion w a s t h ep r ima r yt y pe o f d i sp o sa l a tG yna ikokas t ro a nd T o rone . i tw a s m o r e c ommon t h an i n huma t ion a t K ouko a nd o ccu r r ed o cca s iona l ly a t Mak r ig ia lo s a nd , t o al e s s e r e x ten t , a t V e rg in a , a l though i n huma t ion r ema ined t h e r u le a tb o th o f t h e s e s i te s . I n s om e c eme t e r ie s w i th c r ema t ion s , s p e c ia l a r ea s h av e b e en i d en t if i ed w he r e t h e a c tua l b u rn ing t o ok p l ace b e f o r et h eb od ie sw e r ep l aced i nt h e i r f i n a lp o s i t ion a ss e condar yp roduc t so fc r ema t ion . 5 ) Al a rg ed i v er s i t y i ng rave t y p es . T he r e i s ag r ea t r a nge o f g r av e t y pe s , w i th v a r ian t s o f e a ch s t ruc tu r a l t y pe d ep end ing t o ag r ea t e x ten t o n l o ca l r aw m a te r ia l s . T h e p r im a r yt y pe sd i s t ingu i shed i n c lude p i tg raves ( V e rg ina , Mak r ig ia lo s , O lympu s t umu l i , N ea Z o i ) . c i s t s ( V e rg ina . Mak r ig ia lo s , I s ioma ta . K oupou t s in a , K ouko . T h e rm i ) , b u i l t g rave s ( o n ly i n O lympu s t umu l i ) . p o tp i thos b ur ia l s ( V e rg ina . Mak r ig ia lo s . O lympu s t umu l i . K ouko , T o r on e , G yna ikoka s t ro , A g r io syk ia , N ea Z o i ) a nd c hambe r t ombs ( F igu r e 3 . 7 ) ( o n ly i n Mak r ig ia lo s ) . A s a l r eady m en t ion ed t h e a bove t y pe s w e r e u sua l ly f u rn i sh ed w i th a v a r ie ty o f a dd i t ion a l e l emen t s . e sp e c ia l ly c ove r ing a nd f l oo r ing . 6 ) S tanda rd isa t ion i n t h e t r ea tmen t o f t h e d ecea s ed , a s r e ga rd s ( 1 ) b u r ia l p o s i t ion a nd o r ien ta t ion . ( 2 ) o r ien ta t ion o f t h e g r ave . ( 3 ) t h e o c cu r r ence o f c e r ta in c a tego r ie s o f g r av e g ood s . o f t en p l ac ed i n s p ec if i c p o s i t ion s i nr e la t ion t ot h e b ody , a nd ( 4 ) t h e a s so c ia t ion o f c e r ta in c a tego r ie s o f g r av e g ood s w i th s e x o r a ge g roup s . T he b ur ia lp os i t ion p r ev a len t i nt h e E a r ly I r on A g e i st h e e x tend ed p l acemen t o f t h e b ody w i th a rm s a nd h and s u sua l ly f o lded i nt h e a bdomen r e g ion . W i th r e ga rd t ot h e o r ien ta t ion o ft h e g ra ve , g r ave s i nt umu l i w e r eu s ua l ly p l aced i n ar a d ia lp a t te rn a r ound t h e c en t r e o ft h et umu lu s ( V e rg ina , A g r io syk ia ) . Ar e cen t a na ly s i s o f t h e Mak r ig ia lo s a s s emb lage s ( Ka r l iaba s 1 998 ) h a s s hown t h a t t h e m a jo r i ty o f t h e g r ave s w e r e o r ien ted E a s t /W e s t ( Be s s io s 1 992 ; 1 993 ; 1 994 ; K a r l iaba s 1 998 ) . w h i l e t h e r e w a s at e nd ency f o r m a le b u r ia l s t ob e l a id w i th t h e h ead t o t h e w e s t a nd f ema le b u r ia l s w i th t h e h ead t ot h e e a s t ( Ka r l iaba s 1 998 : 9 6 ) . T he p o s s ib le a s so c ia t ion o fb u r ia l o r ien ta t ion w i th b i o log ica l s e x i so f p ar t i cu l a r i mpo r tance . s i nc e i t c l ea r ly s ugge s t s d if e r en t ia l t r ea tm en t o f t h e b ody a c co rd ing t o s ex d i s t inc t ion . T he l a t te r c an a l so b e b road ly s e en i nt h e c a tego r i e s o fa s so c ia ted g r ave g ood s . w i th j ew e l le r y i na v a r i e t y o f m a te r ia l s o ccu r r ing i n f ema le b u r ia l s a nd w eapon r y i nm a le b u r ia l s ; c e r ta in t y pe s o fm e ta l f i bu lae a nd e xo t ic c r a f t p roduc t s . s u ch a s f a ience b ead s . w e r e a l so f r equen t ly a s soc ia ted w i th f em a le b u r ia l s . F ina l ly ,

a na ly s i s h a s a l so s ugg e s ted ap o s s ib le a g e d i s t inc t ion i n o ne p a r t icu la r c a tego r y o fg r av e g ood s : b ronze b race le t s w e r e u su a l ly p l aced w i th i n f an t a nd c h i ld b u r ia l s , w h i le v a r iou s t y pe s o f f i bu lae w e r e u sua l ly a s soc ia ted w i th a du l t b u r ia l s o n ly ( Ka r l iaba s 1 998 ) . A l so p o s s ib ly i nd ica t ive o fd if e r en t ia l t r ea tmen t b y a ge g roup i st h e a ppa r en t e xc lu s ion o f i n f an t a nd c h i ld b u r ia l s f r om c hamb e r t omb s . P o t te ry i s ac ommon c a tego ry o fg r ave g ood . r e p r e sen ted b y av a r ie t y o f s hape s a nd t y pe s m o s t ly a s soc ia ted w i th f o od c on sump t ion ; n o s e x d i s t inc t ion h a s y e t b e en i d en t i f ied . a l though d e ta i led a na ly s i s h a s y e t t ob e a pp l ied . F ina l ly , w i th r e ga rd t o g r ave g ood s i n t h e Mak r ig ia lo s c eme te r y . t h e s t anda rd isa t ion i n t h e p lacemen t o fc e r ta in c a t egor ies w i th in t h e g rave s hou ld b e e mpha s i sed : i nt h e m a jo r i ty o fs i ng le b u r ia l s , ap o t w a s p l ac ed b y t h e l owe r l imb s o f t h ed ecea sed . w h i le i nm u l t ip le b u r ia l s , ap o tw a su sua l ly l a id b y t h e h ead o ft h e d ecea s ed ( Ka r l iaba s 1 998 : 1 04 ) . S im i la r ly , i n V e rg ina . b u r ia l s c on ta ined t wo p o t s , o n e f o r l i qu id s p l aced b y t h e h ead a nd t h e o ne f o r f o od p l ac ed b y t h e l owe r l i mb s ( And ron iko s 1 969 : 1 65 ) . A l so , w he r e m a le b u r ia l s w e r e f u rn i shed w i th a s wo rd , t h i s w a s u sua l ly p l aced t o t h e r i gh t o f t h e b ody ( Ka r l iaba s 1 998 : 1 06 ) . 7 ) D if f er en t ia t ion o f b ur ia l a s s emb lag es . D e sp i te t h e s t anda rd is a t ion i ns ome c a tego r ie so fg r ave g ood sa nd i n t h e i r p l acemen t i nr e la t ion t ot h e b ody , t h e r e i se v iden t d if e r en t ia t ion w i th r e ga rd t o t h e v a r iab i l i ty a nd q uan t i ty o fb ur ia la s s emb lag e sw i tne s sed a tt h ec eme ter y l e ve l . T h r ee r o ugh c a tego r ie s m ay e a s i ly b e d i s t ingu i shed a mong t h e f ew w e l l e xcava ted c a se s : ( 1 ) g r av e s w i thou t a ny a r te f ac t s : ( 2 ) g r ave s m ode ra te ly f u rn i shed w i th g r ave g ood s : a nd ( 3 ) -r i ch " a s s emb lage s c on ta in ing a l a rge v a r ie t y o f i t em s m ade o f d if e r en t m a te r ia l s , o f ten i n c lud ing i mpo r ted o re xo t ic p roduc t so f s p ec ia l i sed c r af t sman sh ip , i n c lud ing b ronze . g o ld . s i lve r , f a ience a nd g l a s s p a s te b ead s . T h i s p a t te rn i s p a r t icu la r ly e v iden t a t Mak r ig ia lo s a nd V e rg ina , w h ich a r e t h eb e s t e xcava ted c eme te r ie s , a nd a tA i G iann i a nd G yna ikoka s t ro . I t i s d if i cu l t t o a s soc ia t e b u r ia l a s semb lage s w i th g roup s o f p ar t icu la r s o c ia l s t a tu s o r r ank . T he r e cen t a na ly s i s o ft h e Mak r ig ia lo s c eme te ry . h oweve r , h a sp rov ided s ome i n t e r e s t ing s ugge s t ion ss u ch a s : ( 1 )t h eo ccu r r ence o f" r ich "b u r ia ls i nc hambe rt omb s ( wh ich n eed n o t m ean t h e e xc lu s ion o f " r ich" a s semb lage s f r om o t h e r g r av e t y pe s ) ; ( 2 ) t h e p o s s ib le a s soc ia t ion o fe xo t ic c r a f t p roduc t s w i th f ema le b u r ia l s ; a nd ( 3 ) t h eo ccu r r ence o f" r ich " a s s emb lage s i ns ubadu l t b u r ia l s .

2 9

C HAPTER 4 PALAEODE MOGRAPHY 4 . 1 . I NTRODUCT ION : A IMS OF THE ANALYS IS T he p r ima r y a im o f p a laeod emog raphy i st o r e con s tru c t d emog raph ic p a rame te r s . s u ch a s t h e s i z e , s t ru c tu r e a nd d ynam ic s o f o nce l i v ing a r chaeo log ica l p opu la t ion s ( Chambe r la in 2 000 ) . T he s t udy o f p a laeod emog raphy e nhance s u nde r s tand ing o f a r ange o f a spe c t s o f t h e s ub s is tence . h ea l th s t a tu s a nd a dap ta t ion o f p a s t h uman p opu la t ion s t o t h e i r e nv i ronmen t . A dd i t iona l ly , t h e c u l tu r a l , h i s to r ica l , e conom ic a nd s o c ia l b ackg round o ft h e c a se s t udy p opu la t ion s mu s t b e t a ken i n to a c coun t t o i n te rp r e tt h e i rp a laeodemog r aphy . T he a im o f t h i s c hap te r i s t o o u t l ine t h e d emog r aph ic p rope r t ie s o f t h e c a se s t udy c eme ter y p opu la t ion s . T hu s , m o r ta l i ty p rof i le s a nd s u rv ivo r sh ip c ur ve s a r e a na ly sed i n t wo w ay s : • f i r s t , t h e a bov e p a r ame te r s w i l l b e v i ewed w i th in e a ch c eme te r yp opu la t ion : • s e cond ly . v a r ia t ion s t h rough t ime a nd g eog raph ic a l s e t t ing w i l l b e e xp lo r ed t h rough i n te r -ceme te r y c ompa r i son s . F u r the rmo r e , t h i s r e v iew w i l l a t temp t t oi n ve s t iga te i s su e s o fd if e r en t ia l m o r ta l i ty i nt h et wo s e xg roup sw i th as p ec ia l e mpha s is o nt h e i rd i s t r ibu t ion i nt h ev a r iou sa ge c a tego r ie s . T he r e i sa l r eady a s ub s tan t ia l l i t e r a tu re o n t h e i mpac t o f a g r icu l tu r e , s e t t led w ay o fl i f e a nd n uc lea t ion o fp opu la t ion o n d emog raph ic p a rame te r s . O ne p r eva i l ing i d ea p ropo se s a n o ve ra l l d ec l ine i nh ea l th s t a tu s a f te r t h e d eve lopmen t o f h i gh d eg ree s o fs e den t i sm . p opu la t ion d en s i ty . a nd r e l ian ce o n i n ten s ive a g r icu l tu r e , f o l lowed a tt h e s ame t im e b y a n i n c r ea se i n m or ta l i t y r a te s a nd d ec l in ing l i f e e xpec tan cy ( La r sen 1 982 : 1 995 : C ohen a nd A rme lago s 1 984 : G oodm an e ta l . 1 984 : C ohen 1 989 ) . W i th r e f e r ence t o t h e c u r r en t a na ly s i s i nN o r the rn G r eece , t h e t r an s i t ion f r om t h e s ma l l s c a le s o c ie t ie s o ft h e N eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze A ge t ot h e s l igh t ly m o r e c omp lex L a te B ronze a nd E a r ly I r on A ge s o c ie t ie s w a s a s soc ia ted w i th a t e ndency t owa rd s t h e d eve lopmen t o f n uc lea ted h ab i ta t ion p o s s ib ly i n t h e E a r ly I r on A g e . t h e e me rgence o f h i e ra rch ie s a t t h e i n te r - a nd p o s s ib ly t h e i n t r a s i te l e ve l , t h e d eve lopmen t o f e x ten s ive e xchange n e two rk s w i th t h e s ou th a nd t h e p o s s ib le e xpan s ion o fr e s iden t ia l u n i t s t om o r e t h an o n e h ou seho ld . A l lo ft h e se m igh t b ee xp ec ted t oh ave h ad a n i mpac t o n t h e d emog raph ic s t ruc tu r eo ft h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ion s . L ow e r m or ta l i ty r a te s a nd h i ghe r s u rv ivo r sh ip w ou ld p r e sumab ly b e e xpec ted f o r t h e p opu la t ion s o ft h e N eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronz e A ge . a so ppo s ed t oh i ghe r m or ta l i t y r a te s a nd l ow e r s u rv ivo r sh ip f o r t h e p opu la t ion s o f t h e L a te B ronze a nd E a r ly I r on A ge . B e f o r e w e p r o ceed t ot h e i n ve s t iga t ion o ft h e r e su l t s o ft h e p a laeodemog r aph ic a na ly s i s , i tw i l l b e w o r th c on s ide r ing f i r s t t h e f a c to r sw h ich h ave a f ec ted t h en a tu r eo ft h e s amp le

a nd p r e s e rva t ion o f t h e s k e le ta l m a t e r ia l a nd h ave c on sequen t ly p l ac ed c e r ta in l im i ta t ion s o n t h e c u r r en t c a se s t udy . 4 . 2 . L IM ITAT IONS AND PROBLEMS : Wha t 's l e f t? P a laeodemog r aph ic a na ly s i s c an b e b i a s ed b y e x t r in s ic f a c to r s , t h a t i st h e n a tur e o ft h e s amp l e , p r e serva t ion a nd r e t en t ion o f t h e s k e le ta l m a te r ia l , a nd a l so b y i n t r in s ic f a c to r s , n am e ly t h em e thodo log ya nd t e chn iques u t i l i s ed f o r s e x ing a nd a ge ing i n d iv idua l sa l ong w i th t h en a tur eo fb one i t s e lf c hem i s t ry , s hap e , s i ze . d en s i ty a nd a ge o f t h e b one m a te r ia l ( Bodd ing ton 1 987 a : 1 987 1 3 :H ende r son 1 9 87 : Wa ld ron . 1 994 ) . O ve r a l l , t h r ee o b jec t iv e l i m i ta t ion s c a n b e d i s t ingu ish ed i n t h e a na ly s i s o f p a s t p opu la t ion d yn am ic s w h ich n eed t ob e t a ken i n to a c coun t : 1 )t h e c ompon en t o f t h e o r ig ina l p opu la t ion t h a t i sb u r ied a t t h e s i te , 2 ) t h e c omponen t l o s t d u e t op oo r p r e se rva t ion , l a te r d i s tu rbance o re ven e x t r ao rd ina r yb u r ia l p rac t ic e s , a nd 3 )t h e p r opo r t ion o ft h o s ef i n a l ly e xcava t ed a nd r e cove r ed f o ra n th ropo log ica l s t udy . T he c a se s t udy b u r ia l a s semb lag e s p r ov ide m in ima l e v idenc e r e ga rd ing t h e o r ig ina l p opu la t ion w ho se r ema in s w e re i n te r r ed a t t h e s i t e . On ly e x c ep t iona l c a ta s t roph ic a s s emb lag e s c omp r i s ing d ea th sf r om a na cu te e ven t s u ch a s al a rg e m a s sac r e , a ne a r thquake o ra n e p idem ic d i s e a s e c an p rov id e ar e p r e s en ta t iv e s amp le o f t h e l i v ing p opu la t ion . Mo r eove r , i nt h e c u r r en t c a se s t udy , t h e l a ck o fs y s t ema t ic s ur vey w o rk i n t h e a r ea a nd t h e r e s cue c ha rac t e r o ft h e e xcava t ion d o n o t a l low t h e c a se s t ud y c eme te r ie s t o b e d i rec t ly c o r r e la ted w i th s e t t lemen t s i t e s , w i th t h e s i ng le e x cep t ion o f t h e E a r ly N eo l i th ic s k e le ta l a s s emb lage r e cove r ed w i th in t h e s e t t lemen t d epo s i t s o f N ea N ikom ede ia . A t E BA G ou le s , E BA K o i lada a nd E IA Mak r ig ia lo s , t h e r ea r e s e t t lemen t s i nc l o se p rox im i ty . w h ich h ave b een a s sum ed t o r e la te t o t h e r e sp ec t ive c em e t e r ie s , w h i le f o rt h er e s to ft h ep opu la t ion s n oa s soc ia ted h ab i ta t ion s i te h a s b een s ugge s ted . F ur the rmo r e . i t i s n o t c l ea r w he the r t h e s e b u r ia l a s s emb lage s c on s t i tu ted t h e p r imar y d i spo sa l a r ea o fo n e o r m o r e s e t t lem en t s i t e s . T he r e scue c ha rac t er o ft h e c eme t ery e xcava t ion s m ade i td if i cu l t t o e s t ima te t h e p ropo r t ion o f t h e b u r i a l g r ound t h a t w a s e xcava ted . F ur the rmo r e . t h e d u r a t ion o fu s e o fe a ch b u r ia l g round i sp oo r ly k nown , m ak ing i ti mpo s s ib le t oe s t ima te l i v ing p opu la t ion s i z ef r om t h e n umb e ro fi n d iv idua l si nt h e c eme te r y . B e s ide s , d i f f er en t ia l b ur ia l t r ea tmen t , w he re c e r ta in a g e a nd /o r s e x g r oup s m ay n o t b e i n c lud ed i nt h e c a s e s t ud y c em e te ry a r ea , c an d i s to r t t h e d emog r aph ic p i c tu r eo ft h ei n i t ia lp opu la t ion a nd l e ad t of a l se s ugg e s t ion s w i th r e ga rd t o g ende r o r a ge d i s t in c t ion s a t t h e i n t ra p opu la t ion l e ve l . T he l a t te r i sc ommon i n t h e e a r ly a ge g roup s . w i th n eona t e s i np ar t icu la r s ome t ime s i n ten t iona l ly e xc luded f r om b u r ia l a s semb lage s ( s ee f u r the r d i scu s s ion i n t h er e su l t so ft h i sc hap te r ) . F ina l ly , i th a st ob ee mph a s i sed

P ALAEODEMOGRAPHY

t h a t d emog raphy u sua l ly n e ed s t oc on s id e rp a s t p opu la t ion s a s s t ab le a nd /o r s t a t iona r y u n i t s , w h e r ea s t h e e x ten t a nd d i ve r s i ty o fm ig ra t ion . t h a t i s . mov em en t o f i n d iv idua l s t o a nd o u t o f t h e i r o r ig ina l ly r e s iden t ia l p l ac e . e s pec ia l ly i n p r eh i s to r ic p opu la t ion s . i sd if i cu l t t o e va lua te ( Bo cque t A pp e l a nd Ma s s e t 1 982 ; Wood e ta l . 1 992 ) . O fp a r t icu la r ly g r ea t s i gn if icance i s t h e p ropor t ion o f t h e p opu la t ion p r e s er v ed , e xcava ted a nd f i na l ly r e co rded . F ac to r s w h ich c an a f ec t p r e se rva t ion a nd l a te r d i s tu rbance i n c lud e c u l tu ra l , e nv ironmen ta l a nd e xcava t ion t e chn iques a nd m e thod o logy .

( Tab le 4 . 1 ) . B e s ide s , t he a dd i t iona l o ccu r rence o f l a rg e s t one s c ove r ing p a r t s o r a l l o f t h e b ody . s u ch a s i n E BA K o i lada . c on t r ibu ted t oc r u sh ing o ft h eb on e s w i th as p ec ia l e mpha s i s o n f r ag i le s p ongy e l emen t s s u ch a s t h e t h o r ax , v e r teb ra l c o lumn a nd t h ep ub ic s ymphy s i s -t h e l a t te rb e ing ap a r t icu la r ly v a luab le a g e i n d ica to r -a nd a l so m o s t o ft h e c r an ia l( e .g . f a c ia l )b on e s . I n t e rm s o f t h e m an ipu la t ion o f t h e d e cea s ed , t h r ee m a in f o rm s o f d epo s i t ion c an b e d i s t ingu i shed a s m a jo r c on t r ibu t ing f a c to r s i n p oo r p r e se rva t ion : 1 ) t h e d i sa r t icu la t ed b one a s s emb lag es o f L a te N eo l i th ic Mak r ig ia lo s , 2 ) t h e m u l t ip l e / s econda ry b u r ia l s o f L a t e B ronze a nd E a r ly I r on A ge c eme te r ie s ( Spa the s , T r e i sE l ie s , Mak r ig ia lo s . O lympu st umu l i ) , t o ge th e rw i th 3 ) t h ep rac t ice o f c r ema t ion a nd s e conda ry b ur ia l o f s k e le ta l r ema in s o b se rved p a r t icu la r ly i nt h eE ar ly I r on A ge a s semb lage sa nd m o re r a r e ly i ne a r l ie rp opu la t ion s ( e .g . E BA K o i lada ) . T he t wo f o rm e rp rac t ice s h ave b een m a in ly a s soc ia ted w i th l a te r d i s tu rbanc eo ft h es k e le ta lm a te r ia ld u et or e -u se o ft h es am e b u r ia lg r ound , w h i le t h el a t te rh a s l e dt ol o s s o fi n f o rma t ion f o r ap ropo r t ion o ft h ea f ec ted p opu la t ion sd ue t od i s to r t ion a nd s e conda ry t r ea tmen t o f t h e s k e le ta l r ema in s ( Bodd ing ton 1 987 b :H end e r son 1 987 ) .

C u l tura lb i a sr e f e r st ob u r ia l c u s tom s , t h a t i st r ea tmen t a nd m an ipu la t ion o ft h ed ecea s ed p r ac t i sed f r om t h eN eo l i th ic t o t h e E a r ly I r on A g e w h ich h ave l e d t o d if e r en t ia l p r e s e rva t ion . F u r th e rmo r e . d if e r en t g r ave t y p e s a nd a dd i t iona l f u rn i sh ing h av e a l so a f ec t ed t h e g ene ra l p r e s e rv a t ion a nd d eg r e e o f c omp le tene s s o f t h e s k e le ta l m a t e r ia l . T hu s , s ke le ton s d i spo sed o fi nc i s t o rb u i l t g r ave s e . g . i n L BA S pa th e s , L BA /E IA T r e i s E l ie s a nd E IA Mak r ig ia lo s a r e c ha r ac te r i sed o ve ra l lb y ag r ea te r d eg r ee o f c omp le t en e s s t h an t h o s e i n E BA Mak r ig ia lo s a nd E BA /LBA K o r ino s d i spo s ed o fi np i t g r ave s w he r e t h e s o i l h ad d i r e c tc on tac tw i th a nd t h u sp r e s su r eo nt h er ema in s

P opu la t ion

E xpe c t ed v a lue ( 3 7 x MN I

O b se rv ed

0/0

EN N ea N iko rnede ia

1 258 2 664

6 10

I S

LN Mak r ig ia lo sI

4 69

1 8

LN Mak r ig ia lo sl i2

4 44

5 0

1

E BA Mak r ig ia lo s

3 70

1 6 3

4 4

E BA G ou le s

1 369

3 77

2 6

E BA K o i lada

6 290

2 738

4 4

E BA /LBA K o r ino s

1 99

2 2

L BA S pa the s

8 88 9 99

5 02

5 0

L BA /E IA T re is E l ie s

1 295

5 42

4 2

E IA Mak r ig ia lo s E IA O lympus t umu l i

1 998

1 066

5 3

1 295

5 77

4 5

T ab le 4 . 1 : O vera l l f r equenc ie so fc omp le tene s so ft h e s ke le ta l r ema in s c a se s t ud y c eme ter y p opu la t ions

1MN I :

3

( e xpec ted /ob served a nd p er cen tage r a te ) i nt h e

M in imum N umb e ro fI nd iv idua l s . Mak r ig ia lo s Ih a sn o tb een c on s id e r ed i nt h eo s teo log ica la na ly s i sr e g a rd ing e a ch c eme te r ys e pa r a te ly d u et ot h e e x t r eme ly f r agmen ta r yc ond i t ion o ft h eh uman r ema in sa nd t h er e su l t ing i n su ff i c ien cy o fa na tom ica lp ar t sf o rr e l iab le a ge ing a nd s e x ing . I th a sb een c on s ide red . h ow ev e r , i nt h eg eog r aph ica la nd c h rono log ic a l g r oup sd i scu s sed a tt h ee nd o fe a ch c hap te r . T ee th h av eb een e xc luded f r om e s t ima tes o ft he c omp le teness o ft h es k e le ta l r ema in s . 2L N

3

3 1

P ALAEODEMOGRAPHY

E nv ironmen ta l b i a s es i n c lude a r a nge o f e x t r in s ic f a c to r s r e la t ed t o t h e t a phonom ic e nv i ronm en t a nd p roce s se s f o l low ing t h eb u r ia l o ft h e d e cea sed a nd a r e h i gh ly a f ec ted b y t h e t y pe o fs o i l . w a t e r , t empe ra tu r e a nd a i r ( Go rdon a nd B u ik s t r a 1 981 ; H end e r son 1 987 ) . I n t h e c a se s t udy p opu la t ion s , t h e d i sa s t rou s e f e c t s o f t h e e nv i ronmen ta l p roce s s e s c an b e s e en c l ea r ly i n E BA G ou le s w he r e t h e l a rg e s t p ropor t ion o f t h e c eme te ry a r ea u s ed t o b e l y ing u nde rwa te r o n t h e b ed o f t h e a r t if ic ia l l a k e o f t h e r i ve r H a l iakmon i n We s te rn Macedon ia , r e su l t ing i n t h e e x t r eme ly p oo ra nd f r agmen tar y p r e s e rva t ion o ft h e s k e le ta l m a te r ia l . A l so , l o ca l f a una a nd f l o r a , i n c lud ing m ic ro - a nd m ac ro -o rgan i sm s , m ay p l ay a m a jo r r o le i n b one p r e s e rv a t ion . I ti sw or th m en t ion ing t h e b ad c ond i t ion o f t h e s k e le ton s i n S pa th e s a nd T re i s E l ie s w h ich h av e b een l a rg e ly e r oded b y p l an t r o o t s a nd a l so w ea th e r ed d ue t o p o s t -mor tem e xpo su r e o f s ome o f t h e b on e s t o e r o s iona l a gen c ie s ( s un , r a in ) f o r q u i te l o ng p e r iod s . D amage a f ec t ing p a r t icu la r ly t h e s pongy p a r t s o ft h e s k e le ton ( e .g . a r t icu la rj o in t s ) c an a l so c au s e m a rk s o n t h e b on e m a te r ia l w h ich c an b e e a s i ly m i s taken a s o s teo ly t ic o r o t he r a bno rma l l e s ion s i n p a laeopa tho log ica l i n v e s t iga t ion . S im i la r ly , i n sec t sa nd m amma l s( e .g . r o d en t se t c . ) c an c au se s e r iou s d amage a nd d i s tu rb t h e b ody a f te r b u r ia l , f o r e xamp le b y r emov ing s ma l l b one s a nd t e e th . T he i n te r f e r ence o fr oden t s , i np a r t icu la r , h a sb een r e cogn i s ed i n t h e m a jo r i ty o ft h ec a s es t udy c eme te r ie s .

C o l lec t ion a nd r e ten t ion , i n vo lv ing b ox ing , l a be l l ing a nd s t o r ing o ft h e s k e l e ta l m a te r ia l , i si ns om ec a se s p a r t icu la r ly p oo r . O f c ou r s e , d if i cu l t e xcava t ion c ond i t ion s , t im e p r e s su r e a nd m in ima l f u nd ing h ave l e d t op oo r e x cava t ion t e chn ique sa nd m e thod s ,b u t ac omb ina t ion o fp oo rl a b e l l ing a nd i n adequa te c ond i t ion s o f c u ra t ion h a s h ad a n a dv e r s e e f ec t o n t h e r e co rd ing a nd p r e s e rva t ion o f t h e s k e le ta l r ema in s r e cove r ed . A l so . t h e l o ng te rm s t o rage o f s om e s k e le ta l r ema in s i n d amp . i n app rop r ia te s t o r e room s , d i s tu rbed a dd i t iona l ly b y i n sec t s a nd r o d en t s . h a s o bv iou s ly r e su l ted i n d amage t o ap ropo r t ion o f t h e r e cov e r ed p opu la t ion s . I na dd i t ion t ot h ee x t r in s ic f a c to r sd e sc r ibed a bove , i n t r in s ic v a r iab le s , t h a ti sa ge ing a nd s e x ing m e t hod sa nd t h e n a tu r e o fh uman b on e h ave a n i mpac t o n t h e d emog r aph ic p i c tu r e o f t h e c a s e s t udy p opu la t ion s ( Ruf f 1 981 ; J a cke s 1 992 ; C hambe r la in 2 000 ) . A g e , s e x a nd p a tho log ic a l c ond i t ion s o f t h e i n d iv idua l ( Hende r son 1 987 ) c an a f ec t t h e d ecompo s i t ion o f h uman b on e . I n p ar t icu la r . p o s tmenop au sa l f ema le s , i mma tu r e i n d iv idua l s ( i . e . i n f an t s a nd c h i ld r en ) a nd e l d e r ly a du l t s ( p e rh ap s d ue t o p oo r ly c a lc if ied b one s ) a r e mo r e a f ec ted b y d e compo s i t ion ( We i s s 1 972 ; Wa lk e r e ta l . 1 988 : S aund e r s 1 9 92 ; Wa lke r 1 995 ) , a l though t h i s i sn o t a lway s t h e c a se ( F a rw e l l a nd Mo l le son 1 993 ) . F ina l ly , c u r ren tt e chn ique so fa g e ing a nd s e x ing a r e o f t en h i gh ly b i a s ed . Mo s to ft h e m e thod su t i l i sed h ave b e en d eve loped a nd t e s ted o n Ame r ic an c o l le c t ion s o fk nown a g e a nd s e x a nd a pp l ied d i r e c t ly t o p a s t h uman p opu la t ion s . T h e a ge ing m e thod s a r e e s pec ia l ly u n r e l iab le f o r t h e o l d a du l t a g e g roup s , r e su l t ing i n s i gn if i can t u nd e r r e p r e sen ta t ion o fi n d iv idua ls a ged a bov e 2 5 y ea r s o l d . T h e l a t te ro bv iou s ly d i s to r ts t h ep a laeodemog raph ic p i c tu r es i n ce t h e m a jo r i t y o f a du l t i n d iv idua l s a ppe a r t o f a l l i n to t h e y oung a du l t a ge g roup s s ot h a t t h e i n f e r red a ve rage a ge a t d ea th i su sua l ly l owe r t h an t h e t r ue v a lu e ( J acke s 1 992 ) . Mo r eove r , w i th r e ga rd t o s ex ing t e chn ique s , a l te ra t ion o f c r an ia l a na tom ica l f e a tu r e s i ne l de r ly w om en w h ich t e nd t o a pp roach a ve r age m a le c ha r ac te r i s t ic s m ay l e ad t o m i s rep r e sen ta t ion o f t h e t r ue p r opo r t ion o f t h e t wo s e x g roup s( Ru f f1 98 1 : Wa lke r 1 995 ) .

F ina l ly , t h e e xcava t ion t e chn iques a nd m e thod o logy h ave s ub s tan t ia l ly c on t r ibu ted t ob o th t h e d eg r ee o fp r e se rva t ion a nd c omp le tene s s o ft h e s k e le ta l r ema in s . B ea r ing i nm ind t h e s a lvag e c ha rac te r o f t h e c a se s t udy e xcava t ion s , i ti s b e com ing a ppa ren t t h a t t h e c ond i t ion o ft h e m a te r ia l c ou ld n o tp o s s ib ly r ema in u naf f ec ted . E x cava t ion i n t erf er ence t e nd s t o o ccu r i n t wo w ay s : 1 ) s e le c t ive c o l lec t ion o fs k e le ton so re ven s k e le ta l p a r t sa nd 2 ) r e la t iv e n eg l ig ence o f g u id e l ine s c on ce rn ing e x cava t ion , c o l lec t ion a nd c u ra t ion o f h uman b one m a te r ia l . W i th r e ga rd t o t h e f o rme r . i n s ome i n s tan ce s , ap r ef e r ence f o r c r an ia l o ve r p o s tc ran ia l e l emen t s a nd m in ima l c a r e i n h and l ing t h e t h o r ax , v e r teb r a l c o lumn a nd r i b s , a nd s ma l l h and a nd f o o tb one sh ave b een n o ted .

S ku l l

S k e le ta le l emen t /Bone p ar t U pper s k e le ton L ow er s k e le ton

O rb i t ' F r on t a l P a r ie t a l T empo r a l O c c ip i t a l S ph en o id

S c apu la 4 C l av i c le 4 H um e ru s R ad iu s U ln a4 H and

4

4

4

4

4

O sc o x a4 F emu r4 T i b i a F i bu l a4 F oo t4 4

T hor ax C e r v i c a lv e r teb r ae T ho r a c i cv e r teb r a e L umb a rv e r teb r ae S a c r um R ib s

4

T ab le 4 . 2 : S ke le ta l e l emen t s a nd b one p ar t s s e lec ted t o b e t e s ted f o r b one r epre sen ta t ion i nt h e c a se s t udy s ke le ta l p opu la t ion s

B o th s i de s 3 2

P ALAEODE MOGRAPHY

LN Makr ig ia lo s I

EN N ea N ikomede ia

E xpec ted /Ob served 0 / 0

% 0

A ge g roup N eona te

E xpec ted /Ob ser ved 2 96 / 112

% 3 8

I n f an t

2 96 / 118

4 0

85 / 18 "1

1 0

C h i ld J uven i le

7 4 /33

4 5

1 1/27 7 4 /46

2 22 / 15 1 85 /27 2 22 /73 3 7 /7

7 1 5 3

0 / 0

0

0 / 0 1 8 13 /329

0 1 8

YA P A

2 96 /210

MA

7 4 /59

2 4 6 2 7 1 8 0

OA

3 5 /5 0 / 0

I 4 0

I n de te rm ina te a du l t

LN Makr ig ia lo s I

--

1 9

EBA Makr ig ia lo s

1

` ) / 0 3 0

7 4 /4

% 5

E xpec ted /Ob served 3 7 / 11

I n f an t

3 7 /0

0

3 7 /21

5 7

C h i ld

0 / 0

0

3 7 /9

2 4

A ge g roup N eona te

E xpec ted /Ob served

0

J uven i le

7 4 /4

5

YA

0 / 0

0

0 / 0 7 4 /34

4 6

P A

0 / 0

0

0 / 0

0

MA

0 / 0

0

0 / 0

0

OA

0 / 0

0

0 / 0

0

I nde te rm ina te a du l t

2 22 /42

1 9

1 85 /88

4 8

A ge g roup N eona te

E xpec ted /Ob ser ved 0 / 0

%

E xpec ted /Ob served

%

0

3 70 /39

9

I n f an t

0 / 0

0

1 554 /424

2 7

C h i ld

11/8

J uven i le

5 18 /240 3 70 /254

4 6 6 9

YA

11/50 2 22 /96

7 4 5 4 3

7 77 /505

P A

22 /75

3 4

9 62 /679

6 5 7 1

MA

1 48 /42

OA

0 / 0

2 8 0

4 8 1/344 7 4 /49

6 6

I n de te rm ina te a du l t

55 / 106

1 9

5 92 / 144

2 4

EBA K o i lada

EBA G ou le s

LBA S pa the s

EBA /LBA K or ino s %

3 6

A ge g roup N eona te

E xpec ted /Ob served 0 / 0

0

E xpec ted /Ob served 0 / 0

' ) / 0 0

I n f an t

0 / 0

0

7 4 / 19

C h i ld

1 48 /52

3 5

7 4 /8

2 6 1

J uven i le

0 / 0

0

7 4 /27

3 6

YA

2 59 /44

1 7

33 /238

7 1

P A

7 4 / 13

1 8

1 48 /94

6 4

MA

0 / 0

0

3 7 /37

1 00

OA

3 7 /33

8 9

3 7 /33

8 9

I n de te rm ina te a du l t

3 70 /57

1 5

2 22 /46

2 1

T ab le 4 . 3 : Overa l l f requenc ies o fc omp le teness o ft he s ke le ta l r e ma ins ( e xpec ted /observed a nd p ercentage r a te ) t ) a ge g roup

3 3

P . 4L 4 EODEMOGRAPHY

LBA /EIA T re is E l ie s

E IA Makr ig ia lo s

A ge g roup N eona te

E xpec ted /Ob served 0 / 0

% 0

E xpec ted /Ob served 0 / 0

I n f an t

0 / 0

C h i ld J uven i le

7 4 /21

0 2 8

1 48 /46 7 4 /46

YA

5 18 /27 1

4 6 5 2 0

1 85 / 103 7 40 /408 4 07 /232

5 7

5 9 0

1 1/87 3 7 /33

2 3

2 22 / 105

7 8 8 9 4 7

3 7 / 17

P A

0 / 0

MA

2 22 / 132

OA I nde te rm ina te a du l t

0 / 0 4 44 / 10 1

A ge g roup N eona te

E xpec ted /Ob served 0 / 0

0

I n f an t

0 / 0

0

C h i ld

7 4 /25

3 4

J uven i le

3 7 /29

7 8

% 0 3 1 6 2 5 6 5

E IA O lympu s t umu l i %

YA

4 44 /205

4 6

P A

2 96 / 176

5 9

MA

1 1/4 1

3 7

OA

0 / 0

0

I n de te rm ina te a du l t

3 33 / 10 1

3 0

ke le ta l r ema in s ( e xpec ted /ob ser ved a nd p er cen tage T ab le 4 . 3 ( c on t inued ) : O vera l l f r equenc ie s o fc omp le tene s s o ft he s r a te ) b y a ge g roup T o e s t ima te t h e d eg r ee o f c omp le tene s s o f t h e s k e le ta l r ema in s i n t h e c a se s t udy c eme te r ie s , t h e n umb e r s o f i d en t if iab le e l emen t sh ave b een e xp re s sed a s ap e r cen tage o f e xp ec ted v a lue s . T he e xp ec ted v a lue s h ave b e en c ompu ted b y t h e m u l t ip l ica t ion o f t h e MN I r e co rded i n e a ch b u r ia l a s semb lage b y 3 7 ( t he n umb e r o f i d en t if iab le s k e le ta l e l emen t ss e lec ted t ob e t e s ted f o rp r e s ence o ra b sen ce i nt h e s k e le ta l m a te r ia l ( Tab le 4 . 1 ) . T he s k e le ta l e l em en t s c on s ide r ed h e r e i n c lud e b o th s i de s o f t h e p o s tc r an ia l a nd c r an ia l s k e le ton , w h i le s ome a n a tom ica l r e g ion s h ave b een c oun ted a so ve ra l l u n i t s s u ch a st h e h and . f o o t , r i b s , p e lv i s . c e rv ica l , t h o r ac ic , l umba r a nd s a c r a l v e r teb r ae ( T ab le 4 . 2 ) . T h e s am e t e s t h a s a l so b een a pp l ied b y a ge a nd s e x g r oup s i no rde rt oa s se s sc omp le tene s so ft h e s k e le ton sa c co rd ing t o t h e a bove v a r iab le s . T h e se c a lcu la t ion s s how t h a t LN Mak r ig ia lo s Ia nd I h uman r ema in sh ave t h e l e a s tc omp le te s k e le ta l m a te r ia l ( 1 8% a nd 1 % ) , a s e xp ec ted . d ue t o c u l tu ra l b i a se s a l ready d e sc r ibed , w h i le E IA Mak r ig ia lo s ( 5 3% ) h a s p rov ided t h e mo s t c omp le te b u r ia l a s semb lage . O v e r a l l , f o u r g roup s c an b e d i s t ingu i shed w i th r e ga rd t o s k e le ta lc omp le tene s s : 1 ) E x t r eme ly p oor p r es er va t ion -b e low 2 0% , s u ch a s LN Mak r ig ia lo s Ia nd I ( du e t o c on t inuou s r e -u se o f t h e d i tch a nd s e t t lemen td epo s i t s ) 2 ) l er yp oor p r es er va t ion -b e tw een 2 0% a nd 4 0% , s u ch a s E BA G ou le s ( d ue t o r i ve r -wa te r c ond i t ion s ) a nd E BA /LBA K o r ino s( due t oa c id s o i l ) , 3 ) P oor p reser va t ion -b e tween 4 0% a nd 5 0% , s u ch a s EN N ea N ikomede ia , E BA Mak r ig ia lo s , E BA K o i lada . L BA /E IA T r e is E l ie s a nd E IA O lympu s t umu l i ( d ue t o e x cava t ion a nd r e ten t ion b i a s )a nd 4 ) G ood p r es e rva t ion -a bove 5 0% , s u ch a s L BA S pa the s a nd E IA Mak r ig ia lo s .

S im i la r ly , w i th r e ga rd t ot h e c omp le tene s s o f t h e s k e le ta l m a te r ia l i n d if e r en t a ge g roup s ( Tab le 4 . 3 ) , i ti ss t r ik ing t h a t , c on t r ar y t ot h e l i t e r a tu re d e s c r ib ed a bove , h a lf o ft h e c a se s t udy p opu la t ion s a r e r e p r e s en ted b y r e la t ive ly c omp le te a du l t s k e le ton s , i n c lud ing p r im e , m a tu r e a nd o l d a du l t i n d iv idua l s . O n t h e o t he r h and , t h e l e s s c omp le te s k e le ta l m a te r ia l h a s b e en p rov ided b y t h e s ubadu l t a ge c a tego r ie s w h ich i sc on s i s ten t w i th t h e g ene ra l e xpec ta t ion o fa n o ve r a l l u nde r r ep r e sen ta t ion o fs u badu l t s i nc eme te ry c o l lec t ion sd ue t op r e s e rv a t ion f a c to r s( S aunde r s 1 992 ) . F o r n eona te , i n f an t a nd c h i ld a ge c a tego r i e s , t h e e x cep t iona l ly g ood r e p r e sen ta t ion i n EN N ea N ikom ed e ia c on t r a s t s w i th t h e i r p oo r s t a te a t LN Mak r ig ia lo s I ,E BA G ou le s , E BA K o i lada , L BA S pa the sa nd E IA Mak r ig ia lo s . F ina l ly , a na ly s i s b y s e x g roup ( Tab le 4 . 4 ) r e vea l s ab e t t e r r e p r e sen ta t ion o f m a le s k e le ta l m a te r ia l i n a l l c eme te ry p opu la t ion s w i th t h e e x cep t ion o f LN Mak r ig ia lo s I ,E BA Mak r ig ia lo s a nd L BA S pa the s w he r e f em a le i n d iv idua l s h ave ah i ghe rd eg r e e o fc omp le tene s s . T h e p a t te rn o fm a le s k e le ton s h av ing h i ghe r r e p r e sen ta t ion i sc on s i s ten t w i th s y s tema t ic b i a s i ns k e le ta l s e x ing i nf a vou r o fm a le s ( We i s s 1 972 ) O ve r a l l , t h e c a se s t udy s k e le ta l m a te r ia l i si n ap oo r a nd f r agm en ta r y s t a te o f p r e se rva t ion , d u e t ov a r iou s t y pe s o f c u l tu ra l . e nv i ronmen ta l a nd e xcava t ion / re ten t ion b i a se s . T he se f a c to r s o bv iou s ly p l a ce c on s t r a in t s o n t h e d emog raph ic a na ly s i s a nd m ak e i td if i cu l t t o s t anda rd i se t h e e l even d if e r en t p opu la t ion g r oup s u s ed i n t h e c a se s t udy . F ina l ly , a s a l r ead y n o ted , t h e b u r ia l a s s emb lage s i n ve s t iga ted r e p r e s en t a l a rg e r a nge o f d if e r en t ia l p r e ser va t ion a nd c omp le tene s sr e f lec ted m a in ly i nt h e 3 4

P . 4L4E0DE 'AIOGR4PHI

d i spropor t iona te r epresen ta t ion o f a g e a nd s ex g roup s .

o f

H av ing c on s idered t h e s pec if ic l im i ta t ion s o f t h e n a ture o f t h e s amp le , t h e m e thodo logy a nd r e su l ts o f t h e

u nde te rm ined s ex c a tegory w as a s s igned . d emons t ra t ing t h e

t h e

a bove

s k e le ta l

e l emen t s

w as

a va i lab le ,

a n

i n ef f ec t ivene ss o fc ur ren t m ac roscop ic s ex ing t e chn ique s i n f r agmen tary . p oor ly p reserved s ke le ta l a s semb lages .

p a laeodemog raph ic a na lys is w i l lb ed esc r ibed n ex t .

E s t ima t ion o fa ge a td ea th w as b ased p r ima r i ly o n t h e t e e th ,

4 . 3 . METHODOLOGY

d ue t ot h e ir r e la t ive ly g ood p re serva t ion , a nd s e conda r i ly o n o ther a na tom ica l p o in ts w he re a va i lab le . T hu s . s ubadu l ts

Me thod s o f s ex d e te rm ina t ion h ave b een a pp l ied o n ly t o a du l ts ( a bove 1 8 y ear s o l d ) . T he s ex e s t ima t ion o f a du l ts

w e re a ged o n t h e b a se s o fd en ta l d eve lopmen t (Moo rees e t a l . 1 963 a : 1 963 b ) a nd e p iphysea l c l o su re ( S tee le a nd B ramb le t t 1 988 : U be lake r 1 978 ) . I n a dd i t ion , where n o

w as b a sed o n t he a va i lab le p e lv ic a nd c r an ia l morpho logy a nd l ong b one measuremen ts . S pec if ica l ly . morpho logy o f t h e o s c oxa h as b een c ons ide red a s t h e mo s t r e l iab le s ex

t e e th w e re a va i lab le , l ong b one l e ng th mea su remen t s w e re c on s ide red ( Hoppa 1 991 ; 1 992 ) . A du l t s ke le ton s w e re a ged

i nd ica to r ( Phen ice 1 969 : K e l ley 1 978 ; 1 979 ; K rogman a nd ' s can 1 986 ; Mac L augh l in a nd B ruce 1 986 ; L ove l l 1 989 : S u the r land a nd S uchey 1 991) . When t h e p e lv is w as n o t

o n a c omb ina t ion o f m e thod s , d epend ing o n wh ich a na tom ica l p o in ts w e re b e s t p re served . I n d e scend ing o rde r

w e l l p re served , l e ss r e l iab le s ex i nd ica to r s w e re u sed , s uch

o f r e l iab i l i t y ,

a s

s ymphy sea l morpho log y , a cco rd ing t o S uchey a nd B rook s '

c r an ia l

morpho logy

a nd

s ke le ta l

r obu s t ic i ty ,

a s

t h e

t e chn ique s

u t i l ised

i n c luded :

p ub ic

s y s tem f o ra ge d e te rm ina t ion f r om t h eo s p ub is ( Ka tz a nd

r e presen ted b y l ong b one m easu remen t s ( Be r r izbe i t ia 1 989 : H o l land 1 991 : H o lman a nd B enne t t 1 991) . F ina l ly , i fn one

E NN ea N ik omede ia S ex g r oup Ma le F ema le

5

E xpec ted /Ob ser ved 1 4 8 / 112 33 /208

7 6 6 2

L N Makr ig ia lo s 1 E xpec ted /Ob served 33 /40 88 / 137

L N Makr ig ia lo s I S ex g r ou Ma le F ema le

E xpec ted /Ob served 3 7 /2 0 / 0

S ex g r ou Ma le F ema le

E xpec ted /Ob ser ved 1 1/87 33 /232

S ex g r ou Ma le F ema le

E xpec ted /Ob served 22 /77 5 18 /70

S ex g r oup Ma le F ema le

E xpec ted /Ob ser ved 55 /304 6 29 / 200

S ex g r ou Ma le F ema le

E xpec ted /Ob ser ved 55 /28 1 6 29 /242

' ) / 0 5 0

E BA Makr ig ia lo s E xpec ted /Ob served 1 8 5 /94 3 7 / 24

E BA G ou le s 7 8 7 0

$ 3 / 0 6 3 5 3

L BA S pa the s E xpec ted /Ob ser ved 22 /88 55 / 350

L BA /E IA T r e i s E l ie s % 5 3 2

` ) / 0 5 1 6 5

E BA K o i lada E xpec ted /Ob ser ved 1 2 58 /907 1 4 43 /768

E BA /LBA K or ino s 3 5 1 4

1 2 1 5

4 0 6 3

E IA Makr ig ia lo s E xpec ted /Ob served 33 /2 12 184 /653

' ) / 0 6 4 5

E IA O lympu s t umu l i 5 1 3 8

T ab le 4 . 4 : Overa l l f requenc ie s o fc omp le tenes so ft he s ke le ta l r ema ins ( e xpec ted /observed a nd p ercen tage r a te ) b y s ex g roup

5

On ly s e xed i nd iv idua ls h ave b een c oun ted .

3 5

S uchey 1 986 ; B rook s a nd S uchey 1 989 ) ; d en ta l a t t r i t ion , p r imar i ly a f te r M i le s ( M i le s 1 963 a ; 1 963 b ) a nd s e conda r i ly a f te r t h e s c heme o f B ou t s a nd P o t ( 1 989 ) ; e p iphy s ea l c omp le t ion ( B ro thw e l l 1 981 ; U be lake r 1 978 ; S t ee le a nd B r amb le t t 1 988 ) ; c hang e st ot h ea u r icu la rs u r f ace o ft h e i l i um , f o l low ing L ov e joy a nd c o -wo rke r s ( Love joy e t a l . 1 985 ) ; a nd t h e e c toc r an ia l s u tu r e c l o su r e m e thod ( Me ind la nd L ov e joy 1 985 ) .

t h a t e x cava ted c em e te r y p opu la t ion s r e p r e sen t o n ce c omp le t e l i v ing p opu la t ion s ( Moo r e e ta l . 1 975 ; B ocque t A ppe l a nd Ma s s e t 1 982 ; B u ik s t r a a nd K on ig sbe rg 1 985 ; B u ik s t r a a nd M ie lke 1 985 ; v an G er v en a nd A rm e lago s 1 983 ; Wood e ta l . 1 992 ; C hambe r la in 2 000 ) . T he c u r r en t a s se s sm en t o ft h e c a s e s t udy p r eh i s to r ic p opu la t ion s s h ou ld n o t b e s e en . t h e r ef o r e .a s at r ue r e p r e s en ta t ion o f p a s t p opu la t ion d ynam ic sa s aw ho le . R a the r . i th a sb een u s ed a s at o o l f o r c ompa r ing d if e ren t p opu la t ion s w i th e ach o t h e r a nd w i th m ode rn s t anda rd t a b le s -t h a t i s , f o r c ompa r ing o t he rw i se i n compa rab le s amp le s .

I no rde rt om in im i se e s t ima t ion e r ro ri na g e ing , e i gh t b r oad a ge c a tego r ie s w e r e d ef ined , b a sed o n c r i te r ia r e la ted t o d en ta l d eve lopmen t a nd e p iphy sea l c omp le t ion o f l o ng b one s f o r s ubadu l t s a nd d egene r a t iv e p ro ce s se s a nd d eg r ada t ion f o r a du l t s : 1 )n eona t e : b i r th t o o ne y ea r . 2 ) i n f an t : 1y ea rt o 6y ea r s , 3 )c h i ld : 6t o1 2y ea r s , 4 )j uv en i l e : 1 2 t o 1 8 y ea r s . 5 )y oung a du l t : 1 8 t o 3 0 y ea r s , 6 )p r ime a d u l t : 3 0 t o4 0y ea r s , 7 )m a tur e a d u l t : 4 0 t o5 0y ea r sa nd 8 ) o ld a d u l t : 5 0+ y ea r s . I ti sn o tab le t h a t t h e a ge i n te rv a l s o f t h e p ropo sed g roup s e xp and w i th i n c r ea s ing a ge w h i le t h e a c cu ra cy o fa ge ing t e chn ique sd e c r ea se s .

I n t h e l i f e t a b le s p rodu ced f o r t h e c a s e s t udy p opu la t ion s , f ou r v a lue s h ave b een t a bu la ted , w h ich e f ec t ive ly e xp r e s s t h e s ame d a ta i n d if e r en t w ay s . F i r s t . Dx i st h e a b so lu te n umbe ro fi n d iv idua l sc a lcu la ted t oh ave d i ed w i th in e a ch o f t h e a g e i n t e rva l s d ef in ed a bov e . Many i n d iv idua l s c ou ld o n ly b ea s s ign ed t ot h ev e ry b road a g ec a tego r ie so fs ubadu l t a nd a du l t ( Tab le 4 . 5 ) . T he se i n d iv idua l s o ft h e " unknown " a g e c a tego r ie s h ave b e en d i s tr ibu ted p r opo r t iona te ly a c ro s s t h e s ubadu l t a nd a du l t a g e i n te rva l s r e p r e sen ted i n e a ch c eme te ry p opu la t ion i no rd e r t ob e u t i l i s ed i nt h e c a se s t udy l i f e t a b le s ( Chambe r la in 1 994 ) . S econd ly , m or ta l i ty r a t es h ave b een e s t ima ted b y dx,w h ich i st h e p e r cen tag e o ft h e t o ta l s amp le d y ing w i th in t h e d ef in ed a g e c a tegor y a nd i s

V a lue s s u ch a s m o r ta l i ty r a t e s ( dx) ,s u rv ivo r sh ip ( lx)a nd p robab i l i t y o fd ea th ( qx) ,w h ich u sua l ly a ppea ri nl i f e t a b le s , h av e b een a dop ted i n t h e c u r r en t a na ly s i s i n o rde r t o c ompa r e t h e p r eh i s to r ic p opu la t ion s w i th e xpec ta t ion s d e r ived f r om m ode l l i f e t a b le s . T he C oa le a nd D emeny ( 1 969 ) We s t s e r ie s , w i th al i f e e xpec tancy a tb i r th o ft h ir ty , h a s b een u sed a s ab a se l ine h uman d emog raph ic p a t te rn w i th w h ich t oc ompa r et h e o v e r a l l s hape o ft h e d i s t r ibu t ion . I ti si mpo r tan t t on o te c on t rove r sy r e ga rd ing t h e u s e o fl i f e t a b le si np a laeodemog raphy o nt wo p o in t s : 1 )t h ep e r cep t ion o ft h es amp le sa ss t ab le p opu la t ion sa nd 2 )t h ea s sump t ion

c ompu ted a s1 00 xW ED , . T h i rd ly . s ur v ivor sh ip , t h a ti sl . r ef l ec t s t h e p e r cen tag e o f a n i n i t ia l p opu la t ion c oho r t r ema in ing a l ive a t t h e e nd o f t h e d ef in ed a ge i n te r va l s , n ame ly l x= 1 ,1dx. 1. T hu s , s u rv ivo r sh ip d ec r ea se s a te a ch s u c ce s s ive a ge i n te rva l ,f r om am ax imum v a lu ea tb i r th o f

S UBADI TLT AGE GROUP P opu la t ion EN N ea N iko rnede ia LN Mak r ig ia lo sI LN Mak r ig ia lo sI E BA Mak r ig ia lo s E BA G ou le s EBA K o i lad a E BA /LBA K o r ino s LBA S pa th e s LBA T r e i sE l ie s

N eona te 8 0

I nf an t 8 4

2

1

1

1

0 1 0

0 4 2

0 0

0 2 0 4 0

Ch i ld 2

J uven i le 3

5 0

4

1 3 1 4

0

I nde term ina te s ubadu l t 0 3 0 0

2 3 1 0

4

0

0 1 6 0

2

0 0

2

2 1 5

2

1

E IA Mak r ig ia lo s

0 0

2

E IA O lympu st umu l i

0

P opu la t ion EN N ea N ikomede ia LN Mak r ig ia lo s I

VA

PA

2 6

s

MA 2

1

0

OA 1 0

LN Mak r ig ia lo sI

0

0

7

2 6 2 1

0 0 6

0

E BA Mak r ig ia lo s

0 4

0 0

1 5

2 6

1 3

2

2

L BA S pa th e s

9

L BA T r e i sE l ie s E IA Mak r ig ia lo s

1 4

4 0

0 I

1 1

1 6

7

6

0

1 2

2 0

I

6

1 2

8

3 3

1

E IA O lympu st umu l i

0

9

2 0

ADULT AGE GROUP

E BA G ou le s EBA K o i lad a E BA /LBA K o r ino s

I nde term ina te a du l t

T ab le 4 . 5 : N umber o fi nd iv idua l sb y a ge g roup b e f ore p ropor t iona te r ed i s tr ibu t ion

3 6

0 4 9 5

1 0 6

P . 4L4E0DE MOGRAPHY

1 00 t o z e ro a t t h e a ge a t wh ich t h e l a s t s u rv ivo r d i e s ( Ha s san 1 9 81 ; B u ik s t r a a nd M ie lke 1 985 ; C hambe r la in 2 000 ) . F our th ly , t h ep robab i l i ty o fd y ing w i th in e ach a ge i n te rva l , q , i sc ompu ted a s dx/ lx. I n a dd i t ion , i n o rde r t o c ompa r e a g e spec if ic p robab i l i ty o fd ea th i ne ach c eme tery p opu la t ion t o t he mode l l i f e t a b le v a lue s , p robab i l i ty o f d ea th h a s b e en -c o r rec ted " f o r t h e l i f e y ea r s r e p re sen ted b y e ach a g ei n te rva l ( t ) ,b yc ompu t ing qx/ t .w he r e t= t h el e ng th o ft he a ge i n terva l .

s i gn if ican t ly r e duced t h e s i ze o f t h e s amp le s : 1 ) t h e a pp l ica t ion o fs ex ing m e thod s o n ly t oa du l t i nd iv idua l s a nd 2 ) t h e r e la t ive ly l a rge n umbe r o f i nde te rm ina te i nd iv idua ls r e co rded , w ho se s ex w a s i mpo s s ib le t o d ef ine . T he ref o re , d emog raph ic a na ly s i s c once rn ing s e x g roup s h a s b een l im i ted t ot h e r e p re sen ta t ion o f mor ta l i ty r a te s w i th in e ach b u r ia l a s semb lage a nd t ot h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e s exe sb y a ge g roup . T he s hape o f mor ta l i ty c urve sf o re ach s ex g roup h a s a l so b een c ompa red w i th e xpec ted e s t ima t ion s d e r ived f r om mode l l i f et a b le s ( Coa le a nd D emeny 1 969 ) .

R ega rd ing t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f s ex g roup s i n t h e c a se s t udy c eme te r y p opu la t ion s , t wo p r inc ipa l p rob lem s h ave

(I rono logy /Reg ion ( o ' a s ta l

E ar ly p opu la t ion s n,6 5 N ea N ikomed e ia , L Na nd E BA Mak r ig ia lo s

L a te p opu la t ion s n —7 8 K o r ino s .E IA Mak r ig ia lo s

I n land

n —2 07 K o i lad a ,G ou le s

n —9 7 S p a th e s ,T r e i sE l ie s ,O lympu st umu l i

T ab le 4 . 6 : G roup ing o ft he c a se s t ud

p opu la t ions a ccord ing t og eograph ica l a nd c hrono log ica l v ar iab le s

T he a na ly s i s o f t h e d emog raph ic p a rame te r s h a s b een c onduc ted a t t wo l e ve l s : 1 ) b e tween t h e c a se s t udy p opu la t ion s a nd 2 ) w i th in g eog raph ica l a nd c h rono log ica l g roup s . T o t h i s e nd , t h e s t udy p opu la t ion s h ave b een g rouped c h rono log ica l ly , a s e a r ly o r l a te , a nd g eog raph ica l ly . a si n land o rc oa s ta l ( Tab le 4 . 6 ) .

( ma tu re a nd /o r o l d a du l t s ) . F ac to r s c on t r ibu t ing t ot h is p a t te rn , w h ich i n c lude p r e serva t iona l , f une ra ry a nd m e thodo log ica l e f ec ts , a r e d i scu s sed b e low when t he c a se s t udy m or ta l i ty p rof i le s a nd s u rv ivo r sh ip c u rve s a r e c ompar ed w i th t h e mode l l i f et a b le s . D . Two b u r ia l a s semb lage s , E BA /LBA K o r ino s a nd L BA /E IA T re i s E l ie s , h ave a n u neven d i s t r ibu t ion o f a du l t a ge c a tego r ie s , w i th al a ck o ft h e i n termed ia te a ge g roup s o f m a ture a nd p r ime a d u l t s r e spec t ive ly ( s ee s haded a r ea s i nt h e r e spec t ive c eme te r ie s o fT ab le 4 . 7 ) . I n a dd i t ion , E BA Mak r ig ia lo s a nd E BA /LBA K o r ino s

4 . 4 .1 . I NTER -CE METERY ANALYSIS : I se verybody h ere? T ab le 4 . 7 s umma r i se s t h e v a lue s o f t h e d emog raph ic p a rame te r sb a sed o n t h e d eve lop ing d emog raph ic d ynam ic s b y a ge g roup i n t h e c a se s t udy b u r ia l a s semb lage s . O n ly

h ave n oe v idence o fj uven i le i nd iv idua l s . T he a b sence o f i n te rmed ia te a ge g roup s m ay i nd ica te t ha t t h e d emog raph ic c ompo s i t ion o ft h e se c eme ter y p opu la t ion s

mor ta l i ty p r of i le sa nd s u rv ivo r sh ip c urve sw i l lb ec on s ide r ed i n d e ta i l a s t he se s u ff ice t o d raw a t ten t ion t o t h e d emog raph ic p rope r t ie s o f t h e a s semb lage s . T he s haded a r ea s i nT ab le 4 . 7 i nd ica te a g e g roup s f o r w h ich n o i nd iv idu a l s h ave b een r e co rded .

i sl a rge ly s haped b y s amp l ing p rob lem s . F igu re s 4 . 1 a nd 4 . 2 6h ave b een b a sed o n t h e m or ta l i ty r a te s ( o h ) a l ready p r e sen ted i nT ab le 4 . 7 . T he l i ne s upe r impo sed o n t h e b a r g r aph s c o r re spond s t o t h e m o r ta l i ty p rof i le c a lcu la ted f r om mod e l l i f et a b le We s t s e r ie s ( Coa le a nd

I t i s w or th n o t ing f ou r p o in t s w h ich a r e i mmed ia te ly a ppa ren ti nT ab le 4 . 7 : A . On ly t wo o u t o f t e n b ur ia l a s semb lage s . EN N ea N ikom ede ia a nd EBA K o i lada , h ave p rov ided d ea th s w i th in a l la ge c a tegor ies . B . I n e i gh t o u t o f t e n c eme tery p opu la t ion s , t h e l a rge s t n umbe ro fd ea th sf a l l si nt h ey oung a du l tc a tego ry .

D ue t ot h e l a rge n umbe ro fc eme ter yp opu la t ion si n c luded i nt h e s t udy , t h ed emog raph ic p a rame te r sa na ly sed i nd e ta i l , mor ta l i ty p rof i le sa nd s urv ivo r sh ip c u rve s , h ave b een d rawn i ns epa ra te g raph sf o rt h eN eo l i th ic -Ea r ly B ronze A ge a nd t h eL a te B ronze -Ea r ly I r on A ge b u r ia l a s semb lage s r e spec t ive ly . 6

C . T he a g e g roups s y s tema t ica l ly m is s ing f r om t h e c eme te r yp opu la t ion s( s ee s haded a r ea s i nT ab le 4 . 7 ) a r e e a r ly ( n eona te s a nd /o r i n f an t s ) a nd /o ro l da ge c a tego r ie s

3 7

PALAEODE AIOGRAPHY

E ar ly N eo l i th ic

Makr ig ia lo s I( n 72 )

e aN ikomede ia ( n=34 )

A ge ( x )

D „

ds

I s

qs

qs/ t

A ge ( x )

Ds

ds

I s

q x

N eona te

8

2 3 .52

1 00 .00

0 . 2352

0 . 2352

0 5

qs/ t

6 . 94

1 00 .00

0 . 0694

0 . 0 138

6

8 . 33

9 3 .06

0 . 0895

0 . 0 149

8

2 3 .52

7 6 .48

0 . 3075

0 . 06 15

N eona te I n f an t

2

5 . 88

5 2 .96

0 . 1110

0 . 0 185

C h i ld

J uven i le

3

8 . 82

4 7 .08

0 . 1873

0 . 0312

J uven i le

5

6 . 94

8 4 .73

0 . 08 19

0 . 0 136

YA

2

5 . 88

3 8 .26

0 . 1536

0 . 0 128

YA

4 8

6 6 .66

7 7 .79

0 .9982

0 . 0682

PA

8

2 3 .52

3 2 .38

0 . 7263

0 . 0726

PA

8

1 .11

1 .13

0 . 9972

0 . 0997

MA

2

5 . 88

8 . 86

0 . 6636

0 . 0663

MA

0

OA

1

2 . 94

2 . 98

0 . 9865

0 . 0394

OA

0

-I n f an t C h i ld

E ar l . ) B ronze A ge G ou le s ( n=37 )

ERA Mak r ig ia lo s( n=10 )

0 . 022

I n f an t

0

0 . 020

C h i ld

7 0 .00

0 . 00

0 . 00

J uven i le

7 0 .00

1 . 00

0 . 083

1 0 .00

1

1 0 .00

J uven i le

0

0 . 00 7 0 .00

0

0 . 0 146

0 . 11 0 . 125

1

C h i ld

OA

0 . 0 135

0 .088 1

9 0 .00 8 0 .00

I n f an t

0

0 . 08 1

9 1 .90

0

1 00 .00

MA

1 00 .00

8 . 10

N eona te

1 0 .00

7

8 . 10

3

Ds

0 . 1

1

0

3

A ge ( x )

I ,

YA

I s

qs/ t

ds

PA

ds

q x 0 . 1

Ds

A ge ( x ) N eona te

, .

q ,

qs/ t

YA

1 2

3 2 .43

8 3 .80

0 . 3869

0 . 0322

PA

1 2

3 2 .43

5 1 .37

0 .6313

0 . 063 1

MA

7

1 8 .9 1

1 8 .94

0 .9984

0 . 0998

OA

0 ge K or ino s ( n=24 ) E ar ly /La te B ronze A

ronze Age K o i lada ( n=179 ) E a r ly B A ge ( x )

Ds

ds

I s

A ge ( x )

Ds

1 2

7 . 05

1 00 .00

q x 0 . 0705

qs/ t

N eona te

0 . 0705

N eona te

0

I n f an t

5 1

3 0 .00

9 2 .95

0 . 3227

0 . 0645

I n f an t

0

C h i ld

1 7

1 0 .00

6 2 .95

0 . 1588

0 . 0264

C h i ld

4

J uven i le

1 2

7 . 05

5 2 .95

0 . 133 1

0 . 0221

J uven i le

0

ds

l x

q x

qs/ t

1 6 .66

1 00 .00

0 . 1666

0 . 0277

YA

2 6

1 5 .29

4 5 .90

0 . 3331

0 . 0277

YA

1 4

5 8 .33

8 3 .34

0 .6999

0 . 0583

PA

3

1 9 .4 1

3 0 .6 1

0 . 634 1

0 . 0634

P A

4

1 6 .66

2 5 .0 1

0 . 666 1

0 . 0666

MA

1 6

9 . 4 1

1 .20

0 . 840 1

0 . 0840

MA

0

OA

3

1 . 76

1 . 79

0 . 9832

0 . 0393

OA

2

8 . 33

8 . 35

0 . 9976

0 . 0399

L a te B ronze /Ea r ly I ron Age T re i sE l ie s ( n=35 )

n=27 ) L a te B ronze Age S pa the s (

ds

I s

q x

c h i t

2

5 . 7 1

1 00 .00

0 . 057 1

0 . 0095

1

2 . 85

9 4 .29

0 . 0302

0 . 0050

YA

2 2

6 2 .85

9 1 .44

0 . 6873

0 . 0057

0 . 0749

P A

0

0 . 4973

0 . 0497

MA

1 0

2 8 .57

2 8 .59

0 . 9993

0 . 0999

0 . 9893

0 . 0395

OA

0

A ge ( x )

Ds

N eona te

0

0 . 0 148

I n f an t

0

0 . 0 133

C h i ld

0 . 0868

0 . 0 144

J uven i le

7 7 .80

0 . 6 187

0 . 0515

2 2 .22

2 9 .66

0 .749 1

1

3 . 70

7 . 44

1

3 . 70

3 . 74

ds

I s

qs

A ge ( x )

Ds

N eona te

0

I n f an t

2

7 . 40

1 00 .00

0 . 074

C h i ld

2

7 . 40

9 2 .60

0 . 0799

J uven i le

2

7 . 40

8 5 .20

YA

1 3

4 8 .14

PA

6

MA OA

qs/ t

E ar ly I ron A ge O lympus t umu l i( n=3 . 5 )

E ar ly I ron Age Makr ig ia lo s ( n=54 ) A ge ( x )

Ds

N eona te

0

d ,

l ,

q x

qs/ t

A ge ( x )

Ds

N eona te

0

ds

l s

q x

qx/ t

I n f an t

5

9 . 25

1 00 .00

0 . 0925

0 . 0 185

I n f an t

0

C h i ld

2

3 . 70

9 0 .75

0 . 0407

0 . 0067

C h i ld

2

5 . 7 1

1 00 .00

0 . 057 1

0 . 0095

J uven i le

6

1 .11

8 7 .05

0 . 1276

0 . 0212

J uven i le

1

2 . 85

9 4 .29

0 . 0302

0 . 0050

YA

2 3

4 2 .59

7 5 .94

0 . 5608

0 . 0467

YA

1 7

4 8 .57

9 1 .44

0 . 5311

0 . 0442

PA

1 3

2 4 .07

3 .35

0 .7217

0 . 0721

P A

1

3 1 .42

4 2 .87

0 .7329

0 . 0732

MA

4

7 . 40

9 . 28

0 .7974

0 . 0794

MA

4

1 .42

1 .45

0 . 9973

0 . 0997

OA

1

1 . 85

1 . 88

0 . 9840

0 . 0393

OA

0

T ab le 4 . 7 : N umber o f i nd iv idua ls ( D i) , mor ta l i ty ( d i) ,s ur yi v or sh ip ( lx)a nd p robabi l i t y o f d y ing ( qx)i nt he c a se s t udy p opu la t ions

T he M in imum N umbe ro fi nd iv idua ls e s t ima ted f r om t h ep hase Id i sar t icu la ted b one sh a sb een r ed is t r ibu ted p ropo r t iona te ly a cco rd ing t ot h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft h ea ge c a tego r ie s i nt h ea r t icu la ted s ke le ton s . 3 8

P . 4L IEODE llOGRAPHI

F igure 4 . 1 : Mor ta l i ty p ro f i les ( d x)i nt he N eo l i th ic a nd E ar ly B ronze A ge c ase s tudy p opu la t ions

7 0

M IM I CE N N ea N i komede ia

6 0

L N Mak r ig ia los I

5 0 7 1 3

=

4°

0 2

3 0

E BA M ak r ig ia los

E ZEZ 3E BA G ou les

2 0 E BA K o i lada

1 0

-— A

—• 5

A '

›

—0 — E 0=30

PAdu l t( 30 -40 )

c ,

2

A ge g roups

F igu re 4 .2 : Mor ta l i ty p ro f i les i nt he L a te B ronze a nd E a r ly I r on Age c ase s tudy p opu la t ions 7 0 6 0 MUM E BA /LBA K o r inos

5 0

T a

4 °

2

3 0 2 0

LBA S pa thes

=

LBA /E IA T re is E l ies

1 2 2 = 1E I A M ak r ig ia los

1 0

A ge g roups

3 9

MAdu l t( 40 -50 )

PAdu l t( 30 -40 )

E IA O lympus t umu l i YAdu l t( 1 8 -30 )

0

=

t r >

0

—0 -- E 0=30

P . 4LAEODE AIOGRAPHY

F igure 4 .3 : Surv ivorsh ip ( I , ) i nt he N eo l i th ic a nd E ar ly B ronze Age c ase s tudy p opu la t ions

%S u rv ivorsh ip

— D—

E N N ea N i komede ia

—0 — L N M ak r ig ia los I EB A Mak r ig ia los E BA G ou les —A —EBA K o i lada

A ge -a t-dea th ( years )

F igure 4 .4 : Surv ivorsh ip ( Ix)i nt he L ate B ronze a nd E ar ly I r on Age c ase s tudy p opu la t ions 1 00

8 0 • E BA /LBA K o r inos

%S urv ivo rsh ip

7 0 —

— 0 —L BA S pa thes

6 0 5 0 —

—

4 0-

1—

L BA /E IA T re is E l ies

--X - -• E IA M ak r ig ia los

3 0 2 0

O lympus t umu l i

1 0

E 0=30 1

6

1 2

1 8 A ge g roup

4 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

9 5

P ALAEODEMOGRAPHY

D emeny 1 969 ) w i th a l i f e e xpec tancy a t b i r th o f t h ir ty ( E0= 30 ) . T hu s , t h e e xpec ted m o r ta l i t y c ur v e w ou ld b e s l igh t ly U shaped , w i th t wo p eak s : o ne i nn eona t e s , t h a t i s i n d iv idua l s u nd e ro n ey ea ro fa ge , a nd t h e o t h e r i no l d a ge , t h a t i si n d iv idua l s o ve rf i f t yy ea r s o l d . T he n eona te p e ak i s f o l lowed b y as ha rp d ec r ea se i nm or ta l i t y d u r ing c h i ldhood a nd j uven i l i ty , w h i le f r om y oung a du l thood t o m a tu r e a du l thood t h e r e i s ag en t le r i se i n m o r ta l i ty , f o l lowed b y a s h a rp i n c r ea s ei nt h eo l da ge c a t ego ry .

Mak r ig ia lo s Ia nd E IA Mak r ig ia lo s w h ich i so ppo s i te t o t h ee xpec t ed m o r ta l i ty t r end . B . A n o ve r -r ep r es en ta t ion o f. y oung a d u l t d ea ths . Y oung a du l t s a r e t h e m o s t a bundan t a g e c a tego ry i n t h e m a jo r i t y o f t h e s k e le ta l a s semb lag e s w i th mu ch l ow e r n umb e r so fp r im ea nd o l d e ra du l t sw h ich i st h e o ppo s i te o f t h e e xp ec ted m or ta l i ty c u rv e . O n ly i n EN N ea N ikomed e ia d o e s m o r ta l i t y a mong p r ime a du l t s e xceed t h a t a mong y oung a du l t s . T h e o ve r r ep re sen ta t ion o f y oung a du l td ea th sc an b ei n te rp r e ted i nt wo w ay s : a ) a p r ef e r en t ia l d i sposa l o f y oung a d u l t i nd iv id ua l s i n t h e c a se s t udy c em e te r ie s , wh ich w ou ld p r e suppo se a s u rp r i s ing c on s i s tency i n f une ra ry p rog ramm e o ve r ab road t ime s p an e x tend ing f r om t h e N eo l i th ic t ot h eE a r ly I r on A ge , b ) t h e w eakne s s o f m ac roscop ic t e chn iques o f a g e ing a du l t i n d iv idua l s . A s n o ted a bov e , t h e r e l iab i l i t y o fa ge ing m e thod s d ec r ea se s a sb i o log ica l a ge i n c r ea se s ( Chambe r la in 1 994 : 2 000 ) .

T h e s ur v ivo r sh ip c u rve s o f t h e c a se s t udy b u r ia l a s s emb lage s ( F igu r e s 4 . 3 a nd 4 . 4 ) p r ov ide a n a dd i t iona l v i sua l a i dt oc ompar ing s e ve ra l a s semb lage sw i th t h e m od e l l i f e t a b le . A cco rd ing t o t h e E30 l i f e t a b le m od e l , s u r v ivo r sh ip s hou ld d e c l ine s h a rp ly i n t h e f i r s t t wo a ge c a tego r ie s , n eona te s a nd i n f an t s , f o l lowed b y a s l igh t d e c r ea se f r om c h i ldhood t o p r im e a du l thood , a nd t h en a r e n ewed s h a rp d ec l ine i no l da g e . F i gu re s 4 . 1 - 4 . 4 r e vea l t wo o ve r a l l c ha rac te r i s t ic s o f t h e a r chaeo log ica lc eme ter yp opu la t ion s : A . A n u nd e r r ep r es en ta t ion o fn eona t e a nd i n f an t d ea ths . T he re i s an o tab le a b sence o ft h en eona te a ge c a tego ry i n t h e m a jo r i ty o ft h e c eme te ry p opu la t ion s , w h i le i n f an t s a r er e co rd ed i no n ly s i xo u to ft e np opu la t ion s , i n c lud ing m o s to ft h eN eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronz e A g ea s semb lag e s ( EN N ea N ikomed e ia , LN a nd E BA Mak r ig ia lo s , E BA K o i lada ) , a sw e l l a sL BA S pa the s a nd E IA Mak r ig ia lo s . T h i s p i c tu r e m ay r ef lec t e i the r p r e s e rva t ion b i a s o r a c on sc iou s e xc lu s ion o f n eona te s a nd /o r i n f an t s f r om c e r ta in c eme te r ie s a s w i l l b e d i scu s sed l a t e r . A dd i t ion a l ly , g i ven t h eu nde r r ep r e sen ta t ion o fe a r ly a g e c a tego r ie s ,j uven i le s a ppea rt oh ave h ad h i ghe r l e ve l s o f m or ta l i ty t h an c h i ld r en i n EN N ea N ikomede ia , LN

P o pu la t i o n E NN e aN i k om ed e i a 2 3 L NM a k r i g i a l o sI 1 / 6 E BA M a k r i g i a l o s E BA G o u l e s E BA K o i l a d a E BA /LBA K o r i n o s 1 4 / 19 L BA S p a t h e s L BA T r e i sE l i e s E I AM a k r i g i a l o s E I AO l ym pu st u m u l i

4 . 4 .2 . WH AT ABOUT S EX GR OUPS? T ab le 4 . 8r e p r e sen t st h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft h es e xg roup si nt h e c a s e s t udy p opu la t ion s . A s h a s b een e mpha s i sed a bove i n t h e d i scu s s ion o f m e thodo log y , s amp le s i ze s h ave b een r e du ced h e r eb yt h ee xc lu s ion o ft h e s u badu l t s e gmen to ft h e p opu la t ion s a nd b y t h e l a rge n umbe r o f i nde term ina te i n d iv idua l s ( s ee T ab le 4 . 8 ) . I n i n ve s t iga t ing t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e twe en s e x a nd a ge a td ea th , t h e s amp le s a r e f u r the r r e duced b y t h e e xc lu s ion o f i n d iv idua l s o f i n d e t e rm ina t ea g e( Tab le 4 . 9 ) . I n a dd i t ion , T ab le 4 . 8 r e v ea l s as t r ik ing p r eva len ce o f f ema l e i n d iv id ua l s i nt h e c eme ter y p opu la t ion s , e xcep t f o r

M a l e 4 / 13 3 1% 9 / 3 3 2 7% 5 / 6 8 3% 3 / 10 3 0% 3 4 / 6 8 5 0% 3 / 10 3 0% 5 / 19 2 6% 1 / 2 4 4 6% 7 / 33 2 1% 1 2 / 28 4 3%

F em a l e 9 / 13 6 9% ' 2 4 / 3 3 7 3%

I n d e t e rm in a t e 0

1 7% 7 / 10 7 0% 3 4 / 6 8 5 0% 7 / 10 7 0% 7 4% 1 3 / 2 4 5 4% _ 2 6 / 3 3 7 9% 1 6 / 2 8 5 7%

T ab le 4 . 8 : D i s tr ibu t ion o ft h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ion sb ys e xg roup ( adu l t so n ly )

4 1

1 2 1 I ( ) 1 0

) 8 8 4

P AL A EODEMOGRA PHY

LN Makr i i a lo s I

EN N ea N ikomede ia YA 1 / 4 2 5%

S ex Ma le

1 / 9 1%

F ema le

PA

2 / 4 5 0% 6 / 9 6 7%

OA

P A 1 / 2 5 0%

4 / 4 1 00%

U nd ef ined

OA

YA

P A

MA

OA

1 / 3 3%

0 /3

U nd ef ined

4 / 9 4 4%

1%

MA

0 /4 1 /9

EBA Makr ig ia lo s S ex

YA

Ma le

2 /2

1 00% F ema le

0 / 1

P A

MA

OA

U nd ef ined

U nd ef ined

U nd ef ined

U nd ef ined

EBA G ou le s

I

U nd ef ined

U nd e f ined

U nd e f ined

2 / 3 6 7%

U nd ef ined

U nd ef ined

U nd ef ined

1 / 9 1%

1 / 9 1%

U nd ef ined

EBA /LBA K or ino s

EBA K o i lada YA

P A

MA

OA

YA

P A

MA

OA

Ma le

1 /34 3 2%

1 3 /34 3 8%

7 / 34 2 1%

1 / 34 3%

1 / 3 3 3%

0 / 3

U nd ef ined

1 / 3 3%

F ema le

9 / 34 2 6%

1 3 /34 3 8%

6 / 34 1 8%

1 / 34 3%

3 / 7 4 3%

2 / 7 2 9%

U nd ef ined

0 / 7

MA

OA

YA

S ex

LBA S pa the s S ex Ma le F ema le _

LBA /EIA T re i s E l ie s

YA

PA

0 / 5

3 / 5 6 0%

0 / 5

9 / 13 6 9%

1 / 13 8%

1 / 13 8%

7 / 11

0 / 5 _

61 9,)

5 / 13

1 / 13 8%

3 8%

Ma le F ema le

P A

MA

OA

U nd ef ined

2 / 11 1 8%

U nd e f ined

U nd ef ined

4 / 13 3 1%

U nd ef ined

E IA O lympu s t umu l i

E IA Makr ig ia lo s S ex

—

YA 1 / 2 5 0%

MA 1 / 4 2 5% 1 / 9 1%

YA

1 ' A

MA

OA

YA

P A

MA

OA

2 /7 2 9%

3 /7

1 / 7

4 3%

1 4%

1 / 7 1 4%

5 / 12 4 2%

5 / 12 4 2%

1 / 12 8%

U nd ef ined

1 4 /26 5 4%

6 /26 2 3%

2 / 26 8%

0 /26

5 / 14 3 6%

3 / 14 2 1%

1 / 14 7%

U nd ef ined

roup i nt he c a se s t udy p opu la t ion s ( e xc lud ing a du l t so fi n de term ina te a ge ) T ab le 4 .9 : D is tr ibut ion o ft he s exes b a ge g

Two i n t e rp r e ta t ion s c an b e p ropo sed f o r t h e p r ev a lence o f f ema le a du l t si nt h ec a s es t udy b u r ia la s semb lage s : A . S amp l e b i a s . I n s ome a s semb lag e s , t h e re i s al a rge n umb e r o fi nd iv idua l s o f i n de t e rm ina te s ex ( s ee T ab le 4 . 8 ) . I n LN Mak r ig ia lo s I .E BA G ou le s a nd E BA /LBA K o r ino s ,t h es e x inde te rm ina te s k e le ton se qua lo re xceed t ho se o f k nown s e x , s o t h a t t h e c on t ra s t ing m o r ta l i ty r a t e s o f t h e t wo s e x g roup s m igh t b e r e ga rded a s u n re l iab le . O n t h e o t he r h and , t h e a na ly s i s o fs k e le ta l p r e se r va t ion b y s e x g r oup ( Tab le 4 . 4 ) r e vea led ag r ea te r c omp le t ene s so fm a le t h an f ema le s k e le ton s i nt h e s t udy a s semb lag e so ve ra l l . T h i ss ugge s t st h a t am a jo r i ty o ft h e u n sex ed s k e le ton s m ay i n f a c t b e f ema le a nd t h a t t h e p r eva len ce o f f ema le b u r ia ls m ay a c tua l ly b e u nde r e s t im a t ed b yt h ea va i lab le d a ta . B . P r ef er en t ia l i n c lus ion o f f ema l e i nd iv id ua l s . T h i s i n te rp r e ta t ion i s p ar t icu la r ly p l au s ib le f o r t h e a s semb lag e s f r om EN N ea N ikom ede ia , L BA S pa the s , E IA M ak r ig ia lo s a nd t h e E IA O lympu s t umu l i , f o r w h ich t h e n umbe r o f i n de te rm ina te i nd iv idua ls i s r e la t iv e ly m ode s t . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t s ome m a le s d i ed e l sewh e r e . e . g . i nw a r f a r e . b u t t h e r e i sn o e v id en ce ( i n t h ef o rm o f ah i gh i n c idence o fw ound s )t of a vou rs u ch

E BA Mak r ig ia lo s . w he r e t h e s amp le i se xcep t iona l ly s ma l l , a nd E BA K o i lada , w h e r e b o th s e x g r oup s a r e e qua l ly r e p re s en ted . T he s e x g roup s a r e a l so f a i r ly e v en ly r e p re sen ted i n L BA T r e i s E l ie s a nd t h e E IA O lympu s t umu l i . b u t o ve ra l l t h e d if e r en ce b e tw een t h e t wo s e x g roup s i s s t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if i can t ( c h i s qua r e t e s t : x218 .733> p =1 6 .919 ,a tt h e0 . 05 l e ve lo fs i gn if i cance ) . T ab le 4 . 9 r e p r e sen t s t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fm a le s a nd f ema le s a mong t h ea du l ta ge c a tego r ie s . T h ea g ed i s t r ibu t ion so ft h e t wo s e xe s a r e s i gn if i can t ly d if e r en t o n ly i n L BA S pa th e s ( c h i s qua r e t e s t : x2= )0 .9 12> p =9 .3 /8 , a tt h e 0 . 025 l e ve l o f s i gn if icanc e ) . H igh m o r ta l i ty r a te s a r e e xpe c ted among y oung a du l t w omen . d u e t o t h e s t r e s s o f p r egnancy a nd c h i ldb i r th ( La r sen 1 997 ) . I n T ab le 4 . 9 . t h r ee c eme t e r y p opu la t ion s , L BA S pa the s ( d if f e r en ce s s t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if i can t ) , E IA Mak r ig ia lo s a nd t h e E IA O lympu s t umu l i m a tch t h e e xpec ted h i gh mo r ta l i ty r a t e s f o r y oung a du l t w om en , w h i le n o m a le a s semb lag e h a s a s im i la r d i s t r ibu t ion . T h e h i gh p r eva lence o fy oung a du l t w om en s hou ld b ev i ewed w i th e x t r eme c au t ion ,b ea r ing i nm ind t h e w eakne s s o f t h e m ac ro scop ic a g e ing m e thod s u sed t o d i s t ingu i sh a du l ta g ec a tego r ie s . 4 2

P AL4EODE MOGRAPHY

a n i n te rp re ta t ion ( b e low C hap te r 6 ) . I n L BA S pa the s , a l l m a le s r e cove red b e long t ot h e p r ime a du l t a ge g roup ( Tab le 4 . 9 ) , s ugge s t ing ap o s s ib le p r ef e r en t ia l i n c lu s ion o fa du l t m a le s o f ap ar t icu la r a ge i nt h i sb u r ia l g round . On t h e o the r h and , i n EN N ea N ikom ede ia a nd E IA Mak r ig ia lo s , ma le s a r e r ep re sen ted i n a l l a du l t a ge c a tego r ie s s im i la r ly t o t h e f ema le s . I t i s e ven c once ivab le t h a t m a le s w e r e p r ef e ren t ia l ly s ub jec t t o i n f an t ic id e , p e rhap s b ecau se w omen w e r e h i gh ly v a lued i n b o th r ep roduc t ion a nd a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion , a s d i scu s sed l a te r .

F igu r e s 4 . 5 a nd 4 . 6 p r e sen t t h e mor ta l i ty r a te s a nd s u rv ivo r sh ip r e spec t ive ly , f o r t h e s ame g roup s . I n e ach c a se , t h e p reh i s to r ic a s semb lage s a r e c ompa red w i th t h e mode l v a lue s f o r l i f e e xpec tancy a tb i r th o f t h i r ty . T h ree p o in t sa r ew or th c on s ide r ing : A . T her e i s al a ck o fn eona tes i nt h e l a t ep opu la t ions , b o th c oa s ta l a nd i n land ( F igu re 4 . 5 ) . I n t h e e a r ly p opu la t ion s . n eona te s a r e f ewe r t h an e xpec ted , p e rhap s d ue t o p re se rva t iona l f a c to r s . I n t h e l a te p opu la t ion s , h oweve r , t h e t o ta l l a ck o fn eona te s i su n l ike ly t or e su l t f r om p re serva t iona l b i a se s a l one a nd m ay i n s tead r ef lec t f une ra ry b ehav iou r , t h a t i s t h e d i spo sa l o f t h i s a ge c a tegor yo u t s ide t h ee xcava ted c eme te r ie s . B . Mor ta l i ty r a tes i n t h e s ubad u l t c a tegor ies ( i nf an t s ,

4 . 4 .3 . ANALYSIS OF GEOGRAPH ICAL AND CHRONOLOG ICAL GROUP INGS T ab le

4 . 10

p re sen t s

t h e

v a lue s

o f

m o r ta l i ty

c h i ld ren a nd j uven i les ) a re h igher i nt h e e ar ly t h an t h e l a te p opu la t ions w i th a p ar t icu la r e mpha s i s o n i n f an t

( c 1 , ) ,

d ea th s . T h is p i c tu r e m ay b e e xp la ined b y t h e i n c lu s ion

s urv ivo r sh ip ( 1x)a nd p robab i l i ty o fd y ing ( ix)c ompu ted f o r t h e c h rono log ica l /geog raph ica l p opu la t ion g roup s d ef ined p rev iou s ly .

i nt h ee a r ly p opu la t ion so f EN N ea N ikomede ia a nd

E ar ly p opu la t ions ( Neo l i th ic a nd E ar ly B ronze A ge ) o a s ta l n =128 A ge ( x )

Ds

N eona te

1

ds 8 . 59

I n f an t

1 5

C h i ld J uven i le

9

I n land n -207

l s 1 00 .00

q x 0 . 0859

qs/ t _ 0 . 0859

Ds

ds

l s

1 2

5 . 79

1 00 .00

q x 0 . 0579

c isi t 0 . 0579

1 .7 1

9 1 .4 1

0 . 128 1

7 . 03

' 7 9 .70

0 . 0882

0 . 0256

5 1

2 4 .63

9 4 .21

0 . 26 14

0 . 0522

0 . 0 147

2 0

9 . 66

6 9 .58

0 . 1388

1 0

0 . 78

7 2 .67

0 . 0231

0 . 1074

0 . 0179

1 5

7 . 24

5 9 .92

0 . 1208

YA

6 4

5 0 .00

0 . 020 1

6 4 .87

0 . 7707

0 . 0642

3 8

1 8 .35

5 2 .68

0 . 3483

P A

1 6

0 . 0290

1 2 .50

1 4 .87

0 . 8406

0 . 0840

4 5

2 1 .73

3 4 .44

0 . 6309

MA

2

0 . 0630

1 . 56 0 . 78

2 . 37

0 . 6582

0 . 0658

2 3

1 .11

1 2 .60

0 . 8 1

0 . 9629

0 . 0385

3

1 . 44

0 . 88 17 0 . 9664

OA

1

0 . 0386

_

1 . 49

0 . 088 1

L a te p opu la t ion s ( La te B ronze a nd E ar ly I ron A ge ) C oas ta l n =7

I n land 1 =97

Ds 0

ds 0 . 00

l x

q x

I n f an t

5

6 . 41

1 00 .00

C h i ld

6

7 . 69

9 3 .59

J uven i le

6

7 . 69

YA

3 7

P A

qs/ t

Ds 0

ds 0 . 00

I s

q ,

0 . 064 1

0 . 0 128

2

2 . 06

1 00 .00

0 . 0206

0 . 004 1

0 . 0821

'0 . 0 136

6

6 . 18

9 7 .94

0 . 0630

0 . 0105

8 5 .90

0 . 0895

0 . 0 149

4

4 . 12

9 1 .76

0 . 0448

0 . 0074

4 7 .43

7 8 .21

0 . 6064

0 . 0505

5 2

5 3 .60

8 7 .64

0 . 6 115

0 . 0509

1 7

2 1 .79

3 0 .78

0 . 7079

0 . 0707

1 7

3 4 .04

0 . 5146

0 . 05 14

MA

4

5 . 12

8 . 99

0 . 5695

0 . 0569

1 5

1 7 .52 1 5 .46

1 6 .52

0 . 9358

0 . 0935

OA

3

3 . 84

3 . 87

0 . 9922

0 . 0396

1

1 . 03

1 . 06

0 . 97 16

0 . 0388

A ge ( x ) N eona te

1

c is/ t

T ab le 4 . 10 : N umber o fi nd iv idua l s ( D r) ,mor ta l i ty ( dx) ,s urv ivor sh ip ( I , ) a nd p robab i l i ty o fd y ing ( qx)i nt he c a se s t ud 3 , c e me ter ie s

4 3

P .4 L4 E0D E VOGRAP HY

F igure 4 .5 : Mor ta l i ty p rof i les ( d x)i nt he c ase s tudy p opu la t ions 1 00 9 0 8 0 7 0 +

L a te

E ar ly

6 0

M I M IC oas ta l C

5 0

II n l and

—0 -- E 0=30

4 0

3 0

2 0

MAdu l t( 4 0 -50

2

C o

MAdu l t( 4 0 -50

PAdu l t( 3 0 -40

1 0

o 0

•

0

A ge g roup

F igure 4 .6 : S urv ivorsh ip ( I , )i nt he c ase s tudy p opu la t ions 1 00 9 0

%S u rv ivo rsh ip

8 0 7 0 C oas ta l

6 0

I n l and

5 0

E 0

4 0 3 0 2 0 1 0 0 1

6

1 2

1 8

3 0

4 0

5 0

9 5

0

1

6

1 2

1 8

3 0

4 0

5 0

9 5

A ge -a t -dea th ( years )

E BA K o i lada w h ich p r e sen t h igh l e ve l s o f i n f an t m or ta l i ty , a ppa ren t ly a s soc ia ted w i th a h igh p r eva lence o fa naem ia i nt h e s ame a ge c a tegor y ( Chap te r 6 ) . T he

p opu la t ion s

i s s t a t is t ica l ly

s i gn if ican t

( Ko lmogo rov -

Sm irnov t e s t : D o b s— 0 . 260 > D max0 .0 . 5 = 0 . 126 ) . I n p a r t icu la r , i n f an t m or ta l i ty r e p re s en t s h igh l e ve ls e spec ia l ly i n t h e e a r ly i n land p opu la t ions ( F igu r e 4 . 5 ) . T he d if e r ence i nt h ed i s tr ibu t ion o ft h ec umu la t ive

d if e rence i n t h e d i s tr ibu t ion o f t h e c umu la t ive f r equenc ie s o f m o r ta l i ty r a te s b e tween e a r ly a nd l a te

4 4

P ALAEODE MOGRAPHI

f r equenc ies o f a ge c a tego r ies b e tween t h e e ar ly i n land a nd c oas ta l p opu la t ion s i s s t a t is t ica l ly s i gn if ican t ( Ko lmogo rov -Sm irnov t e s t : D.robs= O .1 96> D max0 .05 = 0 . 152 ) . I n t h e l a te p er iod s , c oa s ta l p opu la t ion s h ave h igher i n f an t mo r ta l i ty t han t h e ir i n land c oun terpar ts , b u t t h ed if erence i sn o t s t a t is t ica l ly s i gn if ican t .

4 . 4 .4 . ANALYSIS OF GEOGRAPHICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL GROUP INGS : Wha t a bou tt he s exes? T ab le 4 . 11 r e vea ls ap reva lence o ff ema le i nd iv idua ls i n a l l t h e g roup s , b u t t h e d if erence s i n d i s tr ibu t ion b e tween t h e t wo s exe sa r e s t a t is t ica l ly i n s ign if i can t . T he i nve s t iga t ion o f

C . I n c on t ras t t o t he a bove d if erences i n t h e s ubadu l t a ge c a tego r ie s , s un ,i v orsh ip i nt h e a du l t a ge g roups d oes n o t d if f er s i gn if ican t ly b e tween t h e e ar ly a nd l a te

t h e o ccur rence o ft h e t wo s ex g roups i n t h e e a r ly a nd l a te c a se s t udy p opu la t ion s w i l l f o cus o n t h e o ve ra l l s hape o f

p opu la t ions ( F igu re 4 . 6 ) .

mor ta l i ty p rof i les i nt h e d if e ren t a ge c a tego r ie s a nd n o t o n t h e a bso lu te f r equency

o f mor ta l i ty

c a tego r ie s .

E ar ly p opu la t ion s

L a te p opu la ti o n s

Ma le

F ema le

Ma le

F ema le

C oa s ta l

1 9 /53 3 6%

3 4 /53

1 0 /43

6 4%

2 3%

3 3 /43 7 7%

I n land

3 7 /78 4 7%

4 1/78 5 3%

2 8 /7 1 3 9%

4 3 /7 1 6 1%

T ab le 4 . 11 : D is tr ibu t ion o ft he s exe s i nt he g eograph ica l /chrono log ica l g roup ing s

F igure 4 .7 : D is tr ibu t ion o fs ex v ersus a ge g roups i nt he c ase s tudy e ar ly p opu la t ions

I n land

o

I iI o

> -

0

A ge g roup

4 5

N IM a le

0F ema le

i n i nd iv idua l

a ge

P . 4L 4 EODEMOGRAP M ' F igure 4 .8 : D is tr ibu t ion o fs ex v ersus a ge g roups i nt he c ase s tudy l a te p opu la t ions 7 0 6 0

I n land

C oas ta l

5 0 —

• Ma le

4 0

[ I L

3 0

2 0 1 0

. -6

.. .




10 p r imary ( J uven i le )

— Ko i lada 10

.C

•

9 L i th ( I n fan t ) )

10 s econdar y ( M , PA )

EBA /LBA KOR INOS 3 , 1 ( F , VA )

K o r inos 3

e f

->

3 5 , 1( Unsexed A du l t )

e ,

3 5 , 2( no tr ecove red )

K o r inos 3 5 3 ,2 ( I nde te rm ina te , VA )

\ -

L BA S PATHES 1 , 1( F , V A )

—

Spa thes 1

7p r imary ( no tr ecove red ) 7s econdary 1( F , VA )

1 , 2 ( M , Inde te rm ina te

S pa thes 7

1 , 3 ( Ch i ld )

7s econda ry 2 ( M , PA ) 7s econdary 3( Ch i ld )

1 ,1 ( no tr ecove red )

1 2 , 1( I nde te rm ina te A du l t )

S pa thes 1 2

— Spa thes 1 1 , 2( F , VA )

1 2 ,2 ( M , PA )

MAN IPULAT ION OF THE DECEASED

F i gure 5 . 14 c on t inued : L BA S PATHES 1 4 , 1( F , OA )

1 31 ( F YA )

—

Spa thes 14

p 1 4 , 2( F , MA )

p

1 5 , 1( M , PA )

1 4 s econdary ( Juven i le )

1 7 ,1 ( no t r ecove red )

1 5 , 2( F , YA )

—

Spa thes 1

1 5 , 3( M , I nde te rm ina te )

—

Spa thes 1 7 —,

C

1 5 , 4( Unsexed , A du l t )

Spa thes 1 8 —,

—

Spa thes 2

1 5 , 5( Unsexed , Adu l t )

1 7 , 2( Unsexed , Adu l t )

1 8 p r imary ( F , YA )

2 1 , 1( no t r ecove red )

—

C

Spa thes 2

1 8 s econdary ( Juven i le )

2 1 , 2( F , YA )

2 8 , 1( no t r ecove red )

2 9 , 1( no t r ecovered )

—

e

Spa thes 2 9 —p

C 2 9 , 2( F , YA )

2 8 , 2( I n fan t )

3 0 p r imary ( no t r ecove red )

—

Spa thes 3 0—+

C 3 0 s econdary ( F , I nde te rm ina te )

L BA IE IA T RE IS E L IES ke i 7 .,M 1M ilp I nr zm ml iemn , 2p r imary ( no t r ecove red )

1p r imary ( Unsexed , A du l t )

— T re is E l ies2 -->

— Tre is E l ies 1

— Tre is E l ies 4

+

C

1s econdary ( Unsexed , Adu l t )

2 s econdary ( M , I nde te rm ina te )

4p r imary ( no t r ecove red )

6p r imary ( no t r ecovered )

4s econdary A ( I nde te rm ina te YA )

-

Tre is

E l ies 6s econdary ( F , I nde te rm ina te )

4s econdary B ( Unsexed , Adu l t )

— Tre is E l ies 7

P

7p r imary ( no t r ecove red )

•

7s econdary A ( M , MA )

s .

7s econdary B ( F , MA )

9p r imary ( M , MA )

— Tre is E l ies9 -P

C 9s econdary ( Ch i ld )

7s econdary C ( M , I n de te rm ina te )

1 0 p r imary ( F , I nde te rm ina te )

— Tre is E l ies 1 0 -+

C

1 > (

1 1 p r imary ( M , YA )

—T re is E l ies 1 1 0 s econdary ( no t r ecove red )

P e

1 1 s econdary ( no t r ecove red )

M4N IPULAT ION OF THE DECEASED

F i gure 5 . 14 c on t inued: L BA /E IA T RE IS E L IES

4 3 e f

1 8p nma ry A ( F , YA )

— Tre is E l ies 1

1 8p r ima ry B ( J uven i le ) 1 8s econdary ( I nde te rm ina te A du l t )

E IA MAKR IG IALOS

4 6 . 1( no tr ecove red )

5 4p r ima ry ( M , V A )

— Makr ig ia los 5 4 /9

— Makr ig ia los 4 6 /9

5 4s econda ry ( M , VA )

4 6 , 2( Ch i ld )

5 6p r imary ( M , P A )

— Makr ig ia los 6 6 /947 •

r -->

—Makr ig ia los 1 66 /94? \ /

F

1 66 , 2( F . YA )

5 6s econda ry ( F . P A )

C

1 66 , 3( Unsexed ,A du l t )

2 60 p r imary ( F , MA )

1 00 p r imary ( F . YA )

—Makr ig ia los 1 00 /94 1 7

1 66 ,1 ( Unsexed ,A du l t )

—Mak r ig ia los 2 60 /94e -->

L

I >

1 00 s econda ry ( I n fan t )

2 60 s econda ry 1( J uven i le ) 2 60 s econda ry 2( I nde te rm ina te S ubadu l t )

Makr ig ia los 1/946 1 ,1 ( F , YA ) 1 ,2 ( F , I n de te rm ina te ) 1 ,3 ( Unsexed , V A ) 1 ,4 ( F , I n de te rm ina te ) 1 ,5 ( J uven i le ) 1 s econda ry 1( F .Y A ) 1 s ecoda ry 2( I nde te rm ina te S ubadu l t )

Makr ig ia los 4 /945 4 , 1 ( F , VA ) 4 ,2 ( J uven i le )

„-o •

3 5p r ima ry ( F , V A )

— Makr ig ia los 3 5 /946 . •i

Makr ig ia los 1 38 /951 3 5 s econda ry ( Unsexed , PA )

1 38 p r ima ry ( J uven i le ) 1 38 s econda ry ( J uven i le )

Mak r ig ia los 2 16 /951 2 16 , 1( M , PA ) 2 16 ,2 ( F , PA ) 2 16 , 3( A A , P A )

2 40 p r imary ( Ch i ld )

—Makr ig ia los 2 40 /94§ K 2 40 s econdary ( I n fan t )

T he r e c tangu la rs hape si n d ica te c hamb e rt omb s .

MAN IPULAT ION OF THE DEC E ISED

F igure 5 . 14 c on t inued : E IA OLYMPUS TUMUL I

2

TUMULUS L ITOCHORO 2 L i tocho ro 2 , 1( M , PA ) L i tocho ro 2 , 1s econdary ( F , VA ) L i tocho ro 2 , 2( Unsexed , YA )

TUMULUS L EPTOKAR 1A 1 L ep toka r ia 1 , 1( Unsexed , MA )

L i tocho ro 2 , 2s econda ry ( M , PA ) P reserva t ion b ias L i tocho ro 2 , 3( M , VA ) P rese rva t ion b ias

3

TUMULUS LEPTOKAR 1A 2

4

TUMULUS LEPTOKAR 1A 3

L ep toka r ia 2 , 2( F , I nde te rm ina te )

L ep toka r ia 3 , 3( F , VA )

P rese rva t ion b ias

P reserva t ion b ias

5

6

zz TUMULUS KAR 1TSA 5 K a r i tsa 5 , 2( F , MA ) TUMULUS KAR 1TSA 2 K a r i tsa 2 , 3( 2 ) ( Juven i le ) P reserva t ion b ias

K a r i tsa 5 , 3( 1 ) ( F , PA ) K a r i tsa 5 , 4( 1 ) ( Unsexed , A du l t ) K a r i tsa 5 , 4( 2 ) ( M , PA ) P reserva t ion b ias

A L4N IPU LAT ION OF THE DECEASED

7

F igure 5 . 14 c on t inued : E IA OLYMPUS T UMUL I

TUMULUS KAR ITSA 6

TUMULUS KAR ITSA 1 2

K a r i tsa 6 , 1( 1 ) ( F , I n de te rm ina te )

K a r i tsa 1 2 , 3( 1 ) ( M , YA )

K a r i tsa 6 , 3( 1 ) ( Ch i ld )

K a r i tsa 1 2 , 5( 1 ) ( F , VA )

P reser va t ion b i as

P reserva t ion b i as

1 0 TUMULUS K LADER I 1

TUMULUS KAR ITSA 1 5

K lade r i 1 , 2( 1 ) ( F , PA )

K a r i tsa 1 5 , 3( 1 ) ( F , YA ) K a r i tsa 1 5 , 4( 1 ) ( F , I n de te rm ina te )

K l ade r i 1 , 2( 2 ) ( F , YA )

K a r i tsa 1 5 , 5( 1 ) ( M , I n de te rm ina te )

K l ade r i 1 , 3( 1 ) ( M , MA )

K a r i tsa 1 5 , 5( 2 a ) ( F , I n de te rm ina te ) K a r i tsa 1 5 , 5( 2b ) ( F , I n de te rm ina te )

K lade r i 1 , 4( 1 ) ( F , PA )

K a r i tsa 1 5 , 6( 1 ) ( I nde te rm ina te A du l t )

K l ade r i 1 , 5( 1 ) ( Ch i ld )

K a r i tsa 1 5 , 7( 1 ) ( M , PA ) K a r i tsa 1 5 , 1 ( 1 ) ( Unsexed , YA )

K lade r i 1 , 6( 1 ) ( M , P A )

\ ‘ , K a r i tsa 1 5 , 1 5 ( 1 ) ( I nde te rm ina te A du l t )

P rese rva t ion b i as

P rese rva t ion b i as

/

1

TUMULUS K LADER I 2 K lade r i2 , 1( 1 ) ( M , VA ) K l ade r i2 , 1( 2 ) ( M , YA ) K lade r i2 , 1( 3 ) ( M , YA ) P reserva t ion b i as

F igure 5 . 14 : D is tr ibu t ion o ft he i nd iv idua ls d i spo sed o fi n mu l t ip le a nd s e condary b ur ia ls i ne ach g rave a s semb lage o f t he c a se s t udy c eme ter ie s

6 2

M4N IPULAT ION OF THE DECEASED

d ef in e a nd r e -def ine t h e s o c ia l r o l e s o f p ar t ic ipan t s b e long ing t ot h e s phe r e e i the r o ft h e d e cea sed o ro ft h e l i v ing . T hu s , t h e d i spo sa l i no n e b u r ia l a s semb lage o f m o re t h an o ne i n d iv idua l s ugg e s t ing a c on t inuou s o pen ing a nd r e -open ing o ft h e g r av e c an b e s e en a s a s o c ia ls t a t emen to ft h er e la t ion sh ip b e tw een t h ed ecea sed a nd t h o s e p ar t ic ipa t ing i n t h e f u n e r a l , l i nk ing t h em t o ge th e r a sm emb e r s o ft h e s ame f am i ly , l i n eage o rk i n g roup . A l so , t h e e x i s ten c e o fd i s t in c t d i spo sa l a r ea s o r t omb s a s v i s ib le l a ndma rk s e t c . c an b e i n te rp r e ted i n t e rm s o fs o c ia l r o le s a s s igned t ob o th t h e d e cea sed a nd t h el i v ing , • t h e p er c ep t ion o f t h e m or tuar y a r ena a s as i t e o f m emo rab l e a c t ion f or t h e c ommun i t y o f t h e l i v ing r e f lec t ing t h e u s e o f t h e a nce s to r s ( d ecea s ed ) i n t h e e s tab l i shmen t a nd s o c ia l d ef in i t ion o f t h e d e scendan t s ( l iv ing ) . I ti sw or th c on s ide r ing n ex t h ow t h ec hang ing m an ipu la t ion o ft h ed ec ea s ed i nt h e c a s e s t udy c eme te r ie se mpha s i sed t h e a c t ive r o l e o ft h e d e cea sed i nt h e s o c ia l c on s tr uc t ion o ft h e l i v ing c ommun i ty : A . B ur ia l si nMak r ig ia los D i tch A . A sd i s cu s s ed a bove , t h e m a in d i spo sa l a r ea o fN eo l i th ic Mak r ig ia lo sp ha se Iw a s D i t ch A ,a nd s e conda r i ly , t h e l a rg ep i t i ns e c to r F . , . T he f o l low ing s e c t ion w i l l f o cu s o n t h e b u r ia l s o f D i tch A w h ich r e p r e sen t t h e h i ghe s t p ropo r t ion o f t h e p ha se I s k e le ta l a s semb lage . D i tch A . b e ing av i s ib le l a ndma rk , w h ich m a rked t h e b ounda ry o f t h e p ha se Is e t t lem en t . c an b e s e en p r ima r i ly a s ac on t inuou s , p e rmanen t m onumen tt ot h ec ommun i ty o fl i v ing . " The b u i ld ing o f t h e m onum en t s p r even ted t h e r i tua l a nd m y tho log ica l s i gn if i can c e o f p ar t icu la r p l ace s b e ing l o s t a nd f o rgo t t en " ( T i l ley 1 994 : 2 04 ) . -S e en a s mn emon ic m a rke r s i nt h e l a nd s cape , t h ey s t ab i l i sed b o th c u l tu r a l m emo r y o f p l ac e a nd c onnec t ion s b e tw e en p l ac e s " ( Ho l to r f1 9 97 : 5 0 ) . A l though D i tch A d i d n o t c omp r i se s u ch a n o bv iou s m onumen t , i t s m a s s ive a pp ea r ance i n t h e N eo l i th ic l a nd s cape , i n c l o se p r ox im i t y t o t h e h ab i ta t ion a r ea m ay h av e c on t inua l ly e mpha s ised i t s s ymbo l ic s i gn if icanc e t ot h e l i v ing . D i tch A s i gn if i e s a w i l l b y t h e l i v ing t o m ak e i tv i s ib l e . " t o b e s e en a nd r emembe r ed " ( T i l ley 1 994 : 2 04 ) . T he l a t te r m ay h ave b een u nd e r l ined b y t h e p o s s ib le u s e o fD i t ch A a s t h e m a in d i spo sa l a r ea o f t h e p ha s e Ii nhab i tan t s o f N eo l i th ic Mak r ig ia lo s . I t i s i n te r e s t ing t h a t b u r ia l d i spo s i t ion w a s n o t t h e s o le u s e o f t h e d i tch . I t a ppa r en t ly s e rved av a r ie ty o fo t h e r p u rpo se s e s pec ia l ly a s al i n e o fd ema r ca t ion b e tw een t h e p ha s e Ih ab i ta t ion a r ea a nd t h e o u t s ide w o r ld . T he c on t inuou s f i l l ing a nd r e -f i l l ing o f t h is a r ea . t o ge the r w i th t h e e v idence o f s ma l l f i nd s , a n ima l b one s a nd p o t t e ry r e cove r ed i n s e t t lem en td epo s i t s . s ugge s t o pen a c ce s s t ot h e d i tch a nd t h e c on t inua l u s e o ft h e a r ea b y t h e l i v ing c ommun i ty . T he l a s t ing c ha rac te r o f t h e d i tch m ay d e r ive f r om i t s r e f e ren c et ot h e p a s t -a s as ou r ce o fl e g i t ima te a u tho r i ty a nd i t s r o le a s a m ed ium t h rough w h ich l a te r g en e ra t ion s c an e xp r e s s t h e i r l i nk s w i th t r ad i t ion " ( Hob sb awm 1 983 ; a l so B r ad ley 1 984 ; B a r r e t t 1 988 ) .

T hu s , i fD i t ch A w a s o p en ly a c ce s s ib le , t h e d i spo sa l o f t h e d ead i nt h e d i tch d epo s i t s c an b e c on s id e r ed a s " a p ub l ic e ven t w h ich c on sequen t ly i n co rpo r a te s t h e w ho le g roup o f p eop le i n ac ommon c e remony - ( Chapman 1 993 : 8 1 ) . P ub l ic e v en t s hou ld n o tb e c on s ide r ed i nt h i s c on tex t a s al a rg e sca le r i tua l c e r emony , s i nce t h e r e i s n o e v id ence t os uppor t t h i s , b u t a sa n o pen g a the r ing o f t h e m embe r s o f t h e l i v ing d i sp lay ing t h e i r a s soc ia t ion w i th t h e d ec ea s ed d u r ing t h e f une r a l . A s h a s b een a rgued i n ad if e r en t c on t ex t , -i fal i nk i sm ad e b e twe en t h e d i tch a nd t h e s o c ia l u n i t s i n vo lved b o th i n i t s c on s truc t ion a nd i t s l a t e r u s e a s ad i spo sa l a r ea , i ti s p o s s ib le t h a t s o c ia l a l l ian ce s w e r e c on t inua l ly b e ing r e a l igned a nd r e n ego t ia ted t h rough c on t inuou s a nd m u l t if a r iou su s e so ft h ed i tch " ( Hodde r 1 992 : 2 32 ) . F u r the rmo r e , t h e i n d iv id ua l i d en t i t y o ft h e d ead b eg in s t o d i sappea r a f te r d i spo sa l i n t h e c ommuna l a r ea o f D i tch A a nd i sg r adua l ly t r an s f o rmed i n to t h e g roup i d en t i ty r e p r e sen ted b y t h e m emo rab le p a s t /an ce s to r s . T he c ommun i ty o fa nce s to r sr e p r e sen t ing t h e m emo r ab le p a s t m ay h av e p l ayed a s e r ie s o f r o le s i n r e p rodu c ing r e la t ion s a mong s t t h e c ommun i t y o f t h e l i v ing . Wh i le t h ec o l le c t iv ec ha r a c te ro ft h ed epo s i t s m ay h ave m a sked c e r ta in a s ymm e t r ie s o f p ow e r . t h e p r e sence o f t h e a n ce s to r s a sm ed ia to r s w i th t h e m emo r ab le p a s t " wou ld h ave r e in f o r c ed t h e t i e s b e tw een l i neage s -o rt h e w ho le c ommun i t y -a nd t h el a nd t h ey w o rked " ( Edmond s 1 993 : 14 ) . T he l o s so fi n d iv idua li d en t i ty c an b ei n f e r r ed a l so f r om t h e l a ck i n m o s t c a s e s o f a ny s p ec ia l m o r tua r y t r ea tm en t , r e su l t ing i n am a s s o fd i sar t icu la ted s k e le ta l e l emen t s w h e r e t h e i n i t ia l s h ap e o ft h e d ead h ad t o ta l ly d i sappea r ed ( F lem ing 1 973 ; S hank s a nd T i l ley 1 982 ) . F o r S hank s a nd T i l ley , t h i s i s " an a s ser t ion o f t h e c o l lec t ive , ad en ia l o ft h e i n d iv idua l a nd o fd if e r ence s b e twe en i n d iv idua l s -a ne xp r e s s ion o fe qua l i ty " ( Shank s a nd T i l ley 1 982 : 1 50 ) . T he d ec i s ion b y t h e c ommun i ty o ft h e l i v ing t od i spo se o ft h e i r d ecea s ed , i na n a r e a t h a t w a s c on t inuou s ly u s ed a nd t h u s d i s tu rb ed b y e v e r yday a c t iv i t ie s , s ugge s t s a n i n ten t ion t o i n co rpo r a te t h e d ead i n a c ommuna l m onumen t , ac on tempo r aneou s m emo r ia l . T he f une ra l c an b e c on s id e r ed a s t h e i n te rmed iar y s t age w he r e t h e d e scendan t s( l i v ing ) p ay t h e i rr e sp ec t s t ot h e c ommun i t y o ft h ea nc e s to r s( d e cea s ed ) . A f te rt h a t , t h eo ccu r r en ce o f t h e d i tch a s am onumen t c on t inuou s ly v i s ib le a nd a c ce s s ib le t o t h e l i v ing m o t iva te s t h e r e co l le c t ion a nd r ememb ranc e o ft h e d ecea sed /ance s to r s ( P a rke r P ea r son 1 984 ; 1 993 ; B a r r e t t 1 988 ; C hapman 1 988 ; 1 99 1 ; 1 993 ) . I tc an b e s e en u l t ima te ly a s -a n a temp t t or e -e s tab l i sh t h e u n i t y o f s o c ie ty t h rough a n e xp l ic i t l i nk w i th t h e t r ad i t ion so ft h ep a s t" ( B rad ley 1 984 : 6 5 ) . B . I n t ramu ra l b u r ia l s i nt h e N eo l i th ic . I n t r amu ra l b u r ia l s o ccu r i n EN N ea N ikom ed e ia a nd p o s s ib ly LN Mak r ig ia lo sI .a l though t h ee v iden ce f o rt h e l a t te ri sn o t s t rong . I n d iv idua l s i n te r r ed i n t r amu r a l ly r e ce iv ed s p ec if i c b u r ia l t r ea tmen t . s e en i n t h e c on s t ru c t ion o f s imp le p i tg r av e sa nd p l acemen ti n ac on t rac ted p o s i t ion , 6 3

I LAN IPULAT ION OF THE DECEASED

c apac i ty a nd m igh t h ave s e r ved t ob u i ld u p o b l iga t ion s b e tw een p eop le " ( P a rke r P ea r son 1 9 82 ; 1 984 ) . I nt h i s c on tex t , t h e m or tua ry b ehav iou r d i sp la yed b y t h e l i v ing b ecome s ap ow e r f u l m ean s o f a dv e r t i s ing t h e i r s o c ia l s t a tu sw i th in t h el o ca l c ommun i ty ( T r ian taphy l lou 1 998 : 1 54 ) . T he c ommun i t y o f t h e l i v ing , t h e r ef o r e , d ef ined s e xa nd s t a tu sr o le si nt h e mo r tua r ya r ena . i ng l ev e r sus m u l t ip l ea nd s econdar yb ur ia l s . T h e r ei sa D . S s ub s tan t ia l d if e r ence b e tw een s i ng le a nd mu l t ip le / seconda r y b u r ia l s i n t h e r i tua l s e quence i n vo lved i ne a ch o ft h e t h r ee t y pe s . T he a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd s ugg e s t s t h a t , i n s i ng l e b u r ia l s , t h e r i tua l c e r emony t o ok p l ace p r ima r i ly a t t h e momen t o f t h e f une ra l , a l though t h e e v iden ce o f g r av e ma rke r s r a i se s t h ep o s s ib i l i ty t h a t r e p ea ted a c t so fc ommemo ra t ion w e r e o cca s iona l ly p e r f o rm ed o u t s ide t h e g r ave i n r e sp e c t o f t h ed ecea s ed . A l so , i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h e r e co l le c t ion o f t h e d e cea s ed d i dn o t r e qu ir et h e p hy s ica l p re sen c e o ft h e l i v ing i nt h e o r ig ina l d i spo sa l a r ea , b u t c ou ld a l so h ave t a ken p l ace e l sewh e r e , s u ch a sa t ar e la t ive 's h ou s e .

b u t .t h em o r tua ry p rog ramme w a ss t r ic t ly c onf ined t ot h e b ounda r ie s o f t h e h ou seho ld u n i t , s ugge s t ing l im i ted a c ce s s t ot h e f un e ra l b y c l o se r e la t ive s ( Chapman 1 983 : 1 99 1 ; 1 993 ) . B u r ia l w a s ap r iva te a f a i r o f t h e h ou seho ld u n i t , i nc on t r a s t t ot h ec ommuna lc ha r ac te ro f b u r ia l i np ha se I .a nd i np a r t icu la ri nD i tch A . w he r et h e d i tch i t se lf p l ayed t h e r o le o f al a s t ing m onumen t i n c l o s ep rox im i t yt ot h eh ab i ta t ion a r ea . S i gn if i can t ly . t h e d ecea sed i n i n t ramu ra l b u r ia l s k ep t i n tac t t h e i r i n d iv idua l i d en t i ty s i nce t h ey d o n o t a ppea r t o b e a s soc ia ted w i th t h e g r oup i d en t i ty o ft h e -c ommun i ty o f t h ed e cea sed " ,a si nD i tch A b u r ia l s . C . E x t ramura l c eme t er ies i n t h e B ronz e a nd E a r ly I r on A g e . E x t ramu ra lc em e te r ie sb e cam ec ommon d u r ing t h e B ronze a nd E a r ly I r on A g e . I n t h e L a te B ronze a nd E a r ly I r on A ge .a l la ge a nd s e xc a tego r ie sw e re b u r ied i n e x t ramu ra l c eme te r ie s , e x cep t f o r n eona te s ( Chap te r 4 ) . I ti s u n l ik e ly t h a t n eona t e s w e re d i spo sed o f w i th in s e t t lemen td epo s i t s , s i nce t h ef ew e x cava ted L a te B ronze a nd E a r ly I r on A g e s e t t lemen t s h ave p rov ided n o e v idence o fn eon a ta l s k e le ta l r ema in s . T hu s , at y pe o f d i spo sa l o t he r t h an i nhum a t ion w a s p robab ly p r ac t i sed f o r n ew -bo rn i n d iv idua l s , a l though t h e r e i sn o p o s i t iv e e v idence t o s uppor t t h i s . Wh e r eve r n eona te s w e r e d i spo sed o f , i ti so fi n te r e s t t h a t , i nt h e L a te B ronze a nd E a r ly I r on A ge , t h i s a ge c a tego ry w a s n o t c on s ide r ed a pp rop r ia t ef o ri n c lu s ion i nt h ec ommon d i spo sa l a r ea o f t h e c ommun i ty a nd . t hu s , f o r i n co rpo ra t ion i n to t h e c ommun i t yo ft h ed ecea sed a nd p o s s ib ly o ft h el i v ing . T h ee x t ramu ra lc ommuna l c em e te r ie so ft h eB ronze a nd E a r ly I r on A ge s s ugge s t ac l ea r s e pa r a t ion b e tw een t h e c ommun i t ie so ft h el i v ing a nd o ft h ed ecea sed . " The u s e o f f o rma l c eme te r ie s d i s tance s a nd c i r cum sc r ibe s t h e r e a lm o ft h ed ead a nd e mpha s i s e si t ss e pa r a t ion f r om t h e r e a lm o f t h e l i v ing " (W e l l s 1 990 : 1 28 ; a l so V ou t sak i 1 998 : 4 5 ) .

T he m u l t ip le / s econda r yb u r ia l s c l ea r ly s ugge s t a tl e a s t a t wo -pa r t s e quen c e , i n c lud ing t h e f u n e ra l /bu r ia l o f t h e d ecea s ed a nd l a te r r e -ar rangemen t o r r e -bu r ia l o f t h e r ema in s o ft h e d ecea s ed . A ga in , t h e s e cond p a r t o ft h e r i tua l p e r f o rman ce w i l l h ave b een as o c ia l g a the r ing o f p eop le w ho d e s i r ed t o d i sp lay t h e i r c l o se t i e s t o t h e d ecea sed b y p ar t ic ipa t ing i nt h e r e -op en ing o ft h e g r ave a nd r e -a r rang em en to ft h e s k e le ta l r em a in s ( He r tz 1 960 ; v an G ennep 1 960 ; Me tca lf a nd H un t ing ton 1 99 1 ) . B y t h is e l abo ra te r i tu a l s e quence , w h ich s e em s t oh av eb een l im i ted t o s ome m embe r s o f t h e l i v ing c ommun i ty , -d ea th b ecom e s p a r t o f ap r ed ic tab l e , c y c l ica l s c h em e o f c on t inu i t y a nd r e n ewa l" ( Vou t sak i 1 9 98 : 4 5 ) . A t t h e s ame t ime , t h rough t h e s o c ia l g a th e r ing , t h e p ar t ic ipan t s r e -a s se r tc on t inu i t ya nd u n i ty w i th t h ec ommun i t y o ft h e d ecea sed /anc e s to r s .

F u r th e rmo r e , t h eB ronze a nd E a r ly I r on A g e e x t ramu r a l c eme te r ie s e xh ib i t g row ing I l or tua ry v a r iab i l i t y ( Chap te r 3 ) , i n t e rm s o f g r ave s t ru c tu r e , v i s ib i l i ty o f g r ave s , a nd m o r tua r y t r ea tmen t ( b u r ia l p o s i t ion . b u r ia l o r ien ta t ion , a dd i t iona l f u rn i sh ing , a s soc ia ted g r ave g ood s ) . T h i s d eve lop ing m o r tuar y v a r iab i l i t y c an b e s e en a s ap o ten t ia l p l a tf o rm f o r c ompe t i t ion b e twe en g r oup s i n t h e c ommun i ty o ft h e l i v ing . T he c ha rac te r a nd c on s i s tency o ft h e se g roup si sn o t c l ea r -cu t , n o r i si t h omogeneou s i n a l l p e r iod s . F o r i n s tance , t h e r e i sa t e ndency . i n p ar t icu la r i n E a r ly I r on A ge p opu la t ion s . f o r i n d iv idua l s o ft h e s ame s e xt od i sp lay as t anda rd i s ed t y p e o fm or tua r y t r ea tmen t , s ot h a t m or tua r y v a r iab i l i t y p ar t ly c o inc ide sw i th s ex d i s t inc t ion . O nt h eo t he rh and . e s pec ia l ly i n t h e L a te B ronze A g e , t h e d epo s i t ion i n i n d iv idua l g r av e a s semb lage s o f c on s ide rab le w ea l th , i n c lud ing i mpo r ted i t em s s ugg e s t s t h e e merg ence o f c ompe t i t ion i n s o c ia l r ank ing o r i n d iv idua l s t a tu s . " I t em s p l ac ed w i th o r d e s t royed a l ong s ide t h e d ecea sed c an b e s e en a s t h e w a s te f u l e c onom ic c on sump t ion o f m a te r ia l sw h ich h av eh e ld s ome o t he rs o c ia l ly v a lued

Mu l t ip le a nd s e conda r y b u r ia l s b o th i n vo lved t h e a c t ion o fr e -op en ing o ft h e g rave . T he d e c e a sed , o n c e b u r ied i n ac ommuna l g r ave , s ha r ed h i s /h e r i n d iv idua l i d en t i ty w i th t h e e x i s t ing o ccupan t s o f t h a t p ar t icu la r g r ave . T ha t i s .t h e i n d iv idua l 's i d en t i ty w a s p a r t ly t r an s f o rmed a nd b l ended w i th t h e i d en t i ty o ft h e d ecea sed / an c e s to r s . T he re i s h oweve r , a s ub s tan t ia l d if e ren ce b e tween mu l t ip l e a nd s e conda r y b u r ia ls . Mu l t ip le b ur ia l s w e re p r ima r y b u r ia l s , w he r e t h e b one s o fi n d iv idua l s b u r ied e a r l ie r w e r e n o t d i s tu rbed ; s k e le ton s r ema ined i n a n a r t icu la ted s t a te w i th g r ave g ood s r ema in ing i n t h e ir o r ig ina l p o s i t ion . T hu s , t h e o r ig ina l a r r ang emen t e s tab l i shed d u r ing t h ef une ra lw a sp r e s e rved . S econda ry b ur ia l s i n vo lved t h e c omp le te d i s tu rban ce a nd d i sar t icu la t ion o ft h e s k e le ton a nd t h u s t h e t o ta l l o s s o f t h e i n d iv idua l 's p hy s ica l s hap e a nd a ppea r an c e ; a l l a c company ing g r ave g ood s w e r e s im i la r ly d i s tu rbed o r r emoved f r om t h e i ro r ig ina l p o s i t ion . T hu s . i nm u l t ip l e b ur ia l s , t h ei n d iv idua l r e -e s tab l ish ed t i e sw i th t h ef am i ly d ecea s ed / anc e s to r s w i thou t l o s ing h i s /he r b a s ic p hy s ica l s hape a nd i d en t i ty w h i le , i ns econd a ry b ur ia l s ,d e sp i te a

6 4

MAN IPULAT ION OF THE DECEASED

c l ea r e mpha s i s o n f am i ly t i e s , t h e i n d iv idua l 's i d en t i ty w a so bv iou s ly d i s r ega rded d u r ing t h es e condar y r i tu a l o f t h e m an ipu la t ion o f t h e b one s b y t h e p ar t ic ipan t m embe r so ft h el i v ing c ommun i t y .

i sc r o s s -cu t b y t h e v a r iab le d epo s i t ion o fw ea l th w i th in t h e c eme te r y , i n c lud ing c a rved s e a l s tone s , j ew e l le ry , p o t sa nd b ronze w eapon s , w h ich o f t en r e ca l l Mycenaean o r "Mycena ean i s ing " t y pe s , t o g e the r w i th a r tef ac t s o f e xo t ic m a te r ia l . T he c omb ina t ion o fm u l t ip le , a nd t h u s a r t icu la ted , b u r ia l s a nd o f a r tef ac t s c l o s e ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e i d en t i ty o ft h ed ecea s ed , s u ch a st h e s e a l s tone s , s t rong ly s ugg e s t s a n e mpha s i s o n i n d iv idua l i d en t i ty , a l be i tw i th in t h eo v e r a l ld e scen tg roup c on t ex t .

I n c onc lu s ion , h ow t h e d i spo sa l o f t h e d ecea sed c hanged t h rough t im e .f r om t h eN eo l i th ic t ot h eE a r ly I r on A ge , m ay b eo u t l in ed ,a sf o l low s : I . I n N eo l i th ic Mak r ig ia los I . m any o r m o s t o f t h e d ecea sed w e r eb u r ied i n ac ommuna la r ea s u ch a sD i t ch A , t ow h ich a l l m embe r s o ft h e l i v ing c ommun i t y h ad e a sy a c c e s s a nd w he r e t h e r e w e r e n o p ar t icu la r f e a tu r e s t oe mph a s i s e t h e d ecea sed 's i nd iv idu a l i ty . T h i s i mp l ie s t h e l o s s o f t h e i n d iv idua l s ' i d en t i ty a nd t h e i r i n co rpo r a t ion i n to ag roup i d en t i t y r e p r e sen ted b y t h e c ommun i ty o f t h e d e cea sed . N eve r the le s s , t h e o ccu r r en c eo f al im i ted n umbe ro fb u r ia l si nD i tch A a nd t h e l a rg e p i t o f s e c to r E , w i th e v iden ce o f f o rma l m o r tua r y t r ea tmen t i ng r av e s t ru c tu r e , a r t icu la ted b u r ia l p o s i t ion a nd o cca s iona l ly a s so c ia ted g r ave g ood s . d oe s s ugge s t e m e rg ing d if e r en t ia l m an ipu la t ion o f t h e d ecea sed i np ha se Ia tN eo l i th ic Mak r ig ia lo s . T he r e i s n o c l ea r s p a t ia l s e g r ega t ion . h ow ev e r , o f t h e s e b u r ia l s d i sp lay ing s om e k ind o f m or tua r y t r ea tmen t f r om t h e r ema in ing b u r ia l si nt h ed i t ch d epo s i t s . I . I n t h e E a r ly B ronz e A g e , t h e r e i s ac l ea r s p a t ia l s e g r ega t ion b e tw een t h ec ommun i t yo ft h e l i v ing a nd t h e c ommun i t y o f t h e d ecea s ed i n d ica ted b y t h e b road a dop t ion o ft h e e x t ramu r a l c eme t e ry , af o rma l d i spo sa l a r ea o u t s id e t h e s e t t lemen t . F u r the rmo r e , t h e r e i s e v iden t d i ve r s i ty i n g r av e t y p e s , t h ough w i th a c l ea r t e ndency t owa rd s s t anda rd i sa t ion o fm or tuar yt r e a tmen t . I ti sa l so i mpo r tan t t h a t i n d ica t ion s o f f o rma l i t y a nd s t anda rd i sa t ion i nf une ra ry p rog r amm ec an b ea s soc ia ted w i th s ex a nd / or a ge d i s t inc t ion e xp r e s sed t h rough b u r ia l p o s i t ion , a s soc ia ted a r tef ac t sa nd t o al e s se re x ten t g r ave t y p e . A s f o r b u r ia l t y p e s . t h e m a jo r i t y o f i n d iv idua l s w e re d i spo sed o f i n s i ng le b u r ia l s , t h u s k eep ing t h e i r i nd iv idua l i d en t i t y a l ong w i th a ny f u rn i sh ing , c l o th ing o r g r av e g ood s w h ich s e rv ed t o r e in f o r ce i t ( T r ian taphy l lou 1 998 : 1 5 3 ) . I n te r e s t ing ly , h oweve r , t h e re i ss ome e v idence i n al im i ted n umbe ro fc a se sf o ra t e ndency t oe mpha s i se l i neag e -g roup i d en t i ty , t h rough m u l t ip le / s e conda ry b u r ia l sa nd g r ave c l u s te r ing . I I .I n t h e L a t e B ronz eA g e , m u l t ip le b u r ia l w a s c ommon ly a dop t ed i nt h ec a se s t udy a s semb lage s ,e s pec ia l ly a tL BA S pa th e s , w h e r e m o r e t h an o ne i n d iv idua l w a s p l aced i n t h eg r av ei n ap e r f ec t ly a r t icu la ted s t a te w h i le s e condar y b u r ia l s a l so t o ok p l ace . F ur th e rmo r e . t h e r e i se v idence f o r as t anda rd f une r ar y p rog r amm e i n a l l a sp ec t s o f m or tua r y b ehav iou r s u ch a s g r av e t y pe . a dd i t iona l f u rn i sh ing e qu ipmen t , b u r ia l t y p e , p o s i t ion a nd o r ien ta t ion , a nd a s so c ia ted a r te f ac t s ( T r ian taphy l lou 1 998 : 1 5 3 ) . T h i sh omog ene i ty o ff u n e r a ry p rog ramm e

Mo r eove r , i nt h e v a r iab le a c cumu la t ion o fw ea l th , i ti s t emp t ing t os e e a n i n ten t iona l d i sp lay o fs o c ia l i d en t i t y b y al i m i ted n umb e r o f l i v ing p a r t ic ipan t s i n t h e c e r emony . T he l a t te r e v iden t ly e mpha s i s ed t h e i r c l o s e t i e st ot h ed ec ea sed a nd a l so w i tn e s sed t h ed e s truc t ion o f v a luab le a nd p r e s t ig iou s a r tef ac t s . Mo r tua ry v ar iab i l i t y t h u sm ay b ec on s i s ten tw i th ag row ing t e nd ency t owa rd s t h e d ev e lopm en t o f c ompe t i t ion b e tw een s ma l l k i n g roup s t on ego t ia te a nd d ef in e t h e i r s o c ia l r o le s s u ch a s s o c ia ls t a tu so rr a nk o v e rt h el i v ing c ommun i ty . I V .F ina l ly , i nt h e E a r ly I r on A ge b u r ia l a s semb lag e s , t h e r e i s at e ndency t ow a rd s s t anda rd i s a t ion o f t h e f une ra ry p rog r amm e a l ong s id e d i v e r s i ty i n g rav e , b u r ia l a nd d i spo sa l t y p e s . S i ng le b u r ia l s a nd m u l t ip le / seconda ry b u r ia l so c cu ri ns im i la rf r equenc ie s . w h i le t wo n ew w ay s o fa c commoda t ing m o r e t h an o n e i n d iv idua l d eve loped , t h e c hambe r t omb a nd t h e t umu lus . A l though t h e c hamb e r t omb s a ppea r t o h ave b een d e s igned t o h o ld l a rge g r oup s o fi n d iv idua l s , i ti sn o tab le t h a t t h i s g r av e t y p e a t E IA Mak r ig ia lo s d i d n o t c on ta in m any m o r e i n d iv idua l s t h an t h e c i s t g r av e s o f L BA S pa th e s . N eve r th e le s s , -t h es t ru c tu r e o ft h ec hambe rt omb a nd i t s d i v i s ion i n to t h r ee s ub s tan t ia l , t o ta l ly i n nova t iv e c omponen t s , n am e ly d r omo s , e n t r anc e a nd c hambe r , s e em t o r ef l ec t t h e t r ipa r t i te s c hem e o f m o r tua ry b ehav iou rd eve lop ed b y H e r tz ( 1 960 ) , t h a t i st h e r i t e s o f s e pa ra t ion , t r an s i t ion r i t e s a nd r i t e s o f i n co rpo ra t ion " ( Vou t sak i 1 998 ) . I ti st h e f i r s t t ime , t h e r ef o r e , t h a t t h e t r ipa r t i te f o rm o f m or tua r y r i tu a l c an b e c l ea r ly v i sua l i s ed i nt h e s t r u c tu r e o f ag r av e t y pe , e mpha s i s ing t h e c l o s e r e la t ion s b e tw een t h e l i v ing a nd t h e d ecea sed . T h e c hambe rt omb sp robab ly h e ld m emb e r s o ft h e s am e f am i ly ,b u ti ti sn o tab le t h a ts ubadu l t su nd e rt we lv ey ea r s o l dw e r ee xc luded . C hamb e rt omb sm ay r e p r e sen t an ew d ev e lop ing s o c ia l o r d e r , i n w h ich t h e l i v ing s ough t t o e s tab l i sh t h em se lv e sb ye mpha s i s ing t h e i rr e spec tf o rt h e p a s t a nd t h e i r a nc e s to r s . T umu l i . o n t h e o t he r h and , a ppea r t o h av e a c commoda t ed l a rg e g roup s o f i n d iv idua l s p o s s ib ly r e p r e sen t ing f am i ly l i neage s . T he o ve r a l l p i c tu r e o fb u r ia l p r ac t ice s i nt h e E a r ly I r on A g e , t h u s s e r ve s t o r e in f o r c e l i neag e i d en t i ty a l ong s id e t h e e merg ence o fm or e v i s ib l e d if er ence s i ns o c ia l d i sp lay a nd s o c ia l r ank ing b y p a r t icu la r g r oup s w h ich e v id en t ly u s e t h e i r p a s t a nd t r ad i t ion i n p r oce s s e s r e la ted t o t h e e s tab l i shmen t a nd l e g i t im i sa t ion o f t h e i r s o c ia l p ow e r a nd i d en t i t y .

6 5

CHAPTER 6 PATTERNS OF H EALTH STATUS 6 . 1 . I NTRODUCT ION An umbe ro fr e cen tb i oa r chaeo log ica l s t ud ie sw o r ldw ide h a s f o cu sed o n t h ea s se s sm en to fh ea l th s t a tu st o ge the rw i th t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f h ea l th p a t te rn s a t t h e i n d iv idua l a nd p opu la t ion l e ve l . H ea l th a s ac ompo s i t eo fn u t r i t ion , d i sea se a nd o t h e ra spec t s o fl i f ec on t r ibu te s t ot h e r e con s t ruc t ion o f " pa t te rn s o fc ommun i ty h ea l th , n u t r i t ion a l s t a tu s , a nd w e l l b e ing i ne a r l ie rh uman p opu la t ion s " ( La r sen 1 987 ) . I no r de rt or e v ea l a sp ec t so fh ea l th s t a tu s , b i oa r chaeo log ica l s t ud ie s a t temp t t o t r ac e t h e m an i f e s ta t ion s o f c h ron ic o r a cu t e d i sea se a nd d eve lopmen ta l , f unc t iona l o r m echan ica l s t r e s s o b se rved o n d r y b one s , t h e l a t t e r b e ing k nown a s s t r e s s i n d ica to r s . " S t r e s s- i sd ef ined a s t h e p hy s io log ica l d i s rup t ion r e su l t ing f r om " any e x t r in s ic v a r iab le o r c omb ina t ion o f v a r iab le s w h ich c au s e s t h e o rgan i sm t o r e ac t " ( Bu ik s t r a a nd C ook 1 980 ; G oodman e t a l . 1 980 ; H u s s -A shmo r e e t a l . 1 982 ) . A m od e l d e s c r ibed b y G oodman a nd c o -wo rke r s ( Hu s s -A shmo r e e t a l . 1 982 ) r e p r e s en t s s t r e s s a s t h e i n te rac t ion o f t h r ee m a in f a c to r s i n c lud ing e nv i ronmen ta l c on s t r a in t s , c u l tu r a l s y s t em s a nd h o s t r e s i s tance . T he l a t te r m ode l e mpha s i se s t h e b i o log ica l a dap ta t ion a nd r e spon s e t o t h e c u l tu ra l a nd b i o log ica l e nv i ronmen t d eve loped b y e a r l ie r p opu la t ion s . B io log ica l f e a tu r e si n c lud ea ge , s e xa nd g ene t ic b a ckg round o ft h ec a se s t udy p opu la t ion sw h i le t h ec u l tu r a l e nv i ronm en t r e p r e sen t s s e t t lem en t p a t te rn s , s o c ia l o rgan i sa t ion . s ub s i s tence a nd l i v ing c ond i t ion s . C on s equen t ly , s k e le ta l s t r e s s i n d ica to r s a nd h ea l th p a t te rn s a pp ea r t o r e p r e sen t a d ynam ic r e la t ion sh ip b e tween i n d iv idua l s a nd p opu la t ion s a nd t h e e nv i ronmen t . S eden t i sm . d en se h ou s ing , a nd a gg r ega t ion o fp opu la t ion i n l a rge r c en t r e s . a l ong w i th c hang e s i n d i e t q ua l i ty , f o od p ro ce s s ing a nd c ook ing ,a ppea rt oh ave r e su l ted i n ad ec l ine i nh ea l th s t a tu so fe a r l ie rp opu la t ion s( Ca s s idy 1 984 ; C ohen a nd A rme lago s 1 984 ; C ohen 1 989 ; C ook 1 984 ; G oodman e t a l . 1 984 ; L a l lo a nd R o s e 1 979 ; L a r sen 1 982 ; 1 987 ) . A cco rd ing t o t h e a bove m od e l , e xpo su r e t o i n f ec t iou s p a thogen s , d ue t o i n t e rac t ion w i th d en s e h ou s ing , i mm ig ra t ion o rt r ad e , w ou ld r e su l t i n ah i gh p r eva lence o f i n f ec t iou s d i sea s e ; m a lnu t r i t ion a nd p oo r d i e t w ou ld r e su l t i nh i gh f r equenc ie s o fe name l h ypop la s ia a nd a naem ia ; a nd o c cupa t iona l a c t iv i t ie s a nd c ond i t ion s d emand ing a h eavy m e ch an ica l w o rk load w ou ld g i ve r i s e t o ah i gh p r eva lence o fd eg en e ra t iv ej o in tc hang e sa nd t r auma t ic l e s ion s . S t r e s s i nd ica to r s a r e n o l o ng e r t h ough t t o p r ov ide a s t r a igh tf orwa rd m ea su r emen t o f t h e h ea l th s t a tu s o f p r eh i s to r ic p opu la t ion s ( Bocque t -Appe l a nd Ma s se t 1 982 : v an G e rven a nd A rme lago s 1 983 ; B u ik s t ra a nd K on ig sbe rg 1 985 ; Wood e t a l . 1 992 ) . A s se s sm en t o f p a tho log ica l c ond i t ion s a f ec t ing l i v ing p opu la t ion s f r om s k e le ta l m a te r ia l i s c omp lex , e s pec ia l ly b ea r ing i n m ind t h e

m e thodo log ica l a nd t a phonom ic l im i ta t ion s p a laeodemog r aph ic s t ud ie s , o u t l ined a bove ( Chap te r4 ) .

o n

T he a im so ft h i sc hap te ra r e , f i r s t , t or e co rd a nd e v a lua t e t h e p a tho log ic a l a nd a bno rma l c ond i t ion s m an if e s ted i n t h e s k e le ta l p opu la t ion s a nd , s e cond ly , t o e xp lo r e t h e ir a s soc ia t ion w i th p opu la t ion s ubg roup s d ef ined b y a g e a nd s e x . T he u l t ima te g oa l o ft h ea na ly s i sw i l lb et oe xp lo r e t h e b i o log ica l a dap tab i l i ty a nd r e spon s e o f t h e p r eh i s to r ic p opu la t ion st ot h e i rp hy s ica la nd c u l tu r a le nv i ronm en t . W i th r e ga rd t ot h e o ve ra l l h ea l th s t a tu s o f t h e c a se s t udy a r chaeo log ica l p opu la t ion s . t wo s ubg roup s o f p a tho log ica l c ond i t ion s w i l l b e a na ly sed : f i r s t , s k e le ta l m an if e s ta t ion s l a rge ly a s soc ia ted w i th p hy s ica l m echan ica l l o ad e xpe r ienced t h roughou t l i f ea nd v a r y ing a c co rd ing t ot y pe o f o ccupa t ion ; s e cond ly , p a tho log ica l l e s ion s c l o se ly r e la ted t o t h e o ve r a l lp a thogen l o ad o ft h e p opu la t ion s a f ec t ed . T he f o rme r i n c lude s e v idenc e o f d egen e r a t ive j o in t d i sea se . v er teb ra l p a tho log ie s a nd t r auma , w h i le t h e l a t te rp r ima r i ly i n vo lve s n on sp ec if ic i n f ec t iou s l e s ion s . a naem ia a nd e name l h ypop la s ia l i n e s . A spec t s o f o r a l h ea l th s t a tu s , t o ge the rw i th d i e ta ry i mp l ica t ion s , a r ec on s ide r ed s e pa r a te ly i nC hap te r7 . T he d i s t in c t ion b e tween t h e t wo t y pe s o f p a tho log ica l c ond i t ion s h a s b een a dop ted i n t h i s c hap te r s o le ly f o r m e thodo log ica l r e a son s . I ti sn o t f e a s ib le t od r aw a s t r ic t l i ne b e twe en t h e t wo c a tego r ie s s i n c e t h e t e rm -p a thogen l o ad " r e f e r s t ot h e o ve ra l l h ea l th s t a tu s o ft h e i n d iv idua l s a f ec ted a nd s o i n c lude s c ond i t ion s c l a s s if i ed u nde r " phy s ica l m echan ica l l o ad-. A l so . d egene r a t iv e j o in t l e s ion s , b e ing a na g ep rog re s s ive d i se a s e . d o n o t s o le ly r e f e r t o p hy s ica l m echan ica l l o ad , b u t a r e a l so a n o rma l o ccu r r enc ei no l di n d iv idua ls . D ue t ot h e o v e r a l l p oo r p r e serva t ion o ft h e h uman r ema in s s t ud ied h e r e , v e ry l i t t le a t ten t ion h a s b een p a id t o b i oa r chaeo log ica l w o rk b a s ed o n t h e c ompa r a t ive p r eva lenc eo fp a tho log ica lc ond i t ion si nt h es t udy a r ea . T he c u r ren t a na ly s i s h a s b e en s haped b y t h e n a tu r e o f t h e m a te r ia la nd . i np ar t icu la r .b yt h re el i m i ta t ion s : 1 . t h e r e la t ive ly s ma l l s amp le s o f i n d iv idua l s c omp r i s ing t h eo v e ra l lp opu la t ion c ohor t i ne a ch c eme te r y , 2 . t h e l a ck o f s e xed a nd /o r a ged i n d iv idua l s f r om s ome c eme t e r y p opu la t ion s . s u ch a s L N Mak r ig ia lo s , E BA Mak r ig ia lo s ,E BA G ou le sa nd E BA /LBA K o r ino s , a nd 3 . t h ec ommon o c cu r r ence o fi n comp le te s k e le ton s . T he m e thodo logy a dop ted . w h ich i sd e s c r ibed b e low , h a s a t temp ted t o s e t g en e r a l s t anda rd s i n t h e a s s e s smen t o f h ea l th s t a tu s p a t te rn s i no rde r t oa low c ompa r i son b e tween t h ec a se s t udy c eme te r yp opu la t ion s .

P ATTERNS OF HE 4LTH S TATUS

6 . 2 . METHODOLOGY

F ina l ly , t h em ac ro scop ic a nd . w he r e n ece s sa ry , r ad iog raph ic i d en t if i ca t ion o f p a tho log ica l l e s ion s h a s b e en b a sed o n s t anda rd s o f r e co rd ing a nd s c o r ing s e t b y m ode rn a n th ropo log ica l w o rk ( O r tne r a nd P u t scha r 1 981 ; B u ik s t ra a nd U be lak e r 1 994 ; A u f d e rhe ide a nd R od r iguez -Ma r t in 1 998 ) .

T h e m e thodo logy a dop t ed h a s h ad t ot a ke a c coun t o ft wo s u b s tan t ia l c on s t r a in t s i n t h e n a tu r e o f t h e o s teo log ica l m a t e r ia l : 1 . T he d if e r en t ia lp r e se rva t ion o ft h es k e le ton sb o th w i th in a nd b e tween c em e ter yp opu la t ion s . 2 . T h ed if e ren t ia l d emog raph ic s t r u c tu r e o ft h e c a se s t udy p opu la t ion s . t h a t i st h e v a r ia t ion i nt h e p ropo r t ion s o f a g ea nd s e xg roup sc omp r i s ing e a ch p opu la t ion .

6 . 3 . DEGENERAT IVE JO INT D ISEASE 6 . 3 .1 . I NTRODUCT ION

I no r de rt oc on t ro lt h ef o rme rp rob lem , t h ee va lua t ion o ft h e o ve r a l lp r eva len ce o fp a tho log ica lc ond i t ion s h a sb een b a sed p r ima r i ly o n t h e s k e l e ta l e l emen t c oun t . T hu s , t h e o ccu r r ence o f t h e r e co rded p a tho log ic a l l e s ion s h a s b een m ea su r ed o u t o ft h e t o ta l n umbe r o ft h e s k e le ta l e l emen t s r e p r e sen ted i ne a ch o s teo log ica l a s s emb lag e . As ub s tan t ia l p rob l em o ft h i s m e thod i st h a t s i ng le s k e le ta l e l emen t s h ave b een t r ea ted a s s e pa r a te , i n depend en t u n i t s a nd t h u s t h e e f ec t o f ad i sea se o n t h e w ho le s k e le ton h a s b een u nde r e s t ima ted . F ur the rmo r e , w hen ad i s ea s e , s u ch a s at y p e o f ' a naem ia , c an b e d e tec ted s o le ly i n as p ec if i c p a r t o f t h e s k e le ton , s u ch a st h eo r b i t sa nd t h ec r an ia lv au l t , t h eo ve ra l l p r eva len ce o f t h e d i s ea s e w i l l n o t b e r e l iab ly r e f lec ted i f t h e se p a r t s a r e u nde r r ep r e sen ted i nt h e a s semb lage . W i th t h e e x cep t ion o f d eg en e ra t iv e j o in t d i sea se , m o s t o f t h e d i sea s e s s t ud ied h e r e a f e c t s i ng le b on e s r a th e r t h an w ho le s k e le ton s . T he e f e c t o f t h e d if e r en t ia l d emog raph ic s t ruc tu r e o ft h e s k e le ta l a s semb lag e s h a s b een e l im ina t ed b y s t anda rd is ing t h e c r ude p reva lence s o f t h e p a tho log ica l c ond i t ion s , p a r t icu la r ly t h o se h i gh ly a f ec ted b y a ge a nd /o r s e x . S t anda rd isa t ion i s as t a t i s t ica l t e chn iqu e a pp l ied c ommon ly i n e p id em io logy t h a t w e igh t s t h e a v e r age v a lu e s o f c r ude r a te s t o a l low c ompa r i son s b e tw e en p opu la t ion s w i th d if e r en t d emog raph ic s t ruc tu re ( Coggon e t a l . 1 993 ; Wa ld ron 1 994 ) . T he c r ude r a te s o ft h e p r eva lence o ft h e d i sea s e s h av e b een w e igh ted w i th r e f e r en ce t o as t anda rd p opu la t ion . T he s t anda rd p opu la t ion o ft h e c u r r en t a na ly s i s h a sb een d ef ined b yt h eo ve ra l l t o ta lo ft h e s k e le ta l e l em en t s o b se r ved f o r e a ch p a tho log ica l c ond i t ion f r om a l l t h e c a s e s t udy c eme te ry p opu la t ion s c l a s s if i ed b y a g e a nd /o r s e x g r oup s s e pa ra te ly . T h e r ef o re , t h e a g e a nd /o r s e x s p ec if ic r a t e s o f t h e t e s t p opu la t ion h av e b een mu l t ip l ied b y t h e n umbe ro fs k e le ta l e l emen t s i ne ach a g ea nd /o rs e xc a tego ry i n t h e s t anda rd p opu la t ion . T h e s t anda rd i sed r a t e o f p r eva lence c on s i s t s o ft h e t o ta l r a te s o ft h e t e s t p opu la t ion d i v id ed b y t h e t o ta l s i ze o ft h e s t anda rd p opu la t ion , t h a t i s : E( R „ , , .P ,) /P 5 . w he r e R , , ti st h e a g e s p e c if ic r a te i nt h e t e s t p opu la t ion . P , , , i st h e s i z e o ft h e a ge a nd /o r s e x c oho r t xi n t h e s t anda rd p opu la t ion a nd P , i s t h e t o ta l s i ze o f t h e s t and a rd p opu la t ion . I ti sw o r th e mpha s i s ing t h a t P ,v a r ie s b e tw een p opu la t ion s s i nc e n o t a l l a g e a nd /o r s e x g r oup s a r e r e p r e s en ted i n a l l t h e c a se s t udy c eme te r y p opu la t ion s . S t and a rd ised r a te s a r e e n t i r e ly a r t if i c ia l a nd d o n o t i mp ly a ny th ing a bou t t h e t r ue r a te s i n t h e o r ig ina l p opu la t ion s e xcep tt h e i rr e la t ion sh ip t oo ne a no th e r( Wa ld ron 1 994 ) .

D egene ra t iv e j o in t d i s ea se d e sc r ibe s t h e p a tho logy o f a r t icu la rj o in t s o ft h e h uman s k e le ton . I tc an a l so b e c a l led o s teoa r th r i t i s . w h ich , h owev e r , d ef ine s as p ec i f ic t y pe o f d egen e ra t ive j o in t d i sea se . Two t y pe so fa r t icu la rj o in t s a r e i n vo lved i n p a laeopa tho log ica l a na ly s e s : a mph ia r throd ia l , s u ch a s t h e i n ter ve r teb r a l b od ie s o f t h e v e r teb ra l c o lumn , a nd d i a r throd ia l ( s ynov ia l ) , w h ich i n c lude t h e j o in t s b e tween t h e e nd s o f l o ng b on e s s u ch a s t h e k nee o r t h e e l bow ( O r tn e r a nd P u t s cha r 1 981 ; J u rma in 1 977 : 1 980 ; R oge r s e t a l . 1 987 : L a r sen 1 997 ; A uf de rhe ide a nd R od r iguez -Mar t in 1 998 ) . D egene r a t ive c hang e sc an b e r e co rd ed a nd s c o red i nh uman s k e le ta l r ema in s e i th e r a s e r o s iv e o r p r o l if e ra t ive l e s ion s a l though c ommon ly b o th l e s ion s m ay o c cu r t o ge the r a tt h e s ame a r t icu la rj o in t . E ros ive l e s ion sa r et h er e su l to fl o s so f b on e s u b s tan ce , w h i le n ew b on e f o rma t ion o ccu r s i n p ro l if e ra t iv e c hang e s . T h e f o rme r c a t ego ry i n vo lve s t h e d e s truc t ion o f a r t icu la r c a r t i lage r e cogn i sed a s p i t t ing , p o rou s l e s ion s a nd e bu rna t ion ( p o l i sh ing ) i n mo r e s e ve r e c a s e s . P ro l if e ra t ive c hang e s r e f e r m o s t ly t om a rg ina l b on e p ro l if e ra t ion , t h a t i s , o s teophy to s i s ( F igu r e 6 . 1 ) a nd m o r e r a r e ly t oa nk y lo s i s ( f u s ion ) o fj o in t s a tt h e m a rg in s a c ro s s t h e w ho le j o in t s u r f ac eo ra ny c omb ina t ion o fb o th ( F igu r e s 6 . 2 a nd 6 . 3 ) ( Bou rke 1 967 ; R og e r s e ta l . 1 987 ; R oge r s a nd Wa ld ron 1 995 ) . D egen e ra t ive j o in t d i s ea se i s u sua l ly d e sc r ibed a s a mu l t if ac to r ia l d i so rde r ( J u rma in 1 977 ; 1 980 ; R oge r s e ta l . 1 987 ; A u f de rhe ide a nd R od r ig uez -Ma r t in 1 998 ) . F ac to r s w h ich a f e c t t h e d eve lopm en t a nd s e v e r i t y o f t h e d i so rd e r i n c lud e b o th s y s t em ic p r ed i spo s i t ion , n ame ly , a ge . s e x , m e tabo l i sm , n u t r i t ion , h o rmone s a nd h e r ed i ty , a nd m echan ica l -f unc t iona l s t r es s , w h ich i n vo lv e s o ccupa t iona l a c t iv i t ie s , c h ron ic o r a cu te t r auma a nd o be s i ty ( J u rma in 1 977 ; O r tn e r a nd P u t s ch a r 1 985 ) . H ow ev e r , t h e m o s t a t t rac t iv e a sp ec t o ft h e s t udy o fo s teoar th r i t i s i si t s p o s s ib le a s soc ia t ion w i th p hy s ica l a nd o ccupa t iona l a c t iv i t ie s ( J u rma in 1 977 ; Me rb s 1 983 ) . A c co rd ing t ot h e l a t te r , c e r ta in p a t t e rn s o f d i s t r ibu t ion o f a r th r i t ic c hange s w h ich a r e r e la ted t ot h e l e ve l o fp hy s ica l a c t iv i t y a nd o ccupa t ion a l s t r e s s , c an b e d e tec ted i n a r chaeo log ica l p opu la t ion s ( O r tn e r 1 968 ; J u rma in 1 977 : 1 980 ; Wa ld ron a nd R oge r s 1 991 ; B r idg e s 1 992 ) . I n p a r t icu la r , a l te ra t ion s i ns ub s i s tenc e e c onomy m ay i n vo lv e c hange s i n p hy s ica l a nd o c cupa t iona l a c t iv i t ie s a nd t h e p r eva len t v i ew , a l though d eba tab le ( Goodman e ta l . 1 984 : B r idge s 1 992 ) , i st h a t ad ec r ea se i nt h eo c cu r r ence o f

6 7

P ATTERNS OF HEALTH S TATUS

o s teoar th r i t i s w a s c au sed b y t h e i n t roduc t ion a nd i n ten s if ica t ion o f a gr icu l tu re i n s eve ra l e nv ironmen ta l s e t t ing s ( La r sen 1 982 ; K ennedy 1 984 : Me ik le john e t a l . 1 984 : B r idge s 1 991 ; Me ik le john a nd Z ve leb i l 1 991 ) . L oca l c i r cum s tan ce s , i n c lud ing e nv i ronmen ta l s e t t ing a nd m echan ica l s t re s s l o ad f r om e ve ryday t a sk s , s e em v ar iou s ly t o i nf lu ence t h e p r eva lence a nd s eve r i ty o f o s teoa r thr i t i s w o r ldw ide ( J u rma in 1 977 : 1 980 ; B r idge s 1 989a ; 1 991 ; L a r sen 1 997 ) . O s teoa r th r i t is n eed s t o b e c on s ide red a s a r e spon se , t h e ref o re , t o av a r ie ty o ff a c to r s , r a the rt h an j u s t t o d rama t ic t empo ra lo rc u l tu ra lc hange s .

E xcep t f o r L a t e N eo l i th ic Mak r ig ia lo s I ,t h e r e s t o f t h e p opu la t ion s w e re a f ec ted b y t h e c ond i t ion , a l though i nl ow f r equenc ie s . T he h ighe s t p reva lence o f o s teoar th r i t i s w a s f ound i n E a r ly N eo l i th ic N ea N ikomede ia a nd t h e E a r ly I r on A ge O lympu s t umu l i . T he r a te s o f o ccu r ren ce a r e s i gn if ican t ly d if e ren t b e tween t h e c eme te r ie s ( c h i s qua re t e s t : x2= 5 16 .624> p=2 7 .877 , a t t h e 0 . 001 l e ve l o f s i gn if icanc e ) , b u t t he re i s n o c on s i s ten t c h rono log ica l p a t te rn . T he s t a t is t ica l s i gn if icance o f t h e d if e rence s b e tw een t h e p opu la t ion s w a s c a lcu la ted b y c ar ry ing o u t ac h i squa r ed t e s t o n t h e p ropor t ion s o f a f ec ted v e r sus t o ta l i nd iv idua l s

6 . 3 .2 . RESULTS 6 . 3 .2 .1 . PREVALENCE OF DEGENERAT IVE JOINT

o b served . T he p rocedu r e w as t o mu l t ip ly t h e s t anda rd i sed p reva lence r a t e b y t h e s amp le s i ze i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l p opu la t ion i n o rde r t o d e te rm ine a c o r r ec ted v a lue f o r -n umbe r o f i n d iv idua ls a f ec ted-. F o r e xamp le , s i nc e t h e s t anda rd i sed r a te o f t h e p reva lence o f d egene r a t iv e j o in t d i sea se i nN ea N ikomede ia i s1 .39 % ( Tab le 6 . 1 ) , t h e l a t te r h a sb een m u l t ip l ied b y t h e a r chaeo log ica l p opu la t ion s i z e o f

D ISEASE T ab le 6 . 1 a nd F igu re 6 . 4 p rov ide a p i c tu re o f t h e o ve ra l l p reva lence o f d egene r a t ive c hange s r e co rded i n t h e a ppend icu la r s ke le ton a nd v er teb ra l c o lumn o f t h e c a se s t udy a r chaeo log ica l p opu la t ion s . T he v a lue s i nd ica ted i n F igu re 6 . 4 s how t h es t andard i sed r a te s . a sd e sc r ibed a bove .

4 66 t og i ve as t anda rd ised n umbe ro fi nd iv idua ls a f e c ted o f 5 3 .07 . T h e c h i squa red t e s t c an t h en b e c a r r ied o u t o n t h e s t anda rd i sed n umbe ro fi nd iv idua ls a f ec ted .

F igure 6 . 1 : O s teophy t ie d eve lopmen t o n l umbar v er tebrae ( Kar i t sa T un. )5 6 )

6 8

P ATTERNS OF HEALTH S TATUS

F igure 6 . 2 : S evere d egenera t ive c hange s c aus ing a nky lo s i so ft he a nk le ( Ko i lada 4 5 )

F igure 6 . 3 : S evere d egenera t ive c hange sc aus ing a nky lo s is o fL 5 a nd S i ( Ko i lada L i th44 )

6 9

P ATTERNS OF HE 4LTH S TATUS

T h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e l e s ion s b y a g e g r oup ( Tab le 6 . 2 ) f o l low s , i n g ene r a l , t h e e xpec t ed p i c tu r e o f a n a g e p rog r e s s iv e c ond i t ion , w i th t h e f r equency o f o ccu r r ence i n c r ea s ing f r om t h e y oung t o o l d a ge c a tego r ie s . T h e d if e r en ce i nt h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e c umu la t iv e f r equenc ie s o f a r th r i t ic c hange s b e tw een t h e a g e c a tego r ie s i s s t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if i can t a t EN N ea N ikom ede ia ( Ko lmogo rov -Sm irnov t e s t : D. o b s= 0 .2 57>Dm a x o . o s =

P opu la t ion EN N ea N ikomede ia

0 . 2 16 ) , E BA /LBA K o r ino s ( Ko lmogo rov -Sm i rnov t e s t : Dm a r o b s= 0 . 589>Dm a r 0 . 0 . 5 = 0 .487 ) , L BA /E IA T r e i s F l ie s ( Ko lmogo rov -Sm i rnov t e s t : D ma r o b s=0 .431>Dm a x 0 . 0 5 = 0 . 308 ) , E IA Mak r ig ia lo s ( Ko lmogo rov -Sm i rnov t e s t : D ma robs = 0 . 3 86 >Dm a x o . o s =0 . 248 ) a nd t h e E IA O lympu s t umu l i ( Ko lmogo rov -Sm i rnov t e s t : D „ ,a„b s= = 0 .199 ) .

(MA 1/ N IO

° A s t andard i sed r a te ( c orrec ted v a lue o fN IA )

1 0 .08 4 7 /466 0 . 00 0 / 448

1 .39 5 3 .07

E BA Mak r ig ia lo s

0 . 94 1 / 106

0 . 47 0 . 49

E BA G ou les

0 . 34 1 / 290

0 . 21 0 . 60

E BA K o i lada

3 . 24 6 1/ 1882

2 . 97 5 .89

E BA /LBA K o r ino s

4 . 86 7 / 144

L BA S pa the s

2 . 98 1 /368

2 . 72 3 . 91 3 . 50 1 2 .88

L BA /E IA T re is E l ie s

5 . 28 2 1/397

3 . 60 1 4 .49

E IA Mak r ig ia lo s

4 . 57 3 2 /700 1 2 .63 5 7 /45 1

4 . 37 3 0 .59 1 .60 5 2 .31

LN Mak r ig ia lo sI

E IA O lympu st umu l i

0 . 00 0 . 00

T ab le 6 . 1 : Overa l l p r e y .a l ence o fd egenera t ive j o in t d i sea se i nt h ec a se s t u i l

p r eva len c eo ft h el e s ion s i sn ex te xam ined b y s e xv e r su sa g e g r oup s( Tab le 6 . 3 ) .

N ever the le s s , a l though a r th r i t ic c hang e s o c cu r r ed p r ima r i ly i nt h e o l d a ge c a tego r ie s , d egene r a t ive l e s ion s w e r e a l r eady f r equen t a mong y oung a d u l t s a t EN N ea N ikomede ia a nd . t o al e s se r e x t en t , E BA K o i lada . I n a dd i t ion . i ti sw or th m en t ion ing t h a t , a t EN N ea N ikom ede ia a nd E BA K o i lad a . t h e r ei se v iden ce a l so o fs e ve r ea r th r i t ic c hange s s u ch a st h e d ev e lopmen t o f c y s t s a nd f u s ion o f a r t icu la r j o in t s i n t h e o l d e r a g e c a tego r ie s , i n c on t ra s t w i th t h e m i ld e r o s teophy to s i s a nd p i t t ing c ommon ly r e co rded i n t h e m a jo r i ty o ft h ec a se s t udy c em e te ry p opu la t ion s .

T ab le 6 .3 i n c lud e so n ly s e x ed i n d iv idua ls o fd e te rm in ed a g e c a tegor y . T he d if e r enc e i n t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e c umu la t iv e f r equenc ie s o f d egene ra t ive c hange s b y s e x v e r su s a g e g r oup s i s s t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if ican t a t EN N ea N ikomed e i a ( Ko lmogo rov -Sm irnov t e s t : Dm a x „ b 3. 0 . 2 19>D . o . o . 5 = 0 . 210 ) . L BA S pa th e s ( Ko lmogo rov Sm i rnov t e s t : Dmaxobs = 0. 4 52 > Dm a r 0 . 0 5 =0 . 386 ) . L BA /E IA T r e i s E l ie s ( Ko lmogo rov -Sm i rnov t e s t : D „i a„ bs= 0 . 37 2 > Dm a xa o s = 0 . 295 ) . E IA Mak r ig ia lo s ( Ko lmogo rov Sm i rnov t e s t : D m a r o b s= 0 . 407>Dm a x 0 . 0 5 =0 . 245 ) a nd t h eE IA O lympu s t umu l i ( Ko lmogo rov -Sm i rnov t e s t : D m a r o b s= 0 . 462>Dm. o . o s =0 . 200 ) . Two f u r the r o b se rva t ion s c a n b e d r awn f r om T ab le 6 . 3 :

T he e a r ly d ev e lopmen t o f d egen e r a t iv e j o in t d i sea se i n y oung a du l thood s ugge s t s t h e e a r ly i n vo lvemen t o fa tl e a s t p a r t o f t h e p r eh i s to r ic p opu la t ion i n d emand ing p hy s ica l a c t iv i t ie s . I no rde rt oc l a r if yp o s s ib le d i v i s ion o fl a bou r . t h e

1 N umb e ro fI nd iv idua l s Af ec ted . 2

p opu la t ion s ( r aw d a ta )

N umbe ro fI nd iv idua l sO b se rved .

7 0

PATTERNS OF HE4LTH STATUS

F igure 6 .4 : P reva lence o fd egenera t ive j o in t d isease i nt he c ase s tudy p opu la t ions ( s tandard ised r a tes )

1 2

T

1 .6

1 .39

1 0

8

2 .97

3 .5 2 .72

2

. 9 1

•

T o

I
p —)0 .828 . a tt h e0 . 00 1 l e ve l o fs i gn if i cance ) . E BA K o i lada ( c h i s qua r e t e s t : x2= 4 3 .129> p =10 .82 ,8 , a t t h e 0 . 00 1 l e ve l o fs i gn if icanc e ) a nd L BA /E IA T r e i s E l ie s ( c h i s qua r e t e s t : x2= 8 . 399> p =7 .879 , a t t h e 0 . 005 l e ve l o f s i gn if i cance ) . T he n ex t s e c t ion a t t emp t s t o e xp lo r e t h e c ha r ac te ro ft h ep hy s ica lt a sk su nde r tak en b yt h e s e x g roup s o f t h e c a se s t udy p opu la t ion s , b y i n v e s t ig a t ing t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fd egene r a t iv e l e s ion s i nt h e u ppe r a nd l ow e r s k e le t a le l emen t s .

i mp ly ing ap r edom inan t i n vo lvemen t o ft h e u ppe r s k e le ton i np hy s ica lt a sk s . W i th r e ga rd t od i s t r ibu t ion b ys i d e o fb ody ( F igu r e6 . 6 ) , i ti s n o tab le t h a t . c on t ra ry t o t h e e xpec ted p r eva lence o f r i gh t h andedne s s , EN N ea N ikom ed e ia . L BA S pa th e s a nd E IA Mak r ig ia lo s h ave r e v ea led a p r edom inanc e o f u ppe r l e f t a ppend icu la rs k e le ton a f f ec ted b yd eg ene r a t iv e l e s ion s .

6 . 3 .2 .2 . PREVALENCE OF DEGENERAT IVE JO INT D ISEASE BY PART OF SKELETON T o i n ve s t iga te t h e a na tom ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o f a r th r i t ic c hange s , t h e s k e le ton h a s b een d i v id ed i n to a n u ppe r p a r t ,

7 3

PATTERNS OF HEALTH STATUS

P opu la t ion

EN N ea N ikomede ia LN Ma l c r ig ia lo sI EBA Mak r ig ia lo s E BA G ou les E BA K o i lada

U pper %C rud e /S tna T ( N IA/N IO )

L ower %C rud e /S tnd ( N IA/N IO )

9 . 60 / 13 .31 ( 27 /281) 0 . 00 /0 .00 ( 0 /269 ) 1 . 69 /0 .08 ( 1 /59 )

1 0 .8 1/ 10 .22 ( 20 / 185 ) 0 . 00 /0 .00 ( 0 / 179 )

0 . 55 /0 .02 ( 1 / 180 ) 4 . 00 /3 .58 ( 40 /999 )

0 . 00 /0 .00 ( 0 /45) 0 . 00 /0 .00 ( 0 / 110 ) 2 . 37 /2 .30 ( 2 1/883j

6 . 97 /8 .21 ( 6 /86 ) 4 . 66 /5 .35 ( 9 / 193 )

1 . 72 /0 .41 ( 1 /58 )

L BA /E IA T re is F l ie s

6 . 04 /4 .20 ( 1 3 /215 )

4 . 39 /3 .00 ( 8 / 182 )

E IA Mak r ig ia lo s

4 . 93 /4 .77 ( 20 /405 )

4 . 06 /4 .46 ( 1 2 /295)

1 3 .80 / 11 .88 ( 33 /239 )

1 .32 / 11 .07 ( 2 4 /212 )

E BA /LBA K o r ino s L BA S pa the s

E IA O lympu st umu l i

1 . 14 / 1 .52 ( 2 / 175)

T ab le 6 .4 : P reva lence o fd egenera t ive j o in t d isease i nt he u pper a nd l ower s ke le ton ( crude a nd s tandard ised r a te s )

F igure 6 .6 : P reva lence o f d egenera t ive j o in t d isease b y s ide i n t he upper a nd l o wer s ke leton ( s tandard ised r ates )

1 2

1 0

%p reva lence

8

6

4

2

P reh is tor ic p opu la t ion

7 4

P AT7ERNS OF HEALTH S TATUS

F igure 6 .7 : P reva lence o fd egenera t ive j o in t d isease b y s ex g roup i nt he u pper a nd l ower s ke le ton ( s tandard ised r a tes ) 3 5

•U ppe r E lL owe r

EBA K o i lada

EBA Gou les

L N Mak r ig ia los 1

EN N ea N ikomede ia

F ema le

P reh is tor ic p opu la t ion

s im i la r f r equenc ie s o f l e s ion s i n t h e u ppe r a nd l ow e r s k e le ton . T h eu ppe rs k e le ton i n vo lv emen tm ay b el i nked t o a c t iv i t ie s s u ch a s f o od a cqu i s i t ion . f o od p roce s s ing a nd p r epa ra t ion a nd c r af t p r oduc t ion . C onve r se ly , t h e f r equen t o ccu r r ence o fl ow e r l imb a nd h i p o s teoar th r i t i s w ou ld s ugge s t as t r e s sf u l w o rk load i nh eavy a g r icu l tu ra l a c t iv i t ie s s u ch a s c l ea r ing f i e ld s , t i l lage . p l an t ing a nd h ar ve s t ing . Ah i gh p r eva lence o f f o o t o s teoa r th r i t i s i s f r equen t ly a s soc ia ted w i th a du l t m a le s e ngaged i n t r ave l l ing b y f o o t o r g en e ra l ly i nw a lk ing ( Wa lke r a nd H o l l imon 1 989 ; L a r sen 1 997 ) . B . T he l e f t -s id e d om inance o fd eg ene ra t ive c hang es t ot h e u pper s k e l e ton i n EN N ea N ikomed e ia , L BA S pa the s a nd E IA Mak r ig ia lo s c on t ra s t s w i th t h e e xpec t ed r i gh t h andedne s s . T h e l e f t s ide u ppe r s k e le ton d om inance m ay p o s s ib ly b e a s so c ia ted w i th a n a c t iv i ty , s u ch a st h e g r ind ing o f p l an t f o od s , i n vo lv ing a c e r ta in t y p e o f p hy s ica l m ovemen t s . S im i la r e v idence f r om t h e p r eh is to r ic S ou th ea s te rn U SA h a s a s soc ia ted ap a t te rn o f i n c r ea sed o s teoar th r i t i s i n t h e l e f t o r b o th a rm s o f I nd ian f ema le s t o t h e m e thod o f p roce s s ing t h e c o rn u s ing am ano o rm e ta te ( B r idg e s 1 989 a ;1 991 ) . C . T he e a r ly d ev e lopmen to fd eg enera t ive c hanges . a . Y oung a d u l ti nd iv id ua l si n EN N ea N ikom ed e ia a nd E BA K o i lada h av e ah i gh e rp r eva lence o f d egene r a t ive c hange sc ompa r ed w i th t h er e la t ive ly l ow e rr a te sa mong y oung a du l t si nt h e l a te r p opu la t ion s . b . Among y oung a du l t s . m en a ppea r t o h ave s uf e r ed m o s t f r om a r th r i t ic l e s ion s i na l l c a se s t udy c eme te ry p opu la t ion s , e xc ep t f o r E IA Mak r ig ia lo s .

F igu r e 6 . 7 r e p r e sen t s t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f d eg en e ra t ive c hang e st ot h eu ppe ra nd l owe rs k e le ton b y s e x g r oup . T h e r e su l t s i n d ica t e t h a t i nb o th s e xe s d egene r a t ive c hang e s a r e p r ef e r en t ia l ly a s so c ia t ed w i th t h e u ppe r s k e le ton . O v e r a l l , t h e i n c idence o f d egen e r a t iv e l e s ion s i s h i gh e r i n m en , e s pe c ia l ly a t EN N ea N ikomede ia . I n t h e E IA O lympu s t umu l i . m en h av e ah i gh e rf r equency o fl e s ion s i nt h e u ppe r s k e le ton ,w om en h ave m o r el e s ion si nt h el ow e rs k e le ton . O ve ra l l , t h e p r eva lence o f l e s ion s i n t h e u ppe r s k e le ton s ugg e s t s t h a t b o th s e x e s w e r e s ub jec t t o s im i la r t y pe s o f s t r e s s e s . Men a ppea r t oh ave s uf e r ed h i ghe r s t r e s s l e v e l s . p a r t icu la r ly a t EN N ea N ikomede ia . 6 . 3 .3 . CONCLUS IONS A l though d eg ene r a t iv ej o in t d i sea se i su su a l ly c on s id e r ed t o b e am u l t if ac to r ia l , h i gh ly a ge p rog r e s s ive c ond i t ion , t h e c u r r en t a na ly s i s h a s t r ea ted d eg en e ra t ive c hang e s a s r e su l t ing p r ima r i ly f r om t h e m echan ica l w o rk load i mpo sed o n t h e s k e le to -mu scu la r s y s tem b y r e pea ted o c cupa t ion a l a nd p hy s ica l a c t iv i t ie s u nder taken b y a n i n d iv idua l t h roughou t l i f e . L i t t le i sk nown o ft h e l a bou r p a t te rn s a nd p hy s ica l a c t iv i t ie s o f p r eh i s to r ic p opu la t ion s o f N o r the rn G r ee c e . l e t a l one o ft h e d i v i s ion o fl a bou rb e tw een a g e a nd s e xg r oup s . T h ep r e ced ing a na ly s i s o fa r th r i t ic l e s ion s i nr e la t ion t oa g e a nd s e xh a sh i gh l igh ted f o u rm a jo ri s sue s : A . A no vera l lp r ed om inance o fd eg enera t iv e c hang es i nt h e u ppe r s k e l e ton e x cep t f o r t h e E IA a s semb lag e s o f Mak r ig ia lo s a nd t h e O lympu s t umu l i , w h ich h av e 7 5

P ATTERNS OF HEALTH S TATUS

D . S ome s exua l d iv is ion o f l a bour i s s ugge s ted b y t h e c on t ra s t ing f r equency o fd egene ra t ive c hange s i nt h e t wo s exe s . a . Men a nd w omen w e re b o th p r ef e ren t ia l ly s ub jec t t os t r e s s i nt he u ppe r s ke le ton . b . Men s uf e r ed h ighe rl e ve ls o fa r th r i t ic l e s ion s t han w omen .

o r s t r e s s f a t igue f r ac tu r e s o ccu r r ing u sua l ly i nt h e v er teb ra l c o lumn ( Rober t s a nd Manche s te r 1 995 ; L a r sen 1 997 ) . I n h uman a r chaeo log ica l p opu la t ion s , t h e c ommone s t s ke le ta l m an if e s ta t ion o ft r auma i n c lude s v a r iou s t y pe s o ff rac tures ( F igu re s 6 . 8 . 6 . 9 , 6 . 10 , 6 . 11) ( S te inbock 1 976 ; O r tne r a nd P u tchar 1 981 ; Me rb s 1 989 ; R ober t s 1 991 ; R ober t s a nd Manche s te r 1 995 ; A u f d e rhe ide a nd R od r iguez - Mar t in 1 998 ) .

6 . 4 . TRAU MA T he s t udy o f t r auma h a s b een c on s ider ed o f p ar t icu la r i n te re s t b y b i oa rchaeo log is t s a nd b i o log ica l a n th ropo log i s t s . P a t te rn s o f t r auma t ic l e s ion s , b one a f ec ted , d eg ree o f s e ver i ty , e v idence o fh ea l ing a nd t r ea tmen t , i n vo lvemen t o f

6 . 4 .1 . I NTRODUCT ION T rauma r e f e r s t o a ny i n ju ry o r w ound r e su l t ing f r om " v io len t e ncoun te r s w i th e nv i ronmen ta l h aza rd s . i n te r - a nd i n t ra spec ie s c onf l ic t s , a nd , i nr a r e i n s tance s , s e lf -mu t i la t ion a nd s u ic ide" ( Me rb s 1 989 ) . T hu s , an umbe ro fc u l tu ra l a nd s oc ia l b ehav iou r s p rov id ing e v idence o f i n jur y c an b e

m ed ica l a gency , c an c l a r if y t h e a e t io logy o ft r auma a nd i t s b i o log ica l a nd s o c iocu l tu r a l c on tex t . T he l a t te r i n c lude s l i f e s ty le , o ccupa t iona l a c t iv i t ie s , l i v ing e nv i ronmen t a nd a va i lab i l i ty o f m ed ica l t r ea tmen t ( G r aue r a nd R ober t s 1 996 ) .

c l a s s if i ed u nde r t h e g ene ra l t e rm o f t r auma , s uch a s i n ten t iona l mu t i la t ion o ft e e th , d e l ibe ra te s ku l ld ef o rma t ion

F igure 6 . 8 : L ong term h ea led o b l ique f r ac ture o n r i gh t r ad ius ( Ko i lada 1 00 )

7 6

P ATTERNS OF HEALTH S TATUS

F igure 6 . 9 : L ong term h ea led f rac tures o n l e f t r i bs ( Ko i lada 8 3 )

F igure 6 . 10 : L ong term h ea led f rac ture o n t he l e f tt h ird me tacarpa l c aus ing d egenera t ive j o in t d i sea se o n t he me tacarpopha langea lj o in t ( Gou le s 2 0 )

7 7

P ATTERNS OF HEALTH S TATUS

F igure 6 . 11 : L ong term h ea led f rac ture o n t he d i s ta l r i gh tf orearm c au s ing o s teophy t ic d eve lopmen to n t he r ad iocarpa lj o in t ( Kar i tsa T ur n5 b )

T he s ke le ton t hu s b ea r s ac umu la t ive r e co rd o f f r ac tu re s

As i gn if ican tp o in tw i th r e ga rd t ot h e s t udy o ft r auma i st h a t i ti so f ten n o t f e a s ib le i n s ke le ta l a s semb lage s t o e s t ima te when t h e l e s ion o ccu r red . Ah ea led f r ac tu r e m ay r ep re sen t a n i n ju ry w h ich h appened a ny t ime b ef o re t h e i nd iv idua l 's

s u f f e red d u r ing l i f e , s o t h a t , e ven w i th a c on s tan t r i sk o f i n jur yt h roughou t l i f e , as t eady i n c r ea se s hou ld b e e v iden t i n t h e p reva lence o f f r ac tu re s i n s u cce s s ive a ge c a tego r ie s . A ny d ev ia t ion f r om t h is p a t te rn w ou ld s ugge s t a n i n c rea sed

d ea th , u n le s s t h e re i se v idence o fa c t ive p e r io s tea l r e ac t ion a nd n ew b one f o rma t ion ( Rober ts 1 991 : L a r sen 1 997 ) .

o r d ec rea sed r i sk o ff r ac tu re s i n ac e r ta in a ge g roup ( May s 1 998 : 1 76 ) .

Mo reove r , f r ac tu re sd ur ing c h i ldhood m ay h ea l a nd r emode l s o w e l l t h a t t h e f r ac tu r e m ay n o t b e v i s ib le e ven i n r ad iog raphy ( Robe r t s 1 991 : 2 27 ) , w he r ea s i n ju r ie so ccu r r ing d ur ing a du l thood u sua l ly r ema in e v iden t t h roughou t l i f e . 7 8

P ATTERNS OF HEALTH S TATUS

T h r ee t y pe s o f t r auma a r e r e p r e sen t ed i n t h e c a se s t udy s k e le ta l p opu la t ion s : 1 )f rac tur es i n l o ng b one s , 2 ) s t r es s f rac tur es i n v er teb rae r e cogn i sed m a c ro scop ica l ly b y c omp r e s sed v e r teb ra l b od ie s a nd 3 ) ap o s s ib le p a t t ern o f d en ta l t r auma a tE BA K o i lada . T h e o v e r a l l p r eva lenc e o f t r auma h a s b e en b a sed o n s t anda rd i sed r a te s a nd i n vo lve s o n ly t h e t wo f i r s t c a tego r ie s o fl e s ion s . S t anda rd i sa t ion h a s n o t b een a pp l ied i nt h e e va lua t ion o ft h e p r eva lence o ft h e c ond i t ion i nt h e s e xg roup sb ecau s e i ti sn o t c on s ide r ed t h a t t h e o ccu r r en c e o f t r auma c an b e h i gh ly a f ec ted b y b i o log ica la g e .

f r ac tu r er a t e s . T h e LN Mak r ig ia lo sI ,E BA Mak r ig ia lo sa nd E BA /LBA K o r ino s s k e le ta l a s semb lag e s h av e n o t p roduced a ny e v idence o ft r auma t ic l e s ion s . D u e t ot h e p o ten t ia l l a g b e twe en t h e t ime w hen t h e t r auma o ccu r r ed a nd t h e d e a th o ft h e i n d iv idua l a f ec ted , t h e v a lu e o f t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f t r auma b y a g e g r oup ( Tab le 6 . 6 ) f o cu se s o n o n e s i gn if i can t p a rame te r ; t h e o ccu r r enc e o f t r auma t ic l e s ion s i nj uven i l i ty a nd y oung a du l thood . I n p a r t icu la r , t h e e a r ly s k e le ta l a s semb lage s o f EN N ea N ikomed e ia a nd E BA K o i lada h av e e v idence o f e a r ly i n vo lvemen t o f j u v en i le s a nd y oung a du l t s i n t r auma . A dd i t iona l ly , t h e r e i sg ood e v idenc e f r om L BA /E IA T r e i s E l ie sa nd t h eE IA O lympu st umu l i o fa du l t i n d iv idua l s w i th f r ac tu r e so c cu r r ing i nc h i ldhood : t h ef r ac tu r e l i ne d eve loped a l ong t h e e p iphy s ea l l i ne o ft h e b one , s ugge s t ing i n ju ry i n c h i ldhood w hen b on ed eve lopmen tw a st a k ing p l ace .

6 . 4 .2 . RESULTS 6 . 4 .2 .1 . OVERALL PREVALENCE OF TRAU MA F igu r e 6 . 12 a nd T ab le 6 . 5 s how t h e l ow o v e ra l l p r eva lenc e o f t r auma i n t h e c a se s t udy c em e te ry p opu la t ion s . T h e f i gu r e c omb ine s t r auma i n t h e a ppend icu la r s k e le ton a nd t h e v e r t eb r a l c o lumn a nd t h o rax . O n ly f o u r o f t h e t e n s k e le ta l p opu la t ion s ( EN N ea N ikomed e ia , E BA K o i lada . E IA Mak r ig ia lo s a nd t h e E IA O lympu s t umu l i ) h ave e v idenc e o f v e r teb r a l a nd t h o r ac ic t r auma t ic l e s ion s a s e v idenc ed b y c omp r e s sed v er teb r a e a nd h ea led r i b f r ac tu r e s r e sp ec t ive ly . T h e h igh e s t f r equen cy o f t r auma h a s b een r e co rd ed i nE NN ea N ikomed e ia , w h i le t h e l a t ep opu la t ion s t e nd t oh av el ow

Whe r ea s , i n e a r ly p opu la t ion s , t h e h i ghe s t p r eva len ce o f t r auma o c cu r s i nj u v en i le s a nd y oung a du l t s , i n t h e l a te p opu la t ion s t h e p eak p r eva lence o f t r auma i s i n m a tu r e a du l thood . D u r ing t h e L a te B ronze a nd E a r ly I r on A g e , t h e r ef o r e , i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h e o ccu r r enc e o fa n a c c id en ta l i n ju r y d i d n o t a f e c t t h e s u rv ivo r sh ip o f t h e i n d iv idua l , w he r ea st h er e ve r se w a st r u ei nt h eN eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly

P opu la t ion

( N IA / N IO )

EN N ea N ikomede ia

1 . 07 5 / 466

LN Mak r ig ia lo sI

0 . 00 0 / 448

E BA Mak r ig ia lo s

0 . 00 0 / 106 0 . 34 1 / 290

E BA G ou le s E BA K o i lada

0 . 42 8 / 1882

E BA /LBA K o r ino s

0 . 00 0 / 144

L BA S pa the s

0 . 54 2 / 368

L BA /E IA T re is E l ie s

0 . 50 2 / 397

E IA Mak r ig ia lo s

0 . 14 1 / 700

E IA O lympu st umu l i

0 . 66 3 / 451

T ab le 6 . 5 : O vera l l p reva lence o ft r auma i nt h ec ase s t udy p opu la t ion s ( r aw d a ta )

7 9

PATTERNS OF HEALTH STATUS

F igure 6 .12 : P reva lence o ft rau ma i nt he c ase s tudy popu la t ions ( s tandard ised r ates )

5

4

1 . 09

. J

I .

2 / 1

07 5 032

L E NE IA T rc ic

Z u

0 .54

E BAM _BA K o r ino5

2

. 2

0 .34

EBA K o ihd z i

,

0 .4 1

EBA C i ou le5

1

a . 5

P reh is to r ic p opu la t ion

P opu la t ion

EN N ea N ikomede ia LN Mak r ig ia lo sI EBA Mak r ig ia los E BA G ou le s E BA K o i lada EBA /LBA K o r ino s L BA S pa thes L BA /E IA T re is E l ie s E IA Mak r ig ia lo s E IA O lympu st umu l i

Neona te 9 1 N INN IO )

I nfant % ( N 1 .4 7 .. V 7 10 )

Ch i ld % ( N IA S IO )

J uven i le 9 1

YA

PA

WM / NY »

( \ r /A /N i0 )

0 . 00 ( 0 /74 )

0 . 00 ( 0 /58 )

0 . 00 ( 0 / 15)

0 . 00 ( 0 /28 )

2 . 17 ( 1 /46 )

U nd ef ined

0 . 00 ( 0 /2 )

0 . 00 ( 0 / 16 )

0 . 00 ( 0 / 16 )

0 . 00 ( 0 /59 )

0 . 00 ( 0 /7 )

U nd ef ined

0 . 00 ( 0 / 13)

0 . 00 ( 0 /5 )

U nd ef ined

0 . 00 ( 0 /29 )

U nd ef ined

U nd ef ined

0 . 00 on )

0 . 00 ( 0 /38 )

0 . 00 ( 0 /9 )

0 . 00 ( 0 /244 )

0 . 00 ( 0 / 17 1)

U nd e f ined

U ndef ined

U nd ef ined

( NL l iN /0 )

MA 9 1 ( N IAIN IO )

OA 9 1 ( N IA /N 10 )

2 . 10 ( 4 / 190 )

0 . 00 ( 0 /50 )

0 . 00 ( 0 /5)

U nd ef ined

U nd ef ined

U nd ef ined

U nd e f ined

U nd ef ined

0 . 00 ( 0 /67 )

1 . 78 ( 1 /56 )

0 . 00 ( 0 /32 )

U nd ef ined

0 . 53 ( 1 / 186 )

0 . 00 ( 0 /372 )

0 . 80 ( 4 /496 )

0 . 00 ( 0 /242 )

0 . 00 ( 0 /37 )

0 . 00 ( 0 /39 )

U nd ef ined

0 . 00 ( 0 /31)

0 . 00 ( 0 / 10 )

U nd ef ined

0 . 00 ( 0 / 17 )

0 . 00 ( 0 /8 )

0 . 00 ( 0 /27 )

0 . 64 ( 1 / 156 )

0 . 00 ( 0 /69 )

3 . 70 ( 1 /27 )

U nd ef ined

U nd ef ined

0 . 00 ( 0 / 10 )

0 . 00 ( 0 / 17 )

0 . 00 ( 0 / 198 )

U nd ef ined

2 . 19 ( 2 /9 1)

U ndef ined

U nd ef ined

0 . 00 ( 0 /22 )

0 . 00 ( 0 /29 )

0 . 00 ( 0 /72)

0 . 00 ( 0 /276 )

0 . 00 ( 0 / 147 )

1 . 75 ( 1 /57 )

0 . 00 ( 0 /23 )

U nd ef ined

U nd ef ined

0 . 00 ( 0 / 19 )

0 . 68 ( 1 / 145 )

0 . 7 1 ( 1 / 139 )

4 . 57 ( 1 /28 )

U nd ef ined

0' 0 °

( 0 / 14 )

T ab le 6 .6 : P reva lence o ft rau ma b y a ge g roup ( crude r a tes )

8 0

0 . 00 _ ( 0 /22 ) 0 . 00 ( 0 /23 )

P ATTERNS OF HE .ILTH S TATUS

%P reva lence

F igure 6 . 13 : P reva lence o ft r auma b y s ex g roup ( c rude r a tes )

M I Ma le

E IA O lympus t umu l i

E IA Mak r ig ia los

EBA /LBA K o r inos

EBA K o i lada

EBA Mak r ig ia los

L N Mak r ig ia los I

EN N ea N ikomede ia

0F ema le

P reh is to r ic p opu la t ion

B ronze A g e c eme tery p opu la t ion s . T he se d if e rence s i nt h e d i s tr ibu t ion o ft r auma a mong a ge g roup s a r e n o t , h oweve r .

a nd a l so t h e i r p o s s ib le a s soc ia t ion w i th s e x c a tego r ie s . T he a na ly s is b e low h a s f o l lowed t h e m e thodo log ica l f r amewo rk

s t a t is t ica l ly s i gn if ican t .

a l r eady s e t o u t i n t h e d i scu s s ion o f d egene ra t ive j o in t d i sease .

T he d i s t r ibu t ion o ft r auma b y s ex g roup ( F igu re 6 . 13 ) d oe s n o t f o l low a c on s is ten t p a t te rn a nd t h e d if e rence s i n t h e d i s tr ibu t ion o fl e s ion sb e tween t h e s exe s a r e n o t s t a t is t ica l ly s i gn if ic an t . C on t rary t ot h ee xpec ted c onven t iona l mode l o f m en s u f f e r ing m o re i n ju r ie s a s a r e su l t o f a h eav ie r w o rk load . w omen a l one h ad t r auma t ic l e s ion s a t EBA G ou le s . L BA S pa the s a nd E IA Mak r ig ia lo s . w h i le w omen a l so h ad ah i ghe rp reva lence o fl e s ion s i nt h e E IA O lympu s t umu l i . Men m a tch t h ec onven t iona l m ode l o fh igh f r ac tu r e r a te s i n EN N ea N ikomede ia . EBA K o i lada a nd L BA /E IA T re i sE l ie s .

T ab le 6 . 7 r e p r e sen t s t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fl e s ion s i nt h e u ppe r a nd l owe r s k e le ton . T h is s how s t h a t t h e u pper s ke l e ton , i n p ar t icu la r t h e f o r earm a nd h and , e xpe r ienced mo s t t r auma t ic i n ju r ie s . T he l owe r s k e le ton i n cu r r ed t r auma i n o n ly t wo c eme ter y p opu la t ion s . t h a t i s EN N ea N ikomede ia a nd EBA K o i lada . W i th r e gard t ot h e s i de a f ec ted i n t h e u ppe r s ke le ton ( F igu re 6 . 14 ) , t h e re i s ap r edom inance o f t r auma t ic i n ju r ie s o n t h e l e f t a ppend icu la r s k e le ton i n a l l t h ec eme ter yp opu la t ion se xcep tt h eE IA O lympu st umu l i . F ur the rmo r e . t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft r auma b y s e x g roup s i nt h e u ppe r a nd l owe r s ke le ton ( F igur e 6 . 15 ) h a s p roduced a n o tab le p a t te rn . Women e xpe r ienced t r auma t ic i n jur ie s mo s t ly t ot h eu ppe ra ppend icu la rs k e le ton . w he r ea s , m en a r e

6 . 4 .2 .2 . PREVALENCE OF TRAU MA BY PART OF SKELETON

m o s t a f ec ted o n t h e l owe r a ppend icu la r s ke le ton . A s sum ing t h a t t h e r e co rded f r ac tu r e s r e f lec t i n ju r ie sa nd

I n o rde r t or e cogn i se p a t te rn s o f t r auma i n t h e c a se s t udy p opu la t ion s , i ti s w or th i n ve s t iga t ing t h e d i s tr ibu t ion o f l e s ion s i nt h e u ppe r a nd l owe r s ke le ton b y a na tom ica l s i de

8 1

PATTERNS OF HEALTH STATUS

U pper %C r ud e /S tn ( 1 ( N IA M 10 )

L ower %C rud e /S ind ( N IA /N 10 )

EN N ea N ikomede ia

0 . 35 /0 .23 ( 1 /28 1)

1 . 62 /2 .68 ( 3 / 185)

LN Mak r ig ia lo sI

0 . 00 /0 .00 ( 0 /269 )

E BA Makr ig ia lo s

0 . 00 /0 .00 ( 0 /59 )

0 . 00 /0 .00 ( 0 / 179 ) 0 . 00 /0 .00 ( 0 /45)

E BA G ou le s

0 . 55 /0 .63 ( 1 / 180 ) 0 . 40 /0 .35 ( 4 /999 )

0 . 00 /0 .00 ( 0 / 110 ) 0 . 45 /0 .73 ( 4 /883 )

E BA /LBA K o r ino s

0 . 00 /0 .00 ( 0 /86 )

0 . 00 /0 .00 ( 0 /58 )

L BA S pa the s

1 . 03 / 1 .0 1 ( 2 / 193)

0 . 00 /0 .00 ( 0 / 175 )

L BA /E IA T re is E l ie s

0 . 93 /0 .60 ( 2 /2 15 )

0 . 00 /0 .00 ( 0 / 182 )

E IA Mak r ig ia lo s

0 . 24 /0 .28 ( 1 /405)

0 . 00 /0 .00 ( 0 /295 )

E IA O lympus t umu l i

1 . 25 / 1 .45 ( 3 /239 )

0 . 00 /0 .00 ( 0 /212)

P opu la t ion

_

E BA K o i lada

-

Tab le 6 .7 : P reva lence o ft rau ma i n t he u pper a nd l ower s ke leton ( crude a nd s tandard ised r a tes )

F igure 6 .14 : P reva lence o ft rau ma b y s ide i nt he u pper a nd l o wer s ke le ton ( s tandard ised r a tes ) 1 4

1 2

1 0

L ower

8

•L e f t 0R i gh t

6

4

E 0

2 2

. 6 0

g k o l

( r )


p=10 .828 a tt h e0 . 00 1 l e ve lo fs i gn if i can c e )a nd e name l h ypop la s ia d ef ec t s ( c h i s qua r e t e s t : x2= 55 .2 67>p= 1 0 .828 a t t h e 0 . 001 l e v e l o f s i gn i f icance ) . F u r the rmo r e , F igu r e 6 . 47 i nd ica te s t h a t t h e e a r ly c oa s ta l a s s emb lag es o f EN N ea N ikomede ia , LN Mak r ig ia lo s Ia nd I9 a nd E BA Mak r ig ia lo s h ave h ighe rr a te s o fp a tho log ica l c ond i t ion st h an t h ei n land a s semb lage so fE BA K o i lada a nd G ou le s . T he s ed if e r en ce si nt h ed i s tr ibu t ion o fp a tho log ica l c ond i t ion s w i th in t h e e a r ly p opu la t ion s a r e s t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if i can t f o r d eg en e ra t ive c hang e s ( c h i s qua r e t e s t : x2= 19 .12 1>p=10 .828 a t t h e 0 . 001 l e v e l o f s i gn if i cance ) , v e r teb ra la bno rma l i t ie s( c h i s qua r et e s t :

A sr e ga rd st h ec ond i t ion sa s soc ia ted w i th m echan ica ll o ad : A . T he u pper s k e l e ton i st h e p r ima r y f o cu s o fd eg ene r a t ive j o in t c hang e s a nd t r auma t ic i n ju r ie s , s ugge s t ing t h e i mpo r tance o f p hy s ica l a c t iv i t ie s i n vo lv ing t h e u pp e r l imb s . B . T he o ccur r enc e o fd eg enera t ive c hang e s , t r auma a nd v er t ebra l a bnorma l i t ies i n y oung i nd iv id ua l s . G iven t h a t s k e le ta l m an if e s ta t ion s s uch a s d egene ra t ive c hange sr e qu i r e ac e r ta in t ime t od eve lop , i ts e em sl i ke ly t h a t c h i ld r en a nd a do le s cen t s a c t ive ly p ar t ic ipa ted i n s t r enuou sp hy s ica la c t iv i t ie s . C . P a r t ic ipa t ion o fb o th s ex es i ns im i la rw o rk p a t ter n sw i th s ome e v idence o f aq uan t i ta t ive d i v is ion o f l a bour s ugg e s ted b y t h e d if e r en t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f t r auma t ic l e s ion sb e tw een t h es e xe s . D . T he p r eva l ence o f l e f t -s id e i n vo lvemen t o f t h e u pper s k e l e ton , c on t ra r y t ot h e e xp ec ted r i gh t -handedn e s s , i n s ome p opu la t ion s , w h ich m ay r ef le c t p a r t icu la r t y pe s o f p hy s ica l a c t iv i t ie s s u ch a s f o od p ro ce s s ing a nd p r epa ra t ion .

9

T he e v id ence o f p hy s io log ica l s t r es s d u r ing d eve lopmen ta ly ea r so fi n f ancy , c h i ldhood a nd e a r ly

T he p h a s e I Mak r ig ia lo sa s semb lag eh a sb een a c coun ted i nt h ed i s cu s s ion o fg eog raph ica l a nd c h rono log ic a l g r oup ing .

t h e

14

P ATTERNS OF HE 4LTH S TATUS

F igure 6 . 46 : P reva lence o fp a tho log ica l c ond i t ions b y a rchaeo log ica l p e r iod ( s tandard ised r a tes ) 2 0 1 8 1 6

1 2

E a r ly

1 0

0L a te

8 6 4 2 0

V e t rAbno rm

° A )P reva lence

1 4

c 7 c

P a tho log ica l c ond i t ion

F igure 6 .47 : O vera l l p reva lence o fp a tho log ica l c ond i t ions i nt he c ase s tudy p opu la t ions ( s tanda rd ised r a tes ) . 6 0

5 0

E ar ly

L a te IC oas ta l

a o

0I n land

2 0

1 0

1 , i , . . „ . . „ . _ . 11 , , i lI _ _ .n ,1 0 . . a m, g . i I r ! . ' 2 -

2 E

3 .

. , a

A

. 2

I '3

>

2

3

0

, . 3z

. u ,

3

f

P a tho log ica l c ond i t ion

11 5

,

P ATTERNS OF HEALTH S TATUS

e name l h ypop la s ia ( c h i s qua re t e s t : x2= 449 .1 67>p= 1 0 .828 a tt h e0 . 00 1 l e ve lo fs i gn if icance ) .

x2= 10 .898>p-10 .828 a t t h e 0 . 001 l e ve l o f s i gn if icance ) , a naem ia ( ch i s qua re t e s t : x2= 25 .862>p-10 .828 a tt h e 0 . 001 l e ve l o f s i gn i f icance ) a nd e name l h ypop la s ia ( x2= 31 .635>p=10 .828 a t t h e 0 . 001 l e ve l o f s i gn if icance ) . I n t h e l a te p er iod s , t h er e ve r se r e la t ion sh ip i sr e vea led , w i th t h e i n land a s s emb lag es o f LBA S pa the s , L BA /E IA T r e i s F l ie s a nd t h e E IA O lympu s t umu l i h av ing h ighe r r a te s o f p a tho log ica l d ef ec t s t h an t h e c oa s ta l a s semb lage s o f EBA /LBA K or ino s a nd E IA Makr ig ia lo s . T he d if e r ence s b e tween i n land a nd c oa s ta l a s semb lage s a r e s t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if i can t i n d egene ra t ive c hange s ( ch i s qua re t e s t : x2= 9 .636>p=7 .879 a tt h e0 . 005 l e ve lo fs i gn if icance )a nd

A cco rd ing t o t h e c onven t iona l m ode l , d ec l in ing l e ve l s o f h ea l th s t a tu s w ou ld b e a s soc ia ted w i th c omp lex s o c ia l o rgan i sa t ion i n t h e N eo l i th ic /EBA c oas ta l a nd L BA/E IA i n land p opu la t ion s . A tp re sen t , t h e r eg iona l , a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd i s i n adequa te e i the r t o c onf i rm o r r e jec t s u ch a mode l . T h e d if e r en t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f p a tho log ica l c ond i t ion s b y a ge o r s ex , h oweve r , s ugge s t s t h a t mo re l o ca l ly a nd h i s to r ica l ly c on t ingen t e xp lana t ion s s hou ld b e s ough t i nt e rm s o fd emog raphy , m echan ica l l oad r e su l t ing f r om o ccupa t iona la c t iv i t ie s , a nd p hy s io log ica ls t res sc au sed b ys t re s se p isode se xpe r ienced i nt h e d eve lopmen ta ly ea r s o f i n f ancy a nd c h i ldhood .

16

CHAPTER 7 DI ETARY INDICATORS AND O RAL H EALTH STATUS 7 . 1 . I NTRODUCT ION T he s t udy o f n u t r i t iona l a nd d i e ta r y s t a tu s , t o ge the r w i th d i e ta r y r e con s truc t ion o f p a s t p opu la t ion s , h a s b een a n i mpo r tan t f i e ld o f i n ve s t iga t ion t h roughou t t h e h i s to r y o f p hy s ica la n th ropo log y . T he r e i sav a s tl i t e r a tu r e r e f e r r ing t o t h e o r a l h ea l th s t a tu s o fs k e le ta l r ema in s a t ar e g iona l a nd i n t e r reg iona l l e v e l r a ng ing f r om p r eh is to r y t o m ode rn t ime s a l l o v e r t h e w o r ld ( A rme lago s 1 969 ; G r eene 1 972 ; T u rn e r 1 979 ; y 'Edynak a nd F l e i sch 1 983 ; L a r sen 1 984 ; Mo lna r a nd Mo lna r 1 985 ; P ow e l l 1 985 ; F r aye r 1 989 : H odg e s 1 989 ; Mach ia r e l l i 1 989 ) . H owev e r , t h e m a jo r i n te r e s t o f a n th ropo log i s t s h a s f o cu sed o n t r an s i t ion s i n s ub s i s tence h i s to r y . s u ch a s f r om f o rag ing t o f a rm ing . o n t h ei n t rodu c t ion o fn ew f o od s , s u ch a st h ea dop t ion o fm a ize i nt h eN ew Wo r ld , a nd o nt h e d ev e lopmen t o fn ew m e thod s o f f o od p r oc e s s ing , s u ch a s t h e i n t rodu c t ion o f f i r e a nd c ook ing .

A s a l ready d i scu s sed i n C hap te r 6 , a n th ropo log i s t s a nd a r chaeo log i s t s h ave d r awn p ar t icu la r a t ten t ion t o t h e i n t roduc t ion o fa g r icu l tu r e a nd i t sc on sequence sf o rt h eo r a l h ea l th s t a tu s o f p a s t h uman p opu la t ion s . I t h a s b een s ugg e s ted t h a t t h e a dop t ion o f a g r icu l tu r e l e d t o a d e te r io r a t ion i nt h eo r a l h ea l th s t a tu s o fh uman p opu la t ion s ( Cohen a nd A rm e lago s 1 984 ) . A s C oh en s ugg e s t s ( 1 977 ) . e a r ly n on -ag r icu l tu r a l d i e t s a ppea r t o h av e b een h i gh i n m ine ra ls . p r o te in , v i tam in sa nd t r ace n u t r ien t sb u t r e la t iv e ly l ow i ns t a r ch . I nt h e t r an s i t ion t oa g r icu l tu r e , t h e r e w a s a g r ow ing e mph a s i s o n s t a r chy . h i gh ly c a lo r ic f o od o f h i gh p rodu c t iv i ty a nd s t o r ab i l i t y w h ich w ou ld h av e i n c r ea s ed t h e c a r ry ing c apac i ty a nd a l low ed a n i n c rea s e i nt h e s i ze o ft h e p opu la t ion . H oweve r . t h e C ohen a nd A rme lago s mod e l o f d e c l ine i nt h e o r a l h ea l th s t a tu s o fp as t h uman p opu la t ion s w i th t h ea dop t ion a nd i n ten s if i ca t ion o fa g r icu l tu r eh a sb een v i go rou s ly d eba ted ( Wood e ta l . 1 992 ) . s i n ce a n umbe r o f f a c to r s a f e c t o r a l h ea l th s t a tu s o t h e r t h an d i e ta ry i n take , s u ch a s g ene t ic v a r iab i l i ty . I n m any r e g ion s o ft h e w o r ld t h e r e i sn oe v id enc et h a t t h e a dop t ion a nd i n ten s if ica t ion o f a g r icu l tu re w a s a s so c ia ted w i th d r am a t ic a nd r a p id c hange s i n d en ta l h e a l th ( Hodge s 1 989 ) . I t s e em s t h a t e a ch p opu la t ion r e spond s b i o log ica l ly t o i t s e nv i ronmen t i n a u n ique w ay w h ich i sd e te rm ined b y ac omb ina t ion o fi n te r p opu la t ion g en e t ic v a r ia t ion , l o ca l e co log ica l s e t t ing a nd t h e p r oc e s s o f i n ten s if i ca t ion ( Lukac s a nd M ind ennan 1 992 ) . A no the rc omp l ica t ing f a c to ri st h e c o l le c t ion , p roduc t ion o r c on sump t ion o fp a r t icu la r f o od s w h ich m ay b e a s so c ia ted w i th t h e e me rgen ce a nd d eve lopmen t o fs o c ia l r a nk ing a nd s o c ia l s t ra t if ica t ion ( W ing a nd B rown 1 979 ; G i lbe r t 1 985 : H i ld ebo l te ta l . 1 988 ; 1 989 ) . W i th r e ga rd t ot h e c on t r ibu t ion o f p hy s ica l a n th ropo logy , p r eh i s tor ic d i e t s c an b e a s se s s ed b y m ac ro scop ic a nd c h em ica l m e thod sa pp l ied t ot h es u rv iv ing t i s su e so ft h eo r a l c av i ty , i n c lud ing t h e t e e th a nd t h e b one s uppo r t ing t h em

( Lukac s 1 989 ) . Mac ro scop ic m e thod sr e f e rt ot h e r e co rd ing a nd s c o r ing o f d en ta l c ond i t ion s , s u ch a s c a r ie s , c a lcu lu s , a n temor tem t o o th l o s s a nd p e r iap ica l a b sce s se s . C h em ica l m e thod s , o n t h e o t h e r h and , i n c lud e as e r ie s o f a na ly t ica l t e chn ique sw h ich s e ek t od e t e rm ine t h e c hem ica l p rope r t ie s o ft h ef o od s c on sum ed d u r ing l i f e . I na dd i t ion t ot h e s t udy o fs k e le ta l r ema in s ,o t he re v id ence c an a l so c on t r ibu te t ot h e d i e ta r y r e con s truc t ion o fp a s t h uman p opu la t ion s , s u ch a s d i r ec t r emnan t s o f f o od r e s idue s ( s eed s , a n ima l b one s , s h e l l s ) . a r tef ac t s r e la ted t o f o od p roce s s ing a nd c on sump t ion , a nd w r i t ten l i t e r a tu r ea nd i c onog raphy , w he r e t h i si sa va i lab le ( G a rn sey 1 999 ) . I n N o r ther n G r e ece . i n p ar t icu la r . a s a l r eady d i scu s sed i n C h ap te r 2 ,k now ledge o f s u b s i s tence p r ac t ice s a nd d i e ta ry i n take s i s v e r y d ef i c ien t a nd d e r iv e s m a in ly f r om t h e a r cha eobo tan ica l a nd a r chaozoo log ica l e v iden ce o f af ew e xcava t ed p r eh i s to r ic s e t t lemen t s . H ow ev e r , t h e r e la t ive d i e ta ry c on t r ibu t ion s o f a n ima l s a nd p l an t s c anno t b e a c cu r a te ly i n f e r r ed f r om t h ee x i s t ing d a ta . I th a s b een a rgued . o n i n d i r ec t e v iden ce t h a t , d ome s t ica ted s e ed c r op s o fb o th c e r ea l s a nd p u l se s p r ov ided t h e b u lk o f d i e ta ry e ne rg y r e qu i r emen t s i n t h e N eo l i th ic . F u r the r d i ve r s i t ys e em st oh ave b een i n t roduced b yt h ec u l t iva t ion o f n ew c r op s , i n c lud ing m i l le t ,w a lnu ta nd c h e s tnu t i nt h eL a te B ronze A ge ( Ha l s t ead 1 994 : 2 00 , 2 01 ) . S im i la r ly , d ome s t ica t ed a n ima l s s u ch a ss heep . g oa t . c ow a nd p i g a r e p r e sen t f r om t h e E a r ly N eo l i th ic w h i le t h e o ccu r renc e o f w i ld s p e c ie s s u ch a sd ee r , b oa r , h a r e e t c . i n c rea se sf r om t h e E a r ly B ronze A g e o nwa rd s ( H a l s tead 1 987 : 7 4 ) . T he e v id en ce o f m o r ta l i ty c u rv e s f r om t h e r e cove red a n ima l b on e s s how s t h a t m o s t a n ima l s , d ome s t ic a nd w i ld , w e r e e a t en , i n d ica t ing , ab road ly -m ea t " s t r a tegy ( Ha l s tead 1 987 ) . F u r the rmo r e , t h e c on t r ibu t ion o f m a r in e f o od i s q u i te d ub iou s . T h e r e h a sb e en c on s id e rab le d eba te a st oi t s r e la t ive c on t r ibu t ion t ot h e o ve r a l l d i e ta ry r e qu i r emen t s o f t h e p r eh i s to r ic i nhab i tan t s o ft h e c oa s ta l A egean ( B in t l if f 1 977 ; G a l lan t 1 985 ) . A r te f ac t s r e la ted t o f i sh ing , a nd o c ca s iona l ly f o od r emnan t s s u ch a sf i sh b on e s a nd s h e l lf i sh t e s t if y t o t h e o c cu r r ence o f m a r ine r e sou r ce c on sump t ion . H oweve r , i ti sq u i te d if icu l t t o d e te rm in e w he the r t h e se r e sou r ce s c on s t i tu ted ab a s ic c ompon en t o f t h e d a i ly f o od i n take o ft h e c a se s t udy p r eh i s to r ic p opu la t ion s . I n s tead , i t i sp o s s ib le t h a t , a s h a s b een a r gued f o r c l a s s ica l a n t iqu i ty . f r om c l o se e xam ina t ion o f a nc ien t f i sh ing t e chn ique s a nd m od e rn f i sh c a tche s , -t h e r o le o f f i sh ing i n t h e d i e t a nd e c onomy w ou ld h ave b een o n t h e w ho le , s ubo rd ina te a nd s upp lemen tar y " ( Ga l lan t 1 985 : 4 3) . T h i s c hap te r a t temp t s . f i r s t , t oa s se s s t h e o r a l h ea l th s t a tu s o ft h e c a se s t udy p r eh i s to r ic p opu la t ion s a nd , s e cond ly . t o a dvanc e e x i s t ing k now ledg e o f t h e i r d i e t . T he a rgumen t w i l lf o cu so nt wo m a in b od ie so fe v idenc e .

D IETARY I ND ICATORS AND ORAL HE 4LTH S TATUS

f o r t h e s y s tema t ic s t anda rd i sed d e scr ip t ion o f p a tho log ica l c ond i t ion sa pp l ied t oh uman s k e le ta l d a tabase s .

• T he d i s tr ibu t ion o f d en ta l d i sea se a s e v idenced b y t h e m acroscop ic e xam ina t ion o f t e e th a nd b one s uppor t ing t h em . One a im o f t h is a na ly s i s w i l l b e t o a s soc ia te p a t tern s o f d en ta l d i sea se a nd d i e t w i th p opu la t ion s ubg roup sd ef ined b ya ge a nd s ex . • T he r e su l t s o f ap i lo t s t ab le i s o tope a na ll e is o fs e lec ted s amp le sf r om v ar iou ss i te si nt h ec a se s t udy a r ea .

7 . 2 .2 . CAR IES 7 . 2 .2 .1 . I NTRODUCT ION D en ta l c a r ie s i s ad i sea se p roce s s c ha ra c te r ised b y t h e f o ca l d em ine ra l i sa t ion o f d en ta l h ard t i s sue s b y o rgan ic a c id s p roduced b yb ac te r ia l f e rmen ta t ion o fd i e ta ry c a rbohyd ra te s , e spec ia l ly s uga r s ( Lukac s 1 989 ; L a r sen e ta l . 1 991 ; L a r sen 1 997 ) . C a rbohyd ra te s t h a t s uppo r t o ra l f l o ra a r e m e tabo l ised d if e ren t ia l ly a cco rd ing t o t h e ir m o lecu la r w e igh t s . T he r ef o re , t h e c a r iogen ic i ty o f ap ar t icu la r d i e t i s l a rge ly d e te rm ined b y t h e p ropo r t ion o fr e ad i ly m e tabo l ised c a rbohyd ra te st h a t i tc on ta in s ( Pow e l l 1 985 : 3 14 ) . B ac te r ia l b reakdown o f c a rbohyd ra te f o od r e s idue s p re sen t i n t h e mou th p roduce s t h e a c id s r e spon s ib le f o r c ar ie s c av i t ie s . F a t s , o i ls a nd m ea t s ( i nc lud ing f i sh ) a r e n on -car iogen ic , a nd p ro te in r e s idue s i n t h e mou th m ay a c tua l ly i nh ib i t t h e g row th o ft h e m ic roo rgan i sm s r e spon s ib le f o r d en ta l c a r ie s ( May s 1 998 : 1 49 ) .

7 . 2 . DENTAL PALAEOPATHOLOGY 7 . 2 .1 . METHODOLOGY T he d en ta l s amp le o n w h ich t h i s a na ly s i s h a s b een b a sed c on s is t s o f4 027 p e rmanen t a nd d ec iduou s t e e th r e cove red f r om t h e c a se s t udy s k e le ta l a s semb lag e s . S im i la r ly t ot h e s ke le ta l p a laeopa tho logy , t h e m e thodo log ica l s t anda rd s a pp l ied h ave b een d e te rm ined b yt wo f a c to r s : 1 . t h e d if e ren t ia l p r e serva t ion o ft h e s k e le ta l m a te r ia l a nd t h ep oo rc ond i t ion o fd en ta la r cade s , a nd 2 . t h e d if e ren t ia l d emog raph ic s t ruc tu re o ft h e c a se s t udy c eme te ry p opu la t ion s . F i r s t , t h e t o o th c oun t m e thod ( Lukac s 1 992 ) h a s b een a dop ted i no rde r t oo ve rcome t h e c on s t ra in t s o fd if e r en t ia l p re serva t ion v a ry ing b e tween s ke le ta l p opu la t ion s . T he p r imar y a dvan tage o f t h e t o o th c oun t r e co rd ing s y s tem i s t h a t i tc an b ea pp l ied t ol o o se t e e th a nd s o i sn o t a f ec ted b y t h e p re se rva t ion o f t h e a t tached b one t i s sue . A lso , t h i s

T he re a r e an umbe r o ff a c to r s i n vo lved i nt h e d eve lopmen t o fc a r io t ic l e s ion s , s uch a st h e e xpo su r e o ft o o th s u r f ace s t o t h e o ra l e nv i ronmen t , t h e p r e sence o f d en ta l p l aque , a nd d i e t . I n a dd i t ion t o t h e a bove e s sen t ia l f a c to r s , o the r i mpor tan t i nf luence s o n t h e d eve lopmen t , l o ca t ion a nd s e ve r i ty o f t h e d i sea se i n c lude t o o th c rown s i ze a nd m o rpho log y , e name l d ef ec t s , o cc lu sa l a t t r i t ion , f ood t e x tu re , o r a l a nd p l aque p H . s peed o f f o od c on sump t ion , s ome

m e thod m ax im i se s s amp le s i ze a nd t hu s t h e s t a t i s t ica l r e l iab i l i ty o ft h e r e su l t s o b ta ined . T he m a jo r d i sadvan tage o ft h e m e thod i st h a t i tc on s ide r sd en ta l l e s ion s o ccu r r ing i n t h e s ame m ou th a s i n dependen t e ven t s , e ven t h ough m o re t han o ne t o o th i nt h e s ame d en t i t ion i sv e ry l i ke ly t os how t h e s ame d en ta l l e s ion ( May s 1 998 :148 ) . S econd ly . t h e

s y s tem ic d i sea se s , a ge . h e r ed i ty . s a l iva ry c ompo s i t ion a nd f l ow , n u tr i t ion , p e r iodon ta l d i sease , e name l e l emen ta l c ompo s i t ion . p re sence o f f l uo r ide a nd o the r g eochem ica l f a c to r s , a nd d en ta l h yg iene p rac t ice s ( La r sen 1 983 : 2 ; Mo lna r a nd Mo lnar 1 985 ; P owe l l 1 985 : 3 14 -316 : Me ik le john e ta l . 1 988 : 2 76 : L a r sen e ta l . 1 991 : 1 79 ; L a r sen 1 997 : 6 5 ) .

d if e ren t ia l d emog raph ic p i c tu re o f t h e c a se s t udy a s semb lage s h a s b een o ve r come b y s t anda rd is ing t h e c r ude p reva lence s o f t h e d en ta l l e s ion s a s a l ready d e sc r ibed i n d e ta i l i nt h e m e thodo logy s e c t ion o f C hap te r 6 . T he c r ude r a te s o f o ccu r r ence o f d en ta l d i sea se h ave t hu s b een w e igh ted w i th r e f e r ence t o as t anda rd p opu la t ion w h ich i s t h e o ve ra l l t o ta l o f t e e th c l a s s if ied b y a ge a nd s ex g roup s s epa ra te ly .

C a r ie s a ppea r i n a r chaeo log ica l s p ec imen s i n av a r ie ty o f f o rm s a nd r ange i na s cend ing o rde r o fs i ze a nd s e ve r i ty o f t h e l e s ion , f r om d a rk e r oded r e g ion s o ft h e t o o th e name l t o i r regu la r ly w a l led c av i t ie s p ene t ra t ing t h e s ur f ace e name l ( F igu re s 7 . 1 a nd 7 . 2 ) ( Lukac s 1 989 : 2 67 ; B u ik s tra a nd U be lake r 1 994 : 5 4 , 5 5 ) .

D en ta l l e s ion s i nve s t iga ted i n c lude a n temo r tem t o o th l o s s , c a r ie s , c a lcu lu s a nd p e r iap ica l a b sce s se s . U n t i l v e ry r e cen t ly t h e re w a s al a ck o f s t andard i sed m e thod s a nd t e chn ique s f o r t h e r e co rd ing o f p a laeopa tho log ica l c ond i t ion s i n c lud ing d en ta l l e s ion s , p r even t ing t h e a ccu ra te c ompar ison o fd en ta l d i sea se b e tween s k e le ta l p opu la t ion s .

Al a rge n umbe ro fs t ud ie s h a s i n ve s t iga ted t h e p reva lence o f c a r ie s a nd i t s a s soc ia t ion w i th d i e tary c hange s i n a r chaeo log ica l s amp le s . V a r iou s w o rke r s h ave d ocumen ted at r end t o i n c r ea sed d en ta l d ecay w i th t h e i n t roduc t ion o f c a rbohyd ra te s i n g ene ra l a nd r ef ined s uga r i n p ar t icu la r ( La r sen e ta l . 1 991 : 1 80 ) . R ecen t s urvey s o f al a rge n umbe r

S y s tema t ic d i scu s s ion o f d en ta l d i sea se t o ge the r w i th s t anda rd s o fr e co rd ing a r e u sua l ly a b sen t f r om b as ic h uman o s teo logy b ook s , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o fB ro thwe l l 's D igg ing u p b ones ( 1981) w he r e s t anda rd ised s c a le s o fd en ta l l e s ion s a r e e s tab l i shed . A lso , L ukac s ( 1989 ) . H i l l son ( 1 979 ; 1 996 )

o f a r chaeo log ica l a nd a n th ropo log ica l p opu la t ion s ( Tu rne r 1 979 ; T u rne r a nd Machado 1 983 ) c onc lude t h a t a g r icu l tu ra l is t sg ene ra l ly d i sp lay f a r m o r e c ar iou s t e e th t h an d o n on -ag r icu l tu ra l is t s , p e rhap s b ecau se h un te r -ga the r e r s

a nd , mo re r e cen t ly . L a r sen ( 1997 ) h ave p rov ided w e l l r e f e renced r e v iew s o f m e thod s f o r t h e r e co rd ing a nd d e sc r ip t ion o f d en ta l d i sease , w h i le t h e r e cen t ly e d i ted S tandard sf or d a ta c o l lec t ion f rom h uman s ke l e ta l r ema ins

r e ly m o re o n t h e c on sump t ion o f a n ima l p ro te in ( Co s ta 1 980 ; L a r sen 1 997 ) . o r t ho se o f m ixed e conom ie s ( Powe l l 1 985 : 3 20 ; Wa lke r a nd E r land son 1 986 ) . I n t h e N ew Wo r ld , ah i gh p reva lence o fc a r ie s i so f ten a s soc ia ted w i th

( Bu ik s t ra a nd U be lake r 1 994 ) h a se s tab l ished ab enchma rk

18

D IETARY I NDICATORS AND ORAL HEALTH S TATUS

F igure 7 . 1 : S evere c ar ie s o n r i gh t mand ibu lar mo lar (Makr ig ia lo s 1 9 )

F igure 7 . 2 : S evere c ar ie so n r i gh t mand ibu lar mo lar s (Makr ig ia lo s 2 60pr im )

19

D IETARY I ND ICATORS AND ORAL HE 4LTH S TATUS

t h ei n t roduc t ion o f ma ize a s as ub s tan t ia l d i e tar yc omponen t ( La r sen 1 983 ) , w h i le , i n t h e O ld Wo r ld . t h e i n t roduc t ion a nd i n ten s if ica t ion o f a g r icu l tu r e i s a s soc ia ted w i th a n i n c rea s ing d eve lopmen t o f c a r io t ic l e s ion s ( Br inch a nd Mo l le r -Ch r i s ten sen 1 949 ; C ohen a nd A rme lago s 1 984 : Me ik le john e ta l . 1 984 : Me ik le john a nd Z ve leb i l 1 991) .

p reva lence o f c ar ie s i n Me so l i th ic s i te s o f P or tuga l a nd S i c i ly h a s b een a t t r ibu ted t ot h e c on sump t ion o fc a r iogen ic n on -ag r icu l tu ra l f ood s o r s wee t s t icky f r u i t s s uch a s f i g s ( Lube l le ta l . 1 994 ; L a r sen 1 997 ) .

F u r the rmo r e , d en ta l c a r ie s a nd d en ta l c a lcu lu s t e nd t o b e mu tua l ly e xc lu s ive s o t h a t , when r e co rded , t h ey s hou ld p rov ide g ood i nd ica to r s o f t h e p ro te in v e r su s c a rbohyd ra tecon ten to ft h e d i e t ( H i l lson 1 979 : 1 50 ) . A t t h i s p o in t i ti si mpor tan t t o n o te t h a t b o th c ond i t ion s m ay b e

T ab le 7 . 1 a nd F igu re 7 . 3 p r e sen t t he p r eva lence o fc ar ie s i n t h e c a se s t udy p r eh is tor ic p opu la t ion s . An i n i t ia l o b serva t ion i st h e i n c rea s ing d eve lopmen t o fc a r iou s l e s ion s f r om t h e N eo l i th ic t ot h e E a r ly I r on A g e p e r iod . EN N ea N ikomede ia a nd EBA G ou le s h ave p roduced t he l owe s t r a te s o f c a r ie s , wh i le t h e h ighe s t f r equ ency o ccu r s i n L BA /E IA T re i s E l ie s . T he d if e rence i nt h e f r equency o f

7 . 2 .2 .2 . RESULTS

s e en i nt h e s ame mou th . w he re a r re s ted c a r iou s l e s ion s i n c r own f i s su re s a r e o f ten c ove red w i th c a lcu lu s . A t a p opu la t ion l e ve l , h oweve r , t h e r e m ay b e as l igh t i n ve r se r e la t ion sh ip b e tween ( H i l lson 1 996 : 2 60 ) .

c a r ie s

a nd

c a lcu lu s

l e s ion s b e tween t h e c eme te r ie s i s s t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if i can t

f r equenc ie s

( ch i s quar et e s t : x292 .184> p=27 .877 , a tt h e0 .001 l e v e l o f s i gn if icance ) . T he o ve ra l l d i s t r ibu t ion o f c ar ie s b y a ge g roup ( Tab le 7 . 2 ) s how s t h e e xpec ted p i c tu re o f a n a ge p rog r e s s ive c ond i t ion , w i th i n c rea s ing f r equency o fl e s ion s d u r ing a du l thood . T he d i s tr ibu t ion o f t h e c umu la t ive f r equenc ie s o f c ar ie s b e tween a ge c a tego r ie s i s o n ly

D ie t s t h a t c on ta in r ough tex tu red f o od s a nd /o r a b ra s ive p a r t ic le sa r el e s sc ar iogen ic t han d i e ts t h a t a r e mo r e r e f ined i n t e x tu re a nd c on ta in s o f t . p roce s sed f o od ( Powe l l 1 985 : 3 14 ) . I t i s n o t a lway s t h e c ase , h oweve r , t h a t ah igh p reva lence o fc ar ie s i sa s soc ia ted w i th d ome s t ica ted p l an t s . T he c on sump t ion o f s t icky . h igh -carbohyd ra te , n on d ome s t ica ted p l an t s o r f r u i ts c an r e su l t i n e x ten s ive c ar ie s ( Har tnady a nd R o se 1 991) . F o r e xamp le , t h e h igh

s t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if ican t a t EBA K o i lada ( Ko lmogo rov Sm irnov t e s t : Dmarobs= 0 . 342> D. o . 0 5= 0 . 165 ) a nd LBA JE IA T re i s E l ie s ( Ko lmogo rov -Sm imov t e s t : D maxobs'' 0 . 46> D max0.05 =

P opu la t ion

( N IA /N 10 )

F NN e aN ikomed e ia

2 . 00 3 / 150 3 . 92 1 0 / 255 6 . 34 8 / 126 1 . 35 3 / 222 5 . 5 1 7 1 / 1287 3 . 15 6 / 190 1 .23 2 0 / 178 1 3 .88 2 0 / 144 9 . 92 8 4 / 846 8 . 87 1 / 124

L N M ak r ig ia lo sI E BA M ak r ig ia lo s E BA G ou le s E BA K o i lad a E BA /LBA K o r ino s L BA S p a th e s L BA /E IA T r e i sE l ie s E IA M ak r ig ia lo s E IA O lympu st umu l i

T ab le 7 . 1 :

O ve ra l l

0 . 327 ) .

p re va lence o fc ar ie s i np ermanen t d en t i t ion o ft he c a se s t ud

I 2 0

p opu la t ions ( raw ( l a ta )

D IETARY I ND IC 4TORS AND ORAL HEALTH S TATUS

F igure 7 .3 : P reva lence o fc ar ies i nt he c ase s tudy p opu la t ions ( s tandard ised r a tes )

1 0 .53

9 .66

8 .9

86-

4 .39

4 .26 1 . 27

E IA O lympus t umu l t

t r ,

L BA /E IA T re is E l ies

EBA K o i lada

EBA Mak r ig ia los

EBA /LBA K o r inos

1 . 02

EN N ea N ikomede ia

2

4 .38

3 .26

4

EBA G ou les

%P reva lence

1 8 .73

P reh is to r ic p opu la t ion

U nd ef ined

U nd ef ined

U nd ef ined

U nd ef ined

U nd ef ined

3 . 47 ( 5 / 144 )

U nd ef ined

U nd ef ined

U nd ef ined

8 . 33 ( 7 /84 )

0 . 00 ( 0 /28 ) 6 . 66 ( 2 4 /360 )

0 . 00 ( 0 73 1

U nd ef ined

5 . 26 ( 2 /38 )

1 )1 ( 3 4 ,2 1 1)

1 76 4 ( 3 / 14 )

0 . 00 ( 0 /26 )

U nd e f ined

7 . 40 ( 2 /27 )

U nd e f ined

0 . 00 ( 0 /6 1)

3 . 44 ( 1 /29 )

6 . 06 ( 4 /66 )

0 00 ( 0 /6 )

U nd ef ined

3 . 33 ( 130 )

( 0 /60 )

0 . 00 ( 0 /20 )

1 . 36 ( 1 /73 )

U nd ef ined

o . 0 0

o . 0 0

o . 0 0

( 0 1 15 )

( 0 /26 )

( 0 /24 )

L NM ak r ig ia los I

U nd ef ined

U nd ef ined

0 . 00 ( 0 / 16 )

E BA Mak r ig ia lo s

U nd ef ined

0 . 00 ( 0 /6 )

E BA G ou le s

U nd ef ined

U nd ef ined

c o o

o . 0 0

( 0 /7 )

( 0 /77 )

E BA K o i lada

1 2 .50 ( 3 /24 )

U nd ef ined

Ch i ld ' eC rud e ( NU 'N I2 ( 1

E NN ea N ikomede ia

I ndAdu lt ' i 7C rud e ( N 1 .4 1N 10 )

MA ° 0C rud e ( A 114 ,N la

I nfant ° oC rud e r i t IL L 'N 10 ,

o . 0 0

o . 0 0

( 0 / 156 )

0 . 00 ( 0 / 16 1

3 . 63 ( 1 0 /275 )

(N U /

I,n d ef ined

U nd ef ined

( 0 /57 )

U nd ef ined

( 3 /94 )

U nd ef ined

0 . 00 ( 0 17 )

U nd ef ined

U nd ef ined

1 0 .00 ( 1 1 110 )

1 0 .25 ( 4 /39 )

3 1 .25 ( 5 / 16 )

0 00 ( 0 /5 )

0 . 00 ( 0 / 1)

U nd ef ined

U nd e f ined

( 0 / (4 )

U nd e f ined

8 . 62 I( 0 / 116 )

U nd ef ined

1 0 00 1 0 / (0 )

U nd ef ined

( 0 /4 )

E IA Mak r ig ia lo s

U nd ef ined

0 . 00 ( 0 144 )

0 . 00 ( 0 /35 )

0 . 00 ( 0 /8 1)

1 .11 ( 4 2 /378 )

1 4 .6 1 ( 3 2 /2 19 )

9 . 25 ( 5 /54 )

71 4 ( / 14 )

1 9 .04 ( 4 /2 1)

E IA O lympus

1 .1f u l ef ined

U nd ef ined

( O io )

6 . 66 ( 6 /90 )

2 50 0 ( 5 /20 )

iT u d ef ined

(, i d ef ined

0 . 00 ( 0 /7 )

L BA S pa the s L BA /E IA T re is E l ie s

0 . 00

o . 0 0

o0 ( O i l)

31 9

(N M /

8 . 33 ( 1 /12 )

E BA /LBA K o r ino s

0 . 00

J uven i le . oC rud e ( 1,1 . 4 :N I0 )

YA ° oC rud e ( NU 'N I0 1

OA ' oC rud e 1 \ 1 10 (

PA ° 0C rud e N 10 7

Neonate ° . ,C rud e ( N 1 .4 '/ N 10 :1

P opu la t ion

0 . 00

I l 11 1 1 . 1 1I

T ab le 7 . 2 : P reva lence o fc ar ie s i np ermanen t d en t i t ion b y a ge g roup ( c rude a nd s t andard ised r a te s )

N IA : N umbe ro fI nd iv idua ls Af ec ted .

N IO : N umbe ro fI nd iv idua ls O b ser ved . 1 2 1

D IETARY I ND IC ITORS AND ORAL HE 4LTH S TATUS '

F igure 7 .4 : P reva lence o fc ar ies b y s ex g roup ( s tandard ised r a tes )

•M a le

%P reva lence

0F ema le

P reh is to r ic p opu la t ion

T he s t anda rd i sed r a te s o f c a r ious l e s ion s i n t h e t wo s e xe s a r e p re sen ted i n F igu re 7 . 4 . T he d if e rence b e tween t h e s exe s i nt h e i n c idence o fc a r ie s i ss t a t is t ica l ly s i gn if ican t a t EBA K o i lada ( c h i s qua r e t e s t : x211 .053> 1 ) =10 .828 , a tt h e 0 . 00 1 l e ve l o f s i gn if icance ) a nd L BA /E IA T re is E l ie s ( c h i s qua re t e s t : x 4 .0 82> p =3 .841 . a t t h e 0 . 050 l e ve l o f s i gn if icance ) . T he se d if e r ence s m ay r ef lec t d if e ren t ia l a cce s s b y t h e t wo s e x g roup s t oc ar iogen ic f o od s tuf f . T he re i s n o c on s i s ten t t r end . h oweve r , a s t o w he the r m a le s o r f ema le sw e r e m o re s ub jec t t oc a r ie s .

p l an tc a rbohyd r a te sf o rw omen a nd i na n im a l p ro te in ( m ea t ) f o r m en ( La r sen 1 983 ; 1 997 ; 1 998 ; y 'Edynak 1 989 : L ukac s 1 996 ) . T he re a r e a n umbe r o f e x cep t ions , h ow eve r ,

7 . 2 .2 .3 . CONCLUS IONS

d eve lopmen ta l r e a son , h oweve r , t h e t r end t oh ighe r c a r ie s r a te s i nw omen t h an m en s hou ld b e u n iv e r sa l , wh ich i ti s n o t ( La r sen e ta l . 1 99 1 : 1 94 ; L ukac s 1 996 : 1 50 , 1 51 ; L a r sen

i n d ica t ing t h a t h i gh p reva lence o fd en ta l c a r ie s i nf ema le s i s n o t au n ive r sa l p henomenon ( Mo lna r a nd Mo lna r 1 9 85 : Wa lke ra nd H ew le t t 1 990 ) . A par t f r om p o s s ib le d if e r en ce s i n d i e t , o t he r p hy s io log ica l f a c to r s m ay h ave c au sed d if e r en t ia l d eve lopmen t o fc ar ie s , s uch a se a r l ie r e r up t ion o f p e rmanen t d en t i t ion i n f ema le s o r t h e s t r e s s o f p r egnancy . e xp la ined

T he p reva lence o f c a r ie s v a r ie s b e tween t h e c a se s t udy

I f d if e r ence s i n d en ta l c a r ies c ou ld b e b y s ome u nde r ly ing p hy s io log ica l o r

1 997 : 7 5 ) . I n s tead , an umbe r o fb ehav iou ra l a nd c u l tu ra l r e ason s h a s b een p ropo sed . i n c lud ing t h e t y pe a nd

c eme ter y p opu la t ion s . O ve ra l l , t h e e a r ly p opu la t ion s , o ft h e N eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze A ge , t e nd t oh ave l owe r r a te s o f c ar iou s l e s ion s t h an t h e ir c oun terpar t s i n t h e L a te B ronze

c on s i s tency o ff o od p repar a t ion a nd c ook ing me thod s , a nd s e x -ba sed d i v i s ion o f l a bou r a nd s ub s i s tence a c t iv i ty p a t te rn s w h ich g i ve m en a nd w omen d if e ren t ia l a c ce s s t o c a r iogen ic f o od s ( Wa lke r a nd E r land son 1 986 : 3 80 ; L ukac s 1 996 : 1 51 . 1 52 ) .

a nd E ar ly I r on A ge s . T h i s m ay i nd ica te t h a t , c on tra ry t o a rgumen t s b a sed o n i nd ir ec t a r chaeobo tan ica l a nd a rchaeo log ica l e v idence ( e .g . H a ls tead 1 994 ) . t h e d eve lopmen to fa no verwhe lm ing ly s t ar ch -ba sed d i e t d i d n o t t a ke p l ace i nN or the rn G reece u n t i l t h e e nd o f t h e B ronze A ge .

7 . 2 .3 . CALCULUS 7 . 2 .3 .1 . I NTRODUCT ION

I n a dd i t ion . t h e re i ss ex d if e ren t ia t ion i n t h e f r equency o f c ar ie s w i th t h e mo r e s eve r e ly a f ec ted s ex v ary ing f r om

D en ta l c a lcu lu s i st h e m ine ra l isa t ion o fb a c te r ia l p l aqu e . I t

c eme ter y t o c eme ter y . A w ide r ange o f s t ud ie s o n t h e d if e ren t ia l d eve lopmen t o f d en ta l d i sea se b e tween s ex g roup s h a s r e vea led s i gn if ican t ly h ighe r c a r ie s r a te s i n f ema le s t h an m a le s w o r ldw ide , s ugge s t ing a d i e t r i che r i n

a ccumu la te s a tt h e b ase o f al i v ing p l aqu e d epo s i t a nd i s a t tached t ot h e s u r f ace o ft h et o o th ( F igu r e7 . 5 )

1 22

D IETARY I ND ICATORS AND ORAL HE4LTH S TATUS

F igur e 7 . 5 : Modera te c a lcu lus d epo s i t so n t he l i ngua l s ur face o fp o s ter ior mand ibu lar t e e th ( Ko i lada L i th10 )

7 . 2 .3 .2 . RESULTS

( Lukacs 1 989 : 2 67 ; H i l l son 1 996 : 2 55 ) . R a te s o f c a lcu lu s a ccumu la t ion a r ed if i cu l tt oe s t ima te a ccu ra te ly s i nce m any d epo s i t s s u f f e r p o s tmor tem l o s s ( Bu ik s tra a nd U be lake r 1 994 : 5 6 ) . F ac to r s t h a t l e ad t oc a lcu lu s f o rma t ion r e la te t o t h o se v a r iab le s wh ich c an a f ec t p l aque a ccumu la t ion s uch a sp oo r o r a l h yg iene o r c a rbohyd r a te c on sump t ion ( H i l lson 1 996 : 2 59 ) . T he i n te r re la t ion sh ip b e tween c ar ie s a nd c a lcu lu s r a te s h a s a l r eady b een e xp la ined a l ong w i th t h e

T he p reva lence o f c a lcu lu s i n t h e c a se s t udy p reh is to r ic c eme te ry p opu la t ion s ( Tab le 7 . 3 . F igu r e 7 . 6 ) r e vea ls a n i n te r e s t ing p a t tern . I n c on t ra s t t o t h e c a r ie s r a te s wh ich w e r e s i gn if ican t ly h ighe r i n t h e l a te r p e r iod s , c a lcu lu s d epo s i ts a r e m o re f r equen t i n t h e e ar ly p opu la t ion s o ft h e N eo l i th ic a s semb lage s a nd EBA K o i lada . T he d if e rence s i n t h e p reva lence o f t h e c ond i t ion i n t h e c eme te ry p opu la t ion s a r e s t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if ican t ( c h i s qua re t e s t : x2= 234 .918> p =27 .877 . a tt h e0 . 001 l e ve l o fs i gn if icance ) .

i mp l ica t ion sf o rd i e tary i n take a t ap opu la t ion l e ve l .

1 23

DIETARY I NDICATORSA ND ORAL HE .4LTH ST .4TL `S

P opu la t ion

( NIA JN IO )

EN N ea N ikomede ia

2 7 .33 4 1/ 150

LN Mak r ig ia lo sI

2 1 .17 5 4 /255

E BA Mak r ig ia los

2 3 .80 3 0 / 126

EBA G ou le s

2 . 70 6 / 222

EBA K o i lada

2 2 .22 2 86 / 1287

EBA /LBA K o r ino s

9 . 47 1 8 / 190

L BA S pa the s

7 . 86 1 5 / 178

L BAJE IA T re is E l ies

2 . 08 3 / 144

E IA Mak r ig ia lo s

6 . 97 5 9 /846 2 . 4 1 3 / 124

E IA O lympu st umu l i

T ab le 7 . 3 : Overa l l p reva lence o fc a lcu lu s i np ermanen t d en t i t ion o ft he c a se s t udy p opu la t ion s ( r aw d a ta )

F igure 7 .6 : P reva lence o fc a lcu lus i nt he c ase s tudy p opu la t ions ( s tandard ised r a tes )

3 0

2 7 .54

2 5 t 2 1 .86

2 1 ,67

1 6 .28 1 5 h

1 0 —

6 . 93

6 . 08

5 . 29

P reh is to r ic p opu la t ion

E IA O lympus t umu l i

L B NE IA T re is E l ies

L BA S pa thes

2 . 55

EBA K odada

E BA Gou les

EBA Mak r ig ia los

L N Makng ia los I

0

2 . 66

EBA /LBA K o r inos

5±

EN N ea N ikomede ia

%P reva lence

2 0

D IET ARY I ND IC 4TORS AND ORAL HE 4LTH S T ATUS , Neonate 4 6C rud e ( N IA ;N 10 )

Popu la t ion

I nf an t 9 .C rud e (M /N 10 )

Ch i ld 9 6C rud e (MA /N 10 )

J uven i le 4 6C rud e ( N IA /N ICX

YA

( NL . 1 /N 10 )

PA 9 6C rud e ( Nb l iN 10 )

%C rud e

MA 96 C rud e

( A lbi . /M O )

OA %C rud e ( NU /N IO )

I ndAdu lt 9 . iC rud e ( N IA /N 10 )

_ _

E NN ea N ikom ed e i a L NM ak r ig i a lo sI

/' P h i rl i t ied

( 0 / 15 )

( 0 /26 )

( 0 /24 )

U nd ef ined

( 3 2 /6 1)

( 9 /24 )

U nd ef ined

U nd ef ined

U nd ef ined

U nd e f ined

0 . 00 ( 0 / 16 )

2 4 . 13 ( 7 /29 1

4 0 .90 ( 2 7 /66 )

U nd ef ined

U nd ef ined

U nd ef ined

1 3 .88 ( 2 0 / 144 )

E BA M a k r ig i a lo s

U nd ef ined

0 . 00 ( 0 /6 )

0 . 00 ( 0 16 )

U nd ef ined

3 0 .00 ( 9 /30 )

U nd ef ined

U nd ef ined

U nd ef ined

2 5 .0 0 ( 2 1 /84 )

U nd ef ined

U nd ef ined

0 . 00 ( 0 /60 )

2 50 0 ( 5 /20 )

0 . 00 ( 0 /73 )

0 . 00 ( 0 /28 )

0 . 00 ( 03 )

U nd ef ined

2 . 63 ( 1 /38 )

0 . 00 ( 0 /7 )

0 . 00 ( 0 /77 )

6 . 4 1 ( 1 0 / 156 )

5 . 59 ( 916 1)

2 4 .00 ( 66 /275 )

3 9 1 6 ( 1 4 1 /360 )

2 65 4 ( 5 6 /2 11)

0 . 00 ( 0 / 14 )

1 5 .38 ( 4 /26 )

U nd e f ined

U nd ef ined

0 . 00 ( 0 '57 )

U nd ef ined

2 . 12 ( 2 /94 )

0 . 00 ( 0 / 12 )

U nd e f ined

5 9 .25 06 127 )

U nd e f ined

U nd ef ined

0 . 00 ( 0 /7 )

U nd ef ined

U nd ef ined

8 . 18 ( 9 / 110 )

( 0 .25 / 4 / 39 )

6 . 25 ( 1 / 16 )

0 . 00 ( 0 /5 )

0 . 00 ( 0 / 1)

U nd e f ined

U nd e f ined

0 . 00 i ( ) 1_ i

U nd e f ined

2 . 58 ( 3116 )

U nd ef ined

0 . 00 ( 011 0 )

U nd e f ined

0 . 00 ( 0 /4 )

U nd e f ined

0 . 00 ( 0 /44 )

0 . 00 ( 0 /35 )

1 .11 ( 9 /8 1)

4 . 49 ( 1 7 /378 )

1 2 .32 ( 2 7 /2 19 )

n, ,4 ,

7 . 14 ( 1 / 14 )

0 . 00 ( 0 /2 1)

1 0 .00 ( 2 /90 )

5 . 00 ( 1 /20 )

/' m id i / led

U nd ef ined

0 . 00 ( 0 /7 )

E BA G ou l e s E BA K o i l ad a E BA /LBA K o r ino s L BA S p a th e s L BA /E l i s kT r e i s E l ie s E IA M a k r ig i a lo s E IA O lympu s t umu l i

U nd ef ined

o . 0

U nd ef ined

o . 0

0 . 00

o . 0 0

0 . 00 ( 0 /1 )

( 0 /6 )

5 2 .45

3 7 .50

o2 5

T ab le 7 . 4 : P reva lence o fc a lcu lu s i np ermanen t d en t i t ion b y a g eg roup ( c rude r a te s )

F igu re 7 . 7 : P reva lence o fc a lcu lus b y s ex g roup ( s tandard ised r a tes ) 6 0

IM a le

2 E L T '

E IA Mak r ig ia los

i n

L BA S pa thes

EBA JLBA K o rmos

oF ema le

P reh is to r ic p opu la t ion

0 . 312>

W i th r e g a rd t o t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e c ond i t ion b y a g e g r oup s( T ab l e7 . 4 ) , i ti si n te r e s t ing t on o te t h ep r eva lence o f c a lcu lu s d epo s i t s i n s ubadu l t a nd y oung a g e c a tego r ie s . C a lcu lu s d epo s i t s h ave b een r e co rded o n t h e p e rm anen t d en t i t ion o fc h i ld ren i nE BA K o i lad a a nd j uven i le s i n LN Mak r ig ia lo s I , E BA G ou le s , E BA K o i lada a nd E IA Mak r ig ia lo s . T he c ond i t ion h a s a l so b een o b se rved o n t h e d ec iduou sd en t i t ion o fi n f an t si n EN N e a N ikom ede ia ( 5 /75 , 7% ) a nd c h i ld r en i n E BA K o i lada ( 6 / 26 , 2 3% ) . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e c umu la t iv e f r equ en c ie s o f c a lcu lu s b e tween a g e c a tego r ie s i ss t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if ican t a t E BA K o i lada ( Ko lmogo rov -Sm i rnov t e s t : D maxobs

D max0 .03 =

Sm i rnov t e s t : Mak r ig ia lo s

0 . 09 1 ) . E BA /LBA K o r ino s ( Ko lmogo rov 0 . 81>D . o . o . 5= 0 . 336 ) a nd E IA ( Ko lmogo rov -Sm i rnov t e s t : / 9 „ , „„ b, -

D maxobs =

O .1 9>Dm a x o . o s= 0 . 183 ) . C on s ide r ing n ow t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f c a lcu lu s f o rma t ion b e twe en s e x g r oup s ( F igu r e 7 . 7 ) . m o s t s k e le ta l a s semb lage s h ave r e vea led h i gh e r c a lcu lu s r a te s i n m a le s . T h e h i ghe r i n c id enc e o f c a lcu lu s i n m en i ss t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if ican t a t E IA Mak r ig ia lo s ( c h i s qua r e t e s t : x2= 8 .67 1> p =7 .879 , a t t h e 0 . 005 l e v e l o f s i gn if i can ce ) . C onv e r se ly , w omen h ave s i gn if i can t ly h i ghe rr a te so fc a lcu lu sa tE BA K o i lada ( c h i

=

1 2 5

DIETARritv'DIC4TORSAND OR4L HE4LTH TATUS

square test: x::= 22.191> p=J0.828, at the 0.001 level of significance). 7.2.3.3. CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of calculus is plainly higher in the early case study cemetery populations than in the populations of the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age. Calculus occurs in both young and old age groups. suggesting no dramatic dietary discrepancies between adults and subadults. The relative incidence of calculus in males and females varies from cemetery to cemetery suggesting local va.ri p= J0.828,.at the 0.001 level of significance). LN Makrigialos I (chi square test" x::= 51.08 > p=J0.828. at the 0.001 level of significance). EBA Makrigialos (chi square test: x�= 20.618> p= J0.828. at the 0.001 level of significance), EBA Koilada (chi square test: x�=J70.654> p=J0.828, at the 0.001 level of significance) LBA/EIA Treis Elies (chi square test: x::=23.962> p=J0.828. at the 0.001 level of significance) and EIA Makrigialos (chi square test: x2= 7. ./0> p=6.634. at the 0.010 level of significance). The distribution of caries and calculus rates between sex groups (Figure 7.9) maintains, in general. the same pattern of high calculus in the early populations and high caries in the late populations. Three skeletal assemblages, however,

Figure 7 .8: Prevalence of caries versus calculus in the case study populations (standardised rates) 30

25

41 41

'$.

20 ■Caries

15

□Calculus

10 5

'Qj Cl)

E

0

z -"'

z z

Cl)

p -10 .828 . a t t h e 0 . 001 l e ve l o f

A dd i t iona l ly , i ti s n o t k nown w he the r t h e s t ab le i s o tope v a lue sr e f lec tt h ec a rbon d er ived f r om a l l p ar t s o ft h e d i e t o r j u s t f r om p ro te in ( La r sen 1 997 ) . T hu s , t h e c a rbohyd ra te s w h ich . a cco rd ing t o t h e m ac ro scop ic i n ve s t iga t ion , w e r e m or e i mpor tan t m ay n o t b e r ef lec ted b y t h e s t ab le i s o tope a na ly s is . Mo r eove r , s t ab le i s o tope a na ly s i s m ea su re s i n take o f a l l k ind s o f a n ima l p ro te in a nd c anno t d i s t ingu ish b e tween m ea t a nd o the r t y pe s o f p ro te in s uch a s d a ir y p roduc t s . T hu s t h e a ppa ren t c on trad ic t ion b e tween d en ta l a nd s t ab le i s o tope d a ta m ay r ef lec t a n i n c rea s ing c on t r ibu t ion o f d a iry p roduc t s i n take i n t h e l a te r p e r iod s .

s i gn if icance ) , a n temor tem t o o th l o s s r a te s ( ch i s qua re

T h is w ou ld b e c on s i s ten t w i th t h e mode l o f a dop t ion o f s e condar yp roduc ts d u r ing t h eB ronze A ge ( She r ra t t 1 981) .

t e s t : x2= 237 .637> p =10 .828 . a t t h e 0 . 001 l e ve l o f s i gn if icance ) a nd p er iap ica l a b sce s s ( c h i s qua r e t e s t : x-= 6 .802> p=6 .63 . 4 . a tt h e0 . 010 l e v e l o fs i gn if icanc e ) . B . T he o ve ra l lp r eva l ence o fd en ta l d i s ea s e i st hus h i gher i n t h e l a te p opu la t ions . T h is p a t t e rn may r ef l ec t i n c rea s ing d om inance o f t h e d i e t b y c a rbohyd ra te s , b u t m igh t h ave b een c aused b y o the r f a c to r s , s uch a s t h e i n troduc t ion o f n ew c ook ing m e thod s o r t e chn iqu e s o f

O ne o f t h e g r ea t v a lue s o f t h e a s se s smen t o f o ra l h ea l th s t a tu s i s t h e o ppor tun i ty t o e xp lo re t h e a s soc ia t ion o f p ar t icu la rd i e ta r p a t te rn sw i th c er ta in p opu la t ion s egmen t s . d ef ined b y s e x a nd /o r a ge . W i th a l lowance f o r t h e a ge p rog re s s ive n a tu re o f much d en ta l d i sease . t h e d i s tr ibu t ion o fm a jo rp a tho log ica l c ond i t ion s s uch a sc ar ie s a nd c a lcu lus i n a l l a ge c a tego r ie s d oe s n o t i mp ly a ny a ge re la ted

f o od p r epar a t ion . C hange s i n c ook ing m ay a l so h ave c on tr ibu ted t ot h e a ppa ren t c on trad ic t ion b e tween d en ta l a nd i s o top ic d a ta .

d i s t inc t ion i n d i e tar y p a t te rn s i n m o s t o f t h e c eme tery p opu la t ion s . Women i ng ene ra l s e em t oh ave h ad h ighe r

F igure 7 .21: P reva lence o f d en ta l d isease b y a rchaeo log ica l p er iod ( s tandard ised r a tes )

2 5

2 0 .53 1 8 .26

UE a r ly OL a te

3 .27 0 . 027 C a r ies

C a lcu lus

AMTL

0. 4 8

P e r ia p i ca I a bscess

D en ta l d isease

1 40

D IETARY I ND ICATORS AND ORAL HEALTH S TATUS

F igure 7 . 22 : Overa l l p reva lence o f d en ta l d isease i nt he c ase s tudy p opu la t ions ( s tandard ised r a tes ) 3 0 2 5

E ar ly I Coas ta l C I I n land

5 0

( I )

_ z

( I S 0

( s )

( / ) ( f )

0

0 O . _

— 0 _ ( 9 J

w

W ° ( 1 ) 1 2 m

D en ta l d isease

C . I n land p opu la t ions h ave h i gher r a t e s o f c a r ies , a n t emo r t em t o o th l o s s a nd p er iap ica l a bs ces s t h an t h e c oa s ta l p opu la t ions , i n b o th e a r ly a nd l a te s k e le ta l a s semb lage s . T he d if e r ence s i nt h e p r ev a lence o f t h e c ond i t ion s b e tween c o a s ta l a nd i n land p opu la t ion s a r e s t a t i s t ic a l ly s i gn if i can t i n b o th e a r ly a nd l a te a s semb lage s . F o re a r ly p opu la t ion s : c a lcu lu s ( c h i s qua r e t e s t : r=60 .528> p -10 .828 , a t t h e 0 . 00 1 l e ve l o f s i gn if i c ance ) . F o r l a te p opu la t ion s : c a r ie s ( c h i s qua r e t e s t : x2= 11 .787> 1 9 =10 .828 , a t t h e 0 . 00 1 l e v e l o f s i gn i f ic ance ) a nd a n temor tem t o o th l o s s ( c h i s qu a r e t e s t : x2= 184 .6 15> p -10 .828 , a t t h e 0 . 00 1 l e ve l o f s i gn if i c ance ) . I t i s i n te r e s t ing t h a t t h e i n land p opu la t ion s , w h ich i n c lude t h e t wo m oun ta inou s

a s semb lage s o fL BA S p a the s a nd L BA JE IA T r e is E l ie s , s ugge s t d i e t s r i ch i n c a rbohyd r a te w i th l ow m ea t c on sump t ion . T h i s p e rhap s s ugge s t s t h a t t h e s e u p land s i t e s w e r e o ccup ied b y m ix ed f a rme r s r a the r t h an b y s p ec ia l i sed p a s to r a l i s t s a nd t h u s l e nd s s l igh t s uppor t t o t h e a rgum en t t h a t s p e c ia l i sed p a s to ra l i sm d i d n o t t a k e p l ace i np r eh is to r ic G r ee ce ( f o r ab r oad d i s cu s s ion s e e C hang 1 993 a nd m o r e r e cen t ly H a ls tead 1 996 ) . C onv e r se ly , t r ace e l em en t a na ly s i s o f 8th c en tu r y BC t o 2n d c en tu ry AD h uman b on e s f r om c oa s ta l a nd m oun ta inou s s i te s f r om C o r f u a nd E p i ru s . r e spec t iv e ly , i nn o r thwe s t G r ee c e( Magou e ta l . 1 997 ) , s how s ah i gh e r r e l ianc e o n a n ima l p r o te in f o od a s so c ia ted w i th t h e m oun ta in p opu la t ion s .

1 4 1

C HAPTER 8 CONCLUSIONS U p t o n ow , o u r k now ledge o n t h e a r chaeo log ica l b ackg round o f t h e p r eh i s to r ic G reek Ma cedon ia h a s b een l im i ted s t r ic t ly m a in ly t o a spec t s o f m a te r ia l c u l tu r e a nd s e t t lem en t p a t te rn sa nd i n al e s s d eg r ee o fs ub s i s tence . T he b road t ime p e r iod c ove r ed b y t h i s s t udy e x tend s f r om t h e N eo l i th ic t o t h e E a r ly I r on A ge s a nd i n vo lv e s as e r ie s o f t r an sf o rma t ion sr e f e r r ing t od if e ren tt y pe so fs e t t lemen ta nd s p a t ia l o r gan i sa t ion a t t h e i n te r - a nd i n t r a s i t e l e ve l r e sp ec t ive ly , s ub s i s ten ce p a t te rn s a nd d if e r en t ia l m anag emen t o fa g r icu l tu ra l r e sou rce s a nd s t ock r a i s ing a nd d if e r en t ia l p roduc t ion , c on sump t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f p o t te ry , m e t a l ,b one a nd o t he ra r tef ac t s . I n s hor t , t h e p i c tu r e o ft h e N eo l i th ic a nd t h e E a r ly B ronz e A g e s i sc on s i s ten t w i th s ma l l sca le s o c ie t ie s w i th t h e b a s ic u n i t o fh ou seho ld b e ing t h en uc lear .f am i ly w h i le b y t h e e nd o ft h eN eo l i th ic t ot h et r an s i t ion i nt h eB ronze A ge . t h e r e i s s ome e v idence s ugg e s t ing t h em ob i l isa t ion o fm a te r ia l s a nd i d ea s a t ab road l e ve l b eyond t h e c onf in e s o f t h e l o ca l c ommun i t y . T he l a t te r i s i nd ica ted b y t h e p rodu c t ion , c on sump t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o ff i ne , p a in t ed p o t te ry . c r a f t s p ec ia l i sa t ion , i n t roduc t ion o f m e ta l w o rk a nd t h e d eve lopmen t o fl o ng -d i s tance e xchang e n e two rk s e x tend ing t o T he s sa ly , t h e A egean i s land s a nd t h e B a lkan s . C onve r se ly . t h e L a te B ronze a nd E a r ly I r on A ge s o c ie t ie s r e p r e sen t at e nden cy t owa rd s , t h e e xpans ion o fr e s id en t ia l u n i t s i n m o r e t h an o ne h ou seho ld , t h e e m e rgence o f h i e r a r ch ie s a t t h e i n te r - a nd p o s s ib ly t h e i n t r a s i te l e ve l s ugge s ted i n C en t ra l Macedon ia . t h e d eve lopmen t o f n uc lea ted h ab i ta t ion p o s s ib ly i n t h e E a r ly I r on A ge . t h e e xpan s ion o f e xchang e n e two rk s w i th t h e S ou th b e ing e v id en t p ar t icu la r ly b y t h e i n t roduc t ion o f My cenaean a nd -M ycenaean is ing " t y p e s o f a r tef ac t s , t h e B a lkan s a nd C en t ra l E u rope a nd t h e r e l iance u pon c e r ta in c a tego r ie s o f a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t s s u ch a st h e c e r ea l s i nA s s i ro s , C en t ra l Ma cedon ia . S im i la r ly , b u r ia l p ra c t ice s g i ve e v idence o f a l a rge d i f f e ren t ia t ion t h rough t ime w i th r e ga rd t ot h e o rgan i sa t ion o f m o r tua r y p rog r amme a t t h e i n t e r - a nd i n t ra -ceme te ry l e v e l . B r ie f ly , t h e o v e ra l l p i c tu r e o ft h e N eo l i th ic i n d ica te s p oo r a s s emb lag e s w i th v e ry s c an ty e v idence o f m o r tua ry t r ea tm en t , l i t t le e mpha s i s o nt h ev i s ib i l i ty o ft h ed ead a nd a t o ta l l a ck o f e l abo ra te a s soc ia ted a r te f ac t s , a l though t h e r e cen t f i nd ing s o f Mak r ig ia lo s w ou ld a rgu e c l ea r ly f o r a d if e r en t s i tua t ion t a k ing p l ace b y t h e e nd o f t h e p e r iod . T he B ronze A ge o nwa rd s i n s tead , r e p r e s en t s w e l l d ef ined c eme t er ie s l o ca ted a t a d i s tance f r om t h e a s so c ia ted s e t t lem en t s t o a c commoda te t h e d e cea s ed w h ich c l ea r ly s ugg e s t s at e ndency t owa rd s v i s ib i l i ty o ft h e b u r ia l g round a nd s e pa ra t ion b e twe en t h e l i v ing a nd t h e d ecea sed . F u r the rmo r e , t h e re i sa ne v iden t c a r ei nt h et r ea tmen t o ft h e d ecea sed a s soc ia ted a t t h e s ame t ime w i th a t e ndency t owa rd s s t anda rd isa t ion a t t h e i n t r a -cem e ter y l e ve l i n d ica ted b y c ommon b u r ia l p r ac t ice s . p o s i t ion s ,

o r ien ta t ion s , s t anda rd s e t s o f g r ave g ood s p l aced o f t en i n c e r ta in p o s i t ion sa nd ap o s s ib le d if e r en t ia lt r ea tmen tb ya g e a nd /o rs e xg r oup s . A l so , i ti sw o r th p o in t ing o u t t h a tb yt h e E a r ly B ron ze A g e , t h e r e a r e i nd ica t ion s o f c l us t e r ing o f b u r ia l s s ugg e s t ing s ma l l , p o s s ib ly f am i ly r e la ted g r oup s t o h ave b een h e ld i nw e l l d ef ined w ay s w i th in t h e c em e t e r ie s . T he l a t te r b ecome s t h e r u le i n t h e L a te B ronze A g e w hen m o re t h an o n e i nd iv idua l a r e b e ing a c commoda ted i nt h e c ommon g r ave t y pe s a s mu l t ip le / s econda ry b u r ia l s . S im i la r ly , t h i s p e r iod s how s ac l ea r s t anda rd isa t ion i n m o r tua ry t r ea tmen tf o cu sed o nt h e a dop t ion o fc er ta in g r ave t y p e s a nd t h e a s soc ia ted g rave g ood s . I ti sa l so s t r ik ing t o n o t e t h e a c cumu la t ion o f d i s t inc t a r te f ac t s a nd p e r sona l i t ems m ad e o f ten o f r a r e o r e xo t ic m a t e r ia ls i n c lud ing s e a l s tone s , j ewe l le r y , w eaponr y a nd Mycena ean o r "Mycenaean i s ing " p o t te r y s ugge s t ing p o s s ib ly a n e v id en t d i sp lay o fs oc ia l i d en t i ty b y t h e i n d iv idu a l . F ina l ly , i nt h e E a r ly I r on A g e . a l though ad i s t inc t s t anda rd i sa t ion , a l r eady s e en i n t h e p r ev iou s p e r iod , w i th r e g a rd t o t h e o v e ra l l t r ea tmen t o ft h e d e cea sed h a s b een c l ea r ly c on t inu ed , t h e re i sa n o bv iou s t e nden cy t owa rd s a n h e t e rog ene i ty o f t h e b u r ia l a s semb lage s a tt h e c eme ter y l e v e l s h own m a in ly b y t h e b roade ru s e o fg r ave m a rke r s , t h e d eve lopmen t o fm o r e e l abo ra te g r ave t y pe s s u ch a s t h e c hambe r t omb s i n Mak r ig ia lo s a nd t h e d i s t inc t d epo s i t ion o fr e la t ive ly " r ich " a s o ppo sed t o -p oo r " a r tef ac t s a s so c ia ted w i th c e r t a in i n d iv idua l s o rf am i ly g roup s . F ur th e rmo r e . t h e E a r ly I r on A g e b u r ia l p r ac t ice s w i tne s s a n o ve r a l l e mpha s i s o n t h e l i neag e i d en t i ty a s i n d ica ted b y t h e s t r ong e v id en c e o f c l u s te r ing a t t h e i n t r a -ceme te r y l e v e l e . g . t umu l i a nd c hamb e rt omb s . P rov id ed t h e c e r ta in d if i cu l t ie s r i sen f r om t h e t o ta l l a ck o f p ub l ica t ion s o f t h e e xcava ted c eme t e r ie s a nd t h e p o o r p r e se rva t ion o ft h es k e le ta lm a te r ia l ,t h i st h e s i sh a sa na ly sed t h e p r eh i s to r ic b u r ia l s o f C en t ra l a nd We s te rn G r eek Macedon ia f r om t wo s ub s tan t ia l p o in t s o f v i ew : 1 )t h e r e con s truc t ion o fl i f e ( Chap te r s4 , 6a nd 7 )a nd 2 )i su e s o f m o r tua ry t r ea tmen t a nd m an ipu la t ion o f t h e d e c ea s ed a s e v idenced b yt h eh uman s k e le ta l r ema in sa l one ( Ch ap t e r5 ) . W i th r e spe c t t ot h ef o rme r , t h e p arame t e r sw h ich h av eb een c a r ef u l ly c on s ide r ed i n c lude d emog raph ic p rof i le s ( Chap te r 4 ) , p a t te rn s o fh ea l th ( Chap te r 6 ) a nd o r a l s t a tu s a nd d i e t ( Chap te r 7 ) . T he a na ly s is h a s b een a dd re s sed i n t wo d i r ec t ion s : 1 )t h e o ve r a l l c ompa r i son a tt h e i n te r -popu la t ion l e v e l a nd 2 ) t h e i n t r a -popu la t ion i n v e s t iga t ion w h ich e xam ined t h e a bove p a rame te r s i n a s soc ia t ion w i th p opu la t ion s ubg roup sd ef ined b ya ge a nd /o rs e xg roup s . W i th r e ga rd t ot h e c ompa r i son a tt h e i n t e r -popu la t ion , i ti s i mpor tan tt on o te t h a te x cep t f o rd i e t , n oc on s tan t p a t t e rn o f d emog raph ic p rof i le s a nd h ea l th s t a tu s h a s b een s u gg e s ted t ob e c on s i s t en t w i th a ny a r chaeo log ic a l p e r iod o r r e g iona l s e t t ing . I n s tead , l o ca lc ond i t ions d ef in ed b ye nv i ronm en ta l

CONCLUS IONS

a nd s o c ia l c on s t ra in t s s e em t o h av e a f ec t ed t h e p i c tu r e o f q ua l i t y o fl i f e r e con s t ru c ted f o r t h e c a s e s t udy p r eh i s to r ic p opu la t ion s . A s a l ready u nde r l in ed i nC h ap te r 3 ,w i th t h e e x cep t ion o f EN N ea N ikomede ia a nd LN Mak r ig ia lo s . n o a s soc ia t ed s e t t lemen t h a s b een e x c ava ted s o t h a t t h e r e i sa t o ta l l a ck o f k now ledg e r e ga rd ing e c onom ic a nd s o c ia l f a c to r s , l i v ing c ond i t ion s . s e t t lem en t p a t ter n s a nd s ub s i s t en ce a s soc ia ted w i th t h ec a s es t udy p opu la t ion s . O ve r a l l ,t h e r ei sat e nd en cy o fd ec l in ing l e v e l so fh ea l th a nd o ra l s t a t us r e p r e sen ted b y t h e L a t e B ronze a nd E a r ly I r on A g e p opu la t ion s w h i le t h e EN N ea N ikomed e ia , E BA K o i lad a a nd E IA Mak r ig ia lo s p rov id e h igh l e ve l s o fi n f an t a nd c h i ld m or ta l i t y . W i th r e ga rd t oo c cupa t iona l a c t iv i t ie s , m o s t o f t h e c a se s t udy p opu la t ion s s how a s u b s tan t ia l i n vo lv em en to ft h eu pp e rs k e le ton i no ccupa t iona l s t r e s sa nd p hy s ic a l w o rk load . E IA Mak r ig ia lo sa nd t h eE IA O lympu s t umu l i h oweve r , m an i f e s te qua l a r th r i t ic c hang e sa l so i nt h e l owe r s k e le ton . T he o v e ra l l g r e a te r i n vo lvemen t o f t h e u pper s k e l e ton i na r th r i t ic c hange s a nd t r auma t ic i n ju r ie s c an b el i nked t or e la t iv e ly l ow d emand ing p hy s ica la c t iv i t ie s s u ch a sf o od a cqu i s i t ion , f o od p ro ce s s ing a nd p r epa r a t ion w h i le t h e l ower s k e l e ton p hy s ica l s t r e s s m ay s ugg e s t h eavy a g r icu l tu ra l a c t iv i t ie s s u ch a s c l ea r ing f i e ld s , p l ough ing , s hove l l ing , p l an t ing a nd h arve s t ing t o ge th e rw i th t r ave l l ing b y f o o t o rg ene r a l ly w a lk ing . A l so , t h e p i c tu re o fd i e tar y p a t te rn s t h roughou t t h e N eo l i th ic /Ea r ly B ronz e A ge s t ot h e L a te B ronze /Ea r ly I r on A ge s i sm o r e c l ea ra nd i sc on s i s ten t w i th a n o ve r a l l s h if t f r om a h i gh r e l iance o n m ea t c onsump t ion t oc a rbohyd ra t e b a s ed f ood s tuf fs u ch a sf r u i t s , n u t s -t h e i n t roduc t ion o ff r u i t s a nd n u t s i nt h eL a te B ronze A ge h a s b een a l r eady a cknow ledg ed i n C hap te r 2b y t h e p a lyno log ica l e v id ence a l one - a nd s t a r chy p roduc t s a s i nd ica t ed b y t h e s i gn if i can t ly h i ghe r r a te s o f c a r ie s , a n temo r tem t o o th l o s s a nd p e r iap ica l a b sce s se s i nt h e l a te s k e le ta la s s emb lage s . I n p a r t i cu la r . t h e d emog r aph ic a na ly s i s ( Chap te r 4 ) c onc lud e st ot h r ee i n te r e s t ing p o in t s : 1 ) T he e x c lus ion o fc e r ta in a g e c a t ego r ie s f r om t h e c a se s t udy a s semb lage s e . g . t h e n eona t e s , t h a t i si n d i vi d ua l s u nd e r 1y ea r o l d f r om t h e L a te B ronze a nd E a r ly I r on A g e s a s semb lage s a nd t h e s o le i n c lu s ion o fp r im e a du l t m a le s - t o ge th e r w i th w omen b e long ing t o a l l a g e c a t ego r ie s - i n L BA S pa the s . W i th r e ga rd t o t h e i mma tu r e s k e le ta l m a te r ia l , p r e s er va t iona l b i a s h a s a l r e ad y b een c on s id e r ed t o a f f e c t t h e d emog raph ic p i c tu r e , a l though t h e i r t o ta l a b sence f r om b u r ia l a s s emb lage s c anno t b e i n te rp r e ted s o le ly b y e x t r in s ic f a c to r s . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t o t he r t y p e s o fd i spo sa l m ay h av e b e en p r a c t i sed s u ch a s e xpo su r e o rd i sm emb e r ing , a wa y f r om t h e s e t t lemen t w h ich a r e n o t c l ea r ly e v iden t i n t h e a r chaeo log ic a l r e co rd . I n L BA S pa th e s , t h e o ccu r r ence o f p r im e a du l t m a le s c an p o s s ib ly b e i n te rp r e ted b yf a i lu r eo ft h e a g e ing t e chn ique s . a l though t h e l a t t e r a s a l r eady s hown e x ten s ive ly i n C hap te r 4 , f a vou ru sua l ly t h ey oung a du l ta ge c a tego r yo rb yf a i lu r e o fs e x ing m e thod s g i v ing ac l ea r o ve r r ep r e sen ta t ion o f w om en . T he d i spo sa lo fp r im ea du l tm en t h u st o ge the r

1 43

w i th w omen m ay s ugg e s t ac on sc iou s d ec i s ion w he r e c e r ta in p r ime a du l t m a le m emb e r s o f t h e c ommun i ty w e r e b u r ied i n t h e s ame l o ca t ion w i th t h e f ema le i n d iv idua l s . I nb o th c a se s a bov e , t h i s p i c tu r e r e p r e sen t s ac e r ta in p rog r amme o ff une ra r y b ehav iou r p ra c t i sed b y t h e l i v ing w h e r e t h e r e i s c l ea r ly a c onsc iou s d i sca rd / r e jec t ion o fc e r ta in a g e g roup s b y t h e c ommon b u r ia l g round e . g . t h e n eona te s a r e n o t r e cogn i sed a s e l ig ib le m embe r so ft h ec ommun i ty . 2 ) T he o ver r ep r es en ta t ion o ff ema l e i nd iv idua l s i n m o s t s k e le ta l a s semb lag e s . Mo r eov e r , g i v en t h a t p r e se rva t iona lf a c to r sf a vou rm a le s k e le ton s ( Chap te r4 ) , i ti sl i k e ly t h a t t h e m a jo r i ty o ft h e u n sexed i n d iv idua l s b e long i n f a c t t o w om en i n d ica t ing t h u s a n u nde r e s t ima t ion o f t h e i r p r eva lenc e i n t h e c a se s t udy c em e te ry p opu la t ion s . T h r e e d if e r en t ia l i n te rp re ta t ion s m ay c on t r ibu te t ot h i s p i c tu r e : a ) m a t r i loca l r e s iden c e w he r e w omen r e vea l s t ronge r l i nk s t ot h e p l ace o ft h e i r r e s iden ce . b ) l o ng te rm a b senc e o f m en f r om t h e i r r e s iden t ia l a r ea a nd t h u s t h e i r b u r ia l o f s i te , a nd c ) c on s c iou s m a le i n f an t ic id e s y s tem a t ica l ly p ra c t i sed i n f a vou ro fg i r l s . A ga in s t t hu s t h e c ommon p e r cep t ion o f w omen p o s se s s ing l ow s t a tu s i n n on -we s te rn s o c ie t ie s w i th m en d om ina t ing t h e m a jo r r o le s o f s ub s i s tenc e , e conomy a nd s o c ia l o rgan i sa t ion . w omen i n t h e c a s e s t udy p opu la t ion s s e em t o b e c on s ide r ed a s v a lued m embe r so ft h ec ommun i ty b yc on tr ibu t ing s i gn if ican t l t o t h e r e p roduc t ion o f m anua l h e lp e r s a nd p o s s ib ly t o p roduc t ion . p r ep a r a t ion a nd p roce s s ing o f f o od ( De r even sk i 1 997 ) . 3 ) T he h igh m o r ta l i t y r a t es o f c e r ta in p opu la t ion s ubg roup se . g . s ubadu l t se s pec ia l ly i ne a r ly a s semb lage s , m a le s a nd f em a le s i n e a r ly a nd l a te p opu la t ion s r e spec t ive ly . H igh m o r ta l i ty r a te sh ave b een t h ef o cu so f al a rg e d eba te c on ce rn ing t h e m ean ing o fa ve r age a g e a t -dea th i n p a s t s k e le ta l s e r ie s . T he p r ima ry i s sue o f q ue s t ion i s w h e th e r a ve rage -age -a t d ea th r e p r e sen t s m o r ta l i ty r a te s o rf e r t i l i t y l e v e l s i n as k e le ta l p opu la t ion ( S a t ten sp ie l a nd H a rp end ing 1 983 ; B u ik s t ra e ta l . 1 986 ; J ohan s son a nd H o row i tz 1 986 ; M i lne r e ta l . 1 989 ) . I t h a s b een s ugg e s t ed t h a t l ow a v e rage a g e -a t -d ea th r e p r e sen ted b y ah i gh n umb e r o f d ea th s o f y oung i n d iv idua l s r e v ea l s m o r e i n d iv idua l s e n te r ing t h e p opu la t ion t h rough h i gh e r f e r t i l i ty w h i le h i gh a ve rage a ge -a t -d ea th r e p r e s en t ed b y ah i gh n umbe r o fd ea th s o f o l de r i n d iv idua l s i n d ica te s ad ec r ea se o f b i r th r a te s ( Bu ik s t r a e ta l . 1 986 ; J ohan s son a nd H o row i tz 1 986 ; M i lne re ta l . 1 989 ) . H igh i n f an t m o r ta l i t y , a c co rd ing t o t h el a t te r , m ay b ec on s i s ten tw i th h i gh f e r t i l i ty l e ve l sa nd a s so c ia ted t hu s w i th a n i n c r ea se i n p opu la t ion s i z e . A s sum ing t h a t n o g r ea t f l u c tua t ion s h ave a f e c ted t h e s i z e o ft h e c a se s t udy p opu la t ion s t h e r e f o r e . t h e s k e le ta l a s semb lage s a s soc ia ted w i th h i gh m or ta l i ty o f i n f an t . c h i ld a nd y oung i n d iv idua l s e . g . EN N ea N ikomede ia , E BA K o i lada a nd E IA Mak r ig ia lo s w ou ld p o s s ib ly s ugge s t i n c r ea s ing f e r t i l i ty l e ve l s c on t r ibu t ing t o a n i n c r ea se o fp opu la t ion s i ze .

CONCLUS IONS

C hap te r 6a pp roache s a spec t s o f h ea l th s t a tu s a nd t h e i r a s soc ia t ion w i th t h e p opu la t ion s ubg roup s d ef ined b y a ge a nd /o rs e xg roup s . F ive p o in t sc an b ed i s t ingu i shed : 1 ) T he s us cep t ib i l i ty o fe a r ly a ge c a t egor ie s a nd c er ta in s ex g roups t op hy s io log ica ls t r es sf ac to r s . I np a r t icu la r , a s a l r eady d i scu s sed e a r l ie r , c e r ta in c eme te ry p opu la t ion s a r e r e p r e sen ted b y h i gh l e v e l s o fi n f an t a nd c h i ld m o r ta l i ty e . g . i n EN N ea N ikom ede ia , E BA K o i lada a nd E IA Mak r ig ia lo s a s so c ia ted w i th a h i gh p r eva lence o fa naem ia a si nd ica ted b ys e ve r ec r an ia la nd p o s tc ran ia l m an if e s ta t ion s . S im i la r ly , t h e r e i s c l ea r e v idence o f d if e r en t ia l e xpo su r e o f s e x g roup s t o p hy s io log ica l s t r e s s f a c to r s s ugge s ted b y t h e d if e r en t ia l f r equ en cy o f a naem ia . n on spec if i c i n f e c t ion s a nd e name l h ypop la s ia b e tween t h e t wo s e x e s v a r y ing b e tw een t h ec eme te r ie s . H igh f r equency o fp hy s io log ica l s t re s s f a c to r s c anno t b e s e en a s r e su l t o f b i o log ica l s u scep t ib i l i ty a l one . G iven t h a t p hy s io log ica l s t r e s s r e la te s t o t h e o ve ra l l p a thogen l o ad o f t h e c eme te r y p opu la t ion s , i ti sp o s s ib le t oc on s ide rt h a t e x t reme l i v ing c ond i t ion s , p o s s ib le a gg r ega t ion o fp opu la t ion , i n c r ea s ed e xpo su r e t o p a thogen a gen t s p o s s ib ly d ue t o t r ave l l ing a nd e x tended t r ad e c on tac t s , p oo r n u t r i t ion , c hang ing p a t te rn s o ff o od p r epa r a t ion a nd c ook ing m e thod s m ay h av e c on t r ibu ted t ot h e w eakne s s o ft h e i mmune s y s tem o f c e r ta in p opu la t ion s e gmen t s ( f o r f u r the r d i scu s s ion s e eL a r sen 1 997 ) . 2 ) T he l a t e w ean ing h ypo thes is s ugge s ted b y t h e l a te p eak f r equency i nt h ed eve lopmen t o fe name l h ypop la s ia l i n e s ( 3 t o 5 . 5 y ea r s ) m ay p rov id e f u r th e r i mp l ica t ion s o n f e r t i l i ty l e ve l s o ft h e c a se s t udy p opu la t ion s . C e s sa t ion o fb r ea s t f e ed ing c an b e a s soc ia ted w i th t h e d u r a t ion o f t h e c on t racep t ive e f e c t s o f n u r s ing a nd l a c ta t iona l a meno r rhea a nd t hu s w i th b i r th s p ac ing a nd p opu la t ion g row th ( r ecen t b i b l iog raphy o n t h i s i s sue i n c lud e s S t uar t -Macadam a nd D e t twy le r 1 995 ; K a tzenb e rg e ta l . 1 996 ; S chu r r 1 998 ) . L ong b i r th i n t e rva ls i n d ica t e r e duced b i r th r a te s a nd a r e l i nk ed t o l ow l e ve l s o f f e r t i l i ty a nd s l ow p opu la t ion g row th . I ft h i sc omb ina t ion i se f ec t ive , t h e N eo l i th ic d i spe r sa l a nd a l so t h e E a r ly I r on A ge d emog raph ic r i se c l a imed f o r t h e s t udy a r ea , a l ready d i scu s sed i n C hap te r 2( Demou le a nd P e r le s 1 993 ; H a l s tead 1 994 : A nd r eou e ta l . 1 996 ; A nd reou a nd K o t sak i s i np r e s s b :G r ammeno s e ta l . 1 997 ) a r e u nde r d i spu t e . I n o rde r t oe s tab l i sh t h i s m od e l h oweve r , i ti s n ece s sa ry t o t e s t f i r s t t h e l a te w ean ing e v idence w i th a na ly t ica l m e thod s s u ch a s s t ab le n i t rogen i s o top e s ( S chu r r 1 998 ) a nd s e cond t oe xpand t h e d en ta l s amp le a nd s uppo r tt h ep ropo sa ls t a t i s t ica l ly . 3 ) T he m od era t e p a r t ic ipa t ion o fa d o l escen t s a nd y oung a d u l t s i n o ccupa t iona l a c t iv i t ies s ugg e s ted b y t h e d eve lopmen t o fc hange s r e la ted t ot h e s k e le to -mu scu la r s y s tem s u ch a s o s teoa r th r i t i s a nd t r auma i n y oung i n d iv idua l s e . g . i n EN N ea N ikom ed e ia , E BA K o i lad a , L BA S pa the s , L BA /E IA T r e i s E l ie s a nd t h e E IA O lympu st umu l i . T h i sp o in t i so fp ar t icu la r s i gn if ican ce c on s id e r ing t h a t t h e a ge -p rog re s s ive c hange s r e la ted t o t h e s k e le to -mu scu la r s y s tem n eed l o ng t ime b ef o r e t h ey a f f ec tt h eb one s ot h a tt h es t a r t ing p e r iod o fr e pe t i t ive

p hy s ica l s t r e s s c an b e r e l iab ly s ugge s ted t o b e i n l a te c h i ldhood a nd a do le scence . T he r o le o f c h i ld r en a nd a do le s cen t s h a s b een u nd e r -e s t ima ted o rt o ta l ly i g no r ed i nt h ea r chaeo log ica l l i t e r a tu re ( De r ev en sk i 1 994 ; 1 9 97 ) . B ea r ing i n m ind t h a t i n mo s t p r eh i s to r ic p opu la t ion s , a cco rd ing t o d emog raph ic a na ly se s . h a l f o f t h e l i v ing i n d iv idua l s w e r e c h i ld r en ( Chamb e r la in 1 997 ) , i ti s i mpo r tan tt oa s c r ib et ot h e se p opu la t ion s e gmen t sc e r ta in r o le s i n p rodu c t iv e a nd s o c ia l l i f e . I n n on -w e s t e rn i ndu s t r ia l s o c ie t ie s , c h i ld r en a nd a do le s c en t s a r e n o tj u s t p a s s iv e r e c ip ien t s o f p a r en ta l c a r e b u t t h ey " f o rm a s i gn if i can tp a r to ft h ew o rkf o r ce " ( S co t t 1 997 ) . n e qua l p a r t ic ipa t ion o f t h e t wo s e x es i n l a bour 4 ) A s ugg e s t ed b y t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fs k e le ta l c hange s o n t h e s k e le to -mu scu la r s y s tem i n t h e c a s e s t udy s k e l e ta l a s semb lage s . I n p ar t icu la r , b o th s e xe s r e vea l s im i la r p a t t er n so fl e s ion sr e f e r r ing t oo s teoa r th r i t i s , t r auma a nd v er teb ra l a bno rma l i t ie s e s p ec ia l ly i nt h e u ppe r s k e le ton . I n v i ew o fo s teoa r th r i t i s h owev e r , s om e l a bou r d i v i s ion b a sed o ns e x d i s t inc t ion c an b e s ugg e s t ed a sr ega rd st h e p hy s ica l w o rk load ; o ve r a l l , m en r e v e a l h eav ie r p hy s ica l w o rk load t h an w omen . S im i la r ly , s ome s e xua l d if e r en t ia t ion c an b e s e en i n t h e d if e r en t ia l i n vo lvem en t o f t h e u ppe r a nd l owe r s k e le ton w i th w om en b e ing e ngag ed i n at y pe o f l a bou r r e qu i r ing g r ea te r u s e o f t h e f o r ea rm a nd a rm s u ch a s f o od p roce s s ing a nd c r af t p r oduc t ion . I nf luence o fb i o log ica l c on s t ra in t s w a s a t t r ibu t ing t ow omen a st oc h i ld r en a nd a do le s c en t s o n ly m in ima l c on t r ibu t ion t o t h e o v e r a l l p rodu c t ion a nd e conomy o f t h e c ommun i ty ( B rown 1 970 ; L eacock ; 1 978 ; Embe r 1 983 ; B u r ton a nd Wh i te 1 984 ; G ibb s 1 987 ; G r aue r 1 99 1 : M i l le r 1 993 ; G r aue r a nd S t u a r t -Ma cadam 1 998 ) . I ti sc ommon ly a s sumed t h a t w omen h e ld al ow s t a tu s i no n e o ra no the r s o c ie t y ( Leacock 1 978 ) w h i le t h e i r r o le s w e r e u sua l ly l i nked s o le ly t oc h i ld c a r e a nd m en 's e n te r ta inmen t . Wom en 's a c t iv i t ie s w e r e s t r ic t ly d ef in ed t o l ow d emand ing p hy s ica l w o rk load s u ch a s t h o se c onf ined t o l i m i ted a r ea s i na nd a r ound s e t t lemen t s i te s( f o r ar e cen t r e v iew s e e D e r even sk i 1 997 ) . H oweve r , a sC hapman s t a t e s f o r t h e B a lkan p r eh i s to r ic c eme te r ie s , " t he i n c r ea sed d i v e rgen ce o f e conom ic r e sou r ce s i n t h e C opp e r A ge s t imu la t e st h ee m e rgen ce o f am o re g ende red d i v i s ion o f l a bou r , g a ined f r om t h e p roduc t ion o ff o od a nd c l o th ing a va i lab l e t o f ema le s c on t ro l l ing t h e d omu s , a s so c ia ted a l so w i th t h e e xpand ed i mpo r t an c e o f s e cond a ry p roduc t si nt h e d ome s t ic d oma in " ( Chapman 1 997 ; 1 37 , 1 38 ) . 5 ) S ome e v id ence o f s p ec ia l is ed o ccupa t iona l a c t iv i t ies i n d ica ted : 1 )b y t h e l e f t u pper s i d e i n vo lvemen tc on t r ar y t o t h e r i gh t -handedne s s s ugge s t ing p o s s ib ly a c t iv i t ie s r e la ted t o f o od p roce s s ing , 2 ) t h e d i s t inc t p a t t e r n o f d en ta l t r auma i n t wo w omen o n ly f r om EBA K o i lada a nd 3 ) t h e r e s t r ic t ion o f v e r t ebra l a bno rma l i t ies s ugge s t ing p a r t icu la r ly s t r e s sf u l r e p ea t ed movem en t s o f t h e l ow e r b ack t o o n ly a f ew i n d iv idua l s i n t h r ee c em e te r yp opu la t ion s . A l l t h e a bov ew ou ld a rgu e t ot h e h ypo th e s i s t h a t e xcep t f o r t h e o rd in a r y a c t iv i t ie s t a k ing p l ace i nt h ec a se s t udy c ommun i t ie s ,t h e r ew e r es om e

1 44

CONCLUS IONS

w o rk load r e in f o r ce t h e i d ea t h a t o v e r a l l , w omen w e r e n o t p o s s e s s ing a l owe r s t a tu s t h an m en , i n t h e c a s e s t udy c ommun i t ie s . N eve r the le s s . s ome e v id ence o f s e xua l d i v i s ion o f l a bou r w i th r e ga rd t o p hy s ica l w o rk load a nd w e ak d if e r en t ia l a c ce s s i nf o od c a tego r ie s c an b e s ugg e s t ed e s p ec ia l ly f o r t h e L a t e B ronze /Ea r ly I r on A ge a s s emb lage s w h ich m ay f u r the r a t t r ibu te p a r t icu la r s e x r o le s t o t h e a f e c t ed p opu la t ion s ( K e s t le 1 988 ; G raue r a nd S t uar t Macadam 1 998 ) .

s p ec ia l i s ed o ccupa t ion s p r ac t ised b y c e r ta in p eop le w ho w e r e p o s s e s s ing t h u s s p ec ia l r o le s i n t h e p rodu c t ion a nd e conomy o ft h e i r s o c ie ty . F ur the rmo r e , i ti ss t r ik ing t h a t i n c e r ta in c em e te ry p opu la t ion s t h e s p ec ia l i sed a c t iv i t ie s w e r e p o s s ib ly s e x -ba s ed a s i n d ica ted i n E BA K o i lada , w he r e w omen a r e o n ly m an if e s t ing t h e d i s t in c t d en ta l t r auma a nd i nt h eE IA O lympu st umu l i ,w he r em en a r eo n ly i n vo lved i n v e r teb r a la bno rma l i t ie s . L a s t ly , C hap t e r 7a na ly s e s t h e o r a l h ea l th s t a tu s a nd i mp l ica t ion s o n d i e t a nd a t temp t s t o e xp lo r e a s p ec t s o f a c ce s s ib i l i ty i nd if e r en t d i e ta ry p a t te rn s b y t h e d ef in ed a ge a nd /o r s e x g roup s . A pa r t f r om t h e s i gn if ican t o ve r a l l s h if t f r om m ea tc on sump t ion i nt h e N eo l i th ic /Ea r ly B ronz e A ge s t o c a rboh yd ra te b a sed f o od s tuf f i n t h e L a te B ronz e /Ea r ly I r on A g e s .t h r ee c r uc ia lp o in t sc an b eu nde r l ined : 1 ) T he h i gh r e l iance o n c a rbohyd ra t e b a s ed f ood s tuf fi n h igh m oun ta in ( e .g . i nL BA S pa the sa nd L BA JE IA T r e i s E l ie s i nm oun t O lympu s ) a nd c oa s ta lp opu la t ion s ( e .g . i n L N , E BA . a nd E IA Mak r ig ia lo s a nd E BA /LBA K o r ino s ) . T h e c on t r ibu t ion o f e i th e r a g r icu l tu ra l o r a n ima l p r oduc t s i nt h e d i e tar y r e g ime o ft h e p r eh i s to r ic p opu la t ion s i s s ub je c t t o d i scu s s ion . T h e e xpec t ed d i e ta ry m od e l o f moun ta in p opu la t ion s w ou ld r e vea l a h i gh d ependence o n m ea t c on sump t ion . T h e r e su l t s h ow ev e r , o ft h e m ac ro scop ic e xam ina t ion c on t rad ic t t o t h e h ypo the s i so fs p e c ia l is ed p a s to ra l i sm t a k ing p l a ce i n p r eh i s to r ic G r eece a nd g i ve s uppo r t t o t h e o ppo s i te m od e l , t h a t i so fm ix ed f a rm ing p r ac t i s ed s y s tema t ica l ly e ven i nt h e h i gh m oun ta inou s r e g ion s ( Ha l s tead 1 990 a : 1 990 b ; 1 994 ; 1 996 ) . S im i la r ly , i ti sn o tab le t h a t t h e h igh r e l i an ce o n c a rbohyd ra te b a sed f o od s tuf fe xpand s a l so t oc o a s ta l s i te s , w h e r e ah i gh c on t r ibu t ion o fm a r ine f o od s tuf fw ou ld b ee xpec ted . O nt h ec on t ra r y , t h e s t ab le i s o top ea na ly s i sa rgu e st ot h ec on t r ibu t ion o f at e r r e s t r ia l t y pe o fd i e t , h i gh ly e n r iched b ya g r icu l tu ra lp roduc t s . 2 ) S im i lar t y pe so fd i e tc onsumed b yb o th t h e s ubad u l ta nd a d u l ts e gmen t s o ft h e c a s e s t ud yp opu la t ions s ugge s ted b y t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f d en ta l c ond i t ion s i n a l l a g e c a tego r ie s . T h i s p i c tu r e i sc ompa t ib le e v iden t ly t o a n e qua l m emb e r sh ip o f c h i ld r en a nd a do le sc en t s i n t h e c ommun i ty o f t h e a du l t s a s r e ga rd s a c ce s s ib i l i ty t o d i e ta r y p a t te rn s . T h e l a t te rs ugge s t ion t o ge th e rw i th t h e m ode ra t e p a r t ic ipa t ion o f a do le sc en t s a nd y oung a du l t i n d iv idua l s i np hy s ica l w o rk load p o in ted o u t i nC hap t e r 6 c on t r ibu t e t o t h e c onc lu s ion t h a t t h e a bov e a g e c a tego r ie s w e r e a c t iv e p a r t ic ipan t s i n t h e s o c ia l a nd e conom i c l i f e o ft h e c a se s t udy p r eh i s to r ic c ommun i t ie s ( Chamb e r la in 1 997 ;L i l l ie 1 997 :R ega 1 997 ) . 3 ) O vera l ls i m i la rt y pes o fd i e t c onsumed b y t h e t wo s exes i nd ica ted b y t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fd en ta l c ond i t ion s a nd i n p a r t icu la r ,t h ef r equenc ie so fc a r ie sv e r su sc a lcu lu sr a te s . T he r e i sh oweve r , s ome w eak e v idenc e o f d i f f er en t ia l a ccess i nd i e tary p a t t erns b a s ed o n s ex d i s t inc t ion i n c e r ta in s k e le ta l a s semb lage s e . g . E BA Mak r ig ia lo s , E BA /LBA K o r ino s a l be i t w i th s ma l l d en ta l s amp le s . L BA S p a the s a nd L BA /E IA T r e i s E l ie s . T he o v e ra l l s im i la r t y pe s o f d i e t t hu s t o ge the r w i th t h e e qu a l p a r t ic ipa t ion o fb o th s e xc a tego r ie si nt h ep hy s ica l

1 45

T h i s t h e s i s , e xc ep t f o r t h e b i o log ica l i n f e r ence s a nd t h e i r a s so c ia t ion w i th a g e a nd /o r s e x g r oup s . h a s a l so e xp lo r ed i s su e s o f t h e m an ipu la t ion o f t h e d ecea sed t h rough t ime b a sed s o le ly o n t h e s k e le ta l p opu la t ion s a nd p ub l i shed c on tex tua l i n f o rma t ion ( Chap te r5 ) . Two m a jo ri s sue s h ave b een d i scu s sed i nd e ta i l : 1 ) T he t r ea tmen t o f t h e d ecea s ed i n t h e N eo l i th ic Akk r ig ia los b ecau s e o f t h e a c ce s s ib i l i ty o f c on t ex tua l i n f o rma t ion a nd a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd s , w i th a p a r t icu la r e mpha s i s o n t h e p h a se I a s semb lage . C on t r a r yt hu st ot h ec ommon p e r cep t ion o ft h eN eo l i th ic m o r tua ry p i c tu r e ( Demou le a nd P e r ls 1 993 : C avanagh a nd Mee 1 998 ) , w he r e t h e m o r tua r y p rog r amme w a s c on s id e r ed t o g i v e as p ec ia l e mpha s i s o n i n d iv id ua l i d en t i ty w i th i n t r amu ra l b u r ia l s b e ing t h e c ommon p r ac t ice , t h e r e c en t e v idence f r om L a te N eo l i th ic Makr ig ia lo s Ii sc on s i s ten t w i th t h e i n co rpo ra t ion o ft h e d ecea sed i n to ag roup i d en t i ty . I np ar t icu la r , t h eh i ghe s t p ropo r t ion o ft h ep ha s e Ii nh ab i tan t s o f Mak r ig ia lo s h a s b e en d i spo sed o fi no pen ly a c ce s s ib ly a r ea s , c on t inuou s ly u s ed a nd s e en b yt h e l i v ing c ommun i ty ( D i t ch A a nd t h e l a rg ep i t i ns e c to r E l ) . F u r the rmo r e , t h e o ccu r r en ce o fa l im i ted n umbe ro fb u r ia l s i nD i tch A a nd t h e l a rge p i to f s e c to r E w h ich g ave e v idenc e o f f o rma l m or tua ry p r og ramme w i th g r ave s t ruc tu r e , a r t icu la ted b u r ia l p o s i t ion a nd o cca s iona l ly a s soc ia ted g r ave g ood s s ugge s t ing t hu s a n e merg ing d i f f er en t ia l m an ipu la t ion o f t h e d ecea s ed c on t rad ic t s t o t h e c l a imed p i c tu r e o f h omogene i ty a nd s o c ia l i n equa l i ty r e ga rd ing t h e m o r tua ry t r ea tmen to ft h e d e cea sed d u r ing t h e N eo l i th ic ( Demou le a nd P e rk s 1 993 ) . 2 ) T he r ang e i nt h e m in imum n umbe r o fi nd iv id ua l s h e ld w i th in as i ng le b u r ia l a s semb lage f r om t h e B ronze A ge o nwa rd s . T h e B ronze a nd E a r ly I r on A ge a s semb lag e s t h u sr e vea l as t r ik ing d i ve r s i ty i nt h em an ipu la t ion o ft h e d ecea s ed r ang ing f r om t h e c ommon p r ac t ice o f s i ng le i n huma t ion s i n t h e E a r ly B ronze A ge t o m u l t ip le / s econdar y b u r ia l s i nt h e L a te B ronze A g e a nd t h eo ccu r r ence o fb o th s i ng le a nd mu l t ip le b u r ia l s i nt h e E a r ly I r on A g e . S i ng le i n huma t ion so ft h eE a r ly B ronz e A g e g i ve a s p ec ia l e mpha s i s o n t h e i nd iv id ua l i d en t i ty a nd a r e a s so c ia ted o cca s iona l ly w i th a dd i t iona l f u rn i sh ing , c l o th ing o r g r av e g ood s t o r e in f o r c e i t . C onve r se ly . t h e L a te B ronz e A ge a dop t s s y s tema t ica l ly t h e m u l t ip le / seconda r y b u r ia l s e mpha s i s ing t h u s t h e l i neag e -g roup i d en t i ty a l though t h e i n ven t ion o f i t em s s u ch a s c a rved s e a l s tone s . s p ec ia l j ew e l le r y , p o t s a nd b r onz e w eapon s w h ich o f t en r e ca l l Mycenaean o r "Myc enaean i s ing " t y pe ss t r ic t ly l i nk ed t ot h ed i sp lay o f

CONCLUS IONS

a rgue t o h i gh v a lue i t em s p ar t icu la r ly a s soc ia ted w i th f ema le i n d iv idua l s i mp ly ing t hu s , s im i la re xpend i tu r e c o s t s f o rb o th s e xe s .

s o c ia l i d en t i t yd oe sn o td i s ca rd t h e i n d iv idua l i d en t i ty o ft h e d ecea s ed , a l b e i t w i th in t h e o ve ra l l d e sc en t g roup c on tex t . T h e c o -o ccu r r enc e o fs i ng le a nd mu l t ip le / seconda ry b u r ia ls i n t h e E a r ly I r on A g e a rgue t o ac omp lex p i c tu r e o f d if e r en t ia l t r ea tm en t o f t h e d ecea sed . B u r ia l p rac t ice s d u r ing t h i s p e r iod r e in f o r ce t h e c on cep t o fl i neag e i d en t i ty d ev e loped i nt h ep r eced ing p e r iod b ya dop t ing t h eb road u se o f t umu l i a l ong s id e t h e e me rgence o f m o r e v i s ib le d if e r en c e s i ns oc ia ld i sp lay a nd s oc ia l r ank ing s u ch a st h e s e le c t iv e u s e o f c hambe r t omb s b y p a r t icu la r s ma l l k in g roup s .

T h ird ly , t h e L a te B ronze a nd E a r ly I r on A ge a s semb lage s d emon s t ra te t h a t c e r ta in a ge c a tego r ie s w e r ee xc lud ed f r om t h e c ommon c eme te r ie s s ugge s t ing t h u s t h a t a ge -a t -d ea th w a s as ub s tan t ia l d e te rm in ing f a c to r t oa c c e s s ib i l i ty t ot h e b u r ia l g r ound s u s ed b y t h e w ho le c ommun i t y . T he p r ima r y a ge c a tego ry e x c lud ed f r om t h e L a te B ron ze /Ea r ly I r on A ge c eme te r ie s i st h e n eona te s , t h a t i si n d iv idua l s u nde r 1y ea r . I n E IA Mak r ig ia lo s , m o r eove r , t h e r e i ss ome e v id en c e o f e xc lud ing i n f an t a nd c h i ld b u r ia l s f r om c hamb e r t omb s c on s id e r ed t o h o ld s ma l l f am i ly r e la ted g r oup s ( Ka r l iaba s 1 998 ) . F u r the rmo re , t h e h i gh i n f an t a nd c h i ld m o r t a l i ty a s soc ia ted w i th h e r ed i tar y t y pe s o fa na em i a d oe s n o t r e f e r s o le ly t ot h ew eak i mmun es y s tem o ft h ea f ec t ed i n d iv idua l b u t r e p r e sen t s a l so t h e m o the r 's h ea l th s t a tu s s i nce i n f an t s a nd e a r ly c h i ld r en w e r e p o s s ib ly h i gh ly d ep enden t o n t h e ir m o the r suppo r ted a dd i t iona l ly b y t h e l a t e b r ea s t f e ed ing c e s sa t ion . T he se e a r ly a g e c a tego r ie s w e r e n o t o bv iou s ly a c t ive , p rod uc t iv e m emb e r s o f t h e c ommun i ty , a l though t h ey w e r e c on s ide r ed , t o a c e r ta in e x t en t , a s p r oper m emb e r s s i nce t h ey w e r eb u r ied i nt h ec ommon c em e t e r ie s . O nt h eo t h e rh and ,b i o log ica li n f e r ence sr e v ea l t h a tc h i ld r en a nd a do le sc en t s s e em t op a r t ic ipa te a c t ive ly i n s o c ia l a nd e conom ic l i f e a s i nd ica t ed b y t h e m ode r a te e v id en c e o f p hy s ica l w o rk load s t r e s s w h i le a l so s im i la r t y pe s o f d i e t w i th t h e a du l t s e gmen t o ft h e p opu la t ion s w e re c on sumed s ugg e s t ing t h u s s im i la rq ua l i ty o fl i f ef o rb o th s ubadu l t . t h a t i sc h i ld r en a nd a do le scen t s , a nd a du l t a g e c a tego r ie s . T he l a t t e r s ugg e s t ion w ou ld a rgu e t h a t c h i ldhood i n t h e c a se s t udy p r eh i s tor ic c ommun i t ie s d ef in e s t h e p a s sag e t o a du l thood i mp ly ing e v id en t ly a dm i t t an ce a nd p r op e r m emb e r sh ip t o t h e c ommun i ty o f t h e a du l t s c l ea r ly i n d ica ted b y as im i la r q ua l i ty o f l i f e s h a red b y t h e t wo s ubg roup s w h i le i n f ancy r e p re sen t s at r an s i t iona l s t age w he r e t h e i n d iv idua l d o e s n o t h ave y e t i t sp e r sona l i d en t i ty b u t b o r row s i tp o s s ib ly f r om i t s p a r en t s . I n v i ew o f t h e m or tuar yb ehav iou r ,t h e r ei sa no ve ra l ld if e ren t ia l m o r tua ry t r ea tm en t b a sed o n a g e d i s t inc t ion , a l though t h e c on t ex tua l i n f o rma t ion c ome s f r om a v e r y r e s t r i c ted n umb e r o f c em e te r ie s , m a in ly f r om E BA K o i lada a nd E IA Mak r ig ia lo s e . g . c e r ta in g r ave t y pe s a nd a s so c ia t ed g rav e g ood s , s om e t ime s p ar t icu la r ly r i ch , r e la t ed t o i n f an t a nd c h i ld b u r ia l s . T h e o ccu r r en c e o f r i ch a s s emb lage s i n i n f an t b u r ia l s c on t r ibu te t o t h e p r eced ing p e r c ep t ion w h e r e t h e i n d iv idua l s w e re a s c r ib ed t h e ir s t a tu s b yt h e i rp a r en t s s i nce t h ey d i dn o th ave t h et ime t oa cqu i r ei td u r ing l i f e .

L a s t ly , t h e s i gn if i cance o f t h i s t h e s i s f o cu s e s o n t h e i n teg ra t ion o ft h e o ve ra l l a r chaeo log ica l e v iden ce p rov id ed b y t h e e xcava t ed s i t e s o f C en t ra l a nd We s te rn G r eek Macedon ia w i th t h eb i o log ica l i n f e r en ce s r e su l t ing f r om t h e o s t eo log ica l e xam ina t ion o f t h e c a se s t udy s k e le ta l a s semb lage s . F i r s t , t h e o ve r a l l b i o log ica l q ua l i ty o f l i f e a mong a du l t si sn o tc on s i s ten t w i th l a rg e d if e r en ce sb y a ge a nd /o r s e x g roup s . A l l a ge g roup s t hu s , a nd b o th s e xe s a pp e a r t o p a r t ic ipa te e qua l ly i n l a bou r a nd s h a r e s im i la r t y pe s o fd i e t . N ev er th e le s s , i n m o s t c em e te r y p opu la t ion s , t h e r e i ss ome e v id ence o f s exua l d i v i s ion o f l a bou r w i th r e ga rd t o t h e p hy s ica l w ork load s t r e s s t h a t i s , m en , i n g ene ra l . s how h eav ie rw o rk load t h an w om en w h i le w omen , i ng en e ra l , s how m o r e t r auma t ic i n ju r ie s t h an m en a nd o f s pec ia l i s ed a c t iv i t ies w h ich i n c e r ta in p opu la t ion s . p a r t icu la r ly i nt h eB ronz ea nd E a r ly I r on A ge s , s ugge s t s e x b a s ed r o le s . S im i lar ly , t h e r e i s s om e w eak e v id enc e p a r t icu la r ly i nt h e L a te B ronze A ge a s semb lage s , o fp o s s ib le d if e r en t ia l a cce s s i nd i e ta r y p a t te rn s . Mo r tuar y t r e a tmen t h ow eve r , a nd t h e m an ipu la t ion o ft h ed ecea sed f r om B ronz e a nd E a r ly I r on A ge c eme ter y p opu la t ion s a rgue t o h i gh ly s e x -ba s ed m or tua r y b ehav iou r s ugg e s ted b y t h e b u r ia l p o s i t ion s a nd o r ien ta t ion s i n E BA K o i lada a nd E IA Mak r ig ia lo s r e sp ec t ive ly , s ome g r ave t y pe s a s soc ia ted w i th c e r ta in s e x g roup s i n E BA K o i lada , a nd t h e g r ave g ood s a c company ing c e r ta in s e xe s i n t h e L a te B ronze a nd E a r ly I r on A ge a s semb lage s . I ti sl i ke ly t hu s , t h a t i ng ene ra l , t h e e qua lr o le si np rodu c t ion a nd e conomy p o s se s sed d u r ing l i f e b y t h e t wo s e xe s d o n o t r e f lec t i n t h e s e x -ba sed m or tua r y p r og r amme w i th s ome i s o la ted e xcep t ion s r e f e r r ing p a r t icu la r ly t o s om e B ronze a nd E a r ly I r on A g e p opu la t ion s . S im i la r i n f e r ence s o f s t rong ly s e x -b a sed m o r tua ry b ehav iou ra nd e qua lq ua l i ty o fb i o log ica l l i f e h ave b een s t rong ly c onc luded f o r t h e E a r ly B ronze A ge Mok r in c eme te r y , i nH unga r y( Reg a 1 995 ; 1 997 ) . S econd ly , t h e o ve r r ep r e sen ta t ion o ff ema le i n d iv idua l s h a s b een p a r t ly i n te rp r e ted b y p r ef e r en t ia l m a le i n f an t ic ide s ugge s t ing t hu s t h a t w omen w e r e v a lued m embe r s o f t h e c a se s t udy p r eh i s to r ic c ommun i t ie s . I n t h i s c a se , t h e e xpec t ed m o r tua ry p i c tu r ew ou ld p o s s ib ly p r ed ic t h i gh v a lu e e xp end i tu r e i n g r ave t y p e s , a dd i t iona l g r ave f u rn i tu r e a nd a s soc ia ted g r av e g ood s . O n ly E IA Mak r ig ia lo s d oe s r e vea l t h ep o s s ib le a s so c ia t ion o fe xo t ic c r a f tp roduc t s w i th f ema le b u r ia l s ( Ka r l iaba s 1 998 ) a t t r ibu t ing t h u s t ow omen ah i gh e r v a lue t h an m en a c co rd ing t ot h e i n te rp r e ta t ion o fm o r ta l i ty r a te s . T h er e s to ft h ep r e l im ina ry e xcava t ion r e po r t sd on o t

L a s t ly , t h e r ang e i n t h e m in imum n umb e r o f i n d iv idua ls h e ld i no n e b u r ia l a s s emb lage t h rough t i me ( Chap t e r 5 )i s c on s i s ten t w i th t h e i mp l ica t ion s o n t h e s h if t o f t h e h ou seho ld u n i t s i mp l ied b y t h e d ev e lopmen t o f t h e r e s id en t ia l u n i t s t h rough t ime ( Chap te r 2 ) . T h e p e r c ep t ion t hu s o fo n e n uc lea r f am i ly c omp r i s ing t h e b a s ic r e s id en t ia l u n i t i nt h e e a r ly p ha se s o f t h e B ron z e A ge t e nd s t og i ve w ay , i n t h e L a te B ronze A ge o nwa rd s . t o e xp anded r e s iden t ia lu n i t sc omp r i s ing m o r et h an o n eh ou seho ld .

1 46

CONCLUS IONS

S im i la r ly , t h e mor tuary p rog ramme c l ea r ly i nd ica te s t h e p a s sage f r om t h e s i ng le b u r ia ls o ft h e E a r ly B ronze A ge t o t h e mu l t ip le / secondary b ur ia l s o ft h e L a te B ronze A ge a nd t h en t ot h e b road a dop t ion o ft h e t umu l i c eme te r ie s i n t h e E a r ly I r on A ge . I n t h i s c a se t hu s . t h e h o r izon ta l o rgan i sa t ion r e p re sen ted m a in ly b y t h e s e t t lemen t p a t tern s o ft h e p r eh i s to r ic c ommun i t ie s i sr ef lec ted s im i la r ly t o t h e m or tua r yp rog ramme o ft h es ame p e r iod s .

a na ly s is w h ich e xp lo r ed p o s s ib le d if e rence s i n i nd iv idua ls b ur ied i nd if e r en t g rave t y pe s a tE IA Mak r ig ia lo s ( Chap te r 7 ) d i d n o t p rov ide a ny e v idence o f d if e ren t ia l a cce s s i n d i e tar y p a t te rn s s ugge s t ing t hu s t h a t a l l i nd iv idua ls , i ndependen t ly t o t h e g rave t y pe h e ld , w e re c on sum ing s im i la r t y pe s o fd i e ta ry r e g ime . I ti sp o s s ib le t hu s , t h a t t h e c ha rac te ro ft h em ean su sed b y t h e c l a imed s ma l l c ompe t ing f am i ly -g roup s o ft h e E a r ly I r on A ge t oe s tab l ish t h e i r s o c ia l p owe r a nd i d en t i ty w a s n o t d ef ined b y t h e b i o log ica l q ua l i ty o fl i f e b u t b y o the r s ymbo l ic o r i d eo log ica l p arame te r s s u ch a st h e u se o ft h e p a s t a nd t h e ir s t rong l i nk s t ot h e a nce s to r s c l ea r ly v i sua l i sed i n t h e s t ruc tu r e o f t h e c hambe r t omb ( Chap te r 5 ) .

Mo reov e r , t h e m or tuar y p i c tu r e i s n o t c l ea r ly c on s is ten t w i th a v e r t ica l d if e ren t ia t ion i n t h e b u r ia l p rac t ice s , i n p ar t icu la r , o f t h e l a te p opu la t ion s , a s p robab ly e xpec ted . T he re i s ,o fc ou r se , s t rong e v idence o f" r ich" a so ppo sed t o " poo r " a s semb lage s i n L a te B ronze /Ea r ly I r on A ge s c eme te r ie s , b u t i t i s n o t a ppa ren t w he the r t h ey r e f lec t i n d iv idua l o r l i neage -g roup i d en t i ty w hen a pp l ied i n

T he c u r ren t s t udy d oe s n o t c omp r i se a c omp le te w o rk o n a na ly se s o f c eme te ry p opu la t ion s f r om G r eek Macedon ia . F ur the ra na ly t ica l w o rk i n vo lv ing p ar t icu la r ly c hem ica l a nd m ic ro scop ic m e thod s n eed t o b e a pp l ied . Mo r eove r , t h e

m u l t ip le / se condar y b u r ia l s r e p re sen ted i n s imp le g rave s t ruc tu r e s , c hambe rt omb s o rt umu l i b u r ia ls . I n t h e c a se o f E IA Mak r ig ia lo s . i ti sa l so s t r ik ing t h a t r i ch a s semb lage sd o n o t a ccoun t o n ly f o r c hambe r t omb s b u t f o r s imp le g rave

r e su l t s o f t h e m ac ro scop ic e xam ina t ion o f t h e s ke le ta l a s semb lage s n eed t ot h o rough ly i n teg ra te w i th t h e p ub l i shed c on tex tua l i n f orma t ion o ft h e a f f ec ted c eme tery p opu la t ion s . T he p r inc ip le a im s o ft h is t h e s i s w e re t oe xp lo re a spec t s o f b i o log ica l q ua l i t y o fl i f e h e ld b y t h e p r eh is to r ic p opu la t ion s

t y pe s a s w e l l . C hap te r 4 h a s a l r eady d i scu s sed t h e a s soc ia t ion o fn ew b u r ia l t y pe s i nt h e E a r ly I r on A ge . t h a t i s t h e c hamb e r t omb a nd t h e t umu lu s w i th t h e e me rgence o f m o re v i s ib le d if e rence s i ns o c ia l d i sp lay a nd s o c ia l r ank ing b y p ar t icu la r g roup s . I ti sl i ke ly t hu s t h a t a n h or izon ta l r a the r t h an v er t ica l d if e r en t ia t ion r ep re sen ted b y s ma l l c ompe t ing f am i ly -g roup s r a the rt h an h igh s t a tu s i n d iv idua ls w a s t a k ing p l ace i nt h e E a r ly I r on A ge c ommun i t ie s o ft h e s t udy a r ea . A t t h e momen t , t h e c on tex tua l i n f o rma t ion i s n o t s t rong e nough t op roceed t h is s pecu la t ion f u r the r . W i th r e ga rd t ob i o log ica l i n f e rence s , h oweve r , t h es t ab le i s o tope

a nd s hed s ome l i gh t o n p opu la t ion s ubg roup s u sua l ly n eg lec ted b y t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . U nde r t h e g i ven p rob lem s o f p r e serva t ion a nd t h e l a ck o f p ub l ished a r chaeo log ica l i n f o rma t ion , t h e c u r ren t w o rk a t temp ted t o p roceed b eyond t h e g rave g ood s a nd b u r ia l p rac t ice s e l abo ra t ing t h e m o r tuar y p i c tu re o f t h e c a se s t udy c ommun i t ie s a nd v i ew t h e o ccupan t s o f t h e g rave a s semb lage s a sb od ie s o fo nce l i v ing h uman b e ing s a nd n o t a sb od ie so fd i sca rd .

1 47

BI BLIOGRAPHY A ge larak is . A . 1 995 . An A n tho logy o fH e l lene si n vo lved w i th t h ef i e ld o fP hy s ica l A n th ropo logy . I n terna t iona lJ ourna lo fAn thropo logy 1 0 : 1 49 1 62 .

A nd reou . S . , F o t iad i s , M . a nd Ko tsak i s . K . 1 996 . R ev iew o fA egean P reh i s to ry V : T he N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge o fN o r the rn G reece . Amer ican J ourna lo f A rchaeo logy 1 00 : 5 37 -597 .

A ge larak is , A . 1 997 . P hy s ica la n th ropo logy a nd p a laeopa tho log ya tt h eC la s s ica ln ec ropo l is o f T ha so s . T oA rchaeo log iko E rgo s t i l l Mak edon ia k a i T hrak i 7 : 7 79 -789 . A ge larak is . A . a nd A ge larak i s , A . p a laeopa tho log ica l e v idence ,

=6 t oy k tgva io o t iaaµ6 TOD A tar r ik ta t i . T o A rchaeo log iko E rgo s t i l l Mak ed on ia k a i T hrak i 8 . O ra l p re sen ta t ion .

1 989 . T he i nd ica to r s o f

s t r e s sand d i e tary e vo lu t ion s f r om t wo s ke le ta l p opu la t ion s . aM idd le a nd a L a te B yzan t ine f r om P o ly s ty lon , A bde ra , G reece . B y zan t in ische F or schungen 5( 14 ) : 9 -26 .

A nd reou , S .a nd K o t sak is , K . 1 986 . A ta crn ia€ 14 COD x 6 , )pau a r iv i c zyTpu c i i MaxE5ov ia : A na r in twa l i T IN E V50K MVOT I 1CiK i c a tö taKO War i ldg x c opoopyäv c oa tN . Am i tos . T im i t ikos t omo sg i at o l l k a th ig i t iA l .A nd ron iko : 5 7 -88 . A nd r eou , S .a nd K o t sak is , K . 1 991 . A vaa t c om p i j T an i tn g O caaalov i i c rN 1 991-92 . E gna t ia 3 : 1 75 198 .

A ge larak is . A . a nd E f s tra t iou . N . 1 996 . S ke le ta l r ema in s f r om t h eN eo l i th ic s i te o f Mak r i -Th race . A p r e l im inar y r e por t . P roceed ing so ft h e 2 nd S ympos ium o ft h eH e l len ic A rchaeome t r ica l S oc ie ty ( 26 -28 March 1 993 ) : 1 -21 .

A nd r eou . S .a nd K o tsak is . K . 1 994 a . Ha vaaxa e GIT IV T o i n .u ta T IN O caaalov i laN T o 1 991 . T o A rchaeo log iko E rgo s t i l l Maked on ia k a i T hrak i5 : 2 10 -218 .

A lden , M . J . 1 981 . B ronze Age P opu la t ion F luc tua t ions i n t h eA rgo / idf ron i t h eE v id ence o fM ycenaean T ombs . . G ö tebo rg : P au l Ä s t röm sF ö r lag , S tud ie s i n Med i te r ranean A rchaeo log y XV . Amb ro se . S .H . 1 991 . Ef ec ts o fd i e t . c l ima te a nd p hy s io log yo nn i t rogen i s o tope a bundance si n t e r re s t r ia lf oodweb s . J ourna lo f . .4rchaeo log ica l S c ience 1 8 : 2 93-317 . Amb ro se , S .H . 1 993 . I s o top ic a na ly s is o fp a leod ie t s : m e thodo log ica la nd i n te rp r e ta t ive c on s ide ra t ion s . I nI nves t iga t ions o fAnc ien tH uman T i s sue : C hem ica lA na ly ses i nA n thropo logy . e d . M . K . S and f o rd ,p p . 5 9 -130 . L angho rne : G o rdon & B reach S c ien t if ic P ub l ishe r s .

A nd reou , S .a nd K o tsak is . K . 1 994 b . P reh i s tor ic r u r a l c ommun i t ie s i np e r spec t ive : T he L angada s S u rvey P ro jec t . I nS t ruc tures r ura l es e ts oc i i ' ts a n t iques . A c tes d u c o l loque d e C orf ou , 1 4 -16 ma i 1 992 , e d s . P .N . D ouke l l i sa nd L . G . Mendon i , p p . 1 7 2 5 . P a r is : C en t re d es r e che rche s d 'h i s to i re a nc ienne 1 26 . A nna le s l i t te ra i r e sd e l ' Un ive r s i te d eB e sancon . A nd reou . S .a nd K o tsak is . K . 1 995 . A vaa m e T o i n x i ca . O sa c iaXov i laN 1 992 . T oA rchaeo log iko E rgo s t in A l akedon ia k a i T hrak i6 : 2 59 -272 . A nd reou , S .a nd K o t sak is . K . 1 997 . Hn po i c r topu c i tT o4 i ta T IN 0 Eaaalov i t c rK . f lak tä i c a tN i ta s p oy r ea ta . T oA rchaeo log iko E rgo s t in Makedon ia k a i T hrak i 1 0A : 3 69 -387 .

Amb ro se . S .H . a nd D eN iro . M . J . 1 987 . B one n i t rogen i s o tope c ompo s i t ion a nd c l ima te . N a ture 3 19 : 3 2 1-24 .

A nd rcou . S .a nd K o t sak i s . K . 1 999 a . "Mu i c r iva ix e l n apa uo ia ;" . "Mux qva ix i i n em p tps ta ," : HT o i )µ 7 ca

Anagno s tou , I .K ir iakou . D . , K ir ia tz i . E . . V argas , A . 1 993 . A vaaxa e T o i n in g O gaaakov i taN 1 990 . O t c pyaa ieg a r iv E kay tä T IN T oügna; T o A rchaeo log iko E rgo s t in Mak edon ia k a i T hrak i4 : 2 77 -287 . A nagno s tou , 1 .T homa idou . S . . S t ra tou l i , G . , S of ron idou , M . a nd

T ou loum is .

A tar t ik toü

K .

1 997 .

KaaTop t ck :

T o

n pößk r u . ta . T o A rchaeo log iko Mak ed on ia k a i T hrak i 7 : 1 3 -18 .

A vaaKa c p, x povokorK6 E rgo

s t i l l

OEGGC 110V iK 1 1;.,g ia

( Mai T IN E no ) * TOU X 0 t1K0 1 ' ) c r n iv Max aSov ia . I n Ip er if ere ia t o i lA l ik ina ikou k o smou . A 'D ie thnes D iep is t imon iko S impos io , L am ia 1 994 . p p . 1 07 -116 . A then s . A nd r eou , S .a nd K o t sak i s . K . 1 999 b . C oun t ing p eop le i n a na r tef ac tp oo rl a nd scape . T he L angada sc a se , Macedon ia , G r eece . I nR econs t ruc t ing p a s t p opu la t ion t r end si nm ed i ter ranean E urop e ( 3 000 BC -AD 1 80W , e d s . J .B in t l if fa nd K . S bon ia s , p p . 3 5 -44 . Oxf o rd : Oxbow b ook s . A nd reou , S . , K o t sak is , K . a nd H ou rmouz iad i s , G . 1 9 90 .

A nagno s ton . 1 .G iagou l i . T .a nd K ougou lo s . T . 1 998 . O py d iv c oo l l K a i

Xpf 10 1 1 T 0 1 )

x c i )pop -t 'va n ap d töz typ .c t

A va cn ca e a te T o i n .u ra T iN O caaakov i taN 1 989 . E gna t ia 2 : 3 81-403 .

B IBLIOGRAPHY

A nge l , J .L . 1 974 . P a t te rn so ff r ac tu re sf r om N eo l i th ic t o Mode rn t ime s . A n thropo log ia i K öz lemeny ek 1 8 : 9 18 .

A nd ron iko s ,M . 1 961 . A nE ar ly I r on Ag eC eme t ery a t V erg ina , n ear V ero ia . T he s sa lon ik i : B a lkan S t ud ie s2 . A nd ron iko s , M . 1 964 . V e rg ina . T he P reh is tor ic N ec ropo l is a nd t h e H e l l en is t ic P a lace . L und : P au l Ä s t röm s F ö r lag . S tud ie s i n Med i te r ranean A r chaeo logy V o l . X I I I .

A nge l , J .L . 1 975 . H uman s ke le ton sf r om E leu s i s . I n D y t ikon N ek ro taphe ion . t i sE leus inos , e d . G . E . My lona s . p p . 4 35 -438 . A then s : L ib ra ry o ft h e A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty o fA then s , 8 1 .

A nd ron iko s ,M . 1 969 . B e fe iva I . T ov ex por cTe iov r ow r ö pß c ov . A then s : V iv l io th ik it i se n A th ina is A rchaeo log ik i sE ta i re ia s6 2 .

A nge l , J .L . 1 977 a . A ppend ix 5 . H uman s ke le ton s . I n K epha la . A l a te N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t a nd c eme tery . e d . J . E . C o leman . p p . 1 33-156 . P r ince ton : Ame r ican S choo l o fC la s s ica l S tud ie sa t A then s .

A nge l , J .L . 1 942 . C las s ica lO lyn th ian s . I nE xcava t ions a t O lyn thus P t .. 1 7 : N ec ro lyn th ia , e d . D . M . R ob in son , p p . 2 11-240 . B a l t imo r e : J ohn H opk in s

A nge l . J .L . 1 977 b . A nem ias o fa n t iqu i ty : E a s te rn Med i ter ranean . I nP oro t ic H yperos tos is : A n E nqu iry , e d s . E .C ockbu rn a nd T .C ockbu rn , p p . 1 5 . P a laeopa tho logy A s soc ia t ion , Monog raph 3 2 .

U n ive r s i ty P re s s . A nge l , J .L . 1 959 . A ppend ix 1 . N eo l i th ic c r an ia f r om S o t i ra . I nS o t ira , e d . P .D ika io s ,p p . 2 23-229 . P h i lade lph ia : U n ive r s i ty Mu seum Monog raph s .

Ange l . J .L . 1 978 . P o ro t ic H ype ro s to s i si nt h eE a s te rn Med i ter ranean . Med ica lC o l lege o f V i rg in ia Q uar ter ly 1 4 ( 1 ) : 1 0 16 .

A nge l , J .L . 1 964 . O s teopo ro s i s : T ha la s sem ia? Amer ican J ourna lo fP hy s ica lA n thropo log y2 2 : 3 69 -374 . A nge l .

A nge l , J .L . 1 982 . A nc ien t s ke le ton s f r om A s ine . I nA s ine I . R esu l t so ft h e e xcava t ions e as to ft h eA cropo l is 1 970 -1974 , e d . S .D ie tz . p p . 1 05 138 . S t ockho lm : P au l A s t rom sF ö r lag .

J . L . 1 966 . P o ro t ic H ype ro s to s is , A nem ia s , Ma lar ias , a nd Ma r she s i n t h e P reh is to r ic E a s te rn Med i te r ranean . S c ience 1 53 : 7 60 -763 .

A rme lago s . G . J . 1 969 . D isea se i na nc ien t N ub ia . S c ience 1 63 : 2 55 -259 .

A nge l , J .L . 1 967 . P o ro t ic H ype ro s to s is o ro s teopo ro s is s ymme tr ica . I nD iseases i nA n t iqu i ty , e d s . D . B ro thwe l la nd A . T . S and ison , p p . 3 78 -389 . S p r ingf ie ld : C ha r le s CT homa s .

A s lan is . I . 1 985 . K as tanas : A usg rabungen i n e i nem S i ed lung shüge l d er B ronze u nd E is enze i t Makedon iens , 1 975 -1979 : D ie F rübronzez e i t l ichen F und e u nd B ef und e .

A nge l , J .L . 1 971 a . T he P eop le o fL erna : A na ly s is o fa P r eh is tor ic A egean P opu la t ion . Wa sh ing ton : Sm i thson ian I n s t i tu t ion P re s s .

P räh is to r ische A rchäo log ie i n S üdo s teu ropa B e r l in : V e r lag V o lke r S p ie s s .

A nge l , J .L . 1 971 b . E a r ly N eo l i th ic s ke le ton sf r om V a ta l H üyük : d emog raphy a nd p a tho log y . A na to l ian

4 .

A s souch idou , S . , Man taz i , D . a nd T so lak is . S . 1 998 .

T ap tKöç tt J 3oç n Ex " Kp lap i ta l " EU K 14 , N . X oax tö t i c r ig . T oA rchaeo log iko E rgo s t in Mak edon ia k a i T hrak i 1 2 : 2 69 -282 .

S t ud ies 2 1 : 7 7 -98 . A nge l , J .L . 1 972 . E co logy a nd p opu la t ion i nt h e E as te rn Med i te r ranean . W or ld A rchaeo logy 4( 1 ) : 8 8 105 .

A uf de rhe ide , A . C .a nd R od r iguez - Mar t in . C . 1 998 C ambr idge E ncyc lopaed ia o fH uman P a laeopa tho logv . C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s .

A nge l , J .L . 1 973 a .E a r ly N eo l i th ic p eop le o fN ea N ikomede ia . I nD ie A nf äng e d es N eo l i th ikums v om O r ien tb i sN ord europa . e d . I .S chw ide tzky , p p . 1 03-112 . F undamen ta B / 3 . T e i l V i l la . A n th ropo log ie 1 .

B a laf ou t is , C . 1 977 . E u t t l iok f t e t ;t l iv i t ck i t i lT OD l a iga tO t r ig Ma i csöov ia ;K a i AI M Op d u c r ig . T he s sa lon ik i :

A nge l , J .L . 1 973 b . H uman s ke le ton sf r om G rave C i rc le s

Unpub l ished P hD t h e s i s .

a t Mycenae . I n T af tk os K yk los B t o n Myk inon . e d . G .E . My lona s ,p p . 3 79 -397 . A then s : L ib ra ry o f t h eA rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty i nA then s . 7 3 .

B a r r e t t , J . C .

1 988 .

Ance s to r s :

T he L iv ing , t h e D ead a nd t h e N eo l i th ic

a nd E a r ly

B ronze

A ge

Mor tuary P rac t ice s . I n T he A rchaeo logy o f c on tex t i nt h e N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A g e : R ecen t T rend s . e d s . J .C .B a r re t t a nd I .A . K inne s , p p .

A nge l . J .L . 1 973 c . N eo l i th ic h uman r ema in s( F ranch th i C ave ) . H esper ia 4 2 : 2 77 -282 .

1 49

BIBLJOGRAPHr 30-41. Sheffield: Department of Archaeology . Universityof Sheffield. Becker, C. 1986. Kastanas: Die Tierknochenfunde. Prahistorische Archaologie in Sudosteuropa 5. Berlin: Verlag Volker Spiess. Becker, C. 1998. Can animal bones reflect household activities? A case study from a prehistoric site in Greece. In }vfan and the Animal �Vorld: Studies in Archaeozoology, Archaeology, Anthropologv and Palaeolinguistics in memoriam Sandor Bokonyi. eds. P. Anreiter. L. Bartosiewicz. E. Jerem and W. Meid, pp. 79-86. Budapest: Archaeolingua.

Bessios, M. andPappa, M. 1998 a. 0 Ne01t9tK6ou exp. 1 am vc:Kpm:aq>Eio mu Kt:paµtKOD. Attenishe Mitteilungen 114: 291-303.

Larsen, C. S.. Shavit. R.. and Griffin. M. C. 1991. Dental caries evidence for dietary change: an archaeological context. In Advances in Dental Anthropologv. eds. M. A. Kelley and C. S. Larsen, pp. 179-202. New York: Wiley-Liss.

Lagia, A. 2000. Kerameikos Grabung 1999. Preliminary analysis of the human skeletal remains. Archaologishe Anzeiger 3: 481-493.

Leacock. E. 1978. Women's status in egalitarian society: implications for social evolution. Current Anthropologv 19: 247-271.

Lallo, J. W.. Armelagos. G. J. and Mensforth. R. P. 1977. The role of diet disease and physiology in the origin of porotic hyperostosis. Human Biology 49: 471-483.

Lee, J., Fend, W. and Campbell. C. 1994. Infant and child­ mortality among the Quing nobility: implications for two types of positive check. Population Studies 48: 395-411.

Lallo. J. W. and Rose. J. C. 1979. Patterns of stress. disease and mortality in two prehistoric populations from North America. Journal of Human Evolution 8: 325-387. Larsen. C. S. 1982. The Anthropology of St. Catherines Island: 3. Prehistoric Human Biological Adaptation. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 57. part 3.

Lillie, M. C. 1997. Women and children in prehistory: resource sharing and social stratification at the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition in Ukraine. In lnt >isible People and Processes: ftVriting Gender and Childhood into European Archaeology. eds. J. Moore and E. Scott pp. 213-228. London: Leicester University Press.

Larsen. C. S. 1983. Behavioural implications of temporal change in cariogenesis. Journal of Archaeological Science 10: 1-8.

Liston, M.A. 1993. The human skeletal remains from Kavoussi, Crete: a bioarchaeological analysis. Knowille: Unpublished PhD thesis.

Larsen. C. S. 1984. Health and disease in prehistoric Georgia: the transition to agriculture. In Palaeopatho!ogv at the Origins ofAgriculture. eds. M. N. Cohen and G. J. Armelagos. pp. 367-392. Orlando: Academic Press.

Littleton, J. and Frohlich. B. 1993. Fish-eaters and farmers: dental pathology in the Arabian Gulf. American Journal of Physical Anthropologv 92: 427-447.

Larsen. C. S. 1985. Dental modifications and tool use in the Western Great Basin. American Journal of Physical Anthropologv 67: 393-402.

Li, L. M. 1991. Life and death in a Chinese famine: infanticide as a demographic consequence of the 1935 Yellow River flood. Comparative Studies in Society and History 33: 466.

Larsen. C. S. 1987. Bioarchaeological interpretations of subsistence economy and behaviour from human skeletal remains. In Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory. ed. M. B. Schiffer. pp. 339-

Loukopoulos. D. Hadji. A. Papadakis. M.. Karababa. P.. Sinopoulou. K.. Boussiou. M., Kollia. P.. Xenakis M.. Antsaklis. A., Mesoghitis, S., Loutradi. A. and Fessas. P. 1990. Prenatal diagnosis of thalassemia 161

BIBLIOGRAPHY and of the sickle cell syndromes in Greece. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 612: 226236.

Lyman, R. L. 1994. Quantitative units and terminology in zooarchaeology. American Antiquity 59: 36-71. McAfee. J. 1958. The roentgen signs of systemic disease in the skull. American Journal ofJvledical Science 236: 634-660.

Lovejoy, C. 0. and Heiple, K. G. 1981. The analysis of fractures in skeletal populations with an example from the Libben Site, Ottowa County, Ohio. American Journal of Physical Anthropologv 55: 529-541.

McGeorge, T. 1983. The 1'finoans: physical variation and affinities. London: Unpublished PhD thesis of the University College of London.

Lovejoy, C. 0., MeindL R. S., Pryzbeck. T. R. and Mensforth, R. 1985. Chronological metamorphosis of the auricular surface of the ilium. American Journal of Physical Anthropologv 68: 15-28.

McGeorge. T. 1988. Health and diet in Minoan times. In New aspects of archaeological science in Greece. Proceedings of a Meeting held at the British School at Athens. January 1987, eds. R. E. Jones Athens: and H. W. Catting. pp. 4 7-54. Occasional Paper 3 of the Fitch Laboratory.

Lovell, N. C. 1989. Test of Phenice's technique for determining sex from the os pubis. American Journal of Physical Anthropologv 79: 117120.Lowery , G. H. 1986. Growth and Development of Children. 8th edition. Chicago: Yearbook Medical Publishers.

McGeorge, T. 1989. A comparative study of the mean life expectation of the Minoans. Proceedings of the ST Cretological Co11ference, Chania Al: 419-428. Mc Laughlin. S. M. and Bruce. M. F. 1986. The sciatic notch/acetabular index as a discriminator of sex in European skeletal samples. Journal of Forensic Science 31: 1380-1390.

Lubell. D., Jackes. M. Scharcz, H.. Knyf. M., and Meiklejohn, C. 1994. The Mesolithic-Neolithic transition in Portugal: isotopic and dental evidence of diet. Journal ofArchaeological Science 21: 201-216.

McNeilL J. R. 1992. The Ji.fountains of the Mediterranean World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Lukacs. J. R. 1989. Dental Palaeopathology: Methods for Reconstructing Patterns. In Dietary Reconstruction of Life from the Skeleton. eds. M. Y. Iscan and K. A. R. Kennedy. pp. 261-286. New York: Alan. R. Liss, Inc.

McPherron, A. and Srejovic. D. eds. 1988. Divostin and the Neolithic a/Central .._'erbia. Pittsburgh: Department of Anthropology , University of Pittsburgh.

1992. Dental palaeopathology and Lukacs, J. R. agricultural intensification in South Asia: new evidence from Bronze Age Harappa. Arnerican Journal of Physical Anthropologv 87: 133-150.

Machiarelli. R. 1989. Prehistoric "fish-eaters" along the Eastern Arabian coasts: dental variation. morphology and oral health in the Ra's al-Hamra community (Qurum. Sultanate of Oman, 5tJ1-4 th Millennia BC). American Journal of PhysicalAnthropo/oov 78: 575-594.

Lukacs. J. R. 1996. Sex differences in dental caries rates with the origin of agriculture in South Asia. Current Anthropologv 37: l-P-153.

Magou. H. Panagiaris. G.. Manolis. S. and Zafeiratos, C. 1997. Identification of chemical elements in excavated human bones of ancient cemeteries from Greece. Physical, Archaeometric and Chemical Techniques applied to A.rchaeologv 45: 97-110.

Lukacs, J. and Minderman, L. 1992. Dental pathology and intensification from Neolithic to Chalcolithic periods at Mehrgarh (Beluchistan. Pakistan). In South Asian Archaeologv 1989, ed. C. Jarrige, pp. 167-179. Monographs in World Archaeology 14.

Malamidou. D. and Papadopoulos. S. 1997. AvacrKaq>tlCT) tpwva cnov npo1crt0p1K6 ouacrµ6 Atµc:vapia 0cicrou. To Archaeologiko Ergo stin Afakedonia kai Thraki 7: 559-572.

Lukacs, J. R. and Hemphill. B. E. 1990. Traumatic injuries of prehistoric teeth: Nelv evidence from Baluchistan and Punjab Provinces. Pakistan. Anthropologicshe Anzeiger 48: 351-363.

Manning. S. W. 1995. The Absolute Chronologv of the Aegean Bronze Age: Archaeologv, Radiocarbon and History. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press.

Lukacs, J. R. and Pastor. R. F. 1988. Activity -induced patterns of dental abrasion in prehistoric Pakistan: evidence from Mehrgarh and Harappa. American Journal of Physical Anthropologv 76: 377-398.

Manning, S. W. and Weniger. B. 1992. A light in the dark: archaeological wiggle matching and the 162

B IBLIOGRAPHY

Men sf or th . R . P . , L ove joy . C . 0 . , L a i b, J . W . a nd A rme lago s , G . J . 1 978 . T he r o le o fc on s t i tu t iona l f a c to r s , d i e t , a nd i n f ec t iou s d i sea se i n t h e e t io logy o f p o ro t ic h ype ro s to s i s a nd p e r io s tea l r e ac t ion s i n p reh is to r ic i n f an t s a nd c h i ld ren . Med ica l A n thropo logy 2 : 1 59 .

a b so lu te c h rono logy o ft h ec l o s eo ft h eA egean L a te B ronze A ge . A n t iqu i ty 6 6 ( 2 ) : 6 36 -663 . Mano l i s , S .K . 1 991 . A n thropo log ica l r e search o n t h e c ompos i t ion o f B ronze A ge p opu la t ions f rom S ou thern G reece . A then s : Unpub l ished P hD t h e s is .

Me rb s . C . F . 1 983 . P a t terns o fA c t iv i ty Induced P a tho log y i n aC anad ian I nu i tP opu la t ion . A rchaeo log ica l S ur vey o fC anada , Mercury S er ies P aper 19 .

Mar ina to s . S . 1 974 . T he F i r s t Mycenaean si nG reece . I n B ronze A ge M ig ra t ions i nt h eA egean : a r chaeo log ica la nd l i ngu is t ic p rob lems i nG reek p r eh is tory , e d s . R . A . C ro s s land a nd A . B ir cha l l . p p . 1 07 -113 . G r ea t B r i ta in : D uckwo r th .

Me rb s . C . F . 1 989 . T r auma . I n R econs t ruc t ion o fL if e f rom t h e S k e le ton , e d s . M . Y . I s 9an a nd K . A . R . K ennedy . p p . 1 61-189 . N ew Y o rk : A lan R .L i s s .

Ma s s le r , M . . S chou r , I .a nd P onche r . H . G . 1 941 . D eve lopmen ta lp a t tern o ft h ec h i ld a sr ef l ec ted i n t h ec a lc if ica t ion p a t te rn o ft h et e e th . Amer ican J ourna lo fD iseases o fC h i ld ren 6 2 : 3 3 -67 .

Me tca lf ,P .a nd H un t ing ton . R . 1 991 . C e lebra t ions o f D ea th . T he A n thropo logy o fM or tuary R i tua l , rd e d i t ion . C ambr idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s .

May s , S . 1 998 . T he A rchaeo logy o fH uman B ones .

M i le s . A . E . W . 1 963 a . D en t i t ion a nd t h e e s t ima t ion o f a ge . J ourna lo fD en ta lR es ea rch 4 2 : 2 55 -263 .

L ondon : R ou t ledge . Mee , C .B .a nd C avanagh , W . G . 1 984 . Mycenaean t omb s

M i le s . A . E .W . 1 963 b . Mo la ra t t r i t ion a ge ing s cheme . I n

a se v idence f o rs oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica lo rgan i sa t ion . O xf ord J ourna lo fArchaeo logy 3( 3 ) : 4 5-65 .

D en ta l .An thropo logy , e d . D . R .B ro thwe l l , p p . 1 91-209 . O xf o rd : P e rgamon . M i l le r . B .D . e d . 1 993 . S ex a nd G end er H ierarch ies . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s .

Mee . C .B .a nd C avanagh . W . G . 1 990 . T he s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f Mycenaean t omb s . A nnua lo ft h e B r i t ish S choo l8 5 : 2 25 -243 .

M i lne r . G . R . ,H umpf , D . A . a nd H arpend ing . H . C . 1 989 . P a t te rn -ma tch ing o fa ge -a t -dea th d i s t r ibu t ion si n p a laeodemog raph ic a na ly s is . Amer ican J ourna lo f P hy s ica lA n thropo logy 8 0 : 4 9 -58 .

Me ik le john , C . . B a ldw in . J .H . a nd S chen tag , C .T . 1 988 . C a r ie sa s ap robab le d i e ta ry m a rke ri nt h ew e s tern E u ropean Me so l i th ic . I nD ie ta nd S ubs is t ence : C ur ren tA rchaeo log ica lP er spec t ives , e d s . B . V . K ennedy a nd G . M . L e Mo ine . p p . 2 73 -279 . C a lgary : A rchaeo log ica l A s so c ia t ion o ft h e U n ive r s i ty o fC a lga ry . P roceed ing so ft h e 1 9 6' C hacmoo l A nnua l C onf e rence .

M i sa i l idou -De spo t idou , V . 1 998 a . A vaa me j o ry N eu O tka i StÄ x pE ta t ou v ogo i )O saaalov i i c t ig . T o A rchaeo log iko E rgo s t in Mak ed on ia k a i T hrak i 9 : 3 11-320 .

Me ik le john . C . . S chen tag , C . T . . V enema . A . a nd K ey . P .

M i sa i l idou -De spo t idou . V . 1 998 b . N ta e ba c tötÄ x pe ta .

1 984 . S oc io -econom ic c hange a nd p a t tern so f p a tho logy a nd v a r ia t ion i nt h e Me so l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic o fw e s tern E u rope : s ome s ugge s t ion s . I n P a laeopa tho logy a tt h e O r ig ins o f Ag r icu l tur e , e d s . M . N . C ohen a nd G . J .A rme lago s , p p . 1 75 1 0 0 . O r lando : A cadem ic P r e s s .

A vac i c opu c i l t peuva a n] " Tpä l tz a . " K a i OTO v Expota c pc io c r i; E nox iN Ea t ipou . T o A rchaeo log iko E rgo s t in Mak edon ia k a i T ha rak i 1 2 : 2 59 -268 . Mogg i -Cecch i ,

Me ik le john . C . . a nd Z ve leb i l . M . 1 991 . H ea l th s t a tu so f E u ropean p opu la t ion sa tt h ea gr icu l tu r a lt r an s i t ion a nd t h ei mp l ica t ion sf o rt h ea dop t ion o ff a rm ing . I nH ea l th i nP as tS oc ie t ies , e d s . H . B u sh a nd M . Z ve leb i l , p p . 1 29 -145 . Oxf o rd : B r i t ish

J .

Mo lna r . S . 1 972 . T oo th w ea ra nd c u l tu r e : as urvey o f too th f unc t ion s a mong s ome p r eh i s tor ic p opu la t ion s . C ur r en tA n thropo logy 1 3 : 5 11-526 .

A r chaeo log ica lR epor t s , I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s 5 67 . Me ind l . R . S .a nd L ove joy . C . 0 .

J . , P acc ian i . E . a nd P in to -C is te rna s ,

1 994 . E name l h ypop la s ia a nd a ge a tw ean ing i n 1 9t h c en tu ry F lo r ence . I t a ly . Amer ican J ourna l o f P hy s ica lA n thropo logy 9 3 : 2 99 -306 .

1 985 . E c toc ran ia l s u tu r e

Mo lna r . S .a nd Mo lna r . I . 1 985 . O b serva t ion so fd en ta l

c l o su re : ar e v ised m e thod f o rt h e d e term ina t ion o f s k e le ta l a ge a t d ea th b ased o n l a te ra l -an ter io r s u tu r e s . Amer ican J ourna l o f P hy s ica l A n thropo logy 6 8 : 5 7 -66 .

d i sea se a mong p r eh i s tor ic p opu la t ion s o fH unga ry . Amer ican J ourna lo fP hy s ica lA n thropo log y6 7 : 5 1-64 .

1 63

BIBLIOGR4PHY

Moore, J. A.. Swedlund. A. C. and Armelagos. G. J. 1975. The use of Life Tables in Palaeodemography. American Antiquity Memoir 30: 57-70.

Musgrave. J. H.. Neave, R. A. H. and Prag. A. J. N. W. 1995. Seven faces from Grave Circle B at Mycenae. Annual of the British School at Athens 90: 107-136.

Moorees. C. F. A. Fanning. E. A. and Hunt, E. E. 1963 a. Age variation of formation stages for ten permanent teeth. Journal of Dental Research 48 (6): 1490-1502.

Musgrave. J. H. and Popham, M. 1991. The Late Helladic Ille intramural burials at Lefkandi, Euboea. Annual of the British School at Athens 86: 273296.

Moorees, C. F. A., Fanning. E. A. and Hunt E. E. 1963 b. Formation and resorption of three deciduous teeth in children. American Journal of Physical Anthropologv 21: 205-213.

Muller. S. 1989. Les tumuli helladiques: ou? quand? comment? Bulletin deCorrespondance Hellenique 113: 1-42.

Musgrave. J. H. 1976 a. A figured crater from Knossos. Appendix: The human remains from Tekke Tomb "E". Heraklion, Crete. Annual of the British School at Athen 71: 126-129.

Mylonas, G. E. 1966..Afycenae and the J\1ycenaean Age. Pnnceton: Princeton University Press. Mylonas. G. E. 1973. 0 raqwc6c; KVKJ..or:; B rwv MvK17vdJv. Athens: Ekdotiki Athinon.

Musgrave. J. H. 1976 b. The human remains from an Early Christian osteotheke at Knossos. Appendix A: The human remains. Annual of the British School at Athens 71: 40-46.

Nordquist. G. C. 1987. A Middle Helladic Village: Asine in the Argo/id. Uppsala: Doctoral Thesis. Nordquist. G. C. 1990. Middle Helladic Burial Rites: Some Speculations. In Celebrations of Death and Divinity in the Bronze Age Argo/id. eds. R. Hagg and G. C. Nordquist . pp. 35-41. Stockholm: Swedish Institute at Athens.

Musgrave. J. H. 1980 a. The human remains from the cemeteries. Appendix C. In Lejkandi 1: The Iron Age. eds. M. R. Popham. K. H. Sackett and P. G. Themelis. pp. 429-446. London: Thames & Hudson. Annual of the British School at Athens Supplement 11.

Ortner, D. J. 1968. Description and classification of degenerative bone changes in the distal joint surfaces of the humerus. American Journal of Physical Anthropologv 28: 139-156.

Musgrave. J. H. 1980 b. By strangers honor' d: a statistical study of ancient crania from Crete. Mainland Greece. Cyprus. Israel and Egypt. Journal of Afediterranean Anthropologv and Archaeologv 1: 50-107.

Ortner. D. J. and Putschar. W. G. I 981. Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press.

Musgrave, J. H. 1985. The skull of Philip II of Macedon. In Current Topics in Oral Biologv. eds. S. J. W. Linsey and B. Mathews. pp. 1-16. Bristol: Press of the University of Bristol.

0' Shea. J. 1981. Social configurations and the archaeological study of mortuary practices: a case study. In Archaeologv of Death, eds. R. Chapman. I. Kinnes and K. Randsborg. pp. 39-52. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Musgrave. J. H. 1990. The cremated remains from Tombs II and III at Nea Michaniona and Tomb Beta at Derveni. Annual of the British School at Athens 85: 301-325.

Panagiaris. G. 1992. Physical anthropological study of skeletal material from Central Greece and the wider region spanning from the Neolithic to the Hellenistic times. Athens: Unpublished PhD thesis.

Musgrave. J. H. 1996. The Burials. In Knossos. North Cemetery: Ear�v Greek Tombs. eds. J. N. Coldstream and H. W. Catting. pp. 677-702. London: Thames & Hudson. Annual of the British School at Athens Supplement 28 Vol. II.

Panagiaris: G., Hassiacou, A. and Manolis. S. K. 1997. The ecological influence on human microevolution and culture: a study of ancient Greek populations around Mound Pindos. In Archaeological Sciences 1995. Proceedings of a co11ference on the application of scientific techniques to the study of archaeologv. eds. A. Sinclair. E. Slater and J.

Musgrave. J. H.. Neave. R. A. H.. Prag. A. J. N. W.. Sakellarakis. E. and Sakellarakis, J. A. 1994. The priest and priestess from Archanes-Anemospilia: reconstructing Minoan faces. Annual of the British , chool 89: 89-100.

164

B IBLIOGRAPHY

G ou le t t , p p . 3 69 -376 . O xf o rd : O xbow Monog raph 6 4 .

b ehav ior i nt h ee as t ern Med i t t er ranean b a s in : a c as es t ud yf rom A l epo t rypa c ave , G r eece .

P anag ia r i s , G . . Mano l is , S .K . a nd Z af e ira to s , C . 1 994 . G eog raph ic d if e ren t ia t ion o fc epha lome t r ic d a ta o f an omad ic i s o la ted H e l len ic p opu la t ion ( S a raka t sano i ) . I n terna t iona lJ ourna lo f A n thropo logy 9 : 2 73 -279 .

P apa thana s iou , A . . L a r sen , C . S .a nd N o r r . L . 1 995 . A b ioarchaeo log ica la na ly s is o f aN eo l i th ic o s suary f rom A lepo t rypa C ave , D iros , G reece . P o s te r p re sen ted , Ame r ican A s soc ia t ion o fP hy s ica l A n th ropo log i s t s . O ak land . C a l if o rn ia .

P apaef th im iou -Papan th imou , A . a nd P i la l i -Papa s te r iou . A . 1 988 . A v o c cne t94 C Y TO M e5 C6 .0 . T o A r chaeo log iko E rgo s t in Makedon ia k a i T hrak i 1 : 1 7 3 180 .

P appa , M . 1 987 . E zo tx e ia o pyä v c oo lN T OD X C ' opOU . Makedon ika 1 6 : 2 37 -243 . P appa , M . 1 990 . A vaaxa ch N eok tOu coü O u c tagoü O tp lAN , A va cn capud i7 r . zp io5o

P apaef th im iou -Papan th imou , A . a nd P i la l i -Papa s te r iou . A . 1 991 . A vaaxap i l G TO M e i i ca .o ( 1988 ) . T o A r chaeo log iko E rgo s t i l l Makedon ia k a i T hrak i 2 : 1 27 135 .

P appa . M . 1 995 . T oßuxa A y iou M o z iga v To; X c il i c u Su c% : A vaaxam j V EKpOta ( pE i C OV . T oA rchaeo log iko E rgo Makedon ia / c a l T hrak i 6 : 4 75 -484 .

P apaef th im iou -Papan th imou . A . a nd P i la l i -Papa s ter iou . A . 1 989 . N écç C V C tGK Ce l l f4 p euve G TO Mäväoa .o , Maxd rov ia ( 1985 -1986 ) . E gna t ia 1 : 1 7 -28 .

P appa , M . 1 997 a . N eok tOu cö; o u c tamä Maxpuy t eou l i p c in c ta notelta gna TN, µ skitig . T o A rchaeo log iko E rgo s t i l lA faked on ia k a i T hrak i 1 0A : 2 39 -277 .

P apaef t lüm iou -Papan th imou , A . a nd P i la l i -Papas te r iou . A . 1 990 . A vaaxa c pn Mav i i d&ou . E gna t ia 2 : 4 114 21 .

P appa , M . 1 997 b . N cok tO t i c r i£ 7 102 T Ö ta ta0 1 1 O TO x ( . bpo T IN A t eOvo t i'Ex0EG IN O zoa ca .ov ix rN . T o A rchaeo log iko E rgo s t in Mak ed on ia k a i T hrak i 7 : 3 03-310 .

P apaef th im iou -Papan th imou . A . a nd P i la l i -Papa s te r iou . A . 1 991 . A vc ca i ca ( p i i GTO A pX0VTIKÖ. E gna t ia 3 : 1 99 2 08 .

P appa , M . , A dak t y lou , F . , G e rou s i , T . 1 998 . N Eol tOmö g O tK IG I IÖ; Maxp t )y t dOz o . E t ) µex 'p c o! ma te p zuveg 1 997 -1998 . T o A rchaeo log iko E rgo s t in Makedon ia k a i T hrak i 1 2 : 2 83-289 .

P apaef th im iou -Papan th imou . A . a nd P i la l i -Papa s te r iou . A . 1 993 . 0i r po I c r ropuOc o u c ta l iög G TO Md tVö l lÄ0 : Na G TO 1X E i C tG T T I N 'n po icTop i c tT IN MO LKE50V i Cg . A r chaea Makedon ia 5 .1 : 2 07 -216 .

P appa . M . a nd B e s s io s . M . 1 999 a . T he N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t a t Makr iya lo . N or the rn G r eece : p re l im inary r e por t o n t h e 1 992 1995 e xcava t ion s . J ourna lo fF ie ld A rchaeo logy 2 6 , 2 : 1 77 195 .

P apaef th im iou -Papan th imou , A . a nd P i la l i -Papa s te r iou , A . 1 995 . A vaaxagn j G TO A pX0VT IKÖ . TI C VV 1 TG6N . T o A rchaeo log iko E rgo s t i l l Makedon ia k a i T hrak i 6 : 1 5 1161 .

P appa , M . a nd B e s s io s . M . P apaef th im iou -Papan th imou , A . a nd P i la l i -Papa s te r iou . A . 1 997 . A va cn cag n i A pxov tu c cn i 1 993 . l i po iatop t i c6 t o g . T oA rchaeo log iko E rgo s t in Mak edon ia k a i T hrak i 7 : 1 47 -154 .

1 999 b . T he Mak r ig ia lo s

p ro jec t : R e scue e xcava t ion sa tt h eN eo l i th ic s i te o f Mak r ig ia lo s . P i e r ia . G reece . I n N eo l i th ic S oc ie ty G reece , e d . P . H a l s tead , p p . S hef f i e ld : S hef f i e ld A cadem ic P r e s s .

i l l

P apaef th im iou -Papan th imou , A . a nd P i la l i -Papa s te r iou . A . 1 998 . A vaaxa ch A pxor ru coü . 1 994 . f l po ia ' ropn cóç t ogg c t; . T oA rchaeo log iko E rgo s t i l l Mak edon ia k a i T hrak i 8 : 8 3-90 .

1 08 120 .

P a rke r -Pea r son . M . 1 982 . Mo r tua ry p rac t ice s , s o c ie ty a nd i d eo logy : a ne t hnoarchaeo log ica l s t udy . I n S ymbo l ic a nd S t ruc tura lA rchaeo logy . e d . I . H odde r , p p . 9 9 -113 . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s .

P apaef th im iou -Papan th imou . A . a nd P i la l i -Papa s te r iou . A . i np re s s . 0n po iacop t i cö o u c ta l iö

1 987 : E TO 1X C ia Opy 6 tv c oa %

T OD X C ' Op0 1 ) . A lakedon ika 1 6 : 2 37 -243 .

Ma vö r ilou

P a rke r -Pea r son . M . 1 984 . S oc ia l c hange . i d eo logy a nd t h e

5 i r ru c fK MaKEÖOV ia g 1 , t0 1 2 7 t 0Ä tT tat tKä n k c t ion t t ic ' You ng N sok tOu c iN . I n D ie thnes S ympos io A ga iak is P ro is tor ias .

a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . I n Marx is tP er spec t ives i n A rchaeo logy , e d . M . S p r igg s . p p . 5 9 -61 . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s .

P apa thana s iou . A . f o r thcom ing . Ab i oa rchaeo log ica l a na ly s is o fh ea l th , s ubs is tence a nd f unerary

P a rke r -Pea r son , M . 1 993 . T he p ower f u l d ead : a r chaeo log ica l r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween t h e l i v ing a nd 1 65

B IBLIOGRAPHY

t h e d ead .

C ambr idge A rchaeo log ica l J ourna l 3

P ou lak i -Pan te rma l i . E . 1 989 . T pe t; E k t tg . A rchaeo log iko D e l t io 4 4B : 3 24 .

( 2 ) : 2 03-229 .

P ou lak i -Pan te rma l i , E . 1 990 . Okup l cog 3 .M tanaX i d t ' u top ia . I nO iA rchaeo logo im i loun g ia t i n P i er ia , D ion 1 986 : 8 4 -95 .

• P a rke r -Pea r son , M . 1 999 . T he a rchaeo logy o fd ea th a nd b ur ia l . G rea tB r i ta in : S u t ton P ub l i sh ing . P ayne , S . 1 985 . Z ooa rchaeo logy i nG r eece : aR eade r 's G u ide . I nC on t r ibu t ions t oA egean a rchaeo logy , e d s . N .C . W i lk ie a nd W .D .P . C ou l son , p p . 2 112 44 . M inneapo l i s : C en te rf o rA egean S tud ie s . Un ive r s i ty o fM inne so ta . P e lon . 0 .

P ou lak i -Pan te rma l i . E . 1 991 . A va c T i ca r e f i A y iou A ti l titp iou , O k im tou . T oA rchaeo log iko E rgo s t in A f akedon ia k a i T hrak i 2 : 1 73 180 . P ou lak i -Pan tenna l i , E . 1 992 . T an ep t i K ta t ow O s c iw . T o A rchaeo log iko E rgo S t i l ?A laked on ia k a i T hrak i 3 :

1 976 . T ho lo i , t umu l i e tc erc les f i ln&a ires .Par is :

1 49 -154 .

B ib l io theque d e sü co le sF rança ise s d "A thene se td e R ome .

P ou lak i -Pan te rma l i , E . 1 993 . Macedon ian O lympu sa nd i t s E a r ly C eme ter ie s . I nG reek C iv i l i za t ion : Macedon ia , k i ngd om o f .Alexand er t h e G rea t . K a ta logos E k thes is Mon t rea l 7 19 S ep temv r iou 1 993 , e d . I .V oko topou lou . p p . 1 22 127 . A then s : K apon i E d i t ion s .

P e r s son , A . W . 1 931 . T he R oya l T ombs a tD end ra . L und : G . W . K . G leerup . P hen ice , T . W . 1 969 . An ew ly d eve loped v i sua l m e thod o f s ex ing t h eo sp ub is . Amer ican J ourna lo fP hy s ica l A n thropo logy 3 0 : 2 98 -301 .

P owe l l , M . L . 1 985 . T he a na ly s is o fd en ta l w ea ra nd c a r ie s f o rd i e tar y r e con s t ruc t ion . I nT he A na ly s is o f P r eh is tor ic D ie t s . e d s . R . I .G i lbe r ta nd J .H . M ie lke , p p . 3 07 -338 . O r lando : A cadem ic P r e s s .

P i la l i -Papa s te r iou A . , P apaef th im iou -Papan th imou . A . , K o tsak i s ,K . a nd S avvopou lou ,T . 1 986 . N tog n po iatop t io fK ,o una l . t6 M eTak0 5 1 )11 1C iN MaxeSov ia; A rchaea Mak edon ia 4 : 4 51-65 .

P rag , A .J .N .W . 1 990 . R econ s truc t ing K ing P h i l ip I : t h e " n ice - v e r s ion . Amer ican J ourna lo fArcha eo logy 9 4 : 2 37 -247 .

P i la l i -Papa s ter iou , A . a nd P apaef th im iou -Papan th imou . A . 1 989 . NEç a vaaxa c p t e; puvç GTO MävE iaXo i f a r tu c iK Mo n c E8ov ia, 1 985 1986 . E gna t ia 1 : 1 5 2 8 .

P rag , A .J .N .W . a nd N eave . R .A .H . 1 997 . Mak ing F aces : U s ing F orens ic a nd A rchaeo log ica lE v id enc e . L ondon : B r i t ish Mu seum P re s s .

P i la l i -Papa s te r iou , A . a nd P apaef th im iou -Papan th imou . A . 1 997 . Na a to tx s ia y ta T r iv n potkzua r i t ou o w tavo i ) au Maxebov ia . A l n im iA lano l i A nd ron ikou . P arar t ima A lak edon ikon 6 : 2 77 -282 .

P ro tono tar iou -De i lak i . E . 1 980 . 0 / r b i lßo z r o t )A pyow . A then s : Unpub l i shed P hD T he s is .

P ou lak i -Pan te rma l i , E . 1 985 . O tl i tzpu co ia pöno8s. A rchaeo log iko D e l t io 4 0B : 2 40 -243 .

P ro tono ta r iou -De i lak i , E . 1 990 a . T he t umu l i o f My cenae a nd D end ra . I nC e lebra t ions o fD ea th a nd D iv in i ty i nt h e B ronze Age A rgo l id , e d s . R .H ägg

P ou lak i -Pan te rma l i . E . 1 986 a . O ?u j .u toç 2 . MC O C ESOV IKÖV ö p c :q . i m tsop c ina tov . I n Am i tos . T hn i t ikos t o n los

a nd G . C . N o rdqu is t , p p . 8 5 106 . S tockho lm : S wed i sh I n s t i tu te a tA then s .

g ia t o nk a th ig i t iA LA nd ron iko : 7 05 -706 . P ro tono tar iou -De i lak i . E . 1 990 b . B u r ia lc u s tom sa nd f une ra ry r i te s i nt h eP reh is to r ic A rgo l id . I n C e lebra t ions o fD ea th a nd D iv in e i nt h eB ronze

P ou lak i -Pan te rma l i , E . 1 986 b . N expo ta9E io A y iou A rgmtp iou . A rchaeo log iko D e l t io 4 1B : 1 40 -141 .

A g eA rgo l id . e d s . R . H ägg a nd G . C . No rdqu i s t , p p . 6 9 -83 . S t ockho lm : Swed i sh I n s t i tu te a t A then s .

P ou lak i -Pan te rma l i , E . 1 987 a . A va c r i c ej A y iou A r ik titp iou , Ok t i t .o tou . T oA rchaeo log iko E rgo s t in Makedon ia k a i T hrak i 1 : 2 01-208 .

R ega , E . A . 1 995 . B io log ica l C o rr e la tes o f S oc ia l S t ruc tur e i n t h e E ar ly B ron z e A ge C eme t ery a t

P ou lak i -Pan te rma l i ,E . 1 987 b . E n d tkg A y iou A iw r itp iou . A rchaeo log iko D e l t io 4 2B : 3 63-364 .

Mok r in . C h icago : U npub l ished P hD t he s i s . R ega . E . A . 1 997 . A ge . g ende ra nd b i o log ica l r ea l i ty i nt h e E a r ly B ronze A ge c eme tery a t Mok r in . I n I nv is ib le P eop le a nd P roces s es : W r i t ing G end er

P ou lak i -Pan te rma l i .E . 1 988 . T pc tç Et; . A rchaeo log iko D e l t io 4 3B : 3 66 .

1 66

B IBL IOGRAPHY

a nd C h i ldhood i n to E uropean A rchaeo logy , e d s . J . Moo re a nd E . S co t t . p p . 2 29 -247 . L ondon :

R obe r t s . C . a nd Manche s te r . K . 1 995 . T he A rchaeo logy o f D is eas e . rd e d i t ion . I t haca : C o rne l l U n ive r s i ty P r e s s .

L e ice s te r Un ive r s i ty P re s s . R esn ick , D . a nd N iv vayama . G . 1 988 . D iagnos is o fB one a nd J o in tD isord er s , 2 "d e d i t ion . P h i lade lph ia : W . B . S aunde r sC ompany .

R odden , R . J . 1 962 . E xcava t ion s a tt h e E a r ly N eo l i th ic s i te a tN ea N ikomede ia , G reek Macedon ia ( 1961 s e a son ) . P roceed ing so ft h eP r eh is tor ic S oc ie ty 1 : 2 67 -88 .

R ey , L . 1 9 16 . O b se rva t ion s s u rl e ss i te sp r eh is to r ique sd e l a Macedo ine . B u l l e t in d e C or respondance H e l len ique 4 0 : 2 57 -292 .

R odden , R . J . 1 964 . R ecen t d i scove r ie sf r om p reh i s tor ic Macedon ia : A n i n te r im r e por t . B a lkan S tud ies 5 , 1 : 1 09 124 .

R ey , L . 1 9 17 1919 . O b se rva t ion ss u r l e sp r em ie r e s h ab i ta t s d el a Macedo ine . B u l le t in d e C or r espondance H e l len ique 4 1-43 : 1 270 .

R odden , R . J . 1 965 . A nE a r ly N eo l i th ic v i l lage i nG reece . S c ien t if ic Amer ican 2 12 : 8 3-92 . R oge r s , J .a nd Wa ld ron . T . 1 995 . AF ie ld G u id e t oJ o in t D isea se i nA rchaeo logy . C h iche s te r : J ohn W i ley &S on s .

R hom iopou lou .K . a nd R id ley . C . 1 973 . P reh is to r ic s e t t lemen to fS erv ia (We s t Macedon ia ) . E xcava t ion s 1 972 . A rchaeo log ika A na lek ta e x A th inon 6 : 4 19 -426 .

R oge r s . J . Wa ld ron , T . . D ieppe , P .a nd Wa t t . I . 1 987 . A r th ropa th ie si nP a laeopa tho logy : T he b a s i so f c l as s if ica t ion a cco rd ing t o mo s tp robab le c au se . J ourna lo fArchaeo log ica lS c ience 1 4 : 1 79 193 .

R hom iopou lou , K . a nd R id ley . C . 1 974 . P r eh is to r ic S e t t lemen to fS erv ia (We s t Macedon ia ) . E x cava t ion s 1 973 . A rchaeo log ika A na lek ta e x . 4 th inon 7 : 3 51-360 .

R o se . J .C . . C ondon , K . W . a nd G oodman . A . H . 1 985 . D ie ta nd d en t i t ion : d eve lopmen ta l d i s tu rbance s . I nT he A na ly s is o fP r eh is tor ic D ie t s . e d s . R . I

R icha rd s . M . P .a nd v an K l inken , G . J . 1 997 . As urvey o f e u ropean h uman b one s t ab le c a rbon a nd n i trogen i s o tope v a lue s . I nA rchaeo log ica lS c iences 1 995 . P roceed ing so f ac onf erence o n t h ea pp l ica t ion o f s c ien t if ic t e chn iques t ot h es t udy o fa rchaeo logy . L iverpoo l , J u ly 1 995 ,e d s . A . S inc la i r , E . S t a te s a nd J .G ow le t t . p p . 3 63-368 . O x f o rd : O xbow Monog raph 6 4 .

G i lbe r t . J .J r . a nd J .H . M ie lke , p p . 2 81-305 . O r lando : A cadem ic P re s s . R uf f , C . B . 1 981 . A r e a s se s smen t o f d emog raph ic e s t ima te s o f P eco s P ueb lo . Amer ican J ourna l o f P hy s ica lA n thropo logy 5 4 : 1 47 -151 . S a t ten sp ie l . L . a nd H a rpend ing . H . 1 983 . S t ab le p opu la t ion s a nd s ke le ta l a ge . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 8 : 4 89 -498 .

R id ley , C .a nd R hom iopou lou . K . 1 972 . P r eh is to r ic s e t t lemen to fS erv ia (W . Macedon ia ) . E xcava t ion s 1 971 . A rchaeo log ika A na lek ta e x A th inon 5 : 2 7 -34 .

S aunde r s , S . R . 1 992 . S ubadu l t s ke le ton s a nd g row th r e la ted s t ud ie s . I n S ke le ta l B io logy o f P a s t P eop les : R esearch Me thod s , e d s . S .R . S aunde r s

R id ley , C .a nd Wa rd le . K . A . 1 979 . R e scue e xcava t ion sa t S e rv ia 1 9711973 : Ap re l im inar yr e po r t . A nna les o ft h eB r i t ish S choo la tA thens 7 4 : 1 85 -230 .

a nd M . A . K a tzenbe rg .p p . W i ley -L is s , I n c .

R obe r ts , C . 1 991 . T rauma a nd t r ea tmen t i n B r i t i sh H i s to r ic p e r iod : ad e s ign f o r mu l t id isc ip l inar y r e sea rch . I n H uman p a leopa tho logv . C ur ren t s yn theses a nd f u ture o p t ions , e d s . D . O r tne r a nd A . A u f de rhe ide . p p . 2 25 -240 . Wa sh ing ton , DC : Sm i th son ian I n s t i tu t ion P re s s .

1 20 .

N ew Y o rk :

S avvopou lou . T . 1 988 . ' E va v expa rave io l i pdü l t r ig E nox IN E f ö l jpou GTO f l al iö r uva u cöKaa rpo TOD T o A rchaeo log iko E rgo s t in Maked on ia k a i T hrak i 1 : 3 05 -311 . S a Nvopou lou , T . 1 991 . Na GTO1X6ta 1 7 16 T O N expo tc u pe io T op I l aÄa toß f uva tKöKaa tpou . T oA rchaeo log iko

R obe r ts . C . . L ag ia . A . . T r ian taphy l lou . S . .B ou rbou . C . a nd T sa l ik i . A . i np r e s s . H ea l th a nd d i sease i n

E rgo s t in Makedon ia k a i T hrak i 2 : 2 19 -229 .

G r eece : p a s t , p re sen ta nd f u tu r e . I nH ea l th i n A n t iqu i ty ,e d . K . S t ea r s . E d inbu rgh : E d inbu rgh U n ive r s i t yP re s s .

S axe . A . 1 973 . S oc ia lD imens ions o fMor tuary P rac t ices . A nn A rbou r : P hD d i s ser ta t ion . S choen inge r , M . J . 1 985 . T roph ic l e ve l e f ec t so f1 5N / 14N

1 67

BIBLIOGR4PHY and 13 C/ 12 C ratios in bone collagen and strontium levels in bone mineral. Journal of Human Evolution 14: 515-525.

Neolithic mortuary practices. In Symbolic and Structural Archaeologv, ed. I. Hodder, pp. 129154. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Schoeninger. M. J.. DeNiro.M. J. and Tauber. H. 1983. Stable nitrogen isotope ratios of bone collagen reflect marine and terrestrial animals. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 48: 625-639.

Skarlatidou. E and Ignatiadou. D. 1997. ITpcina cruµnc:pacrµma an6 -r11v avacrKaq>iJ wu apxaiou VEKpomq>c:iou cr'ITI 0tpµT) (:EE�:E). To Archaeologiko Ergo stin Makedonia kai Thraki lOA: 477-490.

Schoeninger. M. J. and Moore. K. 1992. Bone stable isotope studies in archaeology. Journal of World Prehistory 6: 247-296.

Sherratt. A. G. 1981. Plough and pastoralism: aspects of the secondary products revolution. In Pattern of the Past: Studies in Honour of David Clarke, eds. I. Hodder. G. Isaac and N. Hammond.pp. 261305. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Schoeninger. M. J..Moore. K. M .. and Kingston. J. D. 1989. Detection of bone preservation in archaeological and fossil samples. Applications Geochemica 4: 281-292.

Skinner. M. and Goodman. A. H. 1992. Anthropological uses of developmental defects of enamel. In Skeletal Biologv ofPast Peoples: Research Afethods. eds. S. R. Saunders and M. A. Katzenberg.pp. 153-17-t New York: Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Schulz� H. D. 1989. Die geologische Entwicklung der Buchtvon Kastanas in Holozan. In Kastanas: Ausgrabungen in einem Siedlungshiigel der Bronze- und Eisen-zeit AJakedonien , 1975-1979: Die Grabung und der Baubefund. Prahistorische Archaologie in Siidosteuropa 7 (2) ..ed. B. Hansel. pp. 375-393. Berlin: Verlag Volker Spiess

Steele. D. G. and Bramblett. C. A. 1988. The Anatomy and Biology of the Human Skeleton. Texas: Texas A & M University Press.

Schulz.P. D. 1977. Task activity and anterior teeth grooving in prehistoric California Indians. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 46: 87-92.

Steinbock. R. T. 1976. Palaeopathologica/ Diagnosis and Interpretation. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas. Storey. R. 1998. The mothers and daughters of a patrilineal civilization: the health of females among the Late Classic Maya of Copan, Honduras. In Sex and Gender in Palaeopathological Perspective. eds. A. L. Grauer and P. Stuart­ Macadam. pp. 133-148. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Schurr. M. R. 1998. Using stable nitrogen-isotopes to study weaning behavior in past populations. World Archaeologv 30: 327-342. Schwarcz. H. P., Melbey. P. J.. Katzenberg. M. A.. and Knyf. M. 1985. Stable isotopes in human skeletons of southern Ontario: Reconstructing paleodiet. Journal of Archaeological Science 12: 187-206.

Struck. A. 1908. Makedonische Fa/men II. Die .Afakedonischen Niederlande. Sarajevo: Druck und Verlag von Daniel A. Kajon.

Schwarcz. H. P. and Schoeninger, M. J. 1991. Stable isotope analyses in human nutritional ecology . Yearbook of Physical Anthropologv 34: 283-321.

Stuart-Macadam. P. 1985. Porotic Hyperostosis: Representative of a childhood condition. American Journal ofPhysical Anthropologv 66: 391-398.

Scott. E. C. 1979. Dental wear scoring technique. American Journal ofPhysical A.nthropologv 51: 213-218.

Stuart-Macadam.P. 1987 a. Porotic Hyperostosis: new evidence to support the anemia theory . American Journal of Ph_vsical Anthropologv 74: 521-526.

Scott. E. 1997. Introduction: On the incompleteness of archaeological narratives. In Invisible People and Processes: Writing Gender and Childhood into European Archaeologv. eds. J. Moore and E. Scott. pp. 1-12. London: Leicester University Press.

Stuart-Macadam.P. 1987 b. A radiographic study of Porotic Hyperostosis. .American Journal of Physical A.nthropologv 74: 511-520. Stuart-Macadam, P. 1989 a. Nutritional deficiency diseases: a survey of scurvy. rickets. and iron­ deficiency anemia. In Reconstruction of L�fe from

Shanks.M and Tilley. C. 1982. Ideology . symbolic power and ritual communication: a reinterpretation of

168

B IBL IOGRAPHY

t h e S ke le ton , e d s . M . Y . I s 9an a nd K . A . R . K ennedy , p p . 2 01-222 . N ew Y o rk : A lan R .L i s s .

T raka sopou lou -Sa lak idou , E . 1 991 . A vaax og n i c r rov A r t F tävv r i N u c ti m T oA rchaeo log iko E rgo s t in Makedon ia k a i T hrak i2 : 3 47 -355 .

S tu ar t -Macadam , P . 1 989 b . P o ro t ic H ype ro s to s i s : r e la t ion sh ip b e tween o rb i ta la nd v au l t l e s ion s . Amer ican J ourna lo fP hy s ica l A n thropo log y8 0 : 1 87 -193 .

T r ian taphy l lou . S . 1 993 . A vagrayn i T oö , una g • 1 993 : A v8pwro )o ) ' zK , 1 eram i ra w 07Ced iz t liabl ' K araio ir c ov r i N n po ro-z o p l i * r e g o i i. T he s sa lon ik i : U npub l ished m anu sc r ip to nf i l eo fT oumba e xcava t ion .

S tuar t -Macadam , P . 1 992 a . A nem ia i n p as t h uman p opu la t ion s . I n D ie t , D emog raphy , a nd D is ea s e : C hang ing P er spec t ives o nA nem ia . e d s . P . S tua r t Macadam a nd S .K en t , p p . 1 5 1170 . N ew Y o rk : A ld ine d eG ryu te rP re s s .

T r ian taphy l lou . S . 1 994 . A nE ar ly I r on Ag ec eme t ery i n P ier ia , N or thern G r eece : w ha td o t h e b ones t e l l u s? S he f i e ld : U npub l ished MSc t h es is .

S t uar t - Macadam , P . 1 992 b . P o ro t ic H ype ro s to s i s : an ew p e r spec t ive . Amer ican J ourna lo fP hy s ica l . 1 n thropo logy 8 7 : 3 9 -47 .

T r ian taphy l lou .

1 996 . 0 01-60 / 107 1K 1 *ra m Z-COV K ara 2 .o i l r i . 0 1 ' 0&;r1 N A pxovr iK0 1 5 TO W a va c n ca9 c iw ' 9 3 K a i ' 9 4 . T he s sa lon ik i : U npub l ished m anu sc r ip t o n f i l e o f A rchond iko e xcava t ion .

S t uar t -Macadam ,P . 1 998 . I r on d ef ic iency a nem ia : e xp lo r ing t h ed if e r ence . I nS ex a nd G end er i nP a laeopa tho log ica lP er spec t ive . e d s . A .L . G raue ra nd P .S tuar t -Macadam , p p . 4 5 -63 .

T r ian taphy l lou . S . 1 997 a . N eol tO l i c i i u gh

A i tots aga ta t rç o c r reokoyu c iN güaa rK . T hes sa lon ikeon P o l ls 2 : 1 4 17 .

S t uar t -Macadam . P .a nd D e t tv vy le r . K . 1 995 . B reas t f eed ing : B iocu l tura l App roaches . N ew Y o rk :

Tr tan taphy l lou , S . 1 997 b . A ppend ix . O inzokor i c i l

A ld ine d eG ryu te rP re s s .

N eok tO ixoü o u c tago i ) Maxpuy täkou . f l p dtcç e r rqu i c re ig . T o. 4 rchaeo log iko E rgo s t in A l akedon ia k a i T hrak i 1 0A : 2 73 -275 .

S u the r land . L .D . a nd S uchey , J .M . 1 991 . U se o ft h e v en t ra la r ci np ub ic s ex d e te rm ina t ion . J ourna l( ? f F or ens ic S c ience 3 6 : 5 01-511 .

T r ian taphy l lou . S . 1 998 a . P reh is tor ic c eme te ry p opu la t ion sf r om N o r the rn G r eece : ab rea th o fl i f e f o r t h e s ke le ta l r ema in s . I n C eme t ery a nd S oc ie ty i nt h e A eg ean B ronze A ge , e d . K . B ran igan , p p . 1 50 164 . S hef f ie ld : S heff ie ld A cadem ic P re s s , S hef f ie ld S t ud ie si nA egean A rchaeo logy 1 .

S wä rd s ted t . T . 1 966 . Odon to log ica lA spec t so f aMed ieva l P opu la t ion i nt h eP rov ince o fJäm t landll id S wed en . S tockho lm : T id en -Ba rnängen T r ycke r ie r . T a in te r , J . 1 978 . Mor tuar yp rac t ice sa nd t h e s t udy o f p r eh is to r ic s oc ia l s y s tem s . Ad vances i n A r chaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heor y 1 : 1 05 141 .

T r ian taphy l lou , S . 1 998 b . A nE a r ly I r on A ge c eme tery i n P i e r ia , N or the rn G r eece : wha td ot h eb one st e l l u s? A nnua lo ft h eB r i t ish S choo la tA thens 9 3 : 3 53-

T aube r . H . 1 981 . 1 3C e v idence f o r d i e tar y h ab i t s o f p r eh is to r ic m an i n D enma rk . N a ture 2 92 : 32 33 .

3 64 . T r ian taphy l lou . S . 1 999 . P r eh is to r ic Mak r ig ia lo s : AS t or y f r om t h e F ragmen t s . I n N eo l i th ic S oc ie ty i n G r eece , e d . P .H a ls tead . p p . 1 28 135 . S he f i e ld : S he f i e ld A cadem ic P re s s .

T ay le s . N . 1 996 . Anem ia . g ene t ic d i sea se sa nd m a la r ia i n p r eh is to r ic m a in land S ou thea s tA s ia . Amer ican J ourna lo fP hy s ica lA n thropo logy 1 01 : 1 -27 . 1 984 .

R i tua l , p owe r a nd i d eo logy :

WIÖ T ip '

a vaax c u pA T IN A .E .O saaalov i i c rK :

C amb r idge : C ambr idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s .

T ho rpe . I . J .

S .

0 7CF2 .817K6 )1 ,

a

r e con s truc t ion o f E ar l ie r N eo l i th ic r i tua ls i n We s sex . I nN eo l i th ic S tud ies . AR ev iew o fS ome

T r ingham , R .a nd K r s t ic . D . e d s . 1 990 . S e l evac . L o s A nge le s : UCLA . I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy . T r ive r s , R . L .a nd W i l la rd , D . E . 1 973 . N a tu ra l s e lec t ion o fp a ren ta l a b i l i ty t ov a ry t h e s e x r a t io o fo f spr ing . S c ience 1 79 : 9 0 -92 .

C ur ren t R esearch , e d s . R . B rad ley a nd J . G a rd ine r , p p . 4 1-60 . O x f o rd : B r i t i sh A r chaeo log ica lR epo r ts . B r i t i sh S e r ie s 1 33 .

T u rke l . S .J . 1 989 . C ong en i ta l a bno rma l i t ie si ns ke le ta l p opu la t ion s . I nR econs t ruc t ion o fL if ef rom t h e S ke le ton , e d s . M . Y . I s 9an a nd K . A . R .

T i l ley , C . 1 994 . AP henomeno logy o fL and scape : P laces , P a ths a nd Monumen t s . O xf o rd : B e rg .

K ennedy . p p .109 -127 . N ew Y o rk : A lan R .L i s s .

1 69

B IBL IOGRAPHY

h uman c o l lagen a s am ea su r eo fp r eh i s to r ic d i e t i n w ood land N o r th Ame r ica . N a tu r e2 76 : 8 15 8 16 .

T u rne r , C .G . I 1 979 . D en ta la n th ropo log ica l i n d ica t ion s o fa g r icu l tu r ea mong t h eJ omon p eop le o fc en t r a l J apan : X . P eop l ing o ft h eP ac if i c . Amer ican J ourna l o fP hy s ica lA n thropo logy 5 1 : 6 19 -636 .

V oge l , J .C .a nd v an d e r Me rwe . N . J . 1 977 . I s o top ic e v idence f o re a r ly m a ize c u l t iva t ion i nN ew Y o rk S t a te . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 2 : 2 38 -242 .

T u rne r , C .G . a nd C ad ien , J .D . 1 969 . D en ta lc h ipp ing i n A leu t s ,E sk imo sa nd I nd ian s . Amer ican J ourna lo f P hy s ica l .An thropo logy 3 1 : 3 03 -310 .

V ou tsak i , S . 1 998 . Mo r tua r y e v idence , s ymbo l ic m ean ing a nd s o c ia l c hange : A c ompa r i son b e tw e en Me s s en ia a nd t h e A rgo l id i n t h e My c en aean P e r iod . I n c eme t ery a nd S oc ie ty i n t h e A eg ean B ronz e A g e , e d . K . B ran igan . p p . 4 1 -58 . S h ef f i e ld : S hef f i e ld A cadem ic P r e s s , S h ef f i e ld S t ud ie si nA eg ean A r chaeo log y 1 .

T u rne r . C .G . , Ia nd Machado , L .M . C . 1 983 . An ew d en ta lw ea rp a t ter na nd e v idence f o rh igh c a rbohyd ra te c on sump t ion i n aB r az i l ian A r cha ic s k e le ta lp opu la t ion . Ame r ican J ourna lo fP hy s ica l A n thropo logy 6 1 : 1 25 130 . U b e lak e r , D . H . 1 984 . P r eh is to r ic h uman b i o logy o f E cuado r : p o s s ib le t empo r a l t r end sa nd c u l tu ra l c o r r e la t ion s . I nP a laeopa tho logv a tt h eO r ig ins o f A g r icu l tur e . e d s . M . N . C ohen a nd G . J . Anne lago s , p p . 4 9 1-5 13 . O r lando : A cad em ic P re s s .

Wa ld ron ,T . 1 987 . T he r e la t ive s u r v iva lo ft h eh um an s k e le ton : i mp l ica t ion sf o rp a laeopa tho logy . I n D ea th , D ecay a nd R econs t ruc t ion : A pp roa che st o A r cha eo logy a nd F or ens ic S c ience , e d s . A . B odd ing ton , A . N . G a r land a nd R . C .J anaw ay . p p . 5-64 . Manch e s te r : Man che s te rU n ive r s i t yP r e s s .

U be lak e r . D . H . 1 978 . H uman S k e l e ta lR ema ins : E xcava t ion ,A na ly s is , I n t erp re ta t ion . Wa sh ing ton : T a raxacum .

W a ld ron ,T . 1 994 . C oun t ing t h eD ead : T he E p id em io log y o fS k e le ta lP opu la t ions . C h ich e s t e r : J ohn W i ley &S on s .

U be lak e r .D . H . ,P hen ic e ,T .W . a nd B a s s , W . M . 1 969 . A r t if ic ia li n te rp rox ima lg roov ing o ft h et e e th i n Ame r ican I nd ian s . Amer ican J ourna lo fP hy s ica l A n thropo logy 3 0 : 1 45 150 .

Wa lke r . P .L . 1 995 . P rob lem s o fp r e s e rv a t ion a nd s e x i sm i ns e x ing : S ome l e s son sf r om h i s to r ica l c o l l e c t ion s f o r p a la eodemog raphe r s . I n G rav e R ef l ec t ions : P o r t ray ing t h eP a s tt h rough C eme t ery S t ud ie s , e d s . S . R . S aunde r s a nd A . H e r r ing .p p . 3 1 -47 . T o ron to : C anad ian S cho la r s ' P re s s .

v an G ennep . A . 1 960 . T he R i t es o fP a s sag e . C h icago : U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago P r e s s . v an G e r ven . D . P .a nd Anne lago s , G . J . 1 983 . F a r ewe l lt o p a leodemog raphy ? R umo r so fi t sd ea th h ave b een g r ea t ly e xagge ra ted . J ourna lo fH uman E vo lu t ion 1 2 : 3 53 -360 .

Wa lke r , P .L . a nd D e N i ro . M . J . 1 986 . S t ab le n i t rogen a nd c a rbon i s o top e r a t io s i n b on e c o l lag en a s i n d ic e s o f p r eh i s to r ic d i e ta r y d epend en c e o n m a r ine a nd t e r r e s t r ia l r e sou r ce s i n s o u th e rn C a l if o rn ia . Amer ican J ourna l o f P hy s ica l A n thropo logy 7 1 : 5 1 -6 1 .

v an K l inken , G . J . ,R icha rd s .M . P .a nd H edg e s .R .E .M . i np r e s s . A no ve rv iew o fc au se sf o rs t ab le i s o top ic v a r ia t ion si np a s tE u ropean h uman p opu la i ton s : e nv i ronmen ta l , e cophy s io log ica la nd c u lu t r a l e f ec t s . I nB iochem ica lA pp roaches t o P a laeod ie ta ry A na ly s is i nA rcha eo logy . e d s . S .H . Amb ro s ea nd M . A .K a tz enbe rg . P l enum P ub l i sh ing C o .

Wa lke r ,P .L .a nd E r land son , J .M . 1 986 . D en ta l e v id en c e f o rp r eh i s to r ic d i e tar yc hange o nt h eN or the rn C hanne l I s land s . C a l if o rn ia . Ame r ican An t iqu i ty 5 1 : 3 75 -383 . Wa lke r . P .L .a nd H ew le t t . B . S . 1 990 . D en ta l h ea l th a nd s o c ia l s t a tu sa mong C en t ra lA f r ic an f o r ag e r sa nd f a rme r s . Amer ican A n thropo log i s t9 2 : 3 82 398 .

v an d e r Me rw e ,N . J . 1 982 . C arbon i s o top e s . p ho to syn the s i sa nd a r cha eo logy . Amer ican S c ien t is t7 0 : 5 96 -606 .

Wa lke r , P .L .a nd H o l l imon . S .E . 1 989 . C hange si n o s teoar th r i t i sa s so c ia ted w i th t h ed ev e lopm en to fa m a r i t im ee conomy a mong S ou the rn C a l if o rn ia I n d ian s . I n t erna t iona lJ ourna lo fAn thropo logy 4 , 3 : 1 7 1183 .

v an d e r Me rw e , N . J .R oo seve l t . A . C . . a nd V oge l . J .C . l 9 8 1 . I s o top ic e v idence f o rp r eh i s to r ic s ub s is tence c hange a tP anama , V enezue la . N a tur e2 92 : 5 36 5 38 . v an d e r Me rw e , N . J .a nd V oge l . J .C . 1 978 .

1 3Cc on ten t

Wa lke r ,P .L . . J ohn son . J .R . a nd L amb er t . P .M . 1 9 88 .Age a nd s e x b i a se s i n t h e p r e s e r va t ion o f h uman s k e le ta lr ema in s . Amer ican J ourna lo fP hy s ica l

o f

1 70

B IBLIOGRAPHY

A n thropo logy 7 6 : 1 83 188 .

W ing , E . S .a nd B rown . A . B . 1 979 . P a laeonu t r i t ion : Me thod a nd T heory i nP reh is tor ic F oodway s . N ew Y e rk : A cadem ic P r e s s .

Wa rd le . K . 1 980 . E xcava t ion sa tA s s iro s 1 975 -9 . A nnua l o ft h eB r i t ish S choo la tA thens 7 5 : 2 29 -265 .

W in t robe , M . 1 974 . C l in ica lH ema to logy . P h i lade lph ia : L ea & F eb ige r .

Wa rd le , K . 1 983 . A s s i ro s : A Macedon ian S e t t lemen to f t h eL a te B ronze a nd E a r ly I r on A ge . . A rchaea Make c lon ia 3 : 2 91-305 .

Wood . J .W . . M i lne r . G . R . . H a rpend ing . H . C . a nd We i s s , K . M . 1 992 . T he O s teo log ica l P ar adox : p rob lem s o fi n f e r r ing p r eh i s to r ic h ea l th f r om s ke le ta l s amp le s . C ur r en tA n thropo logy 3 3 , 4 : 3 43 -58 .

Wa rd le , K . 1 987 . E xcava t ion sa tA s s iro sT oumba 1 986 , A P r e l im ina ry R epo r t . A nnua lo ft h eB r i t ish S choo l a tA thens 8 2 : 3 13-329 .

Wr igh t . J .C . 1 987 . D ea th a nd p owe ra t Mycenae . I n T hana tos : l e sc ou tumesf un &a ir es e nE g g 'e ä I' a ge d uB ronze , e d . R .L af ineu r , p p . 1 71-184 .

Wa rd le , K . 1 988 . E xcava t ion sa tA s s iro sT oumba 1 987 , A P r e l im ina ry R epo r t . A nnua lo ft h eB r i t ish S choo l a tA thens 8 3 : 3 75 -387 .

L iege : U n ive r s i te d eL iege . A egaeum 1 .

Wa rd le . K . 1 989 . E xcava t ion sa tA s s iro sT oumba 1 988 , A

X i ro t ir is . N . I . 1 98 1 . A n th ropo log ie d e s Ä neo l i th ikum s u nd

P r e l im inar yR epo r t . A nnua lo ft h eB r i t ish S choo l a tA thens 8 4 : 4 47 -463 .

d e rF rüb ronzeze i t i nM i t te l -u nd S üdo s teu ropa . S loyeska A rchaeo log ia 2 9 ( 1 ) : 2 35 -241 .

Wa rd le . K . 1 993 . Mycenaean t r ade a nd i n f luence i n N o r ther nG reece . I nP o t t ery a sE v id ence f or T rad e i n t h e A egean B ronze A ge . P roceed ing s o f t h e T r ace a nd B legen I n terna t iona lC onf er ence h e ld a t t h e Amer ican S choo l o f C la s s ica l S t ud ies a t A thens , A thens , D ecember 2 3 , 1 989 , e d s . C . Z e rne r , P . Z e rne r a nd J .W inde r . p p . 17 -141 . Am s te rdam : J .C . G ieban ,P ub l ishe r .

X i ro t ir is . N . I . 1 986 . D ie E thnogene se d e rG re ichen a u s d e r S i ch td e rA n th ropo log ie . I nE thnogenese e uropä ischeri f l er : a us d er S i ch td er A n thropo log ie u nd I ' or - u nc l eF rühgesch ich te . e d s . W . B e rnha rd a nd A . K and le r -Pa ls son , p p . 3 9 -53 . S t u t tga r t : G u s tav F i sche r . Y annou l i , E . 1 990 . HF l po ia topu c i ) i r a v iZa t rK O tp i , t rN B . Ma k-e don ika 1 6 : 2 62 -278 .

Ward le . K . 1 997 a . C hange o rc on t inu i ty : A s s i ro sT oumba a tt h et r an s i t ion f r om B ronze t oI r on A ge . T o A rchaeo log iko E rgo s t in Makedon ia k a i T hrak i 1 0A : 4 43-460 .

Y annou l i , E . 1 994 . A spec t so fAn ima l U se i nP reh is tor ic Macedon ia , N or thern G reece . C amb r idge : U npub l ished P hD t h e s i s .

Ward le , K . 1 997 b . T he P reh is tory o fN or the rn G r eece : A

y 'Edynak . G . 1 978 . C u l tu r e , d i e t . a nd d en ta l r educ t ion i n Me so l i th ic f o rage r -f i she r so fY ugo s lav ia . C ur ren t A n thropo logy 1 9 : 6 16 -618 .

G eog raph ica lP e r spec t iv ef r om t h eI on ian S ea t o t h eD rama P la in . A ph ieroma s t on N . G . L . H ammond : 5 09 -541 . .

y 'Edynak . G . 1 989 . Y ugo s lav Me so l i th ic d en ta l r educ t ion . Amer ican J ourna lo fP hy s ica lA n thropo log y7 8 : 1 7 -36 .

Wa r ren , P .a nd H ankey . V . 1 989 . A eg ean B ronz eA ge C hrono logy . B r i s to l : B r is to l C la s s ica lP r e s s . We i s s , K . M . 1 972 . On t h e s y s tema t ic b i a si ns ke le ta l s e x ing . Amer ican J ourna lo fP hy s ica l A n thropo logy 3 7 : 2 39 -250 .

y 'Edynak , G . a nd F l e i sch . S . 1 983 . M ic roevo lu t ion a nd b i o log ica la dap tab i l i ty i nt h et r an s i t ion f r om f ood c o l lec t ing t of o od -p roduc ing i nt h eI r on G a te so f Y ugo s lav ia . J ourna lo fH uman E vo lu t ion 1 2 : 2 79 2 96 .

We l ls , B . 1 990 . D ea th a tD end ra . On m or tuar yp rac t ice s i n aMycenaean c ommun i ty . I nC e lebra t ions o f D ea th a nd D iv in i ty i nt h eB ronz eA ge A rgo l id , e d s . R .H ägg a nd G . C . N o rdqu is t , p p . 1 25 140 . S t ockho lm : S wed ish I n s t i tu te a tA then s .

Z io ta , H . 1 996 a . K i tp ty t i A i t tvq . e r ua tx6 7 r Ep tß d t ilov K u l

W i lk ie , N . C . 1 993 . T he G revena P ro jec t . A rchaea Mak ed on ia 5 : 1 747 -1755 .

Z io ta , H . 1 996 b . T o a pxa tokoyu c6 p o l fo a te A ve ) Ma i c s8ov ia K at ht o tt o; 1 996 . K ozan i :

a vOp c ie tv r i ö paatip t en tra K ep i n po ic top ia . D i t ikomakedon ika G ramma ta Z : 2 86 -303 .

U npub l i shed m anu sc r ip t . W i l l is . K . J . 1 994 . T he v ege ta t iona l h i s to ry o ft h eB a lkan s . Q ua ternary S c ience R ev iew s 1 3 : 7 69 -788 .

Z io ta , H . 1 998 a . l i po ia top txö v e t cpo ta c ps io c u r ly K oa d t8a KKäv r ig . M ta n p c i r ri a va i mu c f ln apoua iao-r iT r ig

1 7 1

B IBLIOGRAPHY

Makedon ia k a i T hrak i 1 2 : 5 03 -516 .

a vaax cpu c iK f z • euva ( 1995 -1996 ) . TOMOS s t in J % I n i ,n i Ma ir is S igan idou : 8 1-102 .

Z io ta . H . a nd H ondroy iann i - Me tok i . A . 1 997 . Ak t d uquov 1 993 . r I po ictopu c i l" Epeuva . T oA rchaeo log iko

Z io ta . H . 1 998 b . K i tp tv r i A igvi 1 995 . M E ;e peu v r itu ct i s paac r ip tör r ita. T oA rchaeo log iko E rgo s t in Makedon ia k a i T hrak i 9 : 4 7 -58 .

E rgo s t in Makedon ia k a i T hrak i 7 : 3-41 . Z io ta . H . , K a log irou , A . . F o t iad is . M . a nd H ond roy iann i , A .

Z io ta , H . 1 998 c . K itp tv r i A igy r i 1 998 . Ncç e peuve ru c4 ö pa c y r r ip t e r r rge. T oA rchaeo log iko E rgo s t i l l

1 993 . K ixp tvi A i jw r i . T ea mpa x pöv ta 4 : 1zuv iN . T oA rchaeo log iko E rgo s t i l l Makedon ia k a i T hrak i 4 : 9 3-104 .

1 72