1 & 2 Timothy Titus: Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary 1573125520, 9781573125529

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1 & 2 TimothyTitus

Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary: 1 & 2 Timothy-Titus Publication Staff President & CEO Cecil P. Staton Publisher & Executive Vice President Lex Horton Vice President, Production Keith Gammons Book Editor Leslie Andres Graphic Designers Daniel Emerson Dave Jones Assistant Editors Rachel Stancil Kelley F. Land

Smyth & Helwys Publishing, Inc. 6316 Peake Road Macon, Georgia 31210-3960 1-800-747-3016 © 2010 by Smyth & Helwys Publishing All rights reserved. ISBN 978-1-57312-808-7

SMYTH & HELWYS BIBLE COMMENTARY

1 & 2 TimothyTitus W. Hulitt Gloer

PROJECT EDITOR R. SCOTT NASH Mercer University Macon, Georgia

OLD TESTAMENT GENERAL EDITOR SAMUEL E. BALENTINE Union Presbyterian Seminary Richmond, Virginia AREA OLD TESTAMENT EDITORS MARK E. BIDDLE Baptist Theological Seminary at Richmond, Virginia KANDY QUEEN-SUTHERLAND Stetson University Deland, Florida PAUL REDDITT Georgetown College Georgetown, Kentucky Baptist Seminary of Kentucky Lexington, Kentucky

NEW TESTAMENT GENERAL EDITOR R. ALAN CULPEPPER McAfee School of Theology Mercer University Atlanta, Georgia AREA NEW TESTAMENT EDITORS R. SCOTT NASH Mercer University Macon, Georgia RICHARD B. VINSON Salem College Winston-Salem, North Carolina

Contents ix

ABBREVIATIONS AUTHOR’S PREFACE

xiii

SERIES PREFACE

xvii xxi

HOW TO USE THIS COMMENTARY INTRODUCTION TO THE PASTORAL EPISTLES

1 15

OUTLINES OF THE PASTORAL EPISTLES

Titus Epistolary Salutation, 1:1-4

19

Titus’s Charge, 1:5-9

33

The Problems Titus Faces, 1:10-16

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What Titus Must Teach, 2:1-10, 15

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The Nature of the Gospel, 2:11-14

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Further Exhortations and Encouragement, 2:15–3:3

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Further Theological Justification, 3:4-8a

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A Rhetorical Epilogue, 3:8b-11

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Final Instructions and Benediction, 3:12-15

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1 Timothy Epistolary Salutation, 1:1-2

101

Opening Exhortation, 1:3-11

107

Thanksgiving/Exordium, 1:12-17

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Why Timothy Must Teach These Things, 1:18-20

131

Instructions for the Household of God, 2:1–3:13

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Why Paul Writes: A Purpose Statement and Theological Foundation, 3:14-16

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The Charge to Timothy, 4:1-16

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Faithfully Pastoring Different Groups in the Household of Faith, 5:1–6:2

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The Charge Continued, 6:3-10

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The Good Fight, 6:11-16

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A Brief Refrain, 6:17-19

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The Final Charge and Benediction, 6:20-21

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2 Timothy Greetings and Prayers, 1:1-7

217

Encouragement and Challenge, 1:8-14

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An Autobiographical Note, 1:15-18

239

Exhortation and Illustration, 2:1-7

243

The Centrality of Jesus Christ, 2:8-13

249

Timothy’s Charge and the Household of Faith, 2:14-26

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Warnings about the Future/Present, 3:1-9

269

Paul’s Example and the Promise to the Faithful, 3:10-13

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The Nature and Purpose of Sacred Scripture, 3:14-17

287

A Final Charge in These Times, 4:1-5

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The Pauline Model, 4:6-8

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Personal Instructions, 4:9-15

309

Final Encouragement, Greetings, and Benediction, 4:16-22

317

BIBLIOGRAPHY

325

INDEX OF MODERN AUTHORS

335

INDEX OF SIDEBARS AND ILLUSTRATIONS

337

INDEX OF SCRIPTURES

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INDEX OF TOPICS

349

Dedication

Dedicated with deepest gratitude and abiding respect to Dr. Peter Rhea Jones and Dr. George R. Beasley-Murray, who first nurtured me in the ways of careful New Testament scholarship . . . my models, mentors, colleagues, and friends. As always, I am indebted to my loving wife, Sheila. Without her there could be no work!




ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THIS COMMENTARY Books of the Old Testament, Apocrypha, and New Testament are generally abbreviated in the Sidebars, parenthetical references, and notes according to the following system. The Old Testament Genesis Exodus Leviticus Numbers Deuteronomy Joshua Judges Ruth 1–2 Samuel 1–2 Kings 1–2 Chronicles Ezra Nehemiah Esther Job Psalm (Psalms) Proverbs Ecclesiastes or Qoheleth Song of Solomon or Song of Songs or Canticles Isaiah Jeremiah Lamentations Ezekiel Daniel Hosea Joel Amos Obadiah Jonah Micah

Gen Exod Lev Num Deut Josh Judg Ruth 1–2 Sam 1–2 Kgs 1–2 Chr Ezra Neh Esth Job Ps (Pss) Prov Eccl Qoh Song Song Cant Isa Jer Lam Ezek Dan Hos Joel Amos Obad Jonah Mic

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Abbreviations Nahum Habakkuk Zephaniah Haggai Zechariah Malachi

Nah Hab Zeph Hag Zech Mal

The Apocrypha 1–2 Esdras Tobit Judith Additions to Esther Wisdom of Solomon Ecclesiasticus or the Wisdom of Jesus Son of Sirach Baruch Epistle (or Letter) of Jeremiah Prayer of Azariah and the Song of the Three Daniel and Susanna Daniel, Bel, and the Dragon Prayer of Manasseh 1–4 Maccabees

1–2 Esdr Tob Jdt Add Esth Wis Sir Bar Ep Jer Pr Azar Sus Bel Pr Man 1–4 Macc

The New Testament Matthew Mark Luke John Acts Romans 1–2 Corinthians Galatians Ephesians Philippians Colossians 1–2 Thessalonians 1–2 Timothy Titus Philemon Hebrews James 1–2 Peter 1–2–3 John Jude Revelation

Matt Mark Luke John Acts Rom 1–2 Cor Gal Eph Phil Col 1–2 Thess 1–2 Tim Titus Phlm Heb Jas 1–2 Pet 1–2–3 John Jude Rev

Abbreviations Other commonly used abbreviations include: AD

BC

C. c. cf. ch. chs. d. ed. eds. e.g. et al. f./ff. gen. ed. Gk. Heb. ibid. i.e. LCL lit. n.d. rev. and exp. ed. sg. trans. vol(s). v. vv.

Anno Domini (“in the year of the Lord”) (also commonly referred to as CE = the Common Era) Before Christ (also commonly referred to as BCE = Before the Common Era) century circa (around “that time”) confer (compare) chapter chapters died edition or edited by or editor editors exempli gratia (for example) et alii (and others) and the following one(s) general editor Greek Hebrew ibidem (in the same place) id est (that is) Loeb Classical Library literally no date revised and expanded edition singular translated by or translator(s) volume(s) verse verses

Selected additional written works cited by abbreviations include the following. A complete listing of abbreviations can be referenced in The SBL Handbook of Style (Peabody MA: Hendrickson, 1999): AB ABD ACCS ANF ANTC BA BAGD

Anchor Bible Anchor Bible Dictionary Ancient Christian Commentary on Scripture Ante-Nicene Fathers Abingdon New Testament Commentaries Biblical Archaeologist W. Bauer, W. F. Arndt, F. W. Gingrich, and F. W. Danker, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament (2d ed.)

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Abbreviations BAR BDAG

BDF CBQ HTR HUCA ICC IDB JBL JSJ JSNT JSOT KJV LXX MDB MM MT NASB NEB NICNT NIV NovT NRSV NTS OGIS OTL PG PL RevExp RSV SBLSP SP TDNT TLNT TEV WBC

Biblical Archaeology Review W. Bauer, W. F. Arndt, F. W. Gingrich, and F. W. Danker, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament (3rd ed.) F. Blass, A. Debrunner, and R. W. Funk, A Greek Grammar of the New Testament Catholic Biblical Quarterly Harvard Theological Review Hebrew Union College Annual International Critical Commentary Interpreters Dictionary of the Bible Journal of Biblical Literature Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Periods Journal for the Study of the New Testament Journal for the Study of the Old Testament King James Version Septuagint = Greek Translation of Hebrew Bible Mercer Dictionary of the Bible J. H. Moulton and G. Milligan, The Vocabulary of the Greek New Testament Masoretic Text New American Standard Bible New English Bible New International Commentary on the New Testament New International Version Novum Testamentum New Revised Standard Version New Testament Studies Orientis graeci inscriptiones selectae Old Testament Library Migne, J.-P. (ed.), Patrologia Graeca (Paris: J.-P. Migne) Migne, J.-P. (ed.), Patrologia Latina (Paris: J.-P. Migne) Review and Expositor Revised Standard Version Society of Biblical Literature Seminar Papers Sacra pagina Theological Dictionary of the New Testament Theological Lexicon of the New Testament Today’s English Version Word Biblical Commentary

Author’s Preface While nine of the thirteen letters in the New Testament traditionally attributed to Paul are addressed to a church or churches, four are addressed to individuals: two are addressed to Timothy, one to Titus, and one to Philemon. This commentary aims to treat the letters to Timothy and Titus. Why should we study these letters today? What possible value could three pieces of seemingly private correspondence written 2,000 years ago have for us? What possible commonalities would enable twenty-first-century people to relate to these first-century letters? Consider the following commonalities. First, the original recipients lived in the world of the Roman Empire, an empire whose power and might were unequaled. Indeed, “all roads led to Rome,” the singular superpower of the day. Second, the original recipients lived in a world of rich and poor where less than 10 percent of the world’s population controlled the world’s wealth. The economy of the empire was structured to keep the rich rich and the poor poor, and anything that did not go to the rich went to support the “military-industrial complex” necessary to sustain the national security of the empire. Third, the original readers lived in a world populated with religions of every possible size and shape and encountered belief systems to suit almost everyone’s taste, with new ones cropping all the time. There was an almost insatiable longing for unlocking the mysteries of the spiritual so that one might harness its powers for self-fulfillment and self-gratification. At the same time, a civil religion had developed that wed religion and politics so that “piety” was understood as doing one’s civic duty and the failure to do so was deemed as treason. It was “Rome’s way or the highway,” and the “highway” often meant slavery and/or even death! Fourth, the original recipients lived in a world where sport was king. Sporting events drew huge crowds, and the superstars of sport were the superheroes of the culture. Does any of this sound familiar? Why should we study three “private” letters from people in a world like that? Let me offer some initial suggestions.

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First, wouldn’t it be great to be able to read a letter from a religious leader to two of his most trusted coworkers who lived in a world like that? Imagine what we might learn about the nature of their faith and the problems they struggled with as they tried to be faithful in such times. These three letters offer us just such an opportunity. Second, at the outset, it is important to recognize that though these letters are addressed to individuals and, indeed, personal, they are not merely private letters. There is evidence in each letter that the writer intended them to be read to the church or churches where the individuals addressed were at work. Perhaps this is a major reason that the church in its collective wisdom chose to include them all in the canon of authoritative Scripture. They are more than mere letters to individuals; they are letters to the church. Third, these three letters give us an opportunity to glimpse what the most significant church leader of his generation considered most important in establishing and sustaining the fledgling churches of his day. Surely that should interest both church planters and those seeking to sustain existing congregations today. Fourth, a fundamental question for the church in any age and culture is this: “How do we relate to the culture?” Richard Niebuhr wrote one of the most influential books of the twentieth century to try to assess the various approaches taken over the last 2,000 years. His Christ and Culture has been required reading for generations of seminarians.1 Still the question looms, and these three letters show us how early Christians attempted to answer it. Fifth, if, as they claim, these letters are from Paul, they reveal more information about Paul’s activities and ministry than many have allowed. If Paul did not write them, as many argue, they reveal how a disciple of Paul thought his teacher would respond to the issues at hand. Either way, the insights are of great interest. Sixth, the simple fact is that these letters are an accepted part of the canon of the church. As such, whoever wrote them and whenever they were written, they were canonized as authoritative Scripture. They are not deutero-canonical, secondhand scripture, though they are often treated that way. They may not say enough about some things to satisfy us, or they may say things that disturb us, but that is not the issue. They say what they say, and the church in all its collective wisdom included them for our edification. This volume seeks to help us answer the question, “Why?”

Author's Preface

I invite you to join me in an exciting adventure of discovery, reading these letters as if for the first time and seeking the insights they offer about the nature of our faith and its implication for our practice. We begin with Titus and go on to 1 Timothy and 2 Timothy. Though this is not their canonical order, we must remember that there is nothing chronological about the canonical order. I encourage you to approach the letters in a different order with me; perhaps you will be surprised by the results of our study. Biblical citations follow the New Revised Standard Version. Citations of the Old Testament Apocrypha are taken from The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, edited by James H. Charlesworth (2 vols.; Garden City NY: Doubleday, 1983–1985). Citations of the Acts of Paul and other early Christian apocryphal writings are taken from New Testament Apocrypha, vol. 2, edited by W. Schneemelcher, translated by R. McL. Wilson (London: Lutterworth; Philadelphia: Westminster, 1965). Citations of classical authors are taken from editions of the Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press). Citations from the early church fathers are taken from Patralogia Graeca and Patralogia Latina, edited by J.-P. Migne. W. Hulitt Gloer Spring 2010

Note 1. Richard Niebuhr, Christ and Culture (New York: Harper & Row, 1956). See, more recently, Craig Carter, Rethinking Christ and Culture (Grand Rapids: Brazos, 2007) and D. A. Carson, Christ and Culture Revisited (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2008).

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SERIES PREFACE The Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary is a visually stimulating and user-friendly series that is as close to multimedia in print as possible. Written by accomplished scholars with all students of Scripture in mind, the primary goal of the Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary is to make available serious, credible biblical scholarship in an accessible and less intimidating format. Far too many Bible commentaries fall short of bridging the gap between the insights of biblical scholars and the needs of students of God’s written word. In an unprecedented way, the Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary brings insightful commentary to bear on the lives of contemporary Christians. Using a multimedia format, the volumes employ a stunning array of art, photographs, maps, and drawings to illustrate the truths of the Bible for a visual generation of believers. The Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary is built upon the idea that meaningful Bible study can occur when the insights of contemporary biblical scholars blend with sensitivity to the needs of lifelong students of Scripture. Some persons within local faith communities, however, struggle with potentially informative biblical scholarship for several reasons. Oftentimes, such scholarship is cast in technical language easily grasped by other scholars, but not by the general reader. For example, lengthy, technical discussions on every detail of a particular scriptural text can hinder the quest for a clear grasp of the whole. Also, the format for presenting scholarly insights has often been confusing to the general reader, rendering the work less than helpful. Unfortunately, responses to the hurdles of reading extensive commentaries have led some publishers to produce works for a general readership that merely skim the surface of the rich resources of biblical scholarship. This commentary series incorporates works of fine art in an accurate and scholarly manner, yet the format remains “user-friendly.” An important facet is the presentation and explanation of images of art, which interpret the biblical material or illustrate how the biblical material has been understood and interpreted in the past. A visual generation of believers deserves a commentary series that contains not only the all-important textual commentary on Scripture, but images, photographs, maps, works of fine art, and drawings that bring the text to life.

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The Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary makes serious, credible biblical scholarship more accessible to a wider audience. Writers and editors alike present information in ways that encourage readers to gain a better understanding of the Bible. The editorial board has worked to develop a format that is useful and usable, informative and pleasing to the eye. Our writers are reputable scholars who participate in the community of faith and sense a calling to communicate the results of their scholarship to their faith community. The Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary addresses Christians and the larger church. While both respect for and sensitivity to the needs and contributions of other faith communities are reflected in the work of the series authors, the authors speak primarily to Christians. Thus the reader can note a confessional tone throughout the volumes. No particular “confession of faith” guides the authors, and diverse perspectives are observed in the various volumes. Each writer, though, brings to the biblical text the best scholarly tools available and expresses the results of their studies in commentary and visuals that assist readers seeking a word from the Lord for the church. To accomplish this goal, writers in this series have drawn from numerous streams in the rich tradition of biblical interpretation. The basic focus is the biblical text itself, and considerable attention is given to the wording and structure of texts. Each particular text, however, is also considered in the light of the entire canon of Christian Scriptures. Beyond this, attention is given to the cultural context of the biblical writings. Information from archaeology, ancient history, geography, comparative literature, history of religions, politics, sociology, and even economics is used to illuminate the culture of the people who produced the Bible. In addition, the writers have drawn from the history of interpretation, not only as it is found in traditional commentary on the Bible but also in literature, theater, church history, and the visual arts. Finally, the Commentary on Scripture is joined with Connections to the world of the contemporary church. Here again, the writers draw on scholarship in many fields as well as relevant issues in the popular culture. This wealth of information might easily overwhelm a reader if not presented in a “user-friendly” format. Thus the heavier discussions of detail and the treatments of other helpful topics are presented in special-interest boxes, or Sidebars, clearly connected to the passages under discussion so as not to interrupt the flow of the basic interpretation. The result is a commentary on Scripture that

Series Preface

focuses on the theological significance of a text while also offering the reader a rich array of additional information related to the text and its interpretation. An accompanying CD-ROM offers powerful searching and research tools. The commentary text, Sidebars, and visuals are all reproduced on a CD that is fully indexed and searchable. Pairing a text version with a digital resource is a distinctive feature of the Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary. Combining credible biblical scholarship, user-friendly study features, and sensitivity to the needs of a visually oriented generation of believers creates a unique and unprecedented type of commentary series. With insight from many of today’s finest biblical scholars and a stunning visual format, it is our hope that the Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary will be a welcome addition to the personal libraries of all students of Scripture. The Editors

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HOW TO USE THIS COMMENTARY The Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary is written by accomplished biblical scholars with a wide array of readers in mind. Whether engaged in the study of Scripture in a church setting or in a college or seminary classroom, all students of the Bible will find a number of useful features throughout the commentary that are helpful for interpreting the Bible. Basic Design of the Volumes

Each volume features an Introduction to a particular book of the Bible, providing a brief guide to information that is necessary for reading and interpreting the text: the historical setting, literary design, and theological significance. Each Introduction also includes a comprehensive outline of the particular book under study. Each chapter of the commentary investigates the text according to logical divisions in a particular book of the Bible. Sometimes these divisions follow the traditional chapter segmentation, while at other times the textual units consist of sections of chapters or portions of more than one chapter. The divisions reflect the literary structure of a book and offer a guide for selecting passages that are useful in preaching and teaching. An accompanying CD-ROM offers powerful searching and research tools. The commentary text, Sidebars, and visuals are all reproduced on a CD that is fully indexed and searchable. Pairing a text version with a digital resource also allows unprecedented flexibility and freedom for the reader. Carry the text version to locations you most enjoy doing research while knowing that the CD offers a portable alternative for travel from the office, church, classroom, and your home. Commentary and Connections

As each chapter explores a textual unit, the discussion centers around two basic sections: Commentary and Connections. The analysis of a passage, including the details of its language, the history reflected in the text, and the literary forms found in the text, are the main focus

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of the Commentary section. The primary concern of the Commentary section is to explore the theological issues presented by the Scripture passage. Connections presents potential applications of the insights provided in the Commentary section. The Connections portion of each chapter considers what issues are relevant for teaching and suggests useful methods and resources. Connections also identifies themes suitable for sermon planning and suggests helpful approaches for preaching on the Scripture text. Sidebars

The Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary provides a unique hyperlink format that quickly guides the reader to additional insights. Since other more technical or supplementary information is vital for understanding a text and its implications, the volumes feature distinctive Sidebars, or special-interest boxes, that provide a wealth of information on such matters as: • Historical information (such as chronological charts, lists of kings or rulers, maps, descriptions of monetary systems, descriptions of special groups, descriptions of archaeological sites or geographical settings). • Graphic outlines of literary structure (including such items as poetry, chiasm, repetition, epistolary form). • Definition or brief discussions of technical or theological terms and issues. • Insightful quotations that are not integrated into the running text but are relevant to the passage under discussion. • Notes on the history of interpretation (Augustine on the Good Samaritan, Luther on James, Stendahl on Romans, etc.). • Line drawings, photographs, and other illustrations relevant for understanding the historical context or interpretive significance of the text. • Presentation and discussion of works of fine art that have interpreted a Scripture passage.

How to Use This Commentary

Each Sidebar is printed in color and is referenced at the appropriate place in the Commentary or Connections section with a color-coded title that directs the reader to the relevant Sidebar. In addition, helpful icons appear in the Sidebars, which provide the reader with visual cues to the type of material that is explained in each Sidebar. Throughout the commentary, these four distinct hyperlinks provide useful links in an easily recognizable design.

Alpha & Omega Language

This icon identifies the information as a language-based tool that offers further exploration of the Scripture selection. This could include syntactical information, word studies, popular or additional uses of the word(s) in question, additional contexts in which the term appears, and the history of the term’s translation. All nonEnglish terms are transliterated into the appropriate English characters.

Culture/Context

This icon introduces further comment on contextual or cultural details that shed light on the Scripture selection. Describing the place and time to which a Scripture passage refers is often vital to the task of biblical interpretation. Sidebar items introduced with this icon could include geographical, historical, political, social, topographical, or economic information. Here, the reader may find an excerpt of an ancient text or inscription that sheds light on the text. Or one may find a description of some element of ancient religion such as Baalism in Canaan or the Hero cult in the Mystery Religions of the Greco-Roman world.

Interpretation

Sidebars that appear under this icon serve a general interpretive function in terms of both historical and contemporary renderings. Under this heading, the reader might find a selection from classic or contemporary literature that illuminates the Scripture text or a significant quotation from a famous sermon that addresses the passage. Insights are drawn from various sources, including literature, worship, theater, church history, and sociology.

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Additional Resources Study

Here, the reader finds a convenient list of useful resources for further investigation of the selected Scripture text, including books, journals, websites, special collections, organizations, and societies. Specialized discussions of works not often associated with biblical studies may also appear here. Additional Features

Each volume also includes a basic Bibliography on the biblical book under study. Other bibliographies on selected issues are often included that point the reader to other helpful resources. Notes at the end of each chapter provide full documentation of sources used and contain additional discussions of related matters. Abbreviations used in each volume are explained in a list of abbreviations found after the Table of Contents. Readers of the Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary can regularly visit the Internet support site for news, information, updates, and enhancements to the series at www.helwys.com/commentary. Several thorough indexes enable the reader to locate information quickly. These indexes include: • An Index of Sidebars groups content from the special-interest boxes by category (maps, fine art, photographs, drawings, etc.). • An Index of Scriptures lists citations to particular biblical texts. • An Index of Topics lists alphabetically the major subjects, names, topics, and locations referenced or discussed in the volume. • An Index of Modern Authors organizes contemporary authors whose works are cited in the volume.

Introduction to the Pastoral Epistles Since the mid-1700s and the beginning of modern critical study of the New Testament, the letters of 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus have been grouped together and referred to as the “Pastoral Epistles” because they are addressed to individuals charged with the oversight of certain churches and, therefore, share common subject matter. Their common language, literary style, and the presence of certain passages that seem to exhibit a “non-Pauline” way of thinking (e.g., 1 Tim 2:8-15) differentiates them to some degree from the other Pauline letters and suggests to some that they may not be authentic to Paul himself. This rejection of the authenticity of the “Pastorals” (a conclusion that has that has become a canon of critical orthodoxy!) has led to their progressive marginalization in the scholarly world and subsequently in many churches. Indeed, for some they are all but deutero-canonical. Any responsible commentator must deal with these issues, and so we shall. However, such discussions make little sense apart from an understanding of the stories these documents tell. As noted above, the canonical order of these letters does not necessarily represent the order in which they were written. There is nothing chronological about the canonical order. It appears that books were ordered on the basis of length. For this “reading,” I join with a number of recent commentators in adopting the following order: Titus, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy.1 The Story They Tell

First and Second Timothy and Titus purport to give us an intriguing glimpse into events in the life of the Apostle Paul and the early church that is found nowhere else in the New Testament. As such, they offer the possibility of increasing our knowledge of the history of Paul’s life and ministry and the early history of Christianity in general. The Characters Titus. While not mentioned in Acts, according to Galatians and 2 Corinthians, Titus was one of Paul’s most trusted coworkers. Early

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Introduction

on, he accompanied Paul to Jerusalem as a “test case” to see whether the Jerusalem church would accept a Gentile as a legitimate convert without circumcision (Gal 2:1-3). Later he became Paul’s right hand in his dealings with the Corinthian church, delivering Paul’s “tearful” letter to them and returning to Paul with the news of their repentance and readiness to welcome his ministry once again (2 Cor 2:12-13; 7:5-7). It was to Titus that Paul entrusted the oversight of the Corinthian participation in the great collection for the Jerusalem church (2 Cor 8:6, 16-17, 23; 12:18; cf. 1 Cor 16:1-3; Rom 15:22-29). Again and again Titus proved himself both faithful and effective. Now, after completing what seems to have been Modern icon, Gortyna, Crete. (Credit: Image coura hurried mission on the Isle of Crete during which he tesy of www.holylandphotos.org) did not even have time to appoint elders as was his practice (Acts 15:23), it is not surprising to find Paul entrusting his fledgling ministry on Crete to Titus’s leadership. Neither is it surprising to find him writing instructions and encouragement to his faithful delegate there. Timothy. According to Acts 16:1-3, Timothy first joined the Pauline mission in Lystra. Because he was the son of a Jewish mother and a Gentile father and, therefore, considered a Gentile, Paul chose to have him circumcised so as not to be a stumbling block to the Jews he hoped to reach (Acts 16:1-4). Subsequently, Timothy accompanied Paul and his party to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth on Paul’s second mission Timothy (Acts 17:14-15; 18:5). He accompanied Paul on the third mission to Ephesus from which he was sent ahead to Macedonia to prepare for Paul’s upcoming visit to Macedonia and Greece (Acts 19:21-22). Returning with Paul through Macedonia, he was sent ahead to Troas to await Paul for the journey to Jerusalem to deliver the collection (Acts 20:1-6). Evidence from Paul’s so-called undisputed letters (i.e., those whose authenticity is not in dispute: Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, 1 Thessalonians, Philippians, and Philemon) indicates that Paul frequently sent Timothy as his delegate to “troubled” churches to strengthen the Thessalonian church in his absence (1 Thess 3:1-6), to remind the wayward Corinthians of his teaching (1 Cor 4:17; Saint Timothy (Orthodox Icon). [Credit: Wikimedia Commons, PD-Art (PD-old)] 16:10-11), and to report on Paul’s circumstances and Titus

Introduction

receive reports on theirs (Phil 2:19-24; 1 Thess 3:6). Romans 16:21 suggests that he was with Paul as Paul wrote to the church in Rome. Finally, Timothy is named as coauthor/sender in 2 Corinthians 1:1, Philippians 1:1, Colossians 1:1, 1 Thessalonians 1:1, 2 Thessalonians 1:1, and Philemon 1. Paul’s tribute to Timothy in Philippians 2:19-24 makes clear how much Timothy meant to him and his work. [Paul and Timothy]

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Paul and Timothy The nature of Paul’s relationship with Timothy is nowhere more clearly demonstrated than in Philippians 2:19-24: I hope in the Lord Jesus to send Timothy to you soon, so that I may be cheered by news of you. I have no one like him who will be genuinely concerned for your welfare. All of them are seeking their own interests, not those of Jesus Christ. But Timothy’s worth you know, how like a son with a father he has served with me in the work of the gospel.

The Occasion Titus assumes a rather brief and hurried Pauline mission to Crete. Paul has moved on, leaving Titus to “put in order what remained to be done” (Titus 1:5). Although Luke makes no mention of a Pauline mission on the Isle of Crete or of a deputation of Titus there, it is not impossible that a brief mission might have taken place when his ship stopped there on the way to Rome (Acts 27:6-12). The letter to Titus is clearly suggestive of so brief a mission that Paul takes leave of it before completing his work, which he leaves to Titus. Traditionally, however, this mission happens after the close of the Act’s narrative when Paul is released from his first Rome imprisonment (Acts 28:28-30), a view supported by the early Christian historian Eusebius. Tradition has it that after defending himself, the Apostle was then sent on the ministry of preaching, and coming a second time to the same city suffered martyrdom under Nero: “During this imprisonment, the second Epistle to Timothy, indicating at the same time that his first defense had taken place and his martyrdom was at hand.”2 Furthermore, though Acts hints at impending martyrdom (20:23-25, 29, 38; 21:13), it is hard to find in the Acts narrative any basis for martyrdom at the hands of Rome at this time. If Paul was subsequently released, it is not impossible that he may have returned to the east. Trouble in the eastern churches (and this appears to have been the norm in most!) may have prompted him to revisit some of them and to start new ones while there. If, as many believe, both Philippians and Philemon were written from Paul’s first Roman imprisonment, both reflect a strong hope of release and a return to the east (Phil 2:24; Phlm 22). Others have tried to place a mission to Crete within the parameters of the Acts narrative.3 While there is no unanimity on exactly when this might

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Introduction

have occurred, there was certainly ample time and opportunity. Luke’s account in Acts is not exhaustive. First Timothy presupposes that Paul left Timothy in Ephesus while he made a visit to Macedonia. Such a scenario is quite plausible since we know of two such trips by Paul, one described only in Acts 20:1-3 and the other described only in 2 Corinthians 1:16; 2:12-13; 7:5-6, and even if neither of these provides a logical scenario, there are all those “silent” years. We know, for example, that Paul spent more than two years in Ephesus on his third mission (Acts 19:1–20:1), and yet Luke describes only three incidents that occurred during this period. Clearly, Luke has not presented an exhaustive account of Paul’s life and ministry between the Damascus Road experience (Acts 9:1-9) and his “house arrest” in Rome (Acts 28:30-31). Second Timothy is written from an imprisonment from which Paul sees little hope of release (2 Tim 4:6-8). Though Timothy’s whereabouts are not mentioned, Paul expects him to visit (2 Tim 4:9, 21) and to pass through Troas on the way to pick up his cloak, books, and parchments from a certain Carpus (2 Tim 4:13). These traditional understandings of the occasions for writing were assumed to be historical until the nineteenth century, when the authenticity of these documents was challenged and the view developed that 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus present a fictitious setting and scenario. The idea was that the author, probably basing his narrative on narratives such as those that appear in Acts, set out to create an illusion of reality within which to set out his understanding of how Paul would address issues in his own context. Authenticity

As we begin this summary examination of the issue of authenticity, a few observations are in order. First, it is important to remember that we deal with three separate letters. The overwhelming tendency in years past has been to treat them monolithically as a single literary unit. Thus, the three “Pastorals” are taken together and compared to the “undisputed” letters of Paul (Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, 1 Thessalonians, Philippians, and Philemon). This fails to taken into consideration the important differences between the three Pastorals and the striking similarities between a single Pastoral Epistle and other “undisputed” Pauline letters when examined on a letter-by-letter basis.

Introduction

Second, there always exists the danger of selectively using the evidence. Similarities between the Pastorals and the “undisputed” Paulines may be muted, while differences are amplified. Third, the discussion of authenticity is highly ideologically charged. Proponents of authenticity are often driven by the equation of pseudonymity with unreliability or deception and/or by the desire to support traditional perspectives with regard to familial or societal structures. On the other hand, proponents of pseudonymity may find that such a view allows them to distance themselves from questionable or objectionable content. Common to both positions is the presumption that pseudonymity relegates a text to secondary place in the canon or even undermines its place in the canon entirely. We must, however, remember that the Pastorals remain part of the church’s canon of sacred Scripture recognized as “authentic” apostolic witness by the end of the second century. They were not and are not secondary texts, deutero-canonical literature, but an important part of the New Testament witness. For the first 1,700 years of New Testament study, there is no evidence that anyone questioned the authenticity of these letters. Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna (c. AD 65–155) appears to draw extensively from them. Both Irenaeus (c. AD 115–202) and Tertullian (c. AD 160–220) used them as Pauline and early in the fourth century and the church historian Eusebius lists them among the “undisputed” writings.4 It appears that the first to raise the issue of authenticity was Friedrich Schleiermacher (1764–1838), who in a personal letter to a friend suggested almost as an aside that the authenticity of 2 Timothy might be questionable. Over the next 150 years, the Pastorals were scrutinized for any evidence that might demonstrate that they were, in fact, non-Pauline. As the “evidence” accumulated, it began to be a foregone conclusion that none of the three were from Paul, though ironically some argued that if any of the three were, it would be 2 Timothy! Those who reject Pauline authorship base their conclusion on the following evidence. Language and Style 1. The Pastorals contain a disproportionately high occurrence of words unique to the New Testament (hapax legomena), 13–16 per page as opposed to 4–6 per page in the undisputed letters of Paul. 2. The absence of many particles and connecting words commonly used by Paul in the undisputed letters (e.g., since, because,

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therefore, but now, with the result, etc.) give the Pastorals a different flow resulting in a different style. 3. The vocabulary has more in common with second-century writers than first-century writers. 4. The vocabulary has more in common with ethical compositions of Hellenistic Judaism (like 4 Macc. or the T. 12 Patr.) than the undisputed Paulines or even the New Testament as a whole. 5. The author of the Pastorals displays a different manner of engagement with opponents and opposing positions. In the undisputed letters, Paul’s rhetoric displays a rich diversity of persuasive strategies, engaging opponents as if they were present. The author of the Pastorals, on the other hand, has little interest in dialogue but offers a sustained monologue in which belief and behavior are dictated and backed up by tradition. All other voices are to be silenced. Thus, the letters don’t sound like Paul because Paul did not write them. On the other hand, there are the following arguments: 1. As with all of Paul’s letters, these are occasional in nature, and allowances must be made for the language and terminology the specific historical situation might demand. For example, great attention is given to the specific qualifications of overseers and deacons, the care for and ministry of widows, the management of the household of faith, vice and virtue lists, etc. This obviously requires specific vocabulary not needed in other Pauline letters. 2. The use of earlier traditional material (such as hymns and confessions) with its own unique vocabulary (as, e.g., Phil 2:5-11; Col 1:15-20) is not unique to the Pastorals. 3. The nature of these letters, addressed primarily to individuals entrusted with the care of congregations rather than to congregations as a whole, would require differences in language and style. 4. The author does engage opposition at some length in 1 Timothy 1:8-11; 4:3-5, 7-8; 6:5-10. Extended argumentation like that we see in Galatians 3–4 and 2 Corinthians 10–13 is not necessary because he is not engaging with critics to persuade. He is writing to the persuaded. “Preaching to the choir” requires a different style and/or language.

Introduction

Ecclesiology The church organization evidenced in the Pastorals reflects a postPauline stage of development. The use of titles like “overseer/bishop,” “elder,” and “deacon” suggest well-defined offices where more attention is being given to institutional structure as opposed the more open, charismatic life of the early decades of the church. There is even the mention of a “council of elders” in 1 Timothy 4:14. The Pastorals sound more like the Didache (late first century) or the letters of Ignatius of Antioch (early second) than the church of Paul’s day. On the other hand, Paul begins his undisputed letter to the Philippians addressing both “overseers” and “deacons,” assuming that they are an established part of congregational life. Luke indicates that Paul appointed “elders” from the beginning of his mission (Acts 14: 23). This is not a “structure” that had to be birthed ex nihilo by the early Christians. Both the Jewish synagogue and the Greco-Roman collegia (or “club”) have such an organization. The fact is that Paul does not deal with the particular duties of these but only the qualities they should possess. There is nothing here that could not have existed in Paul’s time. In fact, it would be more surprising if it hadn’t! Theology Many theological themes prominent in the undisputed Paulines are surprisingly absent from the Pastorals. Themes such as God as father, new life “in Christ,” the work of the Spirit in the life of the believer, and eschatology seem absent. At the same time, it is argued that where the Pastorals use the same terms as the “undisputed” Paulines, they seem to have a different meaning. For example, in the Pastorals, “righteousness” (dikaiosyne), certainly central to Paul’s gospel, appears as an ethical quality, not in “its Pauline meaning of God’s redemptive intervention in Christ.”5 In the Pastorals “faith” (pistis) is not only trust in God or Christ but the moral quality of reliability or fidelity. Furthermore, the “nonPauline” emphasis on “good works,” the description of the Christian life in terms like “godliness” and “self-control” (moralistic language more akin to Hellenistic Judaism), and the introduction of the “faithful” sayings, a concept absent from the “undisputed” Paulines, raise questions about authenticity. On the other hand, Paul demonstrates an intense concern about the formation of virtuous and ethical behavior in new converts in

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the undisputed letters (Gal 5:16–6:10; Rom 12:9–13:14; 1 Cor 6:9-20; Phil 4:8-9; 1 Thess 4:1-12; 5:14-15) and emphasizes the importance of “good works” (Rom 2:6-7; 13:2; 2 Cor 5:10; Col 1:10). Furthermore, there is a strong sense of eschatological expectation as the author understands the rise of false teachers as a sign of the last days (1 Tim 4:1-5). He anticipates Christ’s appearance using the language of epiphany (2 Tim 1:10; Titus 3:4; 2:11; 1 Tim 6:14; 2 Tim 4:8). At the same time, key Pauline themes are present, e.g., salvation is by grace and not works, present suffering leads to future glory, the Gentile mission is important, and the author presents himself as an example for others. History Beginning with F. C. Baur (1792–1860), scholars questioned whether the people and places mentioned are truly historical or merely a fictitious literary setting given to texts written in Paul’s name. The Pastorals presuppose events not known to us from other New Testament sources. There is no mention either of a mission of Paul to Crete or of a deputation of Titus there. There is no mention of Paul entrusting the Ephesian church to Timothy. Nor is there any indication of the Jewish-Gentile controversy that plagued Paul’s mission. Furthermore, the false teaching is most easily identified with second-century Gnosticism: they think about their teaching as “knowledge” (gnøsis, 1 Tim 6:20), they are infatuated with “myths and endless genealogies” (1 Tim 1:4; Titus 3:9), and they believe that the resurrection has already occurred (2 Tim 2:17-18). Obviously, if this identification is correct, the letters must post-date Paul. On the other hand, we must remember that Acts is a “selective” history. It makes no mention of a mission to Illyricum (Rom 15:19), the events of 1 Corinthians 11:23-27 (e.g., multiple imprisonments, yet by the time of the writing of 2 Corinthians we know of only the one mentioned in Acts 16:22-34), and eight to twelve years between AD 50 and 62 are addressed in four lines! In other words, there is a great deal of unaccounted-for time in the Acts narrative, and the things we read about in the Pastorals are in keeping with the Lukan account of Paul’s activity. Furthermore, there is evidence in the Pastorals that the kinds of problems with Jewish or Jewish-Christian antagonists that Paul has dealt with in other letters is present (1 Tim 1:4 [“endless genealogies”]; 1:7-8

Introduction

[interest in the law]; 4:3 [“abstinence from certain foods”]; 6:4 [“disputes about words”]; Titus 1:10 [“many rebellious people, idle talkers and deceivers, especially of the circumcision”]; 3:9 [“but avoid stupid controversies, genealogies, dissensions, and quarrels about the law”]). Furthermore, the “Gnostic” elements alluded to are at best some kind of incipient Gnosticism elements such as Paul may have battled as early as the letter to the Galatians (Gal 4:3, 9-11). Certainly Paul confronted confusion and false teaching about the resurrection in 1 (4:13–5:10) and 2 Thessalonians (2:1-12) and 1 Corinthians (15). Unlike pseudonymous works that tend to lack a concrete setting and instead create a setting that demonstrates a superfluidity of narrative (a sign that the author does not presume reader familiarity with the situation), here we are given a strikingly detailed narrative with specifics that need no explanation, on the presumption that readers will understand. Personal requests for a cloak and books and a visit before winter, and oblique indications of the whereabouts of fifteen workers and coworkers, do not contradict what is known from other sources (with the exception Trophimus). The frontal attack on the authenticity of these documents has resulted in the development of three basic positions with regard to authorship, and the position one adopts will have a significant impact on the interpretation. 1. Pseudonymity. The letters were written after Paul’s death in an effort to address certain developments with “Pauline” authority.6 Obviously there is deception involved here, but this was a common practice in the ancient world where standards of literary propriety differed from our own; an element of deceit was ethically permissible in order to achieve a positive and praiseworthy outcome. Such a view must reckon with the fact that Christians were strongly committed to truth both in theory and practice. Furthermore, the early Christians were quick to reject works deemed inauthentic. These were often the works of heretical opponents of developing orthodoxy who sought to pass off their writings as coming from first-century leaders. 2. Allonymity. The letters were composed by a close companion or disciple of Paul who combined written fragments left behind by Paul with recollections of his teaching. There was no intention to deceive readers who were aware of the nature of the materials.

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Introduction

What was important was to keep the “voice” of Paul alive. As one might imagine, there are many variations of this view as scholars attempt to isolate the material that might be authentic.7 Similarities of language and style with Luke/Acts have suggested to some that Luke may have been this “disciple.” Of course, with the passing of time the letters came to seen as written by Paul himself. While certainly a possibility, this view can only remain highly speculative. 3. Authenticity. Paul wrote the letters to Timothy and Titus in specific, concrete, historical circumstances. Paul may have written them with his own hand or with the assistance of a scribe, a common practice in Paul’s day and one that Paul employed (Rom 16:22; Gal 6:11). The author could dictate the letter word for word or give the amanuensis the basics and leave the way it was communicated (language, style, etc.) to the trusted scribe. Once again, similarities of language and style with Luke/Acts have suggested to some that Luke may have been Paul’s amanuensis.8 Whatever one’s conclusion about authenticity, one thing is clear: these letters were written to be read as Paul’s own words and thus are best understood in light of all that Paul has written. This commentary proceeds on that basis. The Apostle Paul

Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn (1606–1669). The Apostle Paul. 1633. Oil on canvas. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, Austria. [Credit: Wikimedia Commons, PD-Art (PD-old-100)]

Date

One’s decision about authenticity will determine one’s decision regarding the dating of the letters. Assuming the authenticity of the letters, 2 Timothy is the latest, written from imprisonment probably in Rome in the mid-60s. Titus and 1 Timothy could be dated in the mid-50s if one places them within the Acts framework. If one dates them after release from a first Roman imprisonment, they might be dated in the mid-60s. If one assumes the letters are inauthentic and written after Paul’s death, the letters could be dated any time after Paul’s death (traditionally understood as occurring during the Neronian persecution from AD 64–66),

Introduction

even as late as the early second century. This commentary will assume authenticity and a date in the mid 60s. Provenance

The issue of provenance is also dependant on one’s decision with regard to authenticity. Assuming authenticity, 2 Timothy is probably written from prison in Rome near the end of Paul’s life. First Timothy appears to have been written from Macedonia. As for Titus, Paul has left Crete and appears to be headed for Nicopolis, where he plans to spend the winter (3:12). If one assumes inauthenticity, there is no way determine provenance. Genre

While often considered to be simply letters, the characteristics of these documents demand more careful attention. First Timothy and Titus share noticeable similarities that set them apart from 2 Timothy, which has a distinct nature all its own. Second Timothy is often likened to a testament, an extremely popular genre of literature during and after the intertestamental period (see, e.g., T. 12 Patr.). The testament was essentially a deathbed speech, a kind of last will and testament of the speaker/writer who looks ahead to impending death, offers instructions to his children and grandchildren, draws moral lessons from life experience, and predicts things to come after his death. Second Timothy certainly contains these elements, though in the typically Pauline letter form. Since testamentary literature is usually believed to be pseudonymous, this identification is used to support the case for inauthenticity, though this need not be the case. It has been suggested that the plethora of details about Paul, Timothy, and their specific circumstances sets 2 Timothy apart from the normally much more vague testamentary literature. Taken together with the letter form, perhaps it is better to understand 2 Timothy as a “personal paraenetic letter.” First Timothy and Titus have often been identified as early “church orders” or “handbooks on church polity,”9 somewhat in the manner of The Community Rule (1QS ), which governed the life of the Qumran community, or The Damascus Document (CD), which governed the lives of Essenes living in towns and villages. These documents contain ethical instructions, rules of conduct with penalties attached, guidelines for the practice of community

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Introduction

rituals, and a delineation of the roles and responsibilities of community officers. The Didache is evidence that such documents existed in the church as early as the late first or early second century AD, but 1 Timothy and Titus do not truly fit this genre. They are addressed to individuals with oversight responsibilities rather than to the communities as a whole. They contain direct exhortations and instructions to these individuals about their personal conduct. Their “rules” address a much wider array of topics and cases and attend to the specific duties. Interestingly, in the Pastorals no attention is given to the duties of the community leaders. The focus is only on the qualifications required. First Timothy and Titus are, however, similar in nature to a particular type of royal correspondence known as the mandata principiis. This document contained the orders given by a superior to a delegate to be carried out in that delegate’s assigned sphere of influence and in the demeanor of the delegate in the role or office being assumed. There were both private and public forms of these documents. The public forms were posted in a public place as means of both authorizing the delegate in the eyes of those being overseen and keeping the delegate in check by making his commission public. In essence, the populace was allowed to “overhear” the delegate’s orders. Clearly, the legitimizing of the authority of Timothy and Titus is emphasized, and Paul gives specific orders to his delegates. The quasi-public nature would go far in explaining the oft-noted formal nature of these letters to close companions (e.g., the abrupt ending of 1 Timothy with no personal greetings as well as the extended self-description in Titus). The letters were primarily to the delegates but intended to be overheard by the churches each delegate was authorized to oversee. These letters no longer need to be viewed as poor attempts at imitating Paul’s genuine letters but as Paul’s own use of a well-established form of correspondence.

Notes 1. See, e.g., Ben Witherington, Letters and Homilies to Hellenistic Christians: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on Titus, 1–2 Timothy and 1–3 John (Downers Grove IL: InterVarsity, 2006). 2. Hist. eccl. 2:25; cf. 1 Clem. 57; Acts Pet. 1:1-3, 49; Muratorian Canon.

Introduction 3. See, e.g., John A. T. Robinson, Redating the New Testament (Eugene OR: Wipf & Stock, 2000). 4. Hist. eccl. 3.3.5. 5. J. Christiaan Beker, Heirs of Paul (London: T & T Clark, 2000) 42. 6. See, e.g., Martin Dibelius, The Pastoral Epistles: A Commentary on the Pastoral Epistles (Hermenia; Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1972); Beker, Heirs of Paul. 7. See, e.g., I. H. Marshall, The Pastoral Epistles: A Critical and Exegetical Commentary (ICC; Edinburgh: T & T Clarke, 2004) 59–104, esp. 84, 93. 8. See, e.g., Jerome Quinn, The Letter to Titus (AB; New York: Doubleday, 2005). 9. Dibelius, Pastoral Epistles, 5–7.

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Outlines of the Pastoral Epistles Titus 1:1-4 Epistolary Salutation 1:5-9 Titus’s Charge 1:5 Put Things in Order and Appoint Elders 1:6-9 The Qualifications for Elders 1:10-16 Titus’s Challenge 2:1-14 What Titus Must Teach 2:1-10 The Content of the Teaching 2:11-15 The Theological Basis for this Teaching 2:15–3:8a What Titus Must Teach 2:15–3:3 The Content of the Teaching 3:4-8a The Theological Basis for this Teaching 3:8b-11 A Rhetorical Epilogue 3:12-15 Final Instructions and Benediction 1 Timothy 1:1-2 Salutations 1:3-11 Opening Exhortations 1:3-7 The Charge to Timothy 1:8-11 The Purpose of the Law 1:12-17 Thanksgiving/Exordium 1:18-20 Why Timothy Must Teach these Things 2:1–3:13 Instruction for Life in the Household of God 2:1-15 Worship 2:1-2 Instructions on Prayer 2:3-7 Theological Justification 2:8-13 Further Instructions on Prayer and Worship 2:13-15 Theological Justification 3:1-13 Choosing Overseers/Bishops and Deacons 3:1-7 The Overseer/Bishops 3:8-13 Deacons 3:14-16 Why Paul Writes: A Purpose Statement and the Theological Foundation

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Outlines of the Pastoral Epistles

3:14-15 Why Paul Writes 3:16 The Theological Foundation 4:1-16 The Charge to Timothy 4:1-5 The Dangers Timothy Faces 4:6-8 The Charge 4:9-10 The Theological Basis 4:11-16 The Charge Continued 5:1–6:2a Faithfully Pastoring Different Groups in the Household of Faith 5:1-2 Older and Younger Members 5:3-16 Widows 5:17-22 Elders 5:23-25 Other Matters 6:1-2a Slaves 6:3-10 The Charge Continued 6:11-16 The Good Fight 6:17-19 A Brief Refrain 6:20-21a The Final Charge 6:21b Benediction 2 Timothy 1:1-2 Salutation 1:3-7 A Prayer of Thanksgiving and Encouragement 1:8-14 Encouragement and Challenge 1:15-18 An Autobiographical Note 2:1-7 Exhortation and Illustrations 2:8-13 The Centrality of Christ 2:14-19 A Charge to Keep 2:19-25 Serving in the Household of Faith 3:1-9 Warnings about the Future/Present 3:10-13 Paul’s Example 3:14-17 The Nature of Sacred Scripture 4:1-2 The Charge 4:3-5 The Tenor of the Times 4:6-8 The Pauline Model 4:9-15 Personal Instructions 4:16-18 A Final Encouragement 4:19-21 Final Greetings 4:22 Benediction

titus

Epistolary Salutation Titus 1:1-4

COMMENTARY The letter to Titus begins with a typical first-century Hellenistic epistolary salutation consisting of (1) the name of the sender with a form of self-description that indicates how the author wishes to be perceived by the readers; (2) the name(s) of the recipients; and (3) a short blessing, some as simple as “X to Y, Greeting.”1 Pauline salutations are generally longer than the norm and, with the exception of Romans, this salutation is the longest in any Pauline letter. These salutations are pregnant with meaning setting out some of Paul’s most basic understandings of his ministry and theology. In Titus, Paul includes a reflection on salvation history and his own role at the crucial point in that history, moving from protology (God before all time) to eschatology (the hope of eternal life). Paul identifies himself as a “servant of Slavery in the Roman Empire God” and “an apostle of Jesus Christ.”2 Slavery was an integral part of every “Servant” (doulos) is literally “slave” aspect of society in the Greco-Roman (cf. Rom 1:1; Phil 1:1), an image he freworld of the 1st C. Estimates suggest that 85 to 90 percent of the population were slaves or of quently uses when speaking of his slave origins. Though considered to be “human ministry (e.g., 1 Cor 4:1; 9:15-19). tools,” they had the right to marry (though any Having been “bought with a price” offspring became the property of their master) (1 Cor 6:20; 7:23), he now belongs to and accumulate money (peculium) and property of their own. They could use the peculium to purGod. This imagery would speak chase their freedom or start their business, etc., volumes in a world where more than 90 once set free (manumitted) by an owner. They percent of the population in some could own farms or work as semiskilled laborers, urban centers were slaves who served artisans, architects, administrators, physicians, teachers, and even philosophers. They were often only one master to whom was owed employed by building contractors or industrial absolute loyalty and complete obedifirms for daily wages of which as much as twoence. [Slavery in the Roman Empire] thirds were paid to their owners. According to Seldom used in the Greco-Roman Cicero, a slave could expect to be freed after seven years and under Roman law at least by the world (though on one occasion Plato age of thirty. does refer to Socrates as God’s slave

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Slaves The descriptor “slave” of God is used throughout the Old Testament with reference to patriarchs, princes (kings), and prophets. See, for example: Patriarchs Abraham Ps 105:42 Isaac 2 Macc 1:2 (all three!) Jacob Ezek 28:25 Moses 1 Kgs 8:53; 2 Kgs 18:12; 2 Chr 24:9; Neh 9:14; 10:29; Dan 9:11; Mal 4:4 Joshua Josh 24:29; Judg 2:8 Daniel Dan 6:20

Princes (kings) David 2 Sam 3:18; 1 Kgs 8:24-26; 1 Chron 17:7; Ps 89:3; cf. 1 Chr 17:4; 2 Chr 6:42; Ps 78:70; Ezek 34:23; 37:24-25; 1 Macc 4:30 Solomon 1 Kgs 3:7-8; 8:52 Zerubbabel Hag 2:23

Prophets “my slaves” 2 Kgs 17:13, 23; 21:10; 24:2; Ezek 38:17; Zech 1:6 Ahijah 1 Kgs 15:29 Elijah 1 Kgs 18:36; 21:28; 2 Kgs 10:10

[Phaed. 85b]), the idea of “slaves of God” draws on a rich biblical tradition that would have been familiar to Hellenistic Jews because of its frequent appearance in the LXX. Particularly significant would be the identification of Israel’s patriarchs, prophets, and great leaders as God’s “slaves.” [Slaves] Furthermore, “slave” language is part of the prayer language of the Psalms (19:11, 13; 119:125), where it is expressive of the depth of one’s dedication and submission to God. David is a “slave” of God whose obedience enables God to use him to save God’s people (2 Sam 3:18). Clearly, Paul sees himself in a long line of people who are called by God to perform certain tasks and whose obedience and faithfulness serve to further the purposes of God. Paul understands his work to be that of an “apostle of Jesus Christ.” An “apostle” is one sent on a mission with a message and the authority to act on behalf of the sender. In the New Testament, the word “apostle” is used in both a titular sense (of that group of twelve men who followed Jesus during his earthly life)3 and a functional sense (of any and all who are sent to proclaim the gospel).4 Paul presents himself as one whom Jesus Christ sent, who bears the authority of Jesus Christ. His task, as expressed here, is twofold. First, he is to “further the faith of God’s elect.” In the Pastorals, the “elect” refers to those who have believed (2 Tim 2:10),5 and the purpose of Paul’s apostleship is to build up their faith. “Faith” here can be taken subjectively to refer to one’s trust in and commitment to Jesus Christ, a trust that results in obedience, or objectively as a reference to accepted teaching. [“Faith” in Paul] Both senses apply here as Paul writes to challenge his readers to deeper trust and more complete obedience and to a deeper and fuller understanding of the gospel and its implications for their lives (1 Tim 1:2, 4) by furthering their “knowledge of the truth that is in accordance with

Titus 1:1-4

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godliness.” This phrase contains three “Faith” in Paul It is easy to limit Paul’s understanding of faith to crucial terms—knowledge, truth, and godgiving mental assent to propositional truth. liness—that warrant special attention. Such an understanding has come to dominate much of The expression “knowledge [epignøsis] of Western Christianity. For Paul, however, faith is much the truth” is found only here and in more than this. His exemplar for having faith is 1 Timothy 4:3 and 2 Timothy 3:7. Abraham, whose faith was realized in obedience (Gal “Knowledge” can but need not be limited 2:1-18; Rom 4). Abraham “believed God,” and the evidence of his belief was his obedience (Gen 12:1-2). to an intellectual assent. Indeed, in the bib- Faith, then, is trusting God, but more than that. It is lical tradition, “knowledge” is experiential trusting God to the point of obedience! Dietrich as much as it is cognitive. [Knowledge of the Bonhoeffer understood this well: “For faith is only real when there is obedience, never without it, and faith only Truth] “Truth” (al∑theias) in the Pastorals can becomes faith in the act of obedience.” mean (1) an organized body of Christian Dietrich Bonhoeffer, The Call to Discipleship (New York: Touchstone, teaching or doctrine, (2) the Christian faith 1995) 64. as a system of belief, and/or (3) the total content of the gospel. Clearly, any of these underKnowledge of the Truth While “knowledge” (epignøsis) can standings can be said to apply, and the sometimes refer to the activity of determining factor with regard to its meaning getting to know the truth (Rom 1:28; Col 2:2; here is drawn from the phrase that follows. It is a Phlm 6), it can also stress the content of what truth “that is in accordance with godliness.” is known (Col 1:9f.). In the Pastorals, it is only found in the expression “knowledge of the “Godliness” (eusebeia) is a central theme in the truth” (epignøsis al∑theias), a formula Pastorals. [“Godliness”] In addition to its appearance describing salvation from the perspective of a here, the noun appears eight times in 1 Timothy rational perception of “the truth.” “Truth” was and once in 2 Timothy, while the adverb “godly” used to speak of things as they actually are. The “knowledge of the truth” refers “to the is found twice in 2 Timothy and once in Titus. authentic revelation of God bringing salvation” The Greek term was used to refer to general devo(Marshall, 122) as summarized, e.g., in 1 Tim tion to any supernatural power together with the 2:3-6. It is often contrasted with the false corresponding required moral and ethical life. In teachers and their message in a polemic fashion. Such a pattern suggests that “knowlspeaking of a “truth” that is in “accordance with edge of the truth” is not merely an embracing godliness,” Paul may mean a truth that agrees with of this truth but also a commitment to it that godliness or a truth that results in godliness. Given rejects all competing messages. This truth is the biblical notion of “truth” as something that is necessary for salvation and must be defended against all comers! active, i.e., something that one does, this latter I. H. Marshall, The Pastoral Epistles (ICC; Edinburgh: T & T rendering seems more likely. For Paul, “knowledge Clark, 1999) 122. of the truth” is always more than just mental assent to certain propositions. While such mental assent may be involved and necessary, it is not sufficient in itself. One must act on the basis of truth, i.e., one must “do” the truth! Throughout the New Testament, “knowing” the truth is never merely propositional. It is always practical, for it results in a life lived on the basis of that truth. “Godliness” is believing and behaving as God demands. It may be more than this, but for Paul (as for Jesus and the other New

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“Godliness” This word group, found only in Acts, 2 Peter, and the Pastorals in the New Testament, was used of a highly regarded virtue in the Greco-Roman world. Essentially religious, it concerned devotion to the gods that was manifested in behavior pleasing to those gods. It was borrowed by Hellenistic Jews as a term that brought together the comprehensive idea of the knowledge of God and the appropriate and necessary lifestyle response. For Philo, “piety [eusebion] and religion are the queen of the virtues” (Decalogue 119). The contemporary Stoic philosopher Epictetus describes it as the combination of piety and correct behavior, an appreciation of the gods that leads to proper conduct: In piety towards the gods I would have you know the chief element is this, to have right opinions about them—as existing and as administering the universe well and justly—and to have set yourself to obey them and to submit to everything that happens, and to follow it

voluntarily, in the belief that it is being fulfilled by the highest intelligence.

Paul was quick to pick up words prominent in the surrounding culture in his efforts to communicate the meaning of the Christian faith and in this word group he found a term that could describe a Christian lifestyle that has a theological basis in the Christ event (1 Tim 3:16; 2 Tim 3:12; cf. Titus 2:12) and is integrally related to the knowledge of God and God’s demands on human behavior. It is concerned with the whole of Christian behavior, which is a thoroughly dynamic life that a person must actively (1 Tim 4:7f.) and consciously decide to pursue (Titus 2:12). It expresses “a strongly Christian concept of the new existence in Christ that combines belief in God and a consequent manner of life” (Marshall, 144). Epictetus, Encheiridion 31. I. H. Marshall, The Pastoral Epistles (ICC; Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1999).

Testament writers), it is never less! This understanding is reflected in the formula fides et mores used by Augustine to describe the totality of the Christian life as one of orthodoxy (“right belief,” lit., “right worship”) and orthopraxy (“right behavior”). Paul engages in furthering the faith and knowledge of his readers “in the hope of eternal life.” [Eternal Life] “Hope” Eternal Life (elpis) is confident expectation and includes eleA term found most frequently in the ments of certainty and firm conviction. It is more Johannine literature but nine times in than “wishful thinking.” Indeed, “hope” in the Paul (Rom 2:7; 5:21; 6:22, 23; Gal 6:8; 1 Tim New Testament “is not only a personal feeling 1:16; 6:12; Titus 1:2; 3:7), “eternal life” is taken for granted that God lives eternally (see Sir 18; (peri t∑s en hymin elpidos), nor even the thing 42:23). According to Pss Sol. 3:12, “those who awaited (1 Thess 2:19, Eph 2:12), but the whole fear the Lord shall rise up to eternal life in the economy of the New Covenant, the dispensation Lord’s light, and it shall never end.” Dan 12:2 under which all believers live, the goal and the (the only text generally accepted as being a reference to the resurrection of individuals from meaning of their calling (Eph 4:4) whose full the dead) states that “many of those who sleep actualization they await (Gal 5:5).”6 In the New in the earth shall awake, some to everlasting Testament “eternal life”(zo∑s aiøniou, lit., “life life, and some to shame and everlasting conof/for the ages,” i.e., “life forever with no end”) is tempt,” suggesting that eternal life is a gift of God to the righteous (see Wis 5:15; Sir 37:26) both the quantity (that is, length, eternal, In 1 En. 58:3 we read, “And the righteous shall unending) and quality of life (a life bestowed by be in the light of the sun, and the elect in the God). The preposition “in” (epi ) in this phrase light of eternal life unending, and the days of the gives us a glimpse of the magnificent scope of the holy without number (see also 4 Macc. 15:3; 1QS 4:7).

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Greek language. Here it can be understood to suggest (1) that Paul carries out his ministry on the basis of the hope of eternal life, (2) that his ministry results in God’s people expecting with confidence the experience of eternal life, and/or (3) that the hope of eternal life is included in the truth of the Christian faith. How is this phrase connected with what precedes it? If connected with “truth,” it might such suggest that the truth is “based on” this hope, or “includes” this hope, or “results in” this hope. If connected with “godliness,” it might suggest that godliness “results” in this eternal life. If connected with “faith” and “the knowledge of the truth,” it might suggest that faith and knowledge rest on this hope or result from this hope. If connected with “apostle” and “servant,” it might suggest that Paul’s role as an apostle and slave is twofold: (1) to lead them to faith and knowledge, and (2) to lead them to experience the hope of eternal life. This “eternal life” is “that which God who never lies, promised before the ages began.” The Greek word translated “lies” (apseud∑s) appears only here in the New Testament. Negatively, it denotes being free from deceit of any kind; positively, it means being completely and utterly trustworthy. It is comparable to the Jewish notion that the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob is a faithful God for whom “fidelity” (Heb., ’emeth) is a defining attribute. The term ’emeth is used in the Hebrew Scriptures along with ˙esed as the confessional formula “steadfast love and faithfulness” (cf. Gen 24:27; Exod 34:6; Pss 25:10; 26:3; 40:11f; 57:4, 11; 61:8; 86:15; 89:15; 108:5 115:1; 117:2; 138:2). Paul says that eternal life was “promised before the ages began” (lit., “before the eternal ages”), i.e., at a time before there was time. The Greek noun aiønos and its cognitive adjective aiønios reflect the Hebrew ‘olam that refers to a remote time—past or future. Semitic thought did not conceive of “eternity” other than in temporal terms. “Before the eternal ages” might best be rendered as “from all eternity.” God has revealed this word “in due time,” literally, “in his own time.” The Greek word for time here is kairos, which has the connotation of an opportune time, a special time, as opposed to chronos, which is chronological time, time as the ticking of the clock. Paul speaks of the appropriate time according to God’s plan, i.e., the proper time (cf. Titus 1:3; 1 Tim 2:6; 6:15). At the proper time, God “revealed his word.” The verb employed here (phaneroø, “to manifest or reveal”) gave rise to the English word “epiphany.” In the Pauline corpus, it functions as a key term for the revelation of

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God’s salvation in the gospel of Jesus Christ. Indeed, in a revelatory scheme, it is the practical equivalent of the verb apokalyptø (“to reveal;” cf. Rom 1:17 with 3:21). Commonly used in the Hellenistic world to speak of the manifestation of a deity, it is used by Paul to speak of the revelation of Jesus Christ that is taking place in the preaching of the gospel. In this preaching, God has manifested “his word” at the appropriate time. Throughout the New Testament, “the word of God” is virtually a technical term for the gospel Paul is authorized to proclaim.7 “His word” includes the entirety of the message that Paul has been charged to proclaim as God’s slave. In other words, it includes the “faith,” “the knowledge of the truth,” “godliness,” and the “hope of eternal life.” This “message” has been made manifest “through the proclamation with which I have been entrusted by the command of God our Savior” (see 1 Tim 2:7). “Proclamation” (kerygma) is a term used for the public proclamation of a herald, thus underscoring the public and official nature of the herald’s message. The authoritative nature of the message is further suggested by the phrases that follow. “With God as Savior Paul attributes the title “Savior” to God in 1:3, which I have been entrusted” recalls 2:10, and 3:4. In each case, “God” appears as an 1 Thessalonians 2:4, where Paul writes explanatory addition, an appositive to “our Savior.” Collins that he has been “entrusted with the suggests the appearance of both an apologetic and soteriomessage of the gospel” (cf. 1 Tim 1:11). logical interest in speaking of salvation before the savior is identified (311). The supreme interest of the audience In both passages, the language suggests would be their salvation, and Paul makes it clear that salvathat the messenger has undergone a kind tion is not an emperor or civic benefactor but God, the God of official scrutiny before being entrusted of Jewish tradition, the God who is spoken of as “my” with an important task (e.g., candidates Savior in the Psalms (25:5; 27:1,9; 62:2, 6 [=LXX 24:5; 26:1, 9: 61:3, 7) and “our Savior (Pss 65:5; 79:9; 95:1 for federal judiciary before Congress [=LXX 64:6; 78:9; 94:1]). “Savior” was used frequently of prior to appointment). God in Hellenistic Judaism (Philo, Creation 169; Sacrifices Paul has been entrusted with his task 70, 71; Confusion 93; Migration 25, 124; Abraham 176; “by the command of God our Savior.” Joseph 195). Here in Titus 3:5-6, Paul may employ a baptismal hymn to explain how God saves us. He uses the [God as Savior] The nuance of the language same construction (“our Savior, God”) in 1 Tim 2:3-4 of “our here suggests that what has been Savior, God, who wills that all people be saved and come to entrusted to Paul has been entrusted to the full knowledge of truth,” emphasizing God’s will that all him as a command, i.e., he has been humankind be saved. This is emphasized again in 1 Tim 4:10 as he writes of “the living God who is the Savior of all commanded to fulfill the mission of a people, especially the faithful.” Such an emphasis would herald and announce the good news of counter any incipient Gnosticism that might argue that salthe gospel (cf. Rom 16:26; 1 Tim 1:1). vation was for only an elect few who had access to some The command has come from God who esoteric knowledge. God wills that “all come to the full knowledge of the truth.” In 1 Tim 1:1, “our Savior” is used is “our” Savior. Resting on Paul’s obedias an epithet for God (cf. Titus 1:3).

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ence is not only his own fulfillment of the call but the very salvation of those to whom he has been sent. It was a matter of faithful stewardship of the call of God that he first heard on the Damascus Road (Acts 9; 22; 26). There he came to know God as his Savior in the risen Christ, and he spent the rest of his life crisscrossing the Roman Empire, whistle-stopping his way to every town and village, nook and cranny to preach in obedience to God’s command. As we have noted, this extended self-description is longer than those found in any other Pauline letter with the exception of Romans. Why, one might ask, would such a lengthy selfdescription be necessary in a personal letter to one of Paul’s closest associates? Rather than seeing this as evidence that the letter is not authentic to Paul, as so many have, we might find the explanation in the nature of Titus’s situation. Clearly, while the letter is addressed to Titus, it is addressed to Titus as Paul’s personal envoy/representative/appointed leader of the newly formed churches in Crete. As we shall see, the letter deals with many issues of importance for the members of those churches. Titus would have at his disposal a letter from Paul himself with which to address these issues. The long self-description is not meant so much for Titus as for those who might hear/read the letter, reminding them (and in some cases no doubt introducing Paul to them!) of Paul’s role in God’s ongoing plan, which has now come to include them. Just as Paul’s self-description is longer than those of typical Hellenistic letters, so his description of the recipient in v. 4 also exceeds them in both length and importance. Paul identifies Titus as his “true child.” The word rendered “true” is the term used to describe a “lawfully begotten” or “legitimate” child. By extension, it came to mean “genuine” or “real,” and, thus, a “true” or “sincere” child. Since the word translated “child” literally means “child” and Paul is speaking of an adult, it is obvious that he uses the entire expression in a figurative sense. According to Jewish tradition, the faithful transmission of the traditions from father to son was the ultimate norm of real paternity.8 If a man taught Torah to another’s child (a task only open to men in Paul’s time), the child had become a son to him. For Paul, the gospel replaces (though assumes) the Torah, and he is father to those to whom he has preached (1 Cor 4:15, 17; Phlm 10). Here he expresses the depth of his feelings for Titus and the nature of the relationship they

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share, and establishes Titus’s authority as a faithful heir of the Pauline message. This relationship is predicated upon and grounded in “the faith we share” (lit., “according to a common faith”). Once again, “faith” can be understood subjectively as trust in and obedience to Christ or objectively as referring to the content of what is believed. “We share” renders the Greek word for “common” and refers here to things held in common, things mutually shared. If one takes “faith” subjectively as trust in and obedience to Christ, then that which they share is trust in and obedience to Christ Jesus. If it is understood objectively, then what is shared is a belief in the same teachings. The first focuses on personal relationship. The second focuses on propositional teachings. In the final analysis, both understandings are true to Paul’s intention. The preposition “according to” (kata) can be used to designate a goal or purpose and thus be understood as “for the sake of the common faith,” i.e., Paul has taught Titus the common faith so that he can in turn pass it on to others. On the other hand, it can be taken as indicative of a norm or standard. If taken this way, it could be rendered “according to the common faith,” i.e., Paul has taught Titus according to the standard of the common faith. In 1:1, Paul speaks of himself as an apostle “for the sake of the faith.” Here he affirms that Titus is his true son “according to the common faith.” The similarity of these expressions suggests that the second should be understood with reference to purpose. If it is understood in terms of content, then one can assume that the content of the “common faith” includes the characteristics and purposes found in 1:1-3. Notice that Paul does not express his superiority here, but rather he and Titus have a shared faith. As John Chrysostom put it, while Titus was Paul’s spiritual father, they stood as equals when it came to their faith.9 The blessing in v. 4 contains the typically Pauline dyad of “grace” and “peace.” Each element of this greeting has special significance. The Greek word for “grace,” charis, looks and sounds extremely similar to the typical Hellenistic greeting chairein (“rejoice”). “Peace” (eir∑n∑ ) represents the typical Semitic greeting shalom. [Peace] By combining the traditional Hellenistic and the traditional Hebrew greetings, Paul gives testimony to the fact that in Christ Jesus there is no more Jew or Greek. The greeting becomes no less than an announcement of the nature of the gospel itself! Grace and

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peace come from “God the Father and Peace Peace has come to mean the time when there aren’t Christ Jesus our Savior.” Alongside the any wars or even when there aren’t any major wars. typical allusion to God the Father, Paul Beggars can’t be choosers; we’d most of us settle for that. places Christ Jesus our Savior. In doing But in Hebrew peace, shalom, means fullness, means having so, he reminds the reader that Jesus is everything you need to be wholly and happily yourself. One of the titles by which Jesus is known is Prince of the “Christ.” For those from a Jewish Peace, and he used the word itself in what seem at first background, this would be a reminder glance to be two radically contradictory utterances. On one that Jesus is the long-awaited messiah occasion he said to the disciples, “Do not think that I have of Israel. For those from a Gentile come to bring peace on earth; I have not come to bring peace, background, referring to Jesus as the but a sword.” (Matthew 10:35) And later on, the last time Christ (christos, lit., “anointed one”) they ate together, he said to them, “Peace I leave with you: my peace I give to you.” (John 14:27) would set him in the place of Caesar, The contradiction is resolved when you realize that for the anointed ruler of the world. If Jesus peace seems to have meant not the absence of Jesus is “the anointed one,” then struggle but the presence of love. Caesar is not, and the radical and revo- Frederick Buechner, Wishful Thinking: A Theological ABC (New York: Harper & Row, 1973) 69. lutionary nature of the Christian faith becomes clear! This is further emphasized by the reference to Jesus as “Savior” (søt∑r).10 In the first-century Greco-Roman world, the title “savior” was used of the gods of Greece and Rome. Paul’s clear message is that salvation does not come from the deities of the Greek and Roman pantheons. Perhaps more significantly, “savior” was one of the titles of the Roman emperor. Caesar Augustus was heralded as the “savior” of the world who had brought peace and prosperity in the form of the Pax Romana. Both Augustus and Gaius were hailed as “our savior and benefactor.” Similarly, Josephus writes in J.W. 3.459 that “the citizens opened their gates [to the soon to be emperor Vespasian], and met him with acclamations of joy, and called him their savior and benefactor.” [Caesar as Savior] Paul begs to differ. Christ Jesus, not the Roman Caesar, is the only real savior. While in the New Testament, “savior” is generally used to refer to Jesus, in v. 3, Paul refers to God as savior, a reflection of the christological development by which Jesus is understood to be one with God. All of this makes one thing clear: Paul’s greetings were anything but typical. They served as an announcement of the gospel with which he had been entrusted and commanded to proclaim. In these four verses, Paul reminds Titus and every subsequent reader of the radical and revolutionary nature of the gospel of Christ Jesus. Now he turns to the nature of the work Titus must do.

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Caesar as Savior We have already noted that it was not uncommon for the Roman emperor to be considered a “savior.” Julius Caesar was seen as the “common savior” because of his beneficence to all humanity. He was seen as a manifestation of the beneficent presence of the deity and as such was described on an Ephesian inscription as “god made maniEmperor Augustus fest.” With the reign of Caesar Augustus (27 BC–AD 14) and the establishment of the Pax Romana (“Roman Peace”), the Caesars were hailed as the saviors of humanity. A poem by the 1st C. AD Roman poet Virgil captures the essence of this understanding: All of this was part of Roman imperial propaganda to solidify the rule of the Caesars. In Paul’s time, when Bust of Gaius Julius Caesar the average Roman on the street heard the word “savior” she heard Augustus Octavius, first Roman Emperor. Capitoline the word Caesar! Museum, Rome. SIG 347, 760.6

CONNECTIONS

1. Paul’s modus operandi for ministry is clearly seen in this letter. It revolved around a ministry of presence and a ministry of correspondence. When he could not be present, he wrote letters, and these letters were his surrogate presence. We cannot always be present to those we serve, but we always have access to them through the ministry of correspondence. In our world, that correspondence may take a multitude of forms: traditional letters, phone calls, text messages, e-mails, etc. It is easier than ever to stay in touch with others and never more (Credit: Rosemania / Wikimedia important! Commons, CC-BY-2.0) 2. Paul never misses an opportunity to teach. Even the salutations of his letters are replete with gospel truth. This challenges us to consider how well we use our communications, whether letters, emails, faxes, or phone calls, as vehicles for teaching the faith. 3. Paul is ever cognizant of his role in salvation history. It will be faithfully fulfilled as long as he remembers that he is first of all a “servant of God.” It is not unusual for him to posture himself before his readers as a “servant” (cf. Rom 1:1; Phil 1:1). The Christian’s posture must always be that of “servant” of God and, therefore, servant of the world. Jesus both taught this and modeled it in his life and ministry: “The Son of man came not to be served but to serve” (Mark 10:45). In the Upper Room, he took a basin and a towel and washed his disciples’ feet, turning accepted conventions upside down. As Paul has done, so must Titus, assuming this posture and modeling it for the churches in Crete. Here is an important word for us today. The basin and the towel are standard equipment for the Christian in every age, and those called to leadership must lead as servants of God and the world. 4. As an “apostle of Jesus Christ,” Paul serves God and the world by proclaiming by word and deed the “good news” of Jesus Christ. Having been called by Jesus, he is sent by Jesus and bears the

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authority of the Jesus who said, “All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me. Go therefore and make disciples . . .” (Matt 28:18-19), and “You will receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you, and you shall be my witnesses . . .” (Acts 1:8). As Paul reminds Titus, so he reminds us that we are not in this alone. We go with the authority of the One who has called us and sent us, and he will empower us for the accomplishment of our mission. 5. “The faith” and “the knowledge of the truth” are what Paul seeks to strengthen in God’s elect. Certainly, “the knowledge of the truth” is what makes up “the faith” in terms of its content. But for Paul, this knowledge in and of itself is not enough. It must be “according to godliness,” i.e., a life pleasing to God. Faith, for Paul, is both an acceptance of the truths of the faith and an active obedience to the life that truth demands. Faith is acceptance of the gospel truth and the God to whom it points, and obedience to the life to which it calls us. Nothing short of this will do. 6. For Paul, faith, hope, and love are all essential marks of the Christian life (cf. 1 Cor 13:13!). Faith and hope are seen here as inextricably connected. Our hope is of “eternal life,” that life promised by God before the ages began. It is faith in this hope to which Paul calls people. The writer to the Hebrews also connects the two when describing faith as “the assurance of things hoped for, the conviction of things not seen” (Heb 11:1). 7. In his address to Titus, Paul reminds us that the Christian faith is one that brings us into relationship with others as well as with God. Our relationships with others may be understood as members belonging to the same family—a family of faith. Paul saw his relationship with Titus as similar to that between a father and his children. He was Titus’s “father” in faith, a relationship that he took seriously. How seriously do we take our relationships to others in this family of faith? If we took the relationships in our “earthly” family as seriously as we take our relationships in our faith family, what would our faith family look like? What does it look like? 8. Paul concludes his salutation with a blessing symbolizing that both Gentile and Jew become a new humanity in Christ Jesus. The Bible bears ample witness to the power of blessing individuals and groups. While the power of “blessing” is undiminished, the practice of blessing is largely lost in American culture. What might a rebirth of the practice of the “blessing” mean? It may change little on the outside, but it could make all the difference in the world on the

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inside! All human beings hunger to receive a blessing: the child from the parent, the parent from the child, the spouse from the other spouse, etc. How important is this blessing? Think of the many children who languish in despair yearning for a parent’s blessing all of their lives. Myron Madden’s wonderful book The Power to Bless is an important reminder of the power of blessing in our lives.11 Ultimately, of course, it is the blessing of God that we most need, and those who know God’s blessing must be God’s agents in bestowing that blessing on others. 9. For whatever reason, Paul apparently left Crete in a hurry and left Titus there to complete the work he started. There is a hard lesson here for many in ministry: letting go and letting someone else finish the work we started. It’s a matter of letting go and letting God complete God’s work. It is also the supreme affirmation of confidence in those charged to complete the work. It is a way of “blessing” them that they may become all God calls them to be.

Notes 1. For a helpful examination of similarities and differences between Paul’s letters and first-century Hellenistic letter forms, see Stanley Porter, ed., Handbook of Classical Rhetoric in the Hellenistic Period (330 B.C.–A.D. 400) (Boston: Brill Academic Publishers, 2001) esp. 171–94, 533–86; and M. Luther Stirewalt Jr., Paul, The Letter Writer (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003). 2. Paul commonly uses these titles in the salutations of his letters (Rom 1:7; 1 Cor 1:3; 2 Cor 1:2; Gal 1:3; Phil 1:2; 1 Thess 1:1; Phlm 3). 3. Acts 1:15-24, esp. vv. 21-22. 4. This is Paul’s use of the title for himself (as in his salutations) and in his listing of ministries (Rom 12:27-31; Eph 4:11-13). 5. While this substantivized adjective (eklektoi) appears frequently in the New Testament to designate “the elect,” it appears only sparingly in Paul’s writings, most significantly in Rom 9–11 in Paul’s discussion of Israel and God’s chosen people (see also 1 Cor 1:26-27 and 1 Thess 1:4). For Paul, “the elect” are those who have believed, who have confessed their faith in Jesus the Christ, the Son of God. 6. TLNT 1:489. 7. Matt 15:6; Mark 7:13; Luke 5:1; John 10:35; Acts 11:1; Rom 9:6; 1 Cor 14:36; 2 Cor 2:17; 1 Thess 2:13; Phil 1:14; Col 1:25; 1 Tim 4:5; 2 Tim 2:9; Heb 4:12; 1 Pet 1:23; 1 John 1:10; Rev 1:2, etc. 8. “The father is bound in respect of his son, to circumcise, redeem, teach him Torah, take a wife for him, and teach him a craft” (b.Qidd. 22a; b. Sanh. 19b). 9. Hom. Tit. 13:521-22.

Titus 1:1-4 10. The designation “Savior” is used six times in Titus: three times for Christ Jesus (1:4; 2:13; 3:6) and three times of God (1:3; 2:10; 3:4), always in close proximity. For Paul, God is our savior in that God is the source of our salvation. That salvation is effected by Jesus Christ. In Hebrew, the name Jesus means “Yahweh saves.” 11. Myron Madden, The Power to Bless (Harrisburg PA: Morehouse, 1999).

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Titus’s Charge Titus 1:5-9

COMMENTARY Paul’s Instructions to Titus, 1:5

Rather than the expected prayer of thanksgiving, Paul moves directly to the body of the letter proper, a pattern also found in Galatians and 1 Timothy (as would be the case in a The Mandatum Principiis mandatus principiis letter) [The Mandatum The mandatum principiis was a letter Principiis]. In each case, the nature of the from a ruler or high official to one of his official representatives (governors, delegates, situation addressed requires urgent ambassadors, agents, etc.) offering instruction in attention. In Galatians and 1 Timothy, the establishment of his office and the carrying Paul must move quickly to refute the out of his duties. Besides official duties, there is presence of a false gospel propagated by often a call to be a model of behavior and to imitate the behavior of the sender. Since it was false teachers. Here he charges Titus an extremely common letter form in the 1st C. with the ordering of newly established (Dio Cassius, Rom. Hist. 53.15.4), it is likely that congregations on the isle of Crete, a Paul would have been familiar with it. An example work to which Titus must attend appears in Philo, Flacc. 74. without hesitation, for Paul cannot assure the well-being of these newly birthed churches alone. The clear implication is that Paul has himself been in Crete. Now Paul, concerned about the somewhat chaotic situation upon his hasty departure, writes to remind Titus of his charge. In short, he says, “I have left you there so that you should put in order what remained to be done and should appoint elders in every town, as I directed you.” The verb dietaxam∑n here means “to set right,” “to correct,” “to put in order.” What needs to be “put in order” is literally “the things that are left undone,” that is, “the things that still need doing.” The implication is that what Paul began during his limited ministry must now be completed, and Titus is charged with this task. Titus must appoint elders “in every town” or “town to town,” implying a successful mission on Crete, not suggesting that there was a church in every town but rather that in every town where there was

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a church, elders should be appointed. Luke tells us that this was a common Pauline practice (see Acts 14:21-23; 20:28). While “elders” (presbyterous) can simply refer to older men in a community (as in 1 Tim 5:1), these elders are not chosen on the basis of their age but on the basis of character. “Elders” played a significant role in first-century Jewish communities, and the presence of a large Jewish population on Crete suggests that the Cretans were familiar with the office.1 Titus is to do the work “as I directed you,” a reminder both to Titus of Paul’s earlier verbal instructions and to the Cretan Christians that Titus acts on Paul’s authority. But does this phrase refer back to what has just been said or forward to what is about to be said? Either reading is possible. If it looks back, then it means Titus must be about the task of appointing elders (and, perhaps, whatever is necessary to put things in order). If it points forward, then it refers to the qualifications of the elders that are set out in the following verses. The Qualifications of Church Leaders, 1:6-9

Synagogue elders served as guardians of the community’s ethics and traditions. They were well-known and well-respected members of the Jewish community who were expected to lead by example. The character and function of synagogue elders served as a template for elders in the Christian communities. Paul seems to assume that Titus and/or the church community would know the duties of these elders. Certainly, these duties were familiar to Titus and required no elaboration. It suggests the possibility that those “overhearing” the letter would assume that the elders would serve in ways similar to those who served in the synagogue. Paul’s concern here is not with defining the duties but with describing the character of prospective elders: 1. An elder must be “blameless” (anegkl∑tos), that is, above reproach so as not to cast negative aspersions on the gospel. 2. An elder must be “married only once” (mias gynaikos an∑r, lit., “one-woman man”). The latter has been interpreted in a number of ways.2 These include the following: (a) an elder must be married (singles need not apply!). However, this is unlikely because it would make 1 Timothy 5:9 a tautology saying that a widow could be enrolled if she were married.

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(b) if widowed or divorced, an elder must not remarry. (c) an elder must not have more than one wife at a time (i.e., polygamy is not allowed). This is unlikely since polygamy and polyandry were highly condemned in the Greco-Roman culture with the exception of some Eastern royalty.3 (d) an elder must be faithful to his one wife. Arguments supporting and opposing each view abound. The emphasis on faithfulness in the biblical tradition and the emphasis on being morally irreproachable in this context suggest that the last is perhaps most the most likely interpretation, particularly given the fact that unfaithfulness in marriage was widespread in the first century.4 3. An elder must have children who “are believers, not accused of debauchery and not rebellious” (lit., “having faithful children, not in an accusation of wastefulness or disobedience”). While “faithful” could mean loyal and faithful to their familial responsibilities, the context suggests faithfulness to Christ and the Christian way as a result of faithful instruction in the home. Furthermore, no one should be able to accuse the elder’s children of being wasteful or stubborn (see Eph 6:4a; Col 3:21). In the first-century world where material goods were believed to exist only in limited quantities, wastefulness was considered a serious failing that brought suffering and shame to family and community alike. Interestingly, the word is used here in its adverbial form, as the word “loose” is used in Luke 15:13 to describe the way of life of the prodigal son. Similarly, “stubbornness” is a quality that quickly disrupts the harmony of family and community as one person’s will comes into conflict with the will of others. One sign of a person’s readiness for the functions of an elder is the ability to manage faithfully one’s own household. 4. An elder must be “blameless,” that is, the “overseer” must be “beyond reproach” as he carries out his function of being “God’s steward.” Verse 7 introduces the word “overseer” (episkopos). While most English translations render the Greek word episkopos as “bishop,” thereby begging the question of whether it is to be understood as an official title, the word literally means “overseer” and in its most basic sense refers to a function rather than an office. This usage makes most sense in our context. Rather than suddenly inserting the qualifications of another “office” (the office of bishop), Paul refers to the function of the elders. They are to oversee the lives of the new congregations. In short, the terms

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“elder” and “overseer” are in keeping with Luke’s description of the Ephesian “elders” (Acts 20:17) to whom Paul spoke in Miletus and who have the function of “overseers” (Acts 20:28). With this designation, Paul introduces the image of the church as the household of God and the overseer as a steward of the household, a dominant image in the Pastorals (1 Tim 3:1-2, 15). [The First-century Hellenistic Household] The word translated “steward” (oikonomos) refers to someone responsible for managing or administering something, typically a household or an estate (cf. Luke The First-century Hellenistic Household The dominant ecclesiastical metaphor in the Pastorals is the “house” or “household” of God (oikos or oikia). This is not surprising given the fact that (1) it has strong Old Testament roots, (2) the “household” was the basic unit of Greco-Roman society, and (3) the early Christian churches were primarily “house churches.” The notion that God dwelt among his people goes back to the tradition of the ark of the covenant (Exod 25–31, 36–40). The “house of God” was God’s dwelling place. The tabernacle was built to house the ark until it came to rest in Solomon’s temple (1 Kgs 8:4; 2 Chr 5:5). The house of God (Dan 1:2; 1 Kgs 3:1) was the temple in which God dwelt (2 Sam 7:1-6, 12-13; 1 Kgs 5:5; 6:11-14). According to Josephus (Ant. 8.4.1, par. 102), the temple “was a sign of God’s being present and dwelling.” The temple was “house of God,” the place where God dwelt. In 1 Tim 3:15, Paul refers to the church as the “household of God, which is the assembly [ekkl∑sia] of the living God.” The notion of an “assembly” of God’s people also has a significant Old Testament background. In the biblical account of the time of the exodus, Israel is frequently referred to as a “gathering” or “assembly” (qahal) or the “assembly of Yahweh” (qahal YHWH; e.g., Deut 23:2-4[LXX]). The Septuagint renders the Hebrew qahal as synagoge or ekklesia. The community assembled to hear the word of the Lord spoken through Moses (Deut 4:10; 9:10; 18:16; 31:30).With the building of the temple, the “house of the Lord,” these two traditions came together: the temple was the place where God dwelt and, therefore, the place where God’s people came together to meet God. The household was the basic constitutive unit of the Greco-Roman society that Paul knew. Households were structured and functioned according to traditional social patterns. The paterfamilias was the undisputed head. The household consisted of his wife, children, slaves, and assorted clients, each of whom had a specific place and function in the household. As early as the time of Plato and Aristotle, “household codes” were developed to delineate how the members of the household were to function and relate to each other and to foster social order, social responsibility, and respect for one another’s role in society. Catalogs of virtues were also developed that reflected social expectations for members of the household. First-century Mediterranean House 2 Tim 2:20-21 presents a picture of a well-ordered household: “In a large house there are utensils not only of gold or silver but also of wood and clay, some for special use, some for ordinary. All who cleanse themselves of the things I have mentioned will become special utensils, dedicated and useful to the owner of the house, ready for every good work.” The first Christian “assemblies” (ekkl∑siais) met in homes. Paul due to lack of digital rights. wrote “the church in their/your house” (Rom 16:5; 1 Cor 16:19; Please view the published Phlm 2; cf. Col 4:45). There they listened to the first preachers and commentary or perform an Internet teachers, prayed, broke bread together, celebrated the “Lord’s search using the credit below. Supper,” cared for one another’s needs, and extended hospitality to traveling missionaries. In fact, Paul’s letters were written to ekklesiais who gathered in someone’s house to hear them read. In 1 Tim 3:15, Paul writes to provide instructions to those who in Christ have become “the household of God [oikos theou], which is the church Drawing of the House of the Faun, Pompeii. (Credit: © DeA [ekkl∑sia] of the living God.” Picture Library/Art Resource NY)

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12:42; 16:1-8) but here a congregation or church seen as the household of God. Such a person must be “blameless” (anenkl∑ton). The repetition of this quality is not because of the introduction of the “bishop” but rather the mention of the overseeing function. Not only must elders be without reproach as individuals, but they must also be beyond reproach in carrying out their function in God’s household. [The Overseer and the Philosopher]

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The Overseer and the Philosopher There are striking similarities between Paul’s description of the overseer and the 1st-C. philosopher Epictetus’s description of the philosopher (Discourses 3.22). Speaking of the calling of the philosopher, he writes, “In a well-ordered house [en oikia kalos oikoumen∑] no one comes along and says to himself, ‘I ought to be the manager of this house [oikonomou]’” (3.22.3). For “in this great city, the world . . . there is a Lord of the Mansion [oikodespot∑s] who assigns each and everything in its place” (Discourses 3.22.4). The philosopher is “the scout [kataskopon] of the gods” (3.22.69; see 22.24.38). He is “sent by Zeus to men partly as a messenger in order to show them that in questions of good and evil they have gone astray” (Discourses 3.22.23; see 22.26-49). Epictetus even uses the verb “to oversee” (episkopeø) to describe the philosopher’s task (3.22.97). Interestingly, both Epictetus and Titus are associated with the city of Nicopolis, and a subscription added later to Titus says it was written in Nicopolis, a city to which Epictetus had gone as an exile.

5. Elders must “not be arrogant” (m∑ authad∑ ). “Arrogant” can mean “stubborn,” “headstrong,” “self-willed,” “obstinate.” It refers to those who are contemptuous of others, insisting on their own way regardless of the consequences. 6. Elders must not be “quick-tempered” (m∑ orgilon, used only here in the New Testament), meaning one who gets angry easily, a person who has a “short fuse.” 7. Elders must not be “addicted to much wine” (m∑ paroinon), referring to drunkenness, one of the vices of ancient society. Because of the scarcity of safe drinking water, wine became the drink of choice and necessity. Excessive drinking led to drunkenness. Thus, while the Bible does not call for complete abstinence, again and again it warns against drunkenness. 8. Elders must not be “violent” (m∑ pl∑kt∑n), from a verb meaning “to strike,” referring to the person who is quick to use physical force (or force of any kind?) to deal with annoyances and problems. The Foolishness of Greed 9. Elders must not be “greedy for gain” (m∑ The foolishness, indeed, danger of greed aischrokerd∑), describing a person who is shameis clearly seen in Jesus’ Parable of the lessly or, perhaps better, shamefully greedy. [The Rich Fool (Luke 12:15-21). The inner soliloquy Foolishness of Greed]

10. Elders must “be hospitable” (lit., “friend of strangers”). The inns of the Greco-Roman world were unsavory, dangerous places to stay. Hospitality was a cardinal virtue in the ancient Mediterranean world and was frequently

reveals a man who is totally self-absorbed (note the repetition of the first person!) and driven by greed to have more and keep it for himself. In a striking rebuke, God calls him a “fool.” In Acts 5:1-11, Luke tells the tragic story of Ananias and Sapphira, whose greed leads to their destruction. Paul knew the dangers of greed!

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emphasized in the early Christian communities where traveling teachers were frequent guests (see Matt 10:11; 1 Tim 3:2; 1 Pet 4:9; Did. 11:2-4; 1 Clem. 12:3). [Hospitality] Since local congregations often met in homes, traveling missioners could use the open home as a base of operations for preaching and teaching. Furthermore, “strangers” to the faith might also be welcomed for meals and/or lodging. “Most early Christians, particularly Gentile ones, likely came to Christian faith not by hearing about it in a synagogue, but by hearing the message over or after a meal in a friend’s home.”5 This is not surprising considering the significance of table fellowship in Jesus’ ministry, especially in Luke and the Acts narrative (2:43-47; 4:3235; 16:15; 21:7; 28:14; cf. Rom 16:4). 11. Elders must be “a lover of goodness” Good Works The concept of good works is theologically (phil-agathon, only here in the New Testament), determined. It is a way of characterizing referring to someone who both loves and does the whole of the Christian life as a work of God’s good things. Throughout the Pastorals, the grace with visible results, the fruit produced by importance of doing good works is repeatedly genuine faith. The concept depicts activities or a life of service that results from the experience of underscored (Titus 1:16; 3:1; 1 Tim 5:10; conversion and regeneration. The Christ event is 2 Tim 2:21; 3:17; see 1 Tim 2:10). In fact, it linked closely with good works. Titus 2:14 declares appears as a kind of shorthand for the living of that the self offering of Christ was designed to the Christian life. [Good Works] create a people zealous for good works (cf. Eph 2:10). The linkage between the Christ event and 12. Elders must be “prudent” (søphrona), the lifestyle established in 2:14 and 3:3-7 forms derived from a word meaning “to behave in a the basis for the implicit command issued in 3:8 sensible manner” and carrying the sense of that applies to those who place their faith in God being temperate, self-controlled, moderate, and (cf. 1 Tim 2:10 for a similar connection that is expressed by linking good works to one’s profesbalanced in one’s behavior. This represents one sion to be a genuine Christian). The connection of the four cardinal virtues on Hellenistic phibetween conversion and good works is thoroughly losophy together with phro∑nsis (wisdom, Pauline. Nowhere is this seen more clearly than in prudence, understanding), dikaiosyn∑ (justice), Eph 2:8-10, which might be viewed as the Pauline gospel in miniature. Such a connection can be and andreia (courage). It will be linked with seen in 2 Clem. 4:3, which calls on its readers to justice and godliness in 2:2. “confess him [Jesus] by our good works.” One 13. Elders must be “upright” (dikaion, lit., cannot help but think of the famous dictum attrib“righteous” or “just”), referring either to uted to Francis of Assisi: “Preach the gospel Hospitality The virtue of gracious hospitality was of great importance in the Greco-Roman world, particularly in the Near East. This was especially true in the early church. Luke deems it a mark of genuine conversion (see, e.g., Luke 19:1-10; Acts 16:11-15, esp. v. 15; 16:16-34, esp. v. 34). Open homes were the gathering places for the early communities of believers, providing a place for worship, evangelism, and instruction. The “house church” was the church of early Christianity, and it was dependent on hospitality. Furthermore, because the inns of the Roman world were notoriously dangerous and bawdy places, finding lodging in the home of a fellow Christian was a great gift. Providing lodging for traveling missionaries (see Phlm 22; 3 John 5-8) and letter carriers whose services made possible an important means of communication between church communities was also of crucial importance. For example, Aquila and Prisca welcomed Paul to Corinth, giving him accommodations and even an opportunity for employment (Acts 18:1-3).

everywhere. When necessary, use words.”

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behaving in a way that is morally and ethically acceptable or being “just” in the sense of being impartial and fair in one’s dealing with people. For Plato, fidelity to the god’s justice was the virtue promoting order and harmony among people.6 In the biblical tradition, of course, to be “righteous” or “just” can carry the notion of being in a right relationship with God and with others, and while all are called to exhibit this virtue, it was imperative that the king and the leaders of the people possess it (see, e.g., Ps 72:1-4). In the Hellenistic world, justice (understood as behavior that conformed to customs or law) was a cardinal virtue.7 14. Elders must be “devout” (hosion, lit., “pious”), which often appears alongside “upright” (dikaion) in Greek literature. According to Josephus, the good kings of the Deuteronomist’s history of Israel were “just” and “pious,” and their justice included faithful fulfillment of God’s commandments. For Paul, the elder must be just (dikaion) and pious (hosion; see Luke 1:75; Eph 4:24; 1 Thess 2:10). 15. Elders must be “self-controlled” (enkrat∑, lit., “in control”). The Greeks often linked this with “temperance.” According to Philo, together with the art of shepherding (poimenikon) and household management (oikonomikon), self-control is one of the three fundamental characteristics of statesmanship.8 Barnabas 2:2 links self-control with patience and endurance. The “Faithful Sayings” The phrase pistos ho logos, translated It signifies “the free, autonomous, and indeeither as “this is a trustworthy saying” pendent person, who does not allow himself to or “this is a faithful saying,” appears five times in be tempted or diverted by any allurements.”9 the Pastorals, three times in this form (1 Tim 3:1; Polycarp (Phil. 5:2) also lists self-control as a 2 Tim 2:11; Titus 3:8) and twice in the longer form pistos ho logos kai pas∑s apodoch∑s axios (“This is quality of one who serves the community. In v. 10, we are introduced to the rhetorical role of the elder who must effectively communicate the faith as both persuader and apologist. Faithfulness to this task requires a firm grasp of “the word that is trustworthy in accordance with teaching.” “The word that is trustworthy” (pistou logou) is literally “the faithful word” or “trustworthy saying.” [The “Faithful Sayings”] This expression appears again in 3:8 and in both 1 and 2 Timothy together with specific formulations of traditional material (1 Tim 1:15; 3:1;

a faithful [trustworthy] saying, worthy of full acceptance”). The identical wording and similar function identify the expression as a literary formula that may be used as a formula of endorsement, a kind of “Amen,” when it follows that to which it is joined (1 Tim 4:9; 1 Tim 3:1; Titus 3:8). These sayings can be and ought to be believed because they are reliable affirmations of faith. When the formula precedes the saying (1 Tim 1:15; 2 Tim 2:11), it serves as a kind of invitation to believe such a statement. In either case, the formula functioned much like the Hebrew “Amen” that is used to emphasize the importance of the statement to follow (e.g., Matt 5:18; John 1:51) or as an affirmation of the reliability of that which precedes it (Rev 5:14; 19:4; 22:20).

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4:9; 2 Tim 1:11). These “faithful sayings” are “in accordance with the teaching,” that is, the teaching which Paul has received and passed on to Titus so that he may pass it to the elders he appoints. [Transmission of Tradition in the Early Church] The elder’s firm grasp on the “faithful sayings” of the sound teaching enables both faithful proclamation and refutation and correction of opponents. Interestingly, the role of the philosopher is described in a strikingly similar way. The philosopher must teach the truth and defend the truth. Effective communication in these endeavors will require knowledge of the basic tools of persuasion, which Paul models by employing enthymemes, comparisons, and paradigms in this letter.

Transmission of Tradition in the Early Church From the beginnings of the church, Christians passed on the “traditions” of the faith. The preaching of the first Christians consisted of passing on the traditions about Jesus, as the preaching in Acts demonstrates. After his conversion, Paul spent time in and around Damascus where the active Christian community passed on to him traditions about Jesus. After three years, he went up to Jerusalem where he met with Peter and James (Gal 1:18-19) and learned more of the stories about and teachings of Jesus. In 1 Corinthians, Paul employs traditional rabbinic language for the “receiving” and “handing over” of sacred traditions as he discusses the Lord’s Supper (11:23-26) and the essential message of the gospel and the resurrection (15:3 ff.). For further discussion, see A. M. Hunter, Paul and His Predecessors (London: S.C.M. Press, 1961); Birger Gerhardsson, Memory and Manuscript (Grand Rapids MI: Eerdmans, 1998); and Richard Bauckham, Jesus and the Eyewitnesses (Grand Rapids MI: Eerdmans, 2008).

CONNECTIONS 1. Paul’s charge to Titus to put things “in order” is reminiscent of his charge to the Corinthians to see that “all things should be done decently and in order,” for “God is not a God of disorder” (1 Cor 14:40, 33). Though no one particular “order” is set out in the New Testament and church history bears ample testimony that a multitude of “orders” have served the church’s purposes at various times and places, a purposeful orderliness should characterize a congregation’s life, enabling members both to be equipped for the work of ministry and to have opportunities for ministry. 2. Those who look to Titus (and the Pastorals in general) for a model of church governance will be disappointed. We learn that there will be “elders” in every church, but we are told nothing about their duties except that they will “oversee” the congregations. Paul’s clear concern is not with “what” they will do but with “who” they are! One might suggest that he believed the right kind of people would do the right things. 3. The qualifications fall into two categories: behavior (vv. 6-9) and belief (v. 10). Interestingly, behavior seems to be the first thing

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on Paul’s mind (vv. 6-9). Orthopraxy and orthodoxy are both important, but Paul understands that orthodox proclamation without orthopraxy makes a mockery of the faith we proclaim. On the other hand, orthopraxy without orthodox proclamation gives no reason for our behavior. This is never an either/or for the Christian and those who would be leaders in the church. It is always a both/and, but the tendency seems to be to focus on the necessity of orthodoxy. “They profess to know God, but they deny him by their action” (1:16).

Notes 1. Both Philo (Legat. 282) and Josephus (Ant. 17.237; Life 242) speak of the Jewish population of Crete (cf. 1 Macc 15:23). Josephus took a Jewish wife from Crete. 2. For a thorough examination of the various interpretations, see I. H. Marshall, The Pastoral Epistles (ICC; Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1999) 154–57. 3. Ben Witherington, Letters and Homilies to Hellenized Christians (Downers Grove IL: IVP Academic, 2006) 109; Tacitus, Histories 5.2. 4. Witherington, Letters and Homilies, 109–10. 5. Ibid., 116. 6. Republic 4. 443c-e; Odysseus 6.120. 7. See, for example, Plato, Euthyphro 12c-e; Gorgias 507b; Republic 1.331a; Polybius, Histories 22.10.8; Philo, Moses 2.108; Flight 63; Josephus, Ant. 8.12.2, par. 295; 12.2.5, par. 43); Homer, Odyssey 6.120. For Plato, justice was the virtue of promoting order and harmony among people (Republic 4.443c-e), which included fidelity to the gods. 8. Joseph 54. According to Philo, “It takes its stand against pleasure, which thinks that it can direct the course of human weakness” (Alleg. Interp. 1.69; Joseph 54). Plato specifically identifies temperance as a quality required of an overseer (episkopoi sophrosyn∑s, Laws 8.849a) and taught that a prince must be able to master himself and maintain order and harmony in the community (Republic 4.428b-432a; Laws 3.697c-e; 6.757a-c). 9. EDNT 1.377.

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The Problems Titus Faces Titus 1:10-16

COMMENTARY Employing the common rhetorical device of synkrisis or comparison, Paul now paints a colorful picture of those who stand in need of immediate correction. [Synkrisis] The Synkrisis contrast with the faithful elders just Synkrisis was a popular rhetorical device described (vv. 5-8) could not be more that was most often a comparison by dramatic, and the comparison provides contrast. Plutarch says, “It is not possible to learn better the similarity and the difference between a clear set of characteristics by which to the virtues of man and women from any other identify the false teachers. In short, source than by putting lives beside lives and their teaching and its ramifications in action beside actions, like great works of art” the lives of those who heard them and (Mor. 345C-351B). Aelius Theon (writing contemporaneously) says, “Comparison [synkrisis] is a in the lives of those they appoint mean form of speech which contrasts the better and Paul must act quickly and decisively to the worse. Comparisons are drawn between silence them. That the false teachers are people and between things. . . . When one distin“rebellious” suggests that the problem is guishes between people, one takes into consideration their acts” (Forbes, 143–44). “in-house,” and the fact that they are Quintilian stresses that as one begins to develop “many” suggests that this is no mean rhetorical skills, one hones that ability by proinsurgency. Their identification as “idle ceeding to “more important themes such as the talkers” implies that in the end their praise of famous men and the denunciation of the wicked. . . . It is but a step from this to practice in teaching is nonsense that results in comparison of the respective merits of two char1 deception. That they come “especially acters” (Inst. 2.4.20-21; see Witherington, 117). from the circumcision” could refer to Christopher Forbes, “Paul and Rhetorical Composition,” in Paul in Jews in general, for a large Jewish poputhe Greco-Roman World: A Handbook, ed. J. Paul Sampley (Harrisburg PA: Trinity Press International, 2008). lation existed on Crete, but it is most Ben Witherington, Letters and Homilies to Hellenistic Christians: likely a reference to Jewish believers in A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on Titus, 1–2 Timothy and 1–3 John (Downers Grove IL: InterVarsity, 2006). Jesus. Paul was often dogged by Torahobservant Jewish Christians who insisted that Gentiles must be circumcised in order to become Christians (see especially Gal 2:6; Rom 4:12, etc.), and the situation here may be similar to that addressed in Galatians. [The Judaizers] They

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“must be silenced” (dei epstomizein) renders a verb that originally referred to the reining in and muzzling of wild horses. The subsequent reference to Cretans as “wild beasts” (v. 12) makes it an especially appropriate choice here. The anonymous “many . . . are upsetting whole families.” The verb (anatrepø) can be understood in the sense of undermining someone’s faith. The gravity of the problem is emphasized by the fact that whole households are being subverted! Furthermore, those engaged in this subversion are “teaching for sordid gain.” They teach what they ought not to teach (the elliptical ha m∑ dei), and they do this for money! In first-century Greco-Roman society, teachers made their livelihood in one of four ways: they might be supported by a wealthy patron (e.g., some have argued that Theophilus was Luke’s patron [Luke 1:1-4; Acts 1:1-5]), work at their own trade (e.g., Paul worked as a leatherworker), beg for alms, or charge fees. Paul seemed content with following his own trade as a means of support in keeping with Jewish tradition as reflected in m. >Abot 2:2: “Fitting is learning in Torah along with a craft, for the labor put in the hands of them makes one forget sin. And all learning of Torah which is not joined with labor is destined to be null and cause sin.” On the other hand, the troublemaking teachers in Crete seem to have opted for the last of these. Indeed, from Paul’s perspective, their fees had become their focus! The profit motive was the prime motive. In short, the “bottom line” for these people was not the faithful development of their hearers but the lining of their own pockets. Paul’s disdain for such people is clearly reflected as early as 1 Thessalonians 2:5-6, where he reminds the Thessalonian Christians that he did not preach or teach to please mortals or as a pretext for greed. Nevertheless, Paul knows that there are wolves in sheep’s clothing eager to fleece the flock of God for their own advantage, and such are the troublemakers in Crete. In v. 12, Paul suggests that this should not be surprising since one of the Cretans’ own prophets had said, “Cretans are always liars, vicious brutes, lazy gluttons.” He quotes the words attributed

The Judaizers Acts and Paul’s letters suggest that there were Jewish Christians (that is, Jews had come to believe that Jesus was the messiah) who believed Gentile converts to Christianity must conform to the requirements of Torah, including circumcision. Paul, on the other hand, argued that both Gentiles and Jews were saved by faith. Paul seems to have been dogged by Judaizers at almost every turn. The evidence in both sources demonstrates that these Jewish Christians struggled to accept Gentiles apart from Judaism. It took a vision to convince Peter to accept this (Acts 10–11). This was the reason for the Jerusalem Conference in Acts 15 that affirmed Paul’s understanding of the gospel. When Paul returned to Jerusalem after his third mission, it is clear that the issue was still alive among Jewish Christians in Jerusalem. Because of the large Jewish population in Crete, one could surmise that many of the converts there were Jewish Christians who could easily be attracted by a Judaizing perspective.

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Prophets and Poets to Epimenides, a much-revered, saintly, In his book Finally Comes the Poet, Walter seventh-century BC Cretan poet whom Paul Brueggemann suggests that the prophets calls a “prophet” because the poet’s descripwere the poets of Israel whose calling was to shatter tion is indeed true. There is, in fact, a striking settled realities and evoke new possibilities. T. S. Eliot maintained that there were two kinds of poets: major similarity between the role of the poet and and minor. The major poets set forth the eternal that of the prophet. [Prophets and Poets] Both are truths by which humankind must live. The minor truth-tellers. According to Epimenides, poets write in every age to challenge, encourage, and “Cretans are always liars” (pseustai ), “vicious inspire us to seek to attain them. Interestingly, Plato banned poets from his Republic! brutes” (th∑ria), and “lazy gluttons” (gasteres Walter Brueggemann, Finally Comes the Poet (Minneapolis: argiai, lit., “lazy stomachs,” a classic metonyAugsburg, 1989). mous use of “stomach”).2 By the first century, Epimenides’ epithet had become proverbial in the Medea Mediterranean world. Indeed, in his third century BC Hymn to Zeus, the librarian and scholar Callimachus would write, “Cretans are always liars. Yes, O Lord, the Cretans built a tomb for you but you did not die, for you are forever.”3 The origins of this notion may be traced back to a dispute between Thetis and Medea over which one was more beautiful. Idomeneus of Crete was entrusted with the decision. When he chose Thetis, Medea is reported to have said, “Cretans are always liars,” and placed a curse on them so that they would never tell the truth.4 For the false teachers about whom Paul writes, the “lie” is about God, and such “lies” are expected from Cretans. They were also known for their myths, i.e., unreal stories, leading Strabo to contrast the “myths” of the Cretans with “history,” his term for “facts” or “truth.”5 From Paul’s perspective, Epimenides’ epithet After being judged less beautiful both summarizes and supports what he has just said in vv. than Thetis, Medea is said to have cursed Idomeneus (and thus all 10-11. They are, after all, “liars and deceivers.” Cretans) with the inability to tell the Furthermore, they are “rebellious” like “vicious brutes,” truth. a metaphorical description of being wild and unruly, and Evelyn de Morgan (1855–1919). Medea. [Credit: Wikimedia Commons, PD-Art (PD-oldlike “lazy gluttons” they are “greedy for gain.” In fact, the auto)] Cretans also had a reputation for greed. Polybius writes, “So much in fact do sordid love of gain and lust for wealth prevail among them, that the Cretans are the only people in the world in whose eyes no gain is disgraceful.”6 The Roman historian Livy notes that this greed made them easy prey for those recruiting mercenaries,7 and Plutarch acknowledges this legendary greed when he writes about Aemilius Paulus playing the Cretan

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against the Cretans.8 It is not surprising that there was a Greek verb kretizø that literally meant “to Cretanize,” the connotation of which was “to lie and cheat”! Paul’s witness to the truth of Epimenides’ witness suggests a note of irony. The poet’s description aptly describes the false teachers who are perpetuating the stereotype! “For this reason rebuke them sharply,” Paul writes in v. 13. The seriousness of the situation is reflected in the severity of the necessary rebuke. Yet Paul makes it clear that this rebuke is for a redemptive purpose, “so that they may Church Discipline become sound in the faith.” [Church Discipline] Both Jesus and Paul address the matter of With the definite article here, “faith” probchurch discipline. Jesus outlines a three-step process for disciplining a member of the church who ably refers to the body of teaching that Paul sins against another in Matt 18:15-35: had received and handed on to Titus (cf. 1 Cor 15:3). The troublemakers must return (1) Discuss the matter with the offender one on one. to an authentic understanding of the faith, (2) If the first step does not work, bring the matter before two or three other members of the church and Titus is charged with the responsibility of community. seeing that this happens. They must stop (3) If step 2 doesn’t work, bring the matter to the “paying attention to Jewish myths or to comwhole church. mandments of those who reject the truth.” If the offender refuses to listen to the counsel of the Once again, Paul’s instruction suggests that community, “let such a one be to you as a Gentile certain Jewish elements are involved in the and a tax collector” (Matt 18:17). (It is not often teaching of the troublemakers. “Jewish” noticed that Jesus offered forgiveness to “Gentiles (‘Ioudaikois) appears only here in the New and tax collectors”!) This is followed immediately by Jesus’ admonition to forgive an offending member Testament. Used here with “myths,” it sugseventy-seven times, which is in turn immediately gests the origins (that is, originating from followed by the Parable of the Unforgiving Servant! Jews or Jewish teachings) and the nature of Paul addresses this in the Corinthian corresponthese myths. Since the time of the poet dence. In 1 Cor 5, he calls upon the Corinthian church to discipline a member of the congregation. The aim Pindar, Greeks had used the term “myths” of this action is redemptive in nature (v. 5), as all (mythois) to designate unreal or fabled stories such discipline should be. In 2 Cor 2:5-11, he calls about the deities.9 The Cretans were famous upon the church to forgive an offender who has been for their myths, which the Roman geographer disciplined by the congregation. The pattern here is the same as in Jesus’ discussion of discipline in Strabo contrasted with “history,” his label for Matthew. The purpose of church discipline is always truth.10 Philo contrasts “myths” with “real redemptive and requires the forgiveness of the facts”11 and the unfeigned truth,12 and states offender. that there is no myth in the words of Moses contained in the Torah.13 In fact, “Jewish myths” is a phrase Jews never would have used of their religious traditions. Paul’s allusion to “the commandments of men,” a phrase that recalls the biblical expression “human precepts” (Isa 29:13),

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appears in Mark 7:6-8 to describe Jewish halakah. [Halakah and Haggadah] In fact, “Jewish myths and the commandments of men” is likely to be a reference to Jewish haggadah (stories) and halakah (commandments) that have come to play a central role in the teaching of the troublemakers. Paul emphasizes the fact that these stories and commandments are of human origin and are attractive only to “those who reject the truth,” in contrast to those who desire “a full knowledge of the truth which leads to godliness.” Employing the language of ritual purity, Paul extends his argument in v. 15. The literary artistry that marks the Greek text of this verse is striking. It begins with the word “everything” (panta, lit., “all things”) and ends with the word “nothing” (ouden), creating a sharp contrast. Its reveals an ABBA chiastic structure marked by antithetical parallelism that can be rendered as follows: (A) All things are pure (B) to the pure (B) But to the defiled and faithless (A) nothing is pure

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Halakah and Haggadah Because doing God’s will was essential to both one’s own well-being and the well-being of the people as a whole and because the Torah set out God’s will, understanding God’s will as set out in Torah was essential. The development of halakah was inevitable. Halakah, a noun derived from the Hebrew root hlk, “to walk,” and usually translated “law,” “denotes a specific ruling, a legal statement or discussion, the general category of legal material or that portion of rabbinic literature which is not haggadah.” It “focuses on activity in which primarily Jews should be engaged in personal, social, national, and international relationships, as well as in all other practices and observances of Judaism” (ABD 3:26). According to the rabbinic tradition, the major source of the halakah was the written Torah. Alongside this stood the oral Torah, that part of halakah that was not explicitly contained in the written Torah. Still part of the oral Torah derives from directly from and may have come into being as a result of the exegesis of the written Torah. According to rabbinic tradition, the oral Torah was delivered to Moses at Sinai and transmitted orally through Joshua, the elders, the Prophets, the men of the Great Assembly, and the rabbis (mishnah ‘Abot 1:1). Haggadah, from the Hebrew root ngd, meaning “to show, announce, tell, testify, is generally defined as that non-legal material in rabbinic literature which often assumes a narrative or story form.” Haggadic material may deal with morals, ethics, and daily life, provide motivation to follow the ways of Yahweh, discuss the attributes of God, and/or provide comfort and/or encouragement. While halakah teaches by setting forth rules and principles, haggadah enlightens by means of story and is therefore more imaginative, free-wheeling, and varied in content. Halakah appeals to the intellectual processes, while haggadah appeals to the imagination.

“All things are pure to the pure” (v. 15). Here, the first “pure” refers to ritual purity, while the second refers to moral purity. All things are pure to those who are morally pure. In contrast, for those who are “defiled and faithless,” nothing is pure, not even the rituals they may perform. The statement is so beautifully crafted that Paul may be using an existing proverb or saying into which he inserts the phrase “and faithless” to make the contrast even starker. For the defiled and faithless, even “their very minds and consciences are corrupted.” The mention of “minds” and “consciences” suggests that Paul draws on the Hellenistic anthropology familiar to his

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The Human Predicament Paul addressed this in his description of the state of humanity in Rom 1–13. Humanity has “exchanged the truth about God for a lie” (Rom 1:25). As a result, humanity no longer even recognizes the truth, and all its ways are built on this lie. Commenting on this verse, Thomas Oden writes, Mark the sequence that follows: from mind to conscience to words to deeds. The problem begins with the defilement of their minds, which shapes and distorts their moral awareness. . . . When mental processes are corrupted at the center, then the conscience to some degree loses its

power to discern good and evil. Conscience itself becomes polluted. Defilement has thereby entered into the very citadel of selfhood, so that the defilement colors everything one sees. It is not merely a matter of ignorance but of morally distorted judgment that in time expresses itself outwardly in corrupt actions. If the mind is already corrupted in reason and conscience with a false conception of the Creator, then these ascetic practices are hardly going to be sufficient to set one straight. Thomas C. Oden, First and Second Timothy and Titus (Louisville: John Knox Press, 1989) 64.

readers. Even their “minds” (nous), i.e., their thinking processes, and their “consciences,” i.e., the center of their ethical mores, have been defiled. They can no longer tell the difference between what is pure and impure, what is right and wrong. [The Human Predicament] The false teachers openly profess faith, alleOn Practicing What They Preach giance, and dedication to God. “But they deny The danger of not practicing what one preaches is a theme found throughout him by their deeds” (lit., “But by their works, they the New Testament. Jesus has much to say deny.” This is an example of ellipsis [the verb on this subject. Take, for example, Matt 7:21 “deny” does not have an object], so “God” must be and 23:1-36. This theme is also prominent in supplied.). [On Practicing What They Preach] Because of the Johannine Epistles. See, for example, 1 John 1:6; 2:3, 9; 4:20; Rev 3:1c-2). See the this, “they are detestable, disobedient, unfit for any similar thought in 2 Clem. 2:2: good work.” “Detestable” (bdelyktoi) renders a strong word that can be translated “abominable,” So then, brothers, let us acknowledge him in our actions by loving one another, by not com“abhorrent,” “appalling,” or “disgusting.” The mitting adultery or slandering one another or passive verb suggests that God is meant to be the being jealous, but by being self-controlled, agent, i.e., God detests such flagrant hypocrisy. compassionate, and kind. And we ought to have sympathy for one another, and not be They are “detestable” because they are “disobeavaricious. By these actions let us acknowldient” (a-peitheis), and they are unfit (a-dokimoi), a edge him, and not by their opposites. word that can be translated “counterfeit.” Being counterfeit, they “are unfit for every good work.” [Faith and Obedience] Witherington charts the contrast between faithful elders and false teachers as follows:14 Faithful Elder House manager Blameless Not pursuing dishonest gain Not quick-tempered or intemperate Holding fast to sound tradition

False Teacher House wrecker Defiled conscience and works Unscrupulous teaching for gain Acting like a wild beast Liar, deceiver, embracing and teaching error

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Titus and the elders have a clear grid for identifying false teachers. They are not mentioned again in this letter. Note the “community,” aka “household” focus!

CONNECTIONS

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Faith and Obedience In much of Western Christianity there has been a tendency to separate faith and obedience. Faith is often understood to be no more than giving mental assent to certain propositional statements (e.g., a creed or confession). In the New Testament, however, faith and obedience are inextricably linked. In fact, faith and obedience might be likened to two sides of the same coin. Unless the coin has both sides, it is incomplete and worthless. James puts it this way: “Faith, by itself, if it has no works, is dead.” The inseparability of faith and obedience is found throughout the New Testament from Matthew to the Apocalypse (e.g., Matt 7:21; Mark 3:35; John 3:36; Rom 1:5; Eph 2:8-10; Heb 3:7– 4:13; 1 John 1: 3-6; Rev 2:1-7; 3:1-2). Nowhere is this better stated than by Dietrich Bonhoeffer, who wrote, “. . . only he who believes is obedient, and only who is obedient believes. . . . For faith is only real when there is obedience, never without it, and faith only becomes faith in the act of obedience.”

1. The contemporary relevance of Titus is readily apparent in this section. Paul’s description of the false teachers is as timely as the morning newspaper and the nightly news. There is always someone ready to preach the message that people want to hear in order to Dietrich Bonhoeffer, The Cost of Discipleship (New York: Collier Books, 1963) 69. pack their pews and fill their coffers. But beware, for often they are closer than we think. It is all too easy to be driven by the culture’s standards of success, which often equates to bigger barns (i.e., more people) and money. Who, after all, can argue with such obvious “success”? 2. Once again, Paul insists that we must practice what we preach! The heart of Paul’s condemnation is disobedience reflected in actions that deny the God they profess to know. Their preaching and teaching become “idle” talk and deception (1:10), for they must shape their message to justify their “rebellious” behavior; otherwise, their inconsistency becomes obvious. It’s all about “Christianity lite”! 3. What do we do when such false teachers appear? First, we must be sure that we are not among them (Matt 7:1-5). There is more than one way to water down the gospel until it is a “different” gospel (Gal 1:6-9). Then we must “rebuke them sharply,” but always with a specific goal in mind: “so that they may become sound in the faith” (1:13). This is the aim of church discipline. It must always be redemptive in nature, but it most often fails precisely at this point! Selfish interests, vindictiveness, and even hatred skew the process, leaving bodies all over the place and churches rent asunder. So we just abandon church discipline altogether, apparently unwilling to risk the kind of community in which it might actually be possible. We are left with anemic churches

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sporting a veneer of community that is only skin deep. I wonder what Paul would have to say.

Notes 1. TEV reads “deceive others with their nonsense,” JB “who talk nonsense and try to make others believe it,” and CEV “fool others by talking nonsense.” 2. Epimenides is said to have joked about his own people that the absence of wild beasts on the island was filled by the human inhabitants! (See Thomas Oden, First and Second Timothy, Titus [Louisville: John Knox Press, 1989] 61.) 3. Callimachus, Hymns 1.8-9. 4. Raymond Collins, I & II Timothy and Titus: A Commentary (NTL; Louisville KY: Westminster John Knox, 2002) 334. 5. Strabo, Geog. 10.3.20; 11.5.3. 6. Polybius, Histories 6.46. 7. Livy, Roman History 44.45.13. 8. Plutarch, Aemilius Paulus 23.4. 9. Pindar, Olympian Odes 1.28-29. 10. Strabo, Geogr. 10.3.20; 11.5.3. 11. Philo, Flight 121. 12. Philo, Rewards 162. 13. Philo, Giants 7. 14. Ben Witherington, Letters and Homilies to Hellenized Christians (Downers Grove IL: IVP Academic, 2006) 127.

What Titus Must Teach Titus 2:1-10, 15

COMMENTARY Paul turns his attention now to the things that Titus must teach. The rhetorical nature and unity of chapter 2 is striking and lends persuasive power to that which is being taught. Consider the following rhetorical features: 1. While it is common to divide chapter 2 into two units (vv. 1-10 and 11-15), the connecting gar (“for”) in v. 11 suggests that the theological and doxological material in vv. 11-15 contains the foundation for the ethical admonitions in vv. 1-10.1 2. The admonitions of 2:1 and 2:15 frame the entire unit. 3. Furthermore, 2:1-15 and 3:1-8 exhibit a similar structure:2 (a) exhortations (2:1-10; 3:1-2) (b) doctrinal foundation for exhortations (2:11-14; 3:3-7) (c) a concluding transitional remark that is both retrospective and perhaps prospective 4. Verses 1-5 of are actually one long sentence governed by the verb “teach,” while vv. 6-14 are governed by the imperative “urge” in v. 6. 5. Verses 4, 8, and 10 contain purpose clauses that close subsections of the entire section and lead up to the major explanatory clause introduced by “for” in v. 11. 6. The presence of three enthymemes (syllogisms with suppressed premises that the hearer/reader must supply for the syllogism to be complete); for example, in vv. 3-5: (a) Younger women must submit themselves to their own husbands, (b) [for outsiders will judge our faith based on their behavior], (c) so the word of God will not be discredited by observers; or in vv. 7-9, (a) Titus must set a good moral example and teach with integrity,

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(b) [for opponents are looking for inconsistencies in our leaders], (c) so the opponents can find nothing to criticize; or in vv. 9-11, (a) Slaves must subject themselves and give evidence of complete reliability, (b) [so that they will even be a good witness to their masters], (c) for by doing so, “they may be an ornament to the doctrine of God our Savior.”3 It is clear in each case that Paul’s concern is that Christians live in such a way that the witness of the community is not discredited by what outsiders would consider unseemly behavior. The gospel is scandalous enough; no need to add unnecessary offense! In 1:13, Paul exhorted Titus to “rebuke” the false teachers so that they might become “sound” in the faith. Now he commands Titus to “teach what is consistent with sound doctrine,” that is, the teaching that he, Paul, has received and passed Household Codes on to him. He is to pass on this teaching to The household codes found in the New three groups within the Cretan churches: Testament and other early Christian literaseniors (both male and female), youth (both ture are another example of groups borrowing a traditional literary convention as a means for setting male and female), and slaves. Though similar out their understanding of their faith and its implicato a “household code”—a common topos in tions for their lives. Household codes originated Greek literature dating back at least as far as as part of traditional discussions of household manAristotle in which the duties of various agement (peri oikonomos). Such discussions are found in a wide variety of Hellenistic literature members of a household are defined as in (e.g., Aeschylus, Suppl. 701-9; Xenophon, Mem. Ephesians 5:21–6:9 and Colossians 3:18–4:1 4.4.18-24; Aristotle, Rhet. Alex. 1; Isocrates, [Household Codes]—the groupings here do not Demon. 16). Early examples appear in the ethical follow the typical structure, and the concern writings of Aristotle (Politics 1.2.1-2; Mag. Mor. 1.33.15-18; Eth. nic. 8.10.4-6). here is with the behavior of various age and Typically, such “household codes” describe three gender groups rather than their functions. As pairs of reciprocally related social classes in which Collins so aptly says, “The soundness of the one group is regarded as superior to the other. This message is proclaimed in the lives of all discussion of household management was a common topic in philosophical (e.g., Epictetus, Christians, whether they be male or female, Discourses 2.10, 1-23; Seneca, Epistle 94.1) and older or younger.”4 Hellenistic Jewish writings (Philo, Decalogue 165-7; Paul turns first to the “older men” (lit., Hypothetica 7.14; Josephus, Ag. Ap. 2.23-29) con“elders” [presbytas]). A tradition attributed to temporary with the New Testament. In the New Testament, similar codes are found in Eph 5:22–6:9; Hippocrates indicates that a man is called “an Col 3:18–4:1; 1 Tim 2:1-2, 8-15; 5:1-8; 6:1-2; 1 Pet elderly man [presbytes] till fifty-six, up to seven 2:18-25; 3:1-4, 5-7; and also in 1 Clem. 1:3; 21:6-8; times eight; after that an old man [gerøn].”5 Ign. Pol. 4:1–6:1; Did. 4:9-11; Barn. 19:5-7. Paul sets forth six virtues that should charac-

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terize these “fifty-somethings” in two triads. The first represents traditional Hellenistic social virtues of sobriety, respect, and temperance, while the second focuses on the classic Christian trio of faith, love, and steadfastness (cf. 1 Thess 1:3). These last three depend on the participle “sound,” suggesting that they bear a special relationship to being “sound” (i.e., “healthy”) in the faith. We explore these six virtues now.

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Hippocrates

1. “Temperate” might be more faithfully translated “sober.” This word (n∑phalious) was originally used of an empty vessel set apart for cultic use, but gradually came to be used for the virtue of sobriety. According to Philo (who produced a treatise on this virtue!), “every evil Peter Paul Rubens. Hippocrates. Engraving. 1638. Courtesy of the National Library of which has drunkenness as its author Medicine. [Credit: Wikimedia Commons, PD-Art (PD-old)] has its counterpart in some good which is produced by soberness. Since sobriety is a source of the greatest profit to our bodies, to which the use of wine is a natural practice, how much more is it profitable to our souls, which have no relation to any perishable food?”6 Alcoholism, especially among older men and women, was such a major problem in the GrecoRoman world that the old drunk became a stock item for ridicule in Greco-Roman drama.7 Of course, Paul has already written of the incompatibility of drunkenness with the Christian lifestyle (1:7; 2:3). 2. “Serious” (semnous) could also be translated “well-respected” or even “venerable.” It means to behave with gravitas, not in a way that is scandalous or even odd, because of concern about one’s reputation and a seriousness of purpose. “The ‘gravitas’’ held in esteem by the ancient Roman was the high seriousness of a person not easily moved but who, when he did move, was deliberate and indeflectable.”8 According to Philo, “It is not given to youth but to old age to discern things precious and worthy of reverence, particularly

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those who are judged, not by unreasoning and deceitful sense but by mind when absolutely pure and unalloyed.”9 The Jewish apocryphal work 4 Macc. describes Eleazar as an old man (presbyta, 5:6) who says to Antiochus his antagonist, “You shall not defile the reverent lips of my old age nor my lifelong service to the Law” (5:36). 3. “Prudent” (søphronas) might be better translated “temperate.” Temperance was one of the four cardinal virtues often associated with venerability. Both women and men were to exhibit this virtue, which relates to character and the conduct of one’s life. Ultimately, it is the practical sense of knowing what to do and what not to do. “Sanity” and “sensibility” might also translate the term. According to Philo, this term is used for the health of the soul, the virtue that makes one’s thinking sane.10 Since at least the time of Aristotle, it was understood to be expressed differently in the lives of men and women.11 Thus, Paul encourages both men and women to exhibit this virtue in the manner appropriate to each. Citing Homer, Athenaeus states that moderation is to be taught to children as “the virtue that is most appropriate for young people and the first of all virtues, an element of harmony, and productive of good.”12 This first triad of qualities, all highly esteemed in Greco-Roman society, demonstrate “a deliberate and reflective integration of Christian life with some of the qualities that Hellenistic society and its spokesman considered most important in human life.”13 The remaining three virtues, “faith” (t∑ pistei), “love” (t∑ agap∑ ), and “steadfastness” (t∑ hypmon∑), appear as a classic Pauline description of the Christian life as early 1 Thessalonians (1:3; cf. 5:8). Paul encouraged the Thessalonians to remain steadfast in spite of the persecution, conflict, and suffering they faced. In the same way, Paul now encourages the new Christians on Crete to be marked by steadfastness in the hope of eternal life that he had set before them earlier in this letter. 4. “Faith” is trusting God to the point of obedience. 5. “Love” is a self-surrendering love for God and a self-sacrificing love for others. 6. “Steadfastness” is commitment to the Christian way no matter what. The middle member in such a triad often served to give definition to the other two. In this case, faith and steadfastness are to be exercised in the context of love. [Early Descriptions of Christian Life]

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Paul turns next to older women in the Early Descriptions of Christian Life Perhaps earliest was simply “faith and love” (see household of faith. Once again we may Gal 5:6; 1 Thess 3:6; 5:8), which summarized the assume that he is thinking of the “fiftybelievers’ relationship to God and one another. See also somethings”: the connection of faith and love in Ign. Eph 14:1: “None of 1. These women are “to be reverent in these things escapes your notice, if you have perfect faith behavior.” Here we have two compound and love toward Jesus Christ. For these are the beginning words otherwise absent from the Bible and end of life: faith is the beginning, and love is the end, and the two, when they exist in unity, are God. Everything but frequently used in Hellenistic litera- else that contributes to excellence follows from them.” ture. The Greek compound katast∑mati See also Ign. Smyrn 6:1: “Do not let a high position make referred to a person’s state, condition, or anyone proud, for faith and love are everything; nothing is demeanor. Hellenistic Jews used it to refer preferable to them.” In 1 Corinthians, writing to a divided community troubled by theological confusion about the to a person’s behavior or disposition.14 coming and revelation of Jesus, Paul added “hope,” still The compound hieroprepeis (lit., “fitting keeping “love” as the final word to the divided community. for a sacred place or person”) was used by In 1 Thessalonians, writing to a community plagued by classical authors to describe priests and persecution and suffering, he adds “steadfastness” as the last word as both a challenge and an encouragement to priestesses, sacred processions, etc. and stay the course in the face of the storm. Such “care”-ful translated “holy and venerable.” Philo intentionality! used the term to describe the Essenes, whom he understood to be living life as a kind of sacred liturgy15 and able to speak of the dedication of human faculties (thought, speech, and sense perception) to God, thus making them “sanctified and holy.”16 It is perhaps not going too far to suggest that Paul saw the behavior of these women as a kind of living liturgy. 2. They are “not to be slanderers” (diabolous). The Greek word here gave rise to the English “diabolical,” a reference to devilish activity. In the biblical tradition, the devil is the great slanderer. 3. They are not to be “slaves to drink” (lit., “slave to much wine”). The emphasis on sobriety and temperance parallels the instruction to older men (2:2; cf. 1 Tim 3:8), suggesting that this was a danger for both women and men. Once again, it is important to realize that in a context where water was a dangerous drink and wine became the standard table fare, drunkenness was frequent and frowned upon in Hellenistic culture. Since poorer women were seldom able to afford wine, drinking wine became sign of status.17 4. They are to “teach what is good,” that is, those things that enable the young women to be good. These instructions are to be given so that the older women “may encourage the young women” (lit., “make them modest”). “Young women” refers to women in their twenties. Modesty was the epitome of feminine virtue in the Hellenistic world and consid-

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ered especially important for younger women.18 The following are instructions for the “young women”: 1. They are “to love their husbands” (phil-androus, a compound word found only here in the New Testament). In a culture where arranged marriages were the order of the day, this is an important teaching. In Hellenistic culture, this was expected of and revered in the good wife. An epitaph found on a woman’s tomb from this period reads, “Julius Basus for Otacilia Polla, his sweetest wife. Loving to her husband and loving to her children [philander[o] kai philotekne], she lived with him unblamably [amemptos] for thirty years.”19 2. They are “to love their children.” In a world where “the good wife” was to love her children (see above), the reality was that children were given precious little importance. The significance of Paul’s charge can in no way be overestimated. 3. They are “to be self-controlled” (lit., “sensible”), as are the older men according to v. 2. 4. They are to be “chaste,” a word that has a ritual or ceremonial origin being used here in a moral sense of someone who is free from moral defect in thought, word, and deed. Paul probably shared the view of many Jews of his day that the Gentiles among whom they lived were sexual reprobates (see Lev 18; see, e.g., Rom 1:24-27; 1 Cor 5:1; 1 Thess 4:5), thus making this admonition a warning for young women in the Christian community to be on guard. 5. They are to be “good managers of the household” (oiko-urgous, found only here in the New Testament, a compound that can be rendered literally as “one who works at home,” i.e., “homemaker”). 6. They are “kind” (agathas, the feminine form of “good”), which could be seen as modifying homemakers or as standing alone as another quality. 7. They are to be “submissive to their husbands” (hypotassomenas tois idiois andrasin, lit., “submissive to their own husbands”). The inclusion of “their own” makes it clear that women are not subject to men in general, but rather subordinate in their own households (cf. Eph 5:22). The verb here includes elements of recognition of authority, subordination, and obedience. In the Hellenistic world, the husband was the paterfamilias and as such the unchallenged head of the household. Paul’s concern seems to be order in the

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household. The idea of wives submitting to their husbands is found elsewhere in the New Testament, e.g., 1 Peter 3:1; Colossians 3:18; and Ephesians 5:22. It is important to remember, however, that the call for submission in the Ephesians passage is immediately preceded by a call for all members of a household to “be subject to one another” (5:21)! [Submission]

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Submission Interestingly, in Pol. Phil 4:2, Polycarp does not speak of submission of wives to their husbands. Christian wives are “to walk in the faith that has been given to them and in love and purity, cherishing their own husbands [stergousas tous heautøn andras] in all truth and loving everyone equally in all chastity [enkrateia, see Titus 1:8), and to train their children in the training of the fear of God.” Clearly he understands the relationship of the wife to her husband to be borne out of deep and genuine love.

These qualities are to be manifested “so that the word of God may not be discredited” (lit., “so that the word of God may not be blasphemed”). Paul’s concern is clearly focused on the witness of the church in the world. He calls upon these Christians to live before the world in such a way that people outside the Christian household will not be scandalized by the Christian household. Christians must not live in such a way that non-Christians are prompted to despise the faith and as a result blaspheme against the word of God by which Christians live their lives. In short, Paul reminds us that the way we live our lives determines the nature and effectiveness of our witness to the world. We must not just talk the talk; we must walk the walk! Paul turns in v. 6 to “the younger men.” According to Philo (following Hippocrates), a man is “a young man until his whole body has grown, till four times seven; a man till forty nine, till seven times seven; and elderly man till fifty six, till seven times eight; after that an old man.”20 If Philo is reflecting a generally held view, we may assume that Paul is thinking of men between twenty-one and twenty-eight. Titus is to “urge” these younger men to act with discretion, i.e., they should exhibit a kind of wisdom that enables them to know what to do and what not to do. Paul’s insistence that older women teach younger women to be modest (søphronizøsin), young women to be modest (søphronas), and young men to act with appropriate discretion (søphronein) demonstrates the importance of this virtue. Titus is not merely to teach. He must practice what he teaches. He is also called to be a model for those whom he teaches. Indeed, “imitation” plays a significant role in the teaching/learning process in the ancient world, a role that Paul clearly understood and employed. [Imitation] Titus’s life is to exhibit the “good works” that are meant to characterize the Christian life (Eph 2:8-10; cf. Matt

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5:13ff., etc.). His example is to be completed by and interpreted by his teaching. He must teach with “integrity” (aphthorian). This description, when used of content, ascribes to it moral soundness, purity, and absence of corruption. In this context, however, it refers to the manner of Titus’s teaching and includes honesty, sincerity, and purity of motivation. Titus’s teaching should also reflect “gravity” (semnot∑s), a word suggestive of grandeur, magnificence, solemnity, a quality inspiring respect, fear, and/or reverence. According to Moulton and Milligan, it suggests what Latin authors would describe as gravitas, a word that evokes seriousness and formality.21 Titus’s teaching should be respectful in every way. Furthermore, it must be “sound speech that cannot be censured.” Here Paul personifies Titus’s speech (cf. his personification of love in 1 Cor 13:4-7) as he employs a mixed metaphor. “Sound” (hygi∑) is a word drawn from the world of health that can mean “accurate,” “right,” “useful.” It is “healthy” speech that fosters healthy lives. Speech “that cannot be censured” comes from the courtroom, where it was used to describe the innocence of a person acquitted of a crime. In fact, this is its meaning in its only appearance in the Septuagint, where, in 2 Maccabees 4:47, it says unfortunate men have been condemned to death “who would have been freed uncondemned if they had pleaded even before Scythians.” This personification of speech reflects Paul’s notion that it is not human rhetoric but the power of God that provides the force of the Christian message (1 Cor 1:18–2:5). The result of such speech is that any opponent “will be put to shame.” The verb here (entrap∑ ) is literally “to turn around” or “to revert.” When used in a positive sense, it means “to turn toward [someone in respect],” but when used in a negative sense, it means “to be put to shame.” It may be taken here in a reflexive sense as “may be ashamed of themselves” (cf. Phillips, “will feel ashamed”). Either way, shame will be the result of their “having nothing evil to say to us.” “Nothing evil” translates a word that Paul uses as the antithesis to “something good” in Romans 9:11 and 2 Corinthians 5:10. Having reminded Titus of the nature of the manner of his teaching, Paul returns in v. 9 to the content of his teaching: “Tell

Imitation 1 Cor 11:1, Phil 3:17, Eph 5:1, and 2 Thess 3:9 all contain the Pauline call to imitate him. This is not an indication of an inflated ego as it might be construed in our culture but an expression of Paul’s understanding of his responsibility as a teacher to live in such a way that he became a living example of what he is teaching. In Judaism, the rabbi was understood to be “living Torah.” This emphasis could use some attention in our culture!

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slaves to be submissive to their masters” (lit., “slaves are to be subject [or subject themselves] to their own masters in all things”). Instructions to slaves were a standard part of the household codes. Paul includes such instructions in the household codes of Ephesians (6:5-8) and Colossians (3:22-25). This indicates that slaves (up to 90 percent of urban populations!) were an integral part of the early Christian communities. Furthermore, the basic unit of Roman society was the household (oikos, oikia), which included slaves, and we read in the New Testament that entire households were baptized (see Acts 16:15). Slaves were also “to give satisfaction in every respect” (lit., “to be well pleasing”). It is possible to take “all things” with either “be subject” or with “be pleasing,” as in this translation. “Well pleasing” was a common adjective in Hellenistic paraenesis used to describe an attitude of sensitivity to the will of one’s master in any situation. It is used frequently in the New Testament as a description of the Christian as one who is to be well pleasing to “God” or “the Lord” by doing God’s will (Rom 12:1, 2; 14:18; 2 Cor 5:9; Phil 4:18; cf. Eph 5:10; Col 3:20; Heb 13:21). Furthermore, “they are not to talk back.” This verb can mean “to speak against someone,” “to talk in opposition to someone,” or “to talk back.” The instruction here may refer to Slave Collar more than just talking back. It may instruct the slave not to speak against the master in such a way as to foment unrest among fellow slaves. They are “not to pilfer” (lit., “to set aside”), a verb commonly used to speak of the misappropriation of funds for one’s own Image Not benefit through robbery, fraud, or embezzlement. It Available was not uncommon for the stewards of absentee due to lack of digital rights. landlords and tax collectors, for example, to become Please view the published rich by embezzlement. The same verb is used twice commentary or perform an in the story of Ananias and Sapphira in Acts 5. Internet search using the credit below. Embezzlement was an ever-present temptation to slaves, many of whom were given the task of buying for household or business and were often entrusted with large amounts of money. Stealing from one’s master would violate the loyalty expected of slaves, Slave necklace with bulla bearing Latin inscription. who are “to show complete and perfect fidelity” (lit., Roman bronze. Museo Nazionale Romano (Terme di “to demonstrate all good faith”). “Faith” here is to be Diocleziano), Rome, Italy. (Credit: Scala/Ministero per i Beni e le Attività culturali/Art Resource NY) understood as the “trustworthiness” or “depend-

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ability” that they should exhibit to their masters, i.e., they are to be completely honest and trustworthy (cf. 1 Cor 4:2). Slaves are to behave in this way “so that in everything they may be an ornament to the doctrine of God our Savior.” The participle translated “may be an ornament” (endeiknymenous, lit., “to put in order”) was commonly used in the metaphorical sense to speak of beautifying a person or building by adding adornments. Virtues were considered a kind of personal adornment in the Hellenistic world. In 3 Macc. 6:1, Eleazar is said to have adorned himself with life’s virtues. By the first century, the verb had come to mean “to honor.” Exemplary behavior was seen as bringing honor to one’s ancestors. The faithful slave brings honor to the “doctrine of God our Savior” (lit., “the teaching of God our Savior”). Grammatically, “doctrine” and “of God” here may be understood as either the doctrine that comes “from God” (a subjective genitive) or the doctrine “about God” (an objective genitive). While the phrase appears to be used as a subjective genitive in 1:3 and 3:4, the fact that humans are generally the subject of the verb “to teach,” and Paul’s penchant for adding an objective genitive to “good news” or “proclamation,” suggests that it may best be understood in this context as an objective genitive meaning “the teaching about God our Savior.” Paul’s message here reflects his concern that slaves (and every member of the household) live lives that are a positive witness to the gospel in their community. The way that one conducts oneself whatever one’s situation in life can be a prophetic witness to the message of the gospel and its authenticity.

CONNECTIONS 1. Titus is to teach “sound doctrine.” This phrase indicates not only that the teaching must be correct but that it must be healthy as opposed to unhealthy. Sound teaching produces a “healthy” faith. Such faith goes beyond a mere cognitive assent to propositional truths to a faith that includes both belief and behavior that results in a healthy lifestyle. Teaching that is not sound, on the other hand, is destructive to such a life. Sound teaching will always have practical implications for people of all ages and every station in life. It is not surprising, then, that Paul jumps right into the specific implications for various groups in the church.

Titus 2:1-10, 15

2. Paul’s instructions in vv. 3-10 might be said to be “missionary” in nature; that is, they call for a lifestyle that will result in a positive witness to outsiders. Christians are to live “so that the word of God may not be discredited” (2:5), “so that opponents will have nothing evil to say of us” (2:8), and “so that in everything they may be an ornament to the doctrine of God” (2:10). Paul understands that the way we live is as much a part of our witness as the words we say. In fact, the way we live either gives credibility to or becomes a stumbling block to the message we proclaim. Mohandas Gandhi said, “An once of practice is worth tons of preaching.” He also said, “I like your Christ, I do not like your Christians. Your Christians are so unlike your Christ.” What a stinging rebuke! 3. In vv. 7-8, Paul reminds Titus that his ministry must consist of both words and deeds. His teaching must show integrity, gravity, and a soundness that cannot be questioned. At the same time, he himself must be “a model of good works.” In the Pastorals, “good works” functions as a kind of shorthand for the Christian life. Like James, Paul understands that “faith by itself, if it has no works, is dead” (Jas 2:17). Teachers of the faith must embody that faith. As the rabbi was “living Torah,” so the Christian teacher must be “living gospel.” 4. The lifestyle that Paul describes in vv. 2-10 is the healthy life that results from “sound teaching.” Does this suggest that one measure of the faithfulness of any Christian teacher/preacher is found in the lives of those she teaches? Perhaps there is a corollary to Jesus’ dictum about his followers, “you will know them by their fruits” (Matt 7:20).

Notes 1. Ben Witherington, Letters and Homilies to Hellenistic Christians: A SocioRhetorical Commentary on Titus, 1–2 Timothy and 1–3 John (Downers Grove IL: InterVarsity, 2006) 128. 2. Jouette Bassler, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, Titus (ANTC; Nashville: Abingdon, 1996) 192. 3. Witherington, Letters and Homilies, 130. 4. Raymond Collins, I & II Timothy and Titus: A Commentary (NTL; Louisville KY: Westminster John Knox, 2002) 337. 5. Hippocrates, De Septimanis 5; cf. Philo, Creation 105. 6. Philo, Sobriety 2-3.

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Titus 2:1-10, 15 7. See, e.g., Aristophanes, Nub. 553–55. 8. Jerome Quinn, The Letter to Titus (AB; New York: Doubleday, 2005) 130. 9. Philo, Eternity of the World 53. 10. Philo, Virtues 167: “but it is right rather that the wise and prudent man should, to the best of his power, endeavour to bring his neighbours also into the same condition; and that the temperate man (søphrøn) should seek to make others temperate (enkrat∑s), the brave man (andreios) to make others courageous, the righteous man (dikaios) to make others just, and in short every good man ought to try to make everyone else good; for these qualities are, as it seems, powers, which the virtuous man will cling to as his own; but infirmity and weakness, on the contrary, are inconsistent with a virtuous character.” The author of 4 Macc 2:23 includes this in the cardinal virtues: “To the mind he gave the law; and one who lives subject to this will rule a kingdom that is temperate (søphrøn), just (dikaios), good (agathos) and courageous (andreia).” 11. Aristotle, Politics 1.5.8; 3.2.10. 12. Athenaeus, Deipnosophists 1.8[e]. 13. Quinn, Letter to Titus, 315. 14. In the Letter of Aristeas, we read, “The virtuous disposition restrains those who are attracted to the rule of pleasure, and commands them to respect self-control and justice more highly” (Ep. Arist. 278; cf. Ep. Arist. 122, 210; 3 Macc 5:45; Josephus, Ant. 15.7.5 par. 236). 15. Philo, Every Good Man Is Free 75. 16. Philo, Heir 110. 17. See the Talmud on woman’s use of wine in b. Ketub. 64b-65a. 18. See Raymond Collins, Sexual Ethics and the New Testament: Behavior and Belief (New York: Crossroad, 2000) 159. 19. Collins, I & II Timothy and Titus, 342. 20. Philo, Creation 105. 21. J. H. Moulton and G. Milligan, The Vocabulary of the Greek New Testament (London, 1930; reprint, Peabody MA: Hendrickson, 1997) 572.

The Nature of the Gospel Titus 2:11-14

COMMENTARY The mention of “the doctrine of God our Savior” in 2:10 leads to a kind of summary reflection on the nature of that gospel in vv. 11-14. What follows is a tightly knit unit that Literary Devices: Ring Construction exhibits the technique of ring construcSometimes referred to by the Latin inclusio, this literary device is often tion. [Literary Devices: Ring Construction] The employed by New Testament writers to unify a themes introduced in v. 11 (God, salvacomposition or a passage by repeating at the end tion, and appearance) appear again in of a phrase (or theme) the passage with which it v. 13 when Jesus Christ is identified as began. Notice, for example, how the Sermon on the Mount begins and ends with “for theirs is the our God and Savior. This beautiful kingdom of heaven” in Matt 5:3, 19, and the refpassage moves from Jesus’ first appearerence to sitting at the right hand (from Ps 110:1) ance (v. 11) to his second appearance in Heb 1:3 and 1:13. (v. 13) and describes the life Christians are to live in between (v. 12). First Appearance (v. 11) How we live in between (v. 12) Second Appearance (v. 13) The structure clearly communicates Paul’s view that the Christian lives in the present with a view to both the past and the future, on the basis of Jesus’ first coming and in light of his second coming. The “for” in v. 11 connects what follows to that which precedes it. Paul offers in what follows a theological basis for the instructions he gives in the preceding section, i.e., this is why Christians should live the kind of exemplary lives he has described in 2:1-10. They must live this way because “the grace of God has appeared.” [The Appearance of Our Savior] “Grace” (charis) is, of course, a central theme for Paul. [Grace in Paul] In its most basic sense, the Greek word charis means “gift.” While it is used in the New Testament with a wide range and

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variety of meanings, “the grace of God” primarily refers to God’s unmerited favor toward humankind. This grace “has appeared.” The Greek verb used here (epiphan∑ ) is transliterated into English as “epiphany.” It was commonly used in the Hellenistic world to speak of the appearance of the gods who intervened in human history on behalf of humankind. For example, it was often used of the appearance of Asclepius or Serapion, the god of healing. (Interestingly, the Greek word for salvation [søt∑ria] can also mean “healing.”) In Acts 14:8-20, the people of Lystra mistakenly identify Paul and Silas as Zeus and Barnabas. The incident reflects a common belief that occasionally the deities came to walk among mortals. It was also used to describe the appearance of human emperors who were often seen as intervening in Grace in Paul After centuries of handling and mishandling, most religious beneficent ways in the lives of words have become so shopworn nobody’s much interested their subjects. In fact, the any more. Not so with grace, for some reason. Mysteriously, even emperor’s actions were often seen derivatives like gracious and graceful still have some of the bloom left. as an expression of or manifestaGrace is something you can never get but only be given. There’s no way to earn it or deserve it or bring it about any more than you can tion of the saving presence of the deserve the taste of raspberries and cream or earn good looks or bring gods. For Paul, “the grace of about your own birth. God” has appeared, not in the A good sleep is grace and so are good dreams. Most tears are person of one of the deities of the grace. The smell of rain is grace. Somebody loving you is grace. Loving somebody is grace. Have you ever tried to love somebody? Greco-Roman pantheon, nor in A crucial eccentricity of the Christian faith is the assertion that the person of the emperor of people are saved by grace. There’s nothing you have to do. There’s Rome, but in the person of Jesus you have to do. There’s nothing you have to do. The grace of God Christ “bringing salvation to all.” means something like: Here is your life. You might never have been, but you are because the party wouldn’t have been complete without [Roman Imperial “Theology”] The you. Here is the world. Beautiful and terrible things will happen. Don’t purpose of Jesus’ appearance was be afraid. I am with you. Nothing can ever separate us. It’s for you I “for the sake of the salvation of created the universe. I love you. There’s only one catch. Like any other all men.” Once again we find a gift, the gift of grace can be yours only if you’ll reach out and take it. Maybe being able to reach out and take it is a gift too. central tenet of Paul’s theology. Frederick Buechner, Wishful Thinking: A Theological ABC (New York: Harper & Row, 1973) “Salvation” (søt∑rios) is for all The Appearance of Our Savior Outside of the Pastorals, Paul uses the Greet word parousia with reference to the future coming of the Lord (1 Cor 15:23 and 1 Thess 2:19; 3:13; 4:15; 5:23). In the Pastorals, epiphany language is used of both the Savior’s past (2 Tim 1:10) and future appearances. The Greek word epiphaneia was used to speak of “a visible manifestation of a hidden divinity, either in the form of a personal appearance, or by some deed of power by which its presence is made known” (BAGD, 304). Thus, epiphany language was used to speak of the appearances of god and goddesses. About one hundred Hellenistic texts employ “epiphany” to speak of the births, coming to power, enthronements, imperial visits, victories, and victorious returns from foreign lands of such deified emperors as Claudius, Caligula, Diocletian, and Valerian. Julius Caesar was said to be “god made manifest, [born] of Ares and Aphrodite, the common savior of human life” (SIG 347, 760.6). An inscription with this particular wording was found in Ephesus, the destination of 2 Timothy. In the face of the growing appellation and worship of the Roman Caesars, Paul borrows the language used to glorify them to remind his readers that there is but one Savior whose coming appearance will bring them all to their knees!

33–34.

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people. While this affirmation may Roman Imperial “Theology” The Aeneid by the Roman poet Virgil (whose patron simply be confessional, some see it as was Caesar Augustus!) might be seen as the foundabeing polemical since it appears that tional myth of the Augustan Age. It offers an excellent glimpse Paul is concerned with the influence of Roman imperiology. The Fourth Eclogue presents clearly the of the large Jewish community on dominant cultural ideology as it depicts the rise of the emperors Crete (1:10-11, 13-16; 3:9). This as the dawning of the Roman Golden Age. The Priene Inscription influence comes from a Jewish praises the birth of Augustus and his rise to power as the provision of providence, its most generous and thoughtful gift, emphasis on salvation being a gift to surpassing all other gifts, leaving no hope of ever being surthe Jewish people alone or from con- passed. Augustus is a savior “for us and for those who come verted Jews who argue that Gentiles after us” who “makes an end to war and [adorns peace].” His must become Jews before they can birthday, “the birthday of a god,” is heralded as “the beginning of the good news” (euangelion) (Danker, 215–18). For Christians become Christians (a teaching that “the good news” (euangelion) is about Jesus! Caesar’s empire Paul had already addressed in was but a pale imitation of the kingdom of God. Galatians and Romans, cf. Acts F. W. Danker, Benefactor: Epigraphic Study of a Graeco-Roman and New Testament 10–11; 15). Paul was adamant that Semantic (St. Louis: Clayton, 1982). the grace of God and the salvation that it made possible was for “all” people. This is also a significant emphasis in 1 Timothy (see 2:1, 4, 5-6; 3:16c-d; 4:10). Jesus spent his ministry “training us to renounce impiety and worldly passions” (v. 12). “Training” (paideuousa) translates a participial form of a Greek verb that refers to the education and disciplining of a child. Drawing on Proverbs Children 3:12, the writer of Hebrews uses the verb to In his letter to the Corinthians, Clement write of God, as father, disciplining his children includes an exhortation to “Let our children share in the instruction that is in Christ” (Heb 12:6, 7, 10). [Children] Employing striking (1 Clem. 21:8, t∑s en Christø paideias), and later antitheses, Paul contrasts two ages and the two in the same letter in a prayer addressed to the ways of life that characterize each. The instrucCreator and Overseer of every spirit (ton pantos tion consists of negative and positive pneumatos ktist∑n kai episkopon) he writes, “You have chosen from among all people those that admonitions. Negatively, we are “to renounce love you through Jesus Christ, through whom you impiety and worldly passions.” “Impiety” (ainstructed [epaideusas], sanctified, and honored sebeian) could be rendered “ungodliness” and is us” (1 Clem. 59:3). the complete opposite of “godliness” or “piety” (eu-sebeia). “Worldly” is a term that refers to the systems or standards of this world. Here it is used in a pejorative sense together with “passions” to speak of desires that are according to worldly standards and result in immoral behavior that is against the will of God. According to Paul’s apocalyptic worldview, the “present age,” characterized by impiety and lives driven by worldly passions, is evil and destined for destruction (Gal 1:4). Living in the midst of this present age, Christians are “to live lives that are self-controlled,

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upright, and godly.” All three of these characteristics have appeared before in Titus. “Self-control” (søphronøs) was a cardinal virtue among the Stoics, and Paul’s emphasis on this would be well received in Crete. It may also reflect the Jewish abhorrence of the sexual mores of Gentiles who were perceived as being driven by “worldly passions.” “Godly” (eusebøs, which literally means “in all piety”) was used in the Hellenistic world to speak of devotion to any supernatural power together with a good and moral life. With both “self-controlled” and “godly,” Paul joins two terms that would be familiar to his Hellenistic hearers with the Hebraic notion of righteousness (dikaiøs, “upright”) which called for living in right relationship with God and one’s fellow human beings. Paul seems to have a penchant for such interpretive triads (see, e.g., 1 Thess 2:10). A righteous life would result in a life of self-control and godliness. Christians are to live this life “while we wait for the blessed hope and the manifestation of the glory of our great God and Savior Jesus Christ.” Living as we do “between the times” of the first appearance and the second appearance of Jesus, we “wait” (lit., “we are looking for,” with the confidence that the search will be successful) with expectation. In 1 Thessalonians 1:10, Paul had written that we “wait for his Son from heaven, whom he raised from the dead—Jesus, who rescues us from the wrath that is coming,” and he closes his first letter to the Corinthians by quoting the early Aramaic Christian prayer “Our Lord come” (marana tha; cf. Rev 22:20; Did 10:6). This expectation is focused on “the blessed hope” that is then explained as “the manifestation of our great God and Savior Jesus Christ.” The “and” (kai) that connects these is epexegetical, thus creating a hendiadys.1 As in v. 11, “manifestation” can also be translated “appearance” and focuses the reader’s attention on a future appearance “of the glory of our great God and Savior Jesus Christ” (v. 13). Earlier, Paul had twice referred to God as our savior (1:3; 2:10). Now he seems to be referring to Jesus Christ as both our God and our Savior! Is this Paul’s meaning here? As the footnote in the NRSV shows, this phrase could also be rendered “the great God and our Savior Jesus Christ,” thereby distinguishing between God and Jesus. However, the following factors suggest that this is not the best reading: 1. Grammatically, there is only one definite article in the phrase. It comes before “God,” and it should be assumed before Savior.

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Literally, the phrase reads “of the God and Savior of us.” This argument is more telling when one recognizes that “Savior” occurs five other times in Titus with the definite article (1:3, 4; 2:10; 3:4, 6). 2. The expression “God and Savior” exists as a definite unit in both the mystery religions and the LXX. 3. If this is indeed a reference to the second coming of Christ, it is rather unlikely that God the Father would be spoken of as also returning with the Son. 4. Interestingly, if we interpret this verse as a reference to Jesus Christ as Savior, then of the six references to our Savior, three speak of God and three speak of Jesus Christ! These factors taken together suggest that Paul speaks here of Jesus as our great God and Savior, and this becomes a powerful affirmation of the oneness of God the Father and God the Son. The coming appearance will be a manifestation of his “glory” (dox∑s). Paul speaks of the glory of God more than any other New Testament writer. While Hellenistic writers (with the exception of Hellenistic Jewish writers like Philo and Josephus) do not use this word with regard to the gods (they use it in its Early Christian Hymns ordinary meaning of “opinion,” “fame,” or “repIt is widely believed that traces of early utation”), in the Septuagint “glory” (doxa) is Christian hymns (a liturgical praise song patterned after the Old Testament psalms and/or used to translate kabod in the Hebrew Bible, a the hymns of Hellenistic religions) and/or homoloterm used to speak of an impressive manifestagies (that is, confessional formulae setting forth tion of the presence and activity of the one, basic elements of the Christian faith) are found in invisible, and transcendent God in some sort of the New Testament. Since it is likely that both grew out of the worship life and may, therefore, sensory experience perceived by humans. This share a liturgical nature, it may not always be will be the nature of Jesus’ second appearance. possible to distinguish between the two. In The mention of Jesus Christ leads to the general, it may be said that confessional stateintroduction in v. 14 of a further elaboration of ments originally consisted of a simple “Jesus Christ is Lord” (Rom 10:9) or a short sentence like the role and function of Jesus that focuses pri“I believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of God” marily on his first appearance. It is important to (Acts 8:37, Western text). Gradually, these statenote that at this point there is a dramatic change ments became extended and characterized by in language and style. The fact that this unit is descriptions of Jesus’ life and work (e.g., 1 Cor 15:3ff.). Hymns were longer still and broader in highly stylized and contains key words that are scope, like Phil 2:5ff. and Col 1:15-20. A full disnot found elsewhere in Titus suggests that Paul cussion of the nature of these texts and the may be introducing an early Christian confescriteria by which they may be identified is found in sion or hymn. [Early Christian Hymns] W. Hulitt Gloer, An Exegetical and Theological Study of Paul’s Understanding of New Creation Verse 14 is a complex relative clause that and Reconciliation in 2 Cor. 5:14-21 (Lewiston NY: clearly reflects Semitic idiom and construction. Mellen Biblical Press, 1996) 209–17.

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The first three phrases, each with the verb at the beginning in Semitic fashion, seem to form a complete strophe in three parts: who gave himself for us (14a) that he might redeem us from all iniquity (14b) and purify for himself a people of his own (14c) The opening relative pronoun “who” (hos) introduces what follows in a way similar to the “who” (hos) in the christological hymns in Philippians 2:6-11 and Colossians 1:15-20 (cf. 1 Tim 3:16), marking a transition between one form of material and another. The two phrases in the purpose (“that” [hina]) clause reflect the Semitic style of synthetic parallelism. The key words—“redeem,” “purify,” “iniquity,” “people,” “chosen”—all reflect Semitic idiom. As with Philippians 2:6-11 and Colossians 1:15-20, all of this is suggestive of the inclusion here of a preexisting literary unit that in similar fashion offers an interpretation of the death of Jesus in hymnic form. By including a preexisting tradiThe hyper Formula in the New Testament tion that may have been familiar to the Cretan The use of the preposition hyper in relaChristians, Paul reminds them that Jesus “gave tion to Jesus’ death is found throughout the New Testament. It is found, for example, in all himself for us,” as in Galatians 1:4 where Paul five accounts of Jesus’ Eucharistic words at the speaks of Jesus “who gave himself for our sins.” last supper (1 Cor 11:23; Mark 14:22-25; Matt It is also similar to the Lukan account of Jesus’ 26:26-29; Luke 15:15-20) and in Paul’s recitation words at the Last Supper, “This is my body, of the tradition that he had received from those “in Christ” before him (1 Cor 15:3ff.), all of which which is given for you” (Luke 22:19). The verb suggest that Jesus’ death was considered to be a “to give” (didømi) is often used with reference to vicarious atoning sacrifice. This view may be the a sacrifice, whether of an offering or of the selfresult of the developing notion of sacrifice in sacrificial martyrdom of one’s own life.2 Jesus Judaism that was grounded in the idea of collective and individual representation common in has given himself “for us.” We are the reason for Semitic thinking and represented in the Old Jesus’ sacrificial death. This language is formuTestament concept of the Suffering Servant, the laic and appears throughout Hellenistic application of the Suffering Servant motif to the literature both Jewish (e.g., Josephus speaks of death of Jesus, or the widespread acceptance of the Greek-Hellenistic concept of death as an the death of Judas Maccabeus “for them” (hyper atoning sacrifice that by the 1st C. had become autøn, Ant. 13.1.1 pars. 1, 6) and non-Jewish. the standard way of interpreting the death of [The hyper Formula in the New Testament] It is also used martyrs (see, e.g., 4 Macc) or a fusion of all three throughout the New Testament with reference streams. to the death of Jesus (see, e.g., Rom 5:6, 8; 14:15; 1 Cor 11:24; 15:3; 2 Cor 5:14, 15 [2x]; 1 Thess 5:10; Mark 14:24; Luke 22:19, 20; John 6:51; 11:50, 51; 18:14; Heb 2:9; 1 Pet 2:21; 3:18).

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Temple of Pythian Apollo What Jesus’ death means for us is then delineated in a complex purpose clause with two parts. He gave himself for us “that he might redeem us from all iniquity.” In nonbiblical writings, the verb for “to redeem” (lytroø, found only here and in Luke 24:21 and 1 Pet 1:18) refers to the payment of money to secure the freedom of slaves or prisoners of war. In the Hellenistic world, this practice (known as manumission), in View looking northeast at the Temple of Pythian Apollo in Gortyna, which slaves were bought by Crete. The sanctuary is the rectangular remains in the left side of the means of offering the necessary image. To the right of center, the altar of the temple is visible. Note the five steps that lead up to the hearth area of the altar. price to a deity into whose (Credit: Image courtesy of www.holylandphotos.org) service the newly freed person then entered, was a familiar one. More than a thousand deeds inscribed on Freed for Obedience! In Christ, the believer enjoys an ironic freedom. It is temple walls (dating from 201 BC to AD the freedom from all of those things that would 90) attest to the practice of slaves being interfere with our living in right relationship to God and “sold” to the Pythian Apollos at Delphi. others. Indeed, “For freedom Christ has set us free” (Gal In the Old Testament, “redeem” is used 5:1). It is the freedom to be obedient to the call of God to describe God’s powerful act of freeing rather than remain in bondage to the self, and our desire to be “of” the world as well as in it. In Freedom of the the Israelites from Egyptian bondage in Christian, Luther notes, “Faith brings man to God; love the exodus event (see, e.g., Exod 6:6; brings God to men. Through faith man allows God to do him 15:13; Deut 7:6-8; 9:26; 13:5; 15:15; good; through Martin Luther 24:18). “Redeem” could be translated love God does good to men. The “set free” or “rescue.” What we are Christian is thereredeemed (“set free,” “rescued”) from is fore through faith “all iniquity” (pas∑s anomias, lit., “all law- a free lord lessness”), that is, living in complete subject to none and through love disregard for moral and ethical laws. a ministering [Freed for Obedience!] Furthermore, Jesus servant respongave himself in order that he might sive to all.” “purify for himself a people of his own.” Martin Luther: Selections from His “Purify” (katharis∑ ) is a ritual term that Writings, ed. John Cranach, Lucas the Elder (1472–1553). Martin (New Luther. 1529. [Credit: Wikimedia Commons, refers to the act of making someone or Dillenberger York: Doubleday, 1961) PD-Art (PD-old-100)] something free from ritual contamina- 79, 81.

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tion and therefore acceptable as an instrument for worship. It came to refer to making someone morally clean, that is, free from all moral impurity or from any act that is not worthy of God. The idea of a “chosen people” is deeply embedded in biblical tradition. According to Exodus 19:5, God says of Israel, “You shall be my chosen people out of all the nations” (cf. Exod 23:22; Deut 7:6; 14:2; 26:18). Jewish biblical tradition is clearly evoked by the use of this expression (cf. 1 Clem. 64:1, where Clement writes of God “who chose the Lord Jesus Christ and us through him as a chosen people”). Paul employs the notion of purification in a similar way in Ephesians 5:25-26 when, after speaking of Christ as Savior (søt∑r) in 5:23, he writes that Christ, having chosen the church as his bride, “gave himself up for her in order to make her holy by cleansing her with the washing of water.” With the use of these two images, redemption and purification, Paul has presented a soteriology that speaks to both Jew and Gentile! This redeemed and purified people is to be “zealous for good deeds.” As redeemed slaves in the Hellenistic world entered the service of their redeemer deity and the redeemed people of Israel entered the service of their God, so those who have been redeemed by Jesus Christ are to enter into his service. In fact, they are to be ready and eager for the doing of “good deeds.” As in the Pastorals, in Ephesians 2:10 “good works” serves as a summary description of the Christian life for Paul.

CONNECTIONS 1. In vv. 11-14, Paul combines continuing ethical admonition with theological justification. The ethical admonition is set within the gospel announcement: v. 11—Gospel proclamation vv. 12—Ethical admonition vv. 13-14—Gospel proclamation This structure reminds us that ethical preaching must always be set within gospel proclamation. That proclamation gives both the justification for Christian behavior and the power such behavior can have. Theology and ethics cannot be divorced in Christianity. Our

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behavior grows out of our belief in the gospel proclamation. We behave because we believe! 2. The eschatological nature of the Christian life is clearly reflected in this section. We live now in time between the first appearance of the Christ who “appeared bringing salvation to all” and “gave himself for us that he might redeem us from all iniquity and purify for himself a people of his own who are zealous for good deeds,” and the second appearance of “our great God and Savior Jesus Christ.” While we wait, our lives are determined by our allegiance to this one who came and will come. We are not idle but “training to renounce impiety and worldly passions, and in the present age to live lives that are self-controlled, upright, and godly . . . .” Our lives are characterized by “action in waiting.” By acting in this way, we become a manifestation of the reality of the grace of God. Our lives are governed by what has been when in Jesus Christ the future invades the present, and by what is to come when “the glory of our great God and savior will be revealed” for all to see! 3. The “training” of v. 12 will result in a people “who are zealous for good deeds” (v. 14). Once again, the importance of “good works” surfaces this time in the context of what appears to be a traditional confessional or hymnic formula. Throughout the Pastorals, “good works” stands as a cipher for the living of the Christian life. It is not an addendum but a central element in the Pauline understanding of salvation and its purpose. Nowhere is this clearer than in Ephesians 2:8-10: For by grace you have been saved through faith, and this is not your Own doing; it is the gift of God—not the result of works, so that no One may boast. For we are what he has made us, created in Christ Jesus for good works, which God prepared beforehand to be our way of life. Saved by grace these “good works” will be our passion! (NRSV; emphasis added)

4. The entire passage (2:1-15) is framed by the call to “teach” in v. 1 and to “declare” in v. 15. Titus’s call is clear. He is “to put in order” (1:5) by teaching (2:1) and declaring (2:15). When done faithfully, this declaration contains both exhortation and reproach (2:15).

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Notes 1. Hendiadys is a figure of speech used for emphasis that comprises two words linked by a conjunction to express a single complex idea. The typical result is to transform a noun-plus-adjective into two nouns joined by a conjunction. For example, “sound and fury” (from act 5, scene 5 of Macbeth) seems to offer a more striking image than “furious sound.” In this example, as typically, the subordinate idea originally present in the adjective is transformed into a noun in and of itself. In some cases, the second word serves to extend the meaning. 2. See, e.g., Thucydides, History 2.43.2; 1 Macc 2:50; 6:44; Mark 10:45; Ign. Smyrn. 4:2.

Further Exhortations and Encouragement Titus 2:15–3:3

COMMENTARY Paul returns to personal exhortations and encouragement in v. 15. Titus is to be faithful to his task no matter what others may think of him personally. To do so, he must “declare,” “exhort,” and “rebuke.” The words that form this Pauline triad have all appeared previously in the letter (see 1:9, 13; 2:1, 6, 9) and together provide a summary portrait of the pastoral paraenesis that Titus must provide. He must • “declare these things” (“These things” refer to the things just written in vv. 11-13 and to the things he is about to write that set forth the truth of the faith); • “exhort” his hearers to live according to these truths; • “reprove” (lit., “correct”) those who stray from this truth. All of these are essential elements of the pastor’s role. He must do these things “with all authority.” The Greek word translated “authority” (epitag∑s) is used in 1:1 where it is usually translated “command.” It can refer to the right or authority to issue an order and was used in the Hellenistic world to speak of commands from kings and from gods. Here it serves to emphasize Titus’s authority to fulfill the pastoral functions with which he has been charged. The reference to “all authority” echoes Jesus announcement that he had received all authority, and in that authority he sends his disciples to teach all people (Matt 28:18-20). Paul has carried out his ministry according to this authority (1:1) and sends Titus to carry out his mission according to this authority. Since this is the case, Paul encourages Titus to “let no one look down on you” (cf. 1 Cor 16:11 with regard to Timothy). Paul is aware that some will not receive his representatives and welcome their declaration, exhortation, and reproof. Still, Titus is to carry out his

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work with full confidence and in doing so “remind them” of the kind of lives they are called to live. This phrase suggests that what Paul is about to say is not new information to the Cretan Christians. They already know that their lives should reflect these characteristics. Using five infinitives, Paul sets forth seven of these characteristics/virtues in vv. 1-2: 1. “To be subject to rulers and authorities”—The appearance of the terms “rulers” (archais) and “authorities” (exousias) without a conjunction suggests that this is best understood not as a reference to two separate groups but rather as a reference to legitimate authorities. These two words are used in the same manner ten times in the New Testament, and Paul uses them together with the same verb (“to be subject to”) in Romans 13:1-7. In each case, it appears that governing authorities are the focus. The verb includes the elements of recognition of authority, subordination, and Submission to Rulers and Authorities obedience. Submission to legitimate governAs in other matters, there are two trajectories in the New Testament with regard mental authorities was considered a cardinal to submission to rulers. Most familiar is that highvirtue in the Roman world and would no doubt given expression by Paul in Rom 13:1-7. In these enhance the church’s reputation in the commuverses, the Apostles enjoins submission to govnity. In 1 Timothy 2:1-2, Paul urges Christians erning authorities, for the authorities are “instituted by God” and are God’s “servant for to pray for kings and all people in authority “so your good.” Thus, while it may be said that that we might live a peaceful and quiet life in all Christians are to be submissive to rulers and godliness and dignity.” [Submission to Rulers and authorities so long as they are about the “good,” the New Testament also demonstrates that there are times when this is not the case, when, in fact, those rulers and authorities no longer function legitimately (that is, no longer serve the “good”). At such times, the Christian must be prepared to say, “We must obey God rather than mortals” (Acts 4:18-20; 5:29) and accept the consequences that ensue. The Christian’s first allegiance is always to the kingdom of God and only then to human rulers and authorities.

Authorities]

2. “To be obedient”—The verb here (peitharcheø) is a compound form that joins the word for “obey” and the word for “rulers,” and readers should probably take it in this context as an admonition to be obedient to legitimate governing authorities, though one can also see in it a broader application in which it refers to God as the ruler of all. 3. “To be ready for every good work”—“Ready” (etoimous) means “fully prepared.” Only those who have been “purified” (2:14) are fully prepared, for, according to 1:16, those who have not been purified are unsuitable for every good work. “Every good work” is probably best understood as every kind of good work. Once again, “good works” is a favorite shorthand description of the Christian

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life (see, e.g., 1:16; 2:7, 14; 3:8, 14; cf. 1 Tim 5:10, 25; 6:18; 2 Tim 2:21; 3:17; Eph 2:10, etc.). 4. “To speak evil of no one” (lit., “blaspheme [blasph∑mein] no one”)—While we tend to think of blasphemy as speaking evil of God, the word was used in Hellenistic society to refer to insulting or slandering other people, and it is used in this sense here. The inclusive nature of this command is reflected by the presence of “no one.” For the Christian, no one is excluded from this command! What follows is another triad of characteristics in which two adjectives and a participle are governed by the verb “to be” (einai). 5. “To avoid quarreling”—The adjective “not quarrelsome” is derived form the negative form of a verb that means “to fight” or “to quarrel” either by words or by actions. 6. “To be gentle”—“Gentle” describes a person who is not only gentle but also fair, patient, and considerate in dealing with others (i.e., balanced). 7. “To show every courtesy to everyone”—Once again, “everyone” is included. No one is to be excluded from the Christian’s purview. Greek writers consider the last three characteristics important virtues. The appearance of such characteristics in the lives of Christians would serve both to flesh out the gospel and to win the favor of the Hellenistic world. These instructions are to serve as a reminder to Titus’s hearers of how they are to live now that they are redeemed and purified (2:14). To contrast this new life with that of the society around them, Titus is to remind them that this is not how they once lived, inverting the “once-now” formula found throughout the New Testament.1 Having described the “now,” he turns to the “once” with a catalog of eight vices that previously characterized their lives. The translation “we ourselves” captures the emphatic nature of the Greek. The phrase “were once” points to a state of being or condition in the past that is no longer true in the present. What follows in v. 3 is a list of vices that reflects the general condition of people who are not yet redeemed and purified (2:14), a group to which Paul and Titus and those to whom Titus will minister once belonged. This list is similar to other lists in which Paul seeks to characterize human beings apart from God’s saving work (e.g., Rom 1:29-31; 1 Cor 6:9-11). Some have suggested that the list seems organized in a logical progression starting with spiritual

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insensitivity and disobedience to God, then being deceived by spiritual forces, then being controlled by various self-serving desires, then a negative attitude toward others, and finally hatred as the controlling factor in one’s life.2 1. “Foolish” (ano∑toi )—This word described someone who is witless, foolish, stupid, and silly, but in this context it probably refers to ignorance of the Christian message (“the full knowledge of the truth”) and its demands. 2. “Disobedient” (apeitheis)—An unwillingness to hear and understand the truth inevitably results in a failure to obey. 3. “Led astray” (planømenoi, lit., “deceived”)—“Don’t go astray” was a popular Hellenistic moral exhortation.3 (Paul uses similar exhortations in 1 Cor 6:9; 15:33; Gal 6:7). Disobedience inevitably leads to deception. 4. “Slaves to various passions and pleasures” (lit., “serving passions and many pleasures”)—Sensuality with its passions and pleasures can dominate a person’s life until he or she becomes enslaved to them. Being enslaved (douleuontes) means to be completely under something’s control and results in bondage and lack of freedom. “Pleasures” (h∑donais) obviously overlaps “passions” (epithymias), since it can also refer to physical and sexual pleasures. It extends the emphasis here to include that which produces enjoyment and is therefore pleasurable, but in a negative sense. The Stoics believed that the ideal of the moral life was a life without passions. 5. “Passing our days in malice and envy” (lit., “passing through in evil and jealousy”)—Hellenistic writers used the verb (diagø ) from which this participle (“passing through”) comes to speak of passing through one’s life. It might be rendered “leading a life of ‘malice and envy.’” “Malice” is a rather limited translation of the Greek word kakia, a much more comprehensive term for evil and wickedness. “Envy” (phthonø) a negative attitude toward someone perceived to be in a more advantageous position, is characterized by resentment and covetousness. 6. “Despicable” (styg∑toi, lit., “hateful”), “hating (misountes) one another”—“Despicable” is found in the writings of Aeschylus (Prometheus 592a), Philo (Decalogue 131), Clement (1 Clem. 35:6), and Heliodorus (5.29.4) in the sense of hated, abominable, or despicable. Clement describes the tormenters of Hananiah, Azariah, and Mishael as “abominable men and full of all wickedness”

Titus 2:15–3:3

(1 Clem. 45:7). Taken together, the two terms might be rendered, “being hated, we hated one another,” a far cry from the Christian command to love one another. Semitic tradition is reflected in the presence of a chiastic structure in the last two phrases in which two participles (“passing through” and “hating”) bookend a pair of vices (“wickedness” and “jealousy”).

CONNECTIONS 1. Once again, Paul’s ethical admonition (3:1-3) is tied directly to a theological foundation (3:4-7, explored in the next chapter). The pattern is instructive, suggesting that our lives should be determined by carefully considered theological convictions. Indeed, a central task of the pastor’s ministry is to help congregants learn to think theologically. The surrounding culture teaches us to think in every way but theologically. Of course, the pastor must set the example. Marilynne Robinson’s wonderful novel Gilead is a tour de force in this regard as she narrates the beautiful, theologically determined life of a pastor. 2. The admonition in 3:1a echoes Paul’s teaching in Romans 13:1-7. That Paul would take such a position is not altogether surprising. On many occasions, the Roman Empire had “rescued” him (Acts 18:5-17; 21:27-36), and he had used his Roman citizenship to his advantage more than once (Acts 16:35-40; 25:1-12). Even when imprisoned, Paul enjoyed enough leeway to continue his ministry. The book of Acts ends with Paul under house arrest but still able to minister (Acts 28:30-31). There is, however, another trajectory with regard to the Christian’s relationship to the state in the New Testament. In Acts 4:1-22, Peter and John are arrested by the Jewish Sanhedrin (the civil as well as the religious authority in Judea) for preaching and teaching in the name of Jesus. After being ordered to “cease and desist” from such activity, Peter and John respond, “whether it is right in God’s sight to listen to you rather than to God, you must judge; for we cannot keep from speaking about what we have seen and heard” (Acts 4:19-20). Released, they began their ministry again only to be arrested once more. When brought before the Sanhedrin and reminded that they were ordered not to preach and teach about Jesus, “Peter and the apostles answered, ‘We must obey

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God rather than any human authority’” (Acts 5:12-42, esp. v. 29). Clearly, the apostles were not “being subject to rulers and authorities” (Titus 3:1a). This was an act of civil disobedience and suggests that there are times when the Christian must pledge allegiance to a higher authority than “earthly rulers and authorities.” The challenge, of course, is determining when to employ which paradigm! 3. Paul’s juxtaposition of the new life and the old life is a powerful reminder of how we should live in stark contrast with how we once lived: Now subject to rulers and authorities obedient ready for every good work speak evil of no one avoid quarrelling be gentle show every courtesy to everyone

Then foolish disobedient led astray slaves to various passions and pleasures passing our days in malice and envy hating one another despicable

Such a reminder is not merely descriptive; it is also prescriptive, challenging us to examine our lives. Is there evidence that the new person really exists, or are we still manifesting the characteristics of old life? This offers us an opportunity to ask if we are truly living into the new creation in Christ.

Notes 1. E.g., “once heathen, now illumined or cleansed” (Titus 3:3-7; Rom 6:17-18; 7:5-6; 11:20-32; Gal 4:3-9; 1 Cor 6:9-11; Col 3:5-10; Eph 2:1-10, 11-13; 1 Pet 2:25; 4:3-4); “once hidden, now revealed” (Titus 1:2-3; 2 Tim 1:9-10; Rom 16:25-27; 1 Cor 2:7-10a; Col 1:26-27; Eph 3:5-6, 8-11; 1 Pet 1:20); see Rudolf Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament (London: SCM, 1952) 1:109. 2. Daniel Arichea and Howard Hatton, A Handbook to Paul’s Letter to Timothy and Titus (New York: American Bible Society, 1995) 299. 3. See, e.g., Epictetus, Discourses 4.6.23.

Further Theological Justification Titus 3:4-8a

COMMENTARY Having concluded the explanation (2:15–3:3), Paul returns to the epiphany motif emphasized in 2:11-14. In fact, each of the key words of 2:11 recur here: “saving” (søt∑rios) in the reference here to “our Savior” (tou s∑t∑ros hymøn), “beneficence” (h∑ charis) in “kindness” (he chr∑stot∑s), “God” (tou theou), “appeared” (epephan∑ ), and “people” (anthropois) in “benevolence” (philanthrøpia). In the earlier passage, present-day Christian existence (2:12) was depicted as living between Christ’s first (2:11) and second appearances (2:13). Attention in these verses is focused on the first appearance, the saving appearance of Jesus Christ our Savior. In 2:11-14, there is an allusive reference to baptism in the use of purification language (2:14) that seems to be echoed in a reference to the water of rebirth. Some have even suggested that these verses incorporate a traditional hymn that speaks of baptism as an act of rebirth and renewal. The hymnic nature of these verses is readily apparent in the rhythmic, poetic structure and distinctive vocabulary. Verses 4-7 (which make up one sentence in Greek) divide naturally into three stanzas: (1) the action of God (vv. 4-5a), (2) the action of God’s Spirit (v. 5b), and (3) the action of Jesus Christ (vv. 6-7). It exhibits a firm structure and a rhythm that can only be appreciated in Greek. Here is the NA27 presentation in strophic: When the goodness and loving kindness of God our Savior appeared, Not because of any works of righteousness that we had done (vv. 4-5a) But according to his mercy, He saved us through the water of rebirth and renewal of the Holy Spirit (v. 5b) Who poured upon us riches through Jesus Christ our Savior

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So that having been justified by his grace We might become heirs according the hope of eternal life (vv. 6-7)1 While “but” (de) in v. 4 is merely a contrasting connective, it often plays a significant role in the development of Paul’s letters (see, e.g., Rom 12:1). It certainly plays such a role here. Having reminded Timothy of how life “once” was, he now summarizes their new situation in Christ. This “but when” (hote de) appears also in Galatians 1:15 and 4:4: “But when the fullness of time came, God sent his Son.” Titus 2:11 speaks of the appearance of the grace of God our Savior, but we hear now of the appearance of the “goodness and loving kindness of God our Savior.” Benevolence “Goodness” (chr∑stot∑s, a term frequently Philo (Gaius 67) writes that the emperor employed by Paul; see, e.g., Rom 2:4; 3:12 Gaius was once thought to be “good and [Ps 14:3]; 11:22 [2x]; 2 Cor 6:6; Gal 5:22; benevolent” (chr∑stos kai philanthrøpos). Josephus (Ant. 10.9.3 par. 164) wrote that Gedaliah, Eph 2:7; Col 3:12) is a quality that expresses appointed governor over the towns of Judea by itself in action and is sometimes translated the king of Babylon, showed “goodness and benev“kindness.” “Loving kindness” (philanthrøpia) is olence” (chr∑stot∑ta kai philanthrøpian) and that similar in that it speaks not only of a feeling or Johanan and other leaders of the Jews (see Jer 40:8) experienced a great love for him. Dio Cassius emotion but of positive acts of kindness toward (c. AD 164–229) wrote that “a benevolence, a others. The two terms often appear together in goodness [philanthrøpia, chr∑stot∑s]” were qualiHellenistic literature. [Benevolence] ties of the administration of the emperor Pertinax In Titus 3:4 Paul captures the rich Hellenistic (Hist. rom. 73.5.2). The philosopher Onasander (General 18.1) wrote that a general should treat image of the formal arrival of an emperor or a with benevolence and goodness (philanthrøpos kai god. The manifestation of benevolence associchr∑stos) cities that open their gates in surrender. ated with such a solemn arrival was associated In fact, “benevolence” (philanthøpia) was widely with clemency. Philo links both clemency and viewed as the quintessential quality of a good king. In sum, manifestations of goodness and benevotender mercy with the royal and divine lence were to be expected when a king, his attribute of benevolence.2 So Paul associates the governor, or his general arrived for a solemn visit to manifestation of God’s goodness and benevoa city, evidence that the arriving personage was lence with his mercy (3:5c), for we have been indeed a Savior (søt∑r) or a benefactor (euerget∑s). Since the royal sovereign was often considered to saved “not because of any works of righteousrepresent the deity—sometimes to the point of ness that we had done, but according to his being deified himself—these expressions of goodmercy.” “Works of righteousness” refers to the ness and benevolence were a manifestation of the kind of life and conduct that God requires. Paul goodness and benevolence of the gods. wants this to be clear: our salvation is the result of God’s mercy, not the righteous deeds we have done! The main element of “mercy” is not pity but compassion and love, both of which are undeserved.

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We have been saved “through the water of rebirth and renewal by the Holy Spirit” (v. 5). “The water” translates a Greek word (loutron) that can mean a bath, the water with which one bathes, or the act of washing. It had come to be used of ceremonial washings, whether of the whole body or particular parts of the body, which functioned as a rite of passage from one state of life to another. Sometimes such washings symbolized the transition from the secular to the sacred. In our text, the “water” (or washing) was one “of rebirth” (a compound of palin [again] and ginomai [“to come into being”], which was used of a wide range of The “Mysteries” human or metahuman experiences, including In the Eleusinian mysteries, for example, restoration of health, return from exile, the the rite of initiation held during the beginning of a new life, the restoration of souls, February celebrations of the Lesser Mysteries at Agrai concluded with a ritual washing in which new life for a people, and the anticipated water was poured over the initiate. The celebrarestoration of the world). The notion of tion of the Lesser Mysteries at Agrai was a “rebirth” is found in Jesus’ discussion with prelude to the September celebrations of the Nicodemus in John 3:3-8, which uses the same Greater Mysteries at Eleusis. Jewish proselytes were initiated into Judaism with a ritual washing cluster of ideas, referring to washing, new birth, of the entire body. and the Spirit. Jesus tells Nicodemus that he must be “born again,” a rebirth in water and the Spirit. Such rituals were familiar to both Greeks and Jews. [The “Mysteries”] The word translated “renewal” (anakainosis) first appears in Romans 12:2 and is not Basilica of St. Titus, Eastern Exterior found outside of Christian literature. Throughout the New Testament, the word “new” (kainos) is generally used with an eschatological connotation (cf. Matt 26:29; 1 Cor 11:25; 2 Cor 3:6; 5:17; Gal 6:15; Eph 2:15; 4:4; Heb 8:8; 2 Pet 3:13; Rev 21:1, 5). “Renewal” connotes the kind of conversion that is necessary as the second appearance of Christ approaches. What does Paul mean here by “rebirth” and “renewal”? View looking west northwest at the eastern exterior of the Basilica of Interpreters have suggested St. Titus. (7th c., Gortyna, Crete). The large central portion is the central apse of the church. According to tradition, Titus was martyred several possibilities: here. The church dates to the 7th C. AD. 1. Rebirth and renewal are two (Credit: Image courtesy of www.holylandphotos.org) separate things, with rebirth

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relating to washing and renewal relating to the Holy Spirit. This seems to some the best understanding based on a literal translation of the text. Thus, we have here two ways by which God saves us: through rebirth that is effected through washing and through renewal that is effected by the Holy Spirit, or perhaps these are two separate stages in the believer’s life, with rebirth View looking east at the apse and transept of the Basilica of St. Titus. View equivalent to conversion from the atrium looking down the central nave of the basilica. (Credit: Image courtesy of www.holylandphotos.org) experienced at the time of baptism and renewal referring to a subsequent activity of the Holy Spirit in the life of the believer. 2. The connecting “and” (kai) is an epexegetical kai; thus renewal is intended as an explanation of rebirth. The rebirth is a renewal.3 3. “Washing” is equivalent to rebirth and renewal so that one could translate the phrase, “He saved us through the washing, that is, the rebirth and renewal that is effected by the Holy Spirit.” 4. Washing is a sign of rebirth and renewal, i.e., “he saved us by means of the washing that is a sign that we have experienced rebirth and renewal from the Holy Spirit.” 5. Washing as spiritual cleansing is the means by which the Holy Spirit works out rebirth and renewal. This takes the genitive “of the Holy Spirit” as marking the Holy Spirit as agent for both rebirth and renewal that in turn are taken as synonyms. The agent of washing may also be the Holy Spirit, and this is not in focus in the text.4 Basilica of St. Titus, Apse and Transept

The figure of the Holy Spirit being “poured out upon us” is used in Acts 2:17-18, 33; 10:45 (though it originates in the Greek translation of Joel 2:28-30) to indicate that the eschatological age of the Spirit has begun and the Spirit is at work. Even as the Spirit of God was at work in the creation of the universe and humankind

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(Gen 1–2), so the Spirit is at work in the new creation (2 Cor 5:17). God has poured his Spirit upon us “richly.” The focus is on the abundance and lavishness of God’s gift of the Spirit, which comes “through Jesus Christ our Savior.” The idea of Jesus as the mediator of the gift of the Spirit is deeply embedded in the tradition (see, e.g., John 1:26-27; 4:10, 11; 20:22-23; Matt 3:11; Mark 1:8; Luke 3:16). We have been “justified by his grace” (dikaiøthentes). In the New Testament, God’s justifying work is God’s work of making things right, i.e., putting people in a right relationship with God. This statement is pure Paul, echoing his discussions with the Judaizers in Romans and Galatians. We are not justified by our works but by God’s grace. It is not surprising that Paul sounds this note to Christians living in the midst of the large Jewish population of Crete with the possibility that Judaizing tendencies may be present. All of this has happened by God’s grace so “that we might become heirs according to the hope of eternal life.” The Pauline theme of inheritance is found in Romans, 1 Corinthians, and Galatians. To the Jew in the first century, the word “inheritance” was a reminder of God’s promise to give Israel the promised land of Canaan and what God had done to fulfill that promise. Its meaning was later extended to refer to God’s blessings. By its very nature, of course, the idea of an “inheritance” is forward looking. It is something a person will receive in the future. In this case, the inheritance is “eternal life.” According to Ephesians 1:13-14, the presence of the Holy Spirit is God’s present pledge of our future inheritance. Verse 8a, “The saying is sure” (Pistos ho logos, lit., “The saying is faithful”), refers back to vv. 4-7. The same phrase appears three times in 1 Timothy (1:15; 3:1; 4:9) and once in 2 Timothy (2:11) as an affirmation that what is being cited faithfully reproduces the tradition that Paul has received and handed on to the Cretans.

CONNECTIONS 1. These verses are pure Pauline gospel, emphasizing once again what he has written in 2:14. Our salvation is the result of “the goodness and loving kindness of God our Savior” (3:4) made manifest in Jesus Christ (2:14; 3:6). The best commentary on these

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verses can be found in Romans and Galatians. Calvin writes in his Institutes 3.14.5, “By this confession we strip man of every particle of righteousness, until by mere mercy he is regenerated unto the hope of eternal life, since it is not true to say we are justified by grace, if works contribute in any degree to our justification.” 2. As always, our salvation is the result of God’s grace, “not because of any works of righteousness that we had done . . .” (3:5). “He saved us . . . .” The initiative is always God’s. This has been the case since he called Abraham (Gen 12:1-3). God has initiated and accomplished the work of salvation. From beginning to end, it has been, is, and will ever be a work of grace. As the hymn writer wrote, “Grace, grace, God’s grace; grace that will pardon and cleanse within. Grace, grace, God’s grace; grace that is greater than all our sin.”5 3. The work of the Holy Spirit is front and center in vv. 5 and 6 and must be front and center in the Christian’s life. The Spirit is the agent of rebirth and renewal. Paul’s words here bear a striking resemblance to Jesus’ words to Nicodemus in John 3:5. Both passages refer to rebirth and both speak of water and the Spirit. Since “water” could be translated “washing” in Titus, it is possible that Paul is speaking of a washing that accomplishes both rebirth and renewal. He then speaks of the Spirit being “poured out on us richly through our Jesus Christ our Savior.” He is the agent of the Spirit that accomplishes both rebirth and a continuing renewal in the Christian’s life. 4. Having been “washed” by the Spirit, we are “justified by his grace” (3:7). “Justified” could also be translated “right-wised.” God’s salvific purpose is the “right-wising” of all things. God’s righteousness is God’s activity in making things right, and this is a result of his grace. Another way to think of this is to consider God’s purpose as one of turning right side up what has been turned upside down by human sin. As Paul writes in Romans 1:23, humanity “exchanged the truth about God for a lie and worshiped and served the creature rather than the Creator.” With these words, Paul succinctly summarizes the story of humankind captured poignantly in Genesis 3 when the first humans chose Satan’s lie over God’s truth, and ever since human beings have built their lives, individually and corporately, on that lie. We’ve got it upside down, but in Christ we have caught a glimpse of what right-side up

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really looks like and, reborn and continually being renewed by the Spirit, we can begin to live “right-wised” lives. 5. “Right-wised,” we become “heirs.” Once again, the best commentary on this is found in Romans 8:15-17. An eschatological note is sounded. An “heir” receives an inheritance that may have both present and future implications. “Eternal life” is the “in Christ” relationship that is both now and in the future, both “now” and “then,” both “already” and “not yet.” The “now” experience of eternal life results in and undergirds the hope of the “then.” The Spirit’s presence in the now is the guarantee of eternal life in the future (Eph 1:13-14). “For now we see in a mirror dimly, but then we shall see face to face. Now I know only in part; then I will know fully even as I have been known fully” (1 Cor 13:12).

Notes 1. Some have suggested that the structure of the hymn would be better appreciated if the references to justification were eliminated: “not from works of righteousness which we ourselves have done” (ouk ex ergøn tøn dikaiosyn∑ ha epoi∑samen h∑meis alla) and “justified by his grace” (dikaiøthentes t∑ ekeinon chariti). These might be considered as “Pauline” additions to a pre-Pauline hymn, just as the words “even death on a cross” (Phil 2:8) are often considered to be a Pauline addition to a pre-Pauline hymn in Phil 2:6-11 because they break the metrical symmetry of the hymnic unit. Raymond Collins suggests that “it is likely that 3:4-7 was a well-known baptismal hymn and that 2:11 is Paul’s own composition, inspired by the opening strophe of the hymn” (I & II Timothy and Titus: A Commentary [NTL; Louisville KY: Westminster John Knox, 2002] 361). 2. Philo (Cherubim 99; Moses 1.198) views benevolence as a divine attribute that belongs to the very nature of God. Hellenistic papyri contain many examples of petitions addressed to kings or their legates by people who appeal to their benevolence as they ask these royal officials to intervene in any given situation (see P. Oxy. 2919, 10; P. Mich. 529, 13; P. Sorb. 53, 6; P. Thaed. 22, 11; also see TLNT 3.444n13). 3. So Collins, I & II Timothy and Titus, 365. 4. So Daniel Arichea and Howard Hatton, A Handbook to Paul’s Letter to Timothy and Titus (New York: American Bible Society, 1995) 303. 5. Julia Johnston, The Baptist Hymnal (Nashville: Convention Press, 1991) 329.

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A Rhetorical Epilogue Titus 3:8b-11

COMMENTARY Having assured Titus of the trustworthiness of the teaching he has presented, Paul adopts the mode of a rhetorical epilogue in vv. 8b-11 in which he (1) charges Titus to teach these things for the good of the faithful, (2) urges him to avoid foolish arguments, and (3) tells him to avoid those who would cause divisions in the church. “I desire that you insist on these things” (v. 8b). “These things” is a reference to the things he has just written in 3:1-8a. This is clear from the repetition of “good works” (cf. v. 1). “Insist” (diabebaiousthai) translates a verb that means speaking with confidence, firmness, and certainty that affirms the importance of what is being said. It was used frequently in Hellenistic paraenesis.1 Titus is to speak of these things in this way so “that those who have come to believe in God may be careful to devote themselves to good works.” “Those who have come to believe” (pepisteukotes) translates a perfect participle that indicates an action that occurred in the past but with its effect continuing into the present. Their belief is “in God” who once again in v. 4 is identified as “our Savior” (cf. 1:3; 2:10). Some have suggested that this reflects the Gentile nature of these congregations since Jews would already believe in God; however, the belief that Paul here describes is according to the Christian gospel that they have heard and Titus is to affirm. “May be careful” (phronttizøsin) is the subjunctive form of a verb that focuses on taking something to heart and actively pursuing it to completion, i.e., “make every effort.”2 They are to make every effort “to devote themselves to good works.” The verb (proistasthai) has the sense of making something one’s primary concern, completely devoting oneself to something, engaging in something with intense devotion. The object of this devotion is “good works.” As we have seen, “good works” serves as a kind of shorthand definition of Christian living throughout this

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letter (cf. 1:16; 2:6, 14; 3:1, 14). “These things are excellent and profitable to everyone.” Paul invokes here the standard rhetorical argument from advantage. Good works are “excellent” (kala, lit., “good”). They are also “profitable” (øphelima), that is, beneficial and advantageous. While “good works” are beneficial for all, some things are “unprofitable and worthless” (v. 9). “Unprofitable” (a-nøpheleis) is simply the negative form of the word used above for “profitable.” “Worthless” (mataioi) could also be translated “futile,” “useless,” or even “senseless” because of lack of content. These “unprofitable” and “worthless”’ things include the following: 1. “Stupid controversies.” “Controversies” (z∑t∑seis) refers to expressing differences of opinion forcefully without interest in seeking a solution. “Stupid” (møras) has the connotation of something that is without understanding, i.e., something that is nonsensical. The English word “moron” is derived from the noun form of this adjective. 2. “Genealogies” (genealogias). It is difficult to know exactly what this refers to. Several possibilities have been suggested: (a) Traditional Jewish ancestral lists by which one’s Jewish identity and place among the people were determined (e.g., priest, Levites, royalty, etc.). These would be especially important to those living in the Diaspora. (b) Jewish stories and legends built around Hebrew ancestors that became popular among Jews influenced by Greek culture, often including attention to the meaning and interpretation of even minute details of the biblical record such as numbers and the spelling of names. Sometimes these were contained in popular Jewish writings such as the Book of Jubilees. (c) Lists of ancestors found in various Gnostic movements. Since the Gnostics believed anything material was evil, they held that the universe was not created by the Supreme God but by demigods who came between the Supreme God and the physical universe. The genealogies would contain lists of these semi-divine beings. Whatever explanation one accepts, it is clear that for Paul, time spent attending to them is “unprofitable,” for in the final analysis they are “worthless.” Interestingly, Plato (Timaeus 22a) and

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Polybius (Histories 9.2.1) also argue against myths and genealogical lists! (See 1 Tim 1:4.) 3. “Dissensions” (epeis). Paul frequently employs this term to refer to a vice associated with jealousy (Rom 13:13; 1 Cor 3:3; 2 Cor 12:20; Gal 5:20; see also Rom 1:29; Phil 1:15). In 1 Corinthians 1:11, however, he uses it of “divisions” within the Corinthian church. The word refers to the act of separating from one another or creating divisions and schisms and thus undermining the unity of a group. 4. “Quarrels about the law.” The large Jewish population on Crete and the presence of Jewish Christians in the community (1:14-15; 3:5, 7) suggests that the quarrels mentioned here most likely refer to disputes related to Jewish law, i.e., the Law of Moses. With regard to each of these things, Paul’s admonition to Titus is clear: he is to “avoid” them. They are unprofitable and worthless. No advantage is to be gained by pursuing them. Instead, he and those he teaches must attend to good works. One of those good works is the effort to bring errant members of the congregation back into the fold (see 2 Tim 2:25-26). Paul’s instructions regarding this sound like Jesus’ instructions on this matter found in Matthew 18:15-17 and Paul’s instructions to the Corinthians (1 Cor 5; 2 Cor 2:5-11). Having discussed the things that may lead to division, in v. 10 Paul turns his attention to the church’s response to those who cause such divisions. This means “anyone who causes Who Are the Heretics? divisions” (hairetikon). It comes from the word The pursuit of those who may be said to that means the act of being divisive or causing stand outside the bounds of orthodoxy has been an ongoing agenda among Christians. divisions or splits within a group. The English Unfortunately, it has often been the case that word “heretic” is derived from this word. Here those most intent on “purifying” the church by the word does not carry the modern connotaridding it of those who hold differing views (i.e., tion that focuses on wrong or false teachings; the “heretics”) are the ones who cause the greatest divisions in the church. In effect, those instead, it focuses on the negative behavior of who want to rid the church of “heretics” those who for whatever reason cause divisions (according to their understanding) are “heretics” and splits. [Who Are the Heretics?] in the biblical sense! “After a first and second admonition” to such persons, Titus is instructed to “have nothing more to do with them.” He is to admonish the person not once but twice. According to one ancient Greek writer, “Admonition is the instilling of sense in the person who is being admonished, and

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teaching him what should and should not be done . . . .”3 After doing this, if the person does not respond appropriately, Paul’s instructions are clear: have nothing more to do with him. The prefix (par-) of the Greek verb (paraitou) suggests a nuance of aversion or repudiation. This action is to be taken “since you know that such a person is perverted and sinful, being self-condemned” (v. 11). “Perverted” (exestraptai ), a word that literally means “to turn away from” or “to turn inside out,” had come to be used metaphorically to mean “thoroughly confused” or “perverted,” and “sinful” (hamartanei ). In the Septuagint, the Greek verb “to sin” renders the Hebrew hatah. Both the Greek and Hebrew literally mean “to miss the mark” but were commonly used in the metaphorical sense of “sin.” Both Jews and Greeks would understand the term as describing the actions of someone who had done wrong or failed in his or her purpose. Finally, Paul says such a person is “self-condemned” (autokatakritos), that is, condemned by his or her own actions. Apart from one appearance in Philo’s Sacred Parallels, this term is found only in Christian literature. Since this may be its earliest appearance, perhaps it was coined for this letter. Does this mean excommunication in the sense that some Christian groups now practice it? There is no clear answer to this question. Certainly Paul gave similar instructions for dealing with a recalcitrant sinner in 1 Corinthians 5:5. The issue of church discipline is an important one, though one that is generally given little attention in the contemporary setting. Paul’s instructions to the Corinthians suggest at least one guiding principle: church discipline should always be redemptive in nature.

CONNECTIONS 1. The closing admonitions deal with practical matters and present short summaries of key issues in the letter. First, the frequent admonitions to “good works” receive a final emphasis as Paul reminds Titus that he is “to insist” on the things he has taught “so that those who have come to believe in God may be careful to devote themselves to good works” (3:8bc). Paul’s repeated attention to “good works” must never be taken to encourage “works-righteousness,” but as a strong reminder that “Faith without works is dead” (Jas 2:17). We are not saved “by” good

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works, but we are saved “for” good works (Eph 2:8-10)! According to Peter Davids, “Works are not an ‘added extra’ any more than breath is an ‘added extra’ to a living body. . . . These things are excellent and profitable.”4 2. Time spent majoring on minors is “unprofitable and worthless” (3:9). Though the things Paul includes in his list may not translate in a one-to-one correspondence to other contexts, the main point is clear. Major on the majors! Yet too often we become embroiled in controversies, quarrels, and dissensions that divert us from our mission and even breed unchristian behavior. Once upon a time, a huge group within Christendom set a goal of taking the gospel to every person in the world over the course of twenty-five years. This group had the person-power and the resources to accomplish the task, but before the bold mission could even get off the ground, the group became embroiled in controversy, quarreling, and bitter dissension that lasted twenty-five years and derailed the bold mission to which they had committed themselves. The public issue focused on the inspiration of the Bible. The issue was not that the Bible was inspired. On this all parties agreed. The issue was exactly how that inspiration took place! Paul addresses the “what” of inspiration in 2 Timothy 3:16-17, but is content to leave the “how” up to God. 3. Finally, Paul addresses the question of what to do about those who cause and foster division (3:10-11). Here we are confronted with the matter of church discipline, a subject seldom broached. Yet we must acknowledge that Jesus himself addressed this issue and even set out a means by which to approach such discipline (Matt 18:15-20). In 1 Corinthians 5:1-8, Paul calls on the Corinthian community to discipline a member engaged in sexual immorality. In each case, the purpose of discipline is redemptive and restorative!

Notes 1. See Aristotle, Rhetoric 2.13.1; Demosthenes, On the Treaty with Alexander 17.30; Polybius, Histories 12.12.6. 2. TLNT 3:467–69. 3. Pseudo-Demetrius, Epistolary Types 7. 4. Peter Davids, Commentary on James (NIGTC; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982) 122.

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Final Instructions and Benediction Titus 3:12-15

COMMENTARY As in other letters, Paul’s final instructions take the form of a kind of travelogue. He makes frequent mention of his desire to visit the letter’s recipients (Rom 1:11; 15:22-24, 28-29; 1 Cor 11:34; 16:3; 2 Cor 1:15-16; 12:20-21; 13:10; Phil 2:24; 1 Thess 2:17-18; Phlm 22) and occasionally some specific detail of his travel plans (Rom 15:22-29; 1 Cor 16:5-9). These words are in keeping with his practice to send trusted coworkers to act in his stead when he is not able to visit. He sent Titus and a companion to Corinth (2 Cor 12:18; cf. 7:13; 8:6, 18, 23), Crete (Titus 1:5), and perhaps to Troas (2 Cor 2:13); Timothy to Corinth (1 Cor 4:17; 16:10), Thessalonica (1 Thess 3:2, 6), and probably to Philippi (Phil 2:19-30), and Ephesus (1 Tim 1:3); and Epaphras, Tychicus, and Onesimus to Colossae (Col 1:7; 4:7-9). Paul’s plan is to send Artemas or Tychicus to replace Titus on Crete so that Titus can come to him at Nicopolis. Artemas is not mentioned elsewhere in the New Testament. Tychicus is mentioned as a companion of Paul in Acts 20:4, as the bearer of the Pauline letters to Colossae (Col 4:7) and Ephesus (Eph 6:21), and as Paul’s delegate to Ephesus in 2 Timothy 4:12. It is clear that Paul has confidence in both of these as his representatives who are capable of relieving Titus and carrying on the work in Crete. Titus is to make the utmost effort to come to Paul at Nicopolis (lit., “city of victory”), for Paul has decided to spend the winter there. At the time, there were at least seven cities bearing this name that had been built to commemorate Roman military victories. There is a strong consensus that the Nicopolis mentioned here was the one known as Nicopolis in Epirus1 or Nicopolis of Achaia.2 Located on the isthmus of the Bay of Actium, northwest of Corinth and Athens on the shore of the

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Nicopolis: A Winter Haven

Paul’s Visit

(Credit: Todd Bolen/BiblePlaces.com)

Although numerous cities named Nicopolis existed at the time of Paul, the site referred to in Titus 3:12 was probably the Nicopolis located at the entrance to a bay on the west coast of northern Achaia (as indicated in the map above). Built by Augustus, this site would have been an appropriate place for Paul to spend the winter, as he indicated. Nothing in Paul’s other letters or in the book of Acts would place Paul here, which may explain why a few ancient manuscripts include a subscript that identifies the city as “Nicopolis of Macedonia.”

Adriatic Sea, it was built by the emperor Augustus to commemorate his naval victory over the forces of Mark Antony in 31 BC. It was ideally located for sea travel between Italy and Achaia, and as the terminus of a trade route became an important commercial center and the site of quadrennial athletic games. The much-revered Stoic philosopher Epictetus was exiled there in AD 89. This Nicopolis is exactly the kind of city that Paul would have found amenable to his ongoing ministry. Like Corinth and Ephesus, the cities where he spent the most time, it was a commercial center and a transportation hub. The links it afforded to both Achaia and Italy would no doubt have been important for Paul. Furthermore, as a seaport it would have been an ideal place to spend the “winter,” the season of the year when sea travel was dangerous (see 1 Cor 16:6; Acts 27:9-12) At Nicopolis, Paul would be perfectly positioned for further travels when spring came and the seas were less treacherous. These details suggest that wherever Paul may be at the time of this writing, he is not in prison but free to make his own plans.

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Titus is also to “make every effort to send Zenas the lawyer and Apollos on their way” (v. 13). Like Artemas, Zenas is mentioned only here in the New Testament. His name appears to be a contraction of Zenodoros, “gift of Zeus,” and he is identified by his profession as a “lawyer,” though it is unclear whether he practices Roman, Greek, or Jewish law. Acts of Paul 3:2 mentions a Zeno who is one of the sons of Onesiphorus who, according to 2 Timothy 1:16, “refreshed” Paul and “was not ashamed of his chains.” Because of this, Paul prayed for the Lord to have mercy on his household. Tradition identifies him as the first bishop of Diospolis of Lydda in Palestine and says he wrote a letter to Titus. Apollos, on the other hand, was a well-known figure in early Christianity. According to Acts 18:24–19:1, he was an Alexandrian, well versed in the Scriptures and instructed in the ways of the Lord by Priscilla and Aquila. Paul’s frequent mention in 1 Corinthians (1:12; 3:4, 5, 6, 22; 4:6; 16:12) indicates that he was well known in Achaia. Titus is to “make every effort to send [them] on their way.” The compound form of the verb here (propempson) includes the notion that Titus is to prepare them for the journey by providing whatever they need: money, food, clothing, means of transportation, etc. (see Rom 15:24; 1 Cor 16:6; 2 Cor 1:16). This is further emphasized by the addition of “and see that they lack nothing.” Titus is responsible for provisioning them adequately for their journey. Furthermore, he is to “let people learn to devote themselves to good works” (v. 14a). While “people” (lit., “our people”) here may have Zenas and Apollos as the primary referent, we have already seen that “good works” is shorthand for the Christian life. This makes the exhortation relevant not only to Zenas and Apollos but to all Christians, as Paul already indicated in his exhortation in 3:8. “Good works” are to be done “in order to meet urgent needs.” “Urgent” (anankaias) can also mean “necessary,” which means they are real needs. This is to be done “so that they may not be unproductive” (lit., “in order that they may not be without fruit [a-karpoi]”). Paul made use of agricultural imagery in speaking of his own ministry (1 Cor 3:5-9; 9:10-11), and the image of bearing fruit seems to have been a common image for good works in the early church. Especially in the Gospels, “fruit” is used to describe a person’s actions (Matt 3:8, 10; 7:16-20; 12:33; 13:26(?); Luke 3:8-9; 6:43-44; 8:8).

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Finally, Paul’s letters typically end with various greetings. Thirdperson greetings are characteristic (Rom 16:21-23; 1 Cor 16:19-20a; 2 Cor 13:12b; Phil 4:21b-22; Phlm 23-24; Col 4:14; 2 Tim 4:21b). Here “all who are with [him] send greetings” (v. 15). Second-person greetings in which Paul asks his correspondents to convey his greeting to others are also commonplace. “Greet those who love us in the faith” is similar to his second-person greetings in Romans (16:3-16a), 1 Corinthians (16:20b), 2 Corinthians (13:12a), Philippians (4:21a), 1 Thessalonians (5:26), and 2 Timothy (4:19). “In the faith” is literally “in faith” without the article. “In faith” is open to several interpretations. If “faith” is right belief, then it might be rendered “those who love us and believe as we do.” If “faith” is trust in Christ, then it might be rendered “those who love us and trust Christ as we do.” If “faith” is understood as a kind of shorthand for the Christian faith, then it might be rendered “our fellow Christians who love us.” If “faith” is understood as faithfulness, then it might be rendered “those who love us faithfully.” In fact, of course, each of these possible interpretations expresses a genuine dimension of the Christian faith. “Grace be with all of you” (v. 15c) is the shortest benediction in all of the Pauline letters, so we have gone from one of the longest salutations to the shortest benediction.3 It serves to pronounce a blessing on the whole community, a fact highlighted by the inclusion of “all of you.” This provides a clear indication that, though Titus was the addressee and primary recipient of the letter, it was to be read to the whole congregation, indeed, to all of the new congregations on Crete. As it blessed and encouraged Titus, so it blessed and encouraged all of those with whom he faithfully shared it, and so it continues to bless all who read it and heed it to this day.

CONNECTIONS 1. Paul understood ministry as a team effort. These verses give us a glimpse of some of those who were on Paul’s team. He was not a lone ranger but part of an extensive network of people committed together to the mission of proclaiming the gospel and building the church. This is the New Testament pattern for missions and ministry.

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2. The mission was also a community affair, and Paul expected the community of faith to provision those on mission. Furthermore, Paul believed that the needs of those in the faith community should be met by that community. Nowhere is this clearer than in his admonitions about the collection for the saints in Jerusalem that he was collecting from the Gentile churches on his third mission (Rom 15:22-29; 1 Cor 16:1-4; 2 Cor 8–9). In the Gospels, Acts, and Paul’s writings, the call to Christians is to be willing to say, “What’s mine is yours!”

Notes 1. See Tacitus, Annals 2.53. 2. See Ptolemy, Geography 3.13. 3. While this reading of the epistolary farewell is found in the most ancient manuscripts (P61 and Aleph) as well as in the Coptic and Armenian versions, the manuscript tradition attests no fewer than six other readings. The simplest reading is one most likely to have given rise to its variants.

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1 Timothy

Epistolary Salutation 1 Timothy 1:1-2

COMMENTARY The salutation reflects the three-part form of a typical first-century Hellenistic letter: (1) the name(s) of the sender(s) often followed by a self-description that functioned rhetorically to establish the author’s credibility and authority, (2) the name(s) of the recipient(s), and (3) a brief blessing. Aside from sharing this basic structure, Pauline salutations are anything but typical, for Paul characteristically expands each element to give it a distinctively Christian flavor. Paul describes himself as “an apostle,” that is, one sent on a mission wielding the authority of the sender. Often used in a narrow sense to refer to the first twelve followers of Jesus, it is used here in a broader sense as a general term for Christian missionaries. Indeed, “apostle,” is Paul’s customary self-description.1 He is an apostle “of Christ Jesus.” “Christ” translates the Greek Christos (“anointed”) and is the equivalent of the Hebrew “Messiah.” Placing the title before the name (as is often the case in Paul’s letters), Paul emphasizes Jesus’ messianic role, especially appropriate if Paul’s readers are dealing with matters related to Judaism. Thus, he makes clear from the outset that he is the authorized ambassador of Messiah Jesus who undertakes his work “by the command of God our Savior and of Christ Jesus our hope.” His mission is not one of his own choosing. On the Damascus road, he was called by the risen Christ to take the good news to the nations (Acts 9:1-9; 22:6-21; 26:2-18). He had first met Timothy in the carrying out of this mission, and they had begun to share the mission together (Acts 16:1-5). This mission first brought Paul to Ephesus (Acts 19:1-41). And it was to further this mission that Paul left Timothy in Ephesus to shepherd the church there. Paul’s words here remind Timothy and those he serves in Ephesus that all of this is the result of “the command of God our Savior and of Christ Jesus our hope.”

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“God our Savior” and “Christ Jesus our hope” stand in striking parallelism. Clearly, the two are acting as one. Both are identified by an appositive that indicates the nature of their relationship and suggests that the command that Paul received was aimed at bringing the readers salvation and hope. Three times in this letter, God is described as “Savior” (søt∑r, 1:1; 2:3; 4:10; cf. Titus 1:3; 2:10; 3:4; also see “Christ our Savior” in 2 Tim 1:10; Titus 1:4; 2:13; 3:6), a notion that has clear roots in the Old Testament and Jewish tradition to which Paul was heir, There it is primarily God who is called “Savior” or identified as the one who brings salvation (e.g., Deut 32:15; Mic 7:7; Hab 3:18), particularly in the Psalms (e.g., Pss 24:5; 27:1; 62:2) and in Isaiah (e.g., Isa 12:2; 45:15, 21; 60:16; 63:8). Though humans may be called saviors, they serve only as agents of God’s salvation (e.g., Judg 2:16; 3:9, 15; 2 Kgs 13:5; Neh 9:27).2 In the Hellenistic world, deities (and even emperors) who were thought to rescue the people from evils of all kinds (including death) were given the title “Savior.” After the death of Ptolemy I, he and his wife Berenice were honored with the title “savior gods.” Philo (Flaccus 74) refers to God and Jesus as Savior Augustus as “our savior and benefactor.” For Paul, This relationship is clarified in Titus. There God is Savior (Titus 2:10) there is but one savior, the one true and living because he is faithful to his promise (1:2). His God of Israel, and he makes this clear from the faithfulness is manifested in the double appearoutset. ance of Christ Jesus, who gave himself for us, Salvation brings “hope.” In the Old Testament redeemed us, and formed us into a chosen people (2:14). Our salvation is not the result of and Jewish tradition, God is the source of hope. any righteous works we have done, but results The “hope” (elpis) word group plays a prominent from the mercy of God (see 2:3-6), mediated to role in 1 Timothy. In addition to this noun, the us through Christ Jesus, realized in us by verb form appears four times as Paul affirms that means of the rebirth and renewal through God’s Spirit, which establishes us as heirs of eternal God is the object of hope because he is the Savior life (Titus 3:4-6) that is realized fully at the time of all people (4:10) who are called to live with of Jesus’ second appearance (2:11-14). their hope centered in God (5:5; 6:17). The designation of Christ Jesus as our hope (see Titus 2:13; 3:7; cf. Titus 1:2 and Col 1:27, where Christ is called “the hope of glory”) indicates that this hope comes to us in Christ Jesus [God and Jesus as Savior] Thus, the binominal expression, “God our Savior” and “Christ Jesus our hope,” suggests that God is the ground and source of Christian hope of which Christ Jesus is the object.3 Timothy is the best known of Paul’s companions, having worked with him in Asia, Achaia, and Macedonia (see Acts 16ff.). An Asian by birth and a trusted cohort, he would be a natural choice to give

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Timothy leadership to churches in Asia. Referring to Timothy as his “loyal child in the faith,” Paul highlights his relationship of love and common service with Timothy as in 1 Corinthians 4:17, where he describes Timothy as “my beloved and faithful child in the Lord,” and in Philippians 2:22, where he reminds the Philippians “how like a son with a father he [Timothy] has served with me in the service of the gospel.” Loyal to both the message and method of the Pauline mission, Timothy has Paul’s blessing as a legitimate and faithful interpreter of the Pauline message and is to be received as such by the Ephesians. Timothy’s ministry is, in effect, an extension of Paul’s! Saint Timothy, Bishop of Ephesus, c. 1160. Stained glass window from the Chapel of Saint Each element of the blessing Sebastian in the Abbey of Saints Peter and Paul at Neuwiller-les-Saverne, Alsace, Musée National du Moyen-Åge, Paris, France. (Credit: Selbymay / Wikimedia Commons, CC-BYin v. 2 has special significance. SA-3.0) The Greek word for “grace” (charis) sounds similar to the typical Hellenistic greeting chairein (“rejoice;” cf. Acts 15:23; 23:26; Jas 1:1, where it is used as a typical Hellenistic greeting). “Grace” literally means “gift,” and in the New Testament it most often means God’s unmerited favor and love for humankind. “Peace” (eir∑n∑ ) represents the typical Hebrew greeting shalom (“peace”). This “peace” is more than the absence of violence! It refers to one’s total well-being and health, the sum total of God’s blessings bestowed upon a human being, enabling that person to live life to the fullest. In this blessing, Paul combines a form of the typical Hellenistic and the typical Hebrew greetings and in so doing gives testimony to the fact that in Christ Jesus there is no more Jew or Greek (Gal 3:28). The blessing becomes an announcement of the nature of the gospel itself. Paul adds “mercy” (eleos) to his typical blessing of “grace” and “peace,” creating a triad. The

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Mercy

Greek word for “mercy” is used in the LXX to render the virtually untranslatable Hebrew word ˙esed, often rendered as “steadfast love” or “covenantal love.” [Mercy] It often is the case that the middle term in a triad serves to interpret the other two. If this is the case here, Paul is saying that grace and peace result from the mercy of God. The source of these three blessings is “God the Father and Christ Jesus our Lord.” “Father” (patros) declares the intimacy of the relationship that God desires with humankind. It can be compared to the parent-child relationship, a relationship of love and concern. To speak of Christ Jesus as “Lord” (kyrios) is to attach to Jesus the title used for God in the Old Testament, and to speak of him as “our Lord” is a reminder that we know him in community, even as Jesus taught us to pray, “Our Father . . . .” For Paul, God and Jesus stand together as the source of the grace, mercy, and peace that is available to any and all.

According to the author of 1 Chronicles, one should “Give thanks to the Lord, for he is good; for his steadfast love [˙esed] endures forever” (1 Chr 16:34). “Mercy,” in the biblical tradition, is an attribute of God, an expression of his benevolence to his people (Jer 3:12; 9:24). Óesed becomes one of the expressions of Yahweh’s being, describing his goodness in the regularly recurring liturgical formula “for he is good [†ôb], his kindness [˙esed] endures forever” (cf. Pss 100:5; 106:1; 107:1; 118:1-4, 29; 136:1-26; Ezra 3:11; 1 Chr 16:34, 41; 2 Chr 5:13; 7:3, 6; 20:21). In Galatians 6:16, Paul wishes peace and mercy upon all who follow his “canon.” The “canon” he is alluding to is life in the “new creation” in which there is “neither circumcision nor uncircumcision.”

CONNECTIONS 1. In his salutation, Paul emphasizes the fact that he lives between memory and hope—between the past when he became “an apostle of Christ Jesus” and the Christian hope that is found in “Christ Jesus.” For the Christian, history is neither static nor cyclical but dynamic, the theater of God’s creative and redemptive work ever moving toward the fulfillment of God’s purposes. Paul sees himself as playing a role in this history, and so must we! 2. Timothy is Paul’s “loyal child in the faith.” His loyalty to Paul is inextricably tied to his loyalty to “the faith.” “In the faith,” we become a part of the family of faith. In Mark 3:31-35, Jesus declares that those who do the will of God are his “brother and sister and mother” (3:35). In this new family, our relationships will take on a family-like intimacy. We will have spiritual “sisters and brothers” who walk with us in the faith and spiritual “mothers and fathers” who share our commitment to the faith and mentor us in the faith. Think of those who have played these significant roles in

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your faith life and give thanks to God. Then make a phone call, send a card, write a letter, and express your gratitude to them. Consider setting aside the month of November as a “season of gratitude” in your life and in your church—a season of gratitude that leads you into Advent.

Notes 1. See, e.g., Rom 1:1; 1 Cor 1:1; 2 Cor 1:1; Gal 1:1; Phil 1:1; 1 Thess 1:1; Phlm 1. 2. On “God as Savior,” see [God as Savior]. 3. Cf. Ignatius of Antioch, Magn. 11:1; Eph 21:2; Phld. 11:2; see Phld. 5.1.2; Polycarp, Phil. 8:1.

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Opening Exhortation 1 Timothy 1:3-11

COMMENTARY The Charge to Timothy, 1:3-7

Rather than the typical pattern in which the salutation is followed by an expression or prayer of thanksgiving, Paul begins with an exhortation, signaling both the gravity and urgency of what follows.1 The instructions contained in this letter are follow-up to instructions already given (apparently when Paul was on the way to Macedonia). [Paul in Macedonia] The verb rendered “urge” (parakalesa) was employed in diplomatic correspondence to express tactfully an order being given by a designated envoy on behalf of a higher authority. Here Paul is the designated envoy acting on behalf of God and Christ Jesus (1:1). Timothy is “to remain in Ephesus.” Having been with Paul Roman Lake and Surrounding Cities in the First Century

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Paul in Macedonia Macedonia was a mountainous Roman province in the northwestern part of the Greek peninsula that would include parts of modern northern Greece, southern Yugoslavia, and southwest Bulgaria on today’s maps. The New Testament mentions two Pauline visits to Macedonia. On the first visit (described in Acts 16:6–17:9), Timothy accompanied him as they evangelized and established churches in the important cities of Philippi (a major city) and Thessalonica (the provincial capital; see Phil 1:1; 1 Thess 1:1). Timothy also accompanied him on the second visit (Acts 20:1-6; cf. 2 Cor 2:12-13), a fact confirmed by Paul’s mention of Timothy in the salutation of 2 Corinthians (1:1), which was written after his arrival in Macedonia. Obviously, neither of these fit the circumstances reflected in this letter in which Timothy is being urged by Paul to remain in Ephesus (prosmeinai en Ephesø). What then are we to make of this? (1) Assuming the authenticity of the letter, some early interpreters believed Paul had been released from the house arrest in Rome with which Luke ends the Acts narrative (Acts 28:30-31) and subsequently made another journey through Asia (Ephesus) and Macedonia (see Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 2.22). On this journey, Paul left Timothy in Ephesus. This view dominated traditional

understandings of 1 Timothy until modern critical scholarship began to question the authenticity of the letter. (2) It is possible to argue that the visit to Macedonia to which this letter refers occurred during the period covered by the Lukan narrative but was simply not mentioned by Luke. Several factors must be considered here. First, it is clear that the Lukan narrative is not exhaustive. While Luke tells us many things, he is obviously not concerned to tell us everything that happened to Paul. For example, he does not tell us of Paul’s painful visit to Corinth, which Paul himself describes in 2 Cor 2:1. Second, Luke tells us that Paul was in Ephesus for three years on his third missionary journey (Acts 19) but only describes three incidents that occurred during that time. There is certainly ample time for a visit such as the one referred to here. Obviously one cannot be dogmatic about either of these possibilities, but neither can one be dogmatic about dismissing them. However, if we are forced to assume that anything that falls outside of the Lukan purview is not to be taken seriously, then we are left with a limited view of the earliest years of the church. This is, in itself, not a sufficient reason for dismissing the authenticity of the letter, and this writer is open to the real possibility that either of the suggestions made above may indeed be true.

during his lengthy ministry there (Acts 19:1–20:4), he would have been familiar with Ephesus and the Ephesian church, a natural choice to oversee affairs there. He must “The Ant and the Grasshopper” “instruct certain people not to teach any different doctrine” (lit., “not to teach falsely”; the verb heterodidaskalein appears here for the first time in Greek literature). This phrase at once summarizes both Paul’s concerns and Timothy’s task. These “people” are not identified. They will remain an anonymous “some” throughout the letter. Verse 4 reveals some of elements of their false teaching. From at least as early as the fifth century BC, “myth” (mythos) had come to connote a fabricated story that might The fable of the ant and the grasshopper teaches a serve a didactic purpose (e.g., Aesop’s Fables) moral lesson about hard work and preparation. Illustration for “The Ant and the Grasshopper” by Milo Winter from The or, as in the case of traditional stories about Aesop for Children (1919). (Credit: Wikimedia Commons, PD-Gutenberg)

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Romulus and Remus the gods, offer an explanation of historical and cosmic realities. [Reality and Myth] The term appears again in 4:7 and in 2 Timothy 4:4; Titus 1:4; and 2 Peter 1:16, and while the referent is not specified, it may be a reference either to the stories found in GrecoRoman religions or Jewish haggadah or both.2 “Endless genealogies” (lit., “untold genealogies”) may also refer to elements According to legend, Romulus and Remus, the twin sons of a princess and the war god Mars, founded Rome. Though various of some kind of incipient versions of the story exist, one holds that the city was named for Gnosticism or Jewish haggadah. Romulus after a circle of birds flew over him, indicating he should “Genealogies” appears only here be king. and in Titus 3:9, where such Capitoline she-wolf, Romulas and Remus, Roman Forum, Rome. (Credit: Greg O’Beirne / Wikimedia Commons, CC-BY-SA-3.0-migrated) things are described as “useless,” leading to the promotion of “speculations.” Because the word translated Reality and Myth By the Hellenistic period, Greek writers “speculations” (exz∑t∑seis) here does not appear such as Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, and elsewhere in the NT, nor in any Greek literaPlutarch distinguished between reality and what ture, it is difficult to know its precise meaning.3 the “myths” had to say. Plutarch, a contemporary Often rendered as either “speculations” or “arguof Paul, described the “myth” as a “useless fabrication” (plasma kenon; Def. orac. 46, Mor. 435 D). ment,” both meanings may be intended since Philo and Josephus, the principal Jewish writers arguments often arise from speculations. To of the time, described “myths” as “error.” what is Paul referring here? Several possibilities have been suggested:

1. Jewish ancestral lists, which were traditionally important, especially if one was of a priestly family. Perhaps in the Diaspora these became even more important. Influenced by Greek culture, discussion of ancestral origins and their meaning led to interpretation of even minute details of the biblical record, such as numerals and the spelling of names, etc. 2. Legends and stories built around the Hebrew ancestors, handed down by tradition, and contained in popular Jewish writings at the time, e.g., the Book of Jubilees. 3. Lists of demigods found in the various Gnostic movements, which taught that anything material was evil, including the physical universe, which was not created by the Supreme God but by

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Hellenistic/Gnostic Speculation Hellenistic/Gnostic speculation about gods and demigods was developing in the 1st C., though a full-blown Gnosticism does not appear until the 2d C. AD as a syncretistic belief system combining elements of Judaism, Christianity, and Hellenistic speculation. Basic to the belief system was a dualism of flesh and spirit in which spirit is good and flesh/matter is evil. God is pure spirit and separated from the world of matter by “aeons amd emanations,” levels of beings that are progressively more material the farther away from God they are. There was widespread speculation about all of this. Human beings are spirits trapped in material bodies. Salvation consists of learning the secret knowledge (Gk., gnøsis) by which they may make their way through the realms of gods and demi-gods until they reach God, pure spirit, and live in union. According to the Gnostics, Jesus brought this secret knowledge. In the 2d C., this belief system became extremely popular and even dominated large geographical regions.

demigods who come between the Supreme God and the physical universe. The genealogies would contain lists of these semi-divine beings. [Hellenistic/Gnostic Speculation]

4. A syncretism that may have contained elements of any or all of the above.

Whatever these “myths” and “endless genealogies” that promote speculations were, the Ephesian Christians are to occupy themselves with “divine training that is known by faith” (v. 4). “Divine training” (oikonomian theou, lit., “God’s economy”) is a Greek word referring to God’s management of creation, including God’s plan of salvation that is being contrasted with the human preoccupation with myths and genealogies, e.g., “they hinder God from showing how he wants to save people.” This “divine training” is “known by faith” (en pistei). In the Pauline epistles, “faith” (pistis) without the article refers to a person’s trust in God and confidence in God’s faithfulness. It is a trust that leads to obedience and is never authentic faith apart from it. The relationship between the “divine training” and “faith” may be understood in two ways: (a) faith is the central principle in divine training, that is, God’s plan of salvation only works by means of faith, or, and more likely; (b) faith is the way by which God’s plan is revealed so that God’s plan can only be known by faith. In v. 5, Paul explains that the “aim” (to telos) of this divine training is “love” (agap∑ ). Indeed, for Paul love is always the aim, the purpose, for the Christian (1 Cor 13, etc.). According to Galatians 5:6, love is the “effectual” outworking of faith, that is, faith is the root and love is the fruit. For Paul, love is supreme because it is the fulfilling law (Rom 13:4) of which Messiah Jesus is the “climax” (telos; cf. Rom 10:4). Thus, while “certain people” in the Ephesian community (1:3) are fostering “arguments” (1:4; cf. 1:6), Timothy’s task is to foster love, and this love comes from “a pure heart,” “a good conscience,” and “a sincere faith.” Here we see a Pauline interpretive triad in which the middle element is interpreted by the two surrounding elements. Its contents are unique

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and reflect Paul’s sensitivity to the backgrounds of his readers and his ability to combine the language of three different traditions to make his point. “A pure heart” (katharas kardias) reflects Semitic/Hebrew anthropology in which one part of something, in this case the heart (Heb., leb) represents the whole person, the deepest depths of one’s being, the center of the thought, the will, even the emotions of a person. The heart represents the whole person who can think and feel and choose. A “pure heart” is a heart untainted by any foreign alloy or alien allegiance. It is an undivided heart turned totally toward God, a heart focused on God alone. According to Jesus, those who are “pure in heart” shall see God (Matt 5:8) because their attention will be where it is supposed to be. Such people are faithful to “seek first the kingdom of God and his righteousness” (Matt 6:33). Here “first” (prøton) does not refer to the first in a list of things, but the first as that which determines all other things. “Purity of heart,” according to Søren Kierkegaard, “is to will one thing.”4 Purity of heart” is single-mindedness. There is no room for equivocation here, for “no one can serve two masters” (Matt 6:24)! “A good conscience” reflects a Hellenistic notion. The “conscience” (syneid∑sis) enables a person to distinguish between right and wrong, acceptable and unacceptable. Through thinking and self-examination, the conscience enables a person to make moral decisions based on certain accepted standards. The notion of “a good conscience” was especially prominent in Stoicism, which had widespread appeal in Paul’s day. In Spec. Laws 1.203, Philo wrote of those with a “good conscience”: This class of men lives not far from God, keeping always before its eyes the beautiful things of heaven, and being guided in all its ways by heavenly love; so that if any one were to inquire of what character a great nation is, one might very properly answer—it is a nation whose most sacred prayers God hears, and to whose invocations, proceeding as they do from a pure conscience, he gladly draws near.

“A sincere faith” can refer to holding on to the accepted contents of the Christian faith in contrast to false teachings, or, more likely, trust and confidence in God or Christ Jesus that is not polluted by any pretense or hypocrisy, a trust to the point of obedience no matter the cost. While it is tempting to separate faith and obedience, arguing that faith is simple trust while obedience brings

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works into the equation, the New Testament will not allow for such a bifurcation. Jesus said, “Not everyone who says, ‘Lord, Lord’ will enter the kingdom of heaven, but only the one who does And, therefore, if a man fully understands that the end of the commandment is charity, out of the will of my Father” (Matt 7:21). Paul calls for a pure heart, and of a good conscience, and of “the obedience of faith” (Rom 1:5; 16:26) and faith unfeigned, and is bent upon making all his understanding of Scripture to bear upon these holds up the obedient Abraham as the example of three graces, he may come to the interpretation faith par excellence in both Romans and of these books with an easy mind. Galatians. James teaches that “faith by itself, if it For while the apostle says “love,” he adds “out of a pure heart,” to provide against anyhas no works, is dead” (Jas 2:17, 26). In the New thing being loved but that which is worthy of Testament, it is never a question of faith or obedilove. And he joins with this “a good conence. In the New Testament, faith is trusting God science,” in reference to hope; for, if a man has the burthen of a bad conscience, he despairs of to the point of obedience! [A Sincere Faith] ever reaching that which he believes in and “Some people” is a second reference to the loves. And in the third place he says: “and of nameless troublemakers who “have deviated,” litfaith unfeigned.” For if our faith is free from all hypocrisy, then we both abstain from loving erally, “missed the mark.” The verb form what is unworthy of our love, and by living employed only here and in 6:21 and 2 Timothy uprightly we are able to indulge the hope that our hope shall not be in vain. 2:18 (cf. 2 Clem. 17:7) is striking since the most common word for sin in the Hebrew Bible is hata, which essentially means “miss the mark” or “miss the target” (Judg 20:16, of a stone thrower). The people about whom Paul writes have simply missed the point! For Paul, the point is love born of “a pure heart,” “a good conscience,” and “a sincere faith” (v. 5). Instead, they have “turned to meaningless talk” (v. 6). Interestingly, in Titus 1:10, a related term is used derisively to speak of “people of the circumcision.” “They desire” (a participial form of the verb thelø that Tinøn can have the connotation Since the pronoun tinøn can be either masculine or neuter, it may refer of claiming to be someto the “things” about which they are speaking or the “persons” about whom they are speaking. This double characterization of their teaching may indithing one is not) to be cate that Paul is referring here to what would later be called Jewish halakah “teachers of the law” (the interpretation of Jewish law) and haggadah (the interpretation of the (nomodidaskaloi ), a term Jewish story). In 1 Tim 2:13-15, Paul will himself use the tradition of Jewish coined by early Christian halakah, and in 2 Tim 3:8, he will employ Jewish haggadah. writers to distinguish between Jewish teachers and Christian teachers,5 but they understand neither “what they are saying” nor “the things about which they make assertions” (v. 7). [Tinøn] A Sincere Faith In Doctr. Chr. 1.44, Augustine writes of a “sincere faith”:

1 Timothy 1:3-11 The Nature and Function of the Law, 1:8-11

The mention of the law in v. 7 suggests that the troublemakers have a Jewish orientation and leads to a brief reflection on the nature and function of the law. In fact, vv. 8-11 consist of one long sentence! “We know that the law is good.”6 The “we” is inclusive, referring to all Christians. As elsewhere (v. 11), Paul affirms the goodness of the law (cf. Rom 7:12, 14, 16, 22). While law here could mean “divine law” or “teaching from God” in a general sense, it is more likely that Paul speaks here of the Old Testament law, particularly the Law of Moses as contained in the Pentateuch. While “good” (kalos) translates a term that usually refers to pleasant outward appearance, i.e., “beautiful,” its focus here falls on the character of the law as a valid guide for acceptable moral and ethical conduct. According to Paul, the law is not sinful in itself, but it makes sin known. It identifies evil behavior as a violation of God’s covenant with his people (Rom 7:7, 13). Furthermore, the law has acted as our disciplinarian, imprisoning us and guarding us until Christ came so that we might be justified by faith (Gal 3:24-25). So the law is good “if one uses it legitimately” (lit., “lawfully,” a play on words in the Greek [nomos, “law,” and nomimøs, “lawfully”] that is easily rendered in English, though not in the NRSV!). “Legitimately” (nomimøs) refers to the proper use and application of the law, a use and application that is foreign to the people alluded to in v. 7. Paul’s statement about the goodness of the law carries a clear proviso. It is good “if one uses it legitimately.” The present subjunctive form of the verb (chr∑tai) suggests that there is no guarantee that this will be so. In fact, Paul claims that everyone has failed to do this, even those under the law (Rom 2:12; 3:23). From Paul’s perspective, “all have sinned,” Jew and Gentile (cf. Gal 3:22; 5:3; 6:13). Furthermore, Jewish teachers who have the law have done the same wicked things that Gentiles have done (Rom 1:29–2:1), even daring to teach others the precepts of the law while they themselves violated them (Rom 2:17-23). This sounds like the situation Paul addresses here! A truly “legitimate” use of the law requires a proper understanding of the law. According to v. 9, the Law was not issued for the “innocent” (dikaiø, lit., “the righteous,” i.e., those living rightly) who are, in effect, a law unto themselves, “but for the lawless and disobedient, for the godless and sinful, for the unholy and profane.” [What about Those Who Do Not Know the Law?]

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What about Those Who Do Not Know the Law? Paul takes up the question of the fate of those who do not possess the Law of Moses in his discussion of God’s righteousness in Rom 2:6-16. When God’s righteousness is revealed (v. 5b), . . . he will repay according to each one’s deeds: to those who by patiently doing good seek for glory and honor and immortality, he will give eternal life; while for those who are self-seeking and who obey not the truth but wickedness, there will be wrath and fury. There will be anguish and distress for everyone who does evil, the Jew first and also the Greek; but glory and honor and peace for everyone who does good, the Jew first and also the

Vice Lists The vice list (a catalog of vices) was a wellknown literary form in the Greco-Roman world. Pseudo-Aristotle, Dio Chrysostom, Diogenes Laertius, Lucian, Onasander, and Seneca are but a few who employed such lists to describe the degenerate life of the masses or particular individuals. As a rhetorical device, it was used to denigrate opponents as irrational and thoroughly reprobate. Classic catalogs varied in number of vices from as few as 3 to as many as 146 (Philo, Sacrifices 32). Vices are sometimes listed in the form of adjectives, sometimes in the form of verbs and nouns, either abstract (evil) or personal (evildoers). In Pollox’s Onomasticon (2d C. AD), a rhetorical handbook and encyclopedia, the author castigates a tax collector with list of 33 vices. In Plautus’s Pseudolus (act 1, scene 3), the pandering Ballio is accused of everything on this Pauline list except being unruly, a murderer, a kidnapper.

Greek. For God shows no partiality. All who have sinned apart from the law will also perish apart from the law, and all who have sinned under the law will be judged by the law. For it is not the hearers of the law who are righteous in God’s sight, but the doers of the law will be justified. When Gentiles, who do not possess the law, do instinctively what the law requires, these, though not having the law, are a law to themselves. They show that what the law requires is written on their hearts, to which their own conscience also bears witness; and their conflicting thoughts will accuse or perhaps excuse them on the day when, according to my gospel, God, through, Jesus Christ, will judge the secret thoughts of all.

In these verses, Paul shapes the traditional “vice list” so that it is relevant to the situation at hand (cf. the emphasis on sexual vices and their association with idolatry in 1 Cor 5:11; 6:9-10). [Vice Lists] The fact that Paul begins the list with “lawless” (anomois) suggests problems with those “wouldbe” teachers of the law (cf. v. 7). In vv. 9-10, Paul combines a classic vice list with a reference to the Decalogue to describe for whom the law was laid down, those whose evil conduct is made manifest in the law. The catalog of fourteen vices (plus an et cetera clause at the end) is the longest in the New Testament. [New Testament Vice Lists] The power of the list is heightened by the use of several classical rhetorical strategies:

1. Four pairs of vices are connected with the conjunction “and” (kai), a literary technique aimed at providing clarity. 2. Six single vices have no separating conjunctions, another rhetorical strategy that serves to add to the force and urgency of the presentation, the cumulative effect adding great persuasive power, especially for hearers of the letter! 3. Paul uses words that are synonymous or in some sense overlapping in meaning with the effect of creating an overwhelming impression of lawless and sinful behavior. 4. The cumulative effect of the list is increased by the use of assonance, the repetition of the “a” sound in each of the first five vices (anomois, anypotaktois, asebesi, [h]amartølois, anosiois).

1 Timothy 1:3-11 New Testament Vice Lists Of the twenty-plus vice lists in the New Testament, this one containing 14 is one of the longest (cf. Matt 15:19; Mark 7:21-22; Rom 1:29-31; 13:13; 1 Cor 5:10-11; 6:9-10; 2 Cor 12:20-21; Gal 5:19-21; Eph 4:31; 5:3-5; Col 3:5-8; 1 Tim 6:4-5; 2 Tim 3:2-5; Titus 1:7; 3:3; 1 Pet 2:1; 4:3; 2 Pet 2:1; Rev 9:21; 21:8; 22:15). The extensive use of this form suggests that these were part of a large body of material used in

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the early church. These lists are not meant to be exhaustive but illustrative in nature, focusing on the vices considered most serious and unusual. For vice lists in the Apostolic Fathers, see Barn. 2:2-3; 18–20; 1 Clem. 3:2; 30:1, 3, 8; 35:5; 62:2; 64:1; 2 Clem. 4:3; Did. 2:1–5:2; Herm. Mand. 5.2.4; 6.2.3–5; 8.3–5, 9–10; 11.8, 12; 12.2.1; 12.3.1; Sim. 6.5.5; 9.15.2–3; Vis. 3.8.3–7; Ign. Eph. 3:1; Pol. Phil. 2:2; 4:3; 5:2; 12:2.

5. As a whole, the list reflects the order of the Decalogue. This Jewish-Christian approach to the Hellenistic vice list also appears in Matthew 15:19 and Mark 7:21-22, where we find a similarly arranged a list of six vices. The list is not meant to be exhaustive, but serves to highlight specific behaviors that seem to characterize the situation at hand. Paul begins in v. 9 with three pairs consisting of rather generic terms that refer to people’s attitude toward the law, toward God, and toward spiritual matters. 1. The “lawless” (or “lawbreakers”) have no regard for the law and don’t think twice about breaking it. The “disobedient” rebel and disobey the law instead of submitting to it” (cf. Titus 1:6, 10; Heb 2:8). 2. The “godless” (asebesi) are impious, irreverent, and find no place for God in their lives. For Paul, as in Hellenistic thinking in general, “godliness” is the common goal for all who seek to lead a good life. The term “godliness” is found ten times in the Pastorals (1 Tim 2:2; 3:16; 4:7, 8; 6:3, 5, 6, 11; 2 Tim 3:5; Titus 1:1. See also 2 Clem. 11:1; 15:1; 19:1; 32:4). The “sinful” (hamartølois) consistently violate God’s law.7 3. The “unholy” (anosiois) have no place for the sacred in their lives. The “profane” (beb∑lois) not only see anything spiritual as irrelevant but also treat it with contempt and ridicule. This was a technical term in ancient religious literature used to describe anything that is not sacred, that is, nonreligious or even irreligious. As such, it refers to that which is available for common use but unfit for sacred use. Philo uses it for the prostitute who is “profane in body and soul.”8 [Sacred and Profane]

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Sacred and Profane Especially in the LXX and Hellenistic Jewish writings, “profane” (beb∑los) had ritual, social, and moral overtones. See, e.g., Heb 12:16, where Esau is described as an “immoral and godless person” (tis pornos kai beb∑los), the catalog of vices in 1 Tim 1:910, and Philo (Sacrifices 32). Philo declares that “the shameful is profane, and the profane is surely unholy” (Sacrifices 138), and a prostitute is “profane in body and soul,” unfit for marriage to a priest even after she has abandoned her profession (Spec. Laws 1.102).

Several suggestions have been made with regard to how these three pairs are related to the first commandments of the Decalogue:

1. The first pair relates to “You shall have no other gods”; the second to “You shall not make for yourself a graven image”; the third to “You shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain” and “Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy.” 2. The first pair is a general introduction to the catalog, the second relates to the first and second commandments cited above, and the third to the third and fourth commandments. 3. All three pairs relate in a general way to all the commandments cited above but without a one-to-one correspondence. 4. The three pairs are a general descriptions of people’s attitudes toward God and the law with no specific relationship to the Decalogue. In vv. 10-11, the list moves to specific acts and the emphasis shifts from a person’s relationship to God to one’s relationship with fellow human beings. Here the parallels with specific parts of the Decalogue are easier to identify: 1. “For those who kill their father or mother” (patroløais [“father killers” ], m∑troløais [“mother killers”])—“Honor your father and your mother” (Exod 20:12). For the Jews, killing either of one’s parents was a particularly egregious form of dishonor of father and mother (Exod 21:15, 17). Similarly, in the Hellenistic world, the Stoic philosopher Marcus Aurelius considered the killing of one’s father to be an example of the worst of moral failures.9 2. “For murderers”—“You shall not kill” (Exod 20:13). “Murderers” (androphonois) extends the preceding to include others. The term is used in Greek (e.g., Plato, Phaed. 114) and Hellenistic Jewish writings (e.g., 2 Macc 9:28; cf. 4 Macc 9:15) in a generic sense for those who deliberately kill others. 3. “Fornicators and sodomites”—“You shall not commit adultery” (Exod 20:14). The word used here for “fornicators” (pornois) is found more than any other in New Testament vice lists and is best rendered as “sexually immoral,” for it refers to a behavior contrary

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to prevailing social mores. “Sodomites” (arsenokoitais) can be rendered “active homosexuals.” This term seems to have been coined by Paul in 1 Corinthians 6:9 in reference to the kind of male homosexual activity proscribed by Leviticus 18:22 that prohibited Jewish men from having sexual relations with other men as part of a strict code of sexual mores that distinguished Jews from Egyptians and Canaanites. In the first century Kidnapping AD, Josephus wrote, “But then, what are our For the Greeks, their willingness to enslave free people, to exploit them sexually, laws about marriage? That law owns no other whether they be male or female, and to violate the mixture of sexes but that which nature hath Aedilician Edict (the law of selling slaves and beasts appointed, of a man with his wife, and that of burden) was legendary. In Jewish tradition, kidthis be used only for the procreation of chilnapping was seen as a serious violation of the commandment, “You shall not steal” (Exod 20:15; dren. But it abhors the mixture of a male with Deut 5:19; cf. b.Sanh. 86a). While the verb in the a male; and if anyone do that, death is his Hebrew text (ganab, “steal”) can have either a punishment” (Ag. Ap. 2.199; see also Philo, person or a thing as its object with the underlying Abraham 135, 136, 137–141). Romans 1:18nuance of the use of stealth or force, its use in the Decalogue appears to have been understood as a 27 and 1 Corinthians 6:9 suggest that Paul reference to kidnapping. shared the traditional Jewish view that acts of According to the Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael, Rabbi homosexuality among men were the result of Ishmael, a disciple of the great 2d-C. AD Rabbi Akiva, idolatry. Such sexual activity violated the prinheld that the precept in the Decalogue must refer to kidnapping (Ba-Hodesh 8:5). Employing the ciple of demarcation that separated Jew and hermeneutical principle of davar ha-mamed meGentile, clean and unclean, male and female. inyano, i.e., inferring the meaning of a passage from 4. “Slave traders”—“You shall not steal” its context, he argued that “you shall not steal” really (Exod 20:15). “Slave traders” (andrapodistes, means “you shall not kidnap.” In the Torah, of course, kidnapping was a capital offense (Exod 21:16; Deut lit., “those who reduce men to servitude”) was 24:7), while stealing an animal or something else used by Plato and Aristotle of those who had was not. Its appearance in the Decalogue between “stolen” persons, i.e., “kidnappers.”10 two capital offenses, murder and adultery, suggests [Kidnapping] Such acts were strongly condemned that a capital offense is meant. According to Philo, “Everyone who is inspired with a zeal for virtue is in both Greek and Jewish culture. severe of temper and absolutely implacable against 5. “Liars and perjurers”—“You shall not bear men-stealers [kata andrapødiston], who for the sake false witness against your neighbor” (Exod of a most unrighteous profit do not shrink from 20:16). “Liars” (pseustais) is a generic term for reducing to slavery those who not only are freemen by birth but are of the same nature as themselves” those who do not tell the truth. “Perjurers” (Spec. Laws 4.14). Such a crime deserved death (epiorkois) were to Jews a most heinous lot of (Spec. Laws 4.19). liars since perjury aggravates the offense of speaking unjustly about another and, therefore, becomes a serious offence against God (Exod 20:16; Lev 19:12; Num 30:3; Deut 5:20); indeed, it is seen as an attempt to manipulate God—“you shall not make wrongful use of the name of the LORD your God” (Exod 20:7; Deut 5:11)—in unjust situations.

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Paul brings this long list to a conclusion with what might be seen as a “catch-all” et cetera that includes any and all acts that are not specifically mentioned here. Any such violations are determined by their failure to adhere to “sound teaching.” The word for “sound” (hygiainø, from which the word “hygiene” is derived) is borrowed from the world of medicine, where it means “healthy.” “Sound teaching” is the faithful exposition of the Traditional Teaching Materials Fifteen of the twenty-one occurrences of the gospel that results in a healthy faith, and it term didaskalia in the Bible appear in the seems clear that a body of such teaching Pastorals; it is a technicus terminus for apostolic existed from earliest times and was known teaching (cf. 1 Tim 4:6, 16; 6:1, 3; 2 Tim 3:10; 4:3; to both Paul and his churches. [Traditional Titus 1:9; 2:1, 10). It is characterized as “sound” (1 Tim 1:10; 2 Tim 4:3; Titus 1:9; 2:1), as “good” Teaching Materials] “Sound teaching” must (1 Tim 4:6), and as “the doctrine which is in accorconform “to the glorious gospel of the blessed dance with true religion” (1 Tim 6:3). It stands in God.” “The . . . gospel” (to evangelion) is contradistinction to heterodidaskaleø (1 Tim 1:3; 6:3). something of a technical term for the good Paul’s usage here in 1:10 is comparable to Gal 1:6f. in that the Galatians turn to a “different gospel.” news of Jesus Christ, that is, the story of his Numerous New Testament texts support the belief life, his suffering, death, resurrection and that there existed from the earliest days of the ascension, and his teachings. This is the origin church collections of traditional teaching material. In of the term “gospel” being used as a title of writing to the Corinthians about the Lord’s Supper, Paul refers to “the tradition I handed on to you . . . .” the books that tell this story, and this is the And in 1 Cor 15:3 ff., he reminds them that he had meaning intended here. While “glorious” may “handed on “ to them “the facts that had been modify “gospel” here, the presence of the defhanded to” him concerning Christ’s resurrection. In inite article before the adjective in Greek both instances, he employs the verbs (paradidømi, ”to pass on,” and paralambanø, “to receive”) comsuggests that it is better taken as modifying monly used to speak of the passing of tradition. The God, i.e., “the gospel of the glorious and m.